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The  Catholic  Encyclopedia 


VOLUME    TEN 

Mass— Newman 


THE  CATHOLIC 
ENCYCLOPEDIA 


•  TERNATIONAL    WORis:    i 

.     THE     CONSTITUIION. 
UISCIPLINE,  AND   HlS'lc:'. 
CATHOLIC    cm  K. 


EDITED   i;V 
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VARD   A,  PACE.  PhD,.  D.D.        CON  :     ■ 

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THE  CATHOLIC 
ENCYCLOPEDIA 


AN   INTERNATIONAL   WORK   OF   REFERENCE 

ON     THE     CONSTITUTION,    DOCTRINE, 

DISCIPLINE,  AND  HISTORY  OF  THE 

CATHOLIC    CHURCH 

EDITED  BY 

CHAKLES  G.  HEKBERMANN,  FuD.,  LL.D. 

EDWARD   A.  PACE,  PilD,  D.D.        CONDE  B.  FALLEN,  Ph.D.,  LL.D. 

THOMAS  J.  SHAHAN,  D.D.  JOHN  J.  WYNNE,  S.J. 

ASSISTED   BY  NUMEROUS  COLLABORATORS 


FIFTEEN  VOLUMES  AND  INDEX 
VOLUME  X 


new  IDotli 
THE  UNIVERSAL  KNOWLEDGE  FOUNDATION,  INC. 


Nihil  Obatat,  February  1,1911 
REMY  LAFORT,  S.T.D. 


CENSOR 


IiuprinicUur 

*JOHN  CARDINAL  FARLEY 

ARCHBISHOP  OF  XBW  YORK 


Copyright,  1911 
By  Robert  Applbton  CoBiPANT 

Copyright,  191S 
By  the  encyclopedia  PRESS,  INC. 

The  articles  in  this  work  have  been  written  specially  for  The  Catholic 
Encyclopedia  and  are  protected  by  copyright.     All  rights,  includ- 
ing the  right  of  translation  and  reproduction,  are  reserred. 


PMCSSWOIIK  AND  SINOINO   BY  J.   %.    LYON  CO  ,  ALBANY,    N.   Y..    U.  8.  A. 


Contributors  to  the  Tenth  Volume 


AIKEN,  CHARLES  F.,  S.T.D.,  Professor  or 
Apoloobticb,  Cathouc  Uniyersitt  of  Amer- 
ica, Washinoton:  Mencius;  Monotheism;  N^ve, 
F6Iix-Jean-Baptiste-Jo8eph. 

AlDASY,  ANTAL,  Ph.D.,  Architist  of  the 
Library  of  the  National  Museum,  Budapest: 
Matthias  Corvinus;  Munk&cs,  Diocese  of; 
Neusohl,  Diocese  of;  Neutra,  Diocese  of. 

ALMOND,  JOSEPH  CUTHBERT,  O.S.B.,  Supb- 
rioe  of  Park's  Hall,  Oxford  :  Mechitar ;  Mech« 
itarists. 

ALSTON,  G.  CYPRIAN,  O.S.B.,  Downside  Abbey, 
Bath,  England:  Monasteries,  Double. 

AMADO,  RAMON  RUIZ,  S.J.,  LL.D.,  PhX., 
College  of  St.  Ignatius,  Sarria,  Barcelona, 
Spain:  Minorca,  Diocese  of;  Mondofiedo,  Dio- 
cese of. 

ARENDZEN,  J.  P.,  Ph.D.,  S.T.D.,  M.A.  (Cantab.), 
Professor  of  Sacred  Scripture,  St.  Edmund's 
College,  Ware,  England:  Messalians;  Mith- 
laism;  Nasonsans. 

AUCLAIR,  fiLIE  J.,  B.A.,  S.T.D.,  J.C.D.,  Uniyer- 
sitt OF  Layal,  Montreal,  Canada:  Montreal, 
Archdiocese  of. 

AUGUSTINE,  FATHER,  O.S.F.C.,  Franciscan 
Capuchin  Monastery,  Dublin:  Mathew,  Theo- 
bald. 

AUSTIN,  SISTER  MARY  STANISLAUS,  St. 
Catharine's  Conyent  of  Mercy,  New  York: 
Mercy,  Sisters  of. 

AVELING,  FRANCIS,  S.T.D.,  London:  Matter; 
MiYart,  Sir  George  Jackson. 

BACCHUS,  FRANCIS  JOSEPH,  B.A.,  The  Ora- 
tory, Birmingham,  England:  Mennas;  Mo- 
nasticism,  II.  Eastern  Monasticism  Before 
Chalcedon. 

BARNES,  Mgr.  ARTHUR  STAPYLTON,  M.A., 
(OxoN.  AND  Cantab.),  Cambridge,  England: 
Neophyte. 

BARRETT,  MICHAEL,  O.S.B.,  St.  Michael's 
Abbey,  Farnborough,  England:  Melrose, 
Abbey  of. 

BARRY,  WILLIAM,  S.T.D.,  Leamington,  Eng- 
land: Newman,  John  Henry. 

BAUMGARTEN,  PAUL  MARIA,  J.U.D.,  S.T.D., 
Domestic  Prelate,  Rome:  Mirabilia  Urbis 
Roms;  Monagnor. 

BEECHER,  PATRICK  A.,  M.A.,  S.T.D.,  Professor 
OF  Pastoral  Theology  and  Sacred  Elo- 
quence, Maynooth  College,  Dubun:  Mo- 
nBTty,  David. 


BENIGNI,  UMBERTO,  Professor  of  Ecciasias- 
TicAL  History,  Pont.  Collegio  Urbano  di 
Propaganda,  Rome:  Massa  Carrara,  Diocese 
of;  Massa  Marittima,  Diocese  of;  Mascara  del 
Vallo,  Diocese  of;  Melfi  and  Rapolla,  Diocese  of; 
Messina,  Archdiocese  of;  Mezzofanti,  Giuseppe; 
Milan,  Archdiocese  of;  Mileto,  Diocese  of;  Mint, 
Papal;  Modena,  Archdiocese  and  University  of; 
Modigliana,  Diocese  of;  Molfetta,  Terlizsi  and 
Giovinazzo,  Diocese  of;  Monaco,  Principality 
and  Diocese  of;  Mondovi,  Diocese  of;  Monopoli, 
Diocese  of;  Monreale,  Archdiocese  of;  Montal- 
oino.  Diocese  of;  Montalto,  Diocese  of;  Monte- 
feltro.  Diocese  of;  Montefiascone,  Diocese  of; 
Montepuldano,  Diocese  of;  Montes  Pietatis; 
Moroni,  Gaetano;  Muro  Lucano,  Diocese  of; 
Naples;  Nardo,  Diocese  of;  Nami  and  Temi, 
United  Dioceses  of;  Nepi  and  Sutri. 

BERTRIN,  GEORGES,  LnT.D.,  Fellow  of  the 
University,  Professor  of  French  Lftbra- 
turb,  Inbtitut  Cathouque,  Paris:  Miracle 
Plays  and  Mysteries;  Molidre  (JeanrBaptiste 
Poquelin);  Montaigne,  Michael  Eyquen  de. 

BESSE,  J.  M.,  O.S.B.,  Director,  "Revue  Mabil- 
lon",  Chevetogne,  Belgium:  Mendes  de 
Silva,  Jofio;  Mercedaiians;  Monasteries,  Suppres- 
sion of. 

BESTE,  KENELM  DIGBY,  S.J.,  St.  Beuno's  Col- 
lege, St.  Asaph,  Wales:  Menevia,  Diocese  of. 

BEWERUNGE,  H.,  Professor  of  Chxtrch  Music, 
Maynooth  College,  Dublin:  Neum. 

BIHL,  MICHAEL,  O.F.M.,  Lector  of  Ecclesiasti- 
cal History,  Collegio  San  Bonaventura, 
QuARACCHi,  Florence:  Matteo  of  Aquasparta; 
Myron,  Francis. 

BOUDINHON,  AUGUSTE-M  ARIE,  S.T.D.,  D.C.L., 
DiREcroR,  "Canoniste  Contemporain",  Pro- 
fessor OF  Canon  Law,  iNSTmrr  Cathouque, 
Paris:  Mensa,  Mensal  Revenue;  Metropolitan; 
Minor;  Minor  Orders;  Monseigneur. 

BRAUN,  JOSEPH,  S.J.,  Bellevue,  Luxemburg; 
Mitre;  Morse;  Mozzetta. 

BRfiHIER,  LOUIS-RENfi,  Professor  of  Ancient 
AND  Medieval  History,  Univebsity  of  Cler- 
mont-Ferrand, PuY-DE-DdME,  France:  Mi- 
chaud,  Joseph-Frangois;  Montfaucon,  Bernard  de. 

BROCK,  HENRY  M.,  S.J.,  Ore  Place,  Hastings, 
England:  Mayer,  Christian;  Moigno,  Frangois. 

BROSNAHAN,  TIMOTHY,  S.J.,  Professor  of 
Psychology  and  Ethics,  Woodstock  CoLLBOEy 
Maryland:  Mazsella,  Camillo. 


CONTRIBUTORS  TO  THE  TENTH  VOLUME 


BURKE,  EDMUND,  B.A,  Instructor  in  Latin, 
College  of  the  Citt  of  New  York:  Mubutos, 
Markos. 

BURTON,  EDWIN,  S.T.D.,  F.R.  Hist.  Soc.,  Vice- 
President,  St.  Edmund's  College,  Ware, 
England:  Matthew,  Sir  Tobie;  Mile,  Crispin; 
Monsell,  William;  Montfort,  Simon  de;  Morton, 
John;  Mush  (alias  Ratcliffe),  John. 

CABROL,  FERNAND,  O.S.B.,  Abbot  of  St.  Mi- 
chael's, Farnborough,  England:  Matins. 

CAMPBELL,  THOMAS  J.,  S.J.,  Editor-in-Chief, 
"America",  New  York:  Mass^,  Enemond; 
Menard,  Ren^. 

CANGIANO,  victor,  C.S.C.B.,  Missionary  Apos- 
tolic, Vice-Rector,  St.  Joaceum's  Church, 
New  York:  Missionaries  of  St.  Charles  Bor- 
romeo.  Congregation  of. 

CASANOVA,  GERTRUDE,  O.S.B.,  Stanbrook 
Abbet,  Worcester,  England:  Mechtilde, 
Saint. 

CHAPMAN,  JOHN,  O.S.B.,  B.A.  (Oxon.),  Prior 
OF  St.  Thomas's  Abbet,  Erdington,  Birming- 
ham, England:  Maximus  of  Constantinople, 
Saint;  Melchisedechians;  Monarchians;  Mo- 
nophysites  and  Monophysitism;  Monothelitism 


CUTHBERT,  FATHER,  O.S.F.C.,  Crawlbt, 
Sussex,  England:  Massaia,  Guglielmo. 

D'ALTON,  E.  A.,  LL.D.,  M.R.I.A.,  Athenrt, 
Ireland:  Moore,  Arthur;  Moylan,  Francis; 
Murray,  Daniel. 

DEGERT,  ANTOINE,  Lrrr.D.,  Editor,  "La  Revue 

DE  LA  GaSCOIGNE",  PrOFESSOR  OF  LaTIN  LIT- 
ERATURE, Instttut  Catholique,  Toulouse: 
Massillon,  Jean-Baptiste;  Mathieu,  FranQois- 
D^sirS;  Montesquieu,  Charles-Louis  de  Secondat. 

DELANY,  JOSEPH,  S.T.D.,  New  York:  Mercy, 
Corporal  and  Spiritual  Works  of;  Negligence. 

DEVINE,  ARTHUR,  C.P.,  St.  Paul's  Retreat, 
Mount  Argus,  Dublin:  Miracles,  Gift  of. 

DE  WULF,  MAURICE,  Member  of  the  Belgian 
Academy,  Professor  of  Logic  and  .Esthet- 
ics, Universfty  of  Louyain:  Neo-Scholasti- 
cism. 

DOHERTY,  CHARLES  J.,  K.C.,  D.C.L.,  LL.D., 
Montreal,  Canada:  Masses,  Bequests  for 
(Canada). 

DOLAN,  JOHN  GILBERT,  O.S.B.,  The  Priory, 
Little  Malvern,  England:  Muri  (Muri- 
Gries). 


and  MonotheUtes;  Montanists;  Nestorius  and  DOMANIG,  KARL,  Ph.D.,  Honorary  Imperial 
Nestonanism.  Councillor,  Chief  Director  of  the  Imperial 

CHARLES,    BROTHER,    Principal,    Cathedral  Collection  of  Coins,  Klosterneuburg.  Aus- 

School, Natchez,  Mississippi: Natchez, Diocese  tria:  Molo,  Gasparo. 

°^'  DONOVAN,  STEPHEN  M.,  O.F.M.,  Franciscan 
CLEARY,  GREGORY,  O.F.M.,  J.C.D.,  J.Civ.D.,  Convent,  WAsraNOTON:  Michael  of  Cesena. 

S.T.L    SOMETIME  Professor  of  Canon  Law  ixjuCERfi,  VICTOR,  S.M.,  Titular  Bishop  of 

Ternuti,  Vicar  Apostouc  of  the  New  Heb- 


AND  Moral  Theology,  St.  Isidore's  College, 
Rome:  Mastrius,  Bartholomew;  Medina,  Juan 
de;  Medina,  Miguel  de;  MoUoy  (O'Molloy), 
Francis;  Mullock,  John  T. 

CLUGNET,  JOSEPH-LfiON-TIBURCE,  Lrrr.L., 
Paris:  Medardus,  Saint. 

COGHLAN,  DANIEL,  S.T.D.,  Professor  of  Dog- 
matic Theology,  Maynooth  College,  Dublin: 
Murray,  Patrick. 

CORDIER,  HENRI,  Professor  at  the  School  fob 
Oriental  Living  Languages,  Paris:  Mongolia. 

CORLEY,  JOHN  LOUIS,  LL.B.,  St.  Louis,  Mis- 
souri: Missouri,  State  of. 

CRAM,  RALPH  ADAMS,  F.R.G.S.,  F.  Ah.  Inbt. 
Architects,  President,  Boston  Soczbty  of 
Architects,  Boston:  Narthex;  Nave. 

CRIVELLI,  CAMILLUS,  S.J.,  Professor  of 
General  History,  Jnstituto  CiENTtFico, 
City  of  Mexico:  Mendfburu,  Manuel  de;  Men- 
dieta,  Jer6nimo;  Mexico;  Molina,  Alonso  de; 
Morelos,  Jos^  Maria;  Motolinfa,  Toribio  de 
Benavente. 

CUSICK,  PETER  F.,  S.J.,  Professor  of  Chebostry 
AND  Geology,  Boston  College,  Boston, 
Massachusetts:  Molloy,  Gerald. 


rides:  New  Hebrides,  Vicariate  Apostolic  of. 

DRISCOLL,  JAMES  F.,  S.T.D.,  New  Rochelle, 
New  York:  Media  and  Medes;  Moses  Bar 
Cephas;  Nabo  (Nebo);  Nathan;  Nathanael. 
Nathinites;  Nazarene;  Nazarite;  Nebo,  Mounts 
Nemrod. 

DRISCOLL,  JOHN  T.,  M.A.,  S.T.L.,  Fonda,  New 
York:  Miracle;  Naturism. 

DRUM,  WALTER,  S.  J.,  Professor  of  Hebrew 
AND  Sacred  Scripture,  Woodstock  College, 
Maryland:  Massorah,  Mathathias;  Menochio, 
Giovanni  Stefano. 

DUBRAY,  CHARLES  A.,  S.M.,  S.T.B.,  Ph.D., 
Professor  of  Philosophy,  Marist  College, 
Washington:  Mersenne,  Marin;  Naturalism: 
Nature;  Necromancy. 

DUFFY,  PATRICK  EDWARD,  S.T.L.,  Mullin- 
GAR,  Ireland:  Meath,  Diocese  of. 

DUHEM,  PIERRE,  Professor  of  Theoretical 
Physics,  University  of  Bordeaux:  Nemorc, 
Jordanus  de. 

DUTTON.  JOSEPH  M.  F.,  Kalawao,  Molokai. 
Hawau:  Molokai. 


CONTRIBUTORS  TO  THE  TENTH  VOLUME 


EATON,  THOMAS  J.,  M.A.,  Mobile,  Alabama: 
Mobile,  Diocese  of. 

ELGUERO,  FRANCISCO,  Morbua,  Mexico: 
Michoacan,  Archdiocese  of. 

ELLIOT,  WALTER,  C.8.P.,  New  York:  Miasion- 
aiy  Society  of  St.  Paul  the  Apostle. 

ENGELHARDT,  ZEPHYRIN,  O.F.M.,  Watoon- 
ville,  California:  Membre,  Zenobius;  Mon- 
terey and  Los  Angeles,  Diocese  of. 

ENGELKEMPER,  WILHELM,  S.T.D.,  Ph.D., 
Professor  of  New  Testament  Exegesis, 
Uotversitt  of  MI^nbter:  MOnster,  University 
of. 

ESPIN08A,  AURELIO  MACEDONIO,  M.A., 
Ph.D.,  Professor  of  Spanish,  Leland  Stan- 
ford Universitt,  Caufornia:  Nevada. 

FANNING,  WILLIAM  H.  W.,  S.J.,  Professor  of 
Church  History  and  Canon  Law,  St.  Louis 
Universitt,  St.  Louis,  Missouri:  Medicine 
and  Canon  Law;  Midwives;  Monastery,  Ca- 
nonical Erection  of  a. 

FISHER,  J.  H.,  S.J.,  Woodstock  College,  Mart- 
land:  M^daille,  Jean-Paul. 

FLAHERTY,  MATTHEW  J.,  M.A,  (Harvard), 
Concord,  Massachusetts:  Moore,  Thomas. 

FORBES-LEITH,  WILLIAM,  S.J.,  Boscoicbe, 
Bournemouth,  England:  Melrose,  Chronicle 
of. 

FORD,  JEREMIAH  D.  M.,  M.A.,  Ph.D.,  Pro- 
fbssor  of  Spanish  and  French,  Harvard  Uni- 
versitt, Cambridge,  Massachusetts:  Mena, 
Juan  de;  Menzini,  Benedetto;  Metastasio,  Pietro; 
Morales,  Ambrosio. 

FORGET,  JACQUES,  Professor  of  Dogmatic 
Thsologt  and  the  Striac  and  Arabic  Lan- 
guages, Universitt  of  Louvain:  Melchers, 
Paul. 

FORTESCUE,  ADRIAN,  Ph.D.,  S.T.D.,  Letch- 
worth,  Hertfordshire,  England:  Mass,  Nup- 
tial; Maurice,  Roman  Emperor;  Melchites; 
Menaion;  Metaphrastes,  Symeon;  Methodius  I; 
Metrophanes  of  Smjrma;  Michael  Csrularius; 
Monasticism,  III.  Eastern  Monasticism;  Necta- 
rius,  Patriarch  of  Constantinople. 

FOURNET,  PIERRE  AUGUSTE,  S.S.,  M.A., 
Professor  of  History,  College  de  Montreal, 
Montreal,  Canada:  Montboissier,  Peter  of. 

FOX,  WILLIAM,  B.S.,  M.E.,  Associate  Professor 
OF  Physics,  College  of  the  Citt  of  New 
York:  Matteucci,  Carlo;  Montgolfier,  Joseph- 
Michel. 

PUENTES,  VENTURA,  B.A.,  M.D.,  Instructor, 
College  of  the  Crrr  of  New  York:  Medrano, 
Francisco;  Mel^ndez  Vald^s,  Juan;  Mendafia  de 
Nesrra,  Alvaro  de;  Mendosa,  Diego  Hurtado  de; 
Montemayor,  Jorge  de;  Moratin,  Leandro  Fer- 
nandez de;  Moreto  y  Cabafia,  Agustin;  Nava- 
nete,  Martin  FemibideB  de. 


GASQUET,  FRANCIS  AIDAN,  O.S.B.,  8.T.D., 
Abbot  President  of  the  English  Benbdictini 
Congregation,  London:  Monasteries,  Sup- 
pression of,  in  England  under  Henry  VIII. 

GANCEVIC,  ANTHONY  LAWRENCE,  O.F.M., 
Ph.D.,  S.T.D.,  Zaostrog,  Dalmatia:  Medulid, 
Andreas;  Miridite,  Abbey  of. 

GARDNER,  EDMUND  GARRETT,  M.A.  (Cam- 
bridge), Barlow  Lecturer  on  Dante,  Uni- 
vERsnr  College,  London:  Medici,  House  of; 
Meli,  Giovanni;  Nardi,  Jacopo. 

GARESCHfi.  EDWARD  FRANCIS,  S.J.,  St. 
Louis  Universitt,  St.  Louis,  Missoxmi: 
Nacchiante,  Giacomo;  Nepveu,  Francis;  Neu- 
ma3rr,  Franz. 

GEDDES,  LEONARD  WILLIAM,  S.J.,  St.  Bbuno's 
College,  St.  Abaph,  Wales:  Messias. 

GERARD,  JOHN,  S.J.,  F.L.S.,  London:  Monita 
Secreta. 

GEUDENS,  FRANCIS  MARTIN,  C.R.P.,  Abbot 
Titular  of  Barungs,  Corpus  ChristiPriort, 
Manchester,  England:  Newhouse,  Abbey  of. 

GIETMANN,  GERARD,  S.J.,  Teacher  of  Clas- 
sical Languages  and  iEsTHETics,  St.  Ignatius 
College,  Valkenburg,  Holland:  Michelozzo 
di  Bartolommeo;  Miller,  Ferdinand  von;  Mohr, 
Christian;  Miiller,  Karl;  Music,  Ecclesiastical; 
Neumann,  Johann  Balthasar. 

GIGOT,  FRANCIS  E.,  S.T.D.,  Professor  of 
Sacred  Scripture,  St.  Joseph's  Seminart, 
DuNWOODiE,  New  York:  Maunoury,  Auguste- 
Frangois;  Memeptah  I;  Midrashim;  Moab, 
Moabites;  Moloch. 

GILLET,  LOUIS,  Paris:  Massys,  Quentin;  Meis- 
sonier,  Ernest;  Melozzo  da  Forll;  Memling, 
Hans;  Mignard,  Pierre;  Millet,  Jean-FranQois; 
Montagna,  Bartolomeo;  Mtkntz,  Eugene;  Mu- 
rillo,  Bartolom^  Esteban. 

GLASS,  JOSEPH  S.,  CM.,  S.T.D.,  President,  St. 
Vincent's  College,  Los  Angeles,  California: 
Medal,  Miraculous. 

GOYAU,  GEORGES,  Associate  Editor,  "Revue 
des  Deux  Mondes",  Paris:  Mazarin,  Jules; 
Meaux,  Diocese  of;  Medici,  Maria  de';  Mende, 
Diocese  of;  Molai  (Molay),  Jacques  de;  Mon- 
strelet,  Enguerrand  de;  Montalembert,  Charles- 
Forbes-Ren6  de;  Montauban,  Diocese  of;  Mont- 
morency, Anne,  First  Duke  of;  Montor,  AlexL»- 
FranQois  Artaud  de;  Montpellier,  Diocese  and 
University  of;  Moulins,  Diocese  of;  Namur,  Dio- 
cese of;  Nancy,  Diocese  of;  Nantes,  Diocese  of; 
Napoleon  I;  Napoleon  III;  Nevers,  Diocese  of. 

GRATTAN-FLOOD,  W.  M.,  M.R.I.A.,  Mus.D., 
Rosemount,  Enniscortht,  Ireland:  Messing- 
ham,  Thomas;  Monteverde,  Claudio;  Motet; 
Mura,  Saint. 

GREY,  J.  C,  New  York:  Medellin,  Archdiocese  of; 
Monte  YeTfpne, 


«• 

▼u 


CONTRIBUTORS  TO  THE  TENTH  VOLUME 


GUTBERLET,  CONSTANTINE,  S.T.D.,  Protho- 

NOTABT   AfOSTOLXC,    PbOFESSOB   OF   ThBOUMST, 
APOIiOOBnCS    AND    PHIL060PHT,    SbMINABT    OF 

FuLDA,  Gebmant:  Materialunn. 

GUTHRIE,  W.  B.y  Abbibtant  Professor,  Depabt- 
icBNT  OF  Political  Ecoif omt,  Ck>LLBaB  of  the 
CiTT  OF  New  York:  Migration. 

HAGEN,  JOHN  G.,  Vatican  Obsbrvatort,  Rome: 
MQller  (Reg^omontanus),  Johann. 

HAMILTON,  GEORGE  E.,  Washinoton:  Monris, 
Martin  Ferdinand. 

HANDLEY,  MARIE  LOUISE,  New  York:  Mon- 
tafi^,  Juan  Martinez. 

HARRINGTON,  THOMAS  F.,  M.D.,  Boston, 
Massachusetts:  Massachusetts. 

HARRIS,  WILLIAM  RICHARD,  S.T.D.,  LL.D., 
Editor  of  "Intebmountain  Cathouc",  Sai/t 
Lake  Citt,  Utah:  Mormons. 

HARTIG,  OTTO,  Assistant  Libbabian  of  the 
RoTAL  Libbabt,  Munich:  Navarre. 

HASSETT,  Mob.  MAURICE  M.,  S.T.D.,  Habbis- 
bubg,  Pennsylvania:  Matricula;  Monogram  of 
Christ. 

HEALY,  JOHN,  S.T.D.,  LL.D.,  M.R.I.A.,  Abch- 
bishop  of  Tuam,  Senatob  of  the  National 
Univebsitt  of  Ibeland:  Mayo,  School  of. 

HENRY,  HUGH  T.,  Lrrr.D,,  Rsctob  of  Roman 
Catholic  High  School  fob  Bots,  Pbofbssob 
OF  Engubh  Lttebatube  and  of  Gbegobian 
Chant,  St.  Chables  Seminabt,  Ovebbbook, 
Pennsylvania:  Mass,  Music  of  the;  Miserere. 

HOEBER,  KARL,  Ph.D.,  Editob,  "  Volkbzeitunq" 
AND  "Akademibche  Monatsbl&tteb",  Cologne  : 
Maxentiua,  Marcus  Aurelius;  Maximianus,  Mar- 
cus Auretius  Valerius;  Maximinus,  Caiua  Vale- 
rius Daja;  Maximinus  Thrax,  Caius  Julius  Verus; 
Nero. 

HOGAN,  JOHN  F.  CANON,  Pbofebbob  of  Mod- 
EBN  Languages,  Matnooth  College,  Dub- 
lin: Ma3mooth  College. 

HOLWECK,  FREDERIC  G.,  St.  Louis,  Misboubi: 
Maternity  of  the  Blessed  Vii^n  Mary,  Feast  of 
the;  Michael  the  Archangel;  Months,  Special 
Devotions  for;  Most  Pure  Heart  of  Mary,  Feast 
of  the;  Mount  Cannel,  Feast  of  Our  Lady  of; 
Name  of  Mary,  Feast  of  the  Holy;  Nativity  of 
the  Blessed  Virgin  Mary,  Feast  of  the. 

HOWLEY,  MICHAEL  FRANCIS,  S.T.D.,  Abch- 
bishop  of  St.  John's,  Newfoundland:  New- 
foundland. 

fiUDLESTON,  GILBERT  ROGER,  O.8.B.,  Down- 
bide  Abbey,  Bath,  England:  Mellitus,  Saint; 
Monasticism,  IV.  Western  Monasticism;  Monte 
Cassino,  Abbey  of;  Montreuil,  Charterhouse  of 
Notre-Dame-des-Pl^;  Montreuil  Abb^y;  Mont- 
St-l 


HULL,  ERNEST  R.,  S.J.,  Editob,  "The  Exam- 
inee", Bombay,  India:  Mysore,  Diocese  of; 
Nagpur,  Diocese  of. 

HUNT,  LEIGH,  Pbofebbob  of  Abt,  College  of 
the  Crrr  of  New  Yobk:  Morghen,  Raffaello; 
Nanteuil,  Robert;  Navairete,  Juan  Fem^des. 

INGOLD,  A.  M.  P.,  DiBECTOB,  "Revue  d' Alsace", 
CoLMAB,  Gebmant:  Morin,  Jean. 

JACQUIER,  EUG£:NE,  S.T.D.,  Pbofebbob  of 
Sacbbd  Scbiftube,  Univebsitt  of  Lyons: 
Matthew,  Saint;  Matthew,  Gospel  of  Saint; 
Matthias,  Saint. 

JENNER,  HENRY,  F.S.A.,  Late  of  the  Bbitish 
Museum,  London:  Mosarabic  Rite. 

JOHNSTON,  FRANK,  Ex-Attobney  Genebal  of 
MisBiBBiPPi,  Jackson,  Mississippi:  Misassippi. 

JONES,  ARTHUR  EDWARD,  S.J.,  Cobbespond- 

ING  MeMBEB  of  the  MINNESOTA,  OnTABIO,  AND 

Chicago  Histobical  Societies;  Hon.  Membeb 
OF  THE  Misboubi  HisTOBiCAL  Society;  Membeb 
of  the  Intebnational  Congbebb  OF  Amebican- 
iBTs;  Abchivibt  of  St.  Maby's  College, 
Montbeal:  Millet,  Pierre. 

JOYCE,  GEORGE  HAYWARD,  S.J.,  M.A.  (Oxon.), 
St.  Beuno's  College,  St.  Asaph,  Waleb: 
Morality;  Mystical  Body  of  the  Church. 

EEARNS,  WILLIAM  J.,  LL.B.,  Newabk,  New 
Jebbet:  New  Jersey. 

KEILY,  JARVIS,  M.A.,  Gbantwood,  New  Jebbey: 
Miles,  George  Henry;  Moylan,  Stephen. 

KELLY,  BLANCHE  M.,  New  Yobk:  Mercy,  Broth- 
ers of  Our  Lady  of. 

KELLY,  LEO  A.,  Ph.B.,  Rochebteb,  New  Yobk: 
Mouchy,  Antoine  de. 

KEMPENEER,  ALBERT  CANON,  Ph.D.,  Lrrr.D., 
Pbofebbob  of  Chubch  Histoby  at  the  Semi- 

NABY,    InSPECTOB     OF     EPISCOPAL     COLLEGES, 

Mechun,  Belgium:  Mechlin,  Archdiocese  of. 

KENDAL,  JAMES,  S.J.,  Buiawayo,  Rhodesia, 
South  Afbica:  Monomotapa. 

KENNEDY,  DANIEL  J.,  O.P.,  S.T.M.,  Pbofebbob 
OF  Sacbamental  Theology,  Cathouc  Univeb- 
sriT  OF  Amebica,  Washington:  Massouli^, 
Antoine;  Massolini,  Sylvester;  Medina,  Barthol- 
omew. 

KENNEDY,  THOMAS,  B.A.  (National  Univbb- 
BiTY of  Ibeland),  London:  Matthew  of  Cracow; 
Mayhew,  Edward;  Milner,  Robert,  Venerable; 
Missions,  Catholic;  Mosambique;  Nagasaki, 
Diocese  of;  New  Caledonia,  Vicariate  Apostolic 
of;  New  Guinea. 


CONTRIBUTORS  TO  THE  TENTH  VOLUME 


KIBSCH,  JOHANN  PETER,  8.T.D.,  Dombstic 
Pbxlate,  PBorBssoR  OF  Patbologt  and  Chbis- 
TiAN  ABcasoLoaT,  UNiYBBsnT  OF  Fbibouro: 
Matilda  of  CanoflBa;  Methodius  of  Olympus, 
SaiDt;  Micrologus;  Migne,  Jacques-Paul;  Mil- 
lennium and  Millenarianism;  Miltiades,  Saint, 
Ebpe;  Mombritiua,  Bonino;  Monarchia  Sicula; 
Muratori,  Luigi  Antonio;  Muratorian  Canon; 
Nabor  and  Felix,  Saints;  Nazarius,  Saint;  Naza- 
lius  and  Celsus,  Saints  and  Martyrs;  Nazarius 
and  Companions,  Saints;  Neckam,  Alexander  of; 
Neher,  Stephan  Jakob;  Nereus  and  Achilleus, 
Domitilla  and  Pancratius,  Saints  and  Martyrs; 
Neugart,  Trudpert. 

KLEINSCHMIDT,  BEDA,  O.F.M.,  Rbctob,  St. 
Ludwiq's  Coujdgb,  Habrbveld,  Holland: 
Metal-Work  in  the  Service  of  the  Church. 

KURTH,  GODEFROID,  Dibxctor,  Belgian  His- 
torical Institute,  Robce:  Netherlands,  The. 

LACY,  RICHARD,  Bishop  of  Middlesbrough, 
England:  Middlesbrough,  Diocese  of. 

LAGARDE,  ERNEST,  M.A.,  LL.D.,  Professor  of 
English  and  Modern  Languages,  Mount 
St.  Mart's  College,  Emmitsburg,  Maryland: 
Mount  St.  Mary's  College. 

LANGOUET,  A.,  O.M.I.,  Kimberlbt,  South 
Africa:  Natal,  Vicariate  Apostolic  of. 

LAUCHERT,  FRIEDRICH,  Ph.D.,  Aachen: 
Middendorp,  Jakob;  Miletus  (MtUler),  Vitus; 
Moufang,  Franz  Christoph  Ignaz;  Movers,  Frans 
Karl;  MQUer,  Adam  Heinrich. 

LECLERCQ,  HENRI,  O.S.B.,  London:  Maundy 
Thursday;  Meletius  of  Antioch;  Meletius  of  Ly- 
oopolis. 

LEJAY,  PAUL,  Fellow  of  the  UNiYEBsmr  of 
France,  Professor,  Cathouc  Instttute, 
Paris:  Minudus  Felix;  Mirandola,  Giovanni 
Francesco  Pico  della;  Mirandola,  Giovanni  Pico 
della;  Muret,  Maro-Antoine. 

LENNOX,  PATRICK  JOSEPH,  B.A.,  Professor 
OF  English  and  Literature,  Cathouc  Uni- 
vERsriT  OF  America:  Moore  (Moor),  Michael. 

LE  ROY,  ALEXANDER  A.,  C.S.Sp.,  Bishop  of 
Alinda,  Superior  General  of  the  Congrega- 
tion OF  THE  Holt  Ghost,  Paris:  Mayotte, 
Noesi-B4y  and  Comoro,  Prefecture  Apostolic  of; 
Morocco,  Prefecture  Apostolic  of. 

LINDSAY,  LIONEL  ST.  GEORGE,  B.8c.,  Ph.D., 
Editor-in-Chief,  "La  Noxtvelle  France", 
Quebec:  Meilleur,  Jean-Baptiste;  Mender, 
Louis-Honor6;  Montcalm-Goson.  Louis-Joseph; 
Montmagny,  Charles  Huault  de. 

LINS,  JOSEPH,  Fbeibubg,  Germant:  Mecklen- 
burg; Mehrerau;  Meissen;  Mets;  Minden,  Dio- 
cese of;  Minsk,  Diocese  of;  Misocco  and  Calanca, 
Pnfeeture  Apostolic  of;  Mohileff,  Archdiocese  of; 
Montenegro;  Moravia;  Munioh-iVeisiiigy  Aroh- 
diocese  of;  MUnster,  Diocese  ol. 


LOFFLER,  KLEMENS,  Ph.D,  Librarian,  Uni- 
versity OF  Brbblau:  Melanchthon,  Philipp; 
Mone,  Frans. 

LORIGAN,  JAMES  T.,  Knoxville,  Tennessee: 
Nashville,  Diocese  of. 

MAAS,  A.  J.,  S.J.,  Rector,  Woodstock  College, 
Maryland:  Maurus,  Sylvester. 

MacERLEAN,  ANDREW  A.,  New  York:  MeUto, 
Saint;  Melo,  Diocese  of;  M^ndes  and  Guala- 
quisa.  Vicariate  Apostolic  of;  Meredith,  Edward; 
M6rida,  Diocese  of;  Metcalf,  Edward;  Ming, 
John;  Montevideo,  Archdiocese  of;  Morris,  John 
Brande;  Motu  Proprio;  Mozsi,  Luigi;  Neville, 
Edmund. 

McGAHAN,  FLORENCE  RUDGE,  M.A.,  Youngs- 
lowN,  Ohio:  Mercy,  Sisters  of,  of  St.  Borromeo; 
Michael,  Military  Orders  of  Saint;  Michelis,  Ed- 
ward; Mount  Calvaiy,  Congregation  of;  Name  of 
Jesus,  Religious  Communities  of. 

McHUGH,  JOHN  A.,  O.P.,  S.T.L.,  Lector  of  Phi- 
losophy, Dominican  House  of  Studies,  Wash- 
ington: M3rstery. 

McNEAL,  J.  PRESTON,  B.A.,  LL.B.»  Baiahiore: 
Neale,  Leonard. 

MACPHERSON,  EWAN,  New  York:  Massa  Can- 
dida; Meignan,  Guillaume-Ren6. 

MADDEN,  MARIE  REGINA,  Brooklyn,  New 
York:  Names  of  Jesus  and  Maiy,  Sisters  of  the 
Holy. 

MAERE,   R.,   S.T.D.,  Professor  of  Christian 

ARCHiBOLOGY,  XlNIVERSriT   OF  LOUVAIN:   MoR- 

tault,  Xavier  Barbier  de;  Museums,  Christian. 

MAES,  CAMILLUS  P.,  S.T.D.,  Bishop  of  Coving- 
ton, Kentucky:  Moye,  John  Martin,  Venerable; 
Nerinckz,  Charles. 

MAH£,  CELESTIN,  Monroe,  Louisiana:  Natchi- 
toches, Diocese  of. 

MAHER,  MICHAEL,  S.J.,  Lrrr.D.,  M.A.  (Lon- 
don), Director  of  Studies  and  Professor  of 
Pedagogics,  Stonyhurst  College,  Black- 
burn, England:  Metempsychosis;  Mind. 

MARIQUE,  PIERRE  JOSEPH,  Instructor  in 
French,  College  of  the  Ctty  of  New  York: 
Mercad6,  Eustache;  Meim,  Jean  Clopinel  de; 
Michel,  Jean;  Montyon,  AntoineJean-Baptiste- 
Robert  Auget,  Baron  de;  Mor6ri,  Louis. 

MAXWELL-SCOTT,  Hon.  Mrs.,  London:  Max- 
well, William;  Maxwell,  Winifred. 

MEEHAN,  THOMAS  F.,  New  York:  Meagher, 
Thomas  Francis;  Monroe,  James;  Mulhall, 
Michael  George ;  Mulholland,  St.  Clair  Augustine; 
Mullanphy,  John;  Newark,  Diocese  of. 

MEISTERMANN,  BARNABAS,  O.S.F.,  Lector, 
Convent  of  S.  Salvatoe,  Jerusalem:  Nairn; 
Nasazeth. 


CONTRIBUTORS  TO  THE  TENTH  VOLUME 


MENARD,  SISTER  MARIE,  Nazabeth,  Ken- 
tucky: Nazareth,  Sisters  of  Charity  of. 

MERSHMAN,   FRANCIS,   O.S.B.,   S.T.D.,   Pro- 

FB880B  OF  MoRAL  ThBOLOGT,  CaNON  LaW,  AND 

LrruBGT,  St.  John's  College,  Collegetille, 
Minnesota:  Massuet,  Ren6;  Maurice,  Saint; 
Maurus,  Saint;  Meinwerk,  Blessed;  Menard, 
Nicolas-Hugues;  Menas,  Saint;  Nausea,  Fred- 
eric. 

MOELLER,  CH.,  Pbofessoe  of  General  Hib- 
TORT,  University  of  Louvain:  Military  Or- 
ders, The;  Montesa,  Military  Order  of. 

MOLLOY,  JOSEPH  VINCENT,  O.P.,  S.T.L.,  New 
Haven,  Connecticut:  Mathusala. 

MONTES  DE  OCA  Y  OBREGON,  JOSfi  M.  I., 
S.T.D.,  LL.D.,  Bishop  of  San  Luis  PoTosf, 
Administrator  Apostolic  of  Tamattlipas, 
DoBiESTic  Prelate  to  His  Holiness  and 
Assistant  at  the  Pontifical  Throne,  Knight 
Grand  Cross  of  the  Holt  Sepulchre,  Knight 
OF  Isabella  the  Catbouc,  K.  C.  of  Charles 
THE  Third,  Member  of  the  Madrid  Academy 
of  Languages  and  History,  San  Litis  Porosf, 
Mexico:  Mexico,  Archdiocese  of. 

MOONEY,  JAMES,  United  States  Ethnologist, 
Bureau  of  American  Ethnology,  Washing- 
ton: Mataco  Indians;  Maya  Indians;  Mayo  In- 
dians; Mayoruna  Indians;  Mazatec  Indians; 
Mbaya  Indians;  Mengarini,  Gregorio;  Menom- 
inee Indians;  Miami  Indians;  Mission  In- 
dians (of  California) ;  Missions,  Catholic  Indian, 
of  the  United  States;  Mixe  Indians;  Mixteca 
Indians;  Mocovi  Indians;  Montagnais  Indians 
(Quebec);  Moxoe  Indians;  Mosetena  Indians. 

MOORE,  THOMAS  V.,  C.S.P.,  Sr.  Thomas's  Col- 
lege, Washington:  Memory. 

MORICE,  A.  G.,  O.M.I.,  Editor  of  "Lb  Patriots 
DE  l'Ouest",  Duck  Lake,  Saskatchewan, 
Canada:  Mazenod,  Charles  Joseph  Ehigdne  de; 
Micmacs;  Missions,  Catholic  Indian  (Canada); 
Montagnais  Indians  (Chippewayans);  Nahanes. 

MUNNYNCK,  MARK  P.  DE,  S.T.D.,  Professor 
OF   Philosophy,    University   of   Fribourg: 

Mechaxusm. 

NOLAN,  RICHARD  S.,  B.A.  (Trinity  College, 
Dubun),  London:  Masses,  Bequests  for  (Eng- 
land). 

NYB,  DfiSIRfi,  S.T.D.,  Ph.D.,  President,  SiMi- 
NAiRE  LAoN  XIII,  University  of  Loxtvain: 
Minkelers,  Jean-Pierre. 

OBRECHT,  EDMOND  M.,  O.C.R.,  Abbot  of 
Gethsbmani  Abbey,  Kentucky:  Melleray; 
Mellifont,  Abbey  of;  Molesme,  Notre-Dame  de; 
Montmindl,  John  de;  Morimond,  Ahhey  of; 
New  Abbey;  Newbattle. 

O'CONNOR,  CHARLES  AUGUSTUS.  M.A.,  LL.B., 
Manchester,  New  Hamfbhibb:  New  Hamp- 
shire. 


OLIGER,  LIVARIUS,  O.F.M.,  Lector  of  Church 
History,  College  S.  Antonio,  Rome:  Mendi- 
cant Friars;  Minimi  (Minims). 

OTT,  MICHAEL,  O.S.B.,  Ph.D.,  Professor  of  the 
History  of  Philosophy,  St.  John's  College, 
Collegeville,  Minnesota:  Matilda,  Saint; 
Maximilian  (Martyrs);  Maximinus,  Saint; 
Maximus  of  Turin,  Saint;  Mayor,  John; 
Mayr,  Beda;  Mechtild  of  Magdeburg;  M^ge, 
Antoine-Joseph;  Mendoza,  Francisco  Sarmi- 
ento  de;  Mendoza,  Pedro  Gonzales  de;  Mezger, 
Francis,  Joseph,  and  Paul;  Michael  de  Sanctis, 
Saint;  Milic,  Jan;  Mirsus  (Le  Mire),  Aubert; 
Mittarelli,  Nicola  Giacomo;  Molina,  Antonio 
de;  Molitor,  Wilhelm;  Moschus,  Johannes; 
Mundwiler,  Fintan;  Muszarelli,  Alfonso. 

OTTEN,  JOSEPH,  Pittsburgh,  Pennsylvania: 
Mohr,  Joseph;  Mozart,  Johann  Chrysostomus 
Wolfgang  Amadeus;  Musical  Instruments  in 
Church  Services. 

OUSSANI,  GABRIEL,  Ph.D.,  Professor  of  Ec- 
clesiastical History,  Early  Christian  Lit- 
erature,    AND     BiBUCAL     ArCHJSOLOGY,     St. 

Joseph's  Seminary,  Dunwoodie,  New  York: 
Mecca;  Mohammed  and  Mohammedanism; 
Moses  of  Chorene. 

PACIFIQUE,  FATHER,  O.M.Cap.,  Micmac  Mis- 
sion, Restigouche,  Canada:  Memberton  In- 
dians. 

PfiREZ  GOYENA,  ANTONIO,  S.J.,  Editor. 
''Ra£6n  y  Fe",  Madrid:  Molinos,  Miguel  de. 

PfiTRIDjSlS,  SOPHRONE,  A.A.,  Professor,  Greek 
Catholic  Seminary  of  Kadi-Keui,  Constan- 
tinople: Metellopolis;  Miletopolis;  Mocissus; 
Modra;  Musti;  Myndus;  Nacolia;  Nazianzus. 

PHELAN,  PATRICK,  Vicar  General  and  Dean 
OF  the  Archdiocese  of  Melbourne,  Aus- 
tralia: Melbourne,  Archdiocese  of. 

PHILLIPS,  EDWARD  C,  S.J.,  Ph.D.,  Woodstock 
College,  Maryland:  Neri,  Antonio. 

POHLE,  JOSEPH,  8.T.D.,  Ph.D.,  J.C.L.,  Profes- 
sor OF  Dogmatic  Theology,  UNivERsmr  of 
Brbslau:  Mass,  Sacrifice  of  the;  Merit;  Molina, 
Luis  de;  Molinism. 

POLLEN,  JOHN  HUNGERFORD,  S.J.,  London: 
Molyneux,  Sir  Caryll;  More,  Heniy;  Morris, 
John. 

POPE,  HUGH,  O.P.,  8.T.L.,  S.S,D.,  Professor  of 

New  Testament  Exegesis,  Collegio  Angb- 
uco,  Rome:  Monica,  Saint. 

POULAIN,  AUGUSTIN,  S.J.,  Paris:  Mohammedan 
Confraternities. 

RAINER,  Mgr.  JOSEPH,  V.G.,  P.A.,  Rector,  St. 
Francis  Provincial  Seminary,  Professor  of 
Sacred  Scripture  and  Hebrew,  St.  Framcib, 
Wibconbin:  Milwaukee,  Arohdiooese  of. 


CONTRIBUTORS  TO  THE  TENTH  VOLUME 


RAN£X)LPH,    BARTHOLOMEW,    CM.,    MA.,    8HIPMAN,    ANDREW   J.,    M.A.,   LL.M.,    Nbw 

TXACHEB  OF  PhILOBOPHT  AMD  ChXJBCH  HiSTOBT,  YoBK:  MO6COW. 

St.  John's  Ck)tLBGJB,  Bbookltn,  Nbw  York:    giLLARD,    PETER    A,,    Naw   York:    Meefaan, 
Miaeion,  CoDgregation  of  PrieBt8  of  the.  CShariee  Patrick. 

REILLY,  THOMAS  k  K.,  O.P.,  S,T.L.,  S^S.L.,  Pro-    SLATER,  T.,  S.J.,  St.  Bruno's  Collbgr,  St.  Asaph, 

Wales:  Mental  Reservation. 

SLOANE,    CHARLES   WILLIAM,    Nsw   York: 
Mortmain. 


OF  Sacred  Scripture,  Dobonican 
House  of  Studies,  Washington:  Medices  (de 
Medicis),  Hieronymua;  Mosaic  Legislation; 
Moses. 


SMITH,  SYDNEY  F.,  S.J.,  London:  Mortification. 


REMY,  ARTHUR  F.  J.,  M.A.,  Ph.D.,  Adjunct^ 

Professor  of  Germanic  PniLoiiOOT,  Colum-    SMITH,  WALTER  GEORGE,  M.A.,  LL.B.   (U. 


BiA  UNiYERsmr,  New  York:  Miracle  Plays  and 
Mysteries;  Mtknch-Bellinghausen,  Baron  Eligius 
Frani  Joseph  von. 

REZEK,  ANTOINE  IVAN,  Houghton,  Michigan: 
Mrak,  Ignatius. 

ROMPEL,  JOSEF  HEINRICH,  8.J.,  Ph.D.,  Stella 
Matutina  College,  Feldkirch,  Austria: 
Molina,  Juan  Ignacio;  Mutis,  Jos6  Celestino. 

RYAN,  JOHN  A.,  S.T.D.,  Professor  of  Moral 
Theology,  St.  Paul  Seminary,  St.  Paul,  Min- 
nesota: Monopoly,  Moral  Aspects  of. 

SAINT  BEATRICE,  SISTER,  Sisters  of  the  Mis- 
ERiooRDE,  Montreal:  Misericorde,  Congrega- 
tion of  the  Sisters  of. 

6ALAVILLE,  S£VfiRIEN,  A.A.,  Professor  of 
Liturgy,  Greek  Cathouc  Seminary  of  Kadi- 
Keui,  Constantinople:  Memphis;  Methymna; 
Miletus;  Mitylene;  Mylasa;  Myra. 

8AUVAGE,  G.M.,  C.S.C.,  S.T.D.,  Ph.D.,  Profes- 


OF  p.),  Philadelphia,  Pennsylvania:  Masses, 
Devises  and  Bequests  for  (United  States). 

SOLLIER,  JOSEPH  FRANCIS,  S.M.,  S.T.D.,  San 
Francisco,  California:  Mdrode,  Fr6d^o- 
Fran^ois-Xavier  Ghislain  de. 

SORTAIS,  GASTON,  S.J.,  Assistant  Editor, 
"Etudes",  Paris:  Matteo  da  Siena;  Messina, 
Antonello  da;  Morales,  Luis  de;  Moroni,  Gio- 
vanni Battista. 

SOUVAY,  CHARLES  L.,  CM.,  S.T.D.,  Ph.D.,  Pro- 
fessor, Sacred  Scripture,  Herrew,  and 
Liturgy,  Kenrick  Seminary,  St.  Louis,  Mis- 
souri: Nabuchodonosor;  Nahum;  Names,  He- 
brew; Nephtali. 

STAGE,  FRANCIS  A.,  Grand  Rapidb,  Michigan: 
Michigan. 

SULLIVAN,  WILLLVM  CLEARY,  LL.B.,  Secre- 
tary, Catholic  Young  Men's  National 
Union,  Washington:  National  Union,  Catholic 


Young  Men's. 
8OR  o»  Dogmatic  TmroLOQT,  Holt  Cboss  Coi.    gUTTON,  JOHN  P.,   Lincoln,   Nebbaska:  Ne- 
isoK,  Wabhinoton:  MyBtiasm;  Neoeenty.  biaaka 

SCANNELL^  THOMAS^B.  CANON,  S^.D.,  Edi-    tALLON,  WILLUM  THOMAS,  8.J.,  Woodstock 

College,  Maryland:  Melia,  Pius. 


TOR,    "Catholic    Dictionary",    Weyrridge, 
England:  Mauiy,  Jean-Siffrein. 

SCHEID,  N.,  S.J.,  Stella  Matutina  College, 
Feldkirch,  Austria:  Morel,  Gall;  Morell,  Juli- 
ana; Mumer,  Thomas. 

SCHLAGER,  HEINRICH  PATRICIUS,  O.F.M., 
St.  Ludwig's  College,  Dalhbim,  Germany: 
Matthias  of  Neubuig;  Mechtel,  Johann;  M^ 
naid,  Lfon;  Mermillod,  Gaspard;  Miltis,  Karl 
Ton;  Mdhler,  Johann  Adam;  Moncada,  Fran- 
dsoo  de;  Moy  de  Sons,  Karl  Ernst;  Muchar, 
Albert  Anton  von. 

SCHLITZ,    CHARLES,    S.J.,    Bonn,    Germany: 

Mdania,  Sunt  (the  Younger). 

8CHR0EDER,  JOSEPH,  O.P.,  Dominican  House 
op  Studies,  Washington:  Mensing,  John;  Mi»- 
aons.  Catholic  Parochial;  Moneta;  Monsabr6, 


TARNOWSKI,  COUNT  STANISLAUS,  President, 
Imperial  Academy  op  Sciences,  Propessor, 
Polish  Lfterature,  University  op  Krakow: 
Mickiewicz,  Adam. 

THURSTON,  HERBERT,  S.J.,  London:  Medals, 
Devotional;  Menologium;  Minister;  Missal; 
Monk;  Morone,  Giovanni;  Nails,  Holy;  Names, 
Christian;  Natal  Day;  Necrologies. 

TIERNEY,  JOHN  J.,  M.A.,  S.T.D.,  Propessor  op 
Sacred  Scripture  and  Semitic  Studies,  Mt. 
St.  Mary's  College,  Emmttsrurg,  Maryland: 
Melchisedech;  Mesa. 

TOKE,  LESLIE  ALEXANDER  ST.  LAWRENCE, 
B.A.,  Stration-on-Fosse,  Bath,  England: 
Maurists,  The;  Melk,  Abbey  and  Congregation 


of. 
Jacques-MariB-I^uis;  Montesm^^  Antonio;  Mon-    TURNER,  WILLIAM,  B.A.,  S.T.D.,  Propessor  op 

Logic  and  the  History  op  Philosophy,  Catho- 
uc  University   op   America,    Washington: 


teaino,  Luis  de;  Morales,  Juan  Bautista;  Navar- 
lete,  Domingo  FemiLndez;  Nasarius,  John  Paul. 

8ENFELDER,  LEOPOLD,  M.D.,  Teacher  op  the 
History  op  Medicine,  University  op  Vienna: 
Medicine,  History  of. 


Megarians;  Melissus  of  Samoa;  Metaph3rsics; 
Michael  Scotus;  Monad;  Monism;  Neo-Plato- 
nism;  Neo-Pythagorean  Philosophy. 


CONTRIBUTORS  TO  THE  TENTH  VOLUME 


VAILHfi,  SIMfiON,  A.A.,  Mbmbbr  of  thb  Russian 
Abcooological  Institutb  or  Constanti- 
NOPLB,  Pbofbssob  OF  Sacbed  Scbifturb  and 
HiSTOBT,  Gbbbk  Cathouc  Sbminabt  of  Kadi« 
Ebui,  Constantinoplb:  Mater;  Maximian- 
opolis;  Maximopolis:  Medea;  Megara;  Melitene; 
Meloe;  Mesopotamia,  Kurdistan,  and  Armenia, 
Delegation  Apostolic  of;  Messene;  Metropolis; 
Milevimi;  Milopotamoe;  Mopsuestia;  Mossul; 
Mosynoupolis;  Mush;  Mjnina;  Myriophytum; 
NeocsBsarea;  Neociesarea  (Pontus  Polemonii^ 
cus);  Neve. 

VALLUET,  LOUIS,  Missionary  of  St.  Francis  db 
Sales  of  Annbct,  Wilts,  England:  Mission- 
aries of  St.  Francis  de  Sales  of  Annecy. 

VAN  HOONACKER,  A.,  Professor  of  Critical 

EbSTORT  OF  the  OlD  TESTAMENT  AND  ORIENTAL 

Languages,  Universitt  of  Louvain:  Micheas; 
Nehemias,  Book  of. 

VASCHALDE,  A.A.,  C.8.B.,  Cathouc  Univbrsitt 
OF  America,  Washington:  Mesrob;  Nerses, 
I-rV;  Nerses  of  Lambron. 

VERMEERSCH,  ARTHUR,  S.J.,  LL.D.,  Doctor 
OF  Social  and  Poutical  Sciences,  Professor 
OF  Moral  Theology  and  Canon  Law,  Lou- 
vain: Modernism. 

WAINEWRIGHT,  JOHN  BANNERMAN,  B.A. 
(OxoN.),  London:  Maxfield,  Thomas,  Vener- 
able; Mayne,  Cuthbert,  Blessed;  Metham,  Sir 
Thomas;  Morgan,  Edward,  Venerable;  Morse, 
Henry,  Venerable;  Morton,  Robert,  Venerable; 
Napper,  George,  Venerable. 

WALLAU,  HEINRICH  WILHELM,  Mainz,  Ger- 
many: Mentelin,  Johannes. 

WALSH,  JAMES  J.,  M.D.,  Ph.D.,  LL.D.,  Dean  of 
thb  Medical  School,  Fordham  University, 
New  York:  Mercuriali,  Geronimo;  Mondino 
del  Lucci;  Morgagni,  Giovanni  Battista;  MQller, 
Johann;  N^laton,  Auguste. 

WALSH,  REGINALD,  O.P.,  S.T.D.,  Professor  of 
Theology,  S.  Clements,  Rome:  Master  of  the 
Sacred  Palace. 

WALSH,  T.  J.,  Helena,  Montana:  Montana. 

WARD,  Mgr.  BERNARD  CANON,  President, 
St.  EIdmund's  Collbge,  Wars,  England: 
Milner,  John. 


WARREN,  KATE  MARY,  Lbctubbe  m  Enqush 

LiTBRATURB    UNDER     UnIVBRSTIT    OF    LONDON 

AT  Westfield  College,  Hamfstbad,  London: 
Moralities  (Moral  Plays). 

WEBER,  ANSELM,  O.F.M.,  St.  Michael's,  Ari- 
sona:  Navajo  Indians. 

WEBER,  N.  A.,  S.M.,  S^T.D.,  Professor  of  Fun- 
damental Theology  and  Church  History, 
Marist  College,  Washington:  Maxentius, 
Joannes;  Mennonites;  Men  of  Understanding; 
Methodism;  Michelians;  Morcelli,  Stefano  An- 
tonio. 

WELD-BLUNDELL,  EDWARD  BENEDICT, 
O.S.B.,  Stanbrook,  England:  More,  Helen 
(Dame  Gertrude). 

WESTLAKE,  N.  H.  J.,  F.8.A.,  Hon.  Member, 
British  and  American  Archjbol.  Soc.  of 
Rome;  Member  of  the  Archjbol.  Assoc,  of 
London  and  of  L'Union  Internationale  dbs 
Beaux-Arts,  London:  Mosaics. 

WILHELM,  J.,  S.T.D.,  Ph.D.,  Battle,  England: 
Mediator. 

WILLIAMSON,  GEORGE  CHARLES,  Lrrr.D., 
London:  Massolini,  Ludovico;  Mazzuchelli, 
Pietro  Francesco;  Melsi,  Francesco;  Meneses, 
Osorio  Frandsoo;  Mengs,  Anthon  Rafael;  Mor 
(Moor),  Antonis  Van  Dashorst;  Morigi  (Cara- 
vaggio),  Michelangelo. 

WILLIS,  JOHN  WILLEY,  M.A.,  St.  Paul,  Min- 
nesota: Minnesota. 

WINDLE,  BERTRAM  C.  A.,  M.B.,  Sc.D.,  M.D., 
B.Ch.,  LL.D.,  F.R.S.,  F.S.A.,  Vice-President, 
R.S.A.I.,  Senator,  N.  U.  I.,  President,  Uni- 
versity'College,  Cork:  Mendel,  Mendelism. 

WISSEL,  JOSEPH,  C.SS.R.,  Philadelphia,  Penn- 
sylvania: Neumann,  John  Nepomucene,  Ven- 
erable. 

WITTMANN,  PIUS,  Ph.D.,  Reichsarchivrat, 
BtoiNGEN,  Germany:  Maximilian  I,  Duke  of 
Bavaria. 

WOLFSGRUBER,  COELESTIN,  O.S.B.,  Vienna: 
Mettemich,  Klemens  Lothar  Wensel,  Prince 
von;  Migazsi,  Christoph  Anton;  Milde,  Vimens 
Eduard;  Mostar  and  Markana-Trebinje,  Diocese 
of;  Mdhlbacher,  Engelbert. 

ZIMMERMANN,  BENEDICT,  O.D.C.,  St.  Luke's 
Priory,  Wincanton,  Somersbtbhirb,  England: 
Netter,  Thomas. 


sB 


Tables  of  Abbreviations 

The  following  tables  and  notes  are  intended  to  guide  readen  of  Thx  Catholic  Enctclopbdza  Id 
inteipretiDg  those  abbreviations,  signs,  or  technical  phrases  which,  for  economy  of  space,  will  be  most  Ire* 
qnently  used  in  the  wozlc    For  more  general  infoimation  see  the  article  Abbreviations,  EccLESiASTioAifc 


!•-— Oensrax*  Abbbxvxationb. 

a. article. 

ad  an. at  the  year  (Lat.  ad  annvm), 

an.,  ann. the  year,  the  yeais  (Lat.  annus, 

anm), 

ap. in  (Lat.  aptid). 

art. article. 

Asayr. Assyrian. 

A.  8 Anglo-Saxon. 

A.V. Authorized  Version  (i.e.  tr.  of  the 

Bible  authorised  for  use  in  the 
Anglican  Church — the  so-called 
«<£ing  James",  or'^Protartast" 
Bible). 

b bom. 

Bk. Book. 

BL Blessed. 

C,  c about  (Lat.  circa);  canon;  chap- 

ter; compagnie, 

can.  •  •  • canon. 

cap. chapter  (Lat.  caput — used  only 

in  Latin  context). 

cf. compare  (Lat.  confer). 

cod. codex. 

col column. 

oond. conclusion. 

conat.,  oonstit. .  •  .Lat.  consUtuHa. 

cuift by  the  industry  of. 

d died. 

diet dictionary  (Fr.  dictionnaire), 

disp Lat.  dwjndaiio, 

disB. Lat.  diasertoHo, 

dist. Lat.  duUncHo, 

D.  y. Douay  Version. 

ed.,  edit edited,  edition,  editor. 

£p.,  Epp. letter,  letters  (Lat.  epuUla), 

Fr. French. 

gen.  • .  • genus. 

Gr. Greek. 

H.  E.,  Hist.  Eocl.  .Ecdesiastical  History. 

Heb.,  Hebr. Hebrew. 

lb.,  ibid. in  the  same  place  (Lat.  ibidem). 

Id. the  same  person,  or  author  (Lat. 

idem). 


inf. below  (Lat.  infra). 

It, Italian. 

L  c.,  loe.  cit. at  the  place  quoted  (Lat.  loco 

cUato), 

Lat Latin. 

lat latitude. 

lib book  (Lat.  Kber). 

long. longitude. 

Mon Lat.  MontanerUa, 

MS.,  MSS manuscript,  manuscripts. 

n.,  no number. 

N.  T New  Testament. 

Nat National. 

Old  Fr.,  O.  Fr. . .  .Old  French. 

op.  cit in  the  work  quoted  (Lat.  opere 

citato), 

Ord. Order. 

O.T Old  Testament. 

p.,pp page,  pages,  or  (in  Latin  ref- 
erences) para  (part). 

par. paragraph. 

passim, in  various  places. 

pt part. 

Q Quarterly    (a    periodical),    e.g. 

"CSiuroh  Quarteriy". 

Q«>  QQ-i  quffist. ..  .question,  questions  (Lat.  qtuestio), 

q.  V which  [title]  see  (Lat.  quod  vide). 

Rev Review  (a  periodical). 

R.  S Rolls  Series. 

R.  V. . . Revised  Version. 

8., SS Lat.    Sandus,   Sancti,    "Saint", 

"Saints" — ^used  in  this  Ency- 
clopedia only  in  Latin  context. 

Sept Septuagint. 

Sees Session. 

Skt Sanskrit. 

Sp Spanish. 

sq.,  sqq following  page,  or  pages  (Lat. 

aequens). 

St.,  Sts. Saint,  Saints. 

sup Above  (Lat.  eupra). 

S.V Under   the   corresponding   title 

(Lat.  sub  voce), 

tom volume  (liSt.  tomua). 


xiii 


TABLES  OP  ABBREVIATIONS. 


tr. translation  or  translated.  By  it- 
self it  means  "English  transla- 
tion", or  ''translated  into  Eng- 
lish by".  Where  a  translation 
is  into  any  other  language,  the 
language  is  stated. 

tr.,  tract tractate. 

V. see  (Lat.  vieie). 

Yen Venerable. 

Vol Volume. 

n. — ^Abbreviationb  of  Tttlbs. 

Acta  SS Ada  Sandarum  (Bollandists). 

Ann.  pont.  cath Battandier,  Annuaire  pontifical 

catholique, 

Bibl.  Diet.  Eng.  Gath.Gillow,  Bibliographical  Diction- 
ary of  the  English  Catholics. 

Diet.  Christ.  Antiq..  .Smith    and   Cheetham    (ed.)» 

Dictionary  of  Christian  An- 
tiquities. 


Diet.  Christ.  Biog.  . .  Smith  and  Wace  (ed.),  Diction- 
ary of  Christian  Biography. 

Diet,  d'arch.  chnSt..  .Gabrol  (ed.),  Dictionnaire  d'ar- 

dhiologie  chrdienne  et  de  httiT' 
gie. 

Diet,  de  th6oh  cath. .  Vacant   and   Mangenot  (ed.)f 

Didionnavre      de      th^ologie 
caihoUquie, 

Diet.  Nat.  Biog Stephen    (ed.),   Dictionary  of 

National  Biography. 

Hast.,  Diet,  of  the 

Bible Hastings  (ed.),  A  Dictionary  of 

the  Bible. 

Kirchenlex Wetzer  and  Weltc,  Kirchenlexi- 

con, 

P.  G Migne  (ed.),  Patres  ChrfBcu 

P.  L Migne  (ed.),  Patres  Latini, 

Vig.,  Diet,  de  la  Bible.  Vigouroux  (ed.),  Didionnaire  de 

la  Bible, 


NoTB  I. — Laive  Roman  numerala  standins  alone  indicate  volumes.  Small  Roman  numerals  standing  alone  in^ifntft 
ehaptexB.  Arabic  numerals  standing  alone  indicate  paces.  In  other  cases  the  divisions  are  explicitly  stated.  Thus  **  Rashdall, 
Universities  of  Europe.  I.  ix"  refers  the  reader  to  the  ninth  chapter  of  the  first  volume  of  that  work;  "I,  p.  ix"  would  indicate  the 
ninth  page  of  the  preface  of  the  same  volume. 

NoTB  II. — ^Where  St.  Thomas  (Aquinas)  is  cited  without  the  name  of  any  particular  work  the  reference  is  always  to 
"Summa  Theologioa"  (not  to  "Sunmia  Philosophis").  The  divisions  of  the  "Summa  Theol."  are  indicated  by  a  system  which 
may  best  be  understood  by  the  following  example:  "  I-II,  Q.  vi,  a.  7,  ad  2  u<d  »  refers  the  reader  to  the  scventii  article  of  the 
tixlh  question  in  the  fir^  part  of  the  aeoond  part,  in  the  response  to  the  asocmd  objection. 

NoTB  III. — ^The  abbreviations  employed  for  the  various  books  of  the  Bible  are  obvious.  Ecdesiastious  is  indicated  by 
Bedua.,  to  distinguish  it  from  Ecdesiastes  {Ecd^.).  It  should  also  be  noted  that  I  and  II  Kings  in  D.  V.  eamapond  to  I  and  II 
Samuel  in  A.  V.;  and  I  and  II  Par.  to  I  and  II  Chronicles.  Where,  in  the  spelling  of  a  proper  name,  there  is  a  marked  difference 
between  the  D.  V.  and  the  A.  V.,  the  form  founc.  in  the  latter  is  added,  in  parantheaan 


Full  Page  Illustrations  in  Volume  X 

Frontispiece  in  Colour  paqb 

St.  Matthew 56 

Maya — ^Tablet  with  Hieroglyph  Inscription,  etc 84 

Cardinal  Mazarin — ^Philippe  de  Champagne 92 

Cosimo  de'  Medici — Laurentian  Library 120 

Adoration  of  the  Magi — ^Memling 174 

St.  David's  Cathedral,  St.  David's  Wales 186 

Messina  (1907) 216 

Metal  Work 220 

Bronze  Doors,  Ravello  (1179)— Barifano  of  Trani 224 

Cathedral,  City  of  Mexico 260 

Cathedral,  Milan 300 

The  Angelus— Millet 312 

Missal : .  356 

Mitres  of  Bl.  Nicold  Albergati,  etc 404 

Keti — ^Montagna 510 

Mount-Saint-Michel 552 

Mosaic  Map  of  Christian  Palestine  and  Egypt 590 

Moses 596 

Munich 632 

MuriUo 644 

Naples — Drying  Macaroni,  etc 686 

Napoleon — Paul  Delaroche 694 

Nami 704 

John  Henry,  Cardinal  Newman 796 


Maps 

Mexico 268 

Ecclesiastical  Provinces  of  Montreal,  Ottawa,  Toronto,  Kingston 546 


THE 
CATHOLIC  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


M 

MM8|  Music  of  the. — ^Under  this  heading  will  be  tuo  to  the  Dominus  vobiscum  preceding  the  praters, 

considered  exclusively  the  texts  of  the  Afass  (and  not,  the  Gospel,  and  the  Preface.    Both  of  taeoe  choir  re^ 

therefore,  the  Asperges,  Vidi  aquam,  Litanies,  Prophe-  sponses  va^  from  the  usual  monotone  when  occurring 

cies,  etc.,  which  m  the  Roman  Missal  are  found  more  before  the  Preface;  and  the  Amen  receives  an  upward 

or  less  closely  associated  with  the  Mass  in  certain  inflection  before  the  Pax  Domini,  etc.    Indeed,  the 

seasons  of  the  Church  Year),  which  receive  a  musical  Dominus  vobisciun  and  its  response  vary  in  melody 

treatment.    These  texts  comprise  those  which  are  for  all  the  three  forms  of  the  Preface  (the  Tonus 

sung  (that  is,  recited  in  musical  monotone  with  occa-  Solemnis,  the  Tonus  Ferialis,  the  Tonus  Solemnior 

sional  cadences  or  inflections)  by  the  celebrant  and  the  foimd  in  the  "  Cantus  Missalis  Roman! "),  as  do  aJso  the 

sacred  ministers  (who  will  be  referred  to  as  priest,  chants  and  responses  of  the  Sursum  corda,  etc.,  pre- 

deacon,  and  sub-deacon)  and  which  are  styled  "  Ac-  ceding  the  Preface.    It  would  be  highlv  desirable  that 

centus  " ;  and  those  which  are  assigned  to  the  choir  and  choirs  be  well  practised  in  these  special "  tones  "  since 

which  are  styled  "  Concentus  ".    For  the  sake  of  con-  exact  correspondence  with  the  form  used  by  l^e  priest 

▼enience  of  reference  the  Concentus  may  be  divided  is  not  only  of  sesthetic  but  of  practical  value;  for  any 

into  the  following  classes:  first,  those  which  are  found  deviation  from  one  of  the  "tones"  into  another  may 

in  the  section  of  the  Roman  Missal  under  the  heading  easily  lead  the  priest  astray  and  produce  a  lamentable 

"Ordinarium  Missa  "  (namely,  the  Kyrie,  Gloria,  Credo,  confusion  of  forms  which  ought  to  be  kept  distinct. 

Sanctus,  Benedictus,  A^nus  Dei)  and  which  will  be  At  the  end  of  the  priest's  chant  of  the  Pater  noster 

briefly  referred  to  as  the  Ordinary:   second,  those  the  choir  responds  with  Sed  libera  nos  a  malo.    Tlie 

texts  which  are  found  under  the  headings  "  Proprium  sub-deacon  cnants  the  Epistle,  the  deacon  the  Ck)spel. 

de  Tempore",  "Proprium  Sanctorum  ,  "Commime  The  respective  responses  (Deo  Gratias  and  Laus  tibi 

Sanctorum"    (nameiy,    Introit,    Gradual,    Alleluia-  Christe)  are  merely  to  be  said  by  the  ministers  of  the 

Verse,  Sequence,  Tract,  Offertory,  Communion)  and  Mass,  and  are  not  to  be  simg  or  recited  by  the  choir, 

which  will  be  referred  to  briefly  as  the  Proper,  a  ser-  This  is  clear  from  the  fact  that  the  '*  Roman  Gradual " 

viceable  but  ambiguous  term  frequently  iised  to  does  not  assign  any  notation  to  these  responses  (see 

describe  these  texts.  " Ecclesiastical  Review",  Nov.,  1903,  p.  539).    To  the 

Hie  "Graduale  Romanum"   (together  with  the  deacon's  chant  of  the  Ite  missa  est  (or  Benedicamus 

Missal)  provides  plain-song  melodies  for  all  the  texts  Domino)  the  choir  responds  with  Deo  gratias.     A 

styled  Accentus  or  Concentus.    The  Accentus  must  Decree  of  the  Sacred  Conppregation  of  Rites  permits 

be  plain-song,  and  must  be  that  plain-song  which  is  the  organ  to  supplv  for  this  response  wherever  this  it 

found  in  the  present  typical  edition,  styled  the  Vati-  customary  (see  "Church  Music",  May,  1909,  175-6), 

can  Edition,  of  the  "Roman  Gradual".    The  Concen-  provided  the  response  be  "recited"  m  a  clear  voice 

tus,  if  sung  to  plain-son|;  melodies,  must  also  be  in  the  (see  "Church  Music",  May,  1907,  229).    The  chant 

approved  form  found  m  the  Vatican  Edition  of  the  melodies  for  all  these  choir-responses  are  given  in  the 

"Crradual";  but  these  texts  may  emplov  "modem"  Vatican  "Gradual"  under  the  heading  '^Toni  Com- 

(as  opposed  to  "  medieval ")  music,  provided  the  musi-  munes  Missse  ".    It  is  customary  in  many  churches  to 

cal  treatment  is  in  every  way  appropriate  as  indicated  harmonize  the  chant-responses  and  even  to  depart  in 


This  "modem"  or  "figured"  music  is  customarily  "With  the  exception  of  the  melodies^  |>roper  to  the 

styled  in  Church  decrees  simplv  mtbsica,  and  the  plain  celebrant  at  the  altar  and  to  the  ministers,  which 

chant  or  plain-son^  is  styled,  eantiu  (chant).    The  must  be  always  sung  only  in  Gregorian  chant,  and 

serviceable  distinction  wm  be  employed  throughout  without  the  accompaniment  of  the  organ,  all  the  rest 

this  article:  chart,  chanting,  chanted,  will  Teter  to  of  the  liturgical  chant  belongs  to  the  choir  of  Levites 

plain-song  melodies;  music,  musical,  to  figured  music,  and,  therefore,  singers  in  church,  even  when  they  are 

I.  AocBNTUB. — llieee  chants  shoidd  never  be  ao-  laymen,  are  really  takinj;  the  place  of  the  ecclesiastiGal 

oompanied  by  the  organ  or  any  other  instrument.  The  choir.    Hence  the  music  rendered  by  them  must,  at 

priest  intones  the  Gloria  (Gloria  in  excelsis  Deo)  and  least  for  the  greater  part,  retain  the  character  of 

the  Oedo  (Credo  in  unum  Deum).    The  choir  must  choral  music. "     But  wnile  the  choir  is  thus  permitted 

not  repeat  these  words  of  the  intonation,  but  must  be-  to  respond  in  music  or  in  harmonized  chant,  good 

gin  with  Et  in  terra  pax,  etc.,  and  Patrem  omnipo-  taste  might  suggest  the  desirability  of  responding  in 

tentem,  etc.,  respectively.    The  priest  also  sings  the  unharmonized  chant  according  to  the  exact  melodies 

Collects  and   postrCommunions  and   the   Dominus  provided  in  the  "Toni  Communes  Miss»". 

vobiscum  and  Oremus   preceding  them.    Amen  is  InasmuchastheVatican  "Gradual"  is  meant  merely 

sung  bv  the  choir  at  the  end  of  these  prayers,  as  also  for  the  use  of  the  choir,  the  complete  Accentus  of  the 

after  the  Per  omnia  ssecula  ssBculorum  preceding  the  celebrant  and  ministers  will  not  be  foimd  there.    The 

IH^face,  the  Pater  noster  and  the  Pax  Domini  .  .  .  Missal  contains  these  chants  in  full  (except,  of  course, 

vobiscum.    The  choir  responds  with  Et  cum  spiritu  the  chants  for  the  prayers,  prophecies,  etc.,  which  are 

X.— X  1 


1CA8S 


1CA8S 


to  be  recited  or  suiig  according  to  certain  general 
forms  which  are  indicated  in  the  "Toni  ConL  ma,**). 
However,  a  number  of  changes  made  in  the  Miasal 
melodies  by  order  of  the  Vatican  Commission  on  Chant 
have  been  comprised  in  a  separate  publication  entitled 
"Cantus  Missalis  Romani^'  (Rome,  Vatican  Press, 
1907),  which  has  been  edited  in  various  styles  by  com- 
petent publishers  of  liturgical  books.  Henceforth  no 
publi^er  is  permitted  to  print  or  publish  an  edition  of 
the  Missal  containing  the  melodies  in  use  heretofore, 
but  must  insert  the  new  melodies  according  to  the 
scheme  found  in  the  "Cantus  Missalis  Romani". 
Some  of  the  new  melodic  forms  are  to  appear  in  the 
places  occupied,  in  the  typical  edition  of  the  Missal 
(1900),  by  tne  forms  hitherto  in  use,  while  some  are  to 
be  placed  in  an  Appendix. 

The  Decree  of  8  June,  1907,  contains  the  following 
clauses:  (1)  Dating  from  this  day,  the  proofs  contain- 
ing the  new  typical  chant  of  the  Missal  are  placed  by 
the  Holv  See  without  special  conditions,  at  the  dis- 
posal of  tibe  publishers,  who  can  no  longer  print  or 
publish  the  chant  of  the  Missals  in  use  at  present.  (2) 
The  new  typical  chant  must  be  inserted  in  the  new 
editions  exactly  in  the  same  place  as  the  old.  (3)  It 
may,  however,  be  published  separately  or  it  may  be 
placed  at  the  end  ot  the  older  Missals  now  in  print,  and 
m  both  of  these  cases  may  bear  the  general  title,  *'  Can- 
tus  miflsalis  Romani  iuxta  editionem  Vaticanam". 
(4)  The  Tract  Sicut  cervus  of  Holy  Saturday  must  here- 
after be  printed  with  the  words  only,  without  chant 
notation.  (5)  The  intonations  or  chants  ad  libitumf 
Asperges  me^loria  in  excelsis,  and  the  more  solemn 
tones  of  the  Prefaces  must  not  be  placed  in  the  body 
of  tiie  Missal,  but  only  at  the  end,  in  the  form  of  a 
supplement  or  appendix;  to  them  (the  ad  libitum  in- 
tonations or  chants)  ma^  be  added,  either  in  the  Mis- 
sals or  in  separatepublications  of  the  chanted  parts, 
the  chants  ox  the ' '  Toni  communes  ",  already  publishea 
in  the  "  Gradual  '\  which  have  reference  to  tne  sacred 
ministers.  (6)  No  change  is  made  in  the  words  of  the 
text  or  in  the  rubrics,  which,  therefore,  must  be  re- 
produced without  modification,  as  in  the  last  typical 
edition  (1900). 

In  the  midst  of  the  perplexities  inevitably  asso- 
ciated with  such  modifications  of  or  additions  to  the 
former  methods  of  rendering  the  Accentus,  Dom 
Johner,  O.S.B.,  of  the  Beuron  Congregation,  has  come 
to  the  assistance  of  clerics,  by  collecting  into  one  con- 
veniently arranged  manual  ("Cantus  Ecclesiastici 
iuxta  editionem  Vaticanam",  Ratisbon,  1909:  146 
piiges,  12  mo.)  all  of  the  Accentus  (including  the  re- 
sponses) found  in  the  "Toni  Conmiunes  Missss"  of  the 
'^Graduale  Romanum"  (1908)  and  in  the  "Cantus 
Missalis  Romani''  (1908).  These  he  has  illustrated 
with  appropriate  extracts  from  the  "Rubrics  Missalis 
Romam",  and  has  added  conmients  and  explanations 
of  his  own  in  brackets  in  order  to  distinguish  them 
from  official  matter  (e.  g.  pp.  14,  15,  when  discussing 
tiie  festal  tone  of  the  Oratio).  While  such  a  volume 
is  appropriate  for  the  study  or  the  class-room,  the  in- 
tonations of  the  priest  and  deacon  have  been  issued 
for  use  in  the  sanctuary,  in  various  forms.  At 
Toumai,  Senium,  is  published  "  Intonationes  cele- 
brantis  in  Missa  ad  exemplar  editionis  Vatican®" 
(containing  the  Asperges,  Vidi  aquam,  Gloria,  Credo, 
Ite  Missa  est,  Benedicamus  Domino,  for  all  the  masses 
contained  in  the  "  Kyriale  ")  on  seven  cards  of  Bristol- 
board  which  are  enclosed  in  a  case  and  also  in  form  of 
a  pamphlet  bound  in  cloth.  At  DQsseldorf  is  is- 
sued a  collection  of  the  intonations  (under  the  title  of 
"Tabula  Intonationum")  of  the  Gloria  (15),  Credo 
(4),  Ite  Missa  est  and  Benedicamus  (17),  and  Requies- 
cant  in  pace,  pasted  on  thin  but  strong  cardboard 
(cloth-covered)  of  four  pages.  These  are  given  here 
merely  as  illustrations  of  the  practical  means  at  hand 
for  actually  inaugiuating  the  reform  of  the  Accentus; 
ol^er  publishers  of  the  official  editions  of  the  chant 


books  may  be  consulted  for  other  forms  for  use  in  the 
sanctuary. 

Some  of  these  forms  of  chant-intonations  are  for  use 
ad  libitum.  The  various  intonations  of  the  Gloria  and 
Credo  bear  a  close  relation  to  the  succeeding  chant  of 
the  choitj  while  those  of  the  Ite  Missa  est  or  Benedica- 
mus are  frequently  identical  in  melody  with  the  chant 
of  the  Kyrie  eleison.  Nominally,  these  chants  and  in- 
tonations are  assigned  to  demiite  seasons  of  the 
Church  Year  or  to  peculiar  kinds  of  rite  (solemn, 
double,  semi-double,  terial,  etc.),  but  inasmuch  asper- 
mission  has  been  given  to  use  the  chants  of  the  "  Kyri- 
ale" indifferently  for  anv  rite  or  season,  the  only  re- 
<^uirement  to  be  met  by  the  priest  is  the  artistic  one,  of 
singing  the  intonation  of  the  Mass  which  the  choir  will 
actualry  render  in  chant.  Thus  it  will  be  seen  that  the 
many  mtonations  furnished  do  not  represent  an  ob- 
ligatory burden  but  merely  a  large  liberty  of  choice. 
The  chant  of  the  Ite  missa  est  by  the  deacon  would 
seem  similarly  to  be  a  matter  of  artistic  appropriate- 
ness rather  than  of  lituigical  law. 

II.  The  Concbntus. — ^These  texts  may  be  sung  in 
chant  or  in  music.  If  chant  be  used,  it  must  be  eiSier 
that  contained  in  the  "Vatican  Gradual,"  or  some 
other  approved  form  of  the  "traditional  melodies" 
(see  "Motu  Proprio"  of  25  April,  1904,  d:  the  De- 
cree  of  the  S.  R.  C,  11  Augxist,  1905,  VI;  tne  Decree 
prefixed  to  the  "  Kyriale '^  dated  14  August,  1905, 
closing  paragraph) ;  if  the  setting  be  musical,  it  must 
meet  all  the  requirements  sxmmiarily  indicated  in  the 
"Motu  Proprio"  of  22  November,  1903  (see  Music, 
Ecclesiastical).  Under  the  heading  of  Concentus 
must  be  considered  (a)  Uie  Ordinary,  (b)  the  Proper. 

(a)  Tfie  Ordinary, — ^The  texts  are  those  of  the  Kyrie, 
the  Gloria,  the  Credo,  the  Sanctus,  the  Benedictus, 
the  Agnus  Dei.  A  collection  of  these,  or  a  portion  of 
them,  is  styled  simply  a  "Mass".  When  several 
"  Masses  "  are  written  bv  the  same  composer,  they  are 
differentiated  numerically  (e.  g.  Mozart  s  No.  1,  No.  2, 
No.  17)  or  by  dedication  to  some  particular  feast  (e.  g. 
Gounod's  "  Messe  de  Paques"),  or  saint  (e.  g.  Gounod  s 
"St.  Cecilia"  Mass),  or  devotion  (e.  g.  Gounod's 
"  Messe  du  Sacrg  Coeur  "),  or  musical  association  (e.  g. 
Gounod's  "Messe  des  Orph^nistes",  Nos.  I,  II),  or 
musical  patron  (e.  g.  Palestrina's  "Missa  Papse  Mar- 
celli"),  or  special  occasion  (e.  g.  Cherubini's  "Third 
Mass  in  A  "entitled  the  "Coronation  Mass",  as  it  was 
composed  for  the  coronation  of  King  Charles  X).  The 
title  Missa  Brevis  is  sometimes  employed  for  a  Mass 
reouiring  only  a  moderate  time  for  its  rendition  (e.  g. 
Palestrina's  "  Missa  Brevis  "^  Andrea  Gabrieli's  print^ 
in  Vol.  I.  of  Proske's  "Musica  Divina")  although  the 
term  scarcely  applies,  save  in  another  sense^  to  J.  S. 
Bach's  "Missa  Brevis  "  (in  A)  comprising  in  its  forty- 
four  closely  printed  paees  only  the  music  of  the  Kyrie 
and  Gloria.  In  some  Masses  the  place  of  tJie  Benedic- 
tus is  taken  by  an  O  Salutaris.  A  polyphonic  Mass 
composed,  not  upon  themes  taken  from  chant  melo- 
dies (as  was  the  custom),  was  styled  "sine  nomine". 
Those  founded  upon  chant  subjects  were  thus  styled 
(e.  g.  Palestrina's  "Ecce  Sacerdos  Magnus",  "  Virtute 
Magna  ",  etc.)  or  when  founded  on  secular  song  themes 
unblushingly  bore  the  appropriate  title  (e.  g.  Pales- 
trina's "lyhomme  arm^  ).  Masses  were  sometimes 
styled  by  the  name  of  the  chant-mode  in  which  they 
were  composed  (e.  g.  "Primi  Toni")  or.  founded  on 
the  hexachordal  i^stem,  were  styled  ''Missa  super 
voces  musicales"  (Missa  Ut,  Re,  Mi,  Fa,  Sol,  La);  or 
bore  as  title  the  number  of  voices  employed  (e.  g. 
"Missa  Quatuor  Vocum"). 

This  is  not  the  place  to  rehearse  the  story  of  the 
gradual  development  and  corruption  of  ecclesiastical 
music,  of  the  many  attempts  at  reform,  and  of  the 
latest  pronouncements  of  tne  Holy  See  which  oblige 
consciences  with  all  the  force  of  utiirgical  law.  An 
excellent  summary  of  this  histoiy  is  given  by  Dr. 
Rockstro  in  Grove's  "Dictionaiy  of  Music  and  Musi- 


BIAS8 


BIAS8 


dans"  (s.  ▼.  Mass),  which  may  be  supplemented  by 
the  recent  abundant  literature  o(  the  reform-move- 
ment in  Church  Music.  It  is  of  more  immediate  and 
practical  importance  to  indicate  the  various  cata- 
logueB  or  lists  of  music  compiled  bv  thoee  who  are 
seeking  to  reform  the  music  of  the  liass.  It  is  inter- 
esting to  reflect  that  in  his  earlier  le|;islation  on  this 
subject,  Leo  XIII  recommended  a  diocesan  commis- 
sion to  draw  up  a  diocesan  Index  of  Repertoires,  or  at 
least  to  sanction  the  performance  of  nieces  therein  in- 
dicated, whether  published  or  unpuolished.  In  the 
later  Regolamento  of  6  July,  1894,  the  S.  C.  of  Rites 
does  not  refer  to  any  such  index  but  merely  requires 
biahope  to  exercise  appropriate  supervision  over  the 
pastors  so  that  inappropriate  music  may  not  be  heard 
m  their  churches.  The  present  pone  has  nowhere  in- 
dicated the  necessity,  or  even  the  aavisability,  of  com- 
piling such  an  index  or  catalogue,  but  has  required  the 
appomtment,  in  every  diocese,  of  a  competent  com- 
mission which  shall  supervise  musical  matters  and  see 
that  tiie  legislation  of  tne  *'  Motu  Proprio "  be  properly 
carried  out. 

Nevertheless,  it  was  the  stimulus  of  the  Regolamento 
of  1894  which  led  to  the  compilation,  in  the  Diocese  of 
Cincinnati,  of  a  h^hly  informing  "  First  Official  Cata- 
logue" of  that  diocesan  commission,  which  was  made 
OMigatoiy  by  Archbishop  Elder  in  a  letter  dated  26 
July,  1899,  and  which  was  to  go  into  operation  on  the 
First  Sunday  of  Advent  (3  I^.)  of  that  year.  The 
commission  requested  paistors  to  submit  the  music 
used,  for  inspection  b^  the  commission.  The  cata- 
logue does  not  content  itself  with  approving  certain  of 
ttese  compositions,  but  takes  the  trouble  both  to  mark 
"  rejected  after  the  various  titles  and  to  give,  usuaUy, 
the  reason  for  the  rejection.  In  the  following  year  it 
issued  its  ''Second  Official  Catalogue".  Both  cata- 
logues are  important  as  illustrating  the  exact  musical 
conditions  of  one  great  diocese,  and  show  forth  more 
searchingly  than  many  arguments  the  need  of  reform. 
These  catalogues  have  been  rendered  obsolete  by  the 
more  stringent  recent  legislation. 

But,  although  that  legislation  has  not  prescribed  the 
compilation  m  lists  of  approved  music,  many  such 
catalogues  or  lists  have  been  compiled.  They  all  pay 
great  attention  to  the  music  of  tne  Mass,  and  should 
prove  of  the  greatest  assistance  to  choir-masters  [see 
"Church  Music",  Dec.,  1905,  80-92;  March,  1906, 
157-168;  Sept.,  1906,  541-545,  for  an  accoimt  of  the 
two  Cincinnati  catalogues,  and  for  thoee  of  Salford, 
Eng.,  Grand  Rapids,  Mich.,  PittsbuiKt  Pa.,  Water- 
ford  and  Lismore,  Ireland,  Covington,  Ky.,  Liverpool, 
Eng.,  and  Mets.  These  should  oe  supplemented  by 
Singenbener,  **  Guide  to  Catholic  Church  Music  "  (St. 
Francis,  Wisconsin,  1905);  Terry.  "Catholic  Church 
Music  "  (London,  1907),  201-213 ;  the  lists  of  publishers 
who  imderstand  and  respect  the  provisions  of  the 
"Motu  Proi)rio",  and  the  review-pages  of  the  many 
magasines,  in  various  lands,  devoted  to  the  reform 
movement  in  sacred  music].  Correct  and  appropriate 
music  for  Mass,  for  all  degrees  of  musical  ability  or 
choral  attainment  and  of  the  greatest  abimdance  and 
freshness  and  individuality  of  style,  can  now  be  easily 
obtained. 

In  selecting  a  Mass  it  is  always  advisable  to  read  the 
text  in  order  to  see  that  it  is  bow  complete  and  liturgi- 
cally  correct;  that  there  should  be  no  alteration  or  in- 
version of  the  words,  no  undue  repetition,  no  breakinjg 
of  syllables.  In  adoition,  the  "  Motu  Proprio  "  speci- 
fies TNo.  11  (a)]:  "The  Kyrie,  Gloria,  Credo,  etc.,  of 
the  Mass  must  preserve  the  unity  of  composition 
proper  to  their  text.  It  is  not  lawful,  therefore,  to 
compose  them  in  separate  pieces,  in  such  a  way  tliat 
each  of  those  pieces  may  form  a  complete  composition 
in  itself,  and  be  capable  of  being  detached  from  the 
rest,  and  substituted  by  another".  It  further  re- 
marks  (No.  22) : "  It  is  not  lawful  to  keep  the  priest  at 
Ibe  altar  waiting  on  account  of  the  chant  or  the  music 


for  a  length  of  time  not  allowed  by  the  liturgr?'.  Ao» 
cording  to  the  ecclesiastical  prescnptions  theSanctus 
of  the  Mass  should  be  over  before  me  Elevation  and 
therefore  the  priest  must  have  regard  to  the  singers. 
The  Gloria  and  Credo  ouj^ht,  according  to  the  Grego- 
rian tradition,  to  be  relatively  short." 

Something  remains  to  be  said  of  the  chant  of  the 
Ordinary  which  is  found  in  the  separate  small  volume 
entitled  ''  Kyriale".  It  is  issued  by  the  various  com- 
petent publishers  in  all  styles  of  printmg,  paper,  binding; 
m  large  and  small  forms;  in  medieval  and  in  modem 
notation;  with  and  without  certain  ''rfaythmioai 
signs".  (See  "Cliimsh  Music",  passim,  for  review- 
notices  of  the  various  issues;  and  particularly  March, 
1906,  pp.  235-249,  for  an  elaborate  article  on  the 
earlier  issues.)  The  ei^teen  "Masses"  it  contains 
are  nominally  assigned  to  various  (^^ualities  of  rite; 
but,  in  accordance  with  ancient  tradition  and  with  the 
unanimous  agreement  of  the  pontifical  Commission  on 
the  Chant,  hberty  has  been  granted  to  select  any 
"Mass"  for  any  quality  of  rite  (see  Uie  note  "Quos- 
libet  cantus"  etc.,  p.  64  of  the  Vatican  Edition  of  the 
"Kyriale":  "Any  chant  assigned  in  this  Ordinarium 
to  one  Mass  may  be  used  in  any  other;  in  the  same 
way,  according  to  the  quality  of  the  Mass  or  the  de- 
cree of  solemmty,  any  one  of  those  which  follow  [that 
IS,  in  the  section  styled  "Cantus  ad  libitum"!  may  be 
taken").  The  decrees  relating  to  the  publishing  of 
editions  based  on  this  typical  eoition,  and  to  its  pro- 
mulgation, are  given  in  Latin  and  English  translation 
in  "Church  Music",  March,  1906,  pp.  250-256. 

It  is  noteworthy  that  this  t^ical  edition  gives  no 
direction  about  singing  the  Benedictus  after  the 
Elevation,  but  prints  both  chants  in  such  juxtaposi- 
tion as  to  suffiest  that  the  Benedictus  might  be  sung 
before  the  faevation.  In  the  "Revue  du  Chant 
Gr^gorien"  (Aug.-Oct.,  1905),  its  editor.  Canon  Gros- 
pellier,  who  was  one  of  the  Consultors  of  the  Gregorian 
Commission,  said  that  he  was  inclined  to  think  that, 
where  time  allows,  the  Benedictus  might  be  sung  im- 
mediately after  the  Sanctus.  The  Pontifical  Com- 
nussion  at  its  meeting  at  Appuldurcombe^  in  1904, 
unanimously  accepted  a  resolution  to  this  effect.  The 
preface  to  the  Vatican  "Gradual",  while  giving 
minute  directions  for  the  ceremonial  rendering  of  tlie 
chants  merely  says:  "When  the  Preface  is  mii^ed, 
the  choir  goes  on  with  the  Sanctus,  etc."  At  the 
elevation  oi  the  Blessed  Sacrament,  the  choir  is  silent 
like  every  one  else.  Nevertheless,  inasmuch  as  the 
"Gradual"  does  not  declare  that  the  Benedictus  is  to 
be  chanted  after  the  Elevation,  the  "etc."  is  under- 
stood to  imply  that  it  should  be  sung  immediatdy 
after  the  Sanctus.  The  "  Cseremoniale  Episooporum  ", 
however,  directs  that  it  be  sung  "after  the  elevation  of 
the  chalice".  The  apparent  conflict  of  authorities 
may  be  harmonized  by  supposing  that  the  "Csere- 
moniale"  legislated  for  the  case  of  musically  developed 
(e.  g.  polyphonic)  settings  of  the  Sanctus  and  the 
Benedictus,  whose  length  would  necessitate  their 
separation  from  each  other;  while  the  "Gradual" 
contemplates,  of  course,  the  much  briefer  settings  of 
the  plain-song  (see  "  Church  Music  ",  Jan.,  1909,  p.  87). 

(b)  The  /Vopcr.— While  the  texts  of  the  Oidinaiy 
do  not  (with  the  exception  of  the  Agnus  Dei,  which  is 
altered  in  Requiem  Mass)  change,  those  wnich  com- 
monly, but  somewhat  ambiguously,  are  called  the 
"  Proper",  change  in  accordance  wi£h  the  character  of 
the  feast  or  Sunday  or  ferial  day.  These  texts  are  the 
Introit,  Gradual,  Alleluia- Verse,  Sequence.  Tract. 
Offertory,  Communion.  Not  all  of  these  will  oe  found 
in  any  one  Mass.  Thus,  e.  g.  Holy  Saturday  has  no  In- 
troit. Gradual,  Offertory,  Communion;  from  Low 
Sunoay  to  Trinity  Sunday,  the  Gradual  is  replaced  by 
an  Alleluia- Verse;  from  Septuagesima  to  Easter,  as 
well  as  on  certain  penitential  days,  the  Alleluia- Verse, 
which  ordinarily  follows  the  Gradual,  is  replaced  by  a 
Tract;  in  only  a  few  Masses  is  a  Sequence  used;  there 


undertaken  b^  Maroello  Capra.  of  Turin,  Italy,  which 
provides  mumcal  settingi  for  tne  Proper  of  the  princi- 


1CA8S                                     4  1CA8S 

is  no  Introit  on  Whitsun  Eve,  while  the  customaiy  in  ^'Church  Music''  Jan.,  1007.  127-128; Mar.,  1908, 

Gloria Patri  after  the Introit  is  omitted  durinj^Paasion-  171-178;  see  also  June,  1906,  ''One  Outcome  of  the 

tide.    In  Requiem  Masses  the  Gloria  Patri  is  omitted  Discussion".  40^-415,  including  a  specimen-four-page 

after  the  Introit,  a  Tract  and  a  Sequence  follow  the  of  Dr.  Tozer's  method  of  treatment  of  the  Proper  text. 

Gradual.    Nor  do  the  texts  differ  for  every  feast,  as  is  A  third  volume  which  will  comprise  various  local  texts 

illustrated  by  the  division  of  the  Sanctorale  into  the  is  in  course  of  preparation.    Anotiier  method  is  that 
"Proprium  de  Sanctis"  and  the  "Commime  Sanc- 
torum", this  latter  division  grouping  the  feasts  into 

classes,  such  as  the  feasts  of  confessors-bishops,  con-  pal  feasts,  for  one  or  two  voices,  and' with  eaqr'organ 

feseor»-not-bishop6,  martyrs,  virgins,  eto.,  in  which  accompaniment.    Still  another  method  is  that  of 

the  texts  of  the  "Proper^'  serve  for  many  feasts  of  Giulio  Bas,  who  has  compiled  a  volume,  "Gradualis. 

the  "Propers"  in  many  churches.    They  are,  how-  Versus  Alleluia ticietTractus"  (DOsseldoif,  1910),  oi 

ever,  an  mtegral  part  of  the  duly  of  the  choir,  and  plain -song  settings  from  the  Ainbrosian,  Aquileian, 

must  be  simg,  or  at  least  "recited",  in  a  clear  and  Greek,  Mosarabio  chant,  for  Sundays  and  Double 

intelligible  voice,  the  organ  meanwhile  sustaining  Feasts,  in  order  to  facilitate  the  rendering  of  the 

appropriate  chords.  more  difficult  portions  of  the  Proper. 

In  a  Rescript  dated  8  August,  1906,  the  S.  R.  C,  However  rendered,  these  chants  of  the  Proper  must 
answering  questions  proposeof  by  the  Abbot  of  Santa  not  be  omitted  or  curtailed.  But  apart  from  this 
Maria  Maggiore  in  Naples,  declares  that  in  solemn  liturgical  necessity,  they  challenge  admiration  because 
Mass,  when  the  organ  is  used,  the  Gradual,  Offertory,  of  their  devotional,  poetic,  ssthetic  perfection:  "If 
Communion,  when  not  sung,  must  be  recited  in  a  hi^  we  pass  in  review  before  our  musical  eye  the  wonderful 
and  intelligiDle  voice,  and  that  the  Deo  Gratias  follow-  thoughts  expressed  in  the  Introits,  Graduals,  Alleluia 
ing  the  Ite  missa  est  should  receive  the  same  treat-  Verses,  Tracts,  Offertories,  and  Communions  of  the 
ment  (see  "Church  Music",  May,  1907,  229-235).  whole  ecclesiastical  year,  from  the  first  Sunday  in  Ad- 
Previous  answers  of  the  S.  R.  C.  were  of  similar  tenor,  vent  to  the  last  Sunday  after  Pentecost,  as  weU  as  those 
Thus  (Coimbra,  14  April,  1753):  in  a  "Community  of  the  numerous  Masses  of  the  sainte.apoNBtles,  martyrs, 
Mass"  it  is  always  necessary  to  sing  the  Gloria,  Credo,  confessors,  virgins,  we  must  feel  tnat  in  the  Roman 
all  of  the  Gradual^  the  Preface,  Pater  noster;  so,  too,  a  Church  we  have  an  anthology  worthy  of  our  hifihest 
question  from  Chiogeia  in  1875,  as  to  whether  the  cus-  admiration"  (Rev.  H.  Bewerunge,  "Address  at  Xoih 
tom  introduced  into  that  diocese  of  omitting  the  chant  don  Eucharistio  Congress  ")•  It  should  be  a  part  of  a 
of  the  Gradual,  the  Tract,  the  Sequence,  the  Offertory,  choirmaster's  business  to  translate  and  explain  these 
the  Benedictus,  the  Commimion  was  contrary  to  the  texts  to  his  choir,  that  they  may  be  recited  or  sung 
rubrics  and  decisions  of  the  S.  R.  C,  was  answered  affir-  with  the  understanding  as  well  as  with  the  voice.  To 
matively,  and  the  questioner  was  remitted  to  the  Coim-  this  end  the  "  Miasal  for  the  Laity ' ',  with  its  Latin  and 
bra  decision.  A  specific  difficulty  was  offered  for  parallel  English  version,  mi^t  be  used.  Tlie  spirit  of 
solution  by  a  bishop  who  declared  that  in  his  diocese  the  liturgy  might  also  be  largely  acquired  from  the 
where  a  sin^^e  chanter  was  used,  and  where  the  people  volumes  of  Dom  Gu^ranger's  "Liturgical  Year".  As 
had  to  hurry  to  their  daily  work,  the  custom  had  ob-  this  is,  however,  such  an  extensive  work,  the  much 
tained  (throughout  almost  the  wnole  diocese)  of  omit-  briefer  and  more  direct  treatments  of  the  texts  of  the 
ting,  in  stipendiary  Masses,  the  Gloria,  Gradiial,  Tract,  Proper  with  comment  on  the  spirit,  which  ran  serially 
Sequence,  C!redo.  He  was  answered  (29  Dec.,  1884)  through  the  issues  of  "Church  Music",  would  prove 
that  the  custom  was  an  abuse  that  must  be  absolutely  hisUy  serviceable. 

eliminated.    The  spirit  of  the  Church  legislation  is  With  respect  to  the  plain-sonff  setting,  two  typical 

summed  up  in  the  "Motu  Proprio"  (22  Nov.,  1903,  chante  should  be  studied  carefuUy  (see  Dom  Eudine's 

No.  8):  "As  the  texts  that  may  be  rendered  in  music,  articles  in  "Chureh  Music",  March,  1906,  222-235,  on 

and  the  order  in  which  they  are  to  be  rendered,  are  "the  Gradual  for  Easter",  "the  Haoc  dies",  and  Jime, 

determined  for  every  function,  it  is  not  lawful  to  con-  1900,  360-373,  on  "the  Introit  Gaudeamus",  which 

fuse  this  order  or  to  change  the  prescribed  texts  for  give  the  plain-song  notation  with  transcription  into 

others  collected  at  wfll,  or  to  omit  them  entirely  or  modem  notetion,  rhythniical  and  dynamical  analyses, 

even  in  part,  except  when  the  rubrics  allow  that  some  ete.).    Such  a  study  will  encourage  the  present  day 

versicles  of  the  text  be  supplied  with  the  organ  while  musician  to  acquire  a  greater  familiarity  with  the 

these  versicles  are  simply  recited  in  choir.    It  is  per-  plain-song  of  the  Proper  which  present-day  choirs 

missible,  however,  according  to  the  custom  of  the  should  have:   "First,  there  is  the  Gregorian  Chant. 

Roman  Church,  to  sing  a  motet  to  the  Blessed  Sacra-  The  more  one  studies  these  ancient  melodies  the  more 

ment  after  the  Benedictus  in  a  solemn  Mass.    It  is  also  one  is  impressed  by  their  variety  and  rare  beauty, 

permitted  after  the  Offertory  prescribed  for  the  Mass  Take  the  distinctiveness  of  their  forms,  the  character- 

nas  been  simg,   to  execute  during  the  time  that  istic  style  which  distinguishes  an  Introit  from  a  Grad- 

remains  a  brief  motet  to  words  approved  by  the  ual.  an  Offertory  from  a  Communion.    Then  within 

Church."  eacn  class  what  variety  of  expression,  what  amasing 

A  practical  difficulty  is  encountered  in  the  fact  that  interpretation  of  the  words,  and  above  all  what  sub- 
many  choirs  have  met  the  limit  of  their  capacity  in  lime  beauty  and  mystical  spirit  of  prayer!  Certainly, 
preparing  the  chant  or  music  of  the  Ordina^,  whose  anyone  who  has  tasted  the  sweetness  of  these  chants 
texts  are  fixed  and  repeated  freauently.  How  shall  must  envy  the  few  privileged  places  where  there  is 
such  d^oirs  prepare  for  a  constantly  changing  series  of  high  Mass  every  day  and  thus  a  chance  is  given  of 
Proper  texts,  whe^er  in  chant  or  in  music?  Several  hearing  all  of  these  divine  strains  at  least  once  a  year " 
practical  solutions  of  the  difficulty  have  been  offered.  (Bewerunge). 

There  is,  first  of  all,  the  easy  device  of  recitation.    For  There  is  a  larse  body  of  settings  of  the  classical 

an  elaborate  discussion  of  the  times  when  it  may  be  polyphonic  schools,  and  of  modem  polyphony,  as  also 

used,  the  character  it  should  assume,  the  legal  aspects  mucn  illustration  of  modem  homophonio  music,  of  the 

and  decisions  concerning  it,  see  the  Rev.  Ludwig  Bon-  proper  texto.    Care  should  be  token  to  see  that  the 

vin's  article  in  "Church  Music, "March,  1906,  pp.  146-  texts  thus  treated  are  verbally  correct.    For  in  the 

156.    Tlien  there  is  the  solution  offered  in  the  excel-  return  to  the  traditional  melodies  of  the  chante,  the 

lent  and  laborious  work  of  Dr.  Edmund  Toser,  who  commission  found  it  necessary  to  restore,  in  very 

prepared  simple  psalm-like  settings  which  coiud  be  many  instances,  omitted  poruons  of  text,  and  in 

easuy  mastered  by  a  fairiy  equippedchoir.    The  work  various  wa3rs  to  restore  to  use  the  more  ancient 

"TheProperof  the  Mass  for  Simdays  and  Holidays"  forms  of  the  texto.    In  the  "Proprium  de  Tem- 

(New  York,  1907-1908,  Vol.  II,  No.  2926)  is  reviewed  pore",  for  mstance,  there  are  about  200  textual 


1CAS8                                   5  1CAS8 

chapges.  A  summaiv  view  of  their  general  character  Mms,  Nuptial,  ' '  Missa  pro  s^nao  et  bponaa  ",  the 
is  given  in  "Church  Music''  (July,  1908),  pp.  232-235.  last  among  the  votive  Masses  in  the  Missal.  It  is 
Since  these  altered  texts  differ  from  those  still  retained  composed  of  lessons  and  chants  suitable  to  the  Sacra- 
in  the  Missal,  choirs  which  **  recite''  the  texts  will  do  ment  of  Matrimony,  contains  prayers  for  persons  just 
80  from  the  Vatican  ''Gradual",  and  not  from  the  married  and  is  interwoven  with  part  of  the  marriage 
Missal.  When  the  "Gradual"  was  first  issued,  it  was  rite,  of  which  in  the  complete  form  it  is  an  element. 
noticed  that  the  Propers  of  some  American  feasts  (as  As  the  Mass  was  looked  upon  as  the  natural  accompa>ni- 
also,  of  course,  the  Propers  of  manv  foreign  dioceses  ment  of  any  solemn  function  (ordination,  consecration 
as  well)  were  omitted  (see  "Church  Music,"  March,  of  chiu*ches,  etc.),  it  was  naturally  celebrated  as  part 
1908,  132-134).  Some  publishers  have  added  these  of  the  marriage  service.  Tertullian  (d.  about  220;  ad 
Propers  for  America,  in  an  appendix  bound  in  with  the  Uxor.,  II,  9)  mentions  the  oblation  that  confirms 
volume.  Doubtless  a  similar  process  will  be  adopted  marriage  (matrimonium  ouod  ecclesia  conciliat  et  con- 
in  the  case  of  many  foreign  dioceses.  finnat  oblatio).  All  the  Koman  Sacramentaries  con- 
Many  questions  which  touch  the  musical  part  of  the  tain  the  nuptial  Mass  (The  Leonine,  ed.  Feltoe, 
services  at  Mass  belong  to  the  general  subject  of  the  140-142;  The  Gelasian.  ed.  Wilson,  265-267;  The 
reform  movement  in  Church  Music,  and  will  be  more  Gregorian,  P.  L.,  LXXVIII,  261-264),  with  our 
appropriately  treated  under  the  heading  Music,  present  prayers  and  others  (a  special  Hanc  Igiiur  and 
£x:cLE8iAflTiCAii.  Such  are,  e.  g.  the  long  debated  Preface).  The  Gelasian  Sacramentar]^  (loc.  cit.)  con- 
matter  of  the  use  of  women's  voices  in  our  gallery-  tains,  moreover,  the  blessing  now  said  after  the  Its 
choirs;  the  capabilities  of  chorister  boys  for  the  proper  miaaa  est,  then  said  after  the  Communion,  a  Gallican 
rendition  of  the  Ordinary  and  the  Proper;  the  use  of  addition  (Duchesne,  "Orieines  du  Culte' ,  Paris,  ed. 
chants  with  rhvthmical  signs  added;  the  character  of  2,  1898,  p.  417).  Pope  Nicholas  I  (858-^7)  in  his 
the  rhythm  to  be  used  ("oratorical "  or  " measured ") ;  instruction  for  the  Bulgars,  in  866,  describes  the  whole 
the  character  of  accompaniment  best  suited  to  the  rite  of  marriajj^,  including  the  crowning  of  the  man 
chant;  the  use  of  musical  instruments  in  chanted  or  and  wife  that  is  still  the  prominent  feature  of  the  rite 
musical  Masses;  the  status  of  women  as  organists;  the  in  the  Bysantine  Church;  this  rite  contains  a  Mass  at 
adoption  of  a  sanctuarv  choir,  whether  in  place  of,  or  which  the  married  persons  make  the  offertoiy  and  re- 
in conjunction  with,  the  gallery  choir.  Historically  ceive  communion  (Resp.  ad  cons.  Bulgarorum,  iii, 
the  reform  movement  in  the  chant  was  signalized  by  quoted  by  Duchesne,  op.  cit.,  413-414). 
the  issuance,  first  of  all,  of  the  *'  Kyriale  ",  which  con-  The  present  rules  for  a  nuptial  Mass  are:  first,  that 
tains  the  Ordinary  chants,  and  then  of  the '  *  Graduale  ",  it  may  not  be  celebrated  in  the  closed  time  for  marri- 
which  comprises  all  the  chants  for  Mass;  but  this  ages,  that  is  from  Advent  SundaytiU  after  the  octave 
matter  also  belongs  to  a  more  general  treatment.  of  the  Epiphany  and  from  Ash  Wednesday  till  after 
DnciiOA.  Sa  Sainuu  Pit  X  €t  la  muntut  Rdwietue  (Rome.  Low  Sunday.  During  these  times  no  reference  to  a 
1905),  95-105;  FiifN-WBi.ia-0'BMBN.  Manual  of  Church  Mtuic  marriage  may  be  made  in  Mass;  if  people  wish  to  be 

^i5itfSk^uirioS^W2;^S^ofSS^C%5  inarrfeS.  then  they  must  be  intent  with  the  UtUe 


BeeUnattieal  PrecepU  tn  Reference  to  Church  Mune  (London,  closed  season.     Durug  the  rest  of  the  vear  the  nuptial 

1901)-,  Waowbr  (BouE  tr.).  OriffifM  <€ DjtvelopenuuU  duChani  Mass  may  be  said  at  a  wedding  any  day  except  Sun- 

kr3XS:Mu^^^^'^l^T^'1^'iJy^^  «l»yB  «n<f  feasts  of  obligatiJoubles  of  tiie  &t  and 

1910:  Wbikmann,  Karl  Proeke,  der  Retiauraior  der  IdoMnachtn  second  class  and  such  privileged  fenas  and  octaves  as 

KirekemuHk  (Rjitisbon,  1909).  The  following  in  ChurdkMutie:  exclude  a  double.    It  may  not  displace  the  Rogation 

?8':?d^2^^%cS?  ^^Y^.^t^^^nrcl^'  iSS  Mass  at  which  the  procession  is  made  nor^maylt  dja- 

Modem  Polyphony  in  Europe  (Much,  1908).  147-151;   Idem,  place  at  least  One  Reqmem  on  All  Souls'  day.      On 

The  Ptemni  Suuua  ofPiaii^»no  inEwropefThMry  andPrwiice  these  occasions  its  place  is  taken  by  the  Mass  of  the 

'eL^mlSSSSS:^^  ^X  *?  .^^ch  commemorations  of  the  nuptial  Mass  are 

(Mareh.  1908).  161;  New  Ceremonial  PoinU  for  the  Choir  (Sept..  added  m  the  last  place  and  at  which  the  blessings  are 

1908),  275;  Dotes  of  the  Kyriaie  Chanu  (&>pt.,  1908).  281;  inserted  ui  their  place.    The  nuptial  blessing  is  con- 

JJSSlI^«S^tSL^n^<^i^lS'/»  sideiedaspartofthenup^Mass     It  may  never  be 

OrodMai(May,  1908).  199-201  (3  aitt.);  De  RUibua  Servandie  in  given  except  during  this  Mass  or  during  a  Mass  that 

Caniu  Mieam  (Mar..  190^.  IQS;  Preface  to.  Gradual  fJuly,  replaces  it  (and  commemorates  it)  when  it  cannot  be 

)S?|ir/^- 0?ir?Y9Srite6''»5l5^iS.ir^-^  «^d.  «  »bove     The  nuptial  Mass  and  blessing  m^r 

'Wakdbmbchwxlbr,  Applied  Meneuraliam  (Mav,  iflNW).  171;  be  celebrated  after  the  closed  time  for  people  married 

HuBOLB,  Pr.  Boncm'a  ^  Mum  pro  DefunaU'  (Mayjljpd),  154;  during  it.    So  nuptial  Mass  and  blessing  always  go  to- 

*'^r'ZSSi;:^'5^iKlteI.\S^^^^^  gft^er;    eith^invpWes  the  other.    6ne  .»U  and 

ietiume  to  Applied  Meneuraliem  Examined  (July,  1909),  223.  blessingmay  be  held  for  several  pairs  ofmamed  people. 

These  referaaces  to  Mensuralism  are  made  here  for  histori<»l  ^ho  must  all  be  present.     The  forms,  however,  re- 

^SS^-<A''SSrSlL^J^JxTiiSB'cTV'i^  malninthesingu&rastheyajeintheM^^    The 

Haberl,  18  Feb..  1910,  declaring  "abaolutely  false  in  itself  and  Mass  and  blessmg  may  not  be  held  if  the  woman  has 


^^r-'^^.^ih^^^^.  -  ti.ls^ii.^^^^'t^^J'^^^.^l't. 


latkm  of  Card.  Marttnelli't  letter  into  EngUsh' together  with  that  children  hadbeen  bom  before  the  marriage,  is  no 

eomment,  see  Beelenaetieal  Review  {June.  1910).  734-738.  hindrance.    Nor  may  the  nuptial  Mass  and  blessing  be 

ScHiODT-WHiTiNa.  ^egtti€mAf«a.  reviewed,  (May,  1909).  197.  l  i  j   •      coqog  ^f  mixed  mArriAirefi  (mixta,  reliai^  in 

iJlustratee  the  necBMty  of  continued  caution  in  purchasing  even  ^^^f  m  cases  oi  mixea  nuimages  ^mvaa  ^ruw^O)  m 

recently  issued  editions  of  Masses:  Much  omission  of  text.    No  spite  of  any  dispensation.     According  to  the  Con- 

Qreduale,  no  Communio,  no  Libera.    The  Introit  omits  exaudi  stitution  "  Etsi  sanctissimus  Dominus  "  of  Pius  IX  (15 

orationem  meam;   the  Kyne,  is  very  defective  m  tert,  and  is  Movpmh«T  \f<RR^  miTPd  mArriAirAfi  miiat  Vm  Rp1phrA.f/>d 

interposed  between  the  Introit  and  its  repetition.  The  Sequence  ^  T^TT ^'    1.    ^  ,inixea  marriages  musx  oe  ceieorai^ 

9miiBforty-two  lines  of  text.    The  Offertory  omits  tu  euaeipe,  outside  the  church  (in  England  and  America  this  is 

tuiBs)ic«iMinto/ic»o»and>hosfl«(mthpippMoxytone^  understood  as  meaning  outside  the  sanctuary  and 

SlSr*^?^'^.dlS?^  of  SS  ^5tL2cL2r^ta  »^  choir) ,  without  the  bl«Sn*  of  the  ringor  of  the  sppusee 

iSttciuvehMume  (passim).  without  any  ecclesiastical  rite  or  vestment,  without 

H.  T.  Hbnrt.  proclamation  of  banns. 


1CAS8                                   6  1CAS8 

The  rite  of  the  nuptial  Mass  and  blessing  is  this:  qatio),  "the  Mysteries",  and  (since  Augustine)  "the 
The  Mass  has  neither  Gloria  nor  Creed.  It  counts  as  a  oacrament  of  the  Altar".  With  the  name  "Love- 
votive  Mass  not  for  a  grave  matter;  therefore  it  has  Feast"  (irydvii)  the  idea  of  the  sacrifice  of  the  Biass 
three  collects,  its  own,  uie  commemoration  of  the  day,  was  not  necessarily  connected  (see  Agape).  Etymo- 
and  the  third  which  is  the  one  chosen  for  semi-doubles  logically,  the  word  missa  is  neither  (as  Baronius 
at  that  time  of  the  year,  unless  there  be  two  com-  states)  from  the  Hebrew  HDD  nor  from  the  Greek 
memorations.  At  the  end  Benedicamua  Domino  and  /c^ct,  but  is  simply  derived  from  missio,  just  as 
the  Gospel  of  St.  John  are  said.  The  colour  is  white,  oblata  is  derived  from  oblatiOf  coUecta  from  coUectio,  and 
The  bridegroom  and  bride  assist  near  the  altar  (just  uUa  from  uUio  (Du  Cange,  "Glossar.",  s.  v.  "Missa"). 
outside  the  sanctuary),  the  man  on  the  right.  After  The  reference  was  however  not  to  a  Divine  "mission ", 
thePoierTiosterthecelebrant  genuflects  andgoes  to  the  but  simply  to  a  "dismissal"  (dtmisno),  as  was  also 
epistle  side.  Meanwhile  the  bridegroom  and  bride  customary  in  the  Greek  rite  (cf.  "Canon.  Apost.", 
come  up  and  kneel  before  him.  Turning  to  them  he  VIII,  xv:  dvdk6w$t  iw  tlfn/jrif),  and  as  is  still  echoed 
says  the  two  prayers  Propitiare  Domine  and  Deua  owi  in  the  phrase  Ite  missa  est.  This  solemn  form  of  leave- 
poiestate  (as  m  the  Missal)  with  folded  hands.  He  taking  was  not  introduced  by  the  Church  as  something 
then  goes  back  to  the  middle  and  continues  the  Mass.  new,  but  was  adopted  from  the  ordinary  lan^^uage  m 
Thejr  go  back  to  their  places.  He  eives  them  Com-  the  day,  as  is  shown  by  Bishop  Avitus  of  Vienna  as 
munion  at  the  usual  time.  This  implies  that  thev  are  late  as  a.  d.  500  (Ep.  1  in  P.  L.,  LIX,  109):  "In 
fasting  and  explains  the  misused  name  "wedding  churches  and  in  the  emperor's  or  the  prefect's  courts, 
breakfast"  afterwards.  But  the  Communion  is  not  a  Missa  est  is  said  when  tiie  people  are  released  from 
strict  law  (S.  R.  C.,no.  5582, 21  March,  1874).  Imme-  attendance."  In  the  sense  of  "dismissal",  or  rather 
diately  after  the  BeTtetiicamitf  Domtno  and  its  answer  "close  of  prayer",  missa  is  used  in  the  celebrated 
the  celebrant  again  goes  to  the  Epistle  side  and  the  "Peregrinatio  SilvisB"  at  least  seventy  times  (Corpus 
bridegroom  and  bride  kneel  before  him  as  before,  scriptor.  eccles.  latinor.,  XXXVIII,  366  sq.),  and  the 
Hie  celebrant  turning  to  them  says  the  prayer  Deus  Rule  of  St.  Benedict  places  after  Hours,  Vespers,  and 
Abraham  (without  Oremtts),  He  is  then  told  to  Compline,  the  regular  formula:  Et  misses fiafUCpray era 
warn  them  "with  grave  words  to  be  faithful  to  one  an-  are  ended).  Popular  speech  gradually  applied  the 
other".  The  rest  of  the  ad  vice  suggested  in  the  rubric  ritual  of  dismissal,  as  it  was  expressed  in  ooth  the 
of  the  Missal  is  now  generally  left  out.  He  snrinkles  Mass  of  the  Catechumens  and  the  Mass  of  the  Faithful, 
them  with  holy  water;  they  retire,  he  j^oes  bacK  to  the  by  svnecdoche  to  the  entire  Eucharistic  Sacrifice,  the 
middle  of  the  altar,  says  Placeat  tibi,  gives  the  blessing  whole  being  named  after  the  part.  The  first  certain 
and  finishes  Mass  as  usual.  trace  of  such  an  application  is  found  in  Ambrose  (Ep. 

In  l^e  cases  in  which  the  "Missa  pro  sponso  et  xx,  4,  in  P.  L.,  XVl,  995).    We  will  use  the  word  m 

sponsa"  may  not  be  said  but  may  be  commemorated,  this  sense  in  our  consideration  of  the  Mass  in  its  (1) 

tne  special  prayers  and  blessing  are  inserted  in  the  existence,  (2)  essence,  and  (3)  causality. 

Mass  in  the  same  way.     But  the  colour  must  be  that  (1)  The  Existence  of  the  Mass. — Before  dealing 

of  the  day.     During  the  closed  time  it  is,  of  course,  with  the  proofs  of  revelation  afforded  by  the  Bible  and 

quite  possible  for  the  married  people  to  have  a  Mass  tradition,  certain  preliminary  points  must  first  be 

said  for  their  intention,  at  which  they  receive  Hol^  decided.    Of  these  the  most  important  is  that  the 

Communion.    The  nuptial  Blessing  in  this  Mass  is  Cliurch  intends  the  Mass  to  be  regarded  as  a  "true  and 

Suite  a  different  thing  from  the  actual  celebration  of  proper  sacrifice",  and  will  not  tolerate  the  idea  that 
tie  marriage,  which  must  always  precede  it.  The  the  sacrifice  is  identical  with  Holv  Communion.  That 
blessing  is  siven  to  people  already  married,  as  the  is  the  sense  of  a  clause  from  the  Council  of  Trent  (Sess. 
pravers  imply.  It  need  not  be  given  (nor  tlxe  Mass  XXII,  can.  i):  "If  any  one  saith  that  in  the  Mass  a 
said)  by  the  priest  who  assisted  at  the  marria^.  But  true  and  proper  sacrifice  is  not  offered  to  God ;  or,  that 
both  these  functions  (assistance  and  blessmg)  are  to  be  offered  is  nothing  else  but  that  Christ  isgiven  us 
rights  of  the  parish  priest,  which  no  one  else  may  to  eat;  let  him  be  anathema"  (Denzinger,  "^chir.", 
undertake  witnout  delegation  from  him.  Generally  10th  ed.,  1908,  n.  948).  When  Leo  XiII  in  the  dog- 
they  are  so  combined  that  the  marriage  takes  place  matic  Bull  "Apostolic®  Curs"  of  13  Sept.,  1896, 
immediately  before  the  Mass;  in  this  case  the  priest  based  the  invalidity  of  the  Anglican  form  of  consecra- 
may  assist  at  the  marriage  in  Mass  vestments,  but  tion  on  the  fact  among  others,  that  in  the  consecrating 
without  Uie  maniple.  In  England  and  other  countries  formula  of  Edward  VI  (that  is,  since  1549)  there  is  no- 
where a  civil  declaration  is  required  by  law,  this  is  where  an  unambiguous  declaration  regarding  the  Sac- 
usually  made  in  the  sacristy  between  the  marriage  rifice  of  the  Mass,  the  Anglican  archbishops  answered 
and  the  Mass.  Canon  Law  in  England  orders  that  with  some  irritation:  "First,  we  offer  the  Sacrifice  of 
marriages  be  made  only  in  churches  that  have  a  district  praise  and  thanksgi  vii^ ;  next,  we  plead  and  represent 
with  the  cure  of  souls  (Cone.  prov.  Westm.  I,  deer,  before  the  Father  the  SiEtcrifice  of  tne  Ooss  .  .  .  and, 
XXII,  4).  This  implies  as  a  general  rule,  but  does  not  lastly,  weoffer  the  Sacrifice  of  ourselves  to  the  Creator 
command  absolutely,  that  the  nuptial  Mass  also  be  of  all  things,  which  we  have  already  signified  by  the 
celebrated  in  such  a  church.  oblation  ofllis  creatures.  This  whole  action,  in  which 
See  Rubrics  of  the  Missa  pro  sponso  si  sponsa  in  the  Missal;  the  people  has  necessarily  to  take  part  with  the  priest, 
^lSl^,^rSlZJ%  "'diJ^.Tl?^,  !S!S5rS?i2^  we  are  ijccustomed  to  call  the  Euc^rmtic  &«Afice." 
D«HBRDT.SacrwLi<urvi«Prtixt«,in(Louvain.i894),36l-377.  In  regard  to  this  last  contention.  Bishop  Hedley  of 

Adrian  Fortescue.  Newport  declared  his  belief  that  not  one  Anglican  in  a 

thousand  is  accustomed  to  call  the  communion  the 

Ma88|  Sacrifice  OF  THE. — A.  The  Dogmatic  Doc-  "Eucharistic  Sacrifice".    But,  even  if  they  were  all  so 

trine  of  the  Mass. — The  word  Mass  (missa)  first  estab-  accustomed,  theywould  have  to  interpret  the  terms  in 

lished  itself  as  the  general  designation  for  the  Euchar-  the  sense  of  the  Thirty-nine  Articles,  which  deny  both 

istic  Sacrifice  in  the  West  after  the  time  of  Pope  ^e  Real  Presence  and  the  sacrificial  power  of  the 

Gregory  the  Great  (d.  604^  the  early  Church  having  priest,  and  thus  admit  a  sacrifice  in  an  unreal  or 

used  the  expression  the  "breaking  of  bread"  (fraciio  ngurative  sense  only.    Leo  XIII,  on  the  other  hand, 

Sinis)  or     liturgy"  (Acts,  xiii,  2,  XtirovpyoOrra) ;  the  in  union  with  the  whole  Christian  past,  had  in  mind  in 

reek  Church  has  employed  the  latter  name  for  al-  the  above-mentioned  Bull  nothing  else  than  the  Eu- 

most  sixteen  centuries.    There  were  current  in  Uie  charistic  "Sacrifice  of  the  true  Bodjr  and  Blood  of 

early  days  of  Christianity  other  terms:  "The  Lord's  Christ"  on  the  altar.    This  Sacrifice  is  certainly  not 

Supper"  (ccsna  dominica),  the  "Sacrifice"  (rpov^pd,  identical  with  the  Anglican  form  of  celebration  (see 

obkUio),  "the  gathering  together"   (o^va^ct,  congre-  Angucanism). 


MASS 


MASS 


The  simple  fact  that  numerous  heretics,  such  as 
Wyclif  and  Luther,  repudiated  the  Mass  as ''  idolatry ''. 
wlule  retaininjs  the  Sacrament  of  the  true  Body  and 
Blood  of  Christ,  proves  that  the  Sacrament  of  the 
Eucharist  is  something  essentially  different  from  the 
Sacrifice  of  the  Mass.  In  truth,  the  Eucharist  per- 
forms at  once  two  fimctions:  that  of  a  sacrament  and 
that  of  a  sacrifice.  Though  the  inseparableness  of  the 
two  is  most  clearlv  seen  in  the  fact  tnat  the  consecrat- 
ing and  sacrificial  powers  of  the  priest  coincide,  and 
conseauently  that  the  sacrament  is  produced  only  in 
and  tnrough  the  Ms^s,  the  real  difference  between 
them  is  shown  in  that  the  sacrament  is  intended  pri- 
marihr  for  the  sanctification  of  the  soul,  whereas  the 
sacrifice  serves  primarily  to  glorify  God  by  adoration, 
thuoksgiving,  praver,  and  expiation.  The  recipient  of 
the  one  is  God,  who  receives  the  sacrifice  of  Hjs  only- 
begotten  Son;  of  the  other,  man,  who  receives  the 
sacrament  for  his  own  good.  Furthermore,  the  un- 
bloody Sacrifice  of  the  Eucharistic  Christ  is  in  its 
nature  a  transient  action,  while  the  Sacrament  of  the 
AHar  continues  as  something  permanent  after  the  sac- 
rifice, and  can  even  be  preserved  in  monstrance  and 
ciboriunL  Finally,  this  difference  also  deserves  men- 
tion :  communion  under  one  form  only  is  the  reception 
of  the  whole  sacrament,  whereas,  without  the  use  of 
the  two  forms  of  bread  and  wine  (the  symbolic  sep>arar- 
tion  of  IJie  Bodv  and  Blood),  the  mystical  slaying  of 
the  Victim,  and  therefore  the  Sacrmce  of  the  Mass, 
does  not  take  place. 

The  definition  of  the  Council  of  Trent  supposes  as 
self-evident  tJie  proposition  that,  along  with  tne  "  true 
and  real  Sacrifice  of  the  Mass  ",  there  can  be  and  are  in 
dinstendom  figurative  and  unreal  sacrifices  of  various 
kinds,  such  as  prayers  of  praise  and  thanksgiving, 
alms,  mortification,  obedience,  and  works  of  penance. 
Such  offerings  are  often  referred  to  in  Holv  Scripture, 
e.  g.  in  Eccuis.,  xxxv,  4:  "And  he  that  aoth  mercy, 
offereth  sacrifice  ** ;  and  in  Ps.  cxl,  2 :  "  Let  my  prayer 
be  directed  as  incense  in  thy  sight;  the  lifting  up  of 
my  hands  as  evening  sacrifice."  These  figurative 
offerings,  however,  necessarily  presuppose  the  real  and 
true  offering,  just  as  a  picture  presupposes  its  subject 
and  a  portrait  its  original.  The  Biblical  metaphors — a 
"sacrifice  of  jubilation''  (Ps.  xxvi,  6),  the  "calves  of 
our  lips"  (Osee,  xiv,  3),  the  "  sacrifice  of  praise  "  (Heb., 
xiii,  15) — expressions  which  apply  sacrificial  terms  to 
simple  prayer — ^would  be  without  application  or  mean- 
ing if  there  were  not,  or  there  had  not  been,  a  true  and 
real  sacrifice  (hostia,  Bwla).  That  there  was  such  a 
sacrifice,  the  whole  sacrificial  system  of  the  Old  Law 
besurs  witness.  It  is  true  that  we  may  and  must  recog- 
nise, with  St.  Thomas  (II-II,  Q.  bcxxv,  a.  3,  ad  2um), 
as  the  principale  sacrificiwn  the  sacrificial  intent 
which,  embodied  in  the  spirit  of  prayer,  inspires  and 
animates  the  external  offering  as  the  body  animates 
the  soul,  and  without  which  even  the  most  perfect 
offering  has  neither  worth  nor  effect  before  God. 
Hence,  the  holy  psalmist  says:  "  For  if  thou  hadst  de- 
sired sacrifice,  1  would  indeed  have  given  it :  with  burnt- 
offerings  thou  wilt  not  be  delighted.  A  sacrifice  to 
God  is  an  afflicted  spirit"  (Ps.  1,  18  sq.).  This  indis- 
pensable requirement  of  an  mtemal  sacrifice,  however, 
oy  no  means  makes  the  external  sacrifice  superfluous 
in  Christianity;  indeed,  without  a  perpetual  oblation 
deriving  its  value  from  the  sacrifice  once  offered  on  the 
Gross,  Christianity,  the  perfect  religion,  would  be  in- 
ferior not  only  to  the  Old  Testament,  but  even  to  the 
poorest  form  of  natural  religion.  Since  sacrifice  is  thus 
essential  to  reli^on,  it  is  all  the  more  necessary  for 
Christianity,  which  cannot  otherwise  fulfil  its  duty  of 
showinjr  outward  honour  to  God  in  the  most  perfect 
way.  Thus,  the  Church,  as  the  mystical  C!hnst,  de- 
sires and  must  have  her  own  permanent  sacrifice, 
which  surely  cannot  be  either  an  independent  addition 
to  that  of  Grolgotha  or  its  intrinsic  complement;  it  can 
only  be  the  one  aelf-san^  sacrifice  of  the  Croes,  wboee 


fruits,  by  an  unbloody  offering,  are  daily  made  avail- 
able for  believers  and  unbeUevers  and  sacrificially 
applied  to  them. 

If  the  Mass  is  to  be  a  true  sacrifice  in  the  literal 
sense,  it  must  realize  the  philosophical  conception  of 
sacrifice.    Thus  the  last  preliminary  question  arises: 
What  is  a  sacrifice  in  the  proper  sense  of  the  term? 
Without  attempting  to  state  and  establish  a  compre- 
hensive theory  of  sacrifice  (q.  v.),  it  will  suffice  to  snow 
that,  according  to  the  comparative  history  of  reli^ons, 
four  things  are  necessary  to  a  sacrifice:  a  saOTificiai 
gift  (res  oblata)^  a  sacrificing  minister  (rninister  leffUir 
inu8)f  a  sacrificial  action  (actio  aacrifica),  and  a  sacri- 
ficial end  or  object  (finis  sacrificii).    In  contrast  with 
sacrifices  in  the  figurative  or  less  proper  sense,  the 
sacrificial  gift  must  exist  in  physical  substance,  and 
must  be  really  or  virtually  destroyed  ^animals  slain, 
libations  poured  out,  other  things  renaered  unfit  for 
ordinary  uses),  or  at  least  really  transformed,  at  a 
fixed  place  of  sacrifice  (araf  altare),  and  offered  up  to 
God.    As  regards  the  person  offering,  it  is  not  permit- 
ted that  any  and  every  individual  should  offer  sacrifice 
on  his  own  account.    In  the  revealed  religion,  as  in 
nearly  all  heathen  religions,  only  a  qualified  person 
(usuallv  called  priest,  sacerdos,  UpiOt),  who  has  been 
given  the  power  oy  commission  or  vocation^  may  offer 
up  sacrifice  in  the  name  of  the  oommumty.    After 
Moses,  the  priests  authorized  by  law  in  the  Old  Testa- 
ment belonged  to  the  tribe  of  Levi,  and  more  espe- 
cially to  the  house  of  Aaron  (Heb.,  v,  4).    But,  since 
Christ  Himself  received  and  exercised  His  hig^  priest- 
hood, not  by  the  arrogation  of  authority  but  in  virtue 
of  a  Divine  call,  there  is  still  greater  need  that  priests 
who  represent  Him  should  receive  power  and  author- 
ity through  the  Sacrament  of  Holy  orders  to  offer  up 
the  sublime  Sacrifice  of  the  New  Law.     Sacrifice 
reaches  its  outward  culmination  in  the  sacrificial  act, 
in  which  we  have  to  distinguish  between  the  proxi- 
mate matter  and  the  real  form.   The  form  lies,  not  in 
the  real  transformation  or  complete  destruction  of  the 
sacrificial  gift,  but  rather  in  its  sacrificial  oblation,  in 
whatever  way^  it  mav  be  transformed.    Even  where  a 
real  destruction  took  place,  as  in  the  sacrificial  slay- 
ings  of  the  Old  Testament,  the  act  of  destroying  was 
performed  by  the  servants  of  the  Temple,  whereas  the 
proper  oblation,  consisting  in  the  "  spilling  of  blood  " 
(aspersio  sanguinis),  was  the  exclusive  function  of  the 
priests.    Thus,  the  real  form  of  the  Sacrifice  of  the 
Cross  consisted  neither  in  the  killing  of  Christ  by  the 
Roman  soldiers  nor  in  an  imaginary  self-destruction 
on  the  part  of  Jesus,  but  in  His  voluntary  surrender  of 
His  blood  shed  by  another's  hand,  and  m  His  offering 
of  His  life  for  the  sins  of  the  world.   Consequently,  the 
destruction  or  transformation  constitutes  at  most  the 
proximate  matter;    the  sacrificial  oblation,  on  the 
other  hand,  is  the  physical  form  of  the  sacrifice. 
Finally,  the  object  of  the  sacrifice,  as  significant  of  its 
meaning,  lifts  the  external  offering  beyond  any  mere 
mechanical  action  into  the  sphere  of  the  spiritiml  and 
Divine.   The  object  is  the  soul  of  the  sacrifice,  and,  in 
a  certain  sense,  its  "  metaphysicial  form  **,   In  all  reli- 
gions we  find,  as  the  essential  idea  of  sacrifice^  a  ccnn- 
Slete  surrender  to  God  for  the  purpose  of  umon  with 
[im;  and  to  this  idea  there  is  adaed,  on  the  part  of 
those  who  are  in  sin,  the  desire  for  pardon  and  recon- 
ciliation.  Hence  at  once  arises  the  oistinction  between 
sacrifices  of  praise  and  expiation  (sacrificium  laireutir 
cum  et  prapUiator%um)j  and  sacrifices  of  thanksgiving 
and  petition  (sacriflcium  eucharisHcum  et  impetrato- 
rium);  hence  also  the  obvious  inference  that,  under 
pain  of  idolatiy,  sacrifice  is  to  be  offered  to  God  alone 
as  the  beginning  and  end  of  all  things.    Rightly  does 
St.  Augustine  remark  (De  civit.  Dei,  X,  iv):  "Who 
ever  thought  of  offering  sacrifice  except  to  one  whom 
he  either  knew,  or  thought,  sr  imagined  to  be  God?'' 
If  then  we  combine  the  tour  constituent  ideas  in  a 
definition,  we  may  say: "  Sacrifice  ia  the  external  obla* 


MASS 


8 


MASS 


tion  to  God  by  an  authomed  xninister  of  a  sense- 
peroeptible  object,  either  through  its  destruction  or  at 
least  through  its  real  transformation,  in  acknowledg- 
ment of  God's  supreme  dominion  and  for  the  appeal- 
ing of  His  wrath.  We  shall  demonstrate  the  applica- 
bility of  this  definition  to  the  Mass  in  the  section 
devoted  to  the  nature  of  the  sacrifice,  after  settling  the 
question  of  its  existence. 

(a)  Scri{>tural  Proof. — ^It  is  a  notable  fact  that  the 
Divine  institution  of  the  Mass  can  be  established,  one 
might  almost  say,  with  greater  certainty  bv  means  of 
the  Old  Testament  than  by  means  of  the  New. 

(i)  The  Old  Testament  prophecies  are  recorded 
partly  in  types,  partly  in  woras.  Following  the  prece- 
dent of  many  Fathers  of  the  Church  (see  Bellarmine, 
"De  Euchar.",  v,  6),  U^  Coundl  of  Trent  especially 
(Sess.  XXII,  cap.  i)  laid  stress  on  the  prophetical  rela^- 
tion  that  undoubtedly  exists  between  the  offering  of 
bread  and  wine  by  Melchisedech  and  the  Last  Supper 
of  Jesus.  The  occurrence  was  briefly  as  follows:  After 
Abraham  (then  still  called  "  Abram")  with  his  armed 
men  had  rescued  his  nephew  Lot  from  the  four  hostile 
kings  who  had  fallen  on  him  and  robbed  him,  Mel- 
chisedech, King  of  Salem  (Jerusalem),  "  bringing  forth 
UrroferenSf  Heb.  M^Hi  Hiohil  of  MT]  bread  and  wine, 
for  he  was  a  priest  of  the  Most  High  God,  blessed  him 
[Abraham]  and  said:  Blessed  be  Abram  by  the  Most 
High  God  .  .  .  And  he  [Abraham^  gave  him  the  tithes 
of  all''  (Gen.,  xiv,  18-20).  Cathohc  theologians  (with 
veiy  few  exceptions)  have  from  the  beginnmg  rightlv 
emphasueed  the  circumstance  that  Melcnisedech 
brought  out  bread  and  wine,  not  merely  to  provide 
refreediment  for  Abram's  followers  weaned  alter  the 
battle,  for  tJiev  were  well  supplied  with  provisions  out 
of  the  booty  they  had  taken  (Gen.,  xiv,  11, 16),  but  to 
present  breiad  and  wine  as  food-offerings  to  Almightv 
God.  Not  as  a  host,  but  as  "  priest  of  the  Most  Hig^ 
God  ",  he  brought  forth  bread  and  wine,  blessed  Abra- 
ham, and  received  the  tithes  from  him.  In  fact,  the 
very  reason  for  his  "  bringing  forth  bread  and  wine  "  is 
expressly  stated  to  have  been  his  priesthood:  ''for  he 
was  a  priest".  Hence,  proferre  must  necessarilv  be- 
come offerref  even  if  it  were  true  that  K^  in  Hiphil  is 
not  an  hieratic  sacrificial  term;  but  even  this  is  not 

Suite  certain  (cf.  Judges,  vi,  18  sq.).  Accordingly, 
[elchisedech  made  a  real  food-offering  of  bread  and 
wine.  Now  it  is  the  express  teaching  of  Scripture  that 
Christ  is  "  a  priest  for  ever  according  to  the  order  [rard 
T^v  rd^cy]  of  Melchisedech"  (Ps.  cix,  4;  Heb.,  v.  5  sq.; 
vii^  1  sqq.).    Christ,  however,  in  no  way  resembled  his 

gnestlv  prototype  in  His  bloody  sacrifice  on  the  Cross, 
ut  only  and  solely  at  His  Last  Supper.  On  that  occa- 
sion He  likewise  xnade  an  unbloody  food-offering,  only 
that,  as  Antitvpe,  He  accomplished  something  more 
than  a  mere  oblation  of  bread  and  wine,  namelv  the 
sacrifice  of  His  Body  and  Blood  under  the  mere  forms 
of  bread  and  wine.  Otherwise,  the  shadows  cast  be- 
fore by  the  "  good  thing^  to  come  "  would  have  been 
more  perfect  than  the  things  themselves,  and  the  anti- 
type at  anv  rate  no  richer  in  reality  tnan  the  type. 
Since  the  Mass  is  nothing  else  than  a  continual  repeti- 
tion, commanded  by  Christ  Himself,  of  the  Sacrifice 
accomplished  at  the  Last  Supper,  it  follows  that  the 
Sacrifice  of  the  Mass  partakes  of  the  New  Testament 
fulfilment  of  the  prophecy  of  Melchisedech.  (Concern- 
ing the  Paschal  Lamb  as  the  second  t^pe  of  the  Mass, 
see  Bellarmine,  "De  Euchar.",  V,  vuj  cf.  also  von 
Cichowski,  "  Das  altestamentl.  Pascha  m  seinem  Ver- 
h&ltnis  sum  Opfer  Christi",  Munich^  1849.) 

Passing  over  the  more  or  less  distinct  references  to 
the  Mass  in  other  prophets  (Ps.  xxi,  27  sqq. ;  Is.,  Ixvi, 
18  saq.),  the  best  and  clearest  prediction  concerning 
the  Mass  is  undoubtedly  that  of  Malachias,  who  makes 
a  threatening  announcement  to  the  Levite  priests  in 
the  name  of  God :  "  I  have  no  pleasure  in  you,  saith  the 
Lord  of  hosts:  and  I  will  not  receive  a  gift  of  your 
hand.   For  from  the  rising  of  the  sim  even  to  the  going 


down,  my  name  is  great  among  the  Gentiles  [D^» 
heathens,  non-Jew^,  and  in  every  place  there  is  sacri- 
fice, and  there  is  offered  to  my  name  a  clean  oblation: 
for  my  name  is  great  among  the  Gentiles^  saith  the 
Lord  of  hosts"  (Mai.,  i,  10-11).  According  to  the 
unanimous  interpretation  of  the  Fathers  of  the  Church 
(see  Petavius,  "De  incam.",  xii,  12).  the  prophet  here 
loretells  the  everlasting  Sacrifice  of  tne  New  Dispensa- 
tion. For  he  declares  that  these  two  things  will  cer- 
tainly come  to  pass:  (1)  The  abolition  of  all  Levitical 
sacrifices,  and  (2)  the  institution  of  an  entirely  new 
sacrifice.  As  God 's  determination  to  do  away  with  the 
sacrifices  of  the  Levites  is  adhered  to  consistently 
throughout  the  denunciation,  the  essential  thing  is  to 
specify  correctly  the  sort  of  sacrifice  that  is  promised 
in  their  stead.  In  regiurd  to  this,  the  following  proposi- 
tions have  to  be  establi^ed :  (1)  that  the  new  sacrifice 
is  to  come  about  in  the  da}rs  of  the  Messiah;  (2)  that  it 
is  to  be  a  true  and  real  sacrifice,  and  (3)  that  it  does  not 
coincide  formally  with  the  Sacrifice  of  the  Cross. 

It  is  easy  to  show  that  the  sacrifice  referred  to  by 
Malachias  did  not  signify  a  sacrifice  of  his  time,  but 
was  rather  to  be  a  future  sacrifice  belonging  to  the  age 
of  the  Messiah.  For  though  the  Hebrew  participles  of 
the  orijj^inal  can  be  translated  by  the  present  tense 
(there  is  sacrifice;  it  is  offered),  the  mere  universality 
of  the  new  sacrifice — "from  the  rising  to  the  set- 
ting", "  in  every  place ",  even  "among  the  Gentiles", 
i.  e.  heathen  (non-Jewish)  peoples — ^is  irrefragable 
proof  that  theprophet  beheld  as  present  an  event  of 
the  future.  Wherever  Jahwe  speaks,  as  in  this  case, 
of  His  glorification  by  the  "heathen ",  He  can,  accord- 
ing to  Old  Testament  teaching  (Ps.  xxi,  28;  Ixxi,  10 
saq. :  Is.,  xi,  9;  xlix,  6;  Ix,  9;  Ixvi,  18  sqq.;  Amos,  ix, 
12;  Mich.,  iv,  2,  etc.),  have  in  mind  only  the  kingdom 
of  the  MessiaJi  or  the  future  Church  of  Christ;  every 
other  explanation  is  Mattered  by  the  text.  Least  of 
all  could  a  new  sacrifice  in  the  time  of  the  prophet 
himself  be  thought  of.  Nor  could  there  be  any  idea  of 
a  sacrifice  among  the  ^nuine  heathens,  as  Hitci^  has 
sugKested,  for  the  sacrifices  of  the  heathen,  associated 
with  idolatry  and  impurity,  are  unclean  and  displeas- 
ing to  God  (I  Cor.,  X,  20).  Again,  it  could  not  be  a 
sacrifice  of  tne  dispersed  Jews  {Diaspora) ;  for  apart 
from  the  fact  that  the  existence  of  such  sacrifices  in 
the  Diaspora  is  rather  problematic,  they  were  cer- 
tainly not  offered  the  world  over,  nor  did  they  possess 
the  unusual  significance  attaching  to  special  modes  of 
honouring  God.  Consequently,  the  reference  is  un- 
doubtedly to  some  entirely  distinctive  sacrifice  of  the 
future.  But  of  what  future?  Was  it  to  be  a  future 
sacrifice  among  genuine  heathexis.  such  as  the  Old 
Mexicans  or  the  Congo  negroes?  Tnis  is  as  impossible 
as  in  the  case  of  other  heathen  forms  of  idolatry.  Per- 
haps then  it  was  to  be  a  new  and  more  perfect  sacrifice 
among  the  Jews?  This  also  is  out  of  the  question,  for 
since  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem  by  Titus  (a.  d.  70), 
the  whole  system  of  Jewish  sacrifice  is  irrevocably  a 
thing  of  the  past;  and  the  new  sacrifice,  moreover,  is 
to  be  performed  by  a  priesthood  of  an  origin  other  than 
Jewisn  (Is. ,  Ixvi,  21).  Everything,  therefore,  points  to 
Christianity,  in  which,  as  a  mattter  of  fact,  the  Mes- 
siah rules  over  non-Jewish  peoples. 

The  second  question  now  presents  itself:  Is  the 
universal  sacrifice  thus  promised  *'in  every  place"  to 
be  only  a  purely  spiritual  offering  of  prayer,  in  other 
words  a  sacrifice  of  praise  and  thanks^vinf,  such  as 
Protestantism  is  content  with;  or  is  it  tooe  a  true 
sacrifice  in  the  strict  sense,  as  the  Catholic  Church 
maintains?  It  is  forthwith  clear  that  abolition  and 
substitution  must  correspond,  and  accordingly  that 
the  old  real  sacrifice  cannot  be  displaced  by  a  new 
unreal  sacrifice.  Moreover,  prayer,  adoration,  thanks- 
giving, etc.,  are  far  from  being  a  new  offering,  for  they 
are  permanent  realities  common  to  every  age,  and 
constitute  the  indispensable  foundation  of  every  reli- 
gion whether  before  or  after  the  Messiah.    The  last 


9 


MA88 


doubt  is  dispelled  by  the  Hebrew  text,  which  has  no 
fewer  than  three  classic  sacerdotal  declarations  refer- 
ring to  the  promised  sacrifice,  thus  desi^edly  doing 
away  with  the  possibility  of  interpreting  it  metaphori- 
cally. ESspecially  important  is  the  substantive  nnJD. 
Although  in  its  origin  the  generic  term  for  every  sacri- 
fice, the  bloody  included  (cf.  Gen.,  iv,  4  sq.;  I  Kings, 
ii,  17),  it  was  not  only  never  used  to  indicate  an  unreiu 
sacrifice  (such  as  a  prayer  offering),  but  even  became 
the  technical  term  for  an  unbloody  sacrifice  (mostly 
food  offerings),  in  contradistinction  to  the  bloody 
sacrifice  which  is  given  the  name  of  nSTy  Sdxich  (see 
Knabenbauer,  *'Cbmmentar.  in  Prophet,  minor.",  II, 
Paris,  1886,  pp.  430  sqq.). 

As  to  the  third  and  last  proposition,  no  leng[thy 
demonstration  is  needed  to  show  that  the  sacrifice 
of  Malachias  cannot  be  formally  identified  with  the 
Sacrifice  of  the  Cross.  This  interpretation  is  at  once 
contradicted  by  the  Minehah,  i.  e.  unbloodv  (food) 
offering.  Then,  there  are  other  cogent  consioerations 
baaed  on  fact.  Though  a  real  sacrifice,  belonging  to 
the  time  of  the  Messiiui  and  the  most  powerful  means 
conceivable  for  glorifvinff  the  Divine  name,  the  Sacri- 
fice of  the  Cross,  so  far  from  being  offered  *'in  every 
place"  and  amons  non-Jewish  peoples,  was  confined 
to  (Solgotha  and  the  midst  of  the  Jewish  people.  Nor 
can  the  Sacrifice  of  the  Cross,  which  was  accomplished 
by  the  Saviour  in  person  without  the  help  of  a  numan 
representative  priesthood,  be  identified  with  that  sac- 
rifice for  the  offering  of  which  the  Messiah  makes  use 
of  priests  after  the  manner  of  the  Levites,  in  eveiy 

Elaoe  and  at  all  times.  Furthermore,  he  wilfully  shuts 
is  eyes  against  the  lieht,  who  denies  that  the  proph- 
ecy of  Ma&chias  is  fulfilled  to  the  letter  in  the  Sacrifice 
of  the  Mass.  In  it  are  united  all  the  characteristics  of 
the  promised  sacrifice:  its  unbloodjr  sacrificial  rite  as 
genuine  Minchah,  its  universality  m  regard  to  place 
and  time,  its  extension  to  non-Jewish  peoples,  its  dele- 
gated priesthood  differing  from  that  of  the  Jews,  its 
essential  unity  by  reason  of  the  identity  of  the  Cblet 
Priest  and  the  Victim  (Christ),  and  its  intrinsic  and 
essential  purity  which  no  Levitical  or  moral  uncleanli- 
ness  can  defile.  Little  wonder  that  the  Council  of 
Trent  should  say  (Sess.  XXII,  cap.  i):  "This  is  that 
pure  oblation,  which  cannot  be  defiled  by  unworthi- 
neas  and  impiety  on  the  part  of  those  who  offer  it,  and 
concerning  which  Crod  has  predicted  through  Mala- 
chias, that  there  would  be  offered  up  a  clean  oblation 
in  every  place  to  His  Name,  whicn  would  be  great 
among  the  Grentiles"  (see  Denzinger,  n.  939). 

(ii)  Passing  now  to  the  proofs  contained  in  the  New 
Testament,  we  may  begin  b^  remarking  that  many 
dogmatic  writers  see  in  the  dialogue  of  Jesus  with  the 
Samaritan  woman  at  Jacob'd  well  a  prophetic  refer- 
ence to  the  Mass  (John,  iv,  21  sqq.) :  *' Woman,  believe 
me,  that  the  hour  cometh,  when  you  shall  neither  on 
this  mountain  [Garisim]  nor  in  Jerusalem,  adore  the 
Father.  .  •  •  But  the  hour  cometh.  and  now  is,  when 
the  true  adorers  shall  adore  the  Father  in  spirit  and  in 
truth."  Since  the  point  at  issue  between  tne  Samari- 
tans and  the  Jews  related,  not  to  the  ordinary,  private 
offering  of  prayer  practised  everywhere,  but  to  the 
solenm,  public  worship  embodied  in  a  real  sacrifice, 
Jesus  really  seems  to  refer  to  a  future  real  sacrifice  of 
praise,  which  would  not  be  confined  in  its  lituigv  to 
the  city  of  Jerusalem  but  would  captivate  tiie  whole 
world  (see  Bellarmine,  ''De  Eucha^.",  v,  11).  Not 
without  fQod  reason  do  most  commentators  appeal  to 
Heb.,  xiii,  10:  *'  We  have  an  altar  [Svo-uMri^pcor,  altare], 
whereof  they  have  no  power  to  e&tl^ayetv,  edere]  who 
serve  the  tabernacle."  Since  St.  ^aul  has  just  con- 
trasted the  Jewish  food  offering  (fiptifMcipf  escis)  and 
the  Christian  altar  food,  the  partaking  of  which  was 
denied  to  the  Jews,  the  inference  is  obvious:  where 
there  is  an  altar,  there  is  a  sacrifice.  But  ^e  Euchur- 
ist  is  the  food  which  the  Christians  alone  are  permitted 
to  eat:  therefore  there  is  a  Eucharistie  sacrifice.  The 


objection  that,  in  Apostolic  times,  the  term  allar  was 
not  yet  used  in  the  sense  of  the  "Lord's  table"  (cf. 
I  Cor.,  X,  21)  is  clearly  a  begging  of  the  question,  since 
Paul  miffht  well  have  been  the  first  to  introduce  the 
name,  it  oeing  adopted  from  him  by  later  writers  (e.  g 
Ignatius  of  ^tiocn,  died  a.  d.  107). 

It  can  scarcelv  be  denied  that  the  entirely  mystical 
explanation  of  the  "spiritual  food  from  the  altar  of  the 
cross",  favoured  by  St.  Thomas  Aquinas,  Estius,  and 
Stentrup,  is  far-fetched  (cf .  Thalhofer, "  Das  Opfer  des 
A.  und  N.  Bundes  ",  Ratisbon,  1870,  pp.  233  sqq.) .  It 
might  on  the  other  hand  appear  still  more  strange  that 
in  the  passage  of  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews,  where 
Christ  and  Melchisedech  are  compared,  the  two  food 
offerings  should  be  not  only  not  placed  in  prophetical 
relation  with  each  other,  but  not  even  mentioned. 
The  reason,  however,  is  not  far  to  seek:  such  a  parallel 
lay  entirely  outside  the  scope  of  the  argument.  All 
that  St.  Paul  desired  to  show  was  that  the  high  priest- 
hood of  Christ  was  superior  to  the  Levitical  priesthood 
of  the  Old  Testament  (cf .  Heb.,  vii,  4  sqq.),  and  this  he 
fully  demonstrated  by  proving  uiat  Aaron  and  his 
priesthood  stood  far  l)elow  tiie  unattainable  height  of 
Mielchisedech.  So  much  the  more,  therefore,  must 
Christ  as  "priest  according  to  the  order  of  Melchise- 
dech" excel  the  Levitical  priesthood.  The  peculiar 
dignity  of  Melchisedech,  however,  was  manifested  not 
tfaSou^h  the  fact  that  he  made  a  food  offering  of  bread 
and  wme,  a  thing  which  the  Levites  also  were  able  to 
do,  but  chiefly  through  the  fact  that  he  blessed  the 
great  "  Father  Abraham  and  received  the  tithes  from 
him".  (For  the  proofs  relating  to  the  Sacrifice  of  the 
Mass  in  I  Cor.,  x,  16-21,  see  M.  Schftfer,  "Erklftrung 
der  beiden  Briefe  an  die  Korinther",  MOnster,  1903, 
pp.  195  sqq.) 

The  main  testimony  of  the  New  Testament  lies  in  the 
account  of  the  institution  of  the  Eucharist,  and  most 
clearly  in  the  words  of  consecration  spoken  over  the 
chaUce.  For  this  reason  we  shall  consider  these  words 
first,  since  thereby,  owing  to  the  analogy  between  the 
two  formula,  clearer  light  will  be  thrown  on  the  mean- 
ing of  the  words  of  consecration  pronounced  over  the 
bread.  For  the  sake  of  clearness  and  easy  comparison 
we  subjoin  the  four  passages  in  Greek  and  English: 

(1)  Matt.,  xxvi,  28:  ToOro  ydp  imp  rh  oT/ud  /lov  rh  r^t 

dfsafiTiQp, 

For  this  is  my  blood  of  the  new  testament,  which 
shall  be  shed  for  many  unto  remission  of  sins. 

(2)  Mark,  xiv,  24:  ToOrS  iariwrb  oT/ii  /lov  r^t  jcaty^f 
dtoB^KifS  rb  iwkp  iroXXc^F  iKXVPPbfuyQw, 

This  is  my  blood  of  the  new  testament,  which  shall 
be  shed  for  many. 

(3)  Luke,  xxii,  20:  ToOro  r6  wor'^piow  ii  kcuH^  SiaOiJKii 
ip  Ttf  atftarl  fiav^  rb  inrip  hfMP  ixxv^pb/urop. 

This  is  the  chalice,  the  new  testament  in  my  blood, 
which  shall  be  shed  for  you. 

(4)  I  Cor.,  xi,  25:  Tovro  rb  wor^piop  ii  K9u,rii  duLB^mi 
iffrlp  ip  T$  ifUfi  atfiari. 

This  chalice  is  the  new  testament  in  my  blood. 

The  Divine  institution  of  the  sacrifice  of  the  altar  is 
proved  bv  showing  (1)  that  the  "shedding  of  blood" 
spoken  ot  in  the  text  took  place  there  and  then  and 
not  for  the  first  time  on  the  cross;  (2)  that  it  was  a 
true  and  real  sacrifice;  (3)  that  it  was  considered  a 
permanent  institution  in  the  Church.  The  present 
form  of  the  participle  iKxvppb/iMPOP  in  conjunction  with 
the  present  iffrlp  establishes  the  first  point.  For  it  is  a 
grammatical  rule  of  New  Testament  Greek,  that,  when 
the  double  present  is  used  (that  is,  in  both  the  parti- 
ciple and  the  finite  verb,  as  is  the  esse  here),  the  time 
denoted  is  not  the  distant  or  near  future,  but  strictljr  the 
present  (see  Fr.  Blass,  "  Grammatik  des  N.  T.  Gnech- 
isch",  p.  193,  Gottingen,  1896).  This  rule  does  not 
apply  to  otiier  constructions  of  the  present  tense,  as 
wnen  Christ  says  earlier  (John,  xiv,  12) :  "  I  go  (ropct^ 
ojuai)  to  the  father".    Alleged  exceptions  to  the  rule 


MASS                                   10  MASS 

are  not  such  in  reality,  as,  for  instance,  Matt.,  vi,  30:  is  also  established.  For  the  duration  of  the  Euchar- 
**  And  if  the  grass  of  the  field,  which  is  to-day  and  to-  istic  Sacrifice  is  indissolubly  bound  up  with  the  dura- 
morrow  is  cast  into  the  oven  (fia\\6fitP0p)  God  dotii  tion  of  the  sacrament.  Christ's  last  supper  thus  takes 
so  clothe  (dp^vpvffip) :  how  much  more  you,  O  ye  of  on  the  significance  of  a  Divine  institution  whereby  the 
little  faith?''  For  in  this  passage  it  is  a  question  not  Mass  is  established  in  His  Church.  St.  Paul  (I  Cor., 
of  somethingin  the  future  out  of  something  occurring  xi,  25),  in  fact,  puts  into  the  mouth  of  the  Saviour  the 
everyday.  For  other  examples  see  Chr.Pesch,  "Prffil.  words:  "This  do  ye,  as  often  as  you  shall  drink,  for 
doffm.'',  VI,  396  (3rd  ed.,  Freibiu^,  1908).    When  the  the  commemoration  of  me." 

Vulgate  translates  the  Greek  participles  by  the  future  We  are  now  in  a  position  to  appreciate  in  their 

(efPundetur,  fundetur),  it  is  not  at  variance  with  facts,  deeper  sense  Christ's  words  of  consecration  over  the 

considering  that  the  mystical  shedding  of  blood  in  the  bread.    Since  only  St.  Luke  and  St.  Paul  have  made 

chalice,  if  it  were  not  brought  into  intimate  relation  additions  to  the  sentence,  '"li^  is  My  Body",  it  is 

with  the  physical  shedding  of  blood  on  the  cross,  only  on  them  that  we  can  base  our  demonstration, 

would  be  impossible  and  meaningless;  for  the  one  is  (1)  Luke,  xxii,  19:  Hoc  est  corpus  meum,  quod  pro 

the  essential  presupposition  and  foundation  of  the  vobis  datur;  ro0r6   i^ri  rb  aQpi  /wv  rb   inrkp    ifuav 

other.    Still,  from  the  standpoint  of  philology,  effun-  MS/uwop;  This  is  my  body  which  is  given  for  you. 

ditur  (funditur)  ouffht  to  be  translated  into  the  strictly  (2)  I  Cor.,  xi,  24:   Hoc  est  corpus  meum,  quod  pro 

Present,  as  is  really  done  in  many  ancient  codices,  vobis  tradetur;  to0t6  fu6  iffn  r6  ff&fui  rh  iwkp  ^/uaw 
he  accuracy  of  this  exegesis  is  finally  attested  in  a  \K\i&fiMPop];  This  is  my  body  which  shall  be  broken 
striking  way  by  the  Greek  wording  in  St.  Luke:  rb  for  you.  Once  more,  we  maintain  that  the  sacrificial 
wcT^piop  ,  .  .  4Kxvpp6fiMvoy,  Here  the  shedding  of  blood  **  giving  of  the  body"  (in  organic  unity  of  course  with 
appears  as  taking  place  directly  in  the  chalice,  and  the  ''pouring  of  blood"  in  the  chalice)  is  here  to  be 
therefore  in  the  present.  Overzealous  critics,  it  is  interpreted  as  a  present  sacrifice  and  as  a  permanent 
true,  have  assumed  that  there  is  here  a  grammatical  institution  in  the  Church.  Regarding  the  decisive 
mistake,  in  that  St.  Luke  erroneously  connects  the  point,  i.  e.  indication  of  what  is  actually  taking  place, 
*' shedding"  with^the  chalice  (woriipioy),  instead  of  it  is  again  St.  Luke  who  speaks  wiUi  greatest  clearness, 
with  ''blood"  (t4»  all^aTt)  which  is  in  the  dative,  for  to  cQfUL  he  adds  the  present  participle,  SMfupop, 
Rather  than  correct  this  highly  cultivated  Greek,  as  by  which  he  describes  the  ''giving  of  tne  body"  as 
though  he  were  a  school  boy,  we  prefer  to  assume  that  something  happening  in  the  present,  here  and  now, 
he  intended  to  use  synecdoche,  a  figure  of  speech  ■  not  as  something  to  Be  done  in  the  near  future, 
known  to  everybody,  and  therefore  put  the  vessel  to  The  reading  icXiifupQp  in  St.  Paul  is  disputed.  Ac- 
indicate  its  contents  (Winer-Moulton.  "  Grammar  of  cording  to  the  best  critical  reading  (Tischendorf,  Lach« 
New  Testament  Greek",  p.  791,  Edinburgh,  1882).  mann)  the  participle  is  dropped  altogether,  so  tiiat  St. 
As  to  the  establishment  of  our  second  proposition,  Paul  probaoly  wrote:  rd  trdfui  rh  hwip  i/iQp  (the  body 
believing  Protestants  and  Anglicans  readily  admit  for  you,  i.e.  for  your  salvation).  There  is  good  reason, 
that  the  phrase:  "to  shed  one's  blood  for  others  unto  however,  for  regarding  the  word  K\ib/upo»  (from  ick&p, 
the  remission  of  sins"  is  not  only  genuinely  Biblical  to  break)  as  Pauline,  since  St.  Paul  shortly  before 
languaffe  relating  to  sacrifice,  but  also  designates  in  spoke  of  the  "breaking  of  bread"  (ICor.,x,  16),  which 
particular  the  sacrifice  of  expiation  (cf.  Lev.,  vii,  14;  for  him  meant  "to  ofiFer  as  food  the  true  oody  of 
xiv,  17:  xvii.  11;  Rom.,  iii,  25,  v,  9;  Heb.,  ix,  10,  Christ".  From  this  however  we  may  conclude  that 
etc.).  xhey,  however,  refer  this  sacrifice  of  expiation,  the  "  breaking  of  the  body  "  not  only  confines  Christ's 
not  to  what  took  place  at  the  Last  Supper,  but  to  the  action  to  the  strictly  present,  especially  as  His  natural 
Oucifixion  the  dav  after.    From  the  demonstration  Body  could  not  be  " broken"  on  the  cross  (cf.  Ex.,  xii, 

§iven  above  that  Christ,  by  the  double  consecration  of  46;  John,  xix,  32  sq.),  but  also  implies  the  intention  of 

read  and  wine,  mjrstically  separated  His  Blood  from  offering  a  " bodjr  broken  for  you'  (^ip  ^/uaw)  i.  e.  the 

His  Body  and  thus  in  the  chalice  itself  poured  out  this  act  constituted  in  itself  a  true  food  offering.    All  doubt 

Blood  in  a  sacramental  way,  it  is  at  once  clear  that  he  as  to  its  sacrificial  character  is  removed  by  the  expres- 

wished  to  solemnise  the  jJast  Supper  not  as  a  sacra-  sion  SidSfupop  in  St.  Luke,  which  the  Vulgate  this  time 

ment  merely  but  also  as  a^'Euchanstic  sacrifice.   If  the  quite  correctly  translates  into  the  present:  "quod  pro 

"  pouring  out  of  the  chalice  "  is  to  mean  nothing  more  vobis  datur. "    But "  to  give  one's  Dody  for  others"  is 

than  the  sacramental  drinking  of  the  Blood,  the  result  as  truly  a  Biblical  expression  for  sacrifice  (cf .  John,  vi, 

is  an  intolerable  tautology*:  ''Drink  ye  all  of  this,  for  52;  Rom.,  vii,  4;  Col.,  i,  22:  Heb.,  x,  10,  etc.)  as  the 

this  is  my  Blood,  which  is  being  drunk".    As,  how-  parallel  phrase,  "the  shedoing  of  blood".     Christ, 

ever,  it  reallv  reads:  "Drink  ye  all  of  this,  for  this  is  therefore,  at  the  Last  Supper  offered  up  His  Body  as 

my  blood,  wnich  is  shed  for  many  (you)  unto  remis-  an  unbloodv  sacrifice.    Finallv,  that  He  commanded 

sion  of  sins,"  the  double  character  of  the  rite,  as  the  renewal  for  all  time  of  the  Eucharistic  sacrifice 

sacrament  and  sacrifice,  is  evident.    The  sacrament  is  through  the  Church  is  clear  from  the  addition:  "  Do 

shown  forth  in  the  "drinking",  the  sacrifice  in  the  this  for  a  commemoration  of  me"  (Luke,  xxxii,  19; 

"shedding  of  blood".    "The  blood  of  the  new  testa-  I  Cor.,  xi,  24). 

ment",  moreover,  of  which  all  the  four  passages  speak,  (b)  Proof  from  Tradition. — Hamack  is  of  opinion 
has  its  exact  parallel  in  the  analogous  institution  of  that  the  early  Church  up  to  the  time  of  Cyprian  (d. 
ihe  Old  Testament  through  Moses.  For  by  Divine  258)  contented  itself  with  the  purely  spiritual  sacri- 
command  he  sprinkled  ike  people  with  the  true  blood  fices  of  adoration  and  thanksei  vmg  and  that  it  did  not 
of  an  animal  and  added,  as  Christ  did,  the  words  of  possess  the  sacrifice  of  the  Mass,  as  Catholicism  now 
institution  (Ex.,  xxiv,  8):  "This  is  the  blood  of  the  understands  it.  In  a  series  of  writings.  Dr.  Wielimd, 
covenant  (Sept. :  IM  rb  aX/ta  ri^s  6ia9iiiait)  which  the  a  Catholic  priest,  likewise  maintained  in  the  face  of 
Lordhathmaae  with  you".  St.  Paul,  however  (Heb.,  ix,  vigorous  opposition  from  other  theologians,  that  the 
18  sq.),  after  repeating  this  parage,  solemnlv  demon-  early  Christians  confined  the  essence  of  the  Christian 
strates  (ibid.,  ix,  11  soj  the  institution  of  the  New  Law  sacrifice  to  a  subjective  Eucharistic  prayer  of  thanks- 
through  the  blood  sned  by  Christ  at  the  crucifixion;  giving,  till  Irenseus  (d.  202)  brought  forward  the  idea 
and  the  Saviour  Himself,  with  equal  solemnity,  says  of  of  an  objective  offering  of  gifts,  and  especially  of  bread 
the  dialice : "  This  is  My  Blood  ol  the  new  testament ".  and  wine.  He,  accoraine  to  this  view,  was  the  Gist  to 
It  follows  therefore  that  Christ  had  intended  His  true  include  in  his  expanded  conception  of  sacrifice,  the 
Blood  in  the  chalice  not  only  to  be  imparted  as  a  sacra-  entirely  new  idea  of  material  offerings  (i.  e.  the  Eu- 
ment,  but  to  be  also  a  sacrifice  for  the  remission  of  charistic  elements)  which  up  to  that  time  the  early 
sins.  With  the  last  remark  our  third  statement,  vii.  Church  had  formally  repudiated.  Were  this  assertion 
as  to  the  pennanenoy  of  the  institution  in  the  Church,  correct,  the  doctrine  of  the  Council  of  Trent  (Seas. 


MASS 


11 


MASS 


XXII,  c.  ii),  according  to  which  in  the  Mass  "the 
priests  offer  up,  in  obedience  to  the  command  of 
Christ,  His  Body  and  Blood''  (see  Denxinger,  "En- 
chir.",  n.  949),  could  hardly  take  its  stand  on  Apos- 
tolic tradition;  the  bridge  between  antiquity  and  the 
present  would  thus  have  been  broken  by  the  abrupt 
mtnision  of  a  completely  contrary  view.  An  impartial 
study  of  the  earliest  texts  seems  indeed  to  make  this 
much  clear,  that  the  early  Church  paid  most  attention 
to  the  spiritual  and  subjective  side  of  sacrifice  and  laid 
chief  stress  on  prayer  and  thanksgiving  in  the  Eucha- 
ristic  function. 

This  admission,  however,  is  not  identical  with  the 
statement  that  the  early  Church  rejected  out  and  out 
the  objective  sacrifice,  and  acknowledged  as  genuine 
only  the  spiritual  sacrifice  as  expressed  in  the  "Eu- 
charistic  thanksgiving".  That  there  has  been  an  his- 
torical dogmatic  development  from  the  indefinite  to 
the  definite,  from  the  implicit  to  the  explicit,  from  the 
aeed  to  the  fruit,  no  one  familiar  with  the  subject  will 
deny.  An  assumption  so  reasonable,  the  only  one  in 
fact  consistent  with  Christianity,  is,  however,  funda- 
mentally different  from  the  hypothesis  that  the  Chris- 
tian idea  of  sacrifice  has  veered  from  one  extreme  to 
the  other.  This  is  a  priori  improbable  and  unproved 
in  fact.  In  the  Didache  or  "Teaching  of  the  Twelve 
Apostles'',  the  oldest  FK)8t-Biblical  llterarv monument 
(c.  A.  D.  96),  not  only  is  the  "breaking  of  bread"  (cf. 
Acts,  XX,  7)  referred  to  as  a  "sacrifice"  (Ovala)  and 
mention  made  of  reconciliation  with  one's  enemy  be- 
fore the  sacrifice  (cf.  Matt.,  v,  23),  but  the  whole 
passage  is  crowned  with  an  actual  quotation  of  the 
prophecy  of  Malachias,  which  referred,  as  is  well 
known,  to  an  objective  and  real  sacrifice  (Didache,  c. 
xiv).  The  early  Christians  ^ave  the  name  of  "sacri- 
fice" not  only  to  the  Euchanstic  "thanksgiving,"  but 
also  to  the  entire  ritual  celebration  includmg  the  litur- 
gical "breaking  of  bread",  without  at  first  distin- 
guishing clearly  between  the  prayer  and  the  ^ift 
(Bread  and  Wine;  Body  and  Blood).  When  Ignatius 
of  Antioch  (d.  107),  a  disciple  of  the  Apostles,  says  of 
the  Eucharist:  "There  is  only  one  flesh  of  our  Lord 
Jesus  Christ,  only  one  chahce  containing  His  one 
Blood,  one  altar  (ly  OvaMffT'ipiop)^  as  also  only  one 
bishop  with  the  priesthood  and  the  deacons"  (Ep.,  ad. 
Philad.,  iv),  he  here  gives  to  the  liturgical  Eucharistic 
celebration,  of  which  alone  he  speaks,  by  his  reference 
to  the  "altar"  an  evidentlv  sacrificial  meaning,  often 
as  he  may  use  the  word  "altar"  in  other  contexts  in  a 
metaphorical  sense. 

A  heated  controversy  had  raged  round  the  concep- 
tion of  Justin  Mart3rr  (a.  166)  from  the  fact  that  in  his 
"Dialogue  with  Tryphon"  (c.  117)  he  characterises 
"prayer and  thanksgiving"  (e^ai  Kal  wdxaptartai)  as 
the  "one  perfect  sacrifice  acceptable  to  Ck>d"  (rikttai 
pAmA  ml  cM/MOTot  &wUu),  Did  he  intend  by  thus 
emphasising  the  interior  spiritual  sacrifice  to  exclude 
the  exterior  real  sacrifice  of  the  Eucharist?  Clearly  he 
did  not,  for  in  the  same  "  Dialogue  "  (c.  xli:  P.  G.,  VI, 
564)  he  savs  the  "food  offering"  of  the  lepers,  assur- 
edly a  real  eift  offering  (cf.  Levit.,  xiv),  was  a  figure 
(rdroff)  of  the  bread  of  the  Eucharist,  which  Jesus 
commanded  to  be  offered  {froutv)  in  commemoration 
of  His  sufferings".  He  then  goes  on:  "of  the  sacrifices 
which  you  (the  Jews)  formerly  offered,  (xod  through 
Malachias  said : '  I  have  no  pleasure,  etc.'  By  the  sacri- 
fices {fii>9M9)f  however,  which  we  Glen  tiles  present  to 
Him  in  ever^  place,  that  is  {rovriffri)  of  the  bread  of 
the  Eucharist  and  hkewise  of  the  chalice  of  the 
Eucharist,  he  then  said  that  we  glorify  his  name, 
while  you  dishonour  him."  Here  "  bread  and  chaUce  " 
are  by  the  use  of  rovricn  clearly  included  as  objective 
gift  offerings  in  the  idea  of  the  Christian  sacrifice.  If 
the  other  apolonsts  (Aristides,  Athenagoras,  Minucius 
Felix,  Amooiu^  vary  the  thought  a  great  deal — God 
has  no  need  of  sacrifice;  the  best  sacrifice  is  the  knowl- 
edge of  the  Creator;  sacrifice  and  eJtars  are  unknown 


to  the  Christians — it  is  to  be  presumed  not  only  that 
under  the  restraint  imposed  Dv  the  discipUna  arcani 
they  withheld  the  whole  truth,  but  also  that  they 
rightly  repudiated  all  connexion  with  pagan  idolatry, 
the  sacrince  of  animals,  and  heathen  altars.  Tertul- 
lian  bluntly  declared:  "We  offer  no  sacrifice  (non 
sacrificamus)  because  we  cannot  eat  both  the  Supper 
of  God  and  that  of  demons"  (De  spectac.,  c,  xiii). 
And  yet  in  another  passa^  (De  orat.,  c,  xix)  he  calls 
Holy  Commimion  ^'participation  in  the  sacrifice" 
(participatio  sacrificii),  which  is  accomplished  "on  the 
altar  of  Grod  "  (ad  aram  Dei) ;  he  speaks  (De  cult,  fern., 
II,  xi)  of  a  real,  not  a  mere  metaphorical,  "offering  up 
of  sacrifice"  (sacrificium  offertur);  he  dwells  still  fur- 
ther as  a  Montanist  (de  pudicit,  c,  ix)  as  well  on  the 
"nourishing  power  of  tne  Lord's  Body"  (opimitate 
dominici  corporis)  as  on  the  "renewal  of  the  immola- 
tion of  Christ"  (rursus  illi  mactabitur  CJhristus). 

With  IrensBUS  of  Lyons  there  comes  a  turning-pointy 
inasmuch  as  he,  with  conscious  clearness,  first  puts 
forward  "bread  and  wine"  as  objective  gift  offerings, 
but  at  the  same  time  maintains  that  these  elements 
become  the  "body  and  blood"  of  the  Word  through 
consecration;  and  thus  by  simply  combining  these 
two  thoughts  we  have  the  Catholic  Mass  of  to-day. 
According  to  him  (Adv.  h»r.,  iv,  18, 4)  it  is  the  Church 
alone  "that  offers  the  pure  oblation"  (oblationem 
puram  offert),  whereas  the  Jews  "did  not  receive  the 
Word,  which  is  offered  (or  through  whom  an  offering 
is  made)  to  God"  (non  receperunt  Verbum  quod 
[cditer,  per  quod]  offertur  Deo).  Passing  over  the 
teaching  of  the  Alexandrine  Clement  and  Ori^n, 
whose  love  of  allegory,  together  with  the  restrictions 
of  the  diaciplina  arcani^  involved  their  writings  in  a 
mystic  obscurity,  we  make  particular  mention  of  Hip- 
polytus  of  Rome  (d.  235)  whose  celebrated  fragment 
Achelis  has  wrongly  characterised  as  spurious.  He 
writes  (Fra«n.  in  Pro  v.,  ix,  i;  P.  G.,  LXXX,  593), 
"The  Word  prepared  His  Precious  and  inmiaculate 
Body  ((tw/m)  and  His  Blood  (oT/m),  that  daily  (xo^ 
ixdiTTi/iv)  are  set  forth  as  a  sacrifice  {hriTtkoOrrai  M/upa) 
on  the  mystic  and  Divine  table  (rpawdi^)  as  a 
memorial  of  that  ever  memorable  first  table  of  the 
mysterious  supper  of  the  Lord".  Since  according  to 
the  judgment  of  even  Protestant  historians  of  dogma, 
St.  Cyril  (d.  258)  is  to  be  regarded  as  the  "heraW"  of 
Catholic  doctrine  on  the  Mass,  we  may  likewise  pass 
him  over,  as  well  as  Cvril  of  Jerusalem  (d.  386)  and 
Chrysostom  (d.  407)  who  have  been  chaived  wiu  ex- 
aggerated "realism",  and  whose  plain  discourses  on 
the  sacrifice  rival  those  of  Basil  (a.  379),  Gregory  of 
Nyssa  (d.  c.  394)  and  Ambrose  (d.  397).  Only  about 
Aueustine  (d.  430)  must  a  word  be  said,  since,  in  re- 
f&m  to  the  real  presence  of  Christ  in  the  Eucharist,  he 
IS  cited  as  favouring  the ' '  s3anbolical "  theory.  Now  it 
is  precisely  his  teaching  on  sacrifice  that  best  serves  to 
clear  away  the  suspicion  that  he  inclined  to  a  merely 
spiritual  interpretation. 

For  Augustine  nothing  is  more  certain  than  that 
every  religion,  whether  true  or  false,  must  have  an 
exterior  form  of  celebration  and  worship  (contra 
Faust.,  xix,  11).  This  applies  as  well  to  Christians 
(1.  c,  XX,  18),  who  "commemorate  the  sacrifice  con- 
summated (on  the  cross)  by  the  holiest  oblation  and 
participation  of  the  Body  and  Blood  of  Christ"  (cele- 
Drant  sacrosancta  oblatione  et  participatione  corporis 
et  sanguinis  Christi).  The  Mass  is,  in  his  eves  (de  civ. 
Dei,  A,  20),  the  "nighest  and  true  sacrifice"  (sum- 
mum  venmique  sacrificium),  Christ  being  at  once 
"priest  and  victim"  (ipse  offerens,  ipse  et  oblatio); 
and  he  reminds  the  Jews  (Adv.  Jud.,  ix,  13)  that  the 
sacrifice  of  Malachias  is  now  made  in  every  place  (in 
onmi  loco  offerri  sacrificium  Christianorum).  He  re- 
lates of  his  mother  Monica  (Confess.,  ix,  13)  that  she 
had  asked  for  prayers  at  the  altar  (ad  altare)  for  her 
soul  and  had  attended  Mass  daily.  From  Augustine 
onwards  the  current  of  the  Church's  tradition  flows 


check  or  diaturba 

own  time.    Even  ..__  ^ ^  . 

it  through  the  Reformation  hod  no  ^ect.  ^ —  -  - 

Abncferderoonstrationof  tbeexiatenceof  tbeMaaa    idea  of  the  Eucharistic  celebration  found  unadul- 
b  the  BO-cftUed  prcwf  from  preBcription,  which  is  thua     terated  and  decisive  expression  (see  Uturgies).    We 
formulated:  A  sscrilicial  nte  in  tQe  Church  which  ia    have  therefore  traced  the  Mass  from  the  present  to  the 
older  than  the  oldest  attack  nude  on  it  by  heretics    earliest  times,  thus  establishing  its  Apostolic  origin, 
cannot  be  decried  as  "idolatry",  but  must  be  referred        ■-  ■   •     ■  •      ■         ......  ™ 

back  to  the  Founder  of  Christianity  as  a  rightful 
heritage  of  which  He  was  the  originator.  Now  the 
Church's  legitimate  poaaeBsion  as  regards  the  Mass  can 
be  traced  1>ack  to  the  beginnings  of  Christianity;  it 
follows  that  the  Mass  was  Divinely  instituted  by 
Qirist.  Regarding  the  minor  proposition,  the  proof  of 
which  alone  concerns  us  here,  wo  may  begin  at  once 
vrith  the  Reformation,  the  only  movement  tnat  utterly 
did  away  with  the  Uase.  Psychologically,  it  is  quito 
intelligible  that  men  like  Zwingli,  Karlstadt  and  (Eco- 
lampi^iuH^ould  tear  down  the  altars,  for  they  denied 
Christ's  real  presence  in  the  Sacrament.  Calvinism 
also  in  reviling  the  "papistical  mass"  which  the 
Heidelberg  catechism  clutractericed  as  "cursed  idola~ 
try"  was  merely  self-consistent  since  it  admitted 
only  a  "dvnamic"  presence.  It  is  rather  strange  on 
the  other  nand  that,  in  spite  of  his  belief  in  the  lit«ral 
meaning  of  the  words  of  consecration,  Luther,  after  a 
violent  "nocturnal  disputation  with  the  devil",  in 
1621,  should  have  repudiated  the  Hasa.  But  it  is 
exactly  these  measures  of  violence  that  best  show  to 
what  a  depth  the  institution  of  the  Mass  had  taken 
root  by  that  time  in  Church  and  people.  How  long 
had  it  been  taking  root?  The  answer,  to  begin  with, 
is:  all  throu^  the  Middle  Ages  back  to  Photius,  the 
originator  ol  the  Eastern  Schism  (SOS).  Though 
Wycliffe  protested  against  the  teaching  of  the  Council 
of  Constance  (1414-18),  which  maintained  that  the 
Mass  could  be  proved  from  Scripture:  and  though  the 
Albigensos  and  Waldenses  claimed  for  the  laity  also 
the  power  to  offer  sacrifice  (cf.  Deniinger,  "Enchir.", 
685  and  430),  it  is  none  the  leas  true  that  even  the 
schismatic  Greeks  held  fast  to  the  Eucharbtio  sacrifiee 
as  a  precious  heritage  from  their  Catholic  past.  In 
the  negotiations  for  reunion  at  Lyons  (1274)  and 
Florence  (143G)  they  showed  moreover  that  they  had 
kept  it  intact;  and  they  have  faithfully  safeguarded  it 
to  this  day.  From  all  which  it  is  clear  that  the  Alass 
existed  in  both  Churches  long  before  Photius,  a  con- 
clusion borne  out  by  the  monuments  of  Christian 
antiquity. 

Taking  a  long  step  backwards  from  the  ninth  to  the 
fourth  century,  we  come  upon  the  Nestorians  and 

Monophvsites  who  were  driven  out  of  the  Church  (2)  The  Nature  of  the  Mass.— In  its  denial  of  the 
durins  the  fifth  century  at  Ephesus  (431)  and  Chalce-  true  Divinity  of  Christ  and  of  every  supernatural  inati- 
don  (451).  From  that  day  to  this  they  have  cele-  tution,  modem  unbelief  endeavours,  by  means  of  the 
brated  in  their  solemn  lituigy  the  sacrifice  of  the  New  so-called  historico-religious  method,  to  explain  the 
Law,  and  since  thev  oouldonly  have  taken  it  with  character  of  the  Euchsjist  and  the  Euchariatic  sacri- 
thcm  from  the  old  Cnristian  Church,  it  follows  that  the  6ce  as  the  natural  result  of  a  spontaneous  process  of 
Mass  goes  back  in  the  Church  beyond  the  time  of  development  in  the  Christian  religion.  In  this  con- 
Ncstonanism  and  Monophysitism.  Indeed,  the  first  nexion  it  ia  interesting  to  observe  now  these  different 
Nicene  Ctouncil  (325)  m  its  celebrated  eighteenth  and  conflicting  hypotheses  refute  one  another,  with 
canon  forbade  priests  to  receive  the  Eucharist  from  the  rather  startling  result  at  the  end  of  It  all  that  a 
the  hands  of  deacons  for  the  verv  obvious  reason  that  new,great,and  insoluble  problem  looms  up  for  investi- 
"  neither  the  canon  nor  custom  nave  handed  down  to  gation.  While  some  discover  the  roots  of  the  Mass  in 
),  that  those,  who  have  not  the  power  to  offer  sacri-     the  Jewish  funeral  feasts  (O.  Holtimann)  or  in  Jewish 


offer  (rfof^iipeiftt) ".     Hence  it  is  plain  that  for  the  in  the  underground  strata  of  pagan  relieions.    Here, 

celebration  of  the  Mass  there  was  required  the  dignity  however,  a  rich  variety  of  hypotheaes  is  placed  at  their 

of  aspecial  priesthood,  from  which  the  deacons  as  such  disposal.    In  tbisageof  Pan-Babylonismitisnotatall 

were  excluded.     Since,  however,  the  Nicene  Council  surprising  that  the  germinal  ideas  of  the  Christian 

speaks  of  a  "custom",  that  takes  us  at  once  into  the  communion  should  be  located  in  Babylon,  where  in 

tnird  century,  wearealready  in  the  age  of  the  CJataeombe  the  Adapa  myth  (on  the  tablet  of  Tell  Amama)  men- 

(q.  v.)  with  their  Euchariatic  pictures,  which  accord-  tion  has  been  found  of  "water  of  life"  and  "food  of 

ing  to  the  best  founded  opinions  represent  the  htui^  Ufe"  (Zimmem),     Othera  (c.  g.  Brandt)  fancy  they 

Bical  celebration  of  tlie  Mass.    According  to  Wilpert,  have  found  a  still  more  striking  analon'  in  the  "  bread 

Hie  oldest  repRscntation  of  the  Holy  Sacrifice  is  in  the  and  water  "  (Pathi  and  Mam&ah&)  ^  the  Mandiean 

"Greek  Chapel"  in  the  Catacomb  of  St.  PriscUla  (c  religion.    The  view  moot  widely  held  to-day  among 


1CAS8  13  MA88 

imholders  of  the  historioo-religious  theory  is  that  the  as  the  11  viiur  realisation,  representation  and  renewal  of 
Euchamt  and  the  Mass  originated  in  the  practices  of  the  past.  Only  the  Last  Supper,  standing  midway  as 
the  Persian  Mithraimn  (Dieterich.  H.  T.  Holtsmann,  it  were  between  the  figure  ana  its  fulfilment,  still 
Pfleiderer,  Robertson^  etc.).  *'  In tne Mand»an  mass ",  looked  to  Uie  future,  in  so  far  as  it  was  an  anticipatory 
writes  Cuxnont  ^'Mysterien  des  Mithra'\  Leipsig.  commemoration  of  the  sacrifice  of  the  Cross.  In  the 
1903,  p.  118),  "the  oelebrant  consecrated  oread  ana  discourse  in  which  the  Eucharist  was  instituted,  the 
water,  which  he  mixed  with  perfumed  Haoma-juice.  ''giving  of  the  body ''  and  the  "  shedding  of  the  Blood" 
and  ate  this  food  while  performing  the  functions  ot  were  of  necessity  related  to  the  physical  separation  of 
divine  aervioe".  Tertuliian  in  ancer  ascribed  this  the  blood  from  the  body  on  the  Cross,  without  which 
mimicking  of  Christian  rites  to  the^' devil"  and  ob-  the  sacramental  immolation  of  Christ  at  the  Last  Sup- 
served  in  astonishment  (De  prsBSoript  haret,  C.  xl) :  per  would  be  inconceivable.  The  Fathers  of  t£e 
"  Celebrat  (Mithras)  et  panis  oolationem."  Thia  is  not  Church,  such  as  Cyprian  (Ep.,  bdii,  9,  ed.  Hartel,  II, 
the  place  to  criticise  in  detail  these  wUd  creations  of  708),  Ambrose  (De  ofi&c,  I,  xlviii),  Augustine  (Contra 
an  overheated  phantasy.  Let  it  suffice  to  note  that  all  Faust.,  XX,  xviii)  and  Gregory  the  Great  (Dial.,  IV, 
these  explanations  necessarily  lead  to  impenetrable  Iviii),  insist  that  the  Mass  in  its  essential  nature  must 
ni^t,  aa  long  as  men  refuse  to  believe  in  the  true  be  that  which  Christ  Himself  characterised  as  a*' com- 
Divinity  of  (jtaist,  who  commanded  that  His  bloody  memoration''  of  Him  (Luke,  xxii,  19)  and  Paul  as  the 
sacrifice  on  the  Cross  should  be  dailv  renewed  by  an  "showing  of  the  death  of  the  Lord **  (I  Cor.,  xi,  26). 
unbloody  sacrifice  of  His  Bodv  and  Blood  in  the  Mass  Regarding  the  other  aspect  of  the  Sacrifice  on  the 
under  tne  simple  elements  of  bread  and  wine.  This  Cross,  vis.  the  impossibility  of  its  renewal,  its  single- 
ak>ne  is  the  ong^  and  nature  of  the  Mass.  ness  and  its  power,  Paul  again  proclaimed  with  energy 

(a)  The  Physical  Character  of  the  Mass. — ^In  regard  that  Christ  on  the  Cross  dennitively  redeemed  tSe 

to  the  physical  character  there  arises  not  only  the  whole  world,  in  that  he  ''by  His  own  Blood,  entered 

question  as  to  the  concrete  i)ortions  of  the  liturgy,  in  once  into  the  holies,  having  obtained  eternal  redemp- 

which  the  real  offering  lies  hidden,  but  also  the  ques-  tion"  (Heb.,  ix,  12).   This  does  not  mean  that  man- 

tion  regarding  the  relation  of  the  Mass  to  the  bloody  kind  is  suddenly  and  without  the  action  of  its  own  will 

sacrifice  of  the  doss.   To  begin  with  the  latter  auea-  brought  back  to  the  state  of  innocence  in  Paradise  and 

tion  as  much  the  more  important.  Catholics  and  belie  v-  set  above  the  necessity  of  working  to  secure  for  itself 

ing  Protestants  alike  acknowlecue  that  as  Christians  the  fruits  of  redemption.    Otherwise  children  would 

we  venerate  in  the  bloody  sacrmoe  of  the  Cross  the  be  in  no  need  of  baptism  nor  adults  of  justifying  faith 

one,  universal,  absolute  Saciifice  for  the  salvation  of  to  win  eternal  happmess.   The  "completion"  spoken 

the  world.    And  this  indeed  is  true  in  a  double  sense:  of  by  Paul  can  therefore  refer  only  to  the  objective 

first,  because  among  all  the  sacrifices  of  the  past  ana  side  of  redemption,  which  does  not  dispense  with,  but 

future  the  Sacrifice  on  the  Cross  alone  stands  without  on  the  contnu^  requires,  the  proper  subjective  disposi- 

any  relation  to,  and  absolutely  independent  of,  anv  tion.   The  sacrifice  once  offered  on  the  Ooss  fillea  the 

other  samfioe,  a  complete  totality  and  unity  in  itself;  infinite  reservoirs  to  overflowing  with  healing  waters; 

second,  because  every  grace,  means  of  srace  and  sacri-  but  those  who  thirst  after  j ustice  must  come  with  their 

fioe,  whether  belonjpng  to  the  Jewish,  Christian  or  chalices  and  draw  out  what  they  need  to  quench  their 

pann  economy,  derive  their  whole  undivided  strength,  thirst.    In  this  important  distinction  between  objeo- 

vaSie^  and  efficacy  singly  and  alone  from  this  absolute  tive  and  subjective  redemption,  which  belongs  to  tiie 

sacrifice  on  the  Cross.    The  first  consideration  implies  essence  of  (Christianity^,  lies  not  merely  the  possibility, 

that  all  the  sacrifices  of  the  Old  Testament,  as  well  as  but  also  the  justification  of  the  Mass.   But  nere  unfor- 

the  Sacrifice  of  the  Mass,  bear  the  essential  mark  of  tunately  Catholics  and  Protestants  part  company, 

relativity^  in  so  far  as  they  are  necessarily  related  to  The  latter  can  see  in  the  Mass  only  a  "  clenial  of  the  one 

the  Sacrmoe  of  the  Cross,  as  the  periphery  of  a  cirele  to  sacrifice  of  Jesus  (Christ".  This  is  a  wrong  view;  for  if 

the  centre.    From  the  second  consideration  it  follows  the  Mass  can  do  and  does  no  more  than  conve}r  the 

that  aU  other  sacrifices,  the  Mass  included,  are  empty,  merits  of  Christ  to  mankind  by  means  of  a  sacrifice, 

barren  and  void  of  effect,  so  far  and  so  long  as  they  are  exactly  as  the  sacraments  do  it  without  the  use  of  sao- 

not  supplied  from  the  mainstream  of  merits  (due  to  rifice,  it  stands  to  reason  that  the  Mass  is  neither  a 

the  suffering)  of  the  Crucified.  Let  us  deal  briefly  with  second  independent  saciifice  alongside  of  the  sacrifice 

this  double  relationi^p.  on  the  Cross,  nor  a  substitute  whereby  the  sacrifice  on 

Regarding  the  qualification  of  relativity,  which  ad-  the  Cross  is  completed  or  its  value  enhanced. 
heres  to  every  sacrifice  other  than  the  sacrifice  of  the        The  only  distinction  between  the  Mass  and  the  sao- 

Croos,  there  is  no  doubt  that  the  sacrifices  of  the  Old  rament  lies  in  this:  that  the  latter  applies  to  the  indi- 

Testament  bv  their  figurative  forms  and  prophetic  sif -  vidual  the  fruits  of  the  Sacrifice  on  the  Ooss  by  simple 

nificance  pomt  to  the  sacrifice  of  the  <>ross  as  their  distribution,  the  other  by  a  specific  offering.   In  both, 

eventual  fulfilment.    The  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews  the  Chureh  draws  upon  the  one  Sacrifice  on  the  Ooss. 

(viii-x)  in  particular  develops  grandlv  the  figurative  This  is  and  remains  the  one  Sun,  that  gives  life,  light, 

character  of  the  sacrifices  of  the  Old  Testament.   Not  and  warmth  to  everything;  the  sacraments  and  the 

only  was  the  Levitic  priesthood,  as  a  "  shadow  of  the  Mass  are  only  the  planets  that  revolve  round  the  cen- 

things  to  come"  a  famt  type  of  the  high  priesthood  tral  body.   Take  tne  Sun  away  and  the  Mass  is  anni- 

of  Christ;  but  the  complex  sacrificial  cult,  broadly  hilated  not  one  whit  less  than  the  sacraments.   Chi  the 

spread  out  in  its  parts,  prefigured  the  one  sacrifice  of  other  hand,  without  these  two  the  Sacrifice  on  the 

tne  Cross.    Serving  onl^  the  legal  "cleansing  of  the  Cross  would  reign  as  independently  as,  conceivably, 

flesh  "  the  Leviticafsaonfioes  could  effect  no  true  "  for-  the  sun  without  the  planets.    The  Council  of  Trent 

gnveness  of  sins";  by  their  very  inefficacy  however  (Sees.  XXII,  can.  iv)  therefore  rightly  protested 

they  point  propnetical^  to  the  perfect  sacrifice  of  against  the  reproach  that  ''the  Mass  is  a  btasphemy 

propitiation  on  (jolgotha.    Just  for  that  reason  their  against  or  a  derogation  from  the  Sacrifice  on  the 

continual  repetition  as  well  as  their  great  diversity  was  Cross  "  (cf .  Densinger, "  Enchir.",  951).   Must  not  the 

ntial  to  thcon,  as  a  means  of  keeping  alive  in  the  same  reproach  be  cast  upon  the  Sacraments  also? 


Jews  the  yearning  for  the  true  sacrifice  of  expiation  Does  it  not  apply  to  baptism  and  communion  among 

which  the  future  was  to  brine.    This  longing  was  sati-  Protestants?    And  how  can  Christ  Himself  put  blas- 

ated  only  by  the  single  Sacrince  of  the  Ooss,  which  was  phemy  and  darkness  in  the  way  of  His  Sacrifice  on  the 

never  again  to  be  repeated.  Naturalljr  the  Mass,  too,  if  Cross  when  He  Himself  is  the  Hish  Priest,  in  whose 

it  is  to  have  the  cnaracter  of  a  legitimate  sacrifice,  name  and  by  whose  commission  His  human  represen- 

must  be  in  accord  with  this  inviolable  rule,  no  longer  tative  offers  sacrifice  with  the  words:  "This  is  my 

indeed  as  a  type  prophetic  of  future  things,  but  rather  Body,  this  is  my  Blood  "7    It  is  the  express  teaching 


14 


BCAS8 


of  the  Church  (cf .  Trent,  Seas.  XXII.  i)  that  the  Mass 
is  in  its  very  nature  a  "  representation  "  (representatio). 
e " commemoration "  (memoria)  and  an  "application ' 
(applicatio)  of  the  Sacrifice  of  the  Cross.  When  indeed 
the  Roman  Catechism  (II,  c.  iv,  Q.  70),  as  a  fourth 
relation,  adopts  the  daily  re^tition  (instauratio),  it 
means  that  such  a  repetition  is  to  be  taken  not  in  the 
sense  of  a  multiplication,  but  simply  of  an  application 
of  the  merits  of  the  passion.  Just  as  the  Church  repu- 
diates nothing  so  much  as  the  suggestion  that  by  the 
Mass  the  sacrifice  on  the  Cross  is  as  it  were  set  aside,  so 
she  goes  a  step  farther  and  maintains  the  essential 
identity  of  botn  sacrifices,  holding  that  the  main  dif- 
ference between  them  is  in  the  different  manner  of 
sacrifice — ^the  one  bloodjr,  the  other  unbloody  (Trent, 
Sees.  XXII,  ii) : "  Una  enim  eademque  est  hostia,  idem 
nunc  offerens  sacerdotum  ministerio,  qui  seipsum  tunc 
in  cruce  obtulit,  sola  offerendi  ratione  di versa."  Inas- 
much as  the  sacrificing  priest  (offerens)  and  the  sacri- 
ficial victim  ^ostia)  in  both  sacrifices  are  Christ  Him- 
self, their  sameness  amoimts  even  to  a  numerical  iden- 
tity. In  regard  to  the  manner  of  the  sacrifice  (offerendi 
ratio)  on  the  other  hand,  it  is  naturally  a  question 
only  of  a  specific  identity  or  unity  that  includes  the 
possibility  of  ten,  a  himdred,  or  a  uiousand  masses. 

(b)  Turning  now  to  the  other  question  as  to  the 
constituent  parts  of  the  litur^  of  the  Mass  in  which 
the  real  sacnfice  is  to  be  looked  for,  we  need  only  take 
into  consideration  its  three  chief  parts;  the  Offertory, 
the  Consecration  and  the  Commumon.  The  antiquated 
view  of  Johann  Eck,  according  to  which  the  act  of  sac- 
rifice was  comprised  in  the  prayer  "  Unde  et  memores 
.  .  .  offerimus",  is  thus  excluded  from  our  discussion, 
as  is  also  tiie  opinion  of  Melchior  Canus,  who  held  that 
the  sacrifice  is  accomplished  in  the  s3rmbolical  cere- 
mony of  the  breaking  of  the  Host  and  its  commingling 
with  the  Chalice.  The  Question  therefore  arises  first: 
Is  the  sacrifice  comprised  in  the  Offertoiy  7  From  the 
wording  of  the  prayer  this  much  at  least  is  clear,  that 
bread  and  wine  constitute  the  secondaiy  sacnficial 
elements  of  the  Mass,  since  the  priest,  in  the  true  lan- 
guage of  sacrifice,  offers  to  God  bread  as  an  "un- 
spotted host"  (immaculatam  hostiam)  and  wine  as 
tne  "chalice  of  salvation"  (calicem  salutaris).  But 
the  very  significance  of  this  language  proves  that  at- 
tention is  mainly  directed  to  the  prospective  transub- 
stantiation  of  the  Eucharistic  elements.  Since  the 
Mass  is  not  a  mere  offering  of  bread  and  wine,  like  the 
figiuative  food  offering  of  Melchisedech,  it  is  clear  that 
only  the  Body  and  Blood  of  Christ  can  be  the  primary 
matter  of  the  sacrifice,  as  was  the  case  at  the  Last 
Supper  (cf.  Trent,  Sees.  XXII,  i,  can.  2;  Denzinger, 
n.  938,  949).  Consequently,  the  sacrifice  is  not  in  the 
Offertory.  Does  it  consist  then  in  the  priest's  Com- 
munion? There  were  and  are  theologians  who  favour 
that  view.  They  can  be  ranged  in  two  classes,  accord- 
ing as  Uiey  see  in  the  Communion  the  essential  or  the 
oo-essential. 

Those  who  belong  to  the  first  category  (Dominicus 
Soto,  Renz,  Bellord)  had  to  beware  of  the  heretical 
doctrine  proscribed  by  the  Coimcil  of  Trent  (Sess. 
XXII,  can.  1),  viz.,  that  Mass  and  Communion  were 
identical.  In  American  and  English  circles  the  so- 
called  "banquet-theory"  of  the  late  Bishop  Bellord 
once  created  some  stir  (cf .  The  Ecclesiastical  Review, 
XXXIII,  1905,  258  sq.).  According  to  that  view,  the 
essence  of  the  sacrifice  was  not  to  be  looked  for  in  the 
offering  of  a  gift  to  God,  but  solely  in  the  Communion. 
Without  communion  there  was  no  sacrifice.  Regard- 
ing pagan  sacrifices  Dollinger  ("Heidentum  und 
Judentum",  Ratisbon,  1857)  had  already  demon- 
strated the  incompatibilttv  of  this  view.  With  the 
complete  shedding  of  blooa  pagan  sacrifices  ended,  so 
that  the  supper  which  sometimes  followed  it  was  ex- 
pressive merely  of  the  satisfaction  felt  at  the  reconcil- 
iation with  the  fpods.  Even  the  horrible  human  sacri- 
fices bad  49  tbeir  object  the  death  of  the  victim  only 


and  not  a  ^M^n^'M^  feast  (cf.  Mader,  "Die  Mensdien- 
opfer  der  alten  Hebrfter  und  der  benaohbarten  Ydlker". 
iVeibuig,  1909).  As  to  the  Jews,  onlv  a  few  Levitical 
sacrifices,  such  as  the  peace  offering,  nad  feasting  con- 
nected with  them;  most,  and  especially  the  Dumt 
offermgs  (holocausta),  were  accomplished  without 
feasting  (cf.  Levit.,  vi,  9  sq.).  Bishop  Bellord,  having 
cast  in  nis  lot  with  the  "  banauet-theory  ",  could  natu- 
rally find  the  essence  of  the  Mass  in  the  priests'  Com- 
munion only.  He  was  indmd  logically  bound  to  allow 
that  the  Oucifixion  itself  had  the  character  of  a  sacri- 
fice only  in  conjunction  with  the  Last  Supper,  at  which 
alone  food  was  taken;  for  the  Crucifixion  excluded 
any  ritual  food  offering.  These  disquieting  conse- 
quences are  all  the  more  serious  in  that  they  are  devoid 
of  any  scientific  basis  (see  Pesch,  "Prsel.  dogmat.", 
VI,  379  sq.,  Freibuig,  1908J. 

Harmless,  even  t£ough  improbable,  is  that  other 
view  (BeUarmine,  De  Lugo,  Txiumely,  etc.)  which  in- 
cludes the  Commumon  as  at  least  a  co-essential  factor 
in  the  constitution  of  the  Mass;  for  the  consumption 
of  the  Host  and  of  the  contents  of  the  Chalice,  being  a 
kind  of  destruction,  would  appear  to  accord  with  uie 
conception  of  the  sacrifice  developed  above.  But  only 
in  appearance ;  for  the  sacrificial  transformation  of  ike 
victmi  must  take  place  on  the  altar,  and  not  in  the 
body  of  the  celebrant,  while  the  partaking  of  the  two 
elements  can  at  most  represent  the  burial  and  not  the 
sacrificial  death  of  Christ.  The  Last  Supper  also 
would  have  been  a  true  sacrifice  only  on  concution  that 
Christ  had  given  the  Communion  not  only  to  His  apos- 
tles but  also  to  EQmself.  There  is  however  no  evidence 
that  such  a  Communion  ever  took  place,  probable  as  it 
may  appear.  For  the  rest,  the  Communion  of  the  priest 
is  not  the  sacrifice,  but  only  the  completion  or,  and 
participation  in,  the  sacrifice;  it  bek>ngs  therefore  not 
to  the  essence,  but  to  the  integrity  of  the  sacrifice. 
And  this  integritjr  is  also  preserved  absolutely  even  in 
the  so-called  " private  Mass"  at  which  tlie  priest  ak>ne 
communicates;  private  Masses  are  allowed  for  that 
reason  (cf.  Trent,  Sess.  XXII,  can.  8).  When  the 
Jansenist  Synod  of  Pistoia  (1786),  proclaiming  the 
false  principle  that  "participation  in  the  sacrifice  is 
essential  to  the  sacrifice  ",  demanded  at  least  the  mak- 
ing of  a  "spiritual  communion"  on  the  p'^rt  of  the 
faithful  as  a  condition  of  allowing  private  Masses,  it 
was  denied  by  Pius  VI  in  his  Bufi  "  Auctorem  fidei" 
(1796)  (see  Denzinger,  n.  1528). 

After  the  elimination  of  the  Offertory  and  Com- 
mimion,  there  remains  only  the  Consecration  as  the 
part  in  which  the  true  sacrifice  is  to  be  sought.  In 
reahtjr,  that  part  alone  is  to  be  regarded  as  the  proper 
sacrificial  act  which  is  such  by  Christ's  own  institu- 
tion. Now  the  Lord's  words  are:  "This  is  my  Body; 
this  is  my  Blood."  The  Oriental  EpiklesiB  (q.  v.)  can- 
not be  considered  as  the  moment  of  consecration  for 
the  reason  that  it  is  absent  in  the  Mass  in  tiie  West  and 
is  known  to  have  first  come  into  practice  after  Apos- 
tolic times  (see  Eucharist).  The  sacrifice  must  also 
be  at  the  point  where  Christ  personally  appears  as 
High  Priest  and  the  human  celebrant  acts  only  as  his 
representative.  The  priest  does  not  however  assume 
the  personal  part  of  Christ  either  at  the  Offertory  or 
Communion.  He  only  does  so  when  he  speaks  the 
words :  "This  is  My  Body;  this  is  My  Blood '',  in  which 
there  is  no  possible  reference  to  the  body  and  blood  of 
the  celebrant.  While  the  Consecration  as  such  can  be 
shown  with  certainty  to  be  the  act  of  Sacrifice,  the 
necessity  of  the  twofold  consecration  can  be  demon- 
strated onlv  as  highly  probable.  Not  onl^  older  theo- 
logians such  as  Fntssen,  Gotti,  and  Bonacina,  but  also 
later  theologians  such  as  Schouppen,  Stentrup  and  Fr. 
Schmid,  have  supported  the  untenable  theonr  that 
when  one  of  the  consecrated  elements  is  invalid,  such 
as  barley  bread  or  cider,  the  consecration  of  the  valid 
element  not  only  produces  the  Sacrament,  but  also  the 
(mutilated)  sacrifice.  Their  diief  argument  is  that  the 


MASS                                   15  MASS 

flAcnunent  in  the  Eucharist  is  inseparable  in  idea  from  after  the  fashion  of  a  tragedyi  we  would  imdoubtedly 

the  aacrifioe.    But  they  entirely  overlooked  the  fact  see  before  us  not  a  true  sacrifice,  but  a  historic  or 

that  Christ  positively  prescribed  the  twofold  consecra-  dramatic  representation  of  the  former  bloody  sacrifice. 

tion  for  the  sacrifice  of  the  Mass  (not  for  the  sacra-  Such  may  indeed  satisfv  the  notion  of  a  relative  sacri- 

ment),  and  especiaXLy  the  fact  that  in  the  consecration  fice,  but  certainly  not  the  notion  of  the  Sacrifice  of  the 

of  one  element  only  the  intrinsically  essential  relation  Mass,  which  includes  in  itself  both  the  relative  and  the 

of  the  MasB  to  the  sacrifice  of  the  Cross  is  not  symboli-  absolute  (in  opposition  to  the  merely  relative)  sacrifi- 

cally  represented.    Since  it  was  no  mere  death  from  cial  moment.    If  the  Mass  is  to  be  something  more 

suffocation  that  Christ  suffered,  but  a  bloody  death,  than  an  Ober-Ammergau  Passion  Play»  then  not  only 

in  whidi  His  veins  were  emptied  of  their  Blood,  this  must  Christ  appear  in  His  real  personality  on  the  altar. 

condition  of  separation  must  receive  visible  represen-  but  He  must  also  be  in  some  manner  really  sacrificed 

tation  on  the  altar,  as  in  a  sublime  drama.    This  on  that  veiy  altar.    The  theory  of  Vasquez  thus  fails 

condition  is  fulfilled  only  by  the  double  consecration,  to  fulfil  the  first  condition  which  we  have  named 

which  brings  before  our  eyes  the  Body  and  the  Blood  above. 

in  the  state  of  separation,  and  thus  represents  the  To  a  certain  extent  the  opposite  of  Vasquez's  theory 

mystical  shedding  of  blood.   Consequently,  the  double  is  that  of  Cardinal  Cienfuegos,  who,  while  exaggerating 

consecration  is  an  absolutely  essential  element  of  the  the  absolute  moment  of  the  Mass,  imdervames  the 

Mass  as  a  relative  sacrifice.  equally  essential  relative  moment  of  the  sacrifice.   The 

(b)  The  Metaphysical  Character  of  the  Sacrifice  of  sacrificial  destruction  of  the  Eucharistic  Christ  he 
the  Mass. — ^The  ph3rsical  essence  of  the  Mass  having  would  find  in  the  volimtary  suspension  of  the  powers 
been  established  m  the  consecration  of  the  two  species,  of  sense  (especially  of  sight  ana  hearing),  which  the 
the  metaphysical  question  arises  as  to  whether  and  in  sacramental  nuxle  of  existence  implies,  and  which  lasts 
what  d^ree  the  scientific  concept  of  sacrifice  is  real-  from  the  consecration  to  the  mingling  of  the  two  Spe- 
ised  in  this  double  consecration.  Since  the  three  ideas,  cies.  But,  apart  from  the  fact  that  one  may  not  con- 
sacrificing  priest,  sacrificial  gift,  and  sacrificial  object,  stitute  a  hypothetical  theologumenon  the  basis  of  a 
present  no  difficulty  to  the  imderstanding,  the  prob-  theory,  one  can  no  lonf^er  from  such  a  standpoint  suc- 
lem  is  finally  seen  to  lie  entirely  in  the  determination  cessfully  defend  the  mdispensability  of  the  double 
of  the  real  sacrificial  act  (actio  sacrifica),  and  indeed  consecration.  Equally  difficult  is  it  to  find  in  the 
not  so  much  in  the  form  of  this  act  as  in  the  matter,  Eucharistic  Christ's  voluntary  surrender  of  his  sensir 
since  the  glorified  Victim,  in  consequence  of  Its  impas-  tive  functions  the  relative  moment  of  sacrifice,  i.  e.  the 
sibility.  cannot  be  really  transformed,  much  less  de-  representation  of  the  bloody  sacrifice  of  the  Cross, 
stroyed.  In  their  investigation  of  the  idea  of  destruc-  The  standpoint  of  Suarez,  adopted  by  Scheeben,  is 
tion,  the  post-Tridentine  theologians  have  brought  both  exalting  and  imposing;  the  real  transformation 
into  pbiy  all  their  acuteness,  often  with  brilliant  re-  of  the  sacrificial  gifts  he  refers  to  the  destruction  of  the 
suits,  and  have  elaborated  a  series  of  theories  concern-  Eucharistic  elements  (in  virtue  of  the  transubstantia- 
izig  the  Sacrifice  of  the  Mass,  of  which,  however,  we  can  tion)  at  their  conversion  into  the  Precious  Bod^  and 
discuss  only  the  most  notable  and  important.  But  Blood  of  Christ  (immtUatio  ver/ectiva),  just  as,  m  the 
first,  that  we  may  have  at  hand  a  reliable,  critical  sacrifice  of  incense  in  the  Ola  Testament,  the  grains  of 
standard  wherewith  to  test  the  validity  or  invalidity  incense  were  transformed  by  fire  into  the  hi^er  and 
of  the  various  theories,  we  maintain  that  a  sound  and  more  precious  form  of  the  sweetest  odour  and  fra- 
satisfactory  theory  must  satisfy  the  following  four  grance.  But,  since  the  antecedent  destruction  of  the 
conditions:  (1)  the  twofold  consecration  must  show  substance  of  bread  and  wine  can  by  no  means  be  re- 
not  only  the  relative,  but  also  the  absolute  moment  of  ^rded  as  the  sacrifice  of  the  Body  and  Blood  of 
sacrifice,  so  that  the  Msas  will  not  consist  in  a  mere  Christ,  Suarez  ia  finally  compelled  to  identify  the  sub- 
relation,  but  will  be  revealed  as  in  itself  a  real  sacrifice ;  stantial  production  of  the  Eucharistic  Victim  with  the 
(2)  the  act  of  sacrifice  (actio  sacrifica),  veiled  in  the  sacrificing  of  the  same.  Herein  is  straightway  re- 
double consecration,  must  refer  directly  to  the  sacri-  vealed  a  serious  weakness,  already  clearly  perceived 
ficial  matter — ^i.  e.  the  Eucharistic  Christ  Himself —  by  De  Lugo.  For  the  production  of  a  thing  can  never 
not  to  the  elements  of  bread  and  wine  or  their  unsub-  be  identi^  with  its  sacrifice;  otherwise  one  might 
stantial  species:  (3)  the  sacrifice  of  Christ  must  some-  declare  the  gardener's  production  of  plants  or  the 
how  result  in  a  Kenosis,  not  in  a  glorification,  since  this  fanner's  raising  of  cattle  a  sacrifice.  Thus,  the  idea  of 
latter  ia  at  most  the  object  of  the  sacrifice,  not  the  kenosis,  which  in  the  minds  of  all  men  is  intimately 
sacrifice  itself;  (4)  since  this  postulated  kenosis,  how-  linked  with  the  notion  of  sacrifice,  and  which  we  have 
ever,  can  be  no  real,  but  only  a  mystical  or  sacramen-  given  above  as  our  third  condition,  is  wanting  in  the 
tal  one,  we  must  appraise  intelligently  those  moments  theory  of  Suarez.  To  offer  something  as  a  sacrifice 
which  approximate  in  any  degree  the  "mystical  slay-  always  means  to  divest  oneself  of  it,  even  though  thia 
ine"  to  a  real  exinanition,  instead  of  rejecting  them,  self-divestment  may  finally  lead  to  exaltation, 
mth  the  aid  of  these  four  criteria  it  ia  comparatively  In  Germany  the  profound,  but  poorly  developed 
easy  to  arrive  at  a  decision  concerning  the  probability  theory  of  Valentin  Tnalhofer  found  great  favour.  We 
or  otherwise  of  the  different  theories  concerning  the  need  not,  however,  develop  it  here,  especially  since  it 
sacrifice  of  the  Mass.  rests  on  the  false  basis  of  a  supposed  "  neavenly  sacri- 

(i)  The  Jesuit  Gabriel  Vasquez,  whose  theory  was  fice"  of  Christ,  which,  as  the  virtual  continuation  of 
supported  by  Perrone  in  the  last  century,  reauires  for  the  Sacrifice  of  the  Cross,  becomes  a  tenoporal  and 
the  essence  of  an  absolute  sacrifice  only — ana  thus,  in  spatial  phenomenon  in  the  Sacrifice  of  the  Mass.  But, 
the  present  case,  for  the  Sacrifice  of  the  Cross — a  true  as  practically  all  other  theologians  teach,  the  existence 
destruction  or  tne  real  slaying  of  Christ,  whereas  for  of  this  heavenly  sacrifice  (in  the  strict  sense)  is  only  a 
the  ideft  of  the  relative  sacrifice  of  the  Mass  it  suffices  beautiful  theological  dream,  and  at  any  rate  cannot  be 
that  the  former  slaying  on  the  Cross  be  visibly  repre-  demonstrated  from  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews, 
sented  in  ^e  separation  of  Body  and  Blood  on  the  (ii)  Disavowing  the  above-mentioned  theories  con- 
altar.  This  view  soon  found  a  keen  critic  in  Cardinal  ceming  the  Sacrince  of  the  Mass,  theolojj^ians  of  to^lay 
de  Lugo,  who,  appeiding  to  the  Tridentine  definition  are  again  seeking  a  closer  approximation  to  the  pre- 
of  theliaaB  as  a  true  and  proper  sacrifice,  upbraided  Tridentine  conception,  having  realized  that  post- 
Vas^ues  for  reducing  the  liass  to  a  purely  relative  Tridentine  theology  had  perhaps  for  polemical  reasons 
sacrifice.  Were  Jephta  to  arise  again  to-dav  with  his  needlessly  exaggerated  tne  idea  of  destruction  in  the 
daughter  from  the  grave,  he  annies  (De  Euchar.,  disp.  sacrifice.  The  old  conception,  which  our  catechisms 
zix,  sect.  4,  n.  68),  and  present  oefore  our  e^es  a  living  even  to-day  proclaim  to  the  people  as  the  most  nat- 
dniiDatic  reproduction  of  the  slaying  of  his  daughter  ural  and  intelligible,  nuiy  be  fearlessly  declared  the 


HAaS  16  MASS 

pktristio  and  traditional  view;   its  restoration  to  a    produoe  the  condition  of  food,  and  would  therefore 

gMition  of  general  eateem  is  the  service  of  Father    achieve  the  sacrifice;  aecoudiv,  the  reduction  to  the 
illot  (De  sacram.,  I,  4th  ed.,  Rome,  1907,  pp.  567    state  of  articles  of  food  reveals  not  the  faintest  atial- 
Sq.)-    Since  this  tlieory  refera  the  absolute  moment     oRy  to  the  blood-eheddinK  on  the  Croos,  and  thus  the 
sacrifice  to  the  (active)  "sacramental  mystical  slay~     relative  moment  of  the  Sacrifice  of  the  Haas  is  not 
ing",  and  the  relative  to  the  (passive)  "separation  of     properly  dealt  with.    De  Lugo's  theo^  seems,  there- 
BcMlyandBlood",  it  has  indeed  made  the    two-edged    fote,  of  no  service  in  this  connexion.    It  renders,  how- 
sword"  of  the  double  consecration  the  cause  from     ever,  the  most  useful  service  in  extending  the  tra- 
which  the  double  character  of  the  Mass  as  an  absolute     diUonal  idea  of  a  "  mystical  slayinf",  since  indeed 
(real  in  itself)  and  relative  sacrifice  proceeds.     We     the  reduction  of  Christ  to  food  is  and  purports  to  be 
have  an  absolute  sacrifice,  for  the  Victim  is — not  in-    nothiiu;  else  than  the  preparation  of  the  mystically 
deed  in  specie  propria,  but  in  specie  aliena — sacramen-     slain  Victim  for  the  sacrificial  feast  in  the  Ctnamuniwi 
tally  slain;  we  have  also  a  relative  sacrifice,  since  the     of  the  priest  and  the  faithful. 
eacramentat  separation  of  Body  and  Blood  repreeente 
perceptibly  the  former  shedoing  of  Blood  on  the 
Cross. 

While  this  view  meets  every  requirement  of  the 
metaphysical  nature  of  the  Sacrifice  of  the  Mass,  we 
do  not  think  it  right  to  reject  offhand  the  somewhat 
more  elaborate  theory  of  Lessius  instead  of  utilising  it 
in  the  spirit  of  the  traditional  view  for  the  extension  of 
the  idea  of  a  "mystical  slajdng".  Lessius  (De  perfect. 
moribusque  div.,  XII,  xiii)  goes  beyond  the  old  ex- 
planation by  adding  the  not  untrue  observation  that 
the  intrinsic  force  of  the  double  consecration  would 
have  as  result  an  actual  and  true  shedding  of  blood  on 
the  alter,  if  this  were  not  per  accidejis  impossible  in 
consequence  of  the  impassibility  of  the  transfigured 
Body  of  Christ.  Since  ex  vi  verborum  the  consecration 
of  tlie  bread  makes  really  present  only  the  Body,  and 
the  consecration  of  the  Chalice  only  the  Blood,  the 
tendencv  of  the  double  consecration  is  towards  a  for- 
mal exclusion  of  the  Blood  from  the  Body.  The  mys- 
tical slaying  thus  approaches  nearer  to  a  real  destruc- 
tion ana  the  absolute  sacrificial  moment  of  the  Mass 
receives  an  important  confirmation.  In  the  Hght  of 
tliia  view,  the  celebrated  statement  of  St.  Gregory  of 
Nasiaiuns  becomes  of  special  importance  ("  Ep.  clxxi, 
ad  Amphil."  in  P.  G.,  XXXVII,  282):  "Heaitete  not 
to  pray  for  me  .  .  .  when  with  bloodless  stroke 
[iraiiiirrif  TOit$\  thou  separatest  [t^^htji]  the  Body 
and  Blood  of  tne  Lord,  having  speech  as  a  sword 
\Auriir  Ixar  ri  {f^i]."  As  an  old  pupil  of  Cardinal 
FranseUn  (De  Euchar,,  p.  II,  thes.  ivi,  Rome,  1887), 
the  present  writer  may  perhaps  speak  a  good  word  for 
the  once  popular,  but  recently  combatted  theory  of 
Cardinal  De  Lugo,  which  Franiehn  revived  aftera  long 
period  of  neglect;  not  however  that  he  intends  to 

proclaim  the  theoiy  in  its  present  form  as  entirely  (3)  The  Causality  of  the  Mass. — In  this  section  we 
satisfactory,  since,  with  much  to  recommend  it,  it  hsis  shall  treat:  (a)  the  effects  (effaciut)  of  tfae  Sacrifice  of 
also  serious  defects.  We  believe,  however,  that  this  the  Mass,  which  practically  coincide  with  the  various 
theory,  Uke  that  of  Lessius,  might  be  most  profitably     ends  for  which  the  Sacrifice  is  offered,  namely  ad<n»- 


utilised  to  develop,  supplement,  and  deepen  the  tiadi-     tion,  thanksgiving,  impetration,  and 

tional  view.     Starting  from  the  principle  that  the    the  manner  <?  its  eP ' '—-«-'- 

Eucharistic  destruction  can  be,  not  a  physical,  but     in  part  objectively 


ipetration,  and  expiation:  (b) 
icy  {modut  gfiewndi),  which  hea 
the  Sacrifice  of  the  Mass  itself 


only  a  moral  one,  De  Lugo  finds  this  exinamtion  in  the  (ex  open  operate),  and  partljr  depends  subjectively  o 

voluntary  reduction  of  Christ  to  the  condition  of  food  the  personal  devotion  and  piety  of  man  (ex  opere  op^ 

(raductw  ad  ilatvm  cibi  et  pntus),  in  virtueof  which  the  nintu). 

Saviour,  after  the  fashion  of  lifeless  food,  leaves  him-  (a)  Tfae  Effecte  <rf  the  Sacrifice  <rf  the  Mass. — The 
self  at  the  mercy  of  manldnd.  That  this  is  really  Reformers  found  themselves  compelled  to  reject  en- 
equivalent  to  a  true  kenosis  no  one  can  deny.  Herein  tirely  the  Sacrifice  of  the  Mass,  since  they  recognised 
the  Christian  pulpit  has  at  its  disposal  a  truly  inex-  the  Eucharist  merely  as  a  sacrament.  Both  tJieir 
hauatible  source  of  lofty  thoughte  wherewith  to  illus-  views  were  founded  on  the  reflection,  properly  ap- 
trate  in  glowing  language  the  humility  and  love,  the  praised  above,  that  the  Bloody  Sacrifice  of  the  Cross 
destitution  and  defencelesaness  of  Our  Saviour  imder  was  the  sole  Sacrifice  of  Christ  and  of  Chtistendom, 
the  sacramental  veil,  His  magnanimous  submission  to  and  thus  does  not  admit  of  the  Sacrifice  (rf  the  Mass. 
Irreverence,  dishonour,  and  sacrilege,  and  wherewith  As  a  sacri&ce  of  pmise  and  thanksgivinK  in  the  sym- 
to  emphasise  that  even  to-day  that  nre  of  self-sacrifice,  bolical  or  figurative  sense,  they  had  eailier  apprcnred 
which  once  burned  on  the  Cross,  still  sends  forth  ita  of  the  Mass,  and  Melanchthon  resented  the  cbiu^  that 
tongues  of  flame  in  a  mysterious  manner  from  the  I^otestants  had  entirely  abolished  it.  What  they 
EeaJt  of  Jesus  to  our  altars.  While,  in  this  incompre-  most  bitterly  opposed  was  the  Catholic  doctrine  that 
bensible  condescension,  the  absolute  moment  of  sacri-  the  Mass  is  a  sacrifice  not  only  of  praise  and  tbanka- 
fioe  is  disclosed  in  an  especially  striking  manner,  one  giving,  but  also  of  impetration  and  atonement,  wboee 
is  reluctantly  compelled  to  recognise  tne  absence  of  iruite  may  benefit  others,  while  it  is  evident  tttKt  a 
two  of  the  other  requisites;  in  the  first  place,  the  ne-  sacrament  as  such  can  profit  merely  the  recipient, 
eessity  of  the  double  consecration  is  not  made  properly  Here  the  Council  of  Trent  interposed  with  a  definitico 
i^parent,  since  a  single  consecration  would  suffice  to  of  faith  (Seis.  XXII,  can.  iii) :    If  any  one  saith,  thit 


MASS  17  MASS 

the  Maas  is  only  a  sacrifioe  of  praise  and  thanksgiving  had  their  prototype  among  the  primitive  Christiana^ 
....  but  not  a  propitiatory  sacrifice;  or,  that  it  prof-  and  for  this  view  we  likewise  find  other  testimonies — 
its  only  the  recipient,  and  that  it  ought  not  to  be  of-  e.  g.  Tertullian  (De  Cor.,  iii^  and  Cyprian  (£p.  xxxix, 
fered  for  the  living  and  the  dead  for  sins,  punishments,  n.  3).  By  a  Samt's  Mass  is  meant,  not  tne  offering 
satisfactions,  and  other  necessities;  let  him  be  anath-  up  of  the  Sacrifice  of  the  Mass  to  a  saint,  which  would 
ema"  (Denxinger,  n.  950).  In  this  canon,  which  be  impossible  without  most  shameful  idolatry,  but  a 
gives  a  summary  of  all  the  sacrificial  effects  in  order,  sacrifice,  which^  while  offered  to  God  alone,  on  the  one 
the  synod  emphasizes  the  propitiatory  and  impetra-  hand  thanks  Him  for  the  triumphal  coronation  of  the 
tory  nature  of  the  sacrifice.  Propitiation  {propUiaHo)  saints,  and  on  the^  other  aims  at  procuring  for  us  the 
and  petition  (impetrcUio)  are  distmguishable  from  each  saint's  efficacious  intercession  witn  God.  Such  is  the 
other,  inasmuch  as  the  latter  appeals  to  the  goodness  authentic  explanation  of  the  Council  of  Trent  (Sess. 
and  the  former  to  the  mercy  of  God.  Naturally,  XXII,  cap.  iii,  in  Denzinger,  n.  941).  With  this 
therefore,  they  differ  also  as  regards  their  objects,  threefoldlimitation,  Masses ''in  honour  of  the  saints" 
since,  wmle  petition  is  directed  towards  our  spiritual  are  certainly  no  base  "deception ",  but  are  morallv  al- 
and temporal  concerns  and  needs  of  eveiy  kind,  propi-  lowable,  as  the  Council  of  Trent  specifically  decmres 
tiation  refere  to  our  sins  (veccata)  and  to  the  temporal  (loc.  dt.,  can.  v) ;  "  If  any  one  saitn,  that  it  is  an  im- 
punishments  (poeiue),  wnich  must  be  expiated  by  posture  to  celebrate  masses  in  honour  of  the  saints, 
worics  of  penance  or  satisfaction  (aaHsfactianea)  in  this  and  for  obtaining  their  intercession  with  God,  as  the 
life,  or  otnerwise  by  a  corresponding  suffering  in  Pur-  Church  intends,  let  him  be  uiathema ''.  The  general 
gatcuy.  In  all  these  renpects  the  impetratory  and  ex-  moral  permissibility  of  invoking  the  intercession  of  the 
piatory  Sacrifice  of  the  Mass  is  of  the  greatest  utility,  saints,  concerning  which  this  is  not  the  place  to  speak, 
Doth  for  the  living  and  the  dead.  is  of  course  assumed  in  the  present  instance. 

Should  a  Biblical  foundation  for  the  Tridentine  doo-        While  adoration  and  thanksgiving  are  effects  of  the 

trine  be  asked  for,  we  might  first  of  all  argue  in  gen-  Mass  which  relate  to  God  alone,  the  success  of  impe- 

enl  as  follows:  Just  as  there  were  in  the  Old  Testament,  tration  and  expiation  on  the  other  hand  reverts  to 

in  uddition  to  sacrifices  of  praise  and  thanksgiving,  man.    These  last  two  effects  are  thus  also  called  by 

propitiatory  and  impetratory  sacrifices  (cf.  Lev.,  iv  theologians  the  ''fruits  of  the  Mass"  ^ruciua  nvUacB), 

sqq.;  II  Kmgs,  xxiv,  21  sqa.,  etc.),  the  New  Testa-  and  this  distinction  leads  us  to  the  discussion  of  the 

ment,  as  its  antitype,  must  also  have  a  sacrifice  which  difficult  and  frequently  asked  question  as  to  whether 

serves  and  suffices  for  all  these  objects.    But.  accord-  we  are  to  impute  infinite  or  finite  value  to  the  Sacrifice 

ing  to  the  prophecy  of  Malachias,  this  is  tne  Mass,  of  the  Mass.    This  question  is  not  of  the  kind  which 

whidi  is  to  oe  celebrated  by  the  Church  in  all  places  may  be  answered  with  a  simple  yes  or  no.    For,  apart 

and  at  all  times.    Consequently^  the  Mass  is  the  im-  from  the  already  indicated  oistinction  between  adfora- 

petratory  and  propitiatory  sacrifice.    As  for  special  tion  and  thanksgiving  on  the  one  hand  and  impetra- 

reference  to  the  propitiatory  character,  the  record  of  tion  and  expiation  on  the  other,  we  must  also  sharply 

institution  states  expressly  that  the  Blood  of  Christ  is  distinguish  between  the  intrinsic  and  the  extrinsic 

shed  in  the  chalice  ''unto  remission  of  sins"  (Matt.,  value  of  the  Mass  {valor  intrinaeciui,  extrinsecus).   As 

zxvi,  28).  ^  for  its  intrinsic  value,  it  seems  beyond  doubt  that,  in 

Tlie  chief  source  of  our  doctrine,  however,  is  tradi-  view  of  the  infinite  worth  of  Christ  as  the  Victim  and 

tion,  which  from  the  earliest  times  declares  the  impe-  High  Priest  in  one  Person,  the  sacrifice  must  be  re- 

tratory  value  of  the  Sacrifice  of  the  Mass.    Accordmg  garded  as  of  infinite  value,  just  as  the  sacrifice  of  the 

to  Tertullian  (Ad  scapul.,  ii),  the  Christians  sacrificed  Last  Supper  and  that  of  the  Cross.    Here,  however, 

"for  the  welfare  of  the  emperor"  (pro  salute  impenp-  we  must  once  more  strongl^r  emphasize  the  fact  that 

torts);  according  to  Chiysostom  (Uom.  xxi  in  Act.  the  ever-continued  sacrificial  activity  of  Christ  in 

Apost..  n.  4),  "for  the  fruits  of  the  earth  and  other  Heaven  does  not  and  cannot  serve  to  accumidate 

needs  •    St.  Cvril  of  Jerusalem  (d.  386)  describes  the  fresh  redemptory  merits  and  to  assume  new  objective 

Uturgy  of  the  Mass  of  his  day  as  follows  ("Catech.  value;  it  simply  stamps  into  current  coin,  so  to  speak, 

myst?',  V,  n.  8,  in  P.  G.,  XXXIII,  1116):  "After the  the  redemptory  merits  definitively  and  perfectly  ob- 

spiritual  sacrifice  [vtmufMrucii  Bvatd],  the  unbloody  ser-  tained  in  tne  Sacrifice  of  the  Cross,  and  sets  them  into 

Tioe  [dpotfuuenf  Xarpela]  is  completed ;  we  pray  to  God  cireulation  among  mankind.    This  also  is  the  teaching 

over  this  sacrifice  of  propitiation  [^l  r^t  Ovclas  ixelrns  of  the  Council  of  Trent  (Sess.  XXII,  cap.  ii) : "  Of  which 

roO  IXoiffioO]  for  the  umversal  peace  of  the  churches,  for  bloodv  oblation  the  fruits  are  most  abundantly  ob- 

the  proper  guidance  of  the  world,  for  the  emperor,  sol-  tained  through  this  unbloody  one  [the  Mass]."    For, 

diers  and  companions,  for  the  infirm  and  the  sick,  for  even  in  its  character  of  a  sacrifice  of  adoration  and 

those  stricken  with  trouble,  and  in  general  for  all  in  thanksgiving,  the  Mass  draws  its  whole  value  and  all 

need  of  help  we  pray  and  ofiter  up  this  sacrifice  [ra&niy  its  power  only  from  the  Sacrifice  of  the  Cross,  which 

irpoa^poiutv  r^w  tfiwcdr].    We  then  commemorate  the  Chnst  makes  of  unceasing  avail  in  Heaven  (cf.  Rom., 

patriarehs,  prophets^  apostles,  martyrs,  that  God  may,  viii,  34 1  Heb.^  vii,  25).    There  is,  however,  no  reason 

at  their  prayers  and  mteroession,  graciously  accept  our  why  this  intrinsic  value  of  the  Mass  derived  from  the 

supplication.    We  afterwards  pray  for  the  deaa  .  •  .  Saoifice  of  the  Cross,  in  so  far  as  it  represents  a  sacri- 

sinoe  we  believe  that  it  will  be  of  the  greatest  advan-  fice  of  adoration  and  thanksgiving,  should  not  also 

tage  [putfi^niv  irnrtw  %cwBai\j  if  we  in  the  sight  of  the  operate  outwardly  to  the  full  extent  of  its  infinity,  for 

holy  and  most  awesome  Victim  [r^  d7^t  kqX  ^puaabw"  it  seems  inconceivable  that  the  Heavenly  Father  could 

rdnff  dvffiaf]  discharge  our  prayers  for  them.    The  accept  with  other  than  infinite  satisfaction  the  sacri- 

Christ,  who  was  slain  for  our  sins,  we  sacrifice  {Jipwrbp  fice  of  His  only  begotten  Son.    Consequentlv  God,  as 

i9^yitdvo9  inrkp  tQp  iifirri/mv  iifULfrrTi/juircop  vpoff^po/jbew],  Malachias  had  already  prophesied,  is  in  a  trulv  infinite 

to  propitiate  the  meroifid  God  for  those  who  are  gone  degree  honoured,  glorinedL  and  praised  in  tne  Mass; 

before  and  for  ourselves."    This  beautiful  passage,  through  Our  Lord  Jesus  Christ  he  is  thanked  by  men 

which  reads  like  a  modem  prayer-book,  is  of  interest  for  all  His  benefits  in  an  infinite  manner,  in  a  manner 

in  more  than  one  connexion*    It  proves  in  the  first  worthy  of  God. 

place  that  Christian  antiquity  recognized  the  offering        But  when  we  turn  to  the  Mass  as  a  sacrifice  of  im- 

up  of  the  Mass  for  the  deceased,  exactly  as  the  Chureh  petration  and  expiation,  the  case  is  different.  ^  While 

to-day  recognizes  requiem  Masses — a  fact  which  is  we  must  always  regard  its  intrinsic  value  as  infinite, 

confirmed  by  other  independent  witnesses,  e.  g.  Tertul-  since  it  is  the  sacrifice  of  the  God-Man  Himself,  its  ex- 

lian  (De  monog.,  x),  (^rian  (Ep.  Ixvi,  n.  2),  and  trinsic  value  must  necessarily  be  finite  in  consequence 

Augustine  (Confess.,  ix,  12).    In  tne  second  place,  it  of  the  limitations  of  man.    The  scope  of  the  so-called 

informs  us  that  our  so-called  Masses  of  the  Samts  also  ''fruits  of  the  Mass ''is  limited.    Just  as  a  tiny  chip  of 

X.— 2 


MASS 


18 


TKTAflff 


wood  cannot  collect  within  it  the  whole  energy  of  the 
Bun,  so  also,  and  in  a  still  greater  degree,  is  man  in- 
capable of  converting  the  boundless  value  of  the  im- 
petratory  and  expiatory  sacrifice  into  an  infinite  effect 
lor  his  soul.  Wherefore,  in  practice,  the  impetratory 
value  of  the  sacrifice  is  always  as  limited  as  is  its  pro- 
pitiatory and  satisfactory  value.  The  greater  or  less 
measure  of  the  fruits  derived  will  naturally  depend 
very  much  on  the  personal  efforts  and  worthmess,  the 
devotion  and  fervour  of  those  who  celebrate  or  are 
present  at  Mass.  This  limitation  of  the  fruits  of  the 
Mass  must,  however,  not  be  misconstrued  to  mean  that 
the  presence  of  a  large  congregation  causes  a  diminu- 
tion of  the  benefits  derived  from  the  Sacrifice  by  the 
individual,  as  if  such  benefits  were  after  some  fashion 
divided  into  so  many  aliauot  parts.  Neither  the  Church 
nor  the  Christian  people  has  anv  tolerance  for  the 
false  principle:  '*  The  less  the  number  of  the  faithful  in 
the  cnureh,  the  richer  the  fruits".  On  the  contrary, 
the  Bride  of  Christ  desires  for  every  Mass  a  crowded 
church,  being  rightly  convinced  that  from  the  imlim- 
ited  treasures  of  the  Mass  much  more  grace  will  result 
to  the  individual  from  a  service  participated  in  by  a 
full  congregation,  than  from  one  attendiMl  merely  by  a 
few  of  the  faithfm.  This  relative  infinite  value  refers 
indeed  only  to  the  general  fruit  of  the  Mass  (fructus 
generalis),  and  not  to  the  special  (Jmctua  specudis) — 
two  terms  whose  distinction  will  be  more  clearly  char- 
acterized below.  Here,  however,  we  may  remark  that 
by  the  special  fruit  of  the  Bfass  is  meant  that  for  the 
application  of  whidi  according  to  a  special  intention  a 
pnest  may  accept  a  stipend. 

The  question  now  arises  whether  in  this  connexion 
the  applicable  value  of  the  Mass  is  to  be  regarded  as 
finite  or  infinite  (or,  more  accurately,  unlimited). 
This  question  is  of  importance  in  view  of  the  practical 
consequences  it  involves.  For,  if  we  decide  m  favour 
of  the  unlimited  value,  a  single  Mass  celebrated  for  a 
himdred  persons  or  intentions  is  as  efiicacious  as  a 
hundred  Masses  celebrated  for  a  single  person  or  inten- 
tion. On  the  other  hand,  it  is  clear  that,  if  we  incline 
towards  a  finite  value,  the  special  fruit  is  divided  pro 
rata  among  the  hundred  persons.  In  their  quest  for  a 
solution  of  this  question,  two  classes  of  theologians  are 
distinguished  according  to  their  tendencies:  the  mi- 
nority (Gotti,  Billuart,  Antonio  Bellarini,  etc.)  are  in- 
clined to  uphold  the  certainty  or  at  least  the  probabil- 
itv  of  the  former  view,  arguing  that  the  infinite  dienit^ 
of  the  Hi^h  Priest  Christ  cannot  be  limited  by  ^e  fi- 
nite sacnficial  activity  of  his  human  representative. 
But,  since  the  Church  has  entirely  forbidden  as  a 
breach  of  strict  justice  that  a  priest  should  seek  to  ful- 
fil, by  reading  a  single  Mass,  the  obligations  imposed 
by  several  stipends  (see  Denzineer,  n.  1110),  these 
theologians  hasten  to  admit  that  tneir  theory  is  not  to 
be  translated  into  practice,  unless  the  priest  applies  as 
many  individual  Masses  for  all  the  intentions  of  the 
stipend-givers  as  he  has  received  stipends.  But  inas- 
much as  the  Church  has  spoken  of  strict  justice  (ju8U- 
Ha  commtUativa)f  the  overwhelming  majority  of  theo- 
logians incline  even  theoretically  to  the  conviction  that 
the  satisfactory — and,  accordmg  to  many,  also  the 
propitiatory  and  impetratory — value  of  a  Mass  for 
which  a  stipend  has  been  taken,  is  so  strictly  circum- 
scribed and  limited  from  the  outset,  that  it  accrues  pro 
rata  (according  to  the  greater  or  less  number  of  the 
living  or  the  dead  for  whom  the  Mass  is  offered)  to  each 
of  the  individuals.  Only  on  such  a  hypothesis  is  the 
custom  prevailing  among  the  faithful  of  having  sev- 
eral Masses  celebrated  for  the  deceased  or  for  their  in- 
tentions intelligible.  Only  on  such  a  hypothesis  can 
one  explain  i&  widely  established  "Mass  Associa- 
tion", a  pious  union  whose  members  voluntarily  bind 
themselves  to  read  or  get  read  at  least  one  Mass  annu- 
ally for  the  poor  souls  in jpurgatory.  As  early  as  the 
eighth  centurv  we  find  in  (jiermany  a  so-called  "  Toten- 
bund''  (see  Perts,  "Monum.  Germanis  hist.:  Leg.", 


II,  i,  221).  But  probably  the  greatest  of  such  socie- 
ties is  the  MM^mnd  of  Ingolstaat,  foimded  in  1724;  it 
was  raised  to  a  confraternity  (Confratemltv  of  the 
Immaculate  Conception)  on  3  Feb.,  1874,  and  at  pree- 
ent  counts  680>000  members  (cf .  Beringer,  "  Die  Ab- 
I&sse,  ihr  Wesen  u.  ihr  Gebrauch",  13tn  ed.,  Pader- 
bom,  1906,  pp.  610  sqq.).  Toumely  (De  Euch.  q. 
viii,  a.  6)  has  also  sought  in  favour  of  this  view  impor- 
tant internal  groimds  of  probability,  for  example  by 
adverting  to  the  visible  course  of  Divine  Providence: 
all  natural  and  supernatural  effects  in  general  are  seen 
to  be  slow  and  gradual,  not  sudden  or  desulUwy, 
wherefore  it  is  also  the  most  holy  intention  of  God  that 
man  should,  by  his  personal  exertions,  strive  through 
the  medium  of  the  greatest  possible  number  of  Masses 
to  participate  in  the  fruits  of  the  Sacrifice  of  Uie  Cross. 

(b)  The  Manner  of  Efficacy  of  the  Mass. — ^In  theo- 
logical phrase  an  effect "  from  the  work  of  the  action  " 
(ex  opere  operato)  signifies  a  grace  conditioned  exclu- 
sively by  tne  objective  bringing  into  activity  of  a  cause 
of  the  supernatural  order,  in  connexion  with  which 
the  proper  disposition  of  the  subject  comes  subse- 
quently into  account  only  as  an  indispensable  ante- 
ciedent  condition  (conditio  sine  qua  non)^  but  not  as  a 
real  joint  cause  (concausa).  Thus,  for  example,  bap- 
tism by  its  mere  ministration  produces  ex  opere  operato 
interior  grace  in  each  recipient  of  the  sacrament  who 
in  his  heart  opposes  no  obstacle  (obex)  to  the  reception 
of  the  graces  of  baptism.  On  the  other  hand,  all  su- 
pernatural effects,  which,  presupposing  the  state  of 
grace,  are  accomplished  by  the  personal  actions  and 
exertions  of  the  subject  (e.  g.  everything  obtained  by 
simple  praver),  are  called  effects  *'from  the  work  of 
the  agent  (ex  opere  operantis).  We  are  now  con- 
fronted with  the  difficult  question:  In  what  manner 
does  the  Eucharistic  Sacrifice  accomplish  its  ^ects 
and  fruits?  As  the  early  scholastics  cave  scarcelv  any 
attention  to  this  problem,  we  are  indebted  for  almost 
all  the  li^ht  thrown  upon  it  to  the  later  scholastics. 

(i)  It  IS  first  of  all  necessary  to  make  clear  that  in 
every  sacrifice  of  the  Mass  four  distinct  categories  of 
persons  really  participate.  At  the  head  of  aU  stands 
of  course  the  High  Pnest,  Christ  Himself;  to  make  the 
Sacrifice  of  the  Cross  fruitful  for  us  and  to  secure  its  ap- 
plication, He  offers  Himself  as  a  sacrifice,  which  is 
quite  independent  of  the  merits  or  demerits  of  the 
(jhurch,  the  celebrant  or  the  faithful  present  at  the 
sacrifice,  and  is  for  these  an  opus  opera/turn.  Next 
after  Christ  and  in  the  second  place  comes  the  Church 
as  a  juridical  person,  who,  according  to  the  express 
teaching  of  the  Council  of  Trent  (Sess.  XXII,  cap.  i), 
has  received  from  the  hands  of  her  Divine  Founder  the 
institution  of  the  Mass  and  also  the  commission  to  or- 
dain constantly  priests  and  to  have  celebrated  by 
these  the  most  venerable  Sacrifice.  This  intermediate 
stage  between  Christ  and  the  celebrant  may  be  neither 
pa£ed  over  nor  eliminated,  since  a  bad  and  immoral 
priest,  as  an  ecclesiastical  official,  does  not  offer  up  his 
own  sacrifice — ^which  indeed  could  only  be  impure — 
but  the  immaculate  Sacrifice  of  Christ  and  his  spotless 
Bride,  which  can  be  soiled  b^  no  wickedness  of  tbe 
celebrant.  But  to  this  special  sacrificial  activity  of 
the  Church,  offering  up  the  sacrifice  together  with 
Christ,  must  also  correspond  a  special  ecclesiastico- 
human  merit  as  a  fruit,  which,  although  in  itself  an 
optis  operantis  of  the  Church,  is  vet  entirely  independ- 
ent of  the  worthiness  of  the  celebrant  and  the  faithful, 
and  tiierefore  constitutes  for  these  an  opus  operaJtum, 
When,  however,  as  De  Lugo  rightly  points  out,  an  ex- 
commimicated  or  suspenoed  priest  celebrates  in  defi- 
ance of  the  prohibition  of  the  Church,  this  ecclesiasti- 
cal merit  is  always  lost,  since  such  a  priest  no  loneer 
acts  in  the  name  and  with  the  commission  of  uie 
Church.  His  sacrifice  is  nevertheless  valid,  since,  by 
virtue  of  his  priestly  ordination,  he  celebrates  in  the 
name  of  Chnst,  even  thouffh  in  opposition  to  His 
wishes,  and,  as  the  self-sacrince  of  Christ,  even  such  a 


MASS 


19 


MASS 


Mass  remains  essentially  a  spotless  and  untarnished 
sacrifice  before  God. 

We  are  thus  compelled  to  concur  in  another  view  of 
De  Lugo,  namely  that  the  greatness  and  extent  of  this 
ecclesiastical  service  is  dependent  on  the  greater  or  less 
holiness  of  the  reigning  pope,  the  bishops,  and  the 
cler;^  throughout  the  world,  and  that  for  this  reason 
in  tmies  of  ecclesiastical  decay  and  laxity  of  morals 
(especially  at  the  papal  court  and  among  the  episco- 

gate)  the  fruits  of  the  Mass,  resulting  from  the  sacri- 
cial  activity  of  the  Church,  mieht  under  certain  cir- 
cumstances easily  be  very  small.  With  Christ  and 
His  Church  is  associated  in  the  third  place  the  celebrat- 
ing priest,  since  he  is  the  representative  through 
whom  the  real  and  the  mystical  Christ  offer  up  the 
sacrifice.  If,  therefore,  the  celebrant  be  a  man  of 
great  personal  devotion,  holiness,  and  purity,  there 
will  accrue  an  additional  fruit  which  will  benefit  not 
himself  alone,  but  also  those  in  whose  favour  he  ap- 
plies the  Mass.  The  faithful  are  thus  guided  by  sound 
mstinct  when  they  prefer  to  have  Mass  celebrated  for 
their  intentions  by  an  upright- and  holy  priest  rather 
than  by  an  unworthy  one,  since,  in  addition  to  the 
chief  fruit  of  the  Mass,  they  secure  this  special  fruit 
which  springs  ex  apere  operanHa,  from  the  piety  of  the 
celebrant. 

Finally,  in  the  fourth  place,  must  be  mentioned 
those  who  participate  actively  in  the  Sacrifice  of  the 
Mass,  e.  g.  the  servers,  sacristan,  organist,  singers,  and 
the  whole  congregation  joining  in  the  sacrifice.  The 
priest,  therefore,  prays  also  in  their  name:  Offerimtu 

ii.  e.  We  offer).  That  the  effect  resulting  from  this 
metaphorical)  sacrificial  activity  is  entirely  depend- 
ent on  the  worthiness  and  piety  of  those  taking  part 
therein  and  thus  results  exclusively  ex  opere  operantia, 
is  evident  without  further  demonstration.  The  more 
fervent  tiie  prayer,  the  richer  the  fruit.  Most  inti- 
mate is  the  active  participation  in  the  Sacrifice  of 
those  who  receive  Holy  Communion  diuing  the  Mass, 
since  in  their  case  the  special  fruits  of  the  Communion 
are  added  to  those  of  tne  Mass.  Should  sacramental 
Communion  be  impossible,  the  Council  of  Trent  (Sess. 
XXII,  cap.  vi)  advises  the  faithful  to  make  at  least  a 
"spiritual  communion''  (spiritucdi  effectu  communin 
care),  which  consists  in  the  ardent  desire  to  receive 
the  Eucharist.  However,  as  we  have  already  empha- 
sised, the  omission  of  real  or  spiritual  Communion  on 
the  part  of  the  faithful  present  does  not  render  the 
Sacrifice  of  the  Mass  either  invalid  or  unlawful,  where- 
fore the  Churoh  even  permits  "private  Masses ",  which 
mav  on  reasonable  grounds  be  celebrated  in  a  chapel 
with  closed  doors. 

(ii)  In  addition  to  the  active,  there  are  also  passive 
participators  in  the  Sacrifice  of  the  Mass.  These  are 
the  persons  in  whose  favour — it  may  be  even  without 
their  knowledge  and  in  opposition  to  their  wishes — ^the 
Holy  Sacrifice  is  offered.  They  fall  into  three  catego- 
ries: the  community,  the  celebrant,  and  the  person  (or 
persons)  for  whom  the  Mass  is  specially  applied.  To 
each  of  these  three  classes  corresponds  ex  opere  opercUo 
a  special  fruit  of  the  Mass,  whether  the  same  be  an  im- 
petratory  effect  of  the  Sacrifice  of  Petition  or  a  propi- 
tiatory and  satisfactory  effect  of  the  Sacrifice  of  Ex- 
piation. Although  the  development  of  the  teaching 
concerning  the  threefold  fruit  of  the  Mass  begins  only 
with  Scotus  (Qusest.  quodlibet,  xx),  it  is  nevertheless 
based  on  the  very  essence  of  the  Sacrifice  itself.  Since, 
according  to  the  wording  of  the  Canon  of  the  Mass  (q. 
v.),  prayer  and  sacrifice  is  offered  for  all  those  present, 
the  whole  Church,  the  pope,  the  diocesan  bishop,  the 
faithful  living  and  dead,  and  even  "for  the  salvation 
of  the  whole  world",  there  must  first  of  all  result  a 
"general  fruit"  (Jructua  generalie)  for  all  mankind,  the 
bffltowal  of  which  lies  immediately  in  the  will  of 
Christ  and  His  Church,  and  can  thus  be  frustrated  b^ 
no  contrary  intention  of  the  celebrant.  In  this  fnut 
even  the  excommunicated,  heretics,  and  infidels  par- 


ticipate, mainly  that  their  conversion  may  thus  be  ef- 
fected. The  second  kind  of  fruit  {fruUue  peraonalie, 
epecialieeimus)  falls  to  the  personal  share  of  the  cele- 
brant, since  it  were  unjust  that  he — apart  from  his 
worthiness  and  piety  {opus  operanUs) — should  come 
empty-handed  from  the  sacrifice.  Between  these  two 
fruits  lies  the  third,  the  so-called  "special  fruit  of 
ijie  Mass"  (Jruetus specialiaf  mediuSf  or  minieterialU), 
which  is  usually  applied  to  particular  living  or  de- 
ceased persons  acconiing  to  tne  intention  of  the  cele- 
brant or  the  donor  of  a  stipend.  This  "application" 
rests  so  exclusively  in  the  hands  of  the  priest  that 
even  the  prohibition  of  the  Church  cannot  render  it  in- 
efficacious, although  the  celebrant  would  in  such  a  case 
sin  through  disol^dienoe.  For  the  existence  of  the 
special  fruit  of  the  Mass,  rightly  defended  by  Pius  VI 
against  the  Jansenistic  Synod  of  Pistoia  (1786).  we 
have  the  testimony  also  of  Christian  antiauity,  wnich 
offered  the  Sacrifice  for  special  persons  and  intentions. 
To  secure  in  all  cases  the  certain  effect  of  this /ruchis 
specialis,  Suarez  (De  Euch.,  disp.  Ixxix.  sect.  10)  gives 
priests  tne  wise  advice  that  they  should  alwasrs  add  to 
the  firsta ''  second  intention "  (irUenHo  aecuTuia),  which, 
should  the  first  be  inefficacious,  will  take  its  place. 

(iii)  A  last  and  an  entirely  separate  problem  is 
afforded  by  the  special  mode  of  efficacy  of  the  Sacrifice 
of  Expiation.  As  an  expiatory  sacrifice,  the  Mass  has 
the  double  function  of  obliterating  actual  sins,  espe- 
cially mortal  sins  (effectue  stride  propitiatariua),  and 
also  of  taking  awav,  m  the  case  of  those  already  in  the 
state  of  grace,  such  temporal  punishments  as  may  stiU 
remain  to  be  endured  (effectua  eatisfaeiorius).  The 
main  question  is:  Is  this  double  effect  ex  opere  operato 
produced  mediately  or  immediately?  As  regaros  the 
actual  forgiveness  of  sin,  it  must,  in  opposition  to  ear- 
lier theolo^ns  ( Aragon.  CJasalis,  Gregjory  of  Valentia), 
be  maintained  as  undouotedly  a  certain  principle,  that 
the  expiatory  sacrifice  of  the  Mass  can  never  accom- 
plish tne  forgiveness  of  mortal  sins  otherwise  than  by 
way  of  contrition  and  penance,  and  therefore  only 
mediately  through  procuring  the  grace  of  conversion 
(cf.  Council  of  Trent,  Sess.  XXII,  cap.  ii:  "donum 
poenitentis  concedens").  With  this  limitation,  how- 
ever, the  Mass  is  able  to  remit  even  the  most  grievous 
sins  (Council  of  Trent,  1.  c,  "  Crimina  et  peccata  etiam 
ingentia  dimittit").  Since,  according  to  the  present 
economy  of  salvation,  no  sin  whatsoever,  grievous  or 
trifling,  can  be  forgiven  without  an  act  of  sorrow,  we 
must  confine  the  efficacy  of  the  Mass,  even  in  the  case 
of  venial  sins,  to  obtaining  for  Christians  the  grace  of 
contrition  for  less  serious  sins  (Sess.  XXII,  cap.  i). 
It  is  indeed  this  pureljr  mediate  activity  which  consti- 
tutes ti^e  essential  distinction  between  the  sacrifice 
and  the  sacrament.  Could  the  Mass  remit  sins  im- 
mediately ex  opere  operato,  like  Baptism  or  Penance,  it 
would  be  a  sacrament  of  the  dead  and  cease  to  be  a 
sacrifice  (see  Sacrament).  Concerning  the  remission 
of  the  temporal  punishment  due  to  sin,  however,  which 
appears  to  be  effected  in  an  immediate  manner,  our 
jud^ent  must  be  different.  The  reason  lies  in  the 
mtnnsic  distinction  between  sin  and  its  punishment. 
Without  the  personal  co-operation  and  sorrow  of  the 
sinner,  all  forgiveness  of  sin  by  Grod  is  impossible;  this 
cannot  however  be  said  of  a  mere  remission  of  punish- 
ment. One  person  may  validly  discharge  the  debts  or 
fines  of  anotner,  even  without  apprising  the  debtor  of 
his  intontion.  The  same  rule  ma^  be  applied  to  a  just 
person,  who,  after  his  justification,  is  still  burdened 
with  temporal  punishment  consequent  on  his  sins.  It 
is  certain  that,  onlv  in  this  immediate  way,  can  assist- 
ance be  ^iven  to  the  poor  soids  in  purgatory  through 
the  Sacrifice  of  the  Mass,  since  they  are  henceforth 
powerless  to  perform  personal  works  of  satisfaction 
(cf.  Coimcil  oi  Trent,  Sess.  XXV,  de  purgat.).  From 
this  consideration  we  derive  b^  analogy  the  legiti- 
mate conclusion  that  the  case  is  exactly  the  same  as 
regards  the  living. 


j|S»«  already  name  "the  Lord's  day ' 

gJlJ  to  be  &ware  only  of  the  Sunday  ,     

Ui—a  tullian  adds  the  fast-days  on  Wednesday  and  Friday 

*jj  ti  and  the  anniverBariea  of  themartyrB  ("De  cor.  mil.  , 

^ggj,  iii;  "De  orat.",  xix).    As  TertulJian  calls  the  whole 

jtotia  paacha)  eeaaoR  (until  Pentecost)  "one  long  feast",  we 

«*g^  J  may  conclude  with  some  justice  that  during  this  period 

2Snj  the  faithful  not  only  cammunicated  daily,  but  were 

BrkUt  also  present  at  the  Eucharistic  Liturgy.    As  r^ards 

^«n  the  tune  of  the  day,  there  existed  in  the  Apoetobo  ace 

1901);  DO  fixed  precepts  regarding  the  hour  at  which  ue 

tuck  ■  Euchariatic  celebration  should  take  place.    The  Apo»- 

iOOS).  tie  Paul  appears  to  have  on  occasion  "broken  br»d" 
about  mi^i^t  (Acta,  xx,  7) .    But  Pliny  the  Younger, 

B.  Practical Quettiona  Concerning  the  Matt. — From  Qovemor  of  Bithynia  (died  a.  d.  114),  already  statee 

the  exceedingly  high  valuation,  which  the  Church  in  his  official  report  to  Emperor  Trajaa  that  the  Chris- 

Ces  on  the  Mass  as  the  unbloody  Sacrifice  of  the  tians  asaemblca  in  the  early  houra  of  the  morning  and 

-Man,  issue,  as  it  were  Bpontaneously,  all  those  bound  themselves  by  a  eacramfnium  (oath),  by  which 

practical  precepto  of  a  positive  or  a  neKative  nature,  we  can  understand  to-day  only  the  celebration  of  the 

which  are  given  in  the  Kubrica  of  the  Mass,  in  Canon  mysteries.    Tertullian  gives  aa  the  hour  of  the  aaaem- 

Law,  and  in  Moral  Theology.    They  may  be  conven-  bly  the  time  beforedawn  (Decor,  mil.,  iii:on(efucani» 

iently  divided  into  two  categories,  according  as  they  attibus).     When  the  fact   was  adverted  to  that  the 

are  intended  to  secure  in  the  highest  degree  poaaibfe  Saviour's  Resurrection  occurred  in  the  morning  before 

the  objective  dignity  of  the  Sacrifice  or  the  subjective  aunrise,  a  change  of  the  hour  set  in,  the  celebration  of 

worthineaa  of  the  celebrant.  Mass  being  postponed  until  this  time,    liiua  Cyprian 

(1)  Precepts  for  the  Promotion  of  the  Dignity  of  the  writes  of  the  Sunday  celebration  (Ep.,  Ixiii):  "We 

Sacrifice.— (a)  One  of  the  most  important  requisites  celebrate  the  Resurrection  of  the  Lord,  in  the  mom- 

for  the  worUiy  celebration  of  the  Maaa  ia  that  the  place  ing."    Since  the  fifth  century  the  "third  hour"  (i.  e. 

in  which  the  all-holy  Mystery  is  to  be  celebrated,  9  a.  m.)  was  regarded  as  "canonical"  for  the  Sokmn 

should  be  a  suitable  one.    Since,  in  the  days  of  the  Mass  on  Sundays  and  festivals.     When  the  Little 

Apostolic  Church,  there  were  no  churches  or  chapela.  Hours  (Prime,  Terce,  Sext,  None)  began  in  the  Middle 

pnvate  houses  with   auitable  accommodation  were  Ages  to  lose  their  significance  as  "canonical  hours", 

appointed  for  the  solemnisation  of  "the   breaking  the  precepts  govermng  the  hour  tor  the  conventual 

of  bread"   (cf.  Acts,  ii,  46;  xx,  7  sq.;  Col.,  iv,  IS;  Haas  received  a  new  meaning.    Thus,  for  example,  the 

Philem.,  2),    During  the  era  of  the  persecutions  the  precept  that  the  conventual  Mass  should  be  held  after 

Eucharistic  services  in  Rome  were  transferred  to  the  None  on  fast  days  does  not  signify  that   it  be  held 

catacombs,  where  the  Christians  believed  themselves  between  midday  and  evening,  but  only  that  "the 

secure  from  government  agents.    The  first  "houses  of  recitetion  of  None  in  choir  is  followed  by  the  Mass". 

God"  reach  oack  certeinly  to  the  end  of  the  second  It  is  in  general  left  to  the  discretion  of  the  priest  to 

century,  as  we  team  from  Tertullian  (Adv.  Valent.,iii)  celebrate  at  any  hour  between  dawn  and  midday  (ab 

and  Clement  of  Alexandria  (Strom.,  I,  i).    In  the  sec-  aurora  Jtsgne  ad  meridiem).    It  ia  proper  that  he  anoiild 

ond  half  of  the  fourth  century  (a.  d.  370),  Optetua  of  read  beforehand  Matins  and  Lauds  irom  his  breviary. 
Mileve   (Do   Schism.   Donat.,   II,   iv)   could  already         The  sublimity  of  the  Sacrifice  of  the  Mass  demands 

reckon  more  than  forty  basilicas  which  adorned  the  that  the  priest  should  approach  the  altar  wearing  the 

city  of  Rome.    From  this  period  dat«s  the  prohibition  sacred  vestments  (amice,  stole,  cincture,  maniple,  and 

of  the  Synod  of  Laodicea  (can.  Iviii)  to  celebrate  Mass  chasuble).    Whether  the  priestly  vestmente  are  his- 

In  private  houses.     Thenceforth  the  public  churches  torical  developmente  from  Judaism  or  paganism,  is  a 

were  to  be  the  sole  places  of  worship.    In  the  Middle  auestion  still  discussed  by  archffiologiste.    In  any  case 

Ages  the  synods  granted  to  bishops  Uie  right  of  allow-  tiie  "Canones  Hippolyti"  require  that  at  Pontifical 

ing  houae-chapels  within  their  dioceses.    According  to  Mass  the  deacons  and  priests  appear  in  "white  vest- 

the  law  of  to-day  (Council  of  Trent,  Sees.  XXII,  de  ments",  and  that  the  lectora  also  wear  festive  ^- 

reform.),  the  Mass  may  be  celebrated  onl^  in  chapels  mcnts.    N6  priest  may  celebrate  Mass  without  light 

and  public  (or  aemi-public)  oratories,  which  must  be  (usually  two  candles),  except  in  case  of  urgent  ueces- 

consecrated  or  at  least  biased.     At  present,  private  sity  (e.  g.  to  consecrate  a  Host  as  the  Vaucum  for  a 

chapelsmaybeercctedonly  in  virtue  of  a  special  papal  person  seriously  ill).    The  altar-cross  is  also  necessary 

indult  (S.  C.  C,  23  Jan.,  1847;  6  Sept.,  1870).    In  the  as  an  indication  that  the  Sacrifice  of  the  Mass  ia  noth- 

latter  case,  the  real  place  of  sacrifice  is  the  consecrated  ing  else  than  the  unbloody  reproduction  of  the  Sacri- 

altar  (or  alter-stone),  which  must  be  placed  in  a  suit-  fice  of  the  Cross.     Uaually,  ^so,  the  priest  must  be 

able  room  (cf.  Missale  Romanum,  Ruhr,  gen.,  tit.  xx).  attended  at  the  alter  b^  a  server  of  the  male  sex.    The 

In  times  of  gjreat  need  (e.  g.  war,  persecution  of  Cath-  celebration  of  Mass  without  a  server  is  alkiwed  only 

olics),  the  priest  may  celebrate  outside  the  chureh,  but  incase  of  need  (e.g.  to  procure  the  Viaticum  for  a  aick 

naturally  only  in  a  becoming  place,  provided  with  the  person,  or  to  enable  the  faithful  to  satisfy  their  obliga- 

most  necessary  utensils.    On  reasonable  grounds  the  tion  of  hearing  Mass).    A  person  of  the  female  sex  mav 

bishop  may,  in  virtue  of  the  so-called  "quinquennial  not  serve  at  the  altar  itself,  e.  g.  trsnafcr  the  missal, 

faculties",  allow  the  celebration  of  Mass  in  the  open  ^eaent  the  cruets,  eto.  (S.  R.  C,  27  August,  1836). 

air,  but  the  celebration  of  Maaa  at  sea  ia  allowed  only  Women  (especially  nuna)  may,  however,  answer  the 

by  papal  indult.    In  such  an  indult  it  is  usually  pro-  celebrant  from  their  places,  if  no  male  server  be  at 

vided  that  the  sea  be  calm  during  the  celebration,  hand.    During  the  celebration  of  Mass  a  simple  priest 

and  that  a  second  priest  (or  deacon)  be  at  hand  to  may  not  wear  any  head-covering — whether  birette, 

prevent  the  spilling  of  the  chalice  in  case  of  the  rock-  pileolus,  or  full  wig  (coffws  ficlitia) — but  the  bishop 

ing  of  the  ship.  may  allow  him  to  wear  a  plain  perruqueasaprotection 

(b)  For  the  worthy  celebration  of  Mass  the  circum-  for  his  hairless  scalp. 
atence  of  time  is  also  of  great  importance.     In  the         (c)  To  preserve  untemished  the  honour  of  the  most 

Apostolic  age  the  first  Christians  assembled  regularly  venerable  aacrifice,  the  Church  has  surrounded  with  a 

on  Sundays  for  "the  breaking  of  bread"  (Acte,  xx.  7;  strong  rampart  of  special  defensive  regulations  the  in- 

"on  the  fir^  day  of  the  week"),  which  day  the  "Di-  stitution  of  "  mass-etipenda  " ;  her  intention  is  on  the 

dache"  (c.xiv),and  later  Justin  Martyr  (IApoI.,lxvi),  one  hand  to  keep  remote  from  the  altar  all  baae  ava- 


MASS                                   21  MASS 

rice,  and  on  the  other  to  ensure  and  safeguard  the  right  conditions  of  an  important  character  (e.  g.  the  ao- 
of  the  faithful  to  the  conscientious  celebration  of  the  pointed  day,  altar,  etc.)*  Should  some  obstacle 
Masses  bespoken.  By  a  mass-stipend  is  meant  a  cer-  arise,  the  money  must  either  be  returned  to  the  donor, 
tain  monetary  offering  which  anyone  makes  to  the  or  a  substitute  procured.  In  the  latter  case,  the  sub- 
priest  with  the  accompanying  obligation  of  celebrating  stitute  must  be  given,  not  the  usual  stipend,  but  the 
a  Mass  in  accordance  with  the  intentions  of  the  donor  whole  offering  received  (cf.  Prop,  ix  damn.  1666  ab 
{odinienHonemdaTiUs).  The  obligation  incurred  con-  Alex.  VIII  in  Denzinger,  n.  1109),  unless  it  be  indis- 
sists,  concretely  speaking,  in  the  application  of  the  putably  clear  from  the  circumstances  that  the  excess 
"special  fruit  of  the  Mass  (Jruclua  speciailis),  the  na-  over  the  usual  stipend  was  meant  by  the  donor  for  the 
ture  of  which  we  have  already  described  in  detail  (A,  first  priest  alone.  There  is  a  tacit  condition  which  re- 
3).  The  idea  of  the  stipend  emanates  from  the  earli-  quires  the  reading  of  the  stipulated  Mass  as  soon  as 
est  ages,  and  its  justification  lies  incontestably  in  the  possible.  According  to  the  common  opinion  of  moral 
axiom  of  St.  Paul  (I  Cor.,  ix,  13) :  "They  that  serve  the  theologians,  a  postponement  of  two  months  is  in  less 
altar,  partake  with  the  altar''.  Originally  consisting  urgent  cases  admissible,  even  thou^  no  lawful  im- 
of  the  necessaries  of  life,  the  stipend  was  at  first  con-  pediment  can  be  brought  forward.  Should,  however, 
sidered  as  ''alms  for  a  Mass"  {iieemosyna  missarum),  a  priest  postpone  a  Mass  for  a  happy  delivery  until 
the  object  beinf  to  contribute  to  the  proper  support  of  after  the  event,  he  is  bound  to  return  the  stipend, 
the  clergy.  The  character  of  a  pure  alms  has  been  However,  since  all  these  precepts  have  been  imposed 
since  lost  by  the  stipend,  since  such  may  be  accepted  solely  in  the  interests  of  the  stipend-giver,  it  is  evident 
by  even  a  wealthv  priest.  But  the  Pauline  principle  that  he  enjoys  the  right  of  sanctioning  all  unusual 
applies  to  the  wealthy  priest  just  as  it  does  to  the  poor,  delavs. 

Tne  now  customary  money-offering,  which  was  intro-  (d)  To  the  kindred  question  of  "mass-foimdations" 
duced  about  the  eighth  century  and  was  tacitly  ap-  the  Church  has,  in  the  interests  of  the  founder  and  in 
proved  by  the  Church,  is  to  be  regarded  merely  as  the  her  high  regard  for  the  Holy  Sacrifice,  devoted  the 
substitute  or  commutation  of  the  earlier  presentation  same  anxious  care  as  in  the  case  of  stipends.  Mass- 
of  the  necessaries  of  Ufe.  In  this  very  point,  also,  a  foundations  (fundaiiones  misaarum)  are  fixed  bequests 
change  from  the  ancient  practice  has  been  introduced,  of  funds  or  real  property,  the  interest  or  income  from 
since  at  present  the  individual  priest  receives  the  sti-  which  is  to  procure  tor  ever  the  celebration  of  Mass  for 
pend  personally,  whereas  formerly  all  the  clergy  of  the  the  founder  or  according  to  his  intentions.  Apart 
particular  church  shared  among  them  the  total  obla-  from  anniversaries,  foundations  of  Masses  are  divided, 
tions  and  gifts.  In  their  present  form,  the  whole  mat^  according  to  the  testamentary  arrangement  of  the 
ter  of  stipends  has  been  officially  taken  by  the  Church  testator,  mto  monthly,  weekly,  and  daily  foundations, 
entirely  under  her  protection,  both  by  the  Council  of  As  ecclesiastical  property,  mass-foundations  are  sub- 
Trent  (Sess.  XXII,  de  ref .)  and  by  the  dogmatic  Bull  ject  to  the  administration  of  the  ecclesiastical  authori- 
*'Auctorem  fidei"  (1796)  of  Pius  VI  (Denzinger,  n.  ties,  especially  of  the  diocesan  bishop,  who  must 
1554).  Since  the  stipend,  in  its  origin  and  nature,  grant  his  permission  for  the  acceptance  of  such  and 
claiins  to  be  and  can  be  nothing  else  than  a  lawful  con-  must  appoint  for  them  the  lowest  rate.  Only  when 
tribution  towards  the  proper  support  of  the  clergy,  the  episcopal  approval  has  been  secured  can  the  f ounda- 
false  and  foolish  views  of  the  ignorant  are  shown  to  be  tion  be  regarded  as  completed;  thenceforth  it  is  unal- 
without  foundation,  when  they  suppose  that  a  Mass  terable  for  ever.  In  places  where  the  acquirement  of 
may  be  simoniacally  purchased  witn  money  (cf .  St.  ecclesiastical  property  is  subject  to  the  approval  of  the 
Thomas^  II-II,  Q.  c,  art.  2).  To  obviate  all  abuses  State  (e.  g.  in  Austria),  the  establishment  of  a  mass- 
conoemmg  the  amount  of  the  stipend,  there  exists  in  foundation  must  also  be  submitted  to  the  secular  au- 
each  diocese  a  fixed  "  mass-tax  "  (settled  either  by  an-  thorities.  The  declared  wishes  of  the  founder  are 
dent  custom  or  by  an  episcopal  regulation),  which  no  sacred  and  decisive  as  to  the  manner  of  fulfilment. 
priest  may  exceed,  unless  extraordinary  inconven-  Should  no  special  intention  be  mentioned  in  the  deed  of 
lenoe  (e.  g.  long  fasting  or  a  long  journey  on  foot)  foundation,  the  Mass  must  be  applied  for  the  founder 
justifies  a  somewhat  larger  sum.  To  eradicate  all  un-  himself  (S.C.C,  18  March,  1668).  To  secure  punc- 
worthy  greed  from  among  both  laity  and  cler^in  con-  tuality  in  the  execution  of  the  foundation.  Innocent 
nexion  with  a  thing  so  sacred,  Pius  IX  in  his  Constitu-  XII  ordered  in  1697  that  a  list  of  the  mass-founda- 
tion ''ApostoUcffi  Sedis"  of  12  Oct.,  1869,  forbade  tions,  arranged  according  to  the  months,  be  kept  in 
under  penalty  of  excommunication  the  commercial  each  church  possessing  such  endowments.  The  ad- 
traffic  m  stipends  {mercimonium  misace  stipendiorum).  ministrators  of  pious  foundations  are  bound  under 
The  traffickmg  consists  in  reducing  the  larger  stipend  pain  of  mortal  sin  to  forward  to  the  bishop  at  the  end 
collected  to  the  level  of  the  "tax",  and  appropriating  of  each  year  a  list  of  all  founded  Masses  left  uncele- 
the  suiplus  for  oneself.  Into  the  category  of  shame-  brated  together  with  the  money  therefor  (S.  C.  C,  25 
ful  traffic  in  stipends  also  falls  the  reprehensible  prao-  May,  1893). 

tioe  of  book-sellers  and   tradesmen,  who   organize  The  celebrant  of  a  founded  Mass  is  entitled  to  the  full 

public  collections  of  stipends  and  retain  the  money  con-  amount  of  the  foundation,  unless  it  is  evident  from  the 

tributions  as  payment  for  books,  merchandise,  wines,  circumstances  of  the  foundation  or  from  the  wording 

etc.,  to  be  delivered  to  the  clergy  (S.  C.  C,  31  Aug.,  of  the  deed  that  an  exception  is  justifiable.    Such  is 

1S74 ;  25  May,  1893).    As  special  punishment  for  this  the  case  when  the  foundation  serves  also  as  the  endow- 

offenoe,  suapenaio  a  divinU  reserved  to  the  pope  is  ment  of  a  benefice,  and  consequently  in  such  a  case  the 

proclaimed  against  priests^  irregularitv  against  other  beneficiary  is  bound  to  pay  his  substitute  only  the 

clerics,  and  excommunication  reserveci  to  the  bishop,  regular  tax  (S.C.C,  25  July,  1874).    Without  urgent 

against  the  laity.  reason,  founded  Classes  may  not  be  celebrated  in 

Another  bulwark  against  avarice  is  the  strict  regu-  churches  (or  on  altars)  other  than  those  stipulated 

lation  of  the  Church,  binding  under  pain  of  mortal  sin,  by  the  foundation.    Permanent  transference  of  such 

that  priests  shall  not  accept  more  intentions  than  Masses  is  reserved  to  the  pope,  but  in  isolated  in- 

they  can  satisfy  within  a  reasonable  period  (S.  C.  C,  stances  the  dispensation  ot  tne  bishop  suffices  (cf. 

19(H).    This  regulation  was  emphasized  by  the  addi-  Council  of  Trent,  Sess.  XXI  de  ref.;  Sess.  XXV  de 

tional  one  which  forbade  stipends  to  be  transferred  to  ref.).    The  unavoidable  loss  of  the  income  of  a  founda- 

priests  of  another  diocese  without  the  knowledge  of  tion  puts  an  end  to  all  obligations  connected  with  it. 

their  ordinaries  (S.  C.  C,  22  May,  1907).    The  accept-  A  senous  diminution  of  the  foundation  capital,  owingto 

ance  of  a  stipend  imposes  under  pain  of  mortal  sin  the  the  depreciation  of  money  or  property  in  value,  also 

obligation  not  only  of  rnsKling  the  stipulated  Mass,  but  the  necessary  increase  of  the  mass-tax,  scarcity  of 

alao  of  fulfilling  conscientiously  all  other  appointed  priests,  poverty  of  a  church  or  of  the  clergy  may  con- 


IgAffff 


22 


fltxtute  just  groundB  for  the  reduction  of  the  number  of 
Masses,  sinoe  it  may  be  reasonably  presumed  that  the 
deceased  founder  would  not  under  such  difficult  cir- 
cumstance insist  upon  the  obligation.  On  21  June. 
1625,  the  right  of  reduction,  which  the  Council  oi 
Trent  had  conferred  on  bishops,  abbots,  and  the  gen- 
erals of  religious  orders,  was  again  reserved  by  Urban 
VIII  to  the  Holy  See. 

Consult  Pasquauoo,  De  mtcriflcio  Notm  LegU  quad,  theolo- 
giea,  morales^  iuridica  (2  vob.,  I^ons,  1602) ;  Bona,  De  taeri^eio 
•fiMM*  tract.  McdiciM  (new  ed.,  Fretbui]^,  1906;  Ratisbon,  1909); 
Bbnedict  XIV,  De  m.  Miun  9acnfieui  in  Mignb,  TheoL  Cun, 
CompUt.,  XXIII;  KdssiNO.  Liturg.  Brkl&rung  der  hL  Meue&td 
ed.,  Monster,  1809);  Tralhofbb,  Handbueh  derkathoL  lAtwrgik 
(2  vob.,  Freibuxg,  1870);  Buathikr,  Le  merifiee  dana  U  doffme 
eathoL  el  da$u  la  vie  chrH,  (Paris,  1889)jHila]iiu8  a  Sbxtbn, 
Trad,  padoralie  de  aaeramentia  (Mains,  1895);  Qasparri,  Trad, 
eanonieiu  de  m.  Eucharidia  (Paris,  1897);  Qiordano,  Dae  eudk. 
Leben  u.  doe  ewige  K&nioium  ChrieH,  tr.  from  Italian  (Fieibun, 
1900);  Prunbr,  Lehrbuch  der  PadoraUheol.,  1  (2d  ed.,  Frei- 
buxg, 1904) ;  BAiiTHASAR,  Dae  O^eimnie  alUr  Oehiimnieee  in  KL 
SoKromenl  dee  AUare  (Freibuxg,  1905);  TtrrblltOrbbn,  TKe 
Eucharidt  Devotional  Addreeeee  on  He  thief  Aepede  (London, 
1908) ;  KiNANB,  Dove  of  the  Tabernacle;  or.  The  Love  ofJeeue  in 
the  Mod  Holy  Bucharid  (Dublin),  Qennan  tr.  (Freibuxg.  1910). 
On  particular  points  consult  Kraus,  Realencykl.  derehrietL  AUtr- 
turner  (2  vols.,  Frribuxs,  1879-^) :  Wibland,  Menea  u.  Con^ 
feeeio,  I  (Munich,  1906);  Raibur,  Der  TabenuJtd  eind  u.  ietd 
(Freiburg,  1908);  Braun,  Die  priealerL  Gew&nder  dee  Abendr 
tandee  nach  ihrer  geechiehil.  EntwielUuno  (Freibuxg.  1897);  Idbm, 
Die  liturg.  Oewandung  tm  Occident  u.  Orient  nach  Ureprung  u. 
Enttpicklung  (Freibuig,  1907)  Concerning  mass-stipends,  see 
Bbrlbndis,  De  oblation^nu  d  elipendiie  (Venice,  1743) ;  ScBiao, 
Meeeopfer,  Meeeajfplikation  u.  Meedipendien  (Passau,  1834); 
Lbinb,  Die  Simonie,  eine  kanonidieche  Studie  (Freibuig.  1902). 
Consult  further  Philups,  LArbuch  dee  Kirenenreehte  (2d  ed., 
Ratisbon,  1871),  549  sag.;  Lbhmxuhl,  TheoL  moraUe,  II  (10th 
ed..  Freibuig,  1902) ;  QdprBRT,  Moraltheologie.  Ill  (5th  ed., 
Padeii>om,  1906).  On  mass-foundations  see  Bbnbdict  XTV, 
De  eynpd.  diocee.,  V,  x:  XII,  zxv;  Eubbt,  Nature  juridigue  de  la 
fondation  de  Meeeee  (Paxis,  1906);  Dbjust,  Dee  Umdatione  de 
Meeeee  (Paris,  1908);  Thurston  in  The  Month  (1906),  13-27. 

(2)  Precepts  to  secure  the  Worthiness  of  the  Cele- 
brant.— ^Altnough,  as  declared  by  the  Council  of  Trent 
(Sess.  XXII,  cap.  i),  the  venerable,  pure,  and  sublime 
Sacrifice  of  the  God-man  "  cannot  be  stained  by  any 
unworthiness  or  impiety  of  the  celebrant",  still  eo- 
desiastical  legislation  has  long  regarded  it  as  a  matter 
of  special  concern  that  priests  should  fit  themselves  for 
the  celebration  of  the  Holy  Sacrifice  by  the  cultivation 
of  integrity,  purity  of  heart,  and  other  qualities  of  a 
personal  nature. 

(a)  In  the  first  place  it  may  be  asked:  Who  may 
celebrate  Mass?  Smce  for  the  validity  of  the  sacrifice 
the  office  of  a  special  priesthood  is  essential,  it  is  dear, 
to  begin  with,  that  only  bishops  and  priests  (not  dea- 
cons) are  qualified  to  offer  up  the  Holy  Sacrifice  (see 
Eucharist).  The  fact  that  even  at  the  beginning  of 
the  second  century  the  regular  officiator  at  the  Eu- 
oharistic  celebration  seems  to  have  been  the  bishop 
will  be  more  readily  understood  when  we  remember 
that  at  this  early  period  there  was  no  strict  distinc- 
tion between  the  offices  of  bishop  and  priest.  Like 
the  "Didache"  (xv),  Clement  of  Kome  (Ad  Cor.,  xl- 
xlii)  speaks  only  of  the  bishop  and  his  deacon  in  con- 
nexion with  tlie  sacrifice.  Ignatius  of  Antioch,  in- 
deed, who  bears  irrefutable  testimony  to  the  existence 
of  the  three  divisions  of  the  hierarchy — ^bishop  (ivlffKo- 
B-ot),  priests  (rpeffpOrepoi)  and  deacons  (iidicowot) — 
confines  to  the  bishop  the  privilege  of  celebrating  the 
Divine  Service,  when  he  says:  "  It  is  unlawful  to  bap- 
tise or  to  hold  the  agape  [d7dri|F]  without  the  bishop." 
The  '^Canones  Hippolyti",  composed  probably  about 
the  end  of  the  second  century,  first  contain  the  regula- 
tion (can.  xxxii) :  "  If,  in  the  absence  of  the  bishop,  a 
priest  be  at  hand,  all  shall  devolve  upon  him,  ana  ne 
shall  be  honoured  as  the  bishop  is  honoured ."    Subse- 

auent  tradition  recognises  no  other  celebrant  of  the 
[vstery  of  the  Eudiarist  than  the  bishops  and  priests, 
who  are  validly  ordained  "  according  to  the  keys  of  the 
Church  "  (secundum  davea  Ecdetus).  (Cf .  Lateran  IV, 
can.  "Firmiter"  in  Denzinger,  n.  430.) 

jBut  the  Church  demands  still  more  by  insisting  also 
on  the  personal  moral  worthiness  of  the  celebrant. 


This  connotes  not  alone  freedom  from  all  ecclesiastical 
censures  (excommunication,  suspension,  interdict), 
but  also  a  becoming  preparation  of  the  soul  and  body 
of  the  priest  before  ne  approaches  the  altar.  To  cele- 
brate m  the  state  of  mortal  sin  has  always  been 
regarded  by  the  Church  as  an  infamous  sacrilege  (cf . 
I  Cor.,  xi,  27  sqa.) .  For  the  worthy  (not  for  the  valid) 
celebration  of  tne  Mass  it  is,  therefore,  especially  re- 
quired that  the  celebrant  be  in  the  state  ofgrace.  To 
place  him  in  this  condition,  the  awiJcening  of  perfect 
sorrow  is  no  longer  sufficient  since  the  Council  ot  Trent 
(Sess.  XIII,  cap.  vii  in  Densinger,  n.  880),  for  there  is 
a  strict  ecclesiastical  precept  iSaX,  the  reception  of  the 
Sacrament  of  Penance  must  precede  the  celebration  of 
Mass.  This  rule  applies  to  all  priests,  even  when  they 
are  bound  by  their  office  (ex  officio)  to  read  Mass,  e.  g. 
on  Sundays  for  their  parishioners.  Only  in  instances, 
when  no  confessor  can  be  procured,  may  they  content 
themselves  with  reciting  an  act  of  perfect  sorrow 
(coniritio)^  and  they  then  incur  the  obligation  of  going 
to  confession  "as  early  as  possible"  (quam  primum), 
which,  in  canon  law,  signifies  within  three  days  at 
furthest.  In  addition  to  the  pious  preparation  for 
Mass  (acces8U8)f  there  la  prescribed  a  correspondingly 
lonjs  thanksgiving  after  Mass  (recesaus),  whose  length 
is  fixed  by  moral  theologians  between  nfteen  minutes 
and  half  an  hour,  although  in  this  connexion  the  par- 
ticular official  engagements  of  the  priest  must  be  con- 
sidered. As  reguxu  the  length  of  the  Mass  itself,  the 
duration  is  naturally  variable,  according  as  a  Solemn 
High  Mass  is  sung  or  a  Low  Mass  celebrated.  To  per- 
form worthily  all  the  ceremonies  and  pronounce  clearly 
all  the  prayers  in  Low  Mass  requires  on  an  average 
about  half  an  hour.  Moral  theologians  justly  declare 
that  the  scandalous  haste  necessai^y  to  finish  Mass  in 
less  than  a  quarter  of  an  hour  is  impossible  without 
grievous  sin. 

With  regard  to  the  more  immediate  preparation  of 
the  body,  custom  has  declared  from  time  immemorial, 
and  positive  canon  law  since  the  Council  of  Constance 
(1415),  that  the  faithful,  when  receiving  the  Sacra- 
ment of  the  Altar,  and  priests,  when  celebrating  the 
Holy  Sacrifice,  must  be  fasting  (jejunium  naturale). 
which  means  tnat  they  must  have  partaken  of  no  food 
or  drink  whatsoever  from  midnight.  Biidnight  begins 
with  the  first  stroke  of  the  hour.  In  calculating  the 
hour,  the  so-called  "  mean  time  "  (or  local  time)  must 
be  used:  according  to  a  recent  decision  (S.  C.  C,  12 
July,  1893).  Central-European  time  may  be  also  em- 
ployed, ana,  in  North  America,  "sone  time".  The 
movement  recently  begun  among  the  German  clergy, 
favouring  a  mitigation  of  the  strict  regulation  for  weak 
or  overworked  priests  with  the  obligation  of  duplicat- 
ing, has  serious  objections,  since  a  general  relaxation 
of  the  ancient  strictness  might  easily  result  in  lessening 
respect  for  the  Blessed  Sacrament  and  in  a  harmful 
reaction  among  thoughtless  members  of  the  laity. 
The  granting  of  mitigations  in  general  or  in  exceptional 
cases  belongs  to  the  Holy  See  alone.  To  keep  away 
from  the  altar  irreverent  adventurers  and  unworthy 
priests,  the  Council  of  Trent  (Sess.  XXIII,  de  ref.) 
issued  the  decree,  made  much  more  stringent  in  later 
times,  that  an  unknown  priest  without  the  Celebret 
(q.  V.)  may  not  be  allowed  to  say  Mass  in  any  church. 

(b)  A  second  Question  may  be  asked:  "Who  must 
say  Mass?  "  In  tne  first  place,  if  this  question  be  con- 
sidered identical  with  the  enquiry  as  to  whether  a  gen- 
eral obligation  of  Divine  Law  binds  every  priest  by 
reason  of  his  ordination,  the  old  Scholastics  are  divided 
in  opinion.  St.  Thomas,  Durandus,  Paludanus,  and 
Anthony  of  Bolo^a  certainly  maintained  the  exist- 
ence of  such  an  obligation;  on  the  other  hand,  Richard 
of  St.  Victor.  Alexander  of  Hales,  Bona  venture,  Ga- 
briel Biel,  ana  Cardinal  Cajetan  declared  for  the  oppo- 
site view.  Canon  law  teaoies  nothing  on  the  subieet. 
In  the  absence  of  a  dedsion.  Snares  (De  Euchar.,  disp. 
Izxx,  sect.  1,  n,  4)  believes  that  one  who  conforms  to 


23 

the  negative  view,  may  be  declared  free  from  grievous  question  must  be  touched  on  in  this  section:  For 
sin.  Of  the  ancient  hermits  we  know  that  they  did  whom  may  Mass  be  celebrated?  In  general  the  answer 
not  celebrate  the  Holv  Sacrifice  in  the  desert,  and  St.  may  be  given:  For  all  those  and  for  those  only,  who 
Ignatius  Loyola,  guided  by  high  motives,  aostained  are  fitted  to  partidpMate  in  the  fruits  of  the  Mass  as  an 
for  a  whole  year  from  celebrating.  Cardinal  De  Lugo  impetratory,  propitiatory,  and  satisfactory  sacrifice. 
(De  Euchar.,  disp.  xx,  sect.  1,  n.  13)  takes  a  middle  From  this  is  immediately  derived  the  rule  that  Mass 
course,  by  adoptmg  theoretically  the  milder  opinion,  may  not  be  said  for  the  damned  in  Hell  or  the 
while  declaring  that,  in  practice,  omission  tnrough  blessed  in  Heaven,  since  they  are  incapable  of  receiv- 
lukewarmness  and  neglect  may,  on  account  of  the  ing  the  fruits  of  the  Mass;  for  the  same  reason  children 
scandal  caused,  easily  amount  to  mortal  sin.  This  who  die  unbaptised  are  excluded  from  the  benefits  of 
consideration  explains  the  teaching  of  the  moral  theo-  the  Mass.  Thus^  there  remain  as  the  possible  partici- 
logians  that  eveiy  priest  is  bound  under  pain  of  mortal  pants  only  the  hving  on*  earth  and  the  poor  souls  in 
sin  to  celebrate  at  least  a  few  times  each  vear  (e.  g.  at  purgatory  (cf .  Trent,  Sess.  XXII,  can.  ui;  Sess.  XXV, 
Easter,  Pentecost,  Christmas,  the  Epiphany).  The  aecret.  de  purgatO*  Partly  out  of  her  great  venera- 
obligation  of  hearing  Mass  on  all  Sundays  and  holv  tion  of  the  Sacrifice,  however,  and  [lartly  to  avoid 
days  of  obligation  is  of  course  not  abrogated  for  sucn  scandal,  the  Church  has  surrounded  with  certain  con- 
pnests.  The  spirit  of  the  Church  demands — and  it  is  ditions,  which  priests  are  bound  in  obedience  to  ob- 
to-day  the  practically  universal  custom — ^that  a  priest  serve,  uie  application  of  Mass  for  certain  classes  of  the 
should  celebrate  dauy,  unless  he  prefers  to  omit  his  living  and  aead.  The  first  class  are  non-tolerated  ex- 
Mass  occasionally  through  motives  of  reverence.  communicated  persons^  who  are  to  be  avoided  by  the 
Until  far  into  the  Middle  Ages  it  was  left  to  the  dis-  faithful  (excommunicatt  vUandi).  Although,  according 
cretion  of  the  priest,  to  hi^  personal  devotion  and  his  to  various  authors,  the  priest  is  not  forbidden  to  offer 
zeal  for  souls,  whether  he  should  read  more  than  one  up  Mass  for  such  unhappy  persons  in  private  and  with 
Mass  on  the  same  day.  But  since  the  twelfth  century  a  merely  mental  intention,  still  to  announce  publicly 
canon  law  declares  that  he  must  in  general  content  such  a  Mass  or  to  insert  the  name  of  the  excommum- 
himself  with  one  daily  Mass,  and  the  synods  of  the  cated  person  in  the  prayers,  even  though  he  may  be  in 
thirteenth  century  allow,  even  in  case  of  necessity,  at  the  state  of  grace  owing  to  perfect  sorrow  or  may  have 
most  a  duplication  (see  Bination).  In  the  course  of  died  truly  repentant,  would  be  a  "  communicatio  in 
time  this  privilege  of  celebrating  the  Holy  Sacrifice  divinis",  and  is  strictly  forbidden  under  penaltv  of 
twice  on  ttie  same  day  was  more  and  more  curtailed,  excommunication  (cf .  C.  28,  de  sent,  excomm.,  Y,  t. 
According  to  the  existing  law,  duplication  is  allowed,  39).  It  is  likewise  forbidden  to  offer  the  Mass  publiclv 
under  special  conditions,  only  on  Sundays  and  holv  and  solemnly  for  deceased  non-CathoUcs,  even  though 


days,  and  then  only  in  the  interests  of  the  faithful,     ihoy  were  princes  (Innoc.  III.  C.  12,  X.  l.  3^  tit.  28). 

w  may  be  enabled  to  fulfil  their  obligation  of    On  the  other  hand  it  is  allowea,  in  consiaeration  of  the 

hearing  Mass.    For  the  feast  of  Christmas  alone  have    welfare  of  the  state,  to  celebrate  for  a  non-Catholic 


that  they  may 


priests  universalljr  been  allowed  to  retain  the  privilege  living  ruler  even  a  public  Solemn  Biass.    For  living 

of  three  Masses;  in  Spain  and  Portirgal  this  privilege  heretics  and  schismatics,  also  for  the  Jews,  Turks,  ana 

was  extended  to  All  souls'  Dav  (2  Nov.)  by  special  heathens,  Mass  mav  be  privately  applied  (and  even  a 

Indult  of  Benedict  XIV  (1746).    Such  customs  are  stipend  taken)  with  Uie  object  of  procuring  for  them 

unknown  in  the  East.  the  grace  of  conversion  to  the  true  Faith.    For  a  de- 

This  general  obligation  of  a  priest  to  celebrate  Mass  ceased  heretic  the  private  and  hypothetical  applica- 

must  not  be  confounded  with  the  special  obli^tion  tion  of  the  Biass  is  allowed  only  when  the  priest  has 

which  results  from  the  acceptance  ot  a  Mass-stipend  good  pounds  for  believing  that  the  deceased  held  his 

{Migatio  ex  stijfenaio)  or  from  the  cure  of  souls  (Mir'  error  m  £H)d  faitii  (bonajQe,    Cf .  S.  C.  Officii,  7  April, 

gaHo  ex  cura  animarum).   Concerning  the  former  suffi-  1875).   To  celebrate  Biass  privately  for  deceased  cate- 

dent  has  been  already  said.    As  regards  the  claims  of  chumens  ia  permissible,  since  we  may  assume  that 

the  cure  of  souls,  the  obligation  of  Divine  Law  that  thev  are  alr^dy  justified  by  their  desire  of  Baptism 

parish  priests  and  administrators  of  a  parish  should  and  are  in  purgatory.    In  like  manner  Biass  may  be 

from  tune  to  time  celebrate  Biass  for  their  parish-  celebrated  privately  for  the  souls  of  deceased  Jews  and 

ioners,  arises  from  the  relations  of  pastor  ana  flock,  heathens,  who  have  led  an  upright  life,  since  the  sacri- 

The  Council  of  Trent  (Sess.  XXIII.  de  ref .)  has  sped-  fice  is  intended  to  benefit  all  who  are  in  pui]gatory. 

fied  this  duty  of  application  more  closely,  by  directing  For  further  details  see  Gdpfert, "  Moraltheoiogie  ",  III 

that  the  parish  pnestsbould  especially  apply  the  Biass.  {SHi  ed,,  Paderbom,  1906). 

for  whicn  no  stipend  may  be  taken,  for  his  flock  on  all  .In  additUm  to  the  special  bibUosmphy  given  under  each  seo- 

SiinHAVA  AnA   hnlv  Havw   (M    RpriAHinf  TCTV    "fSim  tion,  see  for  the  woid  Maae:  MOixbr,  «m«o.  l/r*pni»v  u.  B«tou- 

Ounoays  ana  noiy  aays  ^a.  ^neoict  aIV,      uum  ^^^^^^  ^  Benennung  (AschafFenbuis.  1873);  LoBWT.  Die  mv 

semper  oblatas",  19  Aug.,  1744).     The  obhgation  to  tUcken  Beteiehnunpen  Jeau  ChriaH  aU  Siloe,  Schiloch  u.  Pmcu, 

apply  the  Biass  pro  paputo  extends  also  to  the  holy  wabemmden  die  Semknung  d«r  ehrifU.^  Opferfti^  aU  Mieaa 

day8|*roejt«d  by  the  fiull  of  Urban  VIII  "UniyerBa  ^SS^^!^'^:  S"(tSS^"iS«t±?l&)f^''"^ 

per  orbem      of  13  Sept.,  1642;   for  even  to-day  these  sqq.;  von  Funk,  Abhandlunaen  u.  Vnierauchungen,  III  (Pader- 

lemain  •' canonically  fixed  feast  days",  although  the  bom,  1907);  Katholik,  II  (190^,  239;  I  (1908).  lu  soq.    Con- 

faithful  are  dispem«d.  from  the  obhVtion  of  hearing  Ji^^^^JSLSi.;-  sSSt&^^^ 

Biass  and  may  engage  m  servile  works.  The  same  obh-  ject:  S%unma  TheoL,  III,  oTtogdii;  Innocbnt  III,  De  eaero 

gation  of  applying  the  Biass  falls  likewise  on  bishops,  ^«?»  W'^^Cfe  "*.rt^»  (XODCyil.  773 aqq.;  Billdart,  De 

u  partors  oTtJieir  dioo^es,  and  on  those,  abboto  wYo  ^^tf^S^f^:  ^  ^ff^^'^^S^^^^^^i^ 

exercise  over  clergy  and  people  a  quasi-epiSCOpal  juris-  stadt.  1580);  Suaru,  De  Buehar.  et  de  Mieea  aacrificio  (new  ed., 

diction.    Titular  bishops  alone  are  excepted,  although  Paris,  1861);  Dn  Luoo.  Deaa.  Euehariatw,  IV.  ed.  Fournialb; 

even  in  their  ca«  the  a^pUoition  is  toje  derimi  (of^  lf^'ltS::^Ji:S5:'^.^^yi^:  hThV^^ 

LeoXIII,  "Insuprema",  10  June,  1882).     As  theob-  Ha  myaterio  (Cambrai.  1876):  Franhlin.  De  M.  Buehariatim 

ligation  itself  is  not  only  personal,  but  also  real,  the  aaerammtoet  aaerifieio  Uttk  ed.,,Rome,  1884);  Katscttbaubr, 

apnUcation  muHt,  in  ««e  of  an  impedin^nt  ari^  SiS^"±S:JS  Wf  i^fe'^i!  ^Sic^  It 

either  be  made  soon  afterwards,  or  be  effected  through  cKari^tim   (Innsbruck.    1889);   Many,  PrtBleetionea  de  Miaaa 

a  substitute,  who  has  a  right  to  a  mass  stipend  as  (Paris,  19^) ;  (Uvin,  rAe5acn/lceo/lA«  Mom  (London.  1903); 

regulated  by  the^tex.    Con«rnmg  tU8  ^olTquea-  gSSSIt  ^rpS^Hrf '^SlKLi Wfe.  SS.'  f&-^VS 

tion,  see  Heuser,  "  Die  Verpflichtun^  der  Pfarrer,  die  SteuR,  Die  hi.  Meaae  (Mains.  1874);  Cappbllaesi.  L^Bucharia- 

hi.  Messe  fdr  die  Gtemeinde  SU  apphcieren"  (DQssel*  ^  came  aaemmento  e  come  aacrifiao  (Turin.  1898);  Hbrgbn- 

Arvmi    1ft»l\  rOthbr,  Die  Buehariatie  ata  Opfer  (Ratisbon,  1868);  Holti- 

aofl.  A»w;.  WARTH.  Briefe  Hber  daa  hi.  Meaaopfer  (Mains.  1873);  Mbnnb. 

(C)  For  the  sake  of  OVmpleteneas  a  thud  and  last  Daa  hL  SakrmnefU  dea  AUara  aU  War  (Paderbom,  1^6):  En- 


MASSA                                   24  MASSAOHUSETTS 

ttmsa.  Das  KL  Jf  eB0op/«r  (Einaiedeln.  1880);  BusmoBR.  Das  ^HBRomnidTHWR,  KweKma(udk„  French  tr.  Bblbt.  I  (Parijk 

wMuHoe  Opfer  dea  Neuen  Bundes  (Solothum.  1800);  Sautkr.  ISPl):  Moroni,  IhM%onarw  dt  Eruduums  Stonco-BceUa.,  XLa 

Das  hi  Messopfer  (3nl  ©d..  Paderbom,  1910);  Lohmann.  Das  (Venice.  1847),  190. 

Opfer  des  Neuen  Bundes  (2nd  ed.,  Padeii>om,  1909);  also  the  E.  MACPRERflOK. 
various  text-books  of  dogmatic  theolosy,e.K.  Pesch,  Pnsiec* 

^*tS!Tyj^^^9\^''S^'&l^^f^£i  ,,  MM«aqa™ra,D,ocE8BOF(MA8«BN8.8).in  Central 

EncBARiffT.                                                   J.  PoHLE.  itaAy  (Lunigiana  and  Garfagnana).  The  city  is  located 

on  the  Frigido,  in  a  district  rich  in  various  mines  but 

Massa  Oandida. — ^Under  the  date  24  August,  the  especially  famous  for  its  pure  white  marble ^hich  the 
"Mart3rrologium  Romanum''  records  this  commem-  Romans  preferred  to  those  of  Paros  and  PenteUcus. 
oration:  ''  At  Carthage,  of  three  hundred  holy  martvrs  Massa  Carrara  is  the  "  Mansio  ad  Tabema  Frigida  "  of 
in  the  time  of  Valerian  and  Gallienus.  Among  other  the  "Tabula  Peutingeriana".  In  the  ninth  century 
torments,  the  governor,  ordering  a  limekiln  to  be  it  belonged  to  the  bishops  of  Luni,  and  was  confirmed 
lighted  and  live  coals  with  incense  to  be  set  near  by,  to  them  bv  Otto  I  and  by  Frederick  Barbarossa, 
said  to  these  confessors  of  the  Faith: '  Choose  whether  though  really  at  that  time  subject  to  the  Malaspina, 
jrou  will  offer  incense  to  Jupiter  or  be  thrown  down  counts  of  Lunigiana.  It  passed  from  Lucca  to  Pisa, 
mto  the  Ume.'  And  they,  armed  with  faith,  con-  was  held  by  the  Visconti  and  the  Fieschi,  again  by 
fessinff  Christ,  the  Son  of  (aod,  with  one  swift  impulse  Lucca,  and  was  later  a  free  conunune  under  Vae  pro- 
hurled  themselves  into  the  fire,  where,  in  the  fumes  of  tectorate  of  Florence.  In  1434,  it  took  the  marquis 
the  burning  lime,  they  were  reduced  to  a  powder.  Antonio  Alberico  Malaspina  for  its  lord;  in  154S  the 
Hence  this  band  of  blessed  ones  in  white  raiment  have  marc^uisate  passed  to  the  House  of  Cyb6j  through  the 
been  held  worthy  of  the  name,  TTAiteJIf  OSS."  The  date  mamage  of  Lorenzo  of  that  name  with  Riccarda 
of  this  event  may  be  placed  between  a.  d.  253,  when  Malaspina.  In  1568,  Car^ra  became  a  principality, 
Gallienus  was  associated  with  his  father  in  the  imperial  and  in  1664  a  duchy.  The  most  famous  prince  of  the 
office,  and  a.  d.  260,  when  Valerian  was  entrapped  and  house  of  Cyb6  was  Alberico  I,  who  endowed  his  little 
made  prisoner  bv  Sapor,  King  of  Persia.  As  to  the  state  with  a  model  code  of  laws.  The  daughter  of 
exact  place,  St.  Augustine  [Ser.  cccvi  (al.  cxii),  2]  caUs  Alderamo,  the  last  of  the  Cybds,  married  Rinaldo 
these  martyrs  the  '^  White  Mass  of  Utica",  indicating  Ercole  d'Este.  and  by  this  marriage  the  duchy  became 
that  there  they  were  specially  commemorated.  Utica  united  with  tnat  of  Modena;  in  1806  it  was  given  to 
was  onl^r  25  miles  from  the  city  of  Carthage,  which  was  Elisa  Bacciochi,  and  in  1814  to  Maria  Beatrice,  daugh- 
the  capital  of  a  thickly  populated  district,  and  the  ter  of  Rinaldo  Ercole,  at  whose  death  the  duchy 
three  hundred  may  have  been  brought  from  Utica  to  returned  to  Modena.  The  name  of  Carrara  comes  from 
be  Judged  by  the  procurator  (Galenus  Maximus).  Carraria,  a  stone  quarry.    An  academv  of  sculpture 

The  lame  of  the  Massa  Candida  has  been  perpetuated  founded  by  Duchess  Maria  Teresa  (1741)  has  its  seat 

chiefly  through  two  early  references  to  them:  tiiat  c^  at  Carrara  in  the  old  but  magnificent  ducal  palace. 

St.  Augustine,  and  that  of  the  poet  Prudentius  (q.  v.).  The  fine  cathedral  dates  from  1300.    Carrara  is  the 

The  latter,  in  the  thirteenth  hynm  of  his  rtpl  rrt^vwp  birthplace  of  the  sculptors  Tacca.  Baratta,  F^elli,  and 

collection,  has  a  dozen  lines  describing  "  the  pit  dug  in  Tenerani,  and  of  the  statesman  Pellegrino  Rossi.   The 

the  midst  of  the  plain,  filled  nearly  to  the  brim  with  see  was  created  in  1822  at  the  instance  of  Duchess 

hme  that  emitted/ choking  vapours",  how  the ''stones  Maria  Beatrice,  and  its  first  bishop  was  Francesco 

vomit  fire,  and  the  snowy  dust  bums. "   After  telling  Maria  Zappi;  it  was  then  suffragan  of  Pisa,  but  since 

how  they  faced  this  ordc^,  he  concludes:  "Whiteness  1855  has  been  suffragan  of  Modena.    The  sanctuary 

[candor\  possesses  their  bodies;  purity  [candor]  beam  of  Santa  Maria  dei  Quercioli,  founded  in  1832,  is  in  the 

their  minds  [or,  soulsl  to  heaven.   Hence  it  [the  "  head-  Diocese  of  Carrara.     The  latter  has  213  parishes, 

long  swarm"  to  which  the  poet  has  referred  in  a  155,400inhabitents,  one  reli^ous house  of  men,  seven 

S receding  line]  has  merited  to  be  forever  called  the  of  women,  and  four  educational  institutes  for  male 
ia89a  Candida.'*  Both  St.  Augustine  and  Pruden-  studente,  and  as  many  for  girls, 
tins  were  at  the  height  of  their  activity  before  the  CAPPBLLirm,  Le  ChUse  ff/toiio.  XV  (Venice,  1857):  Fab^ 
end  «rf  the  fourth  century.  Morwver.  St^ujprtine  JKSiS'SSSrSSl^ftr^  '^'^"^  ""^  ^"^ 
was  a  native  and  a  resident  of  this  same  Province  of  XT.  Benigni. 
Africa,  while  Prudentius  was  a  Spaniard.  It  is  natu- 
ral to  suppose  that  the  glorious  tale  of  the  three  hun-  MasBachiuetta,  one  of  the  thirteen  original  United 
dred  of  Carthage  had  become  familiar  to  both  writers  States  of  America.  The  Commonwealth  of  Massachu- 
throu^h  a  fresh  and  vivid  tradition — no  older  than  the  setts  covers  part  of  the  territory  originally  granted  to 
traditions  of  the  Revolutionary  War  now  are  in,  say,  the  Plymouui  Company  of  England.  It  grew  out  of 
New  England.  It  is  not  even  probable  that  either  of  the  consolidation  (in  1692)  of  the  two  original  colonies, 
them  originated  the  metephor  under  which  the  mar-  Plsnnouth  and  Massachusetts  Bay.  The  settlement  at 
tjrrs  of  the  limekiln  have  been  known  to  later  genera-  Plymouth  began  with  the  landing  of  the  Pilgrims,  22 
tions:  the  name  Afossa  Candida  had,  most  likel}^  been  December,  1620;  the  Colony  of  Massachusette  Bay 
long  in  use  among  the  faithful  of  Africa  and  Spain,  was  esteblished  under  John  Endicott  at  Salem  in  1628. 
As  Christians,  they  would  have  been  reminded  of  Apoc.,  The  royal  province  created  by  this  consolidation  in- 
vii,  13  and  14,  by  every  commemoration  of  a  martyr-  eluded  also  the  District  of  Maine  and  so  remained 
dom;  as  Romans — at  least  in  language  and  habit  of  imtil  the  present  State  of  Maine  was  set  off  from 
thou^t — ^they  were  aware  that  candidates  {candidaH)  Massachusetts  by  Congress,  3  March,  1820.  No  au- 
for  office  were  said  to  have  been  so  called  in  Republi-  thentic  and  complete  survey  of  the  Stete  of  Massa- 
can  Rome  from  the  custom  of  whitening  the  toga  with  chusetts  exists,  but  it  is  generally  believed  to  include 
chalk  or  lime  {calx)  when  canvassing  for  votes.  Given  an  area  of  about  8040  square  miles,  with  a  population 
the  Apocalyptic  imaee  and  the  Latm  etymolo^^  (can-  of  rather  more  than  three  millions.  Of  tlus  number 
dor — eandidua — candidaius;  cf.  in  the  "Te  Deum",  1,373,752  are  Catholics,  distributed  among  the  three 
"  Candidatus  martyrum  exercitus"),  it  was  almost  in-  Dioceses  of  Boston  (the  Archdiocese),  Fall  River,  and 
evitable  that  thi&  united  body  of  witnesses  for  Christ,  Springfield,  which  are  the  actual  ecclesiastical  divi- 
together  winning  their  heavenly  white  raiment  in  the  sions  of  the  state.  Classified  by  nationalities,  this 
incandescent  lime,  which  reduced  their  bodies  to  a  Catholic  population  comprises  more  than  7000  Ger- 
homogeneous  mass,  should,  by  the  peculiar  form  of  mans,  50,000  Portuguese,  100,(X)0  Italians,  150,(X)0 
their  agony,  have  suggested  this  name  to  the  African  French  Canadians,  10,(X)0  Lithuanians,  3000  Syrians, 
and  Spanish  (Christians.  25,000  Poles,  1000  Negroes,  81  Chinese,  3000  Bravas, 
(For  the  casuistxy  of  the  self-destruction  of  the  the  remainder — more  than  1,(XX),000 — being  princi- 
Blassa  Candida,  see  Suicide.)  pally  Irish  or  of  Irish  parentoge. 


MASaAOHUSXTTB 


25 


MASaAOSnSETTS 


I.  Colonial  Hibtort. — ^A.  Settlement, — ^The  explora- 
tions and  settlements  of  the  Northmen  upon  the  shores 
of  Manachusetts,  the  voyages  of  the  Caoots,  the  tem- 
porarv  settlement  (1602)  of  the  Gosnold  party  on  one  of 
the  Edixabeth  Islands  of  Biusard's  Bay,  and  the  ex- 
plorations and  the  mapping  of  the  New  England  coast 
oy  Captain  John  Smith  are  usually  passed  over  as  more 
or  less  conjectural.  The  undisputed  history  of  Massa- 
chusetts begins  with  the  arrival  of  the  "Ma3rflower" 
in  December,  1620.  Nevertheless  the  due  apprecia- 
tion c^  these  previous  events  gives  a  ready  and  logical 
explanation  of  many  acts,  customs,  and  laws  of  the 
founders  of  this  commonwealth  which,  in  general,  are 
imperfectly  understood.  The  early  maps  (1582)  mark 
the  present  territorv  of  New  England  imder  the  name 
"  NoTumbe^  ",  and  show  that  the  coast  had  been  vis- 
ited by  Christian  mariners — ^whether  bv  fishermen  in 
search  of  the  fisheries  set  forth  bv  Cabot,  or  by  the 
daring  Drakes.  Frobishers,  and  Hawkinses  of  Eliza- 
beth's reign,  aoes  not  seem  dear.  It  is  an  accepted 
fact  that,  when  Gosnold  set  out  in  1602^  there  was  not 
a  single  English  settlement  on  the  Contment.  France 
did  not  acJcnowledge  the  claim  of  England  over  the 

whole  of  the  territory.  A 
French  colonv  had  been 
established  where  now  is 
northern  Virginia,under  the 
name  of  "New  France". 
This  was  after  Verazzano's 
expedition  made  by  order 
of  Francis  I.  A  French 
explorer,  too,  the  Huguenot 
Sieur  de  Monts.  had  been 
to  Canada,  and  knew  much 
about  the  resources  of  that 
country,  especially  the  fur 
trade  of  the  Indian  tribes. 
Henry  IV  had  given  De 
Monts  a  patent  to  all  the 
Ooatop-Abmb  country  now   included   in 

voBMiMOPABTOPTHaSBALorNew  England,  also  a  mo- 
Mamachumtts  QQp^iy  ^^  ^Yie  fur   trade. 

All  this  is  important,  because  it  entered  into  the  con- 
ditions of  the  early  permanent  settlement  here. 

For  a  quarter  of  a  century  prior  to  the  coming  of  the 
Pilgrims,  the  French  and  the  Dutch  resented  the  en- 
croachments of  the  English.  "The  Great  Patent  for 
New  England ",  of  1620,  granted  to  Gor^  and  his 
fort^  associates,  has  been  called  a  "  despotic  as  well  as 
a  gigantic  commercial  monopoly".  This  grant  in- 
cluded the  New  Netherlands  of  the  Dutch,  the  French 
Acadia  and,  indeed^  nearly  all  the  present  inhabited 
British  possessions  m  North  America,  besides  all  New 
England,  the  State  of  New  York,  half  of  New  Jersey, 
nearly  all  of  Pennsvlvania,  and  the  country  to  the 
west — ^in  short,  all  the  territory  from  the  fortieth  de- 
gree of  north  latitude  to  the  forty-eighth,  and  from  the 
Atlantic  to  the  Pacific  Ocean.  The  English  had  in- 
creased the  enmity  of  the  French  by  destroying  the 
Catholic  settlements  at  Ste-Croix  and  at  Port-Royal, 
and  had  aroused  the  suspicion  and  hostility  of  the 
Indians  by  the  treachery  of  Hunt,  an  act  described  by 
Mather  as  "  one  which  constrained  the  English  to  sus- 
pend  their  trade  and  abandon  their  prospects  of  a 
settlement  in  New  England  ". 

The  religious  conditions  were  no  less  ominous  for 
the  Pilgrims.  At  the  oi)ening  of  the  sixteenth  centurv, 
all  Christian  Europe,  with  slight  exceptions,  was  Cath- 
olic and  loyal  to  tne  papacy;  at  the  close  of  that  cen- 
tury England  hezjselt  was  the  mother  of  three  anti- 
papacy  sects:  the  State  Church  and  its  two  divisions; 
the  Nonconformists,  or  Puritans;  and  the  Separatists, 
or  Pilgrims.  At  the  time  of  the  sailing  of  the  "  May- 
flower", the  Puritans  had  become  as  fuller  disenfran- 
chised oy  the  Anglican  Church  as  the  Pilgrims  had 
estranged  themselves  from  both;  each  distrusted  the 
others;  all  three  hated  the  Church  of  Rome.   (Gorges 


and  his  associates  had  found  the  French  and  their 
Jesuit  missionaries  a  stmnbling-block  in  the  way  of 
securing  fur-trading  privileges  from  the  Indians.  The 
alleged  gold  and  copper  mines  of  Smith  and  of  Gosnold 
were  now  regardea  as  myths;  unless  something  could 
be  done  at  once,  the  opportunities  offered  by  their 
charter  monopoly  would  be  worthless.  A  permanent 
English  settlement  in  America  was  the  only  sure  way 
of  preventing  the  French  and  the  Dutch  from  acquir- 
ing the  Virginia  territory.  The  Gorges  company  luiew 
of  the  cherished  hopes  of  the  Pilgrims  to  find  a  home 
away  from  their  English  persecutors,  and.  after  much 
chicanery  on  the  part  of  the  promoters,  tne  company 
agreed  to  found  a  home  for  the  Pilgrims  in  the  new 
world.  The  articles  of  agreement  were  wholly  com- 
mercial, and  the  "Mayflower"  sailed  for  Virginia. 
History  differs  in  its  interpretation  of  the  end  of  that 
voyage,  but  all  agree  that  the  Pilgrims,  in  landing  at 
Pl3rmouth,  22  December,  1620.  were  outside  any  juris- 
diction of  their  patrons,  the  Virginia  Company.  The 
Pilgrims  themselves  recogmzed  their  difficulty,  and 
the  famous  "Compact"  was  adopted,  before  landing, 
as  a  basis  of  government  by  mutual  agreement. 
Gorges  protected  his  company's  investment  by  ob- 
taining from  James  I  the  new  charter  of  1620  which 
controlled,  on  a  commercial  basis,  all  religious  coloni- 
zation in  America.  The  struggle  of  race  aeainst  race, 
tribe  against  tribe,  neighbour  against  neighbour  were 
all  encouraged  so  long  as  the  wajf are  brought  gain  to 
the  mercenary  adventurers  at  home.  The  Pilgrims, 
finding  themselves  deserted  by  the  instigators  of  this 
ill-feehng,  were  forced  by  the  law  of  self-preservation 
to  continue  religious  intolerance  and  the  extermina- 
tion of  the  Indians.  Thus  it  is  that  we  fijid  the  laws, 
the  customs,  and  the  manners  of  these  first  English 
settlers  so  mterwoven  with  the  reUgio-commercial 
principle.  The  coming  of  the  Puritans,  in  1629-30, 
addeci  the  factor  of  pontics,  which  resulted  in  estab- 
lishing in  America  the  very  thing  against  which  these 
"Punsts"  had  fought  at  home,  namely,  the  union  of 
Church  and  State.  Here,  again,  at  Puritan  Salem, 
Gor^  and  Mason  cloaked  their  commercialism  under 
reUgion,  as  the  accounts  of  La  Tour  and  Winslow 
attest,  and  so  effective  were  their  machinations  that, 
as  early  as  1635,  Endicott's  zeal  had  not  left  a  set  of 
the  king's  colours  intact  with  the  red  cross  thereon — 
that  "relic  of  popery  insufferable  in  a  Puritan  com- 
munity". 

B.  Colonial  LeqislaUon, — ^The  legality  of  the  early 
acts  of  the  colonists  depends,  to  a  great  decree,  on 
whether  the  charters  ^^ranted  to  the  two  colomes  were 
for  the  purpose  of  instituting  a  corporation  for  trading 
purposes,  or  whether  they  are  regarded  as  constitu- 
tions and  foundations  of  a  government.  This  much- 
controverted  point  has  never  been  settled  satisfacto- 
rily. The  repeated  demands  from  the  king,  often  with 
threat  of  prosecution,  for  the  return  of  tne  charters 
were  ignored,  so  that,  until  1684,  the  colony  was  prac- 
tically a  free  state,  independent  of  England,  and  pro- 
fessing little,  if  any,  lovalty.  Judging  from  the  corre- 
spondence, it  is  more  tnan  probable  that  the  intention 
of  the  Crown  in  granting  the  charter  was  that  the  cor- 
poration should  have  a  local  habitation  in  England, 
and  it  is  ec^ually  evident  that  the  colony  did  not  pos- 
sess the  right  to  make  its  own  laws.  It  is  plamly 
stated,  in  the  patent  granted  to  the  Puritans,  who  the 
governor  and  other  officials  of  the  colony  should  be. 
showing  thereby  that  the  Crown  retained  the  right  of 
governing.  A  new  charter  was  granted  in  1692,  cover- 
ing Massachusetts,  Pl3rmouth,  Maine,  Nova  Scotia, 
and  the  intervening  territory,  entitled  "The  Province 
of  Massachusetts  Bay  in  New  England  " ;  nevertheless 
it  was  not  until  the  Treaty  of  Utrecht,  in  1713,  that 
the  proceedings  on  the  part  of  the  home  Government, 
to  assert  the  Crown's  nghts,  abated  notably.  During 
the  half-century  in  which  the  Puritans  ignored  the 
terms  of  their  charter,  and  made  laws  in  accordance 


MASaAOHUSlTTS 


26 


BCA88A0HU81TT8 


with  their  own  selfish  interests,  many  of  those  acts 
occurred  which  histoiy  has  since  condemned.  At  the 
first  meeting  of  the  General  Court  held  30  August. 
1630,  it  was  voted  to  build  a  house  for  the  minister  ana 
maintain  it  at  the  state's  expense — an  act  described 
by  Benedict,  in  his  "  History  of  the  Baptists  ",  as  "  the 
first  dangerous  act  performed  by  the  rulers  of  this 
incipient  government  which  led  to  innumerable  evils, 
hardships,  and  privations  to  all  who  had  the  misf or- 
time  to  dissent  from  the  ruling  power  in  after  times. — 
The  Viper  in  Embryo;  here  was  an  importation  and 
establisnment,  in  the  outset  of  the  settlement,  of  the 
odious  doctrine  of  Church  and  State  which  had  thrown 
empires  into  convulsions,  had  caused  rivers  of  blood 
to  be  shed,  had  crowded  prisons.with  innocent  victims, 
and  had  driven  the  Pilgrims  [he  means  Puritans]  them- 
selves, who  were  now  engaged  in  the  mistaken  legisla- 
tion, from  all  that  was  dear  in  their  native  homes." 
This  union  of  Church  and  State  controlled  the  elec- 
torate and  citizenship  of  the  colony,  made  the  school 
a  s^rnonym  of  both,  excluded  Cathohc  priests  and  pro- 
hibited the  entrance  of  Jesuits,  condemned  witches  to 
death,  banished  Roger  Williams  and  the  Quakers, 
established  the  pillory,  and  in  other  ways  left  to  pos- 
terity many  chapters  of  uncharitableness,  intolerance, 
and  crueltv.  After  the  War  of  Independence,  the 
old  colonial  government  took  a  definite  constitutional 
form  under  the  Union,  in  1780,  and  the  first  General 
Court  of  the  sovereign  State  of  Massachusetts  con- 
vened in  October  of  that  year.  This  constitution  was 
revised  in  1820. 

C.  Catholic  Colonuation, — The  Plymouth  and 
Massachusetts  Bay  Colonies  were  composed  princi- 
pally of  English.  Near  ihe  close  of  the  reign  of 
Charles  I,  however,  the  forced  emigration  of  the  Irie^ 
brought  many  of  that  race  to  these  shores;  their  num- 
ber is  hard  to  estimate,  first,  because  the  law  made  it 
obligatory  that  all  sailings  must  take  place  from  En^ 
lish  ports,  so  that-  there  are  no  records  of  those  who 
came  from  Ireland  with  English  sailmg  registry; 
secondly,  because  the  law,  under  heavy  peiudties, 
obliged  all  Irishmen  in  certain  towns  of  Imand  to 
take  English  surnames — ^the  name  of  some  small 
town,  of  a  colour,  of  a  particular  trade  or  office,  or  of  a 
certain  art  or  craft.  Children  in  Ireland  were  sepa- 
rated forcibly  from  their  parents  and  under  new  names 
sent  into  the  colonies.  Men  and  women,  from  Cork 
and  its  vicinity,  were  openly  sold  into  slavery  for 
America.  Connaught,  which  was  nine-tenths  Catholic, 
was  depopulated.  The  frequently  published  state- 
ment in  justification  of  CromweU's  persecution,  that 
the  victims  of  this  white  slave-traffic  were  criminals, 
finds  no  corroboration  in  the  existence  of  a  single  penal 
colony  in  this  countiy.  In  1634  the  General  Court 
of  Massachusetts  Bay  also  granted  land  for  an  Irish 
settlement  on  the  banks  of  the  Merrimao  River. 
(See  Boston,  Archdiocese  of;  Ibish  in  CouNiitiES 

OTHER  THAN  IRELAND,  I.) 

II.  Modern  Mabsachusbtts. — A.  Statistica  of 
Pomdation.  In  1530  the  population  of  Plymouth 
and  Massachusetts  Colonies  was  estimated  at  8000 
white  people;  in  1650,  at  16,000;  in  1700,  at  70,000; 
while  in  1750  it  was  placed  at  220,000.  In  1790  the 
population  of  the  State  of  Massachusetts  was  378,787; 
m  1905  it  was  3,003,680.  The  density  of  population 
increased  from  47  to  the  square  mile,  m  1790,  to  373, 
in  1905.  In  1790  over  nine-tenths  of  the  population 
lived  in  rural  communities,  while  in  1905  less  than 
one-foipth  (22.26  per  cent)  of  the  total  population 
lived  in  communities  of  8000  or  less.  The  great  tide 
of  Irish  immigration  began  in  1847.  This  nas  since 
conspicuously  modified  the  population  of  Massachu- 
setts. In  1905  the  ratio  of  increase  in  the  native  and 
in  the  foreign-bom  of  the  population  was  6.46  per 
cent  and  8.47  per  cent  respectively;  the  number  of 
native-bom  in  tne  total  population  being  2,085,636, 
mi  that  Qf  the  foreifp-bom  peing  918,044,  an  incr^f»e 


of  the  latter  of  459 . 7  per  cent  since  1850.  This  foreign- 
bom  population  is  mostly  (83 .  91  per  cent)  in  cities  and 
towns  with  populations  of  more  than  8000.  Ireland 
has  furnished  25 .  75  per  cent  of  the  total  foreign-bom. 
Canada  (exclusive  of  New  Brunswick,  Nova  Scotia, 
and  Prince  Edward  Island)  is  second,  with  a  popula- 
tion of  1 2 .  88  per  cent  of  the  total  foreign-bom  popula- 
tion. At  present  Russia  supplies  the laivest  increase 
in  foreign-Dom,  having  risen  from  one-h^  of  one  per 
cent,  in  1885,  to  6.43  per  cent,  in  1905.  Italy's  con- 
tribution in  the  same  period  rose  from  .  76  per  cent  to 
5.51  per  cent.  Almost  sixty  per  cent  of  the  entire 
population  of  Massachusetts  is  now  of  foreign  parent- 
age. In  the  cities  of  Fall  River  and  Lawrence  it  runs 
as  high  as  four-fifths  of  the  entire  population,  while  in 
Holyoke,  Lowell,  and  Chicopee  it  is  more  than  three- 
fourths.  In  Boston  the  population  of  foreini  parent- 
i^ge  forms  69.03  per  cent,  while  at  New  Seoford  it 
rises  to  72.34  per  cent,  at  Worcester  to  65.64  per 
cent,  at  Cambridge  to  65 .  16  per  cent,  at  Wobum  to 
63 .  63  per  cent,  and  at  Salem  to  61 .  10  per  cent.  The 
Greeks  have  increased  in  Massachusetts  1242.7  per 
cent  since  1895,  a  greater  rapiditv  of  increase  than  all 
peoples  of  foreign  parentage  in  the  population.  Aus- 
tria comes  next,  and  Italy  is  thira.  In  the  city  of 
Boston,  Irish  parentage  gives  174,770  out  of  a  total 
census  of  410,960  persons  of  foreign  parentage,  and 
this  nationality  predominates  in  every  ward  except  ihe 
eighth,  where  Russian  parentage  stands  first.  The 
transformation  in  the  racial  and  national  population 
in  Massachusetts  has  likewise  changed  the  religious 
prominence  of  the  various  denominations.  The 
present  order  of  denominations  in  this  state  is :  Catho- 
lic, 69.2  per  cent;  Congregationalists,  7.6  per  cent; 
Baptists,  5.2  per  cent;  Methodists,  4.2  per  cent; 
Protestant  Episcopalians,  3.3  per  cent. 

B.  Economic  CondiHona, — Massachusetts  was  not 
favoured  by  nature  for  an  agricultural  centre.  The 
soil  is  sandy  in  the  level  areas  and  clayey  in  the  hilly 
sections.  The  valleys  of  the  streams  are  rich  in  soil 
favourable  to  vegetable-  and  fruit-production.  The 
early  industries  were  cod  and  mackerel  fisheries.  At 
the  outbreak  of  the  Revolution,  commerce  was  the 
most  profitable  occupation,  and  after  the  declaration 
of  peace.  Massachusetts  sent  its  ships  to  all  parts  of 
the  world.  The  European  wars  helped  this  com- 
merce greatly  until  the  War  of  1812,  with  its  embargo 
and  non-intercourse  laws,  which  forced  tJie  AA[ierican 
vessels  to  stay  at  home.  It  had  its  recompenses, 
however,  in  the  birth  of  manufactures,  an  industry 
attempted  as  early  as  1631  and  1644,  but  subse- 
quently suppressed  bv  the  mother  countiy.  The  first 
cotton  mill  was  established  at  Beverlv  in  1787.  It 
was  not  until  1840,  however,  that  the  cotton  and 
leather  industries  attained  permanent  leadership. 
According  to  the  published  statistics  of  1908,  Massa- 
chusetts had  6044  manufacturing  establislmients, 
with  a  yearly  product  valued  at  $1,172,808,782.  The 
boot  and  shoe  industiv  was  the  leading  industry  of 
the  State,  with  a  yearlv  production  of  9213,506,562. 
This  industry  proauced  18.2  per  cent  of  the  product 
value  of  the  State,  and  one-half  of  all  the  prcxiuct  in 
this  line  in  the  United  States.  The  cotton  manu- 
factures were  13.51  per  cent  of  the  State's  total  prod- 
uct. The  total  capital  devoted  to  production  in  the 
State  was  $717,787,955.  More  than  480,000  wage- 
earners  were  employed  (323,308  males:  156,826  fe- 
males) in  the  vanous  manufacturing  industries  of  l^e 
State,  the  two  leading  industries  employing  35.22  per 
cent  of  the  aggregate  average  number  of  idl  employees. 
The  average  yearly  earmng  for  each  operative  is 
$501.71.  The  Massachusetts  laws  prohibit  more 
than  fifty-eight  hours'  weekly  employment  in  mei- 
cantile  establishments,  and  limit  the  oay's  labour  to 
ten  hours.  No  woman  or  minor  can  be  employed  for 
purposes  of  manufacturing  between  the  hours  of  ten 
o'clock  p.  m.  And  m  o'clock  9^  m.;  no  minor  undor 


MASaAOHVSITTB                        27  ICJJHUOHVSmni 

eighteen  years  and  no  woman  can  be  employed  in  any  schools  and  gave  to  them  a  false  and  fictitious  soeialy 
textile  factory  between  six  o'clock  p.  m.  and  six  intellectual,  and  moral  standing.  The  American  In- 
o'clock  a.  m. ;  no  child  under  fourteen  years  of  age  stitute  of  Instruction  was  formed  in  1830  at  Boston  as 
can  be  employed  during  the  hours  when  the  pubfic  a  protest  against  the  low  standard  of  teaching  in  the 
schools  are  in  session,  nor  between  seven  o'clock  p.  m.  public  schools.  Three  vears  prior  to  this  (1^7)  the 
and  six  o'clock  a.  m.  Children  under  fourteen  ^ean,  Legislature  had  established  the  State  Board  of  Educa- 
and  children  over  fourteen  years  and  under  sixteen  tion,  which  remained  unchanged  in  form  until  1009. 
years,  who  cannot  read  at  sijght  and  write  legibly  That  same  year  was  made  historic  by  Uie  Legislature 
simple  sentences  in  the  English  language,  shall  be  voting  to  make  it  unlawful  to  use  the  common  schools, 
permitted  to  work  on  Saturdiftys  between  six  o'clock  or  to  teach  anytlung  in  the  schools^  in  order  to  turn 
a.  m.  and  seven  o'clock  p.  m.  only.  Transportation  the  children  to  a  belief  in  any  particular  sect.  This 
facilities  have  kept  pace  with  the  growth  of  the  in-  was  the  first  show  of  strength  Unitarianism  had  mani- 
dustries.  Two  main  railroad  systems  connect  with  fested  in  Massachusetts,  and  it  has  retained  its  con- 
the  West,  and,  by  means  of  the  interstate  branches,  trol  of  the  educational  policy  of  the  state  since  that 
these  connect  with  all  the  leading  industrial  cities,  date.  In  1835  the  civil  authorities  at  Lowell  author- 
One  general  raOroad  system  with  its  sub-divisions  ized  the  establishment  of  separate  Catholic  schools 
connects  with  the  South,  via  New  York.  The  means  with  Catholic  teachers  and  with  all  text-books  subject 
of  transportation  by  water  are  no  less  complete  than  to  the  pastor's  approval.  The  municipality  paia  all 
those  by  rail,  and  offer  every  facility  to  bring  coal  and  the  expenses  except  the  rent  of  rooms.  This  experi- 
other  supplies  of  the  world  into  connection  with  the  ment  was  a  great  success.  The  general  wave  of  reli- 
various  railroad  terminals  for  distribution.  gious  fanaticism,  which  swept  the  country  a  few  years 
C.  Bdueatian, — ^All  education  in  Massachusetts  was  later,  was  responsible  for  the  acceptance  of  the  refer- 
at  first  religious.  We  read  of  the  establishment  in  endum  vote  of  21  May,  1855,  whi(m  adopted  the  con- 
1636  of  Harvard  College,  'Uest  an  illiterate  ministry  stitutional  amendment  that  "all  moneys  thus  rsJsed 
might  be  left  to  the  churches",  and  "to  provide  for  the  by  taxation  in  towns,  or  appropriated  by  the  state, 
instruction  of  the  peoj^e  in  piety,  morality,  and  learn-  shall  never  be  appropriatea  to  any  religious  sect  for 
ing."  The  union  of  Church  and  State  was  accepted,  the  maintenance  exclusively  of  its  own  schools  ".  The 
and  the  General  Court  agreed  to  give  400  pounds  to-  Civil  War  resulted  in  a  saner  view  of  msLn^r  questions 
wards  the  establishment  of  the  college.  Six  years  which  had  been  blurred  by  passion  and  prejudice,  and 
later  it  was  resolved,  "  taking  into  consideration  the  in  1862  fand  again  in  1880)  the  statute  law  was  modi- 
ereat  neslect  of  many  parents  and  guardians  in  train-  fied  so  that  ''  Bible  reading  is  required,  but  without 
mg  up  tneir  children  in  learning  and  labor  and  other  written  note  or  oral  comment;  a  pupil  is  exempt  from 
emplojrment  which  may  be  prontable  to  the  Common-  taking  part  in  any  such  exercise  if  his  parent  or  guar^ 
wealth  .  .  .  that  chosen  men  in  every  town  are  to  diansowishe8;any  version  is  allowed,  and  no  commit- 
rediess  this  evil,  are  to  have  power  to  take  account  of  tee  mav  purchase  or  order  to  be  used  in  any  public 
parents,  masters,  and  of  their  children,  especially  of  school  books  calculated  to  favor  the  tenets  of  any  par- 
their  ability  to  read  and  understand  the  pnnciples  of  ticular  sect  of  Christians." — ^This,  in  brief,  is  the  pro- 
religion  and  the  capital  laws  of  the  oountiy".  This  cess  by  which  the  secularisation  of  the  public  schools 
was  the  origin  of  compulsory  education  m  Massa-  came  about,  a  complete  repudiation  of  the  law  of 
chusetts.     In  1647  every  town  was  ordered,  under  1642. 

Senaity  of  a  fine,  to  build  and  support  a  school  for  the  Massachusetts  has  ten  state  normal  schools  with 

ouble  purpose  of  religious  instruction  and  of  citisen-  over  2000  pupils  and  a  corps  of  130  teachers.    In  the 

ship;  every  large  town  of  one  hundred  families  to  build  17,566  public  schools  there  are  524,319  pupils  with  an 

a  grammar  school  to  fit  the  youths  for  the  university,  average  attendance  of  92  per  cent.    The  proportion  of 

Thus  was  established  the  common  free  school.    The  teachers  is  1281  male  and  13,497  female.    The  total 

union  of  Church  and  State  was  as  pronounced  in  support  of  the  public  sdiools  amounts  annually  to 

education  as  in  civic  affairs.    When  tne  grants  from  $14,697,774.    There  are  forty-two  academies  with  an 

the  legisiature — colonial,  provincial,  and  state — ^failed  enrolment  of  over  6000  pupils,  and  344  private  schools 

to  meet  the  expenses  of  salaries  and  maintenance,  with  a  registration  of  91.772.    The  local  annual  tax 

lotteries  were  emploved.    The  last  grant  to  Harvard  for  school  support  per  child  between  the  ages  of  five  to 

College  from  the  public  treasury  was  in  1814.    Con-  fifteen  years  is  $26.    The  total  valuation  of  all  schools 

gregationalism  had  controlled  education  and  l^gisla-  in  Massachusetts  is  $3,512,557,604.    There  are  within 

tion,  and  the  corporation  of  Harvard  College  was  the  state  eighteen  colleges  or  universities,  six  of  them 

limited  to  state  officials  and  a  specified  number  of  Con-  devoted  to  the  education  of  women  only.    Massachu- 

gregational  deiig^ymen.    It  was  not  until  1843  that  setts  has  also  ei^t  schools  of  theology,  tluee  law 

other  tiian  Congregationalists  were  eligible  for  eleo-  schools,  four  medical  schools,  two  dental  schools,  one 

tion  as  overseers  of  the  college.  school  of  pharmacy,  and  three  textile  schools.    The 

The  original  system  of  state  education,  as  outlined  only  colleges  in  Massachusetts  Texcept  textile  schools) 

above,  was  uninterrupted  until  the  close  of  the  Revo-  receiving  state  or  federal  subsioies  are  the  State  Agri- 

luUon.    The  burdens  of  the  war,  with  its  poverty  and  cultural  Colleges  and  the  Massachusetts  Institute  of 

taxation,  reduced  the  "grammar  schoor'  to  a  very  Technology,  the  latter  receiving  both.    The  number  of 

low  standard.    Men  of  ability  found  a  more  lucrative  public  libraries  in  Blassachusetts  exceeds  that  of  any 

occupation  than  teaching.    Private  schools  sprang  other  state.    The  list  includes  2586  libraries  with  10,- 

into  existence  about  this  time,  and  the  legacies  <n  810,974  volumes  valued  at  $12,657,757.    There  are 

Dummer,  Phillips,  Williston,  and  others  made  their  623  reading  rooms,  of  which  301  are  free.    There  are 

foundations  the  preparatory  schools  for  Harvard.   In  thirty  schools  for  tne  dependent  and  the  aflSicted. 

1789  the  legislature  passed  an  act  substituting  six  The  growth  of  the  Catholic  schools  has  been  nota- 

months  for  the  constant  instruction  provided  for  ble.    Besides  Holy  Cross  College  at  Worcester,  and 

towns  of  fifty  families;  and  the  law  required  a  gram-  Boston  College  at  Boston,  there  are  in  the  diocese 

mar-teacher  of  deteimined  qualifications  for  towns  of  of  Boston  seventy-nine  grammar  schools  and  twenty- 

200  families,  instead  of  the  similar  requirements  for  all  six  high  schools  with  a  teaching  staff  of  1075  persons 

towns  of  half  that  population.    In  1797  the  Legisla^  and  an  enrolment  of  52,142.    This  represents  an  in- 

ture  formally  adopted  all  the  incorporated  academies  vestment  of  more  than  $2,700,000,  a  yearly  interest  of 

as  public  state  schools,  and  thus  denominational  edu-  $135,000.    More  than  a  third  of  the  parishes  in  this 

cation  almost  entirelv  replaced  the  grammar  schools  diocese  now  maintain  parochial  schools.    In  the  Dio- 

founded  in  1647.    Tne  act  of  1789  was  repealed  in  oese  of  Fall  River  there  are  over  12,000  pupils  in  28 

1824.    This  aided  greatly  the  private  denominational  parochial  schools,  besides  a  commercial  school  with 


MASaAOHUSETTS 


28 


MASaAOHUSETTS 


363  pupils.    In  the  Diocese  of  Springfield  there  are 
24^2  pupils  in  56  parochial  schools. 

U.  Laws  affecting  Religion  and  Morals, — Elsewhere 
in  this  article  we  have  traced  colonial  laws  and  legisla- 
tion. The  Constitution  of  the  United  States  gave 
religious  liberty.  The  State  Constitution  of  1780  im- 
posed a  religious  test  as  a  qualification  for  oflSoe  and  it 
authorized  the  legislature  to  tax  the  towns,  if  neces- 
sary, "  for  the  support  and  maintenance  of  public  Prot- 
estant teachers  ofpiety,  religion,  and  morality  ".  The 
former  law  was  repealed  in  1821,  and  the  latter  in 
1833.  Complete  religious  equality  has  existed  since 
the  latter  date.  The  observance  of  the  Lord's  Day  is 
amply  safeguarded,  but  entertainments  for  charitable 
purposes  given  by  charitable  or  religious  societies  are 
permitted.  The  keeping  of  open  shop  or  engaging  in 
work  or  business  not  for  charitable  purposes  is  forbid- 
den. Many  of  the  rigid  laws  of  colonial  days  are  yet 
unrepealed.  There  is  no  law  authoruing  the  use  of 
prayer  in  the  Legislatiu^;  custom,  however,  has  made 
it  a  rule  to  open  each  session  with  prayer.  This  same 
custom  has  become  the  rule  in  opening  the  several  sit- 
tings of  the  higher  courts.  Catholic  priests  have  oflS- 
ciated  at  times  at  the  former.  Toe  present  Areh- 
bishop  of  Boston  offered  prayer  at  the  opening  of  at 
least  one  term  of  the  Superior  Court,  bemg  the  first 
Catholic  to  perform  this  ofSce.  The  courts  and  the 
judiciary  have  fuU  power  to  administer  oaths. 

The  legal  holidays  in  Massachusetts  are  22  Feb- 
ruary, 19  April  (Patriots*  Day),  30  May,  4  Julv, 
the  first  Mondav  in  September  (Labor  l^ay),  12 
Oct.  (Columbus  Day),  Thanksgiving  Dav,  and  Christ- 
mas Dav.  The  list  does  not  include  Good  Fri- 
day. The  seal  of  confession  is  not  recognized  by 
law,  although  in  practice  sacramental  confession 
is  generally  treated  as  a  privileged  conversation. 
Incorporation  of  churches  and  of  charitable  institu- 
tions is  authorized  by  statute.  Such  organizations 
may  make  their  own  laws  and  elect  their  own  officers. 
Every  religious  society  so  organized  shall  constitute  a 
body  corporate  with  the  powers  given  to  corporations. 
Section  ^  chapter  36,  of  the  Public  Statutes  provide 
that  the  Roman  Catholic  arehbishop  or  bishop,  the 
vicar-general  of  the  diocese,  and  the  pastor  ot  the 
chureh  for  the  time  being,  or  a  majority  of  these^  may 
associate  with  themselves  two  laymen,  communicants 
of  the  chureh,  may  form  a  body  corporate,  the  signers 
of  the  certificate  of  incorporation  becoming  the  trus- 
tees. Such  corporations  may  receive,  hold,  and  man- 
age all  real  ana  personal  property  belonging  to  the 
church,  sell,  transfer,  hold  trusts,  oequests,  etc.,  but 
all  property  belonging  to  any  church  or  parish,  or  held 
by  sucn  a  corporation,  shall  never  exceed  one  hundred 
thousand  dollars,  exclusive  of  chureh  buildings.  All 
chureh  property  and  houses  of  religious  worship  (ex- 
cept that  part  of  such  houses  appropriated  for  pur- 
poses other  than  religious  worship  or  instruction)  are 
exempt  from  taxation.  This  exemption  extends  to 
the  property  of  literary,  benevolent,  charitable,  and 
scientific  institutions,  and  temperance  societies;  also  to 
legacies,  cemeteries,  and  tomos.  Clergymen  are  ex- 
empt from  service  as  constables,  from  jury  service, 
ana  service  in  the  militia.  Clergymen  are  permitted 
by  law  to  have  access  to  prisoners  after  aeath  sen- 
tence, and  are  among  those  designated  as  "  officials '' 
who  may  be  present  at  executions.  The  statutes  pro- 
bdbit  marriage  between  relatives,  and  recognize  mar- 
riage by  civU  authorities  and  by  rabbis.  The  statu- 
tory grounds  for  divorce  recognized  are  adultery, 
impotency,  desertion  continued  for  three  consecutive 
years,  confirmed  habits  of  intoxication  by  liquor, 
opium,  or  drugs,  cruel  and  abusive  treatment;  also  if 
either  party  is  sentenced  for  life  to  hard  laoour,  or 
five  or  more  years  in  state  prison,  jail,  or  house  of 
correction.  The  Superior  Court  hears  all  divorce  li- 
bels. After  a  decree  of  divorce  has  become  absolute, 
either  party  may  marry  again  as  if  the  other  were 


dead;  except  that  the  party  from  whom  ilf/6  decree 
was  granted  shall  not  marry  within  two  y^ars.  The 
sale  of  intoxicating  liquors  is  regulated  by  iaw.  Each 
community,  city,  or  town  votes  annually  upon  the 
(Question,  whether  or  not  licence  to  sell  Lquor  shall  be 
issued  in  that  municipality.  Special  'joards  are  ap- 
pointed to  regulate  the  conditions  o\  such  licences. 
The  number  of  Uoenoes  that  may  be  granted  in  each 
town  or  city  is  limited  to  one  to  each  thousand  per- 
sons, thougn  Boston  has  a  limitation  of  one  licence  to 
each  five  hundred  of  the  population.  The  hours  of 
opening  and  closing  bars  are  regulated  by  law.    Any 

Eerson  owning  property  can  object  to  the  granting  of  a 
cence  to  seU  mtoxicatin^  liquors  within  twenty-five 
feet  of  his  property.  A  licence  cannot  be  granted  to 
sell  intoxicating  liquors  on  the  same  street  as,  or  within 
four  hundred  feet  of,  a  public  school. 

E.  Religious  Liberty. — In  the  beginning  Massachu- 
setts was  Puritan  against  the  Catholic  first,  against  all 
non-<;onformists  to  their  version  of  established  reli- 
gion next.  The  Puritan  was  narrow  in  mind  and  for 
the  most  part  limited  in  education,  a  tjrpe  of  man 
swayed  easily  to  extremes.  England  was  at  that  pe- 
riod intensely  anti-papal.  In  Massachusetts,  however, 
the  antipathy  early  oecame  racial:  first  against  the 
French  Catholic,  later  against  the  Irish  Catholic.  This 
racial  religious  bigotry  has  not  disappeared  wholly  in 
Massachusetts.  Within  the  pale  of  tne  Church  racial 
schisms  have  been  instigated  from  time  to  time  in 
order  that  the  defeat  of  Catholicism  might  be  accom- 
plished when  open  antagonism  from  without  failed  to 
accomplish  the  end  sought.  In  politics  it  is  often 
the  effective  shibboleth.  Congregationalism  soon  took 
form  in  the  colonv  and  as  early  as  1631  all  except  Puri- 
tans were  exclucfed  by  law  from  the  freedom  of  the 
body  politic.  In  1647  the  law  became  more  specific 
and  excluded  priests  from  the  colony.  This  act  was 
reaffirmed  in  1770.  Bowdoin  College  preserves  the 
cross  and  Harvard  College  the  **  Indian  Dictionary  "  of 
Sebastian  Rasle,  the  priest  executed  imder  the  provi- 
sion of  the  law.  In  1746  a  resolution  and  meeting 
at  Faneuil  Hall  bear  testimony  that  Catholics  must 
provcj  as  well  as  affirm,  their  loyalty  to  the  colony. 
Washmgton  himself  was  called  upon  to  suppress  the 
insult  of  Pope  Day  at  the  siege  of  Boston.  Each  of 
these  events  was  preceded  by  a  wave  of  either  French 
or  Irish  immigration,  a  circumstance  which  was  re- 
peated in  the  religious  fanaticism  of  the  middle  of  the 
nineteenth  century.  Cause  and  effect  seem  well  es- 
tablished and  too  constant  to  be  incidental.  Iii  all  the 
various  anti-CathoUc  uprisings,  from  colonial  times  to 
the  present,  there  is  not  one  instance  where  the  Catho- 
lics were  the  aggressors  by  word  or  deed:  their  pati- 
ence and  forbearance  have  always  been  in  marked 
contrast  to  the  conduct  of  their  non-Catholic  contem- 
poraries. In  every  one  of  the  North  Atlantic  group  of 
states,  the  Catholics  now  constitute  the  most  numerous 
religious  denomination.  In  Massachusetts  the  num- 
ber of  the  leading  denominations  is  as  follows:  Catho- 
lics 1,373  752;  Congregationalists  119,196;  Baptists 
80,894;  Methodists  65,498;  Protestant  Episcopalians 
5M36;  Presbyterians  8559. 

F.  Catholic  Progress. — ^Throuehout  the  account  of 
the  doings  among  the  colonists,  there  are  references  to 
the  coming,  short  stay,  and  departure  of  some  Irish 
priest  or  French  Jesuit.  In  the  newspaper  accoimt  of 
the  departure  of  the  French  from  Boston,  in  1782,  it 
is  related  that  the  clergy  and  the  selectmen  paraded 
through  the  streets  preceded  by  a  cross-bealrer.  It 
was  some  fifty  years  later  that  the  prosperity  and 
activity  of  the  Church  aroused  political  demagoguery 
and  religious  bigotry.  Massachusetts,  as  well  as  New 
York  and  Philadelpnia,  experienced  the  storm:  a  con- 
vent was  burned,  churches  were  threatened,  monu- 
ments to  revered  neroes  of  the  Church  were  razed,  and 
cemeteries  desecrated.  The  consoling  memory,  how- 
ever, of  this  period,  is  that  Massachusetts  furnished 


29 


lUIAftftAtA 


the  Otises,  the  Lees,  the  Perkinses^  Everetts,  and 
Loiin^^ — all  non-Catholics — whose  voices  and  pens 
were  enlisted  heartily  in  the  cause  of  justice,  tolera- 
tion, and  unity. 

In  1843,  Rhode  Island  and  Connecticut  were  set  off 
from  the  original  Diocese  of  Boston.  Maine  and  New 
Hfunpshire,  also  under  the  jurisdiction  of  Boston,  were 
made  a  new  diocese  ten  years  later,  with  the  episcopal 
see  at  Portland.  This  was  the  period  of  the  great 
Irish  immigration,  and  Boston  received  a  large  quota. 
This  new  influx  was,  as  in  the  previous  century,  looked 
upon  as  an  "intrusion"  and  tne  usual  result  followed. 
New  Eneland  had  now  become  what  Lowell  was  pleased 
to  call ' 'New Ireland ' ' .  This  religious  and  racial  trans- 
formation, made  the  necessity  for  churches,  academies, 
schools,  asylums,  priests,  and  teachers  an  imperative 
one.  The  work  of  expansion,  both  material  and 
spiritual,  went  forwa^rd  apace.  The  great  influx  of 
Canadian  Catholics  added  much  to  the  Catholic 
population,  which  had  now  reached  more  than  a 
million  souls — over  sixty-nine  per  cent  of  the  total  re- 
ligious population  of  the  state.  The  era  was  not  with- 
out its  reli^ous  strife,  this  time  within  public  and 
charitable  institutions,  state  and  municipal.  This 
chapter  reads  like  those  efforts  of  proselytizing  in  the 
colonial  days  when  names  of  C^tnolic  children  were 
changed,  paternity  denied,  maternity  falsified— all  in 
the  hope  of  destroying  the  true  religious  inheritance 
of  the  state's  wards.  The  influence  of  Catholics  in  the 
governing  of  institutions,  libraries,  and  schools  has 
since  then  increased  somewhat.  The  spiritual  necessi- 
ties of  the  vast  Catholic  conmiunities  are  provided 
for  abundantly;  orphans  are  well  housed;  unfortu- 
nates securely  protected;  the  poor  greatlpr  succoured; 
and  the  sick  have  the  sacraments  at  their  very  door. 
Schools,  academies,  colleges,  and  convents,  wherein 
Catholic  education  is  given,  are  now  within  the  reach 
of  all.  The  whole  period  of  Archbishop  Williams's 
administration  (1866-1907)  has  been  appropriately 
called  "the  brick  and  mortar  age  of  the  Catholic 
Church  in  New  England''.  (See  Boston,  Archdiocese 

OF.) 

Upon  the  death  of  Archbishop  Williams,  in  the  sum- 
mer of  1907,  his  coadjutor,  the  Most  Reverend  William 
H.  O'Connell,  D.D.  (the  present  archbishop),  was 
promoted  to  the  metropolitan  see.  This  archbishop 
mvited  the  National  Convention  of  the  Federation  of 
(Catholic  Societies  to  meet  in  Boston  with  resulting 
interest,  activity,  and  strength  to  that  society,  in 
which,  indeed,  he  has  shown  a  special  interest.  To 
develop  the  solidarity  of  priests  and  people,  of  races 
and  nations,  of  the  cultured  and  the  unlettered — a 
unity  of  all  the  interests  of  the  Church,  the  arch- 
bishop needed  a  free  press :  he  purchased  "  The  PUot", 
secured  able  and  fearless  writers  and  placed  it  at  a 
nominal  cost  within  the  reach  of  all.  The  dangers  to 
the  immigrant  in  a  new  and  fascinating  environment 
are  all  anticipated,  and  safeguards  are  Ming  strength- 
ened daily.  At  the  same  time,  the  inherited  mis- 
understanding of  Puritan  Massachusetts,  and  the 
evil  machinations  of  those  who  would  use  religion  and 
charity  for  selfish  motives  or  aggrandizement  are  still 
active.  The  Catholic  mind  is  aroused,  however,  and 
the  battle  for  truth  is  being  waged;  Catholic  Massachu- 
setts moves  forward,  all  under  one  banner — French 
Canadian,  Italian,  Pole,  German,  Portugese,  Greek, 
Scandinavian,  and  Irish — each  vving  with  the  other 
for  an  oppjortunity  to  prove  his  loyalty  to  the 
Church,  to  its  priests,  and  to  their  spiritual  leader. 
In  every  diocese  and  in  each  county  well-organized 
branches  of  the  Federation  exist,  temperance  and 
church  societies  flourish,  educational  and  charitable 
associations  are  alive  and  active.  The  Church's 
ablest  laymen  are  enlisted,  and  all  are  helping  mightily 
to  accomplish  the  avowed  intention  of  the  ^^hbishop 
of  Boston,  to  make  Massachusetts  the  leading  Catholic 
state  in  the  oountiy.    (See  also  Chbverus,  Jean 


Louis  de;  Bobton,  Archdiocese  of;  Fall  Riybr, 
Diocese  of;  Springfield,  Diocese  of.) 

Austin,  Hikory  of  MaM9achuMtU  (Boston,  1876) ;  BANORorr, 
History  of  the  United  States,  I  (London,  1883-84);  Barry,  His- 
tory of  New  Englandt  I  (Boston,  1855);  Boston  Town  Records 
(Boston,  1772);  Bradford,  History  of  Plymouth  Plantation; 
Davis,  The  New  England  States,  III  (Boston,  1897);  Draxs, 
The  Making  of  New  England,  J684-164S  (New  York.  1886); 
DwiOHT,  Travels  in  New  England,  I  (New  Haven,  1821),  22: 
Emerson,  Education  in  Massachusetts,  Massachusetts  Historical 
Collection  (Boston,  1869) ;  Hale.  Review  of  ihe  Proceedings  of  the 
Nunnery  Committee  (Boston,  1855);  Harrington,  Htstory  of 
Harvard  Medical  School,  III  (New  York,  1905) ;  Irish  Historical 
Proceedings,  II  (Boston,  1899);  Leaht,  History  of  the  Catholic 
Church  in  New  England  States,  I  (Boston,  1899) ;  Massachusetts 
Historical  Society,  Collection,  Ist  ser.,  V  (Boston.  1788);  Pro- 
ceedings, 2d  ser..  Ill  (Boston,  1810);  McQee,  TAe  Irish  Settlers 
in  America  (Boston^  1851);  Parker,  The  First  Charier  and 
the  Early  Religious  Legislation  of  Massachusetts,  Massachusetts 
Historical  Collection  (1869);  Walsh.  The  Early  Irish  Catholic 
Schools  of  Lowell,  Mass.,  1836-1866  (Boston,  1901);  Idem,  Am. 
Cath.  Q.  Rev,  (Januaxy,  1904). 

Thomas  F.  Harrington. 

Masaaia,  Guglielmo,  Cardinal,  b.  9  June,  1809,  at 
Piova  in  Piedmont,  Italy;  d.  at  Cremona,  6  August, 
1889.  His  baptismal  name  was  Lorenzo;  that  of 
Guglielmo  was  given  him  when  he  became  a  religious. 
He  was  first  educated  at  the  Collegio  Reale  at  Asti  un- 
der the  care  of  his  elder  brother  Guglielmo,  a  canon 
and  precentor  of  the  cathedral  of  that  city.  On  the 
death  of  his  brother  he  passed  as  a  student  to  the  dio- 
cesan seminary;  but  at  the  age  of  sixteen  entered  the 
Capuchin  Franciscan  Order,  receiving  the  habit  on  25 
September,  1825.  Inunediately  after  his  ordination 
to  the  priesthood,  he  was  appointed  lector  of  theology; 
but  even  whilst  teaching  he  acquired  some  fame  as  a 

Treacher  and  was  chosen  confessor  to  Prince  Victor 
Immanuel,  afterwards  King  of  Italy,  and  Ferdinand. 
Duke  of  Genoa.  The  royal  family  of  Piedmont  would 
have  nominated  him  on  several  occasions  to  an  episco- 
pal see,  but  he  strenuously  opposed  their  project,  oeing 
desirous  of  joining  the  foreign  missions  of  his  order. 
He  obtainea  his  wish  in  1846.  That  year  the  Con- 
gregation of  Propaganda,  at  the  instance  of  the  travel- 
ler Antoine  d'Abbadie,  determined  to  establish  a  Vi- 
cariate-Apostolic  for  the  Gallas  in  Ab3rssinia.  The 
mission  was  confided  to  the  Capuchins,  and  Massaia 
was  appointed  first  vicar-apostolic,  and  was  consecrated 
in  Rome  on  24  May  of  tnat  year.  On  his  arrival  in 
Abyssinia  he  found  the  country  in  a  state  of  religious 
agitation.  The  heretical  Coptic  bishop,  Cyril,  was 
dead  and  there  was  a  movement  amongst  the  Copts 
towards  union  with  Rome.  Massaia,  who  had  re- 
ceived plenary  faculties  from  the  pope,  ordained  a 
number  of  native  priests  for  the  Coptic  Rite;  he  also 
obtained  the  appointment  by  the  Holy  See  of  a  vicar- 
apostolic  for  the  Copts,  and  himself  consecrated  the 
missionary  Giustino  de  Jacobis  to  this  office.  But 
this  act  aroused  the  enmity  of  the  Coptic  Patriarch  of 
Egypt,  who  sent  a  bishop  of  his  own,  Abba  Salama,  to 
Abyssinia.  As  a  result  of  the  ensuing  political  agita- 
tion, Massaia  was  banished  from  the  coimtry  and  had  to 
flee  under  an  assumed  name.  In  1 850  he  visited  Europe 
to  gain  a  fresh  band  of  missionaries  and  means  to  develop 
his  work;  he  had  interviews  with  the  French  Minister 
of  Foreign  Affairs  in  Paris,  and  with  Lord  Palmerston 
in  London.  On  his  return  to  the  Gallas  he  founded  a 
large  number  of  missions;  he  also  established  a  school 
at  Marseilles  for  the  education  of  Galla  boys  whom  he 
had  freed  from  slavery;  besides  this  he  composed  a 

Sammar  of  the  Galla  language  which  was  published  at 
arseilles  in  1867.  Dunng  his  thirty-five  years  as  a 
missionary  he  was  exiled  seven  times,  but  he  alwa3rs 
returned  to  his  labours  with  renewed  vigour.  How- 
ever, in  1880  he  was  compelled  by  ill-health  to  resim 
his  mission.  In  recognition  of  his  merit,  Leo  Xlil 
raised  him  to  the  titular  Archbishopric  of  Stauropolis, 
and  on  10  November,  1884,  to  the  dignity  of  cardinal 
of  the  title  of  S.  Vitalis.  At  the  command  of  the  pope 
he  wrote  an  account  of  his  missionary  labours,  imder 
the  title,  "  I  miei  trentacinque  anni  di  missione  nell' 


30 


HA88I8 


T.  J.  Campbell. 


Mm.  Cap 


&ItB  Etiopia",  the  first  volume  of  which  was  published  ™i»-.  "P*™- 1' 

simultaneously  at  Rome  and  Milan  in  18S3,  and  the  '                ' 
last  in  1895.     In  this  work  he  deals  not  only  with  the 
I  of  the  miisioii,  but  with  the  political  and 

ic  conditions  of  Abysainia  aa  he  knew  them.  Mm8B«a.  Bbquksts  for  (Canada.)— The  law 
'-■-■•"ii(«*Hnit  omit  etc.;  AnaUda  OntiniM  FF.  govenung  bequests,  being  Concerned  with  "property 
»«■  w  r  ""^  civil  righta",  falls  within  the  legiHlative  com- 
iiATHEB  LUTHBEBT.  petency  of  the  provincial  legislatures,  not  of  the 
Dominion  Parhament.  The  buic  law  in  all  the  prov- 
H4SMI  Harittimft,  Diocese  of  (Uassana),  in  the  inces  is,  however,  not  the  same.  Any  question  con- 
Province  of  GroBseto,  in  Tuscany,  first  mentioned  in  ceming  bequests  is,  therefore,  one  of  provincial,  not 
the  eighth  century.  It  grew  at  the  expense  of  Popu-  Dominion  law.  There  is  no  statute  enacted  by  any 
Ionia,  an  ancient  city  of  the  Etruscans,  the  principal  of  the  legislatures  specially  affecting  bequests  for 
port  of  that  people,  and  important  on  accoimt  of  its  Masses. 

iron,  tin,  and  copper  works.    Populonia  was  besieged  Quebec. — In  this  province  there  is  no  question  of 

by  Sulla,  and  m  Strabo's  time  was  already  deca-  the  validity  of  such  bequests.    The  basic  law  is  the 

dent:   later  it  suffered  at  the  hands  of  Totila,  of  the  French  law  as  in  force  in  the  province  at  the  time  of 

Lombards,  and  in  S17  of  a  Byzantine  fleet.    Afterthia,  the  cession  (1759-63).     Wheflier  such  bequests  were 

the  bishopfl  of  Populonia  abandoned  the  town,  and  in  or  are  valid  under  English  statutory  or  Conunon  Law, 

the  eleventh  century,  estAblished  their  i«Bidenoe  at  is  immaterial.    Under  article  869  of  the  Civil  Code  a 


In  1226 
Hassa  became  a  com- 
mune under  the  pro- 
tection of  Pisa.  In 
1307  it  made  an  al- 
liance with  Siena, 
which  was  tlie  causB 
of  many  wars  be- 
tween the  two  re- 
publics that  brought 
about  the  decadence 
of  Massa.  The  town 
has  a  fine  cathedral. 
Tbe  firstknownBish- 
op  of  Populonia  was 
AteUus  (about  495); 
another  was  Saint 
Cerbonius  (546) ,  pro- 
tector of  the  city,  to 
whom  Saint  Grewry 
refers  in  his  Dia- 
logues. Among  tbe 
bishops  of  Massa 
were  the  friar  An- 
tonio (1430),  a 
former  general  of  the 
Franciscans,      and 


testator  may  m^e 
bequests  for  chari- 
table or  other  lair/uZ 
Surposes.  The  free- 
om  of  the  practice 
of  the  Catholic  reli- 
'  gion  beine  not  only 
recognised  but  guar- 
anteed, as  well  imder 
the  Treaty  of  Cession 
(1763)  as  under  tbe 
terms  of  the  Quebec 
Act  (1774),  and  sub- 
sequent Provincial 
Legislation  (14  &  15 
Vic.,_  Can.,  c.  175) 
having  confirmed 
that  freedom,  a  be- 
quest for  the  saying 
of  Masses  is  clearly 
for  a  lawful  purpose. 
OnSario. — In  tlja 
province  the  law  of 
England,  as  in  force 
on  15  October.  1792, 
introduced    "so  far 

,  as  it  was  not  from 

legate  of  Boniface  IX;  Leonardo  Dati  (1467),  author  local  circumstances  inapplicable",  under  powers 
of  poetic  satires;  AlessandroPctrucci  (1601),  whoem-  conferred  by  the  statute  of  1781,  which  divided 
beUisbed  the  cathedral  and  the  episcopal  palace;  the  the  old  Province  of  Quebec  into  Lower  and  Upper 
Cunatdolese  Eusebio  da  Ciani  (1719),  who  governed  Canada,  is  tbe  basic  law.  That  Act  preserved  to 
the  diooeae  for  fifty-one  years.  This  see  wss  at  first  Roman  Catholics  in  Upper  Canada  the  righte  as  re- 
suffragan  of  Pisa,  but  since  145S  of  Siena.  It  has  29  gards  their  religion  secured  to  them  under  tbe  Act  of 
parishes,  68,200  inhabtUmte,  one  relipous  bouse  of  1774.  The  provincial  legislation  cited  as  regards 
J  t r Quebec  bein^  enacted  after  the  reunion  of  Upper  and 


jnd  tour  irf  women. 

CArFKLLrrn.  Le  Chiti  d'llalia,  XVII  (V«i 


Hub  Book. 


e  MlBSAL. 


Huatf,  Eneuond,  one  of  the  first  Jesuits  sent  to 
New  France;  b.atLyons,  1574;  d.atSillery,  12May, 
1646.  He  went  to  Acadia  with  Father  Biard,  and 
when  it  was  found  impossible  to  effect  any  good  there. 


Lower  Canada,  was  also  law  in  this  province.  The 
validity  of  bequesta  for  the  saying  of  Masses  was  up- 
held in  the  case  of  Elmsley  and  Madden  (18  Grant 
Chan.  R.  386).  The  court  held  that  the  English  law, 
as  far  as  under  it  such  dispositions  may  bAve  been 
invalid,  was  inapplicable  under  the  circumstances  of 
the  province,  wherein  the  Catholic  religion  was  toler- 


they  established  a  new  mission  at  the  present  Bar  ''*^-     Tbis  case  has  been  accepted  as  settling  the  law, 

Earbor,  Maine,  which  was  soon  after  destroyed  by  the  BrUuh  Columbia,  ManU/iba,  A  Iberta,  and  Sadcatche- 

Englisb— Mass*  being  set  adrift  on  the  sea  in  an  open  """i-— In  British  Columbia  the  civil  law  of  England, 

boat,     fle  succeeded  in  reaching  a  French  ship  and  »a  it  eHsted  on  19  November,  185h   —^  .■-  *i."  *v.^ 

returned  to  France.     In  1625  he  arain  set  sul  for     "tb"  of  these  provinces,  that  law     .    

-      ■    ■               ..   V    .  -    -  _      .  July,  1870,     so  far  as  not  from  local  circumstancea 


9  November,  1858,  and  in  the  three 

.,  -.,_»  — s  ngnin  set  b._.  ,«., 

Cuiada,  and  remained  there  until  tfie  f all  of  Quebec.     July.  1870,  "so  far  as  not  from  local  circumstancea 

He  returned  a  third  time  in  1632,  but,  as  he  was  then     inapplicable  ,  is  the  basic  law.    The  Ontario  judg- 

■        )  longer  laboured  among  the    ment  above  cited  lam  practice  accepted  as  settbng  the 


advanced  in  age,  he  no  longer  laboured  a    .._^ 
savages,  but  fived  mostly  at  Sillery,  which  he  built  as 
k  reservation  for  the  converted  Indiana. 


.......  wsettlingU 

question  under  consideration. 

..  i.....^.  ...uuu  -w   ..•W.V..V   ■..-.■„■,,.-.     ..  — »u_  la  Nova  Scotia,  New  BruntwUk,  and  Prince  Edward 

ment  has  recentiy  been  elected  to  his  honour  at  tti^  Uiand,  though  there  is  no  statutory  enactment  mak- 
place  on  the  site  of  the  old  Jesuit  church  which  stood  wi§  the  Enghah  law  applicable,  it  has,  aince  the  acoui- 
on  the  bank  of  the  St.  Lawrence  a  short  distance  above  sition  of  Acadia  by  Great  Bntain,  been  recognised  as 
Quebec  being  in  force.     In  these  provincee,  however,  that  law 

—  "-— '  -  ' — ■-'  ^  la  jvouHii*  Fme*  (3     in  SO  far  as  it  may  treat  as  vmd  dispositions  for  tbe 


BIA88SS  31  BCA88B8 

{nirpose  in  question  as  being  for  superstitious  uses,  has  reign  was  given  to  the  crown.    There  is  a  series  of 

ahmyB  been  treated  as  inapplicable.    Tlie  validity  of  cases  on  the  question  decided  under  Elizabeth,  nota- 

such  bequests  was  maintamed  in  an  elaborate  judg-  bly  that  of  Adams  v.  Lambert,  decided  in  1602,  in  the 

ment  of  nodgins,  Master  of  the  Rolls,  in  an  unreport^  report  of  which  the  other  cases  are  cited.    Some  of 

case  of  GilliB  and  GiUis  in  Prince  Edward  Island  in  these  decisions  are  slightly  conflicting,  but  the  main 

1894.                                           Chas.  J.  DoHERTT.  points  to  be  drawn  trom  the  series  are,  first,  that 

uses  for  Masses  or  prayers  for  the  dead  were  held  to 

MMses,  Bequests  por  (England).— Before  the  be  superstitions  and  unlawful,  but,  second,  that  the 

Reformation  dispositions  of  property,  whether  real  or  question  of  their  unlawfulness  was  considered  accord- 


personal,  for  the  purposes  of  Masses,  were  valid,  unless  mBaa  they  came  within  the  provisions  of  the  Statute 
where,  in  the  case  of  real  property,  they  migjit  happen  i  Edward  VI,  c.  14.  In  that  and  the  following  cen- 
to conflict  with  the  Mortmam  laws  by  being  made  to  tury  the  Catholic  religion  was  proscribed  and  any  de- 
rdigious  congregations.  There  was  a  tenure  of  land  yj^e  or  bequest  for  the  promotion  of  it  was  illegal  and, 
known  as  tenure  by  divine  service,  an  incident  of  as  regarded  the  purpose  thereof,  void  (Re  Laiay  Por- 


intestate  should  be  able  to  recover  by  action  debts  purposes  for  the  maintenance  oi  uie  Catholic  religion, 
due  to  the  intestate  and  that  they  should  administer  But  dispositions  for  Catholic  poor  or  Catholic  sdioob 
and  dispense  for  the  soul  of  the  dead.  The  wills  of  or  other  Catholic  purposes  which  mi^t  come  under 
various  great  people  who  lived  in  those  ages  contain  the  general  construction  of  "diarity^,  passed  to  the 
bequests  for  Masses.  Henrv  VII  left  £250  for  10.000  crown  to  be  devoted  to  oUier  lawful  charitable  pu> 
Masses  to  be  said  for  his  and  other  souls.  The  will  of  poses  (Cary  v.  Abbot  above).  In  1829  the  Roman 
Henry  VIII,  made  on  30  December,  1646,  contains  a  Catholic  Relief  Act  was  passed,  which  contained,  how- 
provision  for  an  altar  over  his  tomb  in  St.  George's  ever,  in  some  of  its  sections  stfll  unrepcsiled,  certain 
Oiapel  in  Windsor,  where  daily  Mass  shall  be  said  '  as  penal  provisions  against  members  of  rdiffious  orders  of 
long  as  the  worid  snail  indure'^,  and  it  sets  out  a  grant  men  by  reason  of  which  the  status  of  these  orders  in 
to  me  dean  and  canons  of  the  chapel  of  lands  to  the  the  United  Kingdom  is  illegal.  In  1832  the  Roman 
value  of  £600  a  year  for  ever  to  find  two  priests  to  say  Catholic  Charities  Act  (2  and  3  William  IV,  c.  115) 
Mass  and  to  keep  four  obits  yeariy  and  to  give  alms  for  was  passed.  By  it  Catholics  were,  as  regards  their 
the  King's  soul:  and  it  contains  other  provisions  for  charitable  purposes,  put  in  the  same  position  as  that 
requiem  masses  and  prayers  for  his  soul.  But  in  a.  d.  of  Protestant  dissenters.  Therefore  now,  seemin^y, 
1531,  by  the  statute  23,  Henry  VIII,  c.  10,  all  subse-  a  beauest  for  the  celebration  of  Masses  with  no  inten- 
quent  assurances  or  dispositions  of  land  to  the  use  of  a  tion  ror  souls  departed  would  be  valid,  and,  moreover, 
perpetual  obit  (i.  e.  a  service  for  the  dead  to  be  cele-  it  would  constitute  a  good  charitable  bequest,  and  so, 
brated  at  certain  fixed  periods)  or  the  continual  sei^  it  would  be  valid  though  made  in  perpetuity  (Re 
vice  of  a  priest  were  to  be  void  if  the  use  was  to  extend  Michel's  Trusts,  1860,  28Beav.  42).  But  it  has  been 
over  more  than  twenty  years,  but  if  the  use  was  lim-  held  that  the  act  has  not  validated  bequests  for  re- 
tted to  that  or  a  less  period  the  dispositions  were  to  be  quiem  Masses^that  the  law  still  regards  them  as  ''  su- 
valid.  That  even  private  Masses  were  at  that  time  perstitious"  (West  v.  ShutUeworth  above),  that  they 
approved  by  the  state  is  shown  by  the  six  articles  do  not  constitute  charitable  bequests  and  that,  acoora- 
pa»ed  in  a.  d.  1539  (32  Heniy  VIII,  c.  14),  which  con-  ingjy,  the  property  given  under  them  passes  to  the 
stituted  the  denial  of  their  expediency  a  felony,  person  otherwise  entitled  (Heath  v.  C^pman  above). 
Henry  VIII  died  28  January  a.  d.  1547.  The  This  is  the  position  of  the  law  to-day  with  the  ex- 
diange  of  religion  became  much  more  marked  in  the  ception  made  by  the  Roman  Catholic  C^rities  Act, 
following  reign,  and  the  government  fostered  the  es-  i860,  which  provides  that  no  lawful  devise  or  bequest 
tabli^ment  m  England  of  the  Protestant  doctrines  to  any  Catiiolic  or  Catholic  Charity  is  to  be  invalioated 
which  had  begun  to  spread  on  the  continent.  In  the  because  tiie  estate  devised  or  bequeathed  is,  also,  sub- 
same  year  the  Six  Articles  were  repealed  and  the  Stat-  ject  to  any  trust  deemed  to  be  superstitious  or  pro- 
ute  of  Chauntries  (1  Edward  VI,  c.  14)  was  passed  hibited  through  being  to  religious  orders  of  men,  but 
from  which  the  invalidity  of  bequests  for  requiem  guch  latter  trust  may  be  apportioned  by  the  Court  or 
Masses  has  been  deduced .  The  preamble  to  the  stat-  the  Charitv  Commissioners  to  some  other  lawful  Catho- 
ute  recites  tibat  **  a  great  part  of  the  superstition  and  He  charitable  trust.  Thus,  a  trust  for  requiem  Masses 
errors  in  the  Christian  religion  hath  been  brought  into  is  as  such  invalid,  and  where  no  question  of  apportion- 
the  minds  and  estimation  of  men  by  reason  of  the  ment  can  arise,  for  instance,  where  there  is  a  specific 
ignorance  of  their  very  true  and  perfect  salvation  legacy  of  money  for  the  purpose  only  of  such  Masses, 
throu^  the  death  of  Jesus  Christ  and  by  devising  and  the  estate  which  is  subject  to  the  trust  does  not  pass  to 
phantasying  vain  opinions  of  purgatory  and  masses  any  charity  but  to  the  person  otherwise  entitled  to  it 
satisfactory  to  be  done  for  them  which  be  departed,  (Rie  Fleetwood,  Sidgreaves  v.  Brewer,  1880,  15  Ch.  D. 
the  which  doctrine  and  vain  opinion  by  nothing  more  609).  Also,  a  legacy  for  requiem  liasses  is  invalid 
is  maintained  and  upholden  than  by  the  abuse  of  tren-  even  thou^  the  legacy  be  payable  in  a  countij  where 
tals,  chauntries  and  other  provisions  made  for  the  con-  it  would  be  legallv  valid  (Re  Elliot,  1891,  39  W.  R. 
tinuance  of  the  said  blinaness  and  ignorance. "    The  297).    The  grounas  on  which  this  position  of  the  law 


erty  given  to  such  tues,  which  had  been  so  used  within  that  the  Statute  I  Edward  VI,  c.  Hy'assumed  that 
the  preceding  five  years,  should  be  given  to  the  king,  trusts  for  Masses  were  already  illegal — ^that  they  were 
The  statute  only  applied  to  past  dispositions  of  prop-  in  fact  so — and  that  the  statute  has  stamped  on  all 
erty  and  it  did  not  aedare  the  general  illegality  of  be-  such  trusts,  whether  made  before  or  since  it,  the  char- 
quests  for  requiem  Masses,  nor  has  any  other  statute  acter  of  illegality  on  the  ground  of  being  superstitious, 
ever  so  declared  (Canr  v.  Abbot,  1802,  7  Ves.  495).  Seeing  that  the  statute  was  passed  in  the  year  of  the 
Nevertheless,  the  establishment  of  that  principle  has  death  of  Henry  VIII,  within  eig^t  years  of  the  passins 
been  deduced  from  it  (West  v.  Shuttleworth,  1835,  2  of  the  Six  Articles,  and  that  during  that  time  there  had 
M.  A  K.  679;  Heath  v.  Chapman,  1854, 2  Drew  423).  been  no  statutory  abolition  of  the  Mass  or  condemna- 
Itie  statute  was  not  repealed  under  Mary,  and  by  1  tion  of  the  doctrme  of  pui]gatory,  it  is  not  easy  to  dis* 
£3ii.,  c.  24,  all  property  devoted  to  such  uses  in  Maiy 's  oem  bow  the  legal  invalidity  of  9uch  bequeota  h$d  9ir 


BCASSE8  32  BIA8SE8 

ready  become  established.  In  West  v.  Shuttleworth  been  regarded  as  valid,  and,  by  a  recent  decision  givea 
(above),  which  is  the  leading  case  on  the  subject,  ujwn  exhaustive  consideration  of  the  question  by  the 
Pepys  M.  R.  stated  that  it  was  by  analogy  to  the  stat-  Irish  Court  of  Appeal,  the  law  is  settled  that  such  be- 
ute  that  the  ille^lity  of  these  bequests  had  become  efr-  quests,  even  when  the  Masses  are  to  be  said  in  private, 
tablished.  This  would  seem  to  mean  that  their  ille-  constitute  good  charitable  gifts  and  so  may  be  made  in 
gality  was  based  upon  the  general  policy  of  the  law  perpetuity  (O'Hanlon  v.  Logue,  1906, 1  Ir.  247).  But 
and  upon  principles  resulting  from  such  a  change  in  the  m  Ireland,  also,  religious  orders  of  men  are  illegal 
national  system  as  must  have  arisen  in  that  age  from  and  any  bequest  for  SiasBes  to  such  an  order  which  is 
the  complete  chan^  in  the  national  church.  In  that  to  go  to  the  benefit  of  the  order  is  illegal  and  void 
case,  since  the  policy  applied  to  the  whole  realm  in-  (Burke  v.  Power,  1905,  1  Ir.  123).  But  such  a  be- 
duding  Ireland,  where  rrotestantism  became  the  efr-  quest  was  allowed  in  one  recent  case,  and  in  cases 
tablished  churoi  and  an  even  more  vigorous  anti-  where  the  bequest  for  Masses  contains  no  indication 
Catholic  policy  was  pursued  by  the  legislature,  one  that  the  money  is  to  go  to  the  order  itself  the  (3ourt 
would  e3q)ect  to  fina  the  illegality  of  bequests  for  will  allow  the  beouest  (Bradshaw  v.  Jackman,  1887. 
Blasses  established  in  Ireland  also^^ou^  the  statute  21  L.  R.  Ir.  15).  The  decisionB  show  a  strong  general 
itself  did  not  apply  to  Ireland.  Thus,  m  the  case  of  tendency  to  seek  any  means  of  escaping  those  penal 
theAttomey-Generalv.Power,  1809(lB.&Ben.  150)  provisions  of  the  Catholic  Relief  Act,  1829,  which. 
Lord  Manners,  Irish  Lord  Chancellor,  in  giving  judg-  though  never  actively  enforced,  still  remain  on  the 
ment  with  regard  to  a  bequest  to  a  scnool  by  a  Catho-  statute  book.  This  statutory  illegality  of  any  be- 
lie testator,  stated  that  he  would  not  act  upon  the  pre-  auest  to  a  religious  order  of  men  to  so  to  the  benefit  of 
sumption  Uiat  it  was  for  the  endowment  of  a  Catholic  tne  order  applies,  of  course,  eciual^  to  England  and 
school,  and  that  such  a  becjuest  would  by  the  law  of  to  Scotland,  where  these  provisions  against  religious 
England  be  deemed  void  either  as  being  contrary  to  orders  are  aJso  law,  but  there  does  not  appear  to  be 
the  provisions  of  the  statute  of  Edward  VI  or  as  being  any  report  of  any  decision  on  the  point  m  either  of 
against  public  policy.    Yet  the  same  Lord  Chancellor,  these  countries.- 

in  the  case  of  the  Ciommissioners  of  Charitable  Dona-  In  Scotland  the  position  seems,  otherwise,  to  be  as 
tions  V.  Walsh,  1823,  7  Ir.  Eq.  32,  after  a  prolonged  follows:  though,  in  the  centuries  succeeding  the  Ref- 
argument  before  him,  held  a  bequest  for  reqmem  ormation  the  public  policy  was  distinctl^r  anti-Catho- 
Blaisses  to  be  flood.  lie  and  there  was  legislation  (like  the  anti-Popery  Act 
The  ground  of  public  policy  in  respect  of  this  que&-  passed  in  1700,  which,  amongst  other  provisions, 
tion  seems  no  longer  to  holdjeood.  There  is  no  longer  penalized  the  hearing  of  Mass)  directed  i^gainst  the 
any  public  policy  against  Catholicism  as  such.  As  Catholic  religion,  yet  there  seems  to  have  been  no 
mentioned  aibove,  seeminsly,  a  bequest  for  the  mere  Statute  which  has  given  rise  to  the  question  of  ''super- 
celebration  of  Masses  with  no  intention  for  souls  de-  stition ''  on  the  special  point  of  sifts  for  prayers  for  the 
parted  would  be  valid.  Moreover,  seemingly,  a  bequest  dead.  By  an  Act  piEissed  in  1793  Cathohcs  in  Scotland, 
for  the  prop^ation  of  the  doctrine  of  purgatoiy  would  who  had  made  a  declaration  now  no  longer  required, 
be  a  good  charitable  bequest  (Thornton  v.  Howe,  wereput  upon  the  same  footing  as  other  persons.  Hie 
1862,  31  Beav.  19).  Thus,  since  the  Roman  Catholic  Catholic  Charities  Act,  1832,  applied  also  to  Scotland. 
Charities  Act  1832,  putting  Catholics  as  regards ''  their  The  term  **  charity  "  is  even  rather  more  widely  inter- 
.  .  .  charitable  purposes^  in  the  same  position  as  preted  in  Scottish  law  than  in  English  law.  Thus,  in 
other  persons,  the  holding  a  bequest  for  Maisses  for  the  Scotland  through  the  repeal  of  the  legislation  against 
dead  to  be  invalid  appears  necessarily  to  imply  that  Catholics  and  the  legalisation  of  bequests  to  their 
the  beouest  is  not  to  a  charitable  purpose  and  therebv  charitable  purposes,  legacies  for  requiem  Masses  seem 
to  involve  the  inconsistency  that  it  is  not  a  "charity  to  pass  unquestioned.  There  is  little  doubt  that,  if 
to  practise  by  the  exercise  of  a  '*  charity ''  the  doctrine  they  were  to  be  challenged,  the  Courts  would  uphold 
which  it  is  a  ''  charity  "  to  propaji;ate.  Yet  this  is  so  them.  In  a  recent  case  where  there  was  a  bequ^  for 
even  though,  by  the  bequest  being  for  Masses  to  be  flie  celebration  of  Mass  in  perpetuitv  (there  was  no 
said  for  the  aeparted  generally,  there  \a  evidence  of  an  mention  of  any  intention  for  the  dead)  the  validity  of 
intention  on  the  part  of  the  testator  of  promoting  the  bequest  was  not  in  any  way  called  in  question 
more  than  his  own  individual  welfare.  Thus,  appar-  (Marquess  of  Bute's  Trustees  v.  Biarquess  of  Bute, 
ently,  the  real  basis  of  the  legal  view  of  these  bequests  1904,  7  F.  42).  The  law  as  to  superstitious  uses  pre- 
is  that  the  law  may  not  recognise  the  purpose  of  a  vailing  in  Exigland  is  not  taken  to  oe  imported  into  the 
spiritual  benefit  to  one's  fellow-creatures  in  an  sdter  laws  of  British  colonies  or  possessions  (Yeap  v.  Ong, 
existence  intended  by  a  person  believing  in  the  possi-  1875,  L.  R.  6  C.  P.  396).  In  Australia,  ^ouffh  bv  an 
bility  of  such  a  benefit.  But  such  an  attitude,  aput  Act  of  the  British  Parliament  passed  in  1828,  all  the 
from  the  inconsistency  mentioned,  seems  to  be  op-  laws  and  statutes  in  force  in  England  at  that  date  were, 
posed  to  the  present  policy  of  the  law  with  regard  to  as  far  as  possible,  to  be  applied  to  ihe  administration 
religious  opimons,  especially  when  the  act  of  worship  of  justice  m  the  Courts  of  the  new  Australasian  Colonies, 
directed  by  the  bequest,  when  viewed  apart  from  the  the  law  as  to  superstitious  uses  has  been  held  by  the 
particular  believed  effect,  is  approved  by  the  law  as  Supreme  Court  of  Victoria  not  to  apply  there  (In 
a  charity.  Doubt  as  to  the  soundness  of  the  present  the  Will  of  Puroell,  1895,  21,  V.  L.  R.  2149).  This  de- 
law  on  tne  subject  was  expressed  by  Romilly  M.  R.  in  cision  was  followed  in  the  Supreme  Court  of  New  South 
the  case  Re  Michels  Trusts  (above),  where  he  upheld  a  Wales  in  1907  (Re  Hartnett.  7  S.  R.  463).  There  is 
beouest  for  a  Jewish  prayer  to  be  recited  on  the  testa-  little  doubt  that  the  law  wnich  these  cases  declare 
tor  s  anniversary  in  perpetuity,  there  being  no  evidence  would  be  followed  in  all  other  Australian  Ck>lonie8  and 
that  the  prayer  was  to  be  recited  for  the  benefit  of  the  in  New  Zealand.  In  India  bequests  for  requiem 
testator's  soul,  and  in  the  case  re  Blundell's  Trusts,  Masses  are  valid  (Das  Merces  v.  Cones,  1864,  2  Hyde 
1861  (30  Beav.  362),  where  he  considered  himself  com-  65:  Judah  v.  Judah,  1870,  2  B.  L.  R.  433). 
pelled,  in  compliance  with  the  judgment  in  West  v.  ^  Co"  ?»  LUtuum  oe  (b);  NicaouWmM  of  the  Kynfjs^ 
Suttleworth   (atove),  to  disallow  a  bequest  by  a  f&n.'^fo^^'^HilS^t^J.l^^i^ it^ 


Catholic  testator  for  requiem  Masses,  stating  that  the  Hmruthe  Eiffhthjrom  an  authentic  copy  in  ihe  Hmide  ofanAUof- 

law  declaring  such  bequests  to  be  invalid  had  now  be-  »»'V  (London,  1793);    Dukb  on  the  Law  of  CharilabU  Uees, 

come  so  established  that  only  a  judgment  of  the  House  edited  by  Bridgii an  (London.  1805).  xr^^  .^ 

of  Lords  could  alter  it.     It  would  be  desirable  that  the  ""  °"  ^^^'^• 

decision  of  that  tribunal  should  be  obtained  on  tiiis        Masses,  Devises  and  BEQUEfirrs  for  (UNrrsD 

question.  States). — Prior  to  the  period  of  the  Reformation  in 

In  Ireland  bequests  for  requiem  Masses  have  long  England  in  1532,  Masses  for  the  repose  of  the  souls  of 


33 


MA88I8 


the  demon  of  property  siven  for  that  purpose  were 
ai^eld  in  England,  but  ouring  that  vear  a  statute  was 
passed  providing  that  thereafter  all  uses  declared  of 
bad,  except  leaseholds  of  twenty  years,  to  the  in- 
tent to  have  perpetual  or  the  continued  service  of 
a  priest,  or  other  like  uses,  should  be  void.  In  the 
reign  of  Edward  VI  (1^7),  another  statute  was 
passed  declaring  the  king  entitled  to  all  real  and 
certain  roecified  personal  property  theretofore  dis- 
posed of  for  the  perpetual  midin^  of  a  priest  or  main- 
tenance of  any  anniversary  or  obit,  or  other  like  thing, 
or  any  light  or  lamp  at  any  church  or  chapel.  These 
statutes  did  not  maJce  disposition  of  persozial  property 
to  such  uses  void,  and  the  statute  ot  Henry  VIII  was 
prospective  and  applied  only  to  assurances  of  land  to 
churches  and  chapels,  and  that  of  Edward  VI  was 
limited  to  dispositions  of  property,  real  and  personal, 
theretofore  made.  But  the  English  chancellors  ana 
the  Elnglish  judses,  in  ^e  absence  of  any  express  stat- 
ute, determmea  all  dispositions  of  property,  whether 
real  or  personal,  given  or  devised  for  uses  specified  in 
the  two  statutes,  to  be  absolutely  void  as  contrary  to 
public  policy,  behig  for  superstitious  uses.  The  de- 
cision covered  legacies  such  as  to  priests  to  pray  for 
the  soul  of  the  £>nor  or  for  the  bringing  up  of  poor 
children  in  the  Roman  Catholic  faith. 

It  has  been  expressly  decided  that  these  statutes 
and  the  doctrine  of  superstitious  uses  as  enunciated  by 
the  English  judges  do  not  apply  in  the  United  States, 
althougn  the  &st  colonies  from  which  the  States 
grew  were  established  subsequentlv  to  the  dates  of 
the  adoption  of  the  statutes  referred  to,  and  this,  not- 
withstanding  the  fact  that  in  some  of  the  states 
statutes  were  passed  adopting  the  common  law  and 
statutes  of  Ekigland  so  far  as  the  same  might  be  ap- 
plicable to  the  altered  condition  of  the  setUers  in  the 
eolonies.  It  has  been  pointed  out  that  it  is  a  maxim 
of  law  in  the  United  States  that  a  man  may  do  what 
he  will  with  his  own,  so  long  as  he  does  not  violate  the 
law  by  so  doing  or  devote  ms  property  to  an  immoral 
purpose;  consequently,  since  there  is  a  leeal  equality 
of  sects  and  all  are  thus  in  the  eyes  of  the  law  equally 
orthodox,  to  discriminate  between  what  is  a  pious  and 
what  a  superstitious  use  would  be  to  infringe  upon  the 
constitutional  guarantee  of  perfect  freedom  ana  equal- 
ity of  all  reUgdons  (see  opinion  of  Tuley,  J.,  in  the  case 
of  Kehoe  v.  iCehoe,  reported  as  a  note  to  Gihnan  v. 
McArdle,  12  Abb.  N.  C,  427  New  York).  In  none  of 
the  states  of  the  Union,  therefore,  are  bequests  or  de- 
vises of  property  for  Masses  for  flie  dead  invalid  on  the 
ground  of  being  superstitious,  but  there  is  a  diversity 
among  the  decisions  as  to  the  circumstances  under 
which  such  bequests  or  devises  will  be  sustained. 

In  New  York  the  law  of  England  on  the  subject  of 
charitable  and  religious  trusts  has  been  completely 
abrogated  by  statute,  it  being  intended  that  there 
should  be  no  system  of  public  charities  in  that  state 
except  through  the  medium  of  corporate  bodies.  The 
policy  has  been  to  enact  from  time  to  time  general  and 
special  laws  specifying  and  sanctioning  the  particular 
object  to  be  promoted,  restricting  the  amount  of 
property  to  be  enjoyed,  carefully  keeping  the  subject 
unaer  legidative  control,  and  always  providing  a  com- 
petent and  ascertained  donee  to  take  and  use  the 
charitable  gifts  (Levy  v.  Levy,  33  N.  Y.,  97;  Holland 
V.  Alcock,  108  N.  Y.,  312).  In  accordance  with  this 
policy  a  general  act  was  passed  regulating  the  incor- 
poration of  religious  bodies,  and  empowering  the 
trustees  to  take  into  their  possession  property, 
whether  the  same  has  been  given,  granted  or  devised 
directly  to  a  church,  congregation  or  society,  or  to  any 
other  person  for  their  use  (I^ws  of  1813,  c.  60,  s.  4,  III; 
Cummings  and  Gilbert,  *'  Gen.  Laws  and  other  Statutes 
of  N.  Y?',  p.  3401).  By  the  provisions  of  other 
statutes  Roman  CaUiolic  churches  come  under  this 
act  (Iaws  of  1862,  c.  45;  Cummings  and  Gilbert,  loc. 
cit.,  p.  3425).    Therefore  a  bequest  of  real  property 


for  Masses  will  be  upheld  if  it  comply  with  the  statu, 
tory  requirements,  which  are  (1)  that  the  gift  be  to 
a  corporation  duly  authorized  by  its  charter  or  b^ 
statute  to  take  gifts  for  such  purpose  and  not  to  a  pn« 
vate  person;  (2 J  that  the  will  by  which  the  gift  is  made 
shall  nave  been  properly  executed  at  least  two  months 
before  the  testators  aeath  (Cummings  and  Gilbert, 
loc.  cit.,  p.  4470;  Laws  of  1848,  c.  319;  Laws  of  1860, 
c.  360:  Lefevre  v.  LefevTe,59N.  Y., 434), and  (3)  that 
if  the  testator  have  a  wife,  child,  or  parent,  the  be- 
quest shall  not  exceed  one-half  of  his  property  after 
his  debts  are  paid  (ibid.,  see  Hagenmeyer  s  Will,  12 
Abb.  N.  C,  432).  Every  trust  of  personal  propertjr, 
which  is  not  contrary  to  public  policy  and  ia  not  m 
conflict  with  the  statute  regulating  the  accumulation 
of  interest  and  protecting  uie  suspension  of  absolute 
ownership  in  property  of  that  character,  ia  valid  when 
the  trustee  is  competent  to  take  and  a  trust  is  for  a 
lawful  purpose  well  defined  so  as  to  be  capable  of  beiz^ 
specifically  executed  by  the  court  (Holmes  v.  Mead, 
52  N.  Y.,  332).  "If  then  a  Catholic  desire  to  make 
provision  by  will  for  saving  of  Masses  for  his  soul, 
there  is  not  the  shadow  of  a  aoubt  but  that  every  court 
in  the  State  [New  York],  if  not  in  the  Union,  would  up- 
hold the  bequest  if  the  mode  of  making  it  were  agree- 
able to  the  law' '  (see  careful  article  written  in  1 886  oy  F. 
A.  McCloskey  in  "Albany  Law  Journal",  XXXH,  367). 

For  similar  reasons  in  Wisconsin,  where  aU  trusts 
are  abolished  by  statute  except  certain  specified 
trusts  with  a  definite  beneficianr,  a  gift  for  Masses,  to 
be  good,  must  not  be  so  woroed  as  to  constitute  a 
trust.  Thus  a  bequest  in  the  following  language:  "I 
do  give  and  bequeath  unto  the  Roman  Qithouc  Bishop 
of  tne  Diocese  of  Green  Bay,  Wisconsin,  the  sum  oif 
$4150,  the  said  sum  to  be  used  and  applied  as  follows: 
For  Masses  for  the  repose  of  my  soul,  two  thousand 
dollars,  for  Masses  for  the  repose  of  the  soul  of  my  de- 
ceased wife,  etc.,  etc."  The  court  held  that  a  trust  was 
created  by  this  language,  and  says:  ''It  is  evident 
that  such  a  trust  is  not  capable  of  execution,  and  no 
court  would  take  cognisance  of  any  question  in  respect 
to  it  for  want  of  a  competent  pairty  to  raise  and  liti- 
gate any  question  of  abuse  or  perversion  of  the  trust." 
But  it  ados:  "We  know  of  no  le^al  reason  why  any 
person  of  the  Catholic  faith,  believing  in  the  efficacy  of 
Masses,  may  not  make  a  direct  gift  or  bequest  to  any 
bishop  or  priest  of  any  sum  out  of  his  property  or 
estate  for  Masses  for  the  repose  of  his  soul  or  the  souls 
of  others,  as  he  may  choose.  Such  gifts  or  bequests, 
when  made  in  clear,  direct,  and  legal  form,  should  be 
upheld:  and  they  are  not  to  be  considered  as  im- 
peachable or  invalid  under  the  rule  that  prevailed  in 
£ngland  by  which  they  were  held  void  as  gifts  to 
superstitious  uses"  (72  N.  W.  Rep.,  631). 

The  same  view  was  taken  by  the  Supreme  Court  of 
Alabama,  where  a  bequest  to  a  church  to  be  used  in 
solemn  Masses  for  the  repose  of  the  soul  of  the  testa- 
tor was  held  invalid  inasmuch  as  it  did  not  respond  to 
any  one  of  the  following  tests:  (1)  that  it  was  a  direct 
bequest  to  the  church  Tor  its  general  uses;  (2)  that  it 
created  a  charitable  use;  or  (3)  that  it  created  a  valid 
private  trust.  It  was  not  a  charity  inasmuch  as  it 
was  "for  the  benefit  alone  of  his  own  soul,  and  cannot 
be  upheld  as  a  public  charitv  without  offending  everv 
principle  of  Law  oy  which  such  charities  are  supported  , 
and  it  was  not  valid  as  a  private  trust  for  want  of  a 
living  benefici^  to  support  it  (Festorassi  v.  St. 
Joseph's  R.  C.  Church  of  Mobile,  25  Law.  Rep.  Ana^ 
360). 

In  Illinois  an  opposite  conclusion  is  reached,  it  being 
held  distinctly  tnat  a  devise  for  Masses  for  the  repose 
of  the  soul  of  the  testator,  or  for  the  repose  of  the  souls 
of  other  named  persons,  is  valid  as  a  charitable  use, 
and  the  devise  for  such  purpose  will  not  be  allowed  to 
fail  for  want  of  a  competent  trustee,  but  the  coml  will 
appoint  a  trustee  to  take  the  gift  and  apply  it  to  the 
puiposes  of  the  trust.    Such  a  bequest  is  distinotlj^ 


MAasn.TAifs                    34  MAfwnjiOir 

held  to  be  witkin  the  definition  of  charities  which  are  elements  of  such  a  trust,  as  much  as  it  would  if  the 
to  be  sustained  irrespective  of  the  indefiniteness  of  the  object  were  the  erection  of  a  monument  or  the  doing 
beneficiaries,  or  of  the  lack  of  trustees,  or  the  fact  that  of  any  other  act  intended  alone  to  perpetuate  the 
the  trustees  appointed  are  not  competent  to  take ;  and  memory  or  name  of  the  testator.    But  even  if  there  is 
it  is  not  derived  from  the  Statute  of  Charitable  Uses  a  techmcal  departure  because  of  no  living  beneficiary, 
(43  Elizabeth,  c.  4),  but  existed  prior  to  and  indepen-  still  the  bequest  is  valid.    We  have  also  said  that  it  is 
dent  of  that  statute.   The  court  quotes  with  approval  not  a  chanty,  and  we  can  discover  no  element  of  a 
the  definition  of  a  charitv  as  given  bv  Bir.  Justice  Gray  charity  in  it.   It  seems  to  be  a  matter  entirely  personal 
of  Massachusetts:  "A  charity  in  a  legal  sense  may  bie  to  the  testator.    In  one  or  more  cases  the  courts  have 
more  f iill3r  defined  as  a  gift,  to  be  ^plied  consistently  felt  the  necessity  in  order  to  sustain  such  a  bequest,  to 
with  existing  laws,  for  the  benefit  of  an  indefinite  num-  denominate  it  a  charity  because  charitable  bequests 
ber  of  nersons,  either  by  bringing  their  hearts  imder  have  had  the  sanction  of  the  law.   We  know  of  no  such 
the  induenoe  of  education  or  religion,  by  relieving  limitation  on  testamentary  acts  as  that  bequests  or 
their  bodies  from  disease,  suffering,  or  constraint,  by  devises  must  be  in  the  line  of  other  such  acts,  if  other- 
assisting  them  to  establish  themselves  for  life,  or  by  wise  lawful"  (Moran  v.  Moran,  73  N.  W.  Rep.,  617). 
erecting  and  maintaining  public  buildings  or  works.  It  follows  then  that  there  is  no  legal  inhibition  on 
or  otherwise  lessening  the  burthen  of  government.    It  bequests  for  Masses  in  any  of  the  United  States  eitW 
is  immaterial  whether  the  purpose  is  called  charitable  on  the  groimd  of  public  policy  or  because  they  offend 
in  the  ^t  itself,  if  it  be  so  described  as  to  show  that  it  against  any  inherent  principle  of  right.   But  care  must 
is  chantable  in  its  nature"  (Jackson  v.  Phillips,  14  be  taken  in  drafting  the  wiU  to  obBerve  the  statutes, 
Allen,  539).    The  court  proceeds  to  show  that  the  where  any  exist,  in  relation  to  devises  or  beauests  in 
Mass  is  intended  to  be  a  repetition  of  the  sacrifice  of  trust  for  any  puipose  as  well  as  the  current  of  decisions 
the  Cross,  and  is  the  chief  and  central  act  of  won^p  where  cases  have  arisen.  The  language  shotdd  be  dear 
in  the  Catholic  Church;  that  it  is  public.   It  points  out  and  drawn  in  accordance  with  legal  rules.    It  should 
the  CathoUc  belief  on  the  subject  of  Purgatory,  and  not  be  left  to  the  chances  of  interpretation, 
holds  that  the  adding  of  a  particular  remembrance  in  See  the  authorities  quoted  ^ve- 
the  Mass  does  not  change  the  character  of  the  religious  Waltbb  Gbobgb  Smith. 
service  and  render  it  a  mere  private  benefit;  and  fur-  MuflUUiiB.    See  SBiaPSLAGiANS. 
ther,  that  the  bequest  is  an  aid  to  the  support  of  the 
clergy  (Hoeffer  v.  Clogan,  49  N.  E.  Rep.,  527).  MaasUlon,    Jean-Baftistb,    celebrated    French 

In  Pennsvlvania  bequests  and  devises  for  Masses  preacher  and  bishop;  b.  24  June,  1663:  d.  28  Septem- 

are  distinctly  held  to  be  gifts  for  religious  uses,  the  Der,  1742.    The  son  of  Francois  Bfassillon,  a  notary  of 

Supreme  Court  of  that  state  having  expressea  the  Hydres  in  Provence,  he  began  his  studies  in  the  college 

same  view  of  the  law  subsequently  adopted  in  Illinois,  of  that  town  and  completed  them  in  the  college  of 

The  court  uses  the  following  language:  "  According  to  Marseilles,  both  under  the  Oratorians.     He  entered 

the  Roman  Catholic  svstem  of  faith  there  exists  an  the  Congregation  of  the  Oratory^  at  the  age  of  eighteen, 

intermediate  state  of  the  soul,  after  death  and  before  After  his  novitiate  and  theological  studies,  he  was  sent 

final  judgment,  during  which  guilt  incurred  during  life  as  professor  to  the  colleges  of  the  congregation  at 

and  unatoned  for  must  be  expiated;  and  the  tempo-  P^nas,  Marseilles,  Montorison,  and,  laert^ly,  Vienne, 

rary  punishments  to  which  the  souls  of  the  penitent  where  he  taught  philosophy  and  theology  for  six  years 

are  tnus  subjected  may  be  mitigated  or  arrested  (1689-05). 

through  the  efficacy  of  the  Mass  as  a  propitiatory  sac-  Ordained  priest  in  1601,  he  commenced  preaching 
rifioe.  Hence  the  practice  of  offering  Masses  for  the  in  the  chapel  of  the  Oratory  at  Vienne  and  in  the  vicin* 
departed.  It  cannot  be  doubted  that,  in  obeying  the  it^  of  that  city.  Upon  the  death  of  Villeroy,  Arch- 
injunction  of  the  testator,  intercession  would  be  spe>  bishop  of  Lyons  (1603),  he  was  called  upon  to  deliver 
ciall]r  invoked  in  behalf  of  the  testator  alone.  The  ser-  the  f  xmeral  oration,  and  six  months  later  that  of  M. 
vice  is  just  the  same  in  kind  whether  it  be  desigaed  to  de  Villars,  Archbishop  of  Vienne.  Joining  the  Lyons 
promote  the  spiritual  welfare  of  one  or  many.  Prayer  Oratory  in  1605,  and  summoned  to  Paris  in  the  foUow- 
for  the  conversion  of  a  single  impenitent  is  as  purely  log  year,  to  be  director  of  the  Seminary  of  Saint-BCa- 
a  religious  act  as  a  petition  for  the  salvation  of  thou-  gloire,  he  was  thenceforward  able  to  devote  himself  ex- 
sands.  The  services  intended  to  be  performed  in  clusively  to  preaching.  As  director  of  this  seminary 
carrying  out  the  trust  created  by  the  testator's  will,  he  delivered  those  lectures  {canfirencea)  to  young 
as  well  as  the  objects  desigiied  to  be  attained,  are  all  clerics  which  are  still  highly  esteemed.  But  a  year 
essentially  religious  in  their  character"  (Rnymer's  later  he  was  removed  from  his  position  at  Saint-Ma- 
Appeal,  03  Pa.,  142).  In  Permsylvania  care  must  be  gloire  for  having  occupied  himself  too  exclusively  with 
taken  to  observe  the  provisions  of  the  Act  of  26  April,  preaching.  Having  preached  the  Lent  at  Montpellier 
1855^  P.  L.,  332,  whicn  prohibits  devises  or  legacies  for  m  1608,  he  preached  it  the  next  year  at  the  Oratory  of 
chantable  or  religious  uses,  unless  by  will  executed  at  Paris.  His  eloquence  in  this  series  of  discourses  was 
least  one  month  before  the  death  of  the  testator.  A  very  much  approved,  and,  although  he  aimed  at 
S^t  to  be  expended  for  Masses,  being  a  religious  use,  preaching  in  a  style  unlike  that  of  his  predecessors, 
would  come  within  this  statute.  The  provisions  of  the  public  opinion  already  hailed  him  as  the  successor  of 
law  relating  to  attesting  witnesses,  requiring  two  cred-  bossuet  and  Bourdafoue  who  were  at  that  time  re- 
ible  and  diionterested  witnesses  wnen  any  ^t  is  made  duced  to  silence  by  age.  At  the  end  of  this  year  he 
by  will  for  religious  or  charitable  uses,  should  also  be  preached  the  Advent  at  the  court  of  Louis  XlV — an 
noted.  nonour  which  was  in  those  dajrs  highly  coveted  as  the 

In  Massachusetts  the  courts  take  the  same  view  as  consecration  of  a  preacher's  fame.    He  justified  every 

those  of  Pennsylvania,  that  gifts  for  Masses  are  to  be  hope,  and  the  kine  wittily  declared  that,  where  he  had 

sustained  as  for  religious  uses  (Re  Schouler,  134  Mass.,  formerly  been  well  pleased  with  the  preachers,  he  was 

126).                                                      '  now  very  ill  pleased  with  himself .    Massillon,  by  com- 

In  Iowa  the  Supreme  Court  has  sustained  a  bequest  mand,  once  more  appeared  in  the  chapel  of  Versailles 

"to  the  Catholic  priest  who  may  be  pastor  of  thB  R.  for  the  Lent  of  1701.    Bossuet,  who,  according  to  his 

Catholic  Church  when  this  will  shall  be  executed,  three  secretary,  had  thought  Massillon  very  far  from  the 

hundred  dollars  that  Masses  may  be  said  for  me  ",  as  sublime  in  1600,  this  time  declared  himself  very  well 

being  valid,  though  it  contains  no  element  of  a  chari-  satisfied,  as  was  the  kii^.    Biassillon  was  simunoned 

table  use.    The  court  sa3rs:  "We  have  said  that  this  a|;ain  for  the  Lent  of  1704.    This  was  the  apogee  of 

be<iuest,  if  the  priest  should  accept  the  money,  is  a  his  eloquence  and  his  success.    The  king  assiduously 

private  trust:  and  we  think  it  possesses  the  essential  attended  his  sermons,  and  in  the  royal  presence  Maa- 


ItlasoftAtt 


d6 


IffASSO&AS 


nllon  delivered  that  discourse  "  On  the  Fewness  of  the 
Elect",  which  is  considered  his  masterpiece.  Never- 
theless, whether  because  the  compromising  relations  of 
the  orator  with  certain  great  families  had  produced  a 
bad  impression  on  the  king,  or  because  Loms  ended  by 
believing  him  inclined — as  some  of  his  brethren  of  the 
Oratory  were  thought  to  be — to  Jansenism,  Massillon 
was  never  again  summoned  to  preach  at  the  Court  dur- 
ing the  life  of  Louis  XIV,  nor  was  he  even  put  forward 
for  a  bishopric.  Nevertheless  he  continued,  from 
1704  to  1718,  to  preach  Lent  and  Advent  discourses 
with  great  success  in  various  churehes  of  Paris.  Only 
in  the  Advent  of  1715  did  he  leave  those  churehes  to 
preach  before  the  Ck>urt  of  Stanislas,  King  of  Lorraine. 
In  the  interval  he  preached,  with  only  moderate 
success,  sermons  at  ceremonies  of  taking  the  habit. 

panegyrics,  ana 
funeral  orations. 
Of  his  funeral  ora- 
tions that  on  Louis 
XIV  is  still  fa- 
mous, above  all  for 
its  opening:  *'God 
alone  is  great" — 
uttered  at  the 
grave  of  a  prince 
to  whom  his  con- 
temporaries had 
yielded  the  title  of 
"The  Great". 

After  the  death 
of  this  king  Afas- 
sillon  returned  to 
favour  at  Ck>urt. 
In  1717  the  regent 
nominated  him  to 
Uie  Bishopric  of 
Clermont  (Au- 
vergne)  and  caused 


JkAN-BaPTUTB  MASSnULON 


him  to  preach  before  the  young  king,  Louis  XV,  the 
lenten  course  of  1718,  which  was  to  comprise  only  ten 
sermons.  These  have  been  published  imder  the  title 
of  "Le  Petit  Cardme" — Massillon's  most  popular 
work.  Finally,  he  was  received,  a  few  months  later, 
into  the  French  Academy,  where  Fleury,  the  young 
king's  preceptor,  pronounced  his  eulogy. 

But  Massillon,  consecrated  on  21  December,  1710, 
was  in  hasto  to  take  possession  of  his  see.  With  its  29 
abbeys,  224  priories,  and  758  parishes,  the  Diocese  of 
Clermont  was  one  of  the  largest  in  France.  The  new 
bishop  took  up  his  residence  there,  and  left  it  onlv  to 
assist,  by  order  of  the  regent,  in  the  negotiations  which 
were  to  decide  the  case  of  Cardinal  de  Noailies  (q.  v.) 
and  certain  bishops  suspected  of  Jansenism,  in  accept^ 
ing  the  Bull  *'  Unigenitus",  to  assist  at  the  coronation 
of  Louis  XV,  and  to  preach  the  funeral  sermon  of  the 
Duchess  of  Orleans,  the  regent's  mother. 

He  made  it  his  business  to  visit  one  part  of  his  dio- 
cese each  year,  and  at  his  death  he  had  been  through 
the  whole  diocese  nearly  three  times,  even  to  the  poor- 
est and  remotest  parishes.  He  set  himself  to  re-estab- 
lish or  maintain  ecclesiastical  discipline  and  good 
morals  among  his  clergy.  From  the  ^ear  1723  on,  he 
annually  assembled  a  sjmod  of  the  priests;  he  did  this 
once  more  in  1742,  a  few  days  before  his  death.  In 
these  synods  and  in  the  retreats  which  followed  them 
he  delivered  the  s3modal  discourses  and  confirencei 
which  have  been  so  much,  and  so  justly,  admired.  If 
be  at  times  displaved  energy  in  reforming  abuses,  he 
was  generally  tender  and  fatherly  towards  his  clergy; 
he  was  willing  to  listen  to  them;  he  promoted  their 
education,  by  attaching  benefices  to  his  seminaries, 
and  assured  them  a  peaceful  old  age  by  building  a 
house  of  retirement  for  them.  He  defended  his  clergy 
against  the  king's  ministers,  who  wished  to  increase 
their  fiscal  burdens,  and  he  never  ceased  to  guard  them 
against  the  errors  and  subterfuges  of  the  Jansenists, 


who,  indeed,  assailed  him  sharply  in  their  journal  "Les 
Nouvelles  flccl^siastiques". 

Thoroughlv  devot^  to  all  his  diocesan  flock,  ha 
busied  himself  in  improving  their  condition.  This  is 
apparent  in  his  correspondence  with  the  king's  intend- 
ants  and  ministers,  in  which  he  does  his  utmost  to  alle- 
viate the  lot  of  the  Auvergne  peasantry  whenever 
there  is  a  disposition  to  increase  their  taxation,  or  the 
scoui^e  of  a  bad  season  afflicts  their  crops.  The  poor 
were  always  dear  to  him:  not  only  did  he  pleaa  for 
them  in  his  sermons,  but  he  assisted  them  out  of  his 
bounty,  and  at  his  death  he  instituted  the  hospital  of 
Clermont  for  his  universal  heirs,  the  poor.  His  death 
was  lamented,  as  his  life  had  been  blessed  and  admired 
by  his  contemporaries.  Posterity  has  numbered  him 
with  Bossuet,  F^nelon,  Fl^chier,  and  Mascaron,  among 
the  greatest  French  bishops  of  the  eighteenth  century. 
As  an  orator,  no  one  was  more  appreciated  by  the 
eighteenth  century,  which  placed  him  easily — at  least 
as  to  preaching  properly  so  called — ^above  Bossuet  and 
Bourdaloue.  Our  age  places  him  rather  lower.  Mas- 
sillon has  neither  the  sublimity  of  Bossuet  nor  the 
logic  of  Bourdaloue:  with  him  the  sermon  neglecto 
dogma  for  morality,  and  morality  loses  its  authority, 
and  sometimes  its  security,  in  the  eyes  of  Christians. 
For  at  times  he  is  so  severe  as  to  render  himself  suspect 
of  Jansenism,  and  again  he  is  so  lax  as  to  be  accusea  of 
complaisancy  for  uie  sensibilities  and  the  philoeo- 
phism  of  his  time.  His  chief  merit  was  to  have  ex- 
celled in  depicting  the  passions,  to  have  spoken  to  the 
heart  in  a  language  it  always  imderstood,  to  have 
made  the  great,  and  princes,  understand  the  loftiest 
teachings  of  the  Gospel,  and  to  have  made  his  own  life 
and  his  work  as  a  bishop  conform  to  those  teachings. 
During  Massillon's  lifetime  only  the  funeral  oration  on 
the  Pnnoe  de  Conti  was  published  (1709) ;  he  even  dis- 
avowed a  collection  of  sermons  which  appeared  under 
his  name  at  Tr^voux  (1705,  1706,  1714).  The  first 
authentic  edition  of  his  works  appeared  in  1745,  pub- 
lished by  his  nephew,  Father  Joseph  Massillon,  ot  the 
Oratory;  it  has  been  frequently  reprinted.  But  the 
best  edition  was  that  of  Blainpignon,  Bar-le-Duc, 
1865-68,  and  Paris,  1886,  in  four  vols.  It  com- 
prises ten  sermons  for  Advent,  forty-one  for  Lent, 
eight  on  the  mysteries,  four  on  virtues,  ten  panegyrics, 
six  funeral  orations,  sixteen  ecclesiastical  conferences, 
twenty  synodal  discourses,  twenty-six  charges,  para- 
phrases on  thirty  psalms,  some  pens^ea  chmsies,  and 
some  fifty  miscellaneous  letters  or  notes. 

d'Albmbbrt,  Eloge  de  MtunUon  in  Hiatoire  dea  membrea 
de  VAcadhnie  franoaiae  (Paris,  1787),  I;  V;  Batle,  Maaail- 
Jon  (Paris,  1867) ;  Blaupxqnon,  MaaaUUm  d'aprh  dea  aoeumenta 
inidUa  (Paris,  1879);  L'ipiaeopai  de  MaaaiUon  (Paris.  1884); 
Attais,  Etude  aur  MaaaiUon  (Toulouse,  1882);  Cohbndt, 
Correapondanee  MandemerUa  de  MaaaiUon  (Clennont,  1883); 
Pauthb.  MaaaiUon  (Paris,  1908).        AntoiNE  D^GERT. 

Massorah,  the  textual  tradition  of  the  Hebrew 
Bible,  an  official  registration  of  ito  words,  consonante, 
vowels  and  accents.  It  is  doubtful  whether  the 
word  should  be  pointed  n'lbp  (from  ")DM,  "to  bind") 
orJl'^DD  (from  the  New 'Hebrew  verb,  "^DD**  to  hand 
down").  The  former  pointing  is  seen  in  Ezech.  xx, 
37;  the  latter  is  due  to  the  fact  that,  in  the  Afishna, 
the  word's  primary  meaning  is  "tradition".  Our 
chief  witness  to  Massorah  is  the  actual  text  of  MSS.  of 
the  Hebrew  Bible.  Other  witnesses  are  several  collec- 
tions of  Massorah  and  the  numerous  marginal  notes 
scattered  over  Hebrew  MSS.  The  upper  and  lower 
margins  and  the  end  of  tne  MS.  contain  the  Greater 
Blassorah,  such  as  lists  of  words;  the  side  mannns  con- 
tain tiie  Lesser  Massorah,  such  as  variants.  The  best 
collection  of  Massorah  is  that  of  Ginsburg,  *'The  Mas- 
sorah compiled  from  MSS.  alphabetically  and  lexically 
arranged''  (3  vols.,  London,  1880-85).  This  article 
will  treat  (I)  the  history  and  (II)  the  critical  value  of 
Massorah.  For  the  number  and  worth  of  Biassoretio 
MSS.,  see  MSS.  of  the  Bible. 


liASSO&AH 


36 


MA886ftAB 


I.  H18TORT  OF  Massorah. — Their  sacred  books  were 
to  the  Jews  an  inspired  code  and  record,  a  God-in- 
tended means  to  conserve  the  political  and  religious 
unity  and  fidelity  of  the  nation.  It  was  imperative 
upon  them  to  keep  those  books  intact.  So  far  back  as 
the  first  century  b.  c,  copyists  and  revisers  were 
trained  and  employed  to  fix  the  Hebrew  text.  Ail 
had  one  purpose, — to  copy  niDDH  ^D  ^y,  i.  e.  accord- 
ing to  the  face-value  of  the  MaJssorah.  To  repro- 
duce their  exemplar  perfectly,  to  hand  down  the 
Massorah, — only  this  and  nothing  more  was  pimposed 
by  the  official  copyist  of  the  Hebrew  Bible.  Every- 
thing new  was  shunned.  There  is  evidence  that  false 
pronunciations  were  fixed  by  Massorah  centuries  be- 
fore the  invention  of  points  such  as  are  seen  in  our 
present  Massoretic  text.  At  times  such  earlv  transla- 
tions as  those  of  Aquila,  Theodotion,  the  LXX  and 
the  Peshitto  give  evidence  of  precisely  the  same  er- 
roneous pronunciation  as  is  found  in  the  pointed  He- 
brew text  of  to-day. 

(1)  The  Consonantal  Text, — Hebrew  had  no  vowels 
in  its  alphabet.  Vowel  sounds  were  for  the  most  part 
handed  down  by  tradition.  Certain  consonants,  Ky 
1,  >  and  sometimes  n,  were  used  to  express  some  long 
vowels;  these  consonants  were  called  Matrea  lectioniSt 
because  they  determined  the  pronunciation.  The  ef- 
forts of  copyists  would  seem  to  have  become  more  and 
more  minute  and  detailed  in  the  perpetuation  of  the 
consonantal  text.  These  copyists  {ypamiuarw)  were 
at  first  called  Sopherim  (from  ^OD,  ''to  count''),  be- 
cause, as  the  Talmud  says,  *'they  counted  all  the  let- 
ters in  the  Torah''  (Kiddushin,  30a).  It  was  not  till 
later  on  that  the  name  Massoretes  was  ^ven  to  the 
preservers  of  Massorah.  In  the  Talmudic  period  (c. 
A.  D.  300-500),  the  rules  for  perpetuating  Massorah 
were  extremelv  detailed.  Only  skins  of  clean  animals 
must  be  used  for  parchment  rolls  and  fastenings 
thereof.  Each  column  must  be  of  equal  length,  not 
more  than  sixty  nor  less  than  forty-eight  lines.  Each 
line  must  contain  thirty  letters,  written  with  black  ink 
of  a  prescribed  make-up  and  in  the  square  letters 
which  were  the  ancestors  of  our  present  Hebrew  text- 
letters.  The  copyist  must  have  before  him  an  authen- 
tic copy  of  the  text;  and  must  not  write  from  memory 
a  sin^e  letter,  not  even  a  yodf — every  letter  must  bie 
copied  from  the  exemplar,  letter  for  letter.  The  in- 
terval between  consonants  should  be  the  breadth  of  a 
hair;  between  words,  the  breadth  of  a  narrow  conson- 
ant; between  sections,  the  breadth  of  nine  consonants; 
between  books,  the  breadth  of  three  lines. 

Such  numerous  and  minute  rules,  though  scrupu- 
lously observed,  were  not  enough  to  satisfy  the  zesA  to 
perpetuate  the  consonantal  text  fixed  and  unchanged. 
Letters  were  omitted  which  had  surreptitiously  crept 
in:  variants  and  coniectural  readings  were  indicated  in 
sioe-margins, — ^words,  "read  but  not  written"  (QerS), 
"written  but  not  read"  (Kelhibh),  "read  one  way  but 
written  another ' ' .  These  marginal  critical  notes  went 
on  increasing  with  time.  Still  more  was  done  to  fix 
the  consonantal  text.  The  words  and  letters  of  each 
book  and  of  every  section  of  the  twenty-four  books  of 
^e  Hebrew  Bible  were  coimted.  The  middle  words 
and  middle  letters  of  books  and  sections  were  noted. 
In  the  Talmud,  we  see  how  one  rabbi  was  wont  to 
pester  the  other  with  such  trivial  textual  questions  as 
the  juxtaposition  of  certain  letters  in  this  or  that  sec- 
tion, the  halfHsection  in  which  this  consonant  or  that 
was,  etc.  The  rabbis  counted  the  number  of  times 
certain  words  and  phrases  occurred  in  the  several 
books  and  in  the  whole  Bible;  and  searched  for  mystic 
meanings  in  that  number  of  times.  On  the  top  and 
bottom  maisins  of  MSS.,  they  grouped  various  pecu- 
liarities of  the  text  and  drew  up  alphabetical  lists  of 
words  which  occurred  equally  often, — ^for  instance,  of 
those  which  appeared  once  with  and  once  without 
10010.  In  Cod.  Babylon.  Petropolitanus  (a.  d.  916),  we 
bave  many  critical  marginal  notes  of  such  and  of  other 


peculiarities,  v.  g.  a  list  of  fourteen  words  Written  with 
final  He  which  are  to  be  read  with  Waw,  and  of  eight 
worOs  written  with  final  Waw,  which  are  to  be  read 
with  He,  Such  were  some  of  the  painstaking  means 
employed  to  preserve  the  consonantal  text  of  Uie  Mas- 
sorah. 

(2)  The  Points, — RoUs  that  were  destined  for  use  in 
the  synagogue  were  always  unpointed.  RoUs  that 
were  for  other  use  came  in  time  to  receive  vowel- 

E)ints,  and  accents;  these  latter  indicated  the  interre- 
tion  of  words  and  modulation  of  the  voice  in  public 
cantillation.  One  scribe  wrote  the  consonantal  text;: 
another  put  in  the  vowel-points  and  accents  of  Mas- 
sorah. The  history  of  the  vocalization  of  the  text  is 
utterly  unknown  to  us.  It  has  been  suggested  that 
dogmatic  interpretation  clearly  led  to  certain  punctu- 
ations; but  it  IS  likelier  that  the  pronimciation  was 
part  of  Massorah  long  before  the  invention  of  punctu- 
ation. The  very  oriein  of  this  invention  is  doubtful. 
Bleek  assims  it  to  uie  eighth  century  (cf.  "Introd. 
to  O.  T."  1,  109,  London,  1894).  Points  were  cer- 
tainly unused  in  St.  Jerome's  time;  he  had  no  knowl- 
edge whatsoever  of  them.  The  punctuation  of  the 
traditional  text  was  just  as  certainlv  complete  in  the 
ninth  century;  for  R.  Saadia  Gaon  (f  942),  of  Fayum 
in  Ef^ypt,  wrote  treatises  thereon,  llie  work  of  pimc- 
tuating  must  have  gone  on  for  vears  and  been  done  by 
a  large  number  of  scholars  who  laboured  conjointly 
and  authoritatively.  Strack  (see  "Text  of  O.  T.",  in 
Hastings,  "  Diet,  of  Bib.")  savs  it  is  practically  certain 
that  the  points  came  into  Massorah  by  S3rnac  influ- 
ence. Syrians  strove,  by  such  signs,  to  perpetuate  the 
correct  vocalization  and  intonation  ol  their  Sacred 
text.  Their  efforts  gave  an  impulse  to  Jewish  zeal  for 
the  traditional  vocalization  of  the  Hebrew  Bible. 
Bleek  ("Introd.  to  O.  T.",  I,  110,  London,  1894)  and 
others  are  ec^ually  certain  that  Hebrew  scholars  re- 
ceived their  impulse  to  punctuation  from  the  Moslem 
method  of  preserving  tne  Arabic  vocalization  of  the 
Koran.  That  Hebrew  scholars  were  influenced  by 
either  Syriac  or  Arabic  punctuation  is  undoubted. 
Both  forms  and  names  of  the  Massoretic  points  indi- 
cate either  Syriac  or  Arabic  origin.  What  surprises  us 
is  the  absence  of  any  vestige  of  opposition  to  this  in- 
troduction into  Masson^  otpoints  that  were  most  de- 
cidedly not  Jewish.  The  Karaite  Jews  surprise  us 
still  more,  since,  during  a  very  brief  period,  they  trans- 
literated the  Hebrew  text  in  Arabic  characters. 

At  least  two  systems  of  punctuation  are  Massoretic: 
the  Western  ana  the  Eastern.  The  Western  is  called 
Tiberian,  after  the  far  famed  school  of  Biassorah  at 
Tiberias.  It  prevailed  over  the  Eastern  system  and  is 
followed  in  most  MSS.  as  well  as  in  all  printed  editions 
of  the  Bfassoretic  text.  By  rather  complicated  and 
ingenious  combinations  of  dots  and  dashes,  placed 
eiwer  above  or  below  the  consonants,  the  Massoretes 
accurately  represented  ten  vowel  sounds  (long  and 
short  a,  e,  t,  o,  u)  together  with  four  half-vowels  or 
Shewas.  These  latter  corresponded  to  the  venr  much 
obscured  Enslish  sounds  of  e,  a,  and  o.  The  Tiberian 
Massoretes  also  introduced  a  great  many  accents  to 
indicate  the  tone-syllable  of  a  word,  the  logical  corre- 
lation of  words  and  the  voice  modulation  in  public 
reading.  The  Eku^tem  or  Babylonian  system  of  punc- 
tuation shows  dependence  on  uie  Western  and  is  found 
in  a  few  MSS. — chiefest  of  which  is  Cod.  Babylon. 
Petropolitanus  (a.  d.  916).  It  was  thepunctuation  of 
Yemen  till  the  eighteenth  century.  Tne  vowel  signs 
are  all  above  the  consonants  and  are  formed  from  the 
Moires  lectionis  HA*^.  Disjunctive  accents  of  this  su- 
pralinear  punctuation  have  signs  like  the  first  letter 
of  their  name;  Ty  zaqeph;  t3i  farha,  A  third  system 
of  punctuation  has  been  found  in  two  fragments  of  the 
Bible  lately  brought  to  light  in  Erypt  and  now  in  the 
Bodleian  Library  (cf .  Kahle  in  "  Zeitschrift  f Or  die 
Alttestam.  Wissenschaft",  1901:  Friedlflnder,  "A 
third  Intern  of  symbols  for  the  Hebrew  vowels  and 


MASSOUUS  37  MASST8 

ftctents"  in  "Jewish  Quarterly  Review",  I8d5).   The  oraison,  oH  lea  erreurs  des  Qui^tistes  sont  r^fut^'^ 

in>;ention  of  points  greatly  increased  the  work  of  (Paris,  1699);  "Traits  de  Tamour  de  Dieu"  (Paris, 

scribes;  they  now  set  themselves  to  list  words  with  a  1703). 

view  to  perpetuating  not  only  the  consonants  but  the  ,  QuferiF-EcHARD,  5mp<.  Ord.  Prmd.,  II,  769;  Touron,  Hid, 

vowels.    Cod.  Babyl.  Petropolitanus  (a.  d.  916),  for  ^"  A^'««  ^«"..  V,  751-73;  Hdrter.  JVamen^W. 
instance,  lists  eighteen  words  beginning  with  Lamed      •  ^-  •'•  Kennedy. 

and  either  Shewa  or  Hireq  followed  by  Shewa;  eigh-        m*...««^*    t>     -t    t>      j*  x-  x    i     >^     #  xl 

teen  words  beginning  witt5^fn«dimdArfAaA;togetEer        MassMt,  RENf ,  Benedictine  patrologwt  of  ttw 

with  an  aJ^beti<5ll  list  of  words  endiiig  with  n,  Congregation  of  St.  Maur;   b.  13  Aug.,  1666,  at  St. 

which  occur  onlv  once  '  OuendeMancellesinthedioceaeof  Evreux;d.  11  Jan., 

II   CBmcAL  VAtOT  OF  MABflosAH  — DuriuK  the  ^^^®'  **  ^**  Germain  des  Prfe  in  Paris.     He  made  his 

seventeenth  centunr    manv  Protestant  theolosians  Bolenm  profession  in  religion  in  1682  at  Notre  Dame  de 

such  as  the  BuxtoriS,'  defended  the  Massoretio  tixt  a^  i^{.»"lf*"*"«^,f*  BonnenouveUe  in  Orleans,  where 

infallible;  and  consiitered  that  Esdras  together  with  !'"' ^H?7*<^T'^  *^".?!S!'^7ii''*'**^-*K^^'"**^^' 

the  men  of  the  Great  Synagogue  had,  uifder  the  in-  ^  philosoi>hy  in  the  Abbey  of  Bee  and  theology  at  St. 

epiration  of  the  Holy  SplritrnSt  only  determined  the  Stephen  s,  m  Caen,  he  attended  the  lectures  of  the 

Hebrew  canon  but  fiied  for«ver  the  text  of  the  Hebr«w  ^'"^."'ty.  ""^^  obtained  ttie  d%rees  of  bachelor  and 

Bible,  its  vowel  points  and  accente,  its  division  into  Iwentiate  m  law.    After  this  he  taught  a  year  at 

veise^  and  pan^raphs  and  book^.     Modem  text-  JumifgM  and  three  years  at  Fecamp.    Hespent  the 

critics  value  fias^nih.  just  as  the  Itala  and  Peshitto,  7'^  1702  »n  Rome  m  the  study  of  Greek.    T^oUow- 

only  as  one  witness  t<;  a  text  of  the  second  century  1°8  ^^.^^  ^'^  fJ^'^  *»  S*-  Gemiain  des  Pr&i  wd 

Th4  pointed  Massor«tic  text  is  witness  to  a  text  which  t»«8*»t  theology  there  to  the  end  of  his  hf  e.     His 

is  not  certainly  earUer  than  the  eighth  century.    The  pnncipal  work,  which  he  vindertookrather  reluctantly, 

consonantal  text  is  a  far  better  witSess;  unfortunately  ^_*S«  T*'T  **'  *-!il^*"T*?*  ^*-  1.^'^"?'  5*™' 

the  tradition  of  this  text  was  ahnost  absolutely  uni-  "^2La    *  ^^!2*  fSS^K  *M^-7"**?*?  "S?  ^ 

form.   There  were  different  schools  of  Massoretw,  but  E^^  **  Oxford,  1702,  but  the  editor,  John  Ernest 

their  differences  have  left  us  very  few  variants  of  the  ?^°fl  ^"  ***  mtent  on  an  accurate  rendenng  of  ibe 

consonantal  text  (see  Manuscwptb  of  thb  Bible).  *?^  ^'^^ «"».  Tt^  ^^  ^''^u^  i    ?}'*5-  '^^^ 

The  Massoretes  were  slaves  to  Massorah  and  handed  M^suet  ennched  his  edition  with  valuable  disserta- 

down  one  and  one  only  text.    Even  textual  peculiari- 
ties, clearly  due  to  error  or  accident,  were  perpetuated 

by  rabbis  who  pussled  their  brains  to  ferret  out  mysti-  ^'5*w^^  mw  vo — ...  "■.•j:-    • ~ •,•  "•  r-:- 

tii  interpretations  of  these  peculiarities.    Broken  and  °f  Mabdlon.  with  some  additions  and  a  preface  mclu- 

mverted  letters,  consonants^t  were  too  smaU  or  too  siveof  the  biographies  of  MabiUon  and  ftuinart.    We 

large,  dote  that  were  out  of  place-all  such  vagaries  ?^«  ™*»'  °»?^^S''  ti*  J?""  *ii-?-       ,  |f f '<"8' JJ- 

were  sUvishly  handed  down  as  if  God-intended  and  "»  f^^""^,  °{  **»«  %'"^^**  edition  of  St.  Augustine, 

full  of  Divine  meanins  *        ^®  letters  addressed  to  Bernard  Pes  foimd  m 

MoFWD..  Bxerciiaii^^  bMiearwn  de  Btbrai  Orweww  Schelhorn's  "Amoenitates  Ijteraria".     He  left  in 

itdut  tmeerUaU  Ubri  duo  (Paris,  1669) ;  Kcenen,  Let  Ofrinna  manuscript  a  work  entitled    Augustmus  Graecus  ,  in 

Buhl.  Kanon  und  Text  dee  AUen  TedamenU  (Leipzig.  1891);  ^5i®?fF**^-.    ^  .^,  ,o«o  ..«    m 

LoxBT,  tf  iitotre  entique  du  UxU  et  des  veraions  de  la  Bible  (2  ^^*«»i-  vuo»<5i;»c*n/l.  18g.  462;  Tajmxn,  Congr.von  Si.  Maur 

TOb..  Paris.  l992-%S);KKNroN,  Our  BibUandthe  Ancient  MS3.  JJrankfurt,  1773).,  676:    Hurtbr,  Nomend.,  IV  (Imubruck. 

{load(m,lS96)lKjiaLmjDerMaaoreliaehe  Text  dea  AUen  Teeta-  IplO).     627;      Kirehentexikon,  b.    v.;   Bdchbbrgkr,    KinhL 

merUe  naeh  der  Ueberlie/erung  der  Babyloniechen  Juden  (Leipsig.  Handlex.,  s.  v. 

1902);  GiNSBURO.  hUroduidion  to  tKe  Miuaoretico-eritical  edition  FRANCIS  MershHANN. 

of  the  Hebrew  BibU  (1897). 

Walter  Drum.  Massys  (Mebstb,  Metzts),  Quentin,  painter,  b.  at 

Lou  vain  in  1466;  d.  at  Antwerp  in  1530  (bet.  13  July 

Massonli^,  Antoine,  theologian,  b.  at  Toulouse,  28  and  16  September),  and  not  in  1529,  as  his  epitaph 

Oct.,  1632;  d.  at  Rome,  23  Jan.,  1706.    At  an  early  states  (it  dates  from  the  seventeenth  century).    The 

age  he  entered  the  Order  of  St.  Dominic,  in  which  he  life  of  this  great  artist  is  all  adorned,  or  obscured,  with 

Mid  many  important  offices;  but  above  all  these  he  tegends.    It  is  a  fact  that  he  was  the  son  of  a  smith, 

prised  study,  teaching,  and  writing,  for  the  love  of  There  is  nothing  to  prove,  but  it  is  not  impossible  that 

which  he  refused  a  bishopric  and  asked  to  be  relieved  he  first  followed  his  father's  trade.   In  any  case  he  was 

of  distracting  duties.     It  was  said  that  he  knew  by  a  ''bronzier"  and  medallist.     On  29  March,  1528. 

heart  the  Summa  of  St.  Thomas.    He  devoted  him-  Erasmus  wrote  to  Boltens  that  Massys  had  engraved 

self  with  such  earnestness  to  the  study  of  Greek  and  amedalUon  of  him  (Effigiem  meam  fudit  aere).    This 

Hebrew  that  he  could  converse  fluently  in  both  of  was  perhaps  the  medal  dated  1519,  a  copy  of  which  is 

these  languages.     His  knowledge  of  Hebrew  enabled  at  the  Museiun  of  Basle.    In  1575  Molanas  in  his  hi»- 

him  to  overcome  in  public  debate  two  Jewish  Rabbis,  tory  of  Louvain  states  that  Quentin  is  the  author  of  the 

one  at  Avisnon  in  1659,  the  other  at  Florence  in  1695.  standard  of  the  baptismal  fonts  at  St-Pierre,  but  his 

The  latter  became  an  exemplary  Christian,  his  conver-  account  is  full  of  errors.   As  for  the  wrought  iron  dome 

sion  being  modestly  ascribed  by  Mas8ouli6  to  prayer  over  the  well  in  the  March^-aux-Gants  at  Antwerp, 

more  than  to  successful  disputation.     His  published  which  popular  tradition  attributes  to  him,  the  attribu- 

works  and  some  unpublished  manuscripts  (preserved  tion  is  purely  fanciful.    Tradition  also  states  that  the 

in  the  C^asanatense  Libnuy  at  Rome)  may  be  divided  voung  smith,  in  love  with  a  young  woman  of  Antwerp, 

into  two  classes:  those  written  in  defence  of  the  Tho-  became  a  painter  for  her  sake.    Indeed  this  pretty 

miBtic  doctrine  of  physical  premotion,  relating  to  fable  explains  the  poetical  character  of  Massys.    AU 

(jod's  action  on  free  agents,  and  those  written  against  his  works  are  like  love  songs.    Facts  tell  us  only  that 

the  Quietists,  whom  he  strenuously  opposed,  both  by  the  young  man,  an  orphan  since  he  was  fifteen,  was 

attacking  their  false  teachings  ana  also  by  explaining  emancipated  by  his  mother  4  April,  1491,  and  that  in 

the  true  doctrine  according  to  the  principles  of  St.  the  same  year  he  was  entered  as  a  painter  on  the  regis- 

Thomas.    His  principal  works  are:  "  Divus  Thomas  ters  of  the  Guild  of  Antwerp.    He  kept  a  studio  which 

sui  interpres  de  divina  motione  et  libertate  creata''  four  different  pupils  entered  from  1495  to  1510. 
(Rome,  1692);  *'OratioadexplicandamSummantheo-        He  had  six  children  by  a  first  marriage  with  Alyt 

kMdcam  D.  Thomae''  (Rome,  1701);  ''Meditations  de  van  Tuylt.    She  died  in  1507.    Shortly  afterwards,  m 

■.Thomas sur  les  trois  vies,  pursative,  illuminative  et  1508  or  1509,  he  married  Catherine  Heyns,  who  bore 

mutive"  C^oulousCi  1678);  ''Trait6  de  la  veritable  him,  according  to  some,  ten  children,  acoording  to 


BUS8T8  3 

others,  Seven.    He  seems  to  have  been  a  respected 
petsoi^ge.    As  has  been  seen,  he  had  relations  with 
Erasmua,  whoec  portrait  he  painted  in  1^17  (the  orig- 
inal, or  an  ancient  copy,  ia  at  Hampton  Court),  and 
with  the  Istter'a  friend,  Petrua  Egidiua  (Peter  Gillis), 
magistrate  of  Antwerp,  whose  portrait  by  Massys  Is 
preserved  by  Lord  Radnor  at  Longford.    Diirer  went 
to  visit  him  immediately  on  his  return  from  his  famous 
journey  to  the  Low  Countries  in  1519.    On  29  July  of 
that  year  Quentin  had  purchased  a  house,  for  which 
he  hsid  perhaps  carved  a  wooden  statue  of  his  patron 
saint.    In  1520  he  worked  together  with    250  other 
artists  on  the  triumphal  arches  for  the  entry  of  Em* 
^ror  Charles  V.    In  1524  on  the  death  of  Joachim 
Patenierhewas  named  guar- 
dian of  the  daughters  of  the 
deceased.     This  ia  all  we 
learn  from  documents  con- 
cerning him.  He  led  a  quiet, 
well-ordered,    middle-class, 
happy  life,  which  scarcely 
tallies  with  the   legendary 
figure  of  the  little  smith  be- 
coming a  painter  through 

Nevertheless,  in  this  in- 
stance also,  the  legend  is 
right.  For  nothing  explains 
bett«r  the  appearance  In 
ihe  dull  prosaic  Flemish 
School  of  the  charming 
genius  of  this  lover-poet.  It 
cannot  be  believed,  as  Ho- 
lanus  asserts,  that  he  was 
the  pupil  of  Rogier  van  der 
Weyden,  since  Rogier  died 
in  14S4,  two  vears  before 
Quentin's  birth.  But  the 
Doastera  whom  he  might 
have  encountered  at  Lou  vain 
suchasGonts,  orevenDirck, 
the  beet  among  them,  dis- 
tress by  a  lack  of  taate  and 
imagination  a  dryness  of 
ideas  and  style  which  is  the 
very  opposite  of  Massys's 
manner.    Add  to  this  that 

his  two  earliest   known  OnDerm 

works,  in  tact  the  only  two  g    htead?^  Uffi.i 

which  count,  the    'Life  of 

St.  Anne"  at  Brussels  and  the  Antwerp  triptych, 
the  "Deposition  from  the  Cross",  date  respectively 
from  1506  and  1511,  that  is  from  a  period  when  the 
master  was  nearly  fifty  years  old.  Up  to  that  age  we 
know  nothing  concerning  him.  The  "  Banker  and  Hia 
Wife"  (I.«uvre)  and  the  "Portrait  of  a  Young  Man" 
(Collection  of  Mme.  Andn<),  his  only  dated  works  be- 
sides his  maaterpieces,  belong  to  1513  and  1514  (or 
1519).  We  lack  all  the  elements  which  would  afford 
ua  on  idea  of  hia  formation.  He  seems  like  an  inex- 
plicable, miraculous  flower. 

When  it  is  remembered  that  his  great  paintings 
have  been  almost  ruined  b^  restorations,  it  will  be 
understood  that  the  question  of  Massya  contains 
insoluble  problems.  In  fact  the  triptych  of  St.  Anne 
at  Brussels  ia  perhaps  the  most  gracious,  tender. 
and  awcct  of  all  the  painting  of  the  North.  And 
it  will  always  be  mysterious,  unless  the  principal 
tiieme,  which  represents  the  family  or  the  parents 
of  Christ,  affords  some  light.  It  is  the  theme,  dear 
to  Memling.  of  "apiritual  con  versa  tions",  of  those 
sweet  meetings  of  Leaven^  peraons,  in  earthly  cos- 
tumes, in  the  serenity  of  a  Paradiaal  court.  This  sub- 
C' ,  whose  unity  is  wholly  interior  and  mystic,  Mem- 
,  as  is  known,  hod  brought  from  Germany,  where 


called  symphonic,  was  enhanced  by  a  new  harmony, 
which  was  the  feeling  of  the  circulation  of  the  same 
blood  in  all  the  assembled  persons.    It  was  the  poem 
arising  from  the  (juite  Germanic  intimacy  of  the  lov« 
of  family.     One  is  reminded  of  Suso  or  of  Tauler. 
The  loving,  tender  genius  of  Maaaya  would  be  stirred  to 
grave  joy  in  such  a  subject.    The  exquisite  histoir  of 
St.  Anne,  that  ]x>em  of  maternity,  of  the  holiness  ofme 
desire  to  survive  in  posterity,  has  never  been  ex- 
pressed in  a  more  penetrating,  chaste,  disquieting  art. 
Besides,  it  was  the  beginmng  of  the  sixteenth  cen- 
tury and  Italian  influences  were  making  tbemselvea 
felt    eveiywhere.       Hassya 
translated    them    into     lus 
brilliant    architecture,   into 
tlie   splendour   of   the   tur- 
quoise which  he  imiiart«d 
to  the  blue  summits  of  the 
mountains,  to  the  horisons 
of  his  landscapes.  A  chann- 
ing  luxuiT  mingles  with  his 
ideas  and  disfigures   them. 
It   was   a  unique   work,   a 
unique   period;  that  of  an 
ephemeral    agreement    be- 
tween   the    genius    of   th« 
North  and  that  of  the  Re- 
naisaance,  between  the  world 
of  sentiment    and    that  of 
beauty.      This    harmony 
which  was  at  the  foundation 
of   all    the    deaires   of  the 
South,  from  DUrer  to  Rem- 
brandt  and   Goethe,  was 
realised  in  thesimplethou^t 
of  the   ancient   smith.    By 
force  of  candour,  simplicity, 
and  love  he  found  the  secret 
which  others  sought  in  vain. 
With  still  greater  passion 
the  some  qualities  are  found 
in  the  Antwerp   "Deposi- 
tion". The  subject  is  treated, 
not  in  the  Italian  manner, 
as  in  the  Florentine  or  Um- 
Muns  brian    "Pietas",   but    with 

^•il«ry,n<,r«.«.  the  familiar  and  tr 

ment  which  toi: 
Northern  races.  It  is  one  of  the  "Tombs"  oompo- 
sitions,  of  which  the  most  famous  are  those  of  Biunt 
Mihiel  and  Scleamea,  The  body  of  Christ  is  one  of 
the  most  exhausted,  the  most  "dead",  the  most 
moving  that  painting  has  ever  created.  All  is  full  of 
tendemeaa  and  desolation. 

Hassys  has  the  eenius  of  t«ara.  He  loves  to  paint 
tears  in  targe  peails  on  the  eyes,  on  the  red  checKS  of 
his  holy  women,  as  in  his  wonderful  "Masdalen"  of 
Berlin  or  his  "Piet&"  of  Munich.  But  he  bad  at  the 
same  time  the  keenest  sense  of  grace.  Hia  Hero- 
diades,  his  Salomes  (Antwerp  triptych)  are  the  most 
bewitching  figures  of  all  the  ^  of  his  time.     And  this 


citable  nervousnesamadehim  particularly  sensitive 
the  ridiculous  aide  of  things.    He  had  a  sense  of  the 


And  this  made  him  a  wonderful  genre 
painter.  His  "Banker"  and  hia  "Honey  Changers" 
inaugurated  in  the  Flemiah  School  the  nch  tradition 
of  the  painting  of  manneis.  He  had  a  pupil  in  iiaa 
style,  Marinus,  many  of  whose  pictures  still  pass  under 

Briefly,  Uassys  was  the  laat  of  the  great  Flemiah 
artists  prior  to  the  Italian  invasion.  He  was  the  most 
sensitive,  the  most  nervous,  the  most  poetical,  tba 
moat  oomprehemdve  of  all,  and  in  him  is  discerned  tbe 


MASTER 


39 


MASTER 


tumultuous  strain  which  was  to  appear  100  years 
later  in  the  innumerable  works  of  Rubens. 

Vam  Mandbr.  Le  Litre  da  Peintrea,  ed.  Htmans  (Paris, 
1884);  Waagkn,  Treeuures  of  AH  in  England  (London,  1854); 
Htmans,  Quentin  Mdtya  in  GoMeUe  des  Beaux-Arts  (1888); 
CoHBM,  Studien  zu  Qventin  Metsya  (Bonn,  1894);  db  Bob- 
8CBBRB.  Quenhn  MetiuB  (BnuBeb,  1907);  Wursbach,  Nieder- 
tamdiaehe9  KOnaOerUxuon  (Leipng.  1906-10). 

Louis  Gillet. 
Master  of  Arts.    See  Asrs,  Master  of. 

Mastsr  of  the  Sacred  Palace.— This  office  (which 
has  always  been  entrusted  to  a  Friar  Preacher)  may 
briefly  be  described  as  being  that  of  the  pope's  theo- 
logiaa.  St.  I>ominic,  appointed  in  1218,  was  the  first 
Master  of  the  Sacred  P&lace  {M agister  Sacri  Palatit) . 
Amonj;  the  eightv-four  Dominicans  who  have  suc- 
eeedeof  him,  eighteen  were  subsequently  created 
cardinals,  twenty-four  were  made  archbishops  or 
bishops  (including  some  of  the  cardinals),  and  six 
were  elected  generals  of  the  order.  Several  are 
famous  for  their  works  on  theology,  etc.,  but  only 
Durandus,  Torquemada,  Prierias,  Mamachi,  and  Orsi 
can  be  mentioned  here.  As  regards  nationalitv:  ^e 
majority  have  been  Italians;  of  the  remainder  ten 
have  been  Spaniards  and  ten  Frenchmen,  one  has 
been  a  German  and  one  an  Englishman  (i.  e.  William 
de  Boderisham,  or  Bonderish,  1263-1270?).  It  has 
sometimes  been  asserted  that  St.  Thomas  of  Aquin 
was  a  Master  of  the  Sacred  Palace.  This  is  due  to  a 
misconception.  He  was  Lector  of  the  Sacred  Palace. 
The  offices  were  not  identical.  (See  Bullarium  O.  P., 
Ill,  18.)  Though  he  and  two  other  contemporary 
Dominicans,  namely  his  teacher  Bl.  Albert  the  Great 
and  his  fellow  pupu  BL  Ambrose  Sansedonico  (about 
both  of  whom  the  same  assertion  has  been  made)  held 
successively  the  office  of  Lecturer  on  Scripture  or  on 
Theology  in  the  papal  palace  school,  not  one  of  them 
was  Master  of  the  Sacred  Palace.  Their  names  do  not 
occur  in  the  official  lists.  While  all  Masters  of  the 
Sacred  Palace  were  Dominicans,  several  members  of 
other  orders  were  Lectors  of  the  Sacred  Palace  (e.  g. 
Peckham  O.  S.  F.,  who  became  Archbishop  of  Can- 
terbury in  1279). 

St.  bominic's  work  as  Master  of  the  Sacred  Palace 
consisted  partly  at  least  in  expoimding  the  Epistles  of 
8t.  Paul  (Colonna,  O.  P.,  c.  1255,  who  says  that  the 
commentary  was  then  extant ;  Flaminius ;  S.  An- 
tonius;  Malvenda,  in  whose  time  the  MS.  of  the 
Epistles  used  by  the  Saint  as  Master  of  the  Sacred 
Palace  was  preserved  in  Toulouse;  Echard;  Renazsi; 
Mortier,  etc.).  These  exegetical  lectures  were  de- 
livered to  prelates  and  to  the  clerical  attendants  of 
cardinals  wno,  as  the  saint  observed,  had  been  accus- 
tomed to  gather  in  the  antechamber  and  to  spend 
the  time  in  gossip  while  their  masters  were  having 
audiences  wim  the  pope.  According  to  Renazzi  (1, 
25),  St.  Dominic  mav  oe  regarded  as  the  founder  of 
the  papal  palace  school,  since  his  Biblical  lectures 
were  tl^  occasion  of  its  being  established.  Gatalanus, 
who,  however,  is  not  guilty  of  the  confusion  alluded 
to  above,  says  he  was  the  first  Lector  of  the  Sacred 
Palace  as  well  as  the  first  Master  of  the  Sacred  Palace. 
In  the  thirteenth  century  the  chief  duty  of  the  Mas- 
ter of  the  Sacred  Palace  was  to  lecture  on  Scripture 
and  to  preside  over  the  theological  school  in  the  Vati- 
can: "in  schol®  Romans  et  Pontificise  regimine  et  in 
publica  sacrse  scripturse  expositions"  (Echard).  The 
Ledores  or  Magistri  schoiarum  S,  PalaHx  taught  imder 
him.  It  became  customary  for  the  Master  of  the 
Sacred  Palace,  according  to  Cardinal  de  Luca,  to 
preach  before  the  pope  and  his  court  in  Advent  and 
Lmt.  This  had  probably  been  sometimes  done  by 
St.  Dominic.  Up  to  the  sixteenth  centuiy  the  Master 
(A  the  Sacred  Palace  preached,  but  i^ter  it  this  work 
was  permanently  entrusted  to  his  companion  (a 
Dominican).  A  further  division  of  labour  was  made 
by  Benedict  XIV  (Decree,  "Inclyta  Fratrum",  1743): 
pt  present  the  companion  prciM^bc9  to  the  papal 


household,  and  a  Capuchin  preaches  to  the  pope  and 
to  the  cardinals. 

But  the  work  of  the  Master  of  the  Sacred  Palace 
as  papal  theologian  continues  to  the  present  day. 
As  it  nas  assumed  its  actual  form  by  centuries  of 
development,  we  may  give  a  summary  of  the  legisla- 
tion respecting  it  and  the  various  functions  it  com- 
prises and  al^  of  the  honours  attaching  to  it.  The 
^'Acta"  (or  ''Calenda'')  of  the  Palatine  officials  in 
1409  (under  Alexander  V)  show  that  on  certain  days 
the  Master  of  the  Sacred  Palace  was  bound  to  deliver 
lectures  and  on  other  days  was  expected,  If  called 
upon,  either  to  propose  or  to  answer  questions  at  the 
theological  conference  which  was  held  in  the  pope's 
presence.  On  30  October,  1439,  Eugene  IV  decreed 
that  the  Master  of  the  Sacred  Palace  should  rank 
next  to  the  dean  of  the  Rota,  that  no  one  should 
preach  before  the  pope  whose  sermon  had  not  been 
previously  approved  of  by  him,  and  that  in  accordance 
with  ancient  usage  no  one  could  be  made  a  doctor  of 
theol(^  in  Rome  but  by  him  (Bullarium  O.  P.,  III. 
81).  (SJlistus  III  (13  November,  1455)  confirmed  and 
amplified  the  second  part  of  this  decree,  but  at  the 
same  time  exempted  ciurdinals  from  its  operation 
(ibid.,  p.  356).  At  present  it  has  fallen  into  disuse. 
In  the  Fifth  Lateran  Council  (sess.  x,  4  May,  1513)  Leo 
X  ordained  that  no  book  should  be  printed  either  in 
Rome  or  in  its  district  without  leave  from  the  cardi- 
nal vicar  and  the  Master  of  the  Sacred  Palace  (ibid., 
IV,  318).  Paul  V  (11  June,  1620)  and  Urban  VIII 
added  to  the  obli^tions  imposed  by  this  decree.  So 
did  Alexander  VU  in  1663  (Bullarium,  vassim).  All 
these  later  enactments  regard  the  inhabitants  of  the 
Roman  Province  or  of  the  Papal  States.  They  were 
renewed  by  Benedict  XIV  (1  Sept.,  1744).  And  the 
pennission  of  the  Master  of  the  Sacred  Palace  must 
oe  got  not  only  to  print,  but  to  publii^,  and  before 
the  second  permission  is  granted,  three  printed  copies 
must  be  deposited  with  mm,  one  for  himself,  another 
for  his  companion,  a  third  for  the  cardinal  vicar. 
The  Roman  Vicariate  never  examines  work  intended 
for  publication.  For  centuries  the  imprimatur  of  the 
Master  of  the  Sacred  Palace  who  always  examines 
them  followed  the  Si  videbitur  Reverendiasimo  Magia- 
tro  Sacri  Palatii  of  the  cardinal  vicar:  now  in  virtue 
of  custom  but  not  of  any  ascertained  law,  since  about 
the  year  1825  the  cardinal  vicar  gives  an  imprimatur, 
and  it  follows  that  of  the  Master  of  the  Sacred  Palace. 
At  present  the  obligation  once  incumbent  on  cardinals 
of  presenting  their  work  to  the  Master  of  the  Sacred 
Palace  for  his  imprimatur  has  fallen  into  disuse,  but 
through  courtesy  many  cardinals  do  present  their 
works.  In  the  (institution '  *  Officiorum  ac  munerum  " 
(25  Jan.,  1897),  Leo  XIII  declared  that  all  persons 
residing  in  Rome  may  eet  leave  from  the  Master  of 
the  Sacred  Palace  to  read  forbidden  books,  and  that  if 
authors  who  live  in  Rome  intend  to  get  their  works 
published  elsewhere,  the  joint  imprimatur  of  the  car- 
dinal vicar  and  the  Master  of  the  Sacred  Palace  renders 
it  unnecessary  to  ask  any  other  approbation.  As  is 
well  known,  if  an  author  not  resident  in  Rome  desires 
to  have  his  work  published  there,  provided  that  an 
agreement  with  the  author's  Ordinary  has  been  made 
and  that  the  Master  of  the  Sacred  Palace  judges  fa- 
vourably of  the  work,  the  imprimatur  will  be  given. 
In  this  case  the  book  is  known  oy  its  having  two  title- 
pages:  the  one  bearing  the  name  of  the  aomiciliaiy, 
the  other  of  the  Roman  publisher. 

Before  the  establishment  of  the  Congregations  of 
the  Inquisition  (in  1542)  and  Index  (1587),  the  Mas- 
ter of  the  Sacred  Palace  condemned  books  and  forbcuie 
reading  them  under  censure.  Instances  of  his  so 
doing  occur  regularly  till  about  the  middle  of  the 
sixteenth  century;  one  occurred  as  late  as  1604,  but 
bv  degrees  this  task  has  been  appropriated  to  the 
above-mentioned  congregations  of  which  he  is  an  ex- 

pffioiQ  m^mb^r.  Th^  Mwt^r  Qf  the  S^pmi  Palaoe  was 


MASTEB 


40 


MATAOO 


made  by  Pius  V  (29  July,  1570;  see  "Bullarium",  V, 
245)  canon  theologian  of  St.  Peter's,  but  this  Bull  was 
revoked  by  his  successor  Gregory  XIII  (11  March, 
1575).  From  the  time  when  Leo  X  recognized  the 
Roman  University  or  "  Sapiensa"  (5  November,  1513; 
by  the  Decree  ''Dum  suavissimos'^  he  transferred  to 
it  the  old  theological  school  of  the  papal  paJace.  The 
Master  of  the  Sacred  Palace  became  the  president  of 
the  new  theological  faculty.  The  other  members 
were  the  pope's  grand  sacristan  (an  Augustinian),  the 
commissary  of  the  Holy  Office  (a  Dominican),  the 
procurators  general  of  the  five  Mendicant  Oraers,  i. 
e.  Dominican,  Franciscan  (Conventual),  Augustinian, 
Carmelite,  and  Servite,  and  the  professors  who  suc- 
ceeded to  the  ancient  Lectors  of  the  Sacred  Palace. 
Sixtus  y  is  by  some  regarded  as  the  f  oimder  of  this 
coUe^  or  faculty^  but  he  may  have  only  given  its 
defimte  form.  He  is  said  to  have  confirmed  the 
prerogative  enjo^red  by  the  Master  of  ^e  Sacred 
Palace  of  conferring  aU  degre^  of  philosophy  and 
theology.  Instances  of  papal  diplomas  implying  this 
power  of  the  Master  of  the  Sacred  Palace  occur  in  the 
"Bullarium"  paaaim  (e.  g.  of  Innocent  IV,  6  June, 
1406).  The  presidential  authority  of  the  Master  of 
the  Sacred  Palace  over  this,  the  greatest  theological 
faculty  in  Rome,  was  confirmed  by  Leo  XII  in  1824. 

Since  the  occupation  of  Rome  in  1870  the  Sapienza 
has  been  laicized  and  turned  into  a  state  universitv,  so 
that  on  the  special  occasions  when  the  Master  of  the 
Sacred  Palace  holds  an  examination,  e.  g.  for  the  pur- 
pose of  examining  all  that  are  to  be  appointed  to 
sees  in  Italy,  or  again  of  conferring  the  title  of  S.T.D., 
he  does  so,  with  the  assistance  of  the  high  dignitaries 
just  mentioned,  in  his  apartment  in  the  Vatican.  He 
IS  also  examiner  in  the  ooncursus  for  parishes  in  Rome 
which  are  held  in  the  Roman  Vicariate.  Before 
Eugene  IV  issued  the  Bull  referred  to  above,  the 
Master  of  the  Sacred  Palace  was  in  processions,  etc., 
the  dignitary  immediately  under  the  Apostolic  suodea- 
cons,  but  when  this  pope  raised  the  auditors  of  the 
Rota  to  the  rank  of  Apostolic  subdeacons^  he  gave  the 
Master  of  the  Sacrecf  Palace  the  place  unmediately 
next  to  the  dean  who  was  in  charge  of  the  papal 
mitre.  In  1655,  Alexander  VII  put  the  other  audi- 
tors of  the  Rota  above  the  Master  of  the  Sacred 
Palace.  This  was  done,  according  to  Cardinal  de 
Luca,  solely  because  one  white  and  black  habit 
looked  badly  amon^  several  violet  soutanes.  One  of 
the  occasional  duties  of  the  Master  of  the  Sacred 
Palace  is  performed  in  conjunction  with  the  auditors 
of  the  Rota;  namely  to  watch  over  the  three  apertures 
or  ''drums"  through  which  during  a  conclave  the 
cardinals  receive  all  communications.  In  papal  pro- 
cessions the  Master  of  the  Sacred  Palace  walks  next  to 
the  auditors,  immediately  behind  the  bearer  of  the  tiara. 

Though  he  has,  as  we  have  seen,  gradually  lost  some 
of  his  ancient  authority  and  rank,  nevertheless  at  the 
present  day  the  Master  of  the  Sacred  Palace  is  a  very 
nigh  official.  He  is  one  of  the  three  Palatine  prelates 
(the  others  being  the  Mag^ordomo  and  the  Grand 
Almoner)  to  whom  as  to  bishops,  the  papal  guards 

§  resent  arms.  He  is  alwavs  addressed,  even  by  car- 
inals,  as  "  Most  Reverend  .  In  the  Dominican  Order 
he  ranks  next  to  the  ^neral,  ex-general,  and  vicar- 
general.  He  is  ex-officio  consultor  of  the  Holy  Office, 
prelate-consultor  of  Rites,  and  perpetual  assistant 
of  the  Index.  He  is  consultor  of  the  Biblical  Com- 
mission, and  is  frequently  consulted  on  various  mat- 
ters by  the  pope  as  his  theologian.  His  official  audience 
occurs  once  a  fortnight.  The  official  apartment  of 
the  Master  of  the  Sacred  Palace  was  in  the  Quirinal, 
and  until  recently  it  contained  the  unbroken  series  of 

B>rtraits  of  the  Masters  of  the  Sacred  Palace,  from  St. 
ominic  down.  These  frescoes  have  been  effaced  by 
the  present  occupants  of  the  Quirinal,  but  copies  of 
them  are  to  be  seen  in  the  temporary  apartment  of 

the  Mftst^r  of  the  Sacred  Palace  m  the  Vaticfw, 


BvUanwn  O.P.,  VHI  (Rome.  1730-1740);  MSS,  m  Vaiiean, 
Dominican  Order,  and  Mtnerva  Archivea;  Antonzua,  Chronieon, 
III  (Lyons,  1586);  Mai.vknda,  AnnaUt  Ordinia  Pradioaiorum 
(Naples,  1627);  Fontana,  SyUabua  MaMrorwn  Saeri  Palatii 
Apoatoltci  (Rome,  1663);  db  Ldca,  RonuuuB  Curim  RelaUo 
(Cologne,  1683):  Catalanus,  De  Magidro  Saeri  PaJUaU 
ApoMolici  libri  duo  (Rome,  1761);  Quibnr-EcHARD,  Scriplor. 
Ordinie  Prtgdicaiorum  (Paris,  1719):  Caraffa,  De  Oymnaaio 
(Rome,  1751),  135-145;  Renaszi,  Storia  deW  Univereitb,  Ro- 
mano, eU.  (Rome,  1803-1806),  jKuciin.-  Mortibr,  Hialoire  dee 
Mattree  Oiniraux  de  VOrdre  dee  Frhree  Pridtewre  (Paris,  1903,  id 
progroBs);  Battamdur,  Annuaire  Pont,  Cath.  (1901),  473-482. 

Reginald  Walsh. 
Mastar  of  the  Sentences.    See  Peter  Lombard. 

MastriuB,  Bartholomew,  Franciscan,  philosopher 
and  theologian,  b.  near  Forli,  at  Meldola,  Italy,  in 
1602;  d.  3  Jan.,  1678.  He  was  one  of  the  most  prom- 
inent writers  of  his  time  on  philosophy  and  theology. 
He  received  his  early  education  at  Cesena,  and  took 
degrees  at  the  University  of  Bologna.  He  also  fre- 
quented the  Universities  of  Padua  and  Rome  before 
assuming  the  duties  of  lecturer.  He  acquired  a  pro- 
found knowledge  of  scholastic  philosophy  and  theology, 
being  deeply  versed  in  the  writings  of  Scotus.  He  was 
an  open-minded  and  independent  scholar.  As  a  con- 
troversialist he  was  harsh  and  arrogant  towards  his 
opponents,  mingling  invective  with  his  arguments. 
His  opinions  on  some  philosophical  questions  were 
fiercely  combatted  by  many  of  his  contemporaries  and 
especially  by  Matthew  Ferchi  and  the  Irish  Franciscan, 
Jonn  Ponce.  When  presenting  the  second  volume  of 
his  work  on  the  ''Sentences''  to  Alexander  VII,  to 
whom  he  had  dedicated  it,  the  pope  asked  him  where 
he  had  learned  to  treat  his  opponent  Ferchi  in  such  a 
rough  manner:  Mastrius  answered, "  From  St.  Augus- 
tine and  St.  Jerome,  who  in  defence  of  their  respective 
opinions  on  the  interpretation  of  Holy  Scripture  fought 
hard  and  not  without  reason":  the  pope  smilinsly 
remarked,  **  From  such  masters  other  umiss  could  oe 
learned''.  Ponce  in  his  treatise  on  Logic  nolds  that 
with  qualifying  explanations  God  may  be  included  in 
the  Categories.  Mastrius  in  combatting  this  opinion 
characteristically  savs,  ''Hie  Pontius  male  tractat 
Deum  sicut  et  alter  ^'.  Mastrius  had  a  well-ordered 
intellect  which  is  seen  in  the  clearness  and  precision 
with  which  he  seta  forth  the  subject-matter  of  dis- 
cussion. His  arguments  for  and  against  a  proposition 
show  real  critical  power  and  are  expressed  in  accurate 
and  clear  language.  His  numerous  quotations  from 
ancient  and  contemporary  authors  and  various  schools 
of  thought  are  a  proof  of  his  extensive  reading.  His 
works  shed  light  on  some  of  the  difficult  questions  in 
Scotistic  philosophy  and  theology.  His  "  Philosophy" 
in  five  volumes  folio,  his  "Ck)mmentaries"  on  uie 
"Sentences"  in  four  volumes,  and  his  Moral  Theolo^ 
"ad  mentem  S.  Bonaventune"  in  one  volume  were  all 
published  at  Venice. 

Waodinq-Sbaralea,  Scriptoree  ord,  min,  Qflome,  1806); 
loANNES  A  S.  Antonio,  B^liotheca  univ.  franc.  (Madrid,  1732); 
T^BULUS,  Tritanphue  Seraphicua  (Velletri,  1056);  Francbinx, 
Biblioaofia  di  taiUori  franceecani  (Modena,  1603);  Hurtbr, 
Nomendaior. 

GrEGOBT  CliEABT. 

Mataco  Indians  (or  Mataguato). — A  group  of 
wild  tribes  of  very  low  culture,  ranging  over  a 
great  part  of  the  western  Chaco  region,  about  the 
head  waters  of  the  Vermejo  and  the  Pilcomayo,  in  the 
Argentine  province  of  Salta  and  the  Bolivian  prov- 
ince of  Tarija,  and  noted  for  the  efforts  maoe  by 
Jesuit  and  Franciscan  missionaries  in  their  behalf  in  the 
seventeenth  and  eighteenth  centuries.  The  group  con- 
sists, or  formerly  consisted,  of  about  a  dozen  tribes 
speaking  the  same  language  with  slight  dialectic  differ- 
ences, and  together  constituting  a  distinct  linguistic 
stock,  the  Matacoan  or  Mataguayan,  which,  however, 
Quevedo  suspects  to  be  connected  with  the  Guaycuran 
stock,  to  wnich  belong  the  Toba,  Mocobf  and  the 
famous  Abipon  tribes.  Of  the  Matacoan  group  the 
principal  tribes  were  the  Mataco,  Mataguayo,  and 
VejojB.    At  present  th^  names  iii  most  geneml  ^09 


HATILZOA 


41 


ICATKBIAUSM 


are  Bfataoo  in  Argentina  and  Nocten  (corrupted  from 
their  Ghiriguano  name)  in  Bolivia.  From  60,000 
(estimated)  in  the  mission  period  they  are  now  re- 
duced to  about  20.000  souls.  In  1690  Father  Aro6, 
from  the  Jesuit  college  of  Tarija,  attempted  the  first 
mission  among  the  Mataguayo  and  Ghiriguano,  but 
with  little  result,  owing  to  their  wandering  habit. 
"Houses  and  churches  were  built,  but  the  natives 
poured  in  and  out,  like  the  water  through  a  bottom- 
kss  barrel ",  and,  at  last,  wearv  of  the  remonstrances 
ol  the  missionaries,  burned  tne  missions,  murdered 
several  of  the  priests,  and  drove  the  others  out  of  the 
country.  At  a  later  period,  1756,  the  Jesuit  mission 
of  San  Ignacio  de  Ledesma  on  the  Rio  Grande,  a 
southern  h^ui  stream  cl  the  Vermejo,  was  founded 
for  Toba  and  Biataguayo,  of  whom  600  were  enrolled 
there  at  the  time  of  the  expulsion  of  the  order  in  1767. 

About  the  end  of  the  eighteenth  century  the  Fran- 
ciscans of  Tarija  undertook  to  restore  the  mission 
work  in  the  Chaco,  founding  a  number  of  establish- 
ments, among  which  were  Salinas,  occupied  by  Mata- 
guayo and  Cniriguano,  and  Centa  (now  Oran,  Salta 
province)^  occupied  by  Mataguayo  and  Vejoz,  the  two 
missions  m  17^  containing  nearlv  900  Indians,  with 
7300  cattle.  With  the  decline  of  the  Spanish  power 
these  missions  also  fell  into  decay  and  the  Indians 
scattered  to  their  forests  and  rivers.  In  1895  Father 
Giomiecchini,  passing  by  the  place  of  the  old  Centa 
mission,  found  a  cattle  corral  where  the  church  had 
been.  An  interesting  account  of  the  present  condi- 
tion of  the  wild  Mataoo  is  quoted  by  Quevedo  from 
a  letter  by  Father  Alejandro  Corrado,  Francis- 
can, Tanja.  Their  houses  are  light  brush  structures 
scattered  through  the  forests,  hardly  high  enoush  to 
allow  of  standing  upright,  and  are  abandonea  for 
others  set  up  in  another  place  as  often  as  insects  or  ac- 
cumulation of  filth  make  necessary.  The  only  fur« 
niture  is  a  wooden  mortar  with  a  few  earthen  pots, 
and  some  skins  for  sleeping.  Men  and  women  snave 
their  heads  and  wear  a  sin^e  garment  about  the  lower 
part  of  the  body.  The  men  also  pluck  out  the  beard 
and  paint  the  face  and  body.  They  hve  chiefly  upon 
fish  and  the  fruit  of  the  alearroba,  a  species  of  mesquit 
or  honey-locust,  but  will  eat  anything  that  is  not 
poisonous,  even  rats  and  grasshoppers.  From  the 
algarroba  they  prepare  an  intoxicatmg  hquor  which 
rouses  them  to  a  fighting  frenzy.  Their  principal 
ceremony  is  in  connexion  with  the  ripening  of  the 
algarroba,  when  the  priests  in  fantastic  aress  go  about 
the  trees,  dancing  and  singing  at  the  top  of  their  voices 
to  the  sound  of  a  wooden  drum,  keeping  up  the  din 
day  and  night.  A  somewhat  similar  ceremony  takes 
place  when  a  young  girl  arrives  at  pubertv.  Every- 
tUng  is  in  common,  and  a  woman  ciivides  her  load  of 
fruits  or  roots  witn  her  neighbours  without  even  a 
word  of  thanks.  The^  recognize  no  authority,  even 
of  parents  over  their  cmldren.  The  men  occupy  them- 
selves with  fishing  or  occasional  himting,  their  arms 
bcdng  the  bow  and  dub.  The  women  do  practically  all 
the  other  work. 

Marriage  is  simple  and  at  the  will  of  the  young  peo- 
ple, the  wife  usuaOy  going  to  live  with  her  husband's 
relatives.  Polygamy  and  adultery  are  infrequent,  but 
divorce  is  easy.  The  woman  receives  little  attention 
in  pregnancy  or  childbirth,  but  on  the  other  hand  the 
fatner  conforms  to  the  couvade.  Children  are  named 
when  two  or  three  years  old.  Abortion  is  very  fre- 
quent; infanticide  more  rare,  but  the  infant  is  often 
buried  alive  on  the  breast  of  the  dead  mother.  ^ 

Disease  is  driven  off  by  the  medicine  men  with  sing- 
ing and  shaking  of  rattles.  They  believe  in  a  go^ 
spirit  to  whom  they  seem  to  pay  no  worship;  and  in 
a  malevolent  night  spirit,  whom  they  strive  to  pro- 
pitiate. They  believe  tnat  the  soiil,  after  death, 
enters  into  the  body  of  some  animal.  The  best  work 
iqK>n  the  langua^  of  the  Mataco  tribes  is  the 
gEBinmar  and  dictioDary  of  the  Jesuit  miflflionary, 


Father  Joseph  Araoz,  with  Quevedo's  studies  of  tht 
Nocten  and  v  ejoz  dialects,  from  various  sources. 

Araos,  Orammar  and  Didionary;  Brinton,  American  Raet 
(New York,  1891) :  Charlbvoix,  Hiat.duParaffuay,  3  vols.  (Paris, 
1756) ,  Eng.  tr.,  2  vols.  (London,  1769) ;  Hervab,  Catdlogo  de  la$ 
LengvaeTl  (Madrid,  1800);  Lozano,  Deecripcion  ChorographieA 
del  Oran  Chaco  (Cordoba,  1733);  Paob,  La  Plata,  the  Argen- 
tine  Confederation  and  Paraouay  (New  York,  1859);  Pellsscbx, 
Otto  Meei  nel  Gran  Ciacco  (Florence,  1881).  tr..  Eight  Month* 
on  the  Gran  Chaco  (London,  1886):  QuBvaoo,  Lenouaa  Arf^en- 
tinaa  (Dialeoto  Nocten,  Dialecto  Vejos)  in  Bol.  del  JnatUvto 
Gtoffrdfioo  ArvenHno,  XVI-XVII  (Buenos  Aires.  1896). 

James  Mooney. 

Matelica.    See  Fabriano  and  Mateuca,  Diocesb 

OP. 

Matar,  a  titular  bishopric  in  the  province  of  Byian- 
tium,  mentioned  as  a  free  city  by  Plmy  imder  the  name 
of  Matera  (Hist,  natur.,  Y,  iv,  5).  Mgr.  Toulotte 
C'G^graphie  de  I'Afrique  chr^tienne",  prooonsu- 
laire,  197)  cites  only  two  occupants  of  this  see:  Rusti- 
cianus,  who  died  shortly  before  411,  and  Quintasius, 
who  succeeded  him.  Gams  (Series  episcoporum,  467) 
mentions  four:  Rusticianus,  Cultasius  for  Quintasius, 
Adelfius  in  484,  and  Victor  about  the  year  556.  ^  Mater 
is  now  known  as  Mateur,  a  small  town  of  4000  inhabi* 
tants,  in  great  part  Christian,  and  is  situated  in  Tunis. 
The  modem  town  is  encircled  with  a  wall,  with  three 
gates;  it  is  situated  on  the  railway  from  Tunis  to  Bi« 
serta,  not  far  from  the  lake  to  which  it  has  given  ita 
name. 

8.  Vailh£. 

Matara.    See  Acerenza,  Archdiocese  of. 

Materialism. — As  the  word  itself  signifies.  Material- 
ism is  a  philosophical  system  which  regards  matter  as 
the  only  reality  in  the  world^  which  undertakes  to 
explain  every  event  in  the  umverse  as  resulting  from 
the  conditions  and  activity  of  matter,  and  which  thus 
denies  the  existence  of  God  and  the  soul.  It  is  diamet- 
rically opposed  to  Spiritualism  and  Idealism,  which, 
in  so  far  as  they  are  one-sided  and  exclusive,  declare  . 
that  everything  in  the  world  is  spiritual,  and  that  the 
world  and  even  matter  itself  are  mere  conceptions  or 
ideas  in  the  thinking  subject.  Materialism  is  older 
than  Spiritualism,  if  we  regard  the  development  of 
philosophy  as  beginning  in  Greece.  The  ancient  In- 
dian philosophy,  however,  is  idealistic;  according  to  it 
there  is  only  one  real  being,  Brahma;  everything  else 
is  appearance,  Maja,  In  Greece  the  first  attempts  at 
philosophy  were  more  or  less  materialistic;  they  as- 
sumed the  existence  of  a  single  primordial  matter — 
water,  earth,  fire,  air — or  of  the  four  elements  from 
which  the  world  was  held  to  have  developed.  Ma- 
terialism was  methodically  developed  by  the  Atomists. 
The  first  and  also  the  most  important  systematic 
Materialist  was  Democritus,  the  ''laughing  philoso- 
pher " .  He  taught  that  out  of  nothing  comes  nothing; 
that  everything  is  the  result  of  combination  and  divi- 
sion of  (>arts  (atoms) ;  that  these  atoms,  separated  by 
empty  spaces,  are  infinitely  numerous  and  varied. 
Even  to  man  he  extended  his  cosmological  Material- 
ism, and  was  thus  the  founder  of  Materialism  in  the 
narrow  sense,  that  is  the  denial  of  the  soul.  The  soul 
is  a  complex  of  very  fine,  smooth,  round,  and  fiery 
atoms:  these  are  highly  mobile  and  penetrate  the 
whole  body,  to  which  they  impart  life.  Empedocles 
was  not  a  thorough-going  Materialist,  although  he  re- 
garded the  four  elements  with  love  and  hatred  as  the 
formative  principles  of  the  universe,  and  refused  to 
recognise  a  spiritual  Creator  of  the  world.  Aristotle 
reproaches  tne  Ionian  philosophers  in  general  with 
attempting  to  explain  the  evolution  of  the  world  with- 
out the  Noua  (intelligence);  he  regarded  Protagoras, 
who  first  introduced  a  spiritual  principle,  as  a  sober 
man  among  the  inebriated. 

The  Socratic  School  introduced  a  reaction  against 
Materialism.  A  little  later,  however.  Materialism 
found  a  second  Democritus  in  Epicurus,  who  treated 
the  system  in  greater  detul  and  gave  it  a  deeper  f  oun- 


HATB&IALISM                         42  MATKBIAUSM 

dation.  The  statement  that  nothing  comes  from  soul  cease  to  exist.  However,  the  soul  Is  no  mere 
nothing^  he  supported  by  declaring  that  otherwise  odojirof  a  body,  but  a  being  with  real  activity;  oonse- 
everythmg  mignt  come  from  everything.  This  argu-  quentlv,  it  must  itself  be  real,  and  likewise  distinct 
ment  is  verv  pertinent,  since  if  there  were  nothing,  from  the  body,  since  thought  and  voUtion  are  inoor- 
nothing  could  come  into  existence,  i.  e.  if  there  were  poreal  activities,  and  not  movement  which,  according 
no  cause.  An  almighty  cause  can  of  itself  through  its  to  Lucretius  at  least,  is  the  only  function  of  the  atoms, 
power  supply  a  substitute  for  matter ^hich  we  cannot  ^  Christianity  reared  a  mighty  dam  against  Material- 
create  but  can  only  transform.  Epicurus  further  ism,  and  it  was  only  with  the  return  to  antiquity  in  the 
asserted  that  bodies  alone  exist;  only  liie  void  is  in-  so-called  restoration  of  the  sciences  that  the  Human- 
corporeal.  He  distinguished,  however,  between  com-  ists  again  made  it  a  powerful  factor.  Giordano  Bruno, 
pound  bodies  and  simple  bodies  or  atoms^  which  are  the  Pantheist,  was  also  a  Materialist:  "Matter  is  not 
absolutely  imchan^eable.  Since  space  is  infinite,  the  without  its  forms,  but  contains  ^em  allj  and  since  it 
atoms  must  likewise  be  infinitely  numerous.  This  carries  what  is  wrapped  up  in  itself,  it  is  in  truth  idl 
last  deduction  is  not  warranted,  since,  even  in  infinite  nature  and  the  motner  of  all  the  hving."  But  the 
space,  the  bodies  might  be  limited  in  number — ^in  fact,  classical  age  of  Biaterialism  began  with  the  eighteenth 
tney  must  be,  as  otherwise  they  would  entireljr  fill  century,  when  de  la  Mettrie  (1709-51)  wrote  his"  Hij»- 
space  and  therefore  render  movement  impossible,  toire  naturelle  de  I'&me"  and  "L'homme  machine". 
And  yet  Epicurus  ascribes  motion  to  the  atoms,  i.  e.  He  holds  that  iJl  that  feels  must  be  material:  "The 
constant  motion  downwards.  Since  many  of  them  soul  is  formed,  it  grows  and  decreases  with  the  organs 
deviate  from  their  original  direction,  collisions  result  of  the  body,  wneref ore  it  must  also  share  in  the  latter's 
and  various  combinations  are  formed.  The  difference  death" — a  palpable  fallacy,  since  even  if  the  body  is 
between  one  body  and  another  is  due  solely  to  different  only  the  soul's  instrument,  the  soul  must  be  affected 
modes  of  atomic  combination;  the  atoms  themselves  by  the  varying  conditions  of  the  body.  In  the  case  of 
have  no  quality,  and  differ  only  in  size,  shape,  and  this  Materialist  we  find  the  moral  consequences  of  the 
weight.  These  materialistic  speculations  contradict  svstem  revealed  without  disguise.  In  his  two  works, 
directly  the  universally  recognized  laws  of  nature.  '^LaVolupt^"  and"  L'artdejouer",  he  glorifies  lioen- 
Inertia  is  an  essential  quality  of  matter,  which  cannot  tiousness.  The  most  famous  work  of  this  period  is  the 
set  itself  in  motion,  cannot  of  itself  fix  the  direction  of  "  Systdme  de  la  nature  "  of  Baron  Holbach  (1723-89). 
its  motion,  least  of  all  change  the  direction  of  the  According  to  this  work  there  exists  nothing  but  nature, 
motion  once  imparted  to  it.  The  existence  of  all  these  and  all  beings,  which  are  supposed  to  be  be>[ond  na^ 
capabilities  in  matter  is  assumed  by  Epicunu:  the  tiire,  are  creatures  of  the  imagination.  Man  is  a  con- 
atoms  fall  downwards,  before  there  is  either  "  up  "  or  stituent  part  of  nature:  his  moral  endowment  is  sim- 
"down";  they  have  weight,  although  there  is  as  yet  ply  a  modification  of  nis  ph^rsical  constitution,  de- 
no  earth  to  lend  them  heaviness  by  its  attraction,  rived  from  his  peculiar  organization.  Even  Voltaire 
From  the  random  clash  of  the  atoms  could  result  only  found  himself  compelled  to  offer  a  determined  opposi- 
conf usion  and  not  order,  least  of  all  that  far-reaching  tion  to  these  extravagant  attadcs  on  everything  spirit- 
design  which  is  manifested  in  the  arrangement  of  the  ual. 

world,  especially  in  organic  structures  and  mental  In  Germaxiv  Materialism  was  vigorously  assailed, 
activities.  However,  the  soul  and  its  ori^  present  especially  by  Leibniz  (q.  v.).  As^  however,  this  philos- 
no  difficulty  to  the  Materialist.  Accordmg  to  him  opher  sought  to  replace  it  with  his  doctrine  of  monads, 
the  soul  is  a  kind  of  vapour  scattered  throu^out  the  an  out-and-out  spiritualistic  sjrstem,  he  did  not  give  a 
whole  body  and  mixed  with  a  little  heat.  The  bodies  real  refutation.  On  the  other  hand,  Kant  was  sup- 
surrounding  us  give  off  continuallv  certain  minute  par-  posed  to  have  broken  definitively  the  power  of  Materi- 
tides  which  penetrate  to  our  souls  through  our  sense-  alism  by  the  so-called  idealistic  argument,  which  runs: 
organs  and  excite  mental  images.  With  the  dissolu-  Matter  is  revealed  to  us  only  in  consciousness;  it  cau- 
tion of  the  body,  the  corporeal  soul  is  also  dissolved,  not  therefore  be  the  cause  or  the  principle  of  con- 
This  view  betrays  a  complete  misapprehension  of  the  sciousness.  This  argument  proves  absolutely  nothing 
immaterial  nature  of  psychical  states  as  opposed  to  against  Materialism,  unless  we  admit  that  our  con- 
those  of  the  body — ^to  say  nothing  of  the  childish  sciousness  creates  matter,  i.  e.  that  matter  has  no 
notion  of  sense-perception,  which  modem  physiology  existence  independent  of  consciousness.  If  conscious- 
can  regard  only  with  an  indulgent  smile.  ness  or  tiie  soul  creates  matter,  the  latter  cannot  im- 
Epicurean  Materialism  received  poetic  expression  part  existence  to  the  soul  or  to  any  psychical  activity, 
and  further  development  in  the  didactic  poem  of  the  Materialism  would  indeed  be  thus  utteriy  annihilated: 
Roman  Lucretius.  This  bitter  opponent  of  the  gods,  there  would  be  no  matter.  But,  if  matter  is  real,  it 
like  the  modem  representatives  of  Materialism,  places  may  possess  all  kinds  of  activities,  even  psychical,  as 
it  in  outspoken  opposition  to  religion.  His  cosmology  the  Materialists  aver.  As  long  as  the  impossibility  of 
is  that  of  Epicurus;  but  Lucretius  goes  much  further,  this  is  not  demonstrated,  Materialism  is  not  refuted, 
inasmuch  as  he  really  seeks  to  give  an  explanation  of  Idealism  or  Phenomenalism,  which  entirely  denies  the 
the  order  in  the  world,  which  Epicurus  referred  un-  existence  of  matter,  is  more  absurd  than  Materialism, 
hesitatingly  to  mere  chance.  Lucretius  asserts  that  it  There  is,  however,  some  truth  in  the  Kantian  reason- 
is  just  one  of  the  infinitely  numerous  possibilities  in  ing.  Consciousness  or  the  psychical  is  far  better 
the  arrangement  of  the  atoms;  the  present  order  known  to  us  than  the  material;  what  matter  really  is, 
was  as  possible  as  any  other.  He  takes  partictdar  no  science  has  vet  made  clear.  The  intellectual  or  the 
pains  to  disprove  the  immortality  of  the  som,  seeking  psychical,  on  the  other  hand,  is  presented  immediately 
thus  to  dispel  the  fear  of  death,  which  is  the  cause  c»  to  our  consciousness;  we  experience  our  thoughts, 
so  much  care  and  crime.  The  soul  (anima)  and  the  volitions,  and  feelings;  in  their  full  clearness  they 
mind  (animtu)  consist  of  the  smallest,  roimdest,  and  stand  before  the  eye  of  the  mind.  ^  From  the  Kantian 
most  mobile  atoms.  That  "  feeHng  is  an  excitement  standpoint  a  refutation  of  Materialism  is  out  of  the 
of  the  atoms",  he  lays  down  as  a  firmly  established  question.  To  overcome  it  we  must  show  that  the  soul 
principle.  He  says:  "When  the  flavour  of  the  wine  is  an  entity,  independent  of  and  essentially  distinct 
vanishes,  or  the  odour  of  the  ointment  passes  away  in  from  the  body,  an  immaterial  substance;  only  as  such 
the  air,  we  notice  no  diminution  of  wei^^t.  Even  so  can  it  be  immortal  and  survive  the  dissolution  of  the 
with  the  body  when  the  soul  has  disappeared. "  He  body.  For  Kant,  however,  substance  is  a  purely  sub- 
overlooks  ^e  fact  that  the  flavour  and  odour  are  not  jective  form  of  the  understanding,  by  means  of  which 
necessarily  lost,  even  though  we  cannot  measure  we  arrange  our  experiences.  The  independence  of  the 
them.  That  they  do  not  perish  is  now  certain^  and.  soul  would  thus  not  be  objective;  it  would  be  simply 
we  must  therefore  conolude,  still  less  does  the  spiritual  an  idea  conceived  by  ua.    Immortality  would  alao  be 


aSATEBIAXJSM 


43 


MATERIALISM 


merely  a  thought-product;  this  the  Materialists  gladly 
admit,  but  they  call  it,  in  plainer  terms,  a  pure  fabri- 
cation. 

The  German  Idealists,  Fichte,  H^l,  and  Schelllng, 
seriously  espoused  the  Phenomenalism  of  Kant,  de- 
clarinji;  that  matter,  and,  in  fact,  the  whole  universe,  is 
a  subjective  product.  Thereby  indeed  Materialism  is 
entirely  overcome,  but  the  Kantian  method  of  refuta- 
tion is  reduced  to  absurdity.  The  reaction  against 
this  extravagant  Spiritualism  was  inevitable,  and  it 
resulted  by  a  sort  of  necessary  consequence  in  the  op- 
posite extreme  of  outspoken  Materialism.  Repelled 
by  these  fantastic  views,  so  contrary  to  all  reality,  men 
turned  their  whole  energy  to  the  investigation  of 
nature.  The  extraordinary  success  achiev^  in  this 
domain  led  many  investigators  to  overestimate  the  im- 
portance of  matter,  its  forces,  and  its  laws,  with  which 
they  believed  they  could  explain  even  tne  spiritual. 
The  chief  representatives  of  Materialism  as  a  system 
during  this  period  are  BQchner  (1824-99),  the  author 
of  "I&aft  und  Stofif'';  K.  Vogt  (1817-95),  who  held 
that  thought  is  **  secreted  "  by  the  brain,  as  sail  by  the 
liver  and  urine  by  the  kidneys;  Czolbe  (1817-73); 
Moleschott,  to  whom  his  Materialism  brought  politi- 
cal fame.  Bom  on  9  August,  1822,  at  Herzogenbusch, 
North  Brabant,  he  studied  medicine,  natural  science, 
and  the  philosophy  of  H^el  at  Heidelberg  from  1842. 
After  some  years  of  meoical  practice  in  Utrecht,  he 
qualified  as  instructor  in  physiology  and  anthropology 
at  the  University  of  HeideiDerg.  His  writings,  espe- 
cially lus  "Kreislauf  des  Lebens"  (1852),  created  a 
great  sensation.  On  account  of  the  gross  materialism, 
which  he  displayed  both  in  his  works  and  his  lectures, 
he  received  a  warning  from  the  academic  senate  by 
command  of  the  Government,  whereupon  he  accepted 
in  1854  a  call  to  the  newly  founded  University  of 
ZOrich.  In  1861  Cavour,  the  Italian  premier,  granted 
him  a  chair  at  Turin,  whence  fifteen  years  later  he  was 
called  to  the  Sapiema  in  Rome,  which  owed  its  foun- 
dation to  the  popes.  Here  death  suddenly  overtook 
him  in  1893,  and,  just  as  he  had  had  burnt  the  bodies 
of  his  wife  and  daughter  who  had  committed  suicide, 
he  also  appointed  in  his  will  that  his  own  body  should 
be  reduced  to  ashes.  The  most  radical  rejection  of 
everything  ideal  is  contained  in  the  revised  work 
"Der  Einsige  und  sein  Eigentum"  (1845:  3rd  ed., 
1893)  of  Miuc  Stimer,  which  rejects  ever^hing  tran- 
scending the  particular  Ego  and  its  self-will. 

The  brilliant  success  of  the  natural  sciences  gave 
Materialism  a  powerful  support.  The  scientist,  in- 
deed, is  exposed  to  the  danger  of  overlooking  the  soul, 
and  consequently  of  denying  it.  Absorption  in  the 
study  of  material  nature  is  apt  to  blind  one  to  the 
spiritual;  but  it  is  an  evident  fallacy  to  deny  the  soul, 
on  the  ground  that  one  cannot  experimentally  prove 
its  existence  by  phvsical  means.  Natural  science 
oversteps  its  limits  when  it  encroaches  on  the  spiritual 
domain  and  claims  to  pronounce  there  an  expert  de- 
cision, and  it  is  a  palpaole  error  to  declare  that  science 
demonstrates  the  non-existence  of  the  soul.  Various 
proofs  from  natural  science  are  of  course  brought  for- 
wajrd  by  the  Materialists.  The  ''closed  system  of 
natural  causation''  is  appealed  to:  experience  every- 
where finds  each  natural  phenomenon  based  upon 
another  as  its  cause,  and  the  chain  of  natural  causes 
would  be  broken  were  the  same  brought  in.  On  the 
other  hand,  Sigwart  (1830-1904)  justly  observes  that 
the  soul  has  its  share  in  natural  causation,  and  is  there- 
fore included  in  the  system.  At  most  it  could  be  de- 
duced from  this  system  that  a  pure  spirit,  that  God 
could  not  interfere  in  the  course  of  nature;  but  this 
cannot  be  proved  by  either  experience  or  reason.  On 
the  contrary  it  is  clear  that  tne  Author  of  nature  can 
interfere  in  its  course,  and  history  informs  us  of  His 
many  miraculous  interventions.  In  any  case  it  is  be- 
yond doubt  that  our  bodily  conditions  are  influenced 
oy  our  ideas  and  volitions,  and  this  influence  is  more 


clearly  perceived  by  us  than  the  causality  of  fire  in  the 
production  of  heat.  We  must  therefore  reject  as 
false  the  theory  of  a  closed  system  of  natural  causation, 
if  this  means  the  exclusion  of  spiritual  causes. 

But  modem  science  claims  to  have  given  positive 
proof  that  in  the  human  body  there  is  no  place  for  the 
soul.  The  great  discovery  by  R.  Mayer  (1814-78), 
Joule  (1818-89),  and  Hehnholtz  (1821-94)  of  the  con- 
servation of  energy  proves  that  energy  cannot  disap- 
pear in  nature  and  cannot  originate  there.  But  the 
soul  could  of  itself  create  energy,  and  there  would  also 
be  eneigy  lost,  whenever  an  external  stimulus  influ- 
enced the  soul  and  gave  rise  to  sensation,  which  is  not 
a  form  of  energy.  Now  recent  experiment  has  shown 
that  the  energy  in  the  human  body  is  exactly  equiv- 
alent to  the  nutriment  consumed.  In  these  facts, 
however,  there  is  absolutely  nothing  against  the  exist- 
ence of  the  soul.  The  law  of  the  conservation  of 
energy  is  an  empirical  law,  not  a  fundamental  princi- 
ple of  thought;  it  is  deduced  from  the  material  world 
and  is  based  on  the  activity  of  matter.  A  body  can- 
not set  itself  in  motion,  can  produce  no  force;  it  must 
be  impelled  by  another,  which  in  the  impact  loses  its 
own  power  of  movement.  This  is  not  lost,  but  is 
changed  into  the  new  movement.  Thus,  in  the 
material  world,  motion,  which  is  really  kinetic  energy, 
can  neither  originate  nor  altogether  cease.  This  law 
does  not  hold  good  for  the  immaterial  world,  which  is 
not  subject  to  the  law  of  inertia.  That  our  higher 
intellectual  activities  are  not  bound  by  the  law  is  most 
plainly  seen  in  our  freedom  of  will,  by  which  we  deter- 
mine ourselves  either  to  move  or  to  remain  at  rest. 
But  the  intellectual  activities  take  place  with  the  co- 
operation of  the  sensory  processes;  and,  since  these 
latter  are  functions  of  the  bodiljjr  oigans,  they  are  like 
them  subject  to  the  law  of  inertia.  They  do  not  enter 
into  activity  without  some  stimulus;  they  cannot  stop 
their  activity  without  some  external  influence.  They 
are,  therefore,  subject  to  the  law  of  the  conservation  of 
energy,  whose  applicability  to  the  hmnan  body,  as 
shown  oy  biological  experiment,  proves  nothing  against 
the  soul.  Consequently,  while  even  without  experi- 
ment, one  must  admit  the  law  in  the  case  of  sentient 
beings,  it  can  in  no  wise  affect  a  pure  spirit  or  an  angel. 
The  * '  Achilles  "  of  materialistic  pnilosophers,  therefore, 

E roves  nothing  against  the  soul.  It  was  accordingly 
i^hly  opportune  when  the  eminent  physiologist,  Du- 
bois Keymond  (1818-96),  called  a  vigorous  halt  to  his 
colleague  by  his  ''Ignoramus  et  Ignorabimus".  In 
his  lectures,  "Ueber  die  Grenzen  der  Naturerkenntniss'  * 
(Leipzig,  1872),  he  shows  that  feeling,  consciousness, 
etc. ,  cannot  be  explained  from  the  atoms.  He  errs  in- 
deed in  declaring  permanently  inexplicable  everything 
for  which  natural  science  cannot  account;  the  explana- 
tion must  be  furnished  by  philosophy. 

Even  theologians  have  defendea  limterialism.  Thus, 
for  example,  F.  D.  Strauss  in  his  work  "  Der  alte  ima 
neue  Glaube  "  (1872)  declares  openly  for  Materialism, 
and  even  adopts  it  as  the  basis  of  his  religion;  the 
material  universe  with  its  laws,  although  they  occa- 
sionally crush  us,  must  be  the  object  of  our  veneration. 
The  cultivation  of  music  compensates  him  for  the  loss 
of  all  ideal  goods.  Among  tne  materialistic  philoso- 
phers of  this  time,  Ueberweg  (1825-71),  author  of  the 
well-known  "Histonr  of  Philosophy",  deserves  men- 
tion; it  is  notewortny  that  he  at  first  supported  the 
Aristotelean  teleology,  but  later  fell  away  into  material- 
istic mechanism.  There  is  indeed  considerable  diflS- 
culty  in  demonstrating  mathematically  the  final  ob- 
ject of  nature;  with  those  to  whom  the  consideration 
of  the  marvellous  wisdom  displayed  in  its  ordering 
does  not  bring  the  conviction  that  it  cannot  owe  its 
origin  to  blind  physical  forces,  proofs  will  avail  but 
little.  To  us,  indeed,  it  is  inconceivable  how  any  one 
can  overlook  or  deny  the  evidences  of  design  and  of 
the  adaptation  of  means  for  the  attainment  of  mani- 
fold ends. 


MATERIALISM 


44 


MATERIALISM 


The  teleological  question,  so  awkward  for  Material- 
ism, was  thought  to  be  finaUv  settled  by  Darwinism, 
in  which,  as  IC  Vogt  cynically  expressed  it,  God  was 
shown  the  door.  The  blind  operation  of  natural 
forces  and  laws,  without  spiritual  agencies,  was  held  to 
explain  the  origin  of  species  and  their  purposiveness 
as  well.  Although  Darwin  himself  was  not  a  Material- 
ist, his  mechanical  explanation  of  teleology  brought 
water  to  the  mill  of  Materialism,  which  recognizes  only 
the  mechanism  of  the  atoms.  This  evolution  of 
matter  from  the  protozoon  to  man^  announced  from 
university  chairs  as  the  result  of  science,  was  eagerly 
taken  up  by  the  social  democrats,  and  became  the 
fundamental  tenet  of  their  conception  of  the  world 
and  of  life.  Although  officially  socialists  disown  their 
hatred  of  religion,  the  rejection  of  the  higher  destiny  of 
man  and  the  consequent  falling  back  on  the  material 
order  serve  them  most  efficiently  in  stirring  up  the  de- 
luded and  discontented  masses.  Against  this  domina- 
tion of  Materialism  among  high  and  low  there  set  in  to- 
wards the  end  of  the  nineteenth  century  a  reaction, 
which  was  due  in  no  small  measure  to  the  alarming 
translation  of  the  materialistic  theory  into  practice  b^ 
the  socialists  and  anarchists.  At  bottom,  nowever,  it 
is  but  another  instance  of  what  the  oldest  experience 
shows:  the  line  of  progress  is  not  vertical  but  spiral. 
Overstraining  in  one  direction  starts  a  rebound  in  the 
other,  which  usually  reaches  the  opposite  extreme. 
The  spiritual  will  not  be  reduced  to  tne  material,  but 
it  frequently  commits  the  error  of  refusing  to  tolerate 
the  co-existence  of  matter. 

Thus  at  present  the  reaction  against  Materialism 
leads  in  many  instances  to  an  extreme  SpirituaUsm  or 
Phenomenalism,  which  regards  matter  merely  as  a 
projection  of  the  soul.  Hence  also  the  widely-echoed 
cry:  "Back  to  Kant".  Kant  regarded  matter  as 
entirely  the  product  of  consciousness,  and  this  view  is 
outspokenlv  adopted  by  L.  Busse,  who,  in  his  work 
"Geist  una  KOrper,  Seele  und  Leib"  (Leipzig,  1903), 
earnestly  labours  to  discredit  Materialism.  He  treats 
exhaustivelv  the  relations  of  the  psychical  to  the 
physical,  refutes  the  so-called  psycho-physical  parallel- 
ism, and  decides  in  favour  oi  the  interaction  of  soul 
and  body.  His  conclusion  is  the  complete  denial  of 
matter.  "  Metaphysically  the  world-picture  changes 
....  The  corporeal  world  as  such  disappears — ^itisa 
mere  appearance  for  the  apprehending  mind — and  is 
succeea^  by  something  spiritual.  The  idealistic- 
spiritualistic  metaphysics,  whose  validity  we  here 
tacitly  assume  without  further  lustification,  recognizes 
no  corporeal  but  only  spiritual  being.  'Ail  reality  is 
spiritual  * ,  is  ite  verdict '  (p.  479) . 

How  little  Materialism  has  to  fear  from  Kantian 
rivalry  is  plainly  shown,  among  others,  by  the  natural 
philosopher  UexkOll.  In  the  "Neue  Rundschau"  of 
1907  (Umrisse  einer  neuen  Weltanschauung),  he  most 
vigorously  opposes  Darwinism  and  Haeckelism,  but 
finally  rejecte  with  Kant  the  substantiality  of  the  soul, 
and  even  falls  back  into  the  Materialism  which  he  so 
severely  condemns.  He  says:  "The  disintegrating  in- 
fluence of  Haeckelism  on  the  spiritual  life  of  the  masses 
comes,  not  from  the  consequences  which  his  conception 
of  eternal  things  calls  forth,  but  from  the  Darwinian 
thesis  that  there  is  no  puipose  in  nature.  Really,  one 
mi^t  suppose  that  on  the  day,  when  the  great  dis- 
covery of  the  descent  of  man  from  the  ape  was  made, 
the  call  went  forth:  '  Back  to  the  Ape '."  "  The  walls, 
which  confine  Materialism,  still  stend  in  all  their  firm- 
ness: it  is  impossible  to  explain  the  purposive  charac- 
ter of  life  from  material  forces."  "We  are  so  con- 
stituted that  we  are  capable  of  recognizing  certain 
purposes  with  our  intellect,  while  others  we  long  for 
and  enjoy  through  our  sense  of  beauty.  One  general 
plan  binds  all  our  spiritual  and  emotional  forces  into  a 
unity. "  "  This  view  of  life  Haeckel  seeks  to  replace  by 
his  senseless  talk  about  cell-souls  and  soul^lls,  and 
thinks  by  his  boyish  trick  to  annihilate  the  giant  Kcmt. 


Chamberlain's  words  on  Haeckelism  will  find  an  echo 
in  the  soul  of  every  educated  person: '  It  is  not  poetry, 
science,  or  philosophy,  but  a  still-bom  bastard  of  all 
three'.''  But  what  does  the  "Giant  Kant|'  teach7 
That  we  ourselves  place  the  purpose  in  the  things,  but 
that  it  is  not  in  the  things!  This  view  is  also  held  bv 
Materialists.  Uexkdll  finds  the  refutation  of  Biateriaf- 
ism  in  the  "  empirical  scheme  of  the  objects  ",  which  is 
formed  from  pur  sense-perceptions.  This  is  for  him, 
indeed^  identical  with  tne  Bewegungsmdodie  (melody 
of  motion),  to  which  he  reduces  objecte.  ^  Thus  a^in 
there  is  no  substance  but  only  motion,  which  Material- 
ism likewise  teaches.  We  shall  later  find  the  Kantian 
Uexkall  among  the  outspoken  Materialiste. 

Philosophers  of  another  tendency  endeavour  to 
refute  Materialism  by  supposing  everything  endowed 
with  Ufe  and  soul.  To  this  class  belong  Fechner, 
Wimdt,  Paulsen,  Haeckel,  and  the  botanist  France, 
who  ascribe  inteUi^nce  even  to  plante.  One  mi^t 
well  believe  that  this  is  a  radical  remedy  for  all  materi- 
alistic cravings.  The  pit}r  is  that  Materialiste  should 
be  afforded  an  opportunity  for  ridicule  by  such  a 
fiction.  That  brute  matter,  atoms,  electrons  should 
possess  Ufe  is  contrary  to  all  experience.  It  is  a 
boast  of  modem  science  that  it  admite  only  what  is  re- 
vealed by  exact  observation;  but  the  universal  uid. 
unvarying  verdict  of  observation  is  that,  in  the  in- 
orgamc  world,  everything  shows  charactenstics  oppo- 
site to  those  which  ufe  exhibite.  It  is  also  a  serious  de- 
lusion to  believe  that  one  can  explain  the  human  soul 
and  ite  unitary  consciousness  on  the  supposition  of 
cell-souls.  A  number  of  souls  could  never  have  one 
and  the  same  consciousness.  Consciousness  and  every 
psychic  activity  are  immanent,  they  abide  in  the  sub- 
ject  and  do  not  operate  outwardly;  hence  each,  in- 
dividual soul  has  ite  own  consciousness,  and  of  any 
other  knows  absolutely  nothing.  A  combination  A 
several  souls  into  one  consciousness  is  thus  impossible. 
But,  even  if  it  were  possible,  this  composite  conscious- 
ness would  have  a  completely  different  content  from 
the  cell-souls,  since  it  would  be  a  marvel  if  all  these  felt, 
thought,  ana  willed  exactly  the  same.  In  this  view 
immorteli^  would  be  as  completely  done  away  with 
as  it  is  in  Kuiterialism. 

We  have  described  this  theory  as  an  untenable 
fiction.  R.  Semon,  however,  undertakes  to  defend  the 
existence  of  memory  in  all  living  beings  in  his  work 
*'  Die  Mneme  als  erhaltendes  Prinzip  im  Wechsel  des 
oraanischen  Geschehens"  (Leipzig,  1905).  He  says: 
"The  effect  of  a  stimulus  on  living  suostance  con- 
tinues after  the  stimulation,  it  has  an  engraphic  effect. 
This  latter  is  called  the  en^ram  of  the  corresponding 
stimulus,  and  the  siun  of  the  enjg;rams,  which  the 
organism  inherite  or  acquires  during  ite  life,  is  the 
mnemef  or  memory  in  the  widest  sense. "  Now,  if  by 
this  word  the  persistence  of  psychic  and  corporeal 
stetes  were  alone  signified,  there  would  be  little  to 
urge  against  this  theory.  But  by  memory  is  under- 
st^:)d  a  psychic  function,  for  whose  presence  in  plante 
and  minerals  not  the  slightest  plea  can  be  offered. 
Tlie  persistence  is  even  more  easily  explained  in  the 
case  of  inorganic  nature.  This  Hylozoism,  which,  as 
Kant  rightly  declares,  is  the  death  of  all  science,  is  also 
called  the  "double  aspect  theory"  (ZweiseiterUhearie). 
Fechner  indeed  regards  the  material  as  only  the  outer 
side  of  the  spiritual.  The  relation  between  them  is 
that  of  the  convex  side  of  a  curve  to  the  concave ;  they 
are  essentially  one,  regarded  now  from  without  and 
again  from  within — ^the  same  idea  expressed  in  differ- 
ent words.  By  this  explanation  Materialism  is  not 
overcome  but  proclaimed.  For  as  to  the  reality  of 
matter  no  sensible  man  can  doubt;  consequently,  if 
the  spiritual  is  merely  a  special  a^)ect  of  matter,  it 
also  must  be  material.  The  convex  side  of  a  ring  is 
really  one  thing  with  the  concave;  there  is  but  the 
same  rin^  regarded  from  two  different  sides.  Thus 
Fechner,  m  spite  of  all  his  disclaimers  of  Materialism, 


MATERIALISM 


45 


MATERIALISM 


must  deny  the  immortality  of  the  soul,  since  in  the  di»- 
aolution  of  the  body  the  soul  must  also  perish,  and  he 
labours  to  no  effect  when  he  tries  to  Solster  up  the 
doctrine  of  survival  with  all  kinds  of  fantastic  ideas. 

Cloeely  connected  with  this  theory  is  the  so-called 
"'pyscho-physical  parallelism",  which  most  modem 
jpsychoiogists  since  Fechner,  especially  Wimdt  and 
Paulsen,  energetically  advocate.  T^  emphasises  so 
:3trongly  the  spirituality  of  the  soul  that  it  rejects  as 
impossible  an^  influence  of  the  soul  on  the  bodv,  and 
thus  makes  spiritual  and  bodily  activities  run  side  by 
:side  (parallel)  without  afiPectins  each  other.  Wundt, 
indeed,  goes  so  far  as  to  make  the  whole  world  consist 
of  will-units,  and  regards  matter  as  mechanised 
spiritual  activity.  Paulsen,  on  the  other  hand,  en- 
deavours to  explain  the  concurrence  of  tiie  two  series  of 
activities  bv  declaring  that  the  material  processes  of  the 
body  are  the  reflection  of  the  spiritual.  One  might 
well  think  that  there  could  not  be  a  more  emphatic 
denial  of  Materialism.  Yet  this  exaggerated  Spirituid- 
ism  and  Idealism  agrees  with  the  fundamental  dogma 
of  the  Materialists  in  denying  the  substantiality  and 
immortality  of  the  soul.  It  asserts  that  the  soul  is 
nothing  else  than  the  aggregate  of  the  successive  inter- 
nal activities  without  anv  psychical  essence.  This 
declaration  leads  inevitably  to  Materialism,  because 
activity  without  an  active  subject  is  inconceivable; 
and,  since  the  substantialitv  of  the  soul  is  denied,  tiie 
body  must  be  the  subject  of  the  spiritual  activities,  as 
otherwise  it  would  be  quite  impossible  that  to  certain 
phjTsical  impressions  there  should  correspond  percep- 
tiODS,  volitions,  and  movements.  In  any  case  tms 
exaggerated  Spiritualism,  which  no  intelligent  person 
can  accept,  cannot  be  regarded  as  a  refutation  of 
Materialism.  Apart  from  Christian  philosophy  no 
philosophical  system  has  yet  succeeded  in  successfully 
combatting  Materialism.  One  needs  but  a  somewhat 
accurate  Imowledge  of  the  recent  literature  of  natural 
science  and  philosophy  to  be  convinced  that  the  **  ref- 
utation" of  Materialism  by  means  of  the  latest  Ideal- 
ism is  idle  talk.  Thus,  Ostwald  proclaims  his  doctrine 
of  energy  the  refutation  of  Materialism,  and,  in  his 
'' Vorlesungen  Qber  Naturphilosophie",  endeavours 
''to  fill  the  yawning  chasm,  which  since  Descartes 
gapes  between  spirit  and  matter",  by  subordinating 
the  ideas  of  matter  and  spirit  under  the  concept  of 
energy.  Thus,  consciousness  also  is  energy,  the  nerve- 
eneigy  of  the  brain.  He  is  inclined  to  recognize 
consciousness  as  an  essential  characteristic  of  the 
energy  of  the  central  organ,  just  as  space  is  an  essential 
characteristic  of  mechanical  energy  and  time  of  kinetic 
energy. "     Is  not  this  Materialism  pure  and  simple? 

Entirely  materialistic  also  is  the  widel)r  accepted 
physiological  explanation  of  psychical  activities,  espe- 
cially of  the  feelings,  such  as  fear,  anger  etc.  This  is 
defended  (e.  g.)  by  UexkUU,  whom  we  have  already 
referred  to  as  a  vigorous  opponent  of  Materialism.  He 
endeavours  to  found,  or  at  least  to  illustrate  ttua  by 
the  most  modem  experiments.  In  his  work  *'Der 
Kampf  um  die  Tierseele"  (1903),  he  sa3rs:  *' Sup- 
pose that  with  the  help  of  refined  r5ntgen  ra3r8  we 
could  project  magnified  on  a  screen  in  the  form  of 
movable  shadow-waves  the  processes  in  the  nervous 
system  of  man.  According  to  our  present  knowledge, 
we  might  thus  expect  the  following.  We  observe  we 
subject  of  the  experiment,  when  a  bell  rings  near  by, 
and  we  see  the  shadow  on  the  screen  (representing  the 
wave  of  excitation)  huny  alone  the  aucutory  nerve  to 
the  bmin.  We  foUow  the  shadow  into  the  cerebrum, 
and,  if  the  person  makes  a  movement  in  response  to 
the  sound,  centrifugal  shadows  are  also  presented  to 
our  observation.  This  experiment  womd  be  in  no 
way  different  from  any  phv^cal  experiment  of  a  simi- 
lar nature,  except  that  in  the  case  of  the  brain  with  its 
intricate  system  of  pathways  the  course  of  the  stimulus 
and  the  transformation  of  the  accumulated  energy 
would  necessarily  form  a  very  complicated  and  con- 


fused picture. "  But  what  will  be  thereby  proved  or 
even  illustrated?  Even  without  rontgen  rays  we 
know  that,  in  the  case  of  hearing,  nerve  waves  proceed 
to  the  brain,  and  that  from  the  brain  motor  effects 
pass  out  to  the  peripheral  organs.  But  these  effects 
are  mere  movements,  not  psychical  perception;  for 
consciousness  attests  that  sensory  perception,  not  to 
speak  of  thought  and  volition,  is  altogether  different 
from  movement,  in  fact  the  very  opposite.  We  can 
think  simultaneouslv  of  opposites  (e.  g.  existence  and 
non-existence,  round  and  angular),  and  these  opposites 
must  be  simultaneouslv  present  in  our  consciousness, 
for  otherwise  we  could  not  compare  them,  nor  per- 
ceive and  declare  their  oppositeness.  Now,  it  ia 
absolutely  im()ossible  that  a  nerve  or  an  atom  of  the 
brain  should  simultaneously  execute  opposite  move- 
ments. And,  not  merely  in  the  case  of  true  opposites, 
but  also  in  the  judgment  of  every  distinction,  the 
nerve  elements  must  simultaneoiisly  have  different 
movements,  of  different  rapidity  and  in  different 
directions. 

An  undisguised  Materialism  is  espoused  by  A.  Kann 
in  his  "  Natiuf^eschichte  der  Moral  und  die  Physik  des 
Denkens",  with  the  sub-title  *'Der  Idealismus  eines 
Matenalisten"  (Vienna  and  Leipzig,  1907).  He  says: 
''To  explain  physically  the  complicated  processes  of 
thoujght,  it  is  above  all  necessarv  that  the  necessity  of 
admitting  anything  '  psychical  be  eliminated.  Our 
ideas  as  to  what  is  good  and  bad  are  for  the  average 
man  so  intimately  connected  with  the  psychical  that 
it  is  a  prime  necessity  to  eliminate  the  psychical 
from  our  ideas  of  morality,  etc.  Only  when  pure, 
material  science  has  built  up  on  its  own  founda- 
tions the  whole  structure  of  our  morals  and  ethics 
can  one  think  of  elaborating  for  unbiased  readers 
what  I  call  the  'Physics  of  Thinking'.  To  prepare 
the  ground  for  the  new  building,  one  must  first 
'clear  away  the  debris  of  ancient  notions',  that  is  'God, 
prayer,  immortality  (the  soul)'."  The  reduction  of 
psychical  life  to  ph}[Bics  is  actually  attempted  by  J. 
Fikler  in  his  treatise  "Physik  des  Seelenlebens" 
(Leipsig,  1901).  He  converses  with  a  pupil  of  the 
highest  form,  at  first  in  a  very  childish  wajv,  but 
fimdly  heayv  guns  are  called  into  action.  "Tnat  all 
the  various  facts,  all  the  various  phenomena  of  psychi- 
cal life,  all  the  various  states  of  consciousness  are  the 
self-preservation  of  motion,  has  not  yet,  I  think,  been 
explained  by  any  psychologist. "  Such  is  indeed  the 
case,  for,  generally  speaking,  gross  Materialism  has 
been  rejected.  Materialism  refers  psychical  phenom- 
ena to  movemente  of  the  nerve  substance;  out  self- 
preservation  of  motion  is  motion,  and  consequently 
this  new  psycho-physics  is  pure  Materialism.  In  any 
case,  matter  cannot  "self-preserve"  its  motion; 
motion  persists  on  its  own  account  in  virtue  of  the  law 
of  the  conservation  of  energy.  Therefore,  according 
to  this  theory,  all  matter  ought  to  exhibit  psychical 
phenomena. 

Still  more  necessary  and  simple  was  the  evolution  of 
the  world  according  to  J.  Lichtneckert  (Neue  wissen- 
schaftl.  Lebenslehre  der  Weltalls^  Leipzig,  1903).  His 
"  Ideal  Oder  Selbstzweckmaterialismus  als  die  absolute 
Philosophic  "  (Ideal  or  End-in-itself  Materialism  as  the 
Absolute  Philosophv)  offers  "the  scientific  solution  of 
all  great  physical,  chemical,  astronomical,  theological, 
philosophical,  evolutionary,  and  physiological  world- 
riddles."  Let  us  select  a  few  ideas  from  this  new 
absolutist  philosophy.  ''That  God  and  matter  are 
absolutely  identical  notions^  was  until  to-day  un- 
known." "Hitherto  Materialism  invesjtigated  the 
external  life  of  matter,  and  Idealism  ite  internal  life. 
From  the  fusion  of  these  two  conceptions  of  life  and 
the  world,  which  since  the  earliest  times  have  walked 
their  separate  ways  and  fought  each  other,  issues  the 
present  'Absolute  Philosophy.'  Heretofore  Material- 
ism has  denied,  as  a  fundamental  error,  teleology  or 
the  striving  for  an  end,  and  hence  also  the  spiritual  or 


lUTEENTIT 

psyiihical  qualities  of  matter,  while  Idealiaib  has  de- 
nied the  materiality  of  the  soul  or  of  God.  Conae- 
quently,  a  complete  and  hannaniotui  world-theory 
could  not  be  reached.  The  Ideal  or  End-ia-itself 
Materialism,  or  Monism,  ia  the  crown  or  acme  of  all 
philoiopliieB,  aince  in  it  is  contained  the  absolute  truth, 
to  whicQ  the  leading  intellecta  of  all  times  have  gradu- 
ally and  laboriously  contributed.  Into  it  flow  all 
philosophical  and  religiouB  systems,  as  streams  into  the 
eea."  "Spirit  or  God  ia  matter,  and,  vice  versa, 
matter  is  spirit  or  God.  Matter  is  no  raw,  lifeless 
mass,  as  was  hitherto  generally  assumed,  since  all 
ohemico-physicsl  processes  are  self-purposive.  Matter, 
whioh  is  the  eternal,  unending,  visible,  audible,  weigh- 
able,  measurable  ete.  deity,  is  gifted  with  the  highest 
evolutionary  and  transforming  spiritual  or  vital 
qualities,  am  indeed  poBsesaea  power  to  feel,  will, 
tnink,  and  remember.  All  that  eioste  is  matter  or  God. 
A  non-material  being  does  not  exist.  Even  space  is 
matter  ..." 

One  needs  only  to  indicate  such  fruite  of  materialis- 
tio  science  to  illustrate  in  their  absurditv  the  con- 
sequences of  the  pernicious  conception  of  man  and 
the  universe  known  as  Materialism.  But  we  cite 
these  instances  also  as  a  positive  proof  that  the 
much-lauded  victory  of  modem  Idealism  over  Mate- 
rialism has  no  foundation  in  fact.  To  our  own  time 
may  be  applied  what  the  well-known  historian  of 
Materialism,  Friedrich  Albert  Lange  (Geschichte  des 
Materialismus  u.  Kritik  seiner  Bedeutung  in  dcr  Ge- 
genwart),  wrote  in  1875:  "The  materialistic  strife  of 
our  day  thus  stands  before  us  as  a  serious  sign  of  the 
times.  To-day,  as  in  the  period  before  Kant  and  the 
French  Revolution,  a  general  retaliation  of  philo- 
sophical effort,  a  retrogression  of  ideas,  ia  the  basic  ex- 
planation of  the  spread  of  Materialism."  What  he 
says  indeed  of  the  relaxation  <A  philosophical  effort 
is  no  longer  true  to-day;  on  the  contrary,  seldom  has 
there  been  BO  much  philosophising  by  the  qualified  and 
the  unqualified  as  at  the  beginning  of  the  present  and 
the  end  of  the  last  century.  Much  labour  has  been 
devoted  to  philosophy  and  much  has  been  accom- 
plished, but,  in  the  wends  of  St.  Augustine,  it  is  a  case 
of  Tnagni  gressux  prtEler  viam  (i.e.  long  strides  on  the 
wrong  road).  We  find  simply  philosophy  without 
ideas,  for  Positivism,  Empincism,  Pragmatism,  Psy- 
chologism,  and  the  numerous  other  modem  systems 
are  all  enemies  of  ideas.  Even  Kant  himself,  whom 
Lange  invokes  as  the  bulwark  against  Materialism,  is 
veiT  appropriately  called  by  the  historian  of  Idealism, 
0.  WilJman,  "the  lad  who  throws  stones  at  ideas". 

The  idea,  whose  revival  and  development,  as  Ijknge 
expecte,  "will  raise  mankind  to  a  new  level",  is,  as  we 
have  shown,  not  to  be  sought  in  non-Christian  philoso- 
phy. Only  a  return  te  the  Christian  view  of  the  world, 
which  is  founded  on  Christian  philosophy  and  the 
t«aehings  of  the  Socratic  School,  can  prevent  the 
catastrophes  prophesied  by  Lange,  and  perhaps  raise 
mankind  to  a  higher  cultural  level.  This  philosophy 
offers  a  thorough  refutation  of  cosmolo^cal  and  an- 
thropological Materialism,  and  raises  up  the  true 
Idealism.  It  shows  that  matter  cannot  of  itself  be  un- 
created or  eternal,  which  indeed  may  be  deduced 
from  the  fact  that  of  itself  it  is  inert,  indifferent  to  rest 
and  to  motion.  But  it  must  be  either  at  rest  or  in 
motionif  it  exists;  if  it  existed  of  itself ,  in  virtue  of  ite 
own  nature,  it  would  be  also  of  itself  in  either  of  those 
conditions.  If  it  were  of  itself  ori^nally  in  motion,  it 
could  have  never  come  to  rest,  and  it  would  not  be 
true  that  ite  nature  is  indifferent  to  rest  and  to  motion 
and  could  be  equally  well  in  either  of  the  two  condi- 
tions.^ With  tlus  simple  argument  the  fundamental 
error  is  confuted.  An  exhaustive  refutation  will  be 
found  in  the  present  author's  writings:  "DerKosmos" 
(Paderbom,  1908);  "Gott  u.  die  SchOpfung"  (Ratis- 
bon  1910);  "Die Theodizee"  (4th ed.,  1910);  "Lehr- 
buoh  der  Apologetik",  I  (3rd  ed.,  Milnster,  1903). 


46 


XUTEATHZia 


Anthropological  Materialism  is  completely  disproved 
by_  demonstrating  for  psychical  activities  a  simple, 
spiritual  substance  distmct  from  the  bod^ — i.  e.  the 
soul.  Reason  assumes  the  existence  of  a  sunple  being, 
since  a  multiplicity  of  atoms  con  possess  no  unitary,  in- 
divisible thought,  and  cannot  compare  two  ideas  or 
two  psychical  stetes.  That  which  makes  the  com- 
parison must  have  simultaneously  in  itself  both  the 
states.  But  a  material  atom  cannot  have  two  differ- 
ent conditions  simultaneously,  cannot  for  example 
simultaneouslj'  execute  two  different  motions.  Thus, 
it  must  be  an  immaterial  being  which  makes  the  com- 
parison. The  comparison  itself,  the  perception  of  the 
identity  or  difference,  likewise  the  idea  of  necessity 
and  the  idea  of  a  pure  spirit,  are  so  abstract  and  meta- 


CONBTANTIN   GUTBBRLET. 

Maternity  of  the  Blesiod  Tligln  JAaxj,  Feabt  of 
THE,  second  Sunday  in  October. — The  object  of  this 
feast  is  to  commemorate  the  dignity  of  Mary  OS  Mother 
of  God.  Mary  is  truly  the  Mother  of  God,  because  she 
is  the  Mother  of  Christ,  who  in  one  ^rson  unites  the 
human  and  the  divine  nature.  This  title  was  solemnly 
ratified  by  the  Council  of  Epbesus,  22  June,  431.  The 
hymns  used  in  the  ofhce  of  the  feast  also  allude  to  Mary's 
dignity  as  the  spiritual  Mother  of  men.  The  love  of 
Mary  for  all  mankind  was  that  of  a  mother,  for  she 
shared  all  the  feelings  of  her  Son  whose  love  for  men 
led  Him  to  die  for  our  redemption  {Hunter,  Dogm. 
Theol,  2,  578).  The  feast  was  first  granted,  on  the 
petition  of  King  Joseph  Manuel^  to  the  dioceses  of 
Portugal  and  to  Braiil  and  Algena,  22  Jan,,  1751,  to- 
gether with  the  feast  of  the  Purity  of  Mary,  and  was 
assigned  to  the  first  Sunday  in  May,  dupl.  maj.  In 
the  following  year  both  feaste  were  extended  to  the 
province  of  Venice,  177S  to  the  kingdom  of  Naples, 
and  1807  to  Tuscany.  At  present  the  feast  is  not 
found  in  the  universal  calendar  of  the  chureh,  but 
nearly  all  diocesan  calendars  have  adopted  it.  In  the 
Roman  Breviary  the  feast  of  the  Maternity  is  com- 
memorated on  the  second,  and  the  feast  of  the 
Purity  on  the  third,  Sunday  in  October.  In  Rome,  in 
the  Church  of  S.  Augustine,  it  is  celebrated  as  a  dupl. 
2,  classia  with  an  octave,  in  honour  of  the  miraculous 
statue  of  the  Madonna  del  Parto  by  Sansovino.  Thia 
feast  is  also  the  titular  feast  of  the  Trinitenans  under 
the  invocation  of  N,  S.  de  tos  Remedios.  At  Meaagna 
in  Apulia  it  is  kept  20  Feb.  in  commemoration  of  the 
earthquake,  20  Feb,  1743, 

HOLWitnt.  FaM  Manani  (Pinbuis.  1802);  Albcbs,  BloU**- 
Kranit  (Fiuleibom,lS94l,v4S4a. 

F.  G.  HoLWBCK. 

Hatemtu,  Saint.  See  Euchariub,  Saint,  Bisbop 
or  Tribh. 

MatemuB,  Ftbmicus.    See  Pmuicirs  Matsrxus. 

MrthrthlM,  the  name  of  ten  persons  of  the  Bible, 
variant  in  both  Hebrew  and  Greek  of  Old  Testament 
and  in  Greek  of  New  Testament;  uniform  in  Vulgate. 
The  meaning  of  the  name  is  "  gift  of  Jah  ",  or  "  of  Jah- 
weh"  (cf.  BtMupot).  In  the  Hebrew,  the  first  four  of 
these  parsons  are  called  MaUiih  Jah  (n^nno) 


47  XATHEW 

(1)  HaTBatoias  (B.&aiAiMA,  A.  HaMa«at),oiie  of  of  God  ",  he  entered  his  BiEnature  in  B  large  book  lying 
tlie  aona  of  Nebo  who  married  an  alien  wife  (I  Ead.,  z,  on  the  table.  About  sixty  followed  his  example  that 
11)  and  later  repudiated  her;  he  is  called  MaiitiaB  in  night  and  Binied  Uie  book.  Heetinge  were  held  twice 
III  Ead.,  ix,  36.  a  week,  in  the  evenings  and  after  Mass  on  Sundays. 

(2)  MATHATHIA8  {Sept.  MoTSotfim),  one  of  the  six  The  crowds  soon  became  so  great  that  the  schooliiouBe 
who  stood  at  the  right  of  Esdras  while  be  read  the  law  had  to  be  abandoned,  and  the  Horse  Baiaar,  a  build- 
to  the  people  (II  Esd.,  viii,  4).  ing  capable  of  holding  40bo,  became  the  future  meet- 

(3)  Hathathiab  (Sept.  Slarftitflai),  a  Levite  of  ine-plikoe.  Here,  night  after  night,  Patiier  Mathew 
Corite  stock  and  eldest  bod  of  Sellum;  he  had  charge  addressed  crowded  assemblies.^!  n  three  months  he 

" ■■■         ■  ■■•-"  jj^  enrolled  25,000  in  Cork  alone;  in  five  montiis  the 

number  had  increased  to  130,000.     The  t 


(4)  Matbathiab  (Sept.  MaTraSlat),  a  Levit«,  one  of  now  assumed  a  new  phase.  Father  Mathew  decided 
Asaph's  musicians  before  the  ark  (I  Far.,  xvi,  5).  to  go  forth  and  preach  his  crusade  throughout  the 

(5)  UATHATHiAa  (I  Par.,  xv  IS,  21;  xxv,  3,  21;  land.  In  Dec,  1S30,  he  went  to  Limerick  and  met 
Heb.  irrnno;  A.  HaTTaeUt  in  first  three,  tiarSlai  in  with  an  extraordinary  triumph.  Thousands  came  in 
last;  B.  IfittaraSla  in  first,  Vrrraeiai  in  second,  from  the  adjoining  counties  and  from  Connaught.  In 
Marrafllaiinlast two),aLeviteof  thesonsof  Idithun,  four  days  be  gave 

one  of  the  musicians  who  played  and  sung  before  the  the  pledge  to  !%,• 

ark  on  its  entrance  into  Jerusalem,  later  the  leader  of  000.    In  the  same 

the  fourteenth  group  of  musicians  of  King  David.  month  he  went  to 

(6)  Mathathias  (I  Mach.gii  passim;  xiv,  29;  Sept.  Waterford,  where 
HarrB0Iai),  the  father  of  the  five  Machabees  (see  art.  in  three  days  he 
s.v.)  who  fought  with  the  Seleucida  for  Jewish  liberty,  enrolled  80,000, 

(7)  Mathathias  (I  Mach.,  xi  70),  the  son  of  Absa>  In  March,  1840,  he 
lom  and  a  captain  in  the  army  of  Jonathan  the  Macha-  enrolled  70,000  in 
bee;  together  with  Judas  the  son  of  Calphi,  he  alone  Dublin.  In  Mav- 
Btood  firm  by  Jonathan's  side  till  the  tide  of  battle  nootli  College  he 
turned  in  the  plain  of  Asor.  reaped  a  great  har- 

(8)  Mathathiab  (I  Mach.,  xvi,  14),  a  son  of  Simon  vest,  winning  over 
the  high  priest;  he  and  his  fattier  and  brother  Judas  8  jwofessors  and 
were  murdered  by  Ptolemee,  the  son  of  Abobua,  at  250  students, 
Doch.  whilst    in   May- 

(9  and  10)  Mathathias  (HarfoSJai),  two  ancestors  nooth    itself,    and 

of  Jesus  (Luke,  iii,  25,  26).  Walter  Dbum.  the   neighbour- 

hood,   he    gained 

1ta,tbaw,  TsBOBALn,  Apostle  of  Temperance,  b.  at  36,000  adherents. 

Thomastown  Castle,  near  Caahel,  Tipperary,  Ireland,  In  January,  1841, 

10  Oct.,  1790;   d.  at  Queenstown,  Cork,  8  Dec.,  1856.  he  went  to  Kella,  _  UiTHmr 
His  father  was  James  Mathew,  a  gentleman  of  good  and  in  two  days                       """       *""" 
family;    his  mother  was  Anne,  daughter  of  George  and  a  half  enrolled  100,000.    Thus  in  a  few  yearn  he 
Whyte  of  Cappaghwhyte.    At  twelve  he  was  sent  to  travelled  through  the  whole  of  Ireland,  and  in  Feb- 
8t.   Canice's  Academy,   Kilkenny.     There  he  spent  ruary,  1843,  was  able  to  write  to  a  friend  in  America: 
nearly  seven  years,   during  which  time  he  became  "I  have  now,  with  the  Divine  Assistance,  hoisted  the 
acquainted  with  two  Capuchin  Fathers,  who  seem  to  banner  of  Temperance  in  almost  every  parish  in  Ire- 
have  influenced  him  deeply.    In  September,  1807,  he  land." 
went  to  Haynooth  College,  and  in  the  following  year        He  did  not  confine  himself  to  the  preaching  of  tem- 

C'ocd  the  Capuchin  Order  in  Dublm.  Having  made  perance  alone.  He  spoke  of  the  Other  virtues  also, 
profession  and  completed  his  studies,  he  was  or-  denouncedcrimeof  every  kind,  and  secret  societies  of 
dained  priest  by  Archoishop  Murray  of  Dublin  on  every  description.  Crime  diminished  as  his  movement 
Easter  Sunday,  1814.  His  first  mission  was  in  Kil-  spread,  and  neither  crime  nor  secret  societies  ever 
kenny,  where  he  spent  twelve  months.  He  was  then  flourished  where  total  abstinence  had  taken  root, 
transferred  to  Cork,  where  he  spent  twenty-four  years  He  was  of  an  eminently  practical,  as  well  as  of  a  spir- 
befoic  beginning  his  great  crusade  against  intemper-  ttual  turn  of  mind.  Thackeray,  who  met  him  in  Cork 
ance.  During  these  years  he  ministered  inthe"Little  in  1842,  wrote  of  him  thus:  "Avoiding  all  political 
Friair",  and  organised  schools,  industrial  classes,  and  questions,  no  man  seems  more  eager  than  he  for  the 
benefit  societies  at  a  time  when. there  was  no  rectw-  practical  improvement  of  this  country.  Leases  and 
nised  system  of  Catholic  education  in  Ireland.  He  rents,  farming  improvements,  reading  societies,  music 
also  founded  a  good  library,  and  was  foremost  in  every  societies — he  was  futl  of  these,  and  of  bis  schemes  of 
good  work  for  the  welfare  of  the  people.  In  1830  he  temperance  above  all."  Such  glorious  success  having 
took  a  long  lease  of  the  Botanic  Gardens  as  a  cemetery  attended  his  efforts  at  home,  he  now  felt  himself  free  to 
for  the  poor.  Thousands,  who  died  in  the  terrible  answer  tlie  earnest  invitations  of  his  fellow-country- 
cholera  of  1832,  owed  their  last  resting-place  as  well  men  in  Great  Britain.  On  13  Aueust,  1842,  be  reached 
Bsrelief  and  consolation  in  their  dyinghours  to  Father  Glasgow,  where  many  thousands  joined  the  move- 
Uathew.  In  1828  he  was  appointed  Provincial  of  the  ment.  In  July,  1843,  he  arrived  in  England  and 
Capuchin  Order  in  Ireland — a  position  which  he  held  opened  his  memorable  campaign  in  Liverpool.  From 
for  twenty-three  yeara.  Liverpool  he  went  to  Manchester  and  Salford,  and. 
In  1838  came  the  orisis  of  hb  life.  Drunkenness  had  havins  visited  the  chief  towns  of  lAncashlre,  he  went 
become  widespread,  and  was  the  curse  of  all  classes  in  on  to  Yorkshire,  where  he  increased  bis  recruits  by 
Ireland.  Temperance  efforts  had  failed  to  cope  with  200,000.  His  next  visit  was  to  London  where  he  en- 
the  evil,  and  after  mucb  anxious  thought  and  prayer,  rolled  74,000.  During  three  months  in  England  he 
and  in  response  to  repeated  appeals  from  William  gave  the  pledge  to  600,000. 

Martin,  a  Quaker,  Father  Mathew  decided  to  inaugu-         He  then  returned  to  Cork  where  trials  awaited  him. 

rate  a  total  abstinence  movement.   On  10  April,  1^8,  In  July,  IS4S,  the  first  bli^t  destroyed  tha  potato 

the  first  meeting  of  the  Cork  Total  Abstinence  Society  crop,  and  in  the  following  winter  there  was  bitter  dis- 

was  held  in  his  own  schoolhouse.     He  presided,  de-  tress.    Father  Mathew  was  one  of  the  first  to  warn  the 

livcredamodestaddress,  and  took  the  pledge  himself.  Government  of  the  calamity  which  was  impending. 

Then  with  the  historic  words,  "Here  goes  in  the  Name  Famine  with  all  its  horrors  reigned  throughout  the 


ICATHIXn 


48 


1C4THUSALA 


country  during  the  years  1846-47.  During  those 
years,  the  Apostle  of  Temperance  showed  nimself 
more  than  ever  the  Apostle  of  Charity.  In  Cork  he 
organised  societies  for  collecting  and  distributing  food 
supplies.  He  stopped  the  building  of  his  own  church, 
and  gave  the  funds  in  charitv.  He  spent  £600  ($3000) 
a  month  in  relief,  and  used  his  influence  in  England 
and  America  to  obtain  food  and  money.  Ireland  lost 
2,000,000  inhabitants  during  those  two  years.  All 
organization  was  broken  up,  and  the  total  abstinence 
movement  received  a  severe  blow.  In  1847  Father 
Mathew  was  placed  first  on  the  list  for  the  vacant 
Bishopric  of  Cork,  but  Rome  did  not  confirm  the 
choice  of  the  clergy.  In  the  early  (>art  of  1849,  in 
response  to  earnest  mvitations,  he  set  sail  for  America. 
He  visited  New  York,  Boston,  New  Orleans,  Washing- 
ton, Charlestown,  Mobile,  and  many  other  cities,  and 
secured  more  than  500,000  disciples.  After  a  stay  of 
two  and  a  half  years  he  returned  to  Ireland  in  Dec., 
1851.  Men  of  idl  creeds  and  politics  have  borne  im- 
portant testimony  to  the  wonderful  progress  and  the 
peneficial  effects  of  the  movement  he  inaugurated.  It 
Is  estimated  that  he  gave  the  total  abstinence  pledge 
to  7,000,000  people,  and  everyone  admits  that  in  a 
short  time  he  accomplished  a  great  moral  revolution. 
P'Connell  characterized  it  as  "  a  mighty  miracle  ",  and 
often  declared  that  he  would  never  have  ventured  to 
hold  his  Repeal  " monster  meetings''  were  it  not  that 
he  had  the  teetotalers  "for  his  policemen". 

His  remains  rest  beneath  the  cross  in  "Father 
Mathew's  Cemetery"  at  Queenstown.  On  10  Oct., 
1864,  a  fine  bronze  statue  by  Foley  was  erected  to  his 
memory  in  Cork,  and  dunnff  his  centenaiy  year  a 
marble  statue  was  erected  in  O'Connell  Street,  Dublin. 
The  influence  of  Father  Mathew's  movement  is  stiU 
felt  in  many  a  country  and  especially  in  his  own«  In 
1905  the  Archbishops  and  Bishops  of  Ireland  assem- 
bled at  Maynooth  unanimously  decided  to  request  the 
Capuchin  Fathers  to  preach  a  Temperance  Crusade 
throughout  the  country.  In  carrying  out  this  work 
their  efforts  have  been  crowned  with  singular  success. 
The  Father  Mathew  Memorial  Hall,  Dubnn,  is  a  centre 
of  social,  educative,  and  temperance  work,  and  is 
modelled  on  the  Temperance  institute,  founded  and 
maintained  by  the  Apostle  of  Temperance  himself. 
The  Father  Mathew  Hall,  Cork,  is  domg  similar  work. 
The  Dublin  Hall  publishes  a  monthly  magazine  cidled 
" The  Father  Mathew  Record",  which  has  a  wide  cir- 
culation. A  special  oiganization  called  "The  Young 
Irish  Crusaders"  was  lounded  in  Jan.,  1909,  and  its 
membership  is  already  over  100,000. 

FrmnuaCB  Journal  (Dublin);  The  Nation  (Dublin),  oontem- 
poraxy  filos;  Maguirx,  Life  of  Fr.  Mathew:  A  Biography  (Lon- 
don, 1863):  Hall,  Retroaped  of  a  Long  Life,  I  (London,  1883), 
482-620;  Mathew.  Father  Mathew:  Hie  Life  and  Timee  (Lon- 
don, Paria,  and  Melboume,  ?8Q0);  Thomas,  Fr,  Theobald  Ma- 
thew—eummarieed  Life  (Ck>rk,  1902);  MoCartht,  The  Story  of 
an  Iriehman  (London,  1904),  31-43;  O'Ksllt,  Beatha  an  Athar 
Tioboid  MaiHu  (Dublin,  1907),  with  English  introducUon  by 
AuouBmf  ■;  Ttnan,  Father  Mathew  (London,  1908). 

Father  Augustine. 

Mathiea,  FiiANcois-DtaiR^,  bishop  and  cardinal, 
b.  27  Mav,  1839;  ci.  26  October,  1908.  Bom  of  hum- 
ble family  at  Emville,  Department  of  Meurthe  and 
Moselle,  France,  he  made  nis  studies  in  the  diocesan 
school  and  the  seminary  of  the  Diocese  of  Nancy,  and 
was  ordained  priest  in  1863.  He  was  engaged  succes- 
sively as  professor  in  the  school  (petit  a^minaire)  of 
Pont-li^Mousson,  chaplain  to  the  Dominicanesses  at 
Nancy  (1879),  and  parish  priest  of  Saint-Martin  at 
Pont-&-Mou8Son  (1890).  Meanwhile,  he  had  won  the 
Degree  of  Doctor  of  Letters  with  a  Latin  and  a  French 
thesis,  the  latter  being  honoured  with  a  prize  from  the 
French  Academy  for  two  years.  On  3  «fanuary,  1893, 
he  was  nominated  to  the  Bishopric  of  Angers,  was  pre- 
conized  on  19  January,  and  consecrated  on  20  March. 
He  succeeded  Mgr  Freppel,  one  of  the  most  remarkable 
^'^      of  his  time,  ana  set  himself  to  maint>ain  all  his 


predecessor's  good  works.  To  these  he  added  the 
work  of  facilitating  the  education  of  poor  children 
destined  for  the  priesthood.  He  inaugurated  the 
same  pious  enterprise  in  the  Diocese  of  Toulouse,  to 
which  he  was  transferred  three  vears  later  (30  May, 
1896)  by  a  formal  order  of  Leo  AlII.  In  his  new  see 
he  laboured,  in  accordance  with  the  views  of  this  pon- 
tiff, to  rally  Catholics  to  the  French  Government. 
With  this  aim  he  wrote  the  "  Devoir  des  catholiques", 
an  episcopal  char^  which  attracted  wide  attention 
and  earned  for  him  the  pope's  congratulations.  In 
addition  he  was 
summoned  to 
Rome  to  be  a  car- 
dinal at  the  curia 
(19  June,  1899). 
Having  resigned 
the  See  of  Toulouse 
(14  December, 
1899),  his  activ- 
ities were  thence- 
forward absorbed 
in  the  work  oi  the 
Roman  congrega- 
tions and  some 
diplomatic  negoti- 
ations which  have 
remained  secret. 
Nevertheless,  he 
found  leisure  to 
write  on  the  Con- 
cordat of  1801  and 
the    Conclave    of 

1903.  In  1907  he  YtuMVon-DHoA  Cabdw al  Matbou 
was   admitted   to 

the  French  Academy  with  a  discourse  which  attracted 
much  notice.  Death  came  to  him  unexpectedly  next 
year  in  London,  whither  he  had  gone  to  assist  at  the 
Eucharistic  Congress.  Under  a  somewhat  common- 
place exterior  he  had  a  rich  and  active  nature,  an 
mquiring  and  open  mind,  a  fine  and  well-cultivated 
intelligence  which  did  credit  to  the  Sacred  College  and 
the  French  clergy.  His  works  include:  "De  Joannis 
abbatis  Gorziensis  vita"  (Nancy,  1878);  "L'Anden 
Regime  dans  la  Province  de  Lorraine  et  Barrois" 
(Paris,  1871 ;  3rd  ed.,  1907) ;  "  Le  Concordat  de  1801 " 
(Paris,  1903) ;  "  Les  demiers  jours  de  lAm  XIII  et 
le  conclave  de  1903"  (Paris,  1904);  a  new  edition  of 
his  works  began  to  appear  in  Paris.  July,  1910. 

La  Semaine  eatholigue  de  Toulouse  (1896,  1908);  Maison- 
NEUVB,  Eloge  de  Son  Eminence  le  cardinal  Mathieu  in  Recueil  de 
VAeadhnie  dee  Jeux  floraux  (ToulouBe,  1910). 

Antoine  D^GERT. 

Mathusala,  one  of  the  Hebrew  patriarchs,  men- 
tioned in  the  book  of  Genesis  (v).  The  word  is  given 
as  l^thusale  in  I  Par.,  i,  3,  and  Luke,  iii,  37;  and  in 
the  Revised  Version  as  Methuselah.  Etymologists 
differ  with  regard  to  the  signification  of  the  name. 
Holzinger  gives  "man  of  the  javelin"  as  liie  more 
likely  meaning;  Hommcl  and  manv  with  him  think 
that  it  means  "man  of  Selah",  Selah  being  derived 
from  a  Babylonian  word,  given  as  a  title  to  the  god, 
Sin;  while  Professor  Sayce  attributes  the  name  to  a 
Babylonian  word  which  is  not  understood.  The  au- 
thor of  Genesis  traces  the  patriarch's  descent  through 
his  father  Henoch  to  Seth,  a  son  of  Adam  and  Eve.  At 
the  time  of  his  son's  birth  Henoch  was  sixty-five  years 
of  age.  When  Mathusala  had  reached  the  great  age  of 
one  nundred  and  eighty-seven  years,  he  became  the 
father  of  Lamech.  Following  this  he  lived  theTe- 
markable  term  of  seven  hundr^  and  eighty-two  yean^ 
which  makes  his  ase  at  his  death  nine  hundred  and 
sixty-nine  years.  It  follows  thus  that  his  death  oc- 
curred in  ^e  year  of  the  Deluge.  There  is  no  record 
of  any  other  human  being  having  lived  as  long  as  this, 
for  which  reason  the  name,  Mathusala,  hr%  become  a 
synonym  for  longevity. 


MATILDA                            4d  MATILDA 

nie  tendency  of  lationaliBts  and  advanced  critics  of  dif-  entered  Italy  he  took  Beatrice  and  her  daughter 

lerent  creeds  leads  them  to  deny  outright  the  extraor-  Matilda  prisoners  and  had  them  brought  to  Ger- 

dinary  details  of  the  ages  of  the  patriarchs.    Catholic  many.    Thus  the  young  countess  was  early  dragged 

commentators,  however^  find  no  difficulty  in  accept-  into  the  bustle  of  these  troublous  times.     That, 

ing  the  words  of  Genesis.    Certain  exegetes  solve  the  however,  did  not  prevent  her  receiving  an  excel- 

ditficulty  to  their  own  satisfaction  by  declaring  that  lent  training;  she  was  finely  educated,  knew  Latin, 

the  year  meant  by  the  sacred  writer  is  not  the  eauiva-  and  was  very  fond  of  serious  books.    She  was  also 

lent  of  our  year.   In  the  Samaritan  text  Mathusala  was  deeply  religious,  and  even  in  her  youth  followed 

sixty-seven  at  Lamech's  birth,  and  720  at  his  death,  with  mterest  the  great  ecclesiastical  questions  which 

JosBPH  V.  MoLLOT.  Were  then  prominent.  Before  his  death  in  1056  Henry 

III  gave  Imck  to  Gottfried  of  Lorraine  his  wife  and 

Mati]da»  Saint,  Queen  of  Germany,  wife  of  King  stepdaughter.   When  Matilda  grew  to  womanhood  she 

Heniy  I  (The  Fowler),  b.  at  the  Villa  of  Engem  was  married  to  her  stepbrother  Gottfried  of  Lower 

in  Westphalia,  about  895;   d.  at   Ouedlinburg,  14  Lorraine,  from  whom,  however,  she  separated  in  1071. 

March,  968.    She  was  brought  up  at  the  monastery  of  He  was  murdered  in  1076;  the  marriage  was  childless, 

Elrfurt.    Henry,  whose  marriage  to  a  joung  widow,  but  it  cannot  be  proved  that  it  was  never  consum- 

named  Hathburg,  had  been  declared  mvaUd,  asked  mated,  as  many  historians  asserted.    From  1071  Ma» 

for  Matilda's  hand,  and  married  her  in  909  at  Wal-  tilda  entered  upon  the  government  and  administra* 

hausen,  which  he  presented  to  her  as  a  dowry.     I  latilda  tion  of  her  extensive  possessions  in  Middle  and  Upper 

became  the  mother  of:  Otto  I,  Emperor  of  Germany;  Italy.    These  domains  were  of  the  greatest  impop- 

Henry,  Duke  of  Bavaria;  St.  Bxuno^  Archbishop  of  tance  in  the  political  and  ecclesiastical  disputes  of  that 

C<riogne;  Gerberga,  who  married  Louis  IV  of  France;  time,  as  the  road  from  Germany  by  way  of  Upper 

Hedwig.  the  mother  of  Hugh  Capet.    In  912  Ma-  Italy  to  Rome  passed  through  them.    On  22  April, 

tilda's  nusband  succeeded  his  father  as  Duke  of  1073,  Gregory  VII  (q.  v.)  became  pope,  and  before 

Saxony,  and  in  918  he  was  chosen  to  succeed  King  long  the  great  battle  for  the  independence  of  the 

Conrad  of  Germany.  As  queen,  Matilda  was  humble.  Church  and  the  reform  of  ecclesiastical  life  began.    In 

piouSy  and  generous,  and  was  always  ready  to  help  the  this  contest  Matilda  was  the  fearless,  courageous,  and 

oppresaed  and  unfortunate.    She  wielded  a-wnole-  unswerving  ally  of  Gregory  and  his  successors, 

some  influence  over  the  king.    After  a  reign  of  seven-  Immediately  on  his  elevation  to  the  papacy  Gregory 

teen  years,  he  died  in  936.    He  beaueathed  to  her  all  entered  into  close  relations  with  Matuda  and  her 

his  possessions  in  Quedlinbiirg,  Poehtden,  Nordhausen,  mother.    The  letters  to  Matilda  (Beatrice  d.  1076) 

Grona,  and  Duderstadt.  give  distinct  expression  to  the  pope's  high  esteem 

It  was  the  king's  wish  that  his  eldest  son,  Otto,  and   sympathy   for  the   princess.    He    called    her 

ahould  succeed  hun.    Matilda  wanted  her  favourite  and  her  motlier  ''his  sisters  and  daughters  of  St. 

son  Henry  on  the  royal  throne.    On  the  plea  that  he  Peter"  (Regest.,  II,  ix),  and  wished  to  undertake  a 

was  the  first-bom  son  after  his  father  became  king,  she  Crusade  with  them  to  free  the  Christians  in  the  Holy 

induced  a  few  nobles  to  cast  their  vote  for  him,  but  Land  (Reg.,  I,  xi).    Matilda  and  her  mother  were 

Otto  was  elected  and  crowned  king  on  8  August,  936.  present  at  the  Roman  Lenten  synods  of  1074  and 

Three  years  later  Henry  revolted  against  his  brother  1075,  at  which  the  pope  published  the  important 

Otto,  but,  being  unable  to  wrest  the  royal  crown  from  decrees  on  the  reform  of  ecclesiastical  life.    Both 

him,  submitted,  and  upon  the  intercession  of  Ma-  mother  and  daughter  reported  to  the  pope  favourably 

tilda  was  made  Duke  of  oavaria.    Soon,  however,  the  on  the  disposition  of  the  German  king,  Henry  IV,  and 

two  brothers  joined  in  persecuting  their  mother,  wnom  on  7  December,  1074,  Gregory  wrote  to  him,  thanking 

they  accused  of  having  impoverished  the  crown  by  her  him  for  the  friendly  reception  of  the  papal  legate,  and 

lavish  almsgiving.    'To  satisfy  them,  she  renoimced  for  his  intention  to  co-operate  in  the  uprooting  of 

the  possessions  the  deceased  king  had  bequeathed  to  simony  and  concubinage  from  among  the  clergy. 

her,  and  retired  to  her  villa  at  Engem  in  Westphalia.  However,  the  quarrel  between  Gregory  and  Henry  IV 

But  afterwards,  when  misfortune  overtook  her  sons,  soon  began.    In  a  letter  to  Beatrice  and  Matilda  (11 

Biatilda  was  called  back  to  the  palace,  and  both  Otto  Sept.,  1075)  the  pope  complained  of  the  inconstancy 

and  Henry  imploied  her  pardon.  and  changeableness  of  the  Jdng^  who  apparently  had 

liatQda  built  many  churches,  and  founded  or  sup-  no  desire  to  be  at  peace  with  him.  In  tne  next  >[ear 
ported  numerous  monasteries.  Her  chief  foundations  (1076)  Matilda's  first  husband,  Gottfried  of  Lorraine, 
were  the  monasteries  at  Quedlinburg,  Nordhausen,  was  murdered  at  Antwerp.  Gregory  wrote  to  Bishop 
Encgem,andPoehlden.  She  spent  many  days  at  these  Hermann  of  Metz,  25  August.  1076.  that  he  did  not 
monasteries  and  was  espedalW  fond  of  Nordhausen.  yet  know  in  which  state  Matilda  "tne  faithful  hand- 
She  died  at  the  convent  of  Sts.  Servatius  and  Dionvsius  maid  of  St.  Peter  "  would,  under  God 's  guidance^  remain, 
at  Quedlinburg,  and  was  buried  there  by  the  side^  of  On  aocoimt  of  the  action  of  the  Synod  of  Worms 
her  husband.  She  was  venerated  as  a  saint  im-  against  Gregoiy  (1076),  the  latter  was  compelled  to 
mediately  after  her  death.  Her  feast  is  celebrated  lay  Henry  IV  under  excommunication.  As  the  major- 
on  14  March.  ity  of  the  princes  of  the  empire  now  took  sides  against 

Two  old  lives  of  MfttHda  are  extant;  one.  VUa  anHquior,  the  king,  Heniy  wished  to  DC  reconciled  with  the  pope, 

fflS,?(^BfrSSSS  ot^^SjSTiJS?.  fcM^  "^  oon«quently  travelled  to  Italy  in  the  middle  of  a 

675%2.  and  reprinted  in  Mxonb.  P.  L.,  CU,  1313-26.    TT>e  severe  Winter,  m  order  to  meet  the  pope  there  before 

Other,       -                                               -         -  --              -                     - 

Heniy 

MXONK, 

Bruno  (MOnater.  1867) ;  Schwaiu.  piehnlioe  MathiidB,Genuthr  himself  at  Matilda's  ad  Vice  to  her  mountam  stronghold 

S^i^SSll'ssf^*^    *''**'^  ^  Canossa  for  security.    The  excommunicated  king 

*'                                                    Michael  Orr.  ^^  asked  the  Goimtess  Matilda,  his  mother-in-law 

Adelaide,  and  Abbot  Hugh  of  Cluny,  to  intercede  with 

Matilda  of  Oaaossa,  Countess  of  Tuscany,  daugh-  the  pope  for  him.    These  f ulfiUed  the  king's  request, 

ter  and  heiress  of  the  Marquess  Boniface  of  Tuscanv,  and  after  long  opposition  Gregoiy  permitted  Henry  to 

and  Beatrice^  daughter  of  Frederick  of  Lorraine,  d.  appear  before  him  personally  at  Canossa  and  atone  for 

1046;  d.  24  July,  1 114.    In  1053  her  father  was  mur-  his  guilt  by  public  penance.    After  the  king's  depart- 

.  dered.    Duke  Gottfried  of  Lorraine,  an  opponent  of  ure  the  pope  set  out  for  Mantua.    For  safetv  Matilda 

the  Emperor  Henry  III,  went  to  Italy  and  married  accompanied  him  with  armed  mexi^  but  hearing  a 

the  widowed  Beatrice,    but,  in  1055,  when  Heniy  m  rumour  that  Archbishop  Wibert  of  Ravennaj  who 


HATIHS  S 

ma  unfriendly  to  Gregory,  was  preparing  on  Eunbuah 
forhini,  abe  brought  the  pope  back  to  CBDoaas.  Here 
■he  drew  up  a  firstdeed  of  gitt,  in  whichshe  bequeathed 
her  domains  and  estates  from  Ceperano  to  Radicofani 
to  the  Roman  Church.  But  as  long  as  she  lived  ehe 
continued  to  govern  and  administer  them  freely  and 
independently.  When,  soon  after,  Henry  again  re- 
newed the  contest  with  Gregory,  Matilda  constantly 
supported  the  pope  with  soldieis  and  money.  On  her 
security  the  monastery  of  Canosaa  had  its  treasure 


Henry  in  1095,  but  the  countess  remained  uuekniaa. 
When  the  new  Gennau  Uiijg,  Henry  V,  entered  Italy 
in  the  autumn  of  1110,  Matilda  did  homage  to  him  for 
tbeimperialfiefa.  On  his  return  he  stopped  three  days 
with  Matilda  in  Tuscany,  showed  her  every  mark  of 
respect,  and  made  her  imperial  vice-regent  of  Liguria. 
In  1112  she  reconfirmed  tne  donation  of  her  property 
to  theRomanChtu^thatshehadmadeiul077  ^on. 
Germ.  Hist,:  Legum  IV,  i,  653  eqq.).  After  her 
death  Henry  went  to  Italy  in  1116,  and  took  her  lands 
— not  merely  the  imperial  fiefs,  but  also  the  freeholds. 
The  Roman  Chureh,  though,  put  forward  its  legitimate 
claim  to  the  inheritanoe.  A  lengthy  dispute  now  en- 
sued over  the  possession  of  the  dommions  of  Matilda, 
which  was  settled  by  a  compromise  between  Inno- 
cent II  and  Lothair  IIJ  in  1133.  The  emperor  and 
Duke  Henry  of  Saxony  took  Matilda's  freeholds  as 
fiefs  from  the  pope  at  a  yearlv  rent  of  100  pounds  of 
silver.  The  dulce  took  the  feudal  oath  to  the  pope; 
after  hia  death  Matilda's  possessions  were  to  ba 
restored  wholly  to  the  Roman  Church.  Afterwards 
there  were  again  disputes  about  these  lands,  and  in 
agreements  between  the  popes  and  emperors  of  the 
twelfth  century  this  matter  is  often  mentioned.  In 
1213  the  Emperor  Frederick  II  recognized  the  right  of 
the  Roman  Church  to  the  possessions  of  Matilda. 


melted  down,  and  sent  Gregory  seven  hundred  pounds 
of  silver  and  nine  pounds  of  gold  as  a  contribution  to 
tbs  war  against  Henry.  The  latter  withdrew  from 
the  Romagna  to  Lombardy  in  1082,  and  laid  waste 
Matilda's  lands  in  hia  march  through  Tuscany. 
Nevertheless  the  countess  did  not  desist  from  her  ad- 
herence to  Gregory.  She  was  confirmed  in  this  by  her 
oonfessorj  Anaelm,  Bishop  of  Lucca. 

In  similar  ways  she  supported  the  successors  irf  the 
oeat  pope  in  the  contest  lor  the  freedom  of  the  Church. 
When  in  1087,  shortly  after  his  coronation.  Pope  Vic- 
tor III  was  driven  from  Rome  by  the  AntipopeWibert, 
Matilda  advanced  to  Rome  with  an  army,  occupied 
the  Castle  of  Sant'  Angelo  and  part  of  the  city,  and 
called  Victor  back.  However,  at  the  threats  of  the 
emperor  the  Romans  again  deserted  Victor,  so  that  he 
was  obliged  to  flee  onoe  more.  At  the  wish  of  Pope 
Urban  11  Matilda  married  in  1089  the  young  Duke 
Welf  of  Bavaria,  in  order  that  the  most  faithful  de- 
fender of  the  papal  chair  might  thus  obtain  a  powerful 
ally.  In  1090  Henry  IV  returned  to  Italy  to  attack 
Matilda,  whom  he  had  already  depHvedofbcr  estates  in 
Lcnraine.   He  laid  waste  many  of  her  possessions,  con- 

rred  Mantua,  her  principal  stronghold,  by  treachery 
1091,  as  well  as  several  castles.  Although  the 
vassals  of  the  countess  hastened  to  make  their  peace 
with  the  eniperor,  Matilda  again  promised  fidehty  to 
the  cause  of  thepope,  and  continued  the  war,  wnich 
now  took  a  turn  in  her  favour.  Henry's  army  was  de- 
feated before  Canossa.  Welf.Dukeof  Bavaria,  and  hia 
son  of  the  Bune  name,  Uatilda's  husband,  went  over  to 


Matiiifl.— I.  Nam.— The  word  "Matins"  (Lat. 
Mdiutinum  or  Matviirve),  comes  from  Maivia,  the 
Latin  name  for  the  Greek  goddess  Leucothtr  or  Leueo- 
Ikea,  white  goddess,  or  goddess  of  the  morning  (Au- 
rora) :  Leucolheegraius,  Matuia  vocabere  noslru,  Ovid.V, 
545.  Hence  Maiuline,  Matutinus,  MatuHnum  lempua, 
or  simply  MatuUnjon.  The  word  actually  used  in  the 
Roman  Breviary  is  MaiuHnum  (i.  e.  temput) ;  some  of 
the  old  authors  prefer  MaiuHiti  MaitiHnorum,  or 
MatuHniE.  In  any  ease  the  primitive  signification  at 
the  word  under  these  different  forms  was  Aurora,  aua- 
rise.  It  was  at  first  applied  to  the  ofhce  of  Lauds, 
which,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  was  said  at  dawn  (see 
Lavdb},  its  liturgical  synoDym  being  the  word  GalU- 
cinivm  (cock-crow),  which  also  designated  this  office. 
The  nifdit^ofiice  retained  its  name  of  Vigils,  since,  asa 
rule.  Vigils  and  Matins  (Lauds)  were  combined,  the 
latter  serving,  to  a  certain  extent,  as  the  closing  part  of 
Vigils.  The  name  Hatios  was  then  extended  to  the 
office  of  Vigils,  Matins  taking  the  name  of  Lauds,  a 
term  which,  strictly  speaking,  only  deeignaies  the  last 
threepsalmsof  that  office,  i.e.  the  "laudate" psalms. 
At  the  time  when  this  chan^  of  name  took  place,  the 
custom  of  saying  Vigils  at  night  was  observed  scarcely 
anywhere  but  in  monasteries,  whilst  elsewhere  theji 
were  said  in  the  morning,  BO  that  finally  it  did  not  seem 
a  misapplication  to  pve  to  a  night  Office  a  name 
which,  strictly  speaking,  appUed  only  to  the  office  oi 
day-break.  The  change,  however,  was  onljr  graduaL 
St.  Benedict  (sixth  century)  in  his  descripuon  of  the 
Divine  Office,  always  refers  to  Vigils  aa  the  Ni^l 
Office,  whilst  that  of  day-break  he  calls  Matins,  laude 
being  the  last  three  psalms  of  that  office  (Regula,  cap, 
XIII-XIV;  see  Lauds).  The  Council  of  Tours  in  567 
had  already  applied  the  title  "Matins"  to  the  Night 
O&ee:  ad  MattOintansexanHplum^j  Loudes  MatuHna; 
Matvtini  hyfnni  are  also  found  in  various  ancient 
authors  as  synonymous  with  Lauds.  (Hefele-Lecleroci, 
"Hist,  des  ConcUee",  V,  III,  188, 189,) 


MATINS 


51 


MATINS 


n.  Origin  (Matins  and  Vigils). — ^Tfae  word  Vigils,  at 
first  applied  to  the  Night  Offioey  also  comes  from  a 
Latin  source,  both  as  to  the  term  and  its  use,  namely, 
the  VigilicB  or  nocturnal  watches  or  guards  of  the  sol- 
diers. The  night  from  six  o'clodc  in  the  evening  to 
six  o'clock  in  the  morning  was  divided  into  four  watches 
or  vigils  of  three  hours  each,  the  first,  the  second,  the 
third,  and  the  fourth  vigil.  From  the  liturgical  point 
of  view  and  in  its  origin,  the  use  of  the  term  was  very 
vague  and  elastic.  Generally  it  designated  the  nightly 
meetings,  synaxeSf  of  the  Christians.  Under  this 
form,  t£e  watch  (Vigil)  might  be  said  to  date  back  as 
early  as  the  beginning  of  Christianity.^  It  was  either 
on  account  of  the  secrecy  of  their  meetings^  or  because 
of  some  mystical  idea  which  made  tiie  middle  of  the 
night  the  hour  par  excellence  for  prayer,  in  the  words  of 
the  psalm:  media  node  stargebam  ad  confUendum  tibi, 
that  the  Christians  chose  the  night  time  for  their  syn- 
axes,  and  of  all  other  nights,  preferably  the  Sabbath. 
There  is  an  allusion  to  it  in  tne  Acts  of  the  Apostles 
(xx,  4) ,  as  also  in  the  letter  of  Pliny  the  Younger.  The 
liturgical  services  of  these  synaxes  was  composed  of 
almost  the  same  elements  as  that  of  the  Jewish  Syna- 
gogue: readings  from  the  Books  of  the  Law,  singing  of 
psalms,  divers  prayers.  What  gave  them  a  Christian 
character  was  the  fact  that  they  were  followed  by 
the  Eucharistic  service,  and  that  to  the  reading  from 
the  Law,  the  Epistles  and  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles 
was  very  soon  added,  as  well  as  the  Gospels  and  some- 
times other  books  which  were  non-canonical,  as,  for 
example,  the  Epistles  of  Saint  Clement,  that  of  Saint 
Barnabas,  the  Apocalypse  of  Saint  Peter,  etc. 

The  more  solemn  watches,  which  were  held  on  the 
anniversaries  of  martyrs  or  on  certain  feasts,  were  also 
known  by  this  title,  especially^  during  the  third  and 
fourth  centuries.  The  Vigil  in  this  case  was  also 
called  irawvuxis,  because  the  greater  part  of  the  night 
was  devoted  to  it.  Commenced  in  the  evening,  thev 
only  terminated  the  following  morning,  and  comprised, 
in  addition  to  the  Eucharistic  Supper,  homilies,  chants, 
and  divers  offices.  These  last  Vigils  it  was  that  c^ave 
rise  to  certain  abuses,  and  they  were  finally  abolished 
in  the  Church  (see  Vigils)  .  Notwithstanding  this,  how- 
ever, the  Vigils,  in  their  strictest  sense  of  Divine  Office 
of  the  Night,  were  maintained  and  developed.  Among 
writers  from  the  fourth  to  the  sixth  century  we  find 
several  descriptions  of  them.  The  "  De  yirginitate  ", 
a  fourth-century  treatise,  gives  them  as  immediately 
following  Lauds.  The  author,  however,  does  not  de- 
termine the  number  of  psalms  which  had  to  be  recited. 
Methodius  in  his  "Banquet  of  Virgins"  (Sympofian 
9ive  Convivium  decern  Virginum)  sul^ivided  the  Night 
Office  or  irarwx/t  into  watches,  but  it  is  difficult  to  de- 
termine what  he  meant  by  these  nocturnes.  St.  Basil 
also  gives  a  very  vague  description  of  the  Ni^t  Office 
or  Vigils,  but  in  terms  which  permit  us  to  conclude  that 
'^le  pflalms  were  sung,  sometimes  b^  two  choirs,  and 
sometinies  as  responses.  Cassian  gives  us  a  more  de- 
tailed account  of  the  Night  Office  of  the  fifth  centurv 
monks.  The  number  of  psalms,  which  at  first  varied. 
was  subsequently  fixed  at  twelve,  with  the  addition  ol 
a  lesson  from  the  Old  and  another  from  the  New  Testa- 
ment. St.  Jerome  defended  the  Vigils  against  the  at- 
tacks of  Vigilantius,  but  it  is  principally  concerning  the 
watches  at  the  Tombs  of  the  Martyrs  that  he  speaks  in 
his  treatise, "  Contra  Vigilantium '  •  Of  all  the  descrip- 
tions the  most  complete  is  that  in  the  "  Peregrinatio 
^therin  ",  the  author  of  which  assisted  at  Matins  in  the 
Churches  os  Jerusalem,  where  great  solemnity  was  di^ 
played.  (For  all  these  texts,  see  B&umer-Biron,  loc. 
cat.,  pp.  79, 122. 139. 186, 208, 246,  etc.)  Other  allu- 
flioiis  are  to  be  founa  in  Csssarius  of  Aries,  Nicetius  or 
Nioetfis  of  Treves,  and  Gregory  of  Tours  (see  B&umer- 
Biron,  loc.  cit.,  1, 216, 227, 232). 

III.  The  Elements  of  Matins  from  this  Fourth 
TO  the  Sixth  C!bntury. — In  all  the  authors  we  have 
Quoted,  the  form  of  Night  Ptayers  would  appear  to 


have  varied  a  great  deal.  Nevertheless  in  these  do* 
scriptions,  and  in  spite  of  certain  differences,  we  find 
the  same  elements  repeated:  the  psalms  generally 
chanted  in  the  form  of  responses,  that  is  to  say  by  one 
or  more  cantors,  the  choir  repeating  one  verse,  which 
served  as  a  response,  alternately  with  the  verses  of 
psalms  which  were  sung  by  the  cantors;  readings  taken 
from  the  Old  and  the  New  Testament,  and  later  on, 
from  the  works  of  the  Fathers  and  Doctors;  litanies 
or  supplications;  prayer  for  the  divers  members  of  the 
Church,  clergy,  faithful,  neophytes,  and  catechumens; 
for  emperors;  travellers;  the  sick;  and  generally  for 
idl  the  necessities  of  the  Church,  and  even  prayers 
for  Jews  and  for  heretics.  [B&umer,  Litanie  u.  Missal, 
in  "Stuflion  des  Benediktinerordens",  II  (Raigem. 
1886),  287, 289.]  It  is  quite  easy  to  find  these  essential 
elements  in  our  modem  Matins. 

IV.  Matins  in  the  Roman  and  other  LrruBGiE& 
— ^In  the  modem  Roman  Liturgy,  Matins,  on  account 
of  its  length,  the  position  it  occupies,  and  the  matter 
of  which  it  is  composed,  may  be  considered  as  the  most 
important  office  of  the  day,  and  for  the  variety  and 
richness  of  its  elements  the  most  remarkable.  It 
commences  more  solemnly  than  the  other  offices,  with 
a  psalm  (Ps.  zoiv)  called  the  Invitatory,  which  is 
chanted  or  recited  in  the  form  of  a  response,  in  accord- 
ance with  the  most  ancient  custom.  Tne  hymns, 
which  have  been  but  tardily  admitted  into  the  Roman 
Liturgy,  as  well  as  the  hymns  of  the  other  hours,  form 
part  ^a  very  ancient  collection  which,  so  far  at  least 
as  some  of  them  are  concerned,  may  be  said  to  pertain 
to  the  seventh  or  even  to  the  sixth  century.  As  a  rule 
they  suggest  the  symbolic  signification  of  this  Hour 
(see  NoTv),  the  prayer  of  the  middle  of  the  night 
This  principal  form  of  the  Office  should  be  distin- 
guished from  the  Office  of  Sunday,  of  Feasts,  and  the 
ferial  or  week  day  Office.  The  Sunday  Office  is  made 
up  of  the  Invitatory,  hymn,  three  noctums,  the  first 
of  which  comprises  twelve  psalms,  and  the  second  and 
third  three  psalms  each;  nine  lessons,  three  to  each 
noctum,  eadi  lesson  except  the  ninth  being  followed 
by  a  response;  and  finally,  the  canticle  Te  Deum, 
which  is  recit^  or  sung  after  the  ninth  lesson  in- 
stead of  a  response.  The  Office  of  Feasts  is  similar 
to  that  of  Sunday,  except  that  there  are  only  three 
psalms  to  the  first  noctum  instead  of  twelve.  The 
week-day  or  ferial  office  and  that  of  simple  feasts  are 
composed  of  one  noctum  only,  with  twelve  psalms  and 
three  lessons.  The  Office  of  tne  Dead  and  that  of  the 
three  last  dajsrs  of  Holy  Week  are  simpler,  the^  absolu- 
tions, benedictions,  and  invitatory  being  omitted,  at 
least  for  the  three  last  days  of  Holy  Week,  since  the 
invitatoiy  is  said  in  the  Offices  of  the  Dead. 

The  prmcipal  characteristics  of  this  office  which  dia- 
tinguisn  it  from  all  the  other  offices  are  as  follows: 

^)  The  Psalms  used  at  Matins  are  made  up  of  a 
series  commencing  with  Psalm  i  and  running  without 
intermission  to  Psalm  cviii  inclusive.  The  order  of 
the  Psalter  is  followed  almost  without  intermption, 
except  in  the  case  of  feaste,  when  the  Psalms  are 
chosen  according  to  their  signification,  but  always 
from  the  series  i-cviii,  the  remaining  Psalms  being  re- 
served for  Vespers  and  the  other  Offices. 

(b)  The  Le^ns  form  a  uniaue  element,  and  in  the 
other  Offices  give  place  to  a  (Japitulum  or  short  les- 
son. This  latter  has  possibly  been  introduced  only  for 
the  sake  of  symmetry,  and  m  its  present  form,  at  any 
rate,  gives  but  a  very  incomplete  idea  of  what  the  true 
reading  or  lesson  is.  The  Lessons  of  Matins  on  the 
contrary  are  readings  in  the  proper  sense  of  the  term: 
they  comprise  the  most  important  parte  of  the  Old 
and  the  New  Testament,  extracte  from  the  works  of 
tibe  principal  doctors  of  the  Church,  and  legends  of 
the  mart^  or  of  the  other  sainte.  The  lessons  from 
Holy  Scripture  are  distributed  in  accordance  with  cer- 
tain fixed  rules  (rubrics)  which  assign  such  or  such 
booksof  the  Bible  to  certain  seasons  of  the  year.    In 


MATBICULA 


52 


MATTIO 


Uiis  manner  extracts  from  all  the  Books  of  the  Bible 
are  read  at  the  Office  during  the  year.  The  idea,  how- 
ever, of  having  the  whole  Bible  read  in  the  Office,  as 
propcNBed  bv  several  reformers  of  the  Breviary,  more 
especially  during  the  seventeenth  and  ei^teenth  cen- 
turies, has  never  been  re^rded  favourably  by  the 
Church,  which  views  the  Divine  Office  as  a  prayer  and 
not  as  an  object  of  study  for  the  cleigy. 

(c)  The  Invitatoryand,  on  certain  (days,  the  Finale 
or  Te  Deum  also  form  one  of  the  principal  character- 
istics of  this  Office. 

(d)  The  Responses,  more  niunerous  in  this  Office, 
recall  the  most  ancient  form  of  psalmody;  that  of  the 
psalm  chanted  by  one  alone  and  answered  by  the 
whole  choir,  as  opposed  to  the  antiphonic  form,  which 
consists  in  two  choirs  alternately  reciting  the  psalms. 

(e)  The  division  into  three  or  two  Noctums  is  also 
a  special  feature  of  Matins,  but  it  is  impossible  to  say 
why  it  has  been  thought  by  some  to  be  a  souvenir  of 
the  military  watches  (there  were  not  three,  but  fouir, 
watches)  or  even  of  the  ancient  Vi£^,  since  ordi- 
narily there  was  but  one  meeting  in  we  middle  of  the 
night.  The  custom  of  rising  tb^  times  for  prayer 
could  only  have  been  in  vogue,  as  exceptional,  m  cer- 
tain monasteries,  or  for  some  of  the  more  solenm 
feasts  (see  Nocturns). 

(f)  In  the  Office  of  the  Church  of  Jerusalem,  of 
which  the  pilgrim  iBtheria  gives  us  a  description,  the 
Vigils  on  Sundays  terminate  with  the  solenm  reading 
of  the  Ciospel,  in  the  Grotto  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre. 
This  practice  of  reading  the  Gosi)el  has  been  preserved 
in  the  Benedictine  Liturgy.  It  is  a  matter  for  regret 
that  in  the  Roman  Liturgy  this  custom,  so  ancient  and 
so  solenm,  is  no  longer  represented  but  by  the  Homily. 

The  Ambrosian  Liturgy,  better  perhaps  than  any 
other,  has  preserved  traces  of  the  great  Vis^  or 
vam/X^o,  with  their  complex  and  varied  £sp]ay 
of  processions,  psalmodies,  etc.  (cf.  Dom  C^in: 
*' Paadographie  Musicale",  vol.  VI,  p.  8,  sq.;  Paul 
Lejay ;  Ambrosien  (rit.)  in  *'Dictionnaire  d'AxchiM, 
Chr6t.  et  de  Liturgie",  vol.  I,  p.  1423  sq.).  The  same 
Litun^r  has  also  preserved  Vigils  of  long  psahnody. 
This  Nocturnal  Office  adapted  itself  at  a  later  period 
to  a  more  modem  form,  approaching  more  and  more 
closely  to  the  Roman  Liturgy.  Here  too  are  found 
the  three  Nocturns,  with  Antiphon,  Psalms,  Lessons, 
and  Responses,  the  ordinary  elements  of  the  Roman 
Matins,  and  with  a  few  special  features  quite  Am- 
brosian. In  the  Benedictine  Office,  Matins,  like  the 
text  of  the  Office,  follows  the  Roman  Liturgy  quite 
closely.  The  number  of  psalms,  vis.  twelve,  is  always 
the  same,  there  being  three  or  two  Noctums  accord- 
ine  to  the  degree  of  solemnity  of  the  particular  Office 
celebrated.  Ordinarily  there  are  four  Lessons,  fol- 
lowed by  their  responses,  to  each  Noctum.  The  two 
most  characteristic  features  of  the  Benedictine  Matins 
are:  the  Canticles  of  the  third  Noctum,  which  are  not 
found  in  the  Roman  7  ituigy,  and  the  Gospel,  which  is 
sung  solemnly  at  the  end,  the  latter  trait,  as  already 
pointed  out,  beins  very  ancient.  In  the  Mosarabic 
Liturgy  (q.  v.) ,  on  the  contrary.  Matins  are  made  up  of  a 
system  of  Antiphons,  Collects,  and  Vcrsicles  which 
make  them  quite  a  departure  from  the  Roman  system. 

V.  Signification  and  Stmboush. — From  the  fore- 
going it  is  clear  that  Matins  remains  the  principal  (jffice 
of  the  Church,  and  the  one  which,  in  its  origin,  dates 
back  the  farthest,  as  far  as  the  Apostolic  ages,  as  far 
even  as  the  very  inception  of  the  (jhurch.  It  is  doubt- 
lees,  after  having  passed  through  a  great  many  trans- 
formations, the  ancient  Night  Office,  the  Office  of  the 
Vi^.  In  a  certain  sense  it  is,  perhaps,  the  Office 
which  was  primitivelv  the  preparation  for  the  Biass, 
that  is  to  say,  the  Mass  of  the  Catechumens,  which 
mesents  at  any  rate  the  same  construction  as  that 
Office: — the  reading  from  the  Old  Testament,  then 
tiie  Epistles  and  the  Acts,  and  finally  the  Cvospel — ^the 
whole  being  interminglea  with  psalmody,  and  termi- 


nated bv  the  Homily  (cf  .  Cabrol:  "  Les  Origines  litup- 
giques' ,  Paris.  1906,  334  seq.).  If  for  a  time  this 
Office  appeared  to  be  secondary  to  that  of  Lauds  or 
Morning  Office,  it  is  because  the  latter,  originally  but 
a  part  of  Matins,  drew  to  itself  the  solemnity,  prob- 
ably on  account  of  the  hour  at  which  it  was  cele- 
brated, permitting  all  the  faithful  to  be  present. 
Accoraing  to  anouier  theory  suggested  by  the  testi- 
mony of  Lactantius,  St.  Jerome,  and  St.  Isidore,  the 
Christians,  being  ignorant  of  the  date  of  Christ's  com- 
ing, thought  He  would  return  during  the  middle  of  the 
ni^t,  and  most  probably  the  night  of  Holy  Saturday 
or  Blaster  Sunday,  at  or  about  the  hour  when  He  arose 
from  ihe  sepulchre.  Hence  the  importance  of  the 
Easter  Vigil,  which  would  thus  have  become  the  model 
or  prototype  of  the  other  Saturday  Vigils,  and  inci- 
dentally or  all  the  nightly  Vigils.  The  idea  of  the 
Second  Advent  would  have  given  rise  to  the  Easter 
Vigil,  and  the  latter  to  the  office  of  the  Saturday 
Vi^  (BatiffoL  "Hist,  du  Br^viaire",  3).  The  insti- 
tution of  the  Saturday  Vigil  would  consequently  be  as 
ancient  as  that  of  Sunday. 

BoKA«  I>«  Divina  PmUmodia  in  Opera  Omnia  (Antwerp* 
1677),  003  sq.;  Qranoolas.  Commeniariua  huioricua  m  Rom, 
Bremar.t  100;  Probst,  Brevier  und  Breviergebel  (TObingen. 
1854),  143  sq.;  BXumsr,  Hietoire  du  Br^oiatre,  tr.  Biron,  I 
(Pans,  1905),  60  sq.;  DncBKaNB,  Chrietian  Worehip  (1004), 
448,  449;  BxTirFOL,  Huioire  du  BrMaire,  3  sq.;  Tbaiaopbr, 
Handbuch  der  KaihoUeehen  LUuroik,  II,  434,  460:  GAsroct, 
Lea  Vioilea  Nottumte  (Paris,  1908)  (CoUeciion  Bloud);  see 
House  (Canonical);  Lauds;  Vigils;  Brxviart. 

F.  Cabrou 

Matricula,  a  tenn  applied  in  Christian  antiquity 
(1)  to  the  catalogue  or  roll  of  the  clergy  of  a  particular 
church:  thus  Clerici  immairiculaU  denoted  the  clergy 
entitled  to  maintenance  from  the  resources  of  the 
church  to  which  they  were  attached.  Allusions  to 
matricvla  in  this  sense  are  found  in  the  second  and 
third  canons  of  the  Council  of  Agde  and  in  canon  xiii 
of  the  Council  of  Orleans  (both  of  the  sixth  centuiy). 
This  term  was  also  applied  (2)  to  the  ecclesiastical  fist 
of  poor  pensioners  who  were  assisted  from  the  church 
revenu3s;  hence  the  names  matrictJam,  matriciilarioe, 
by  which  persons  thus  assisted,  together  with  those 
wno  performed  menial  services  about  the  church,  were 
known.  The  house  in  which  su(^  pensioners  were 
lodc^d  wa:  also  known  (3)  as  matricula,  which  thus 
becomes  synonymous  with  xenodochium^ 

Maubice  M«  Hassett. 

Matrimony.    See  Maxkbiage. 

Matteo  da  Siena  (Matteo  di  Giovanni  di  Baa- 
TOLo),  painter,  b.  at  Borgo  San  Sepolcro^  c.  1435; 
d.  1495.  His  common  appellation  was  derived  from 
his  having  worked  chiefly  m  the  city  of  Siena.  In  the 
fourteenth  century  the  masters  of  the  Sienese  school 
rivalled  the  Florentine  painters;  in  the  fifteenth,  the 
former  school,  resisting  the  progress  achieved  at 
Florence,  allowed  itself  to  be  outstripped  by  its  rivaL 
Although  in  this  period  it  gives  the  impression  of  a 
superannuated  art,  Sienese  painting  stiU  charms  with 
its  surviving  fine  traditional  qualities— ^its  sincerity  of 
feeling,  the  refined  grace  of  its  figures,  its  attention  to 
minutUB  of  dress  and  of  architectural  oackground,  and 
its  fascinating  frankness  of  execution.  Of  these  quali- 
ties Matteo  has  his  share,  but  he  is  furthermore  distin- 
guished by  the  dignity  of  his  female  figures,  the  gra> 
dous  presence  of  his  an^ls,  and  the  harmony  of  a 
colour  scheme  at  once  nch  and  brilliant.  For  this 
reason  critics  pronounce  him  the  best  of  the  fifteenth- 
century  Sienese  painters.  The  earliest  authentic  woric 
of  Matteo  is  dated  1470,  a  Vlr^n  enthroned,  with  an- 
gels, painted  for  the  Servites,  and  now  in  the  Academy 
of  Siena.  In  1487  he  executed  for  the  hif^  altar  A 
Santa  Maria  de'  Send  del  Borgo— the  Servite  church 
of  his  native  village;;— an  "Assumption",  with  the 
Apostles  and  other  saints  looking  on;  on  tnepredella 
he  has  painted  the  history  of  the  Blessed  Virgin.    Ao- 


MATTEO  53  MATTEB 

wording  to  G.  Milaned  (in  his  edition  of  Vasari,  II.  obtained  the  upper  hand,  and  the  chiefs  of  the  Ghibel- 

Florenoe,  1878,  p.  493,  note  3),  the  main  portion  ot  line  party  were  obliged  to  go  into  exile;  among  these 

this  painting  is  still  to  be  seen  in  the  chiirch,  while  the  was  the  poet  Dante.     In  a  famous  passage  of  the 

lateral  portions  have  been  removed  to  the  sacristy.  '^DivinaCommedia"  (Paradiso,  XII,  124-26),  Dante 

Some  other  Biadonnas  of  his  deserve  particular  men-  certainly  speaks  as  an  extreme  Ghibelline  against 

tion:  one  in  the  Palazzo  Tolomei  at  Siena;  the  Virgin  Matteo  of  Aquasparta.    Matteo,  however,  had  died 

and  Infant  Jesus  painted,  in  1484,  for  the  city  palace  of  before  this.    He  was  buried  in  the  Franciscan  church 

Siena,  on  a  pilaster  in  the  hall  decorated  by  Spinello  of  Ara  Coeli,  where  his  monument  is  still  to  be  seen. 
Aretino;  in  the  duomo  of  Pienza,  a  Virgin  ana  Child        Matteo  was  a  very  learned  philosopher  and  theolo- 

enthroned  between  St.  Matthew  and  St.  Catherine,  St.  gian;  he  was  further  a  personal  pupil  of  St.  Bonaven- 

Bartholomew  and  St.  Luke.     On  the  lunette  Matteo  ture,  whose  teaching,  in  general,  he  followed,  or  rather 

painted  the  Flagellation,  and  on  the  predella  three  me-  developed.     In  this  respect  he  was  one  of  what  is 

daUions — "Ecoe  Homo  ,  the  Virgin,  and  an  Evan-  known  as  the  older  Franciscan  school,  who  preferred 

gelist.     The  signature  reads:  "  Opus  Mathei  Johannis  Augustinianism  to  the  more  pronounced  Aristotelean- 

de  Senis".    As  decoration  for  the  pavement  of  the  ism  of  St.  Thomas  Aquinas.    His  principal  work  is  the 

cathedral  of  Siena,  he  designed  three  subjects:  "The  acute ''Qusestionesdisputatfie'^  which  treats  of  various 

Sibvl  of  Samos",  "The  Deliverance  of  Bethulia",  subjects.    Of  this  one  book  appeared  at  Quaracchi  in 

and  "The  Massacre  of  the  Innocents".  1903  (the  editing  and  issue  are  discontinued  for  the 

In  1477  he  painted  his  "  Madonna  della  Neve "  (Our  present),  namely:  **  Qusestiones  disputatse  selectss'',  in 

Lady  of  the  Snow),  for  the  church  under  that  invoca-  *'Bibliotheca  Franciscana  scholastica  medii  sevi'',  I; 

tion  at  Siena.    On  comparing  this  with  the  Servite  the  "Qusestiones''  are  preceded  bv  a  ''Tractatus  de 

Madonna  of  1470,  it  is  seen  to  surpass  the  earlier  work  excellentia  S.  Scripturs"  (pp.  1-22),  also  by  a  *'  Sermo 

in  beauty  of  t3rpes,  symmetry  of  proportions,  and  de  studio  S.  Scripturse"  (pp.  22-36);  it  is  followed  by 

colour-tone.  The  St.  Barbara,  a  composition  made  for  **  De  processione  Spiritus  siancti "  (pp.  429-53).    Five 

the  church  of  San  Domenico  at  Siena,  is  also  a  remark-  "  Qusestiones  de  Cognitione  "  had  already  been  edited 

able  work:  two  angels  are  gracefully  laying  a  crown  on  in  the  collection  called  "De  hmnanse  cognitionis 

the  saint's  head,  while  others^  accompanied  by  St.  ratione  anecdota  qusedam"  (Quaracchi,  1883),  87- 

Mary  Blagdalen  and  St.  Catherine  of  Alexandria  and  182.    The  rest  of  nis  works,  still  imedited,  are  to 

pla^ng  musical  instruments,  surround  her.    When  be  foimd  at  Assisi  and  Tool.     Among  them  are: 

Matteo  treats  subjects  involving  lively  action,  he  loses  "  Commentarius  in  4  libros  Sententiarum"   (auto- 

a  great  deal  of  his  power.    The  incidental  scenes  are  graph);    " Concordantise  super  4  11.  Sententiarum"; 

combined  in  a  confused  way,  the  expression  of  feeling  "Postilla  super  librum  Job    ;   *^Postilla  super  Psal- 
is  forced,  and  degenerate; 
ral  result  is  affected 


Crowk  and  Cavalcaselle.  a  New  HUiory  of  PaitUino  in    aim"  (autograph):  "In  Epist.  ad  Romanof 

nnu.  FT.  U.  Qta^.  II  (P«i.,  1892).  m  y.SA,'i^'%*rWj;^'^Z  "^^v^C^^L  ^f^r^^ 

UABTON  DOBTAIS.  „  ^^  General  0.  Min.  in  Atudecta  Franclacana,  III  (Quaracchi, 

1897),   406:-19.    699,   703;    Wadding.    Scriptorea    Ord.   Min, 

09-70:    Sbaralea, 


CMcan,   D.  at  Aqi^pana  in  tne  Jjiocese  oi    loai,  i;rN7'c*irttifarc;«irPaK;.7it  JP^^^^ 

Lmbna,  about  1235;  d.  at  Rome,  29  October,  1302.  Zeitachrift  far  kathol.  Theologie,  VII   (Innabmck,   1883).  46; 

He  was  a  member  of  the  Benti venghi  family,  to  which  Orabmann.  Die  pMloaophiache  und  tKeolooiache  Erkenninieiehre 

Cardinal  Bentivengajd  12m  also  a  Franciscan  te-  fS^^J^^^ ZeliiSl^llVl^jSr^  '"**'  ''*^ 
longed.   Matteo  entered  the  Franciscan  Order  at  Todi.  Michael  Bihu 

took  t^e  degree  of  Master  of  Theolorvr  at  Paris,  ana 

taught  also  for  a  time  at  Bologna.  The  Franciscan,  Matter  (Gr.  t\fi]  Lat.  materia;  Fr.  matih-e;  Ger.  ma- 
John  Peckham,  having  become  Archbishop  of  Canter-  terie  and  staff),  the  correlative  of  Form.  See  Htlo- 
bury  in  1279,  Matteo  was  in  1280  made  Peckham's  horphism;  Foum. 

successor  as  Lector  eacri  Palatii  apostolicif  i.  e.  he  was        Taking  the  term  in  its  widest  sense,  matter  signifies 

appointed  reader  (teacher)  of  theology  to  the  papal  that  out  of  which  anything  is  maae  or  composed. 

Curia.    In  1 287  the  chapter  held  at  Mon tpellier  elected  Thus  the  original  meaning  of  OXiy  (Homer)  is  * '  wood ' ', 

him  ffeneral  in  succession  to  Arlotto  of  Prato.     When  in  the  sense  of  "grove "  or  *' forest " ;  and  hence,  deriv- 

Qiro&mo  Masci  (of  Ascoli),  who  had  previously  been  atively,  ''wood  cut  down''  or  timber.    The  Latin  mo- 

Sneral  of  the  f^nciscan  Order,  became  pope  as Nicho-  ieria,  as  opposed  to  lignum  (wood  used  for  fuel),  has 
I IV,  1 5  Feb.,  1288,  he  created  Matteo  cardinal  of  the  also  the  meaning  of  timber  for  building  purposes.  In 
title  of  San  Lorenso  in  Damaso  in  Ma^  of  that  year,  modem  languages  this  word  (as  signifying  raw  ma- 
After  this  liatteo  was  made  Cardinal  Bishop  of  Porto,  terial)  is  used  in  a  similar  way.  Matter  is  thus  one  of 
and  potniterUiariue  maior  (Grand  Penitentiary).  He  the  elements  of  the  becoming  and  continued  bein^  of 
still,  however,  retained  the  direction  of  the  order  imtil  an  artificial  product.  The  architect  employs  tim- 
the  chapter  of  1289.  Matteo  had  summoned  this  chap-  ber  in  the  building  of  his  house;  the  shoemaker  fash- 
ter  to  meet  at  Assisi,  but  Nicholas  IV  caused  it  to  be  ions  his  shoes  from  leather.  It  will  be  observed  that, 
held  in  his  presence  at  Rieti;  here  Raymond  Gaufredi,  as  an  intrinsic  element,  matter  connotes  composition, 
a  native  of  Provence,  was  elected  general.  As  general  and  is  most  easily  studied  in  a  consideration  of  the  na- 
of  the  order  liatteo  maintained  a  moderate,  middle  ture  of  change.  This  is  treated  ex  pro/esso  in  the  arti- 
oourse  ;  among  other  things  he  reorganised  the  cleonCAusE  (q.v.).  It  will,  however,  be  necessary  to 
studies  pursuea  in  the  order.  In  the  quarrel  between  touch  upon  it  briefly  again  here,  since  matter  can  only 
Boniface  VIII  and  the  Colonna.  from  1297  onwards,  be  rationally  treated  in  so  far  as  it  is  a  correlate.  The 
he  strongly  supported  the  pope,  lx>th  in  official  memo-  present  article  will  therefore  be  divided  into  para- 
rials  and  in  public  sermons.  Boniface  VIII  appointed  ^phs  giving  the  scholastic  doctrine  under  the  follow- 
him,  both  in  1297  and  1300,  to  an  important  embassy  mg  heads: — (1)  Secondary  Matter  (in  accidental 
to  Ix>mbardy.  the  Romagna,  and  to  Florence,  where  change);  (2)  Primordial  Matter  (in  substantial 
the  Blacks  {Neri)  and  the  Whites  (Bianchi),  that  is,  change);  (3)  The  Nature  of  Primordial  Matter;  (4) 
the  Guelphs  and  Ghibellines,  were  violently  at  issue  Privation;  (5)  Permanent  Matter;  (6)  The  Unity  of 
with  eachotber.  In  1301  Matteo  returned  to  Florence,  Matter;  (7)  Matter  as  the  Principle  of  Individuation; 
following  Charles  of  Valois.  but  neither  peace  nor  (8)  The  Causality  of  Matter;  (9)  Variant  Theories, 
reconciliation  was  brought  about.    The  Blacks  finally        (1)  Secondary  Matter. — Accepting  matter  in  the  ori- 


MATTIB 


54 


BCATTIB 


gioal  sense  given  above,  Aristotle  defines  the  "ma- 
terial cause  oTori  x'^^*^'  ^^  Awdfudrrot  koX  6  Aftyvpot 
rijit  ^caX^f .  That  the  form  of  the  statue  is  realised  in 
the  bronse,  that  the  bronze  is  the  subject  of  the  form, 
is  sensibly  evident.  These  two  elements  of  the  statue 
or  bowl  are  the  intrinsic  *'  causes''  of  its  being  what  it 
is.  With  the  addition  of  the  efficient  and  final  cause 
(and  of  privation)  they  constitute  the  whole  doctrine 
of  its  ffitiology,  and  are  invoked  as  a  sufficient  expla- 
nation of  * '  accidental ''  change.  There  is  no  difficulty 
in  understanding  such  a  doctrine.  The  determinable 
''matter''  (here,  in  scholastic  terminology,  more  prop- 
erly substance)  is  the  concrete  reality— brass  or  white 
metal — susceptible  of  determination  to  a  particular 
mode  of  being.  The  determinant  is  the  artificial 
shape  or  form  actually  visible.  The  "matter"  re- 
mains substantially  the  same  before,  throughout,  and 
after  its  fashionine. 

(2)  Primordial  Matter, — ^The  explanation  is  not  so 
obvious  when  it  is  extended  to  cover  substantial 
change.  It  is  indeed  true  that  already,  in  speaking  ot 
the  "  matter  "  of  accidental  change  (suostance),  we  go 
beyond  the  experience  siven  in  sense  perception.  But, 
when  we  attempt  to  deal  with  the  elements  of  cor- 
poreal substance,  we  proceed  still  farther  in  the  pro- 
cess of  abstraction.  It  is  impossible  to  represent  to 
ourselves  eiUier  primordial  matter  or  substantial  form. 
Any  attempt  to  do  so  inevitably  results  in  a  play  of 
imagination  that  tends  to  falsify  their  nature,  for  mey 
are  not  imaginable.  The  proper  objects  of  our  under- 
standing are  the  essences  of  those  bodies  with  which 
we  are  surrounded  (cf.  S.  Thomas,  "De  Principio  In- 
dividuationis").  We  have,  however,  no  intuitive 
knowledge  of  these,  nor  of  their  principles.  We  may 
reason  about  them,  indeed,  and  must  so  reason  if  we 
wish  to  explain  the  possibility  of  change;  but  to  im- 
agine is  to  court  the  danger  of  arriving  at  entirely 
false  conclusions.  Hence  whatever  may  be  asserted 
with  regard  to  primordial  matter  must  necessarily  be 
the  resmt  of  pure  and  abstract  reasoning  upon  the  con- 
crete data  furnished  by  sense.  It  is  an  inexisting 
I>rinciple  invoked  to  account  for  substantial  altera- 
tion. But,  as  St.  Thomas  Aqiiinas  remarks,  whatever 
knowledge  of  it  we  may  acqmre  is  reached  only  by  its 
analogy  to  "form"  (ibid.).  The  two  are  the  insepa- 
rable constituents  of  corporeal  beinffs.  The  teaching 
of  Aquinas  may  be  briefly  set  out  here  as  embodying 
that  also  of  Aristotle,  with  which  it  is  in  the  main 
identical.  It  is  the  teaching  conmionly  received  in 
the  School:  ^ough  various  other  opinions,  to  which 
allusion  will  be  made  later,  are  to  be  found  advanced 
both  before  and  after  its  formulation  by  Aquinas. 

(3)  The  Nature  of  Primordial  Matter.— For  St. 
Thomas  primordial  matter  is  the  common  ^und  of 
substantial  change,  the  element  of  indetermmation  in 
corporeal  beings.  It  is  a  pure  potentiality,  or  deter- 
minability,  void  of  substantiality,  of  quality,  of  quan- 
tity, and  of  all  the  other  accidents  that  determine  sen- 
sible being.  It  is  not  created,  neither  is  it  creatable, 
but  rather  concreatable  and  concreated  with  Form, 
(q.  v.),  to  which  it  is  opposed  as  a  correlate,  as  one  of 
the  essential "  intrinsic  constituents"  (De  Principiis 
Natune)  of  those  corporeal  beings  in  whose  existence 
the  act  of  creation  terminates.  Similarly  it  is  not  gen- 
erated, neither  does  it  corrupt  in  substantial  chsjoge, 
since  all  generation  and  corruption  is  a  transition  in 
which  one  substance  becomes  another,  and  conse- 
quently can  only  take  place  in  chanjses  of  composite 
subjects.  It  is  produced  out  of  nothing  and  can  only 
cease  to  be  by  falling  back  into  nothingness  (De  Na- 
tura  Materiie,  i).  Its  potentiality  is  not  a  property 
superadded  to  its  essence,  for  it  is  a  potentiality  to- 
wards substantial  being  (In  I  Phys.,  Lect.  14).  A 
stronger  statement  is  tooe  found  in  "  QQ.  Disp.' ,  III, 
Q.  iv.,  a.  2  ad  4:  "The  relation  of  primordial  matter 
...  to  passive  potentiality  is  as  that  of  (jod  ...  to 
active  {poterUiam  activam).    Therefore  matter  is  its 


passivity  as  God  is  His  activit^r".  '  It  is  clear  through- 
out that  St.  Thomas  has  here  in  view  primordial  mat- 
ter in  the  uttermost  degree  of  abstraction.  Indeed,  he 
is  explicit  upon  the  point.  "That  is  commonly  called 
primordial  matter  which  is  in  the  category  of  sub- 
stance as  a  potentiality  cognized  apart  from  all  species 
and  form,  and  even  from  privation;  yet  susceptive  of 
forms  and  privations"  (De  spiritual,  creat.,  Q.  i,a.  1). 
If  we  were  "obliged  to  define  its  essence,  it  would 
have  for  specific  dinerence  its  relation  to  form,  and  for 
genus  its  substantiality"  (Quod.,  IX,  a.  6.  3).  And 
again:  "It  has  its  being  by  reason  of  that  which 
comes  to  it,  since  in  itself  it  has  incomplete,  or  rather 
no  being  at  all "  (De  Princip.  Naturae) .  Such  informa- 
tion is  mainly  negative  in  character,  and  the  phrases 
emploved  by  St.  Thomas  show  that  there  is  a  certain 
dimculty  in  expressing^exactly  the  nature  of  the  prin- 
ciple under  consideration.  This  difficulty  evidently 
arises  from  the  imagination,  and  with  imagination  the 
philosophy  of  matter  has  nothing  to  do.  We  must  begin 
with  the  real,  tlie  concrete  being.  To  explain  this,  and 
the  changes  it  is  capable  of  undergoing,  we  must  infer 
the  coexistence  of  matter  and  form  determinable  and 
determinant.  We  may  then  strip  matter,  by  abstrac- 
tion, of  this  or  that  determination;  we  may  consider 
it  apart  from  all  its  determinations.  But  once  attempt 
to  consider  it  apart  from  that  analogy  b^  which  alone 
we  can  know  it,  once  strip  it  mentally  of  its  determina- 
bility  by  form,  and  nothing — absolute  nothing — ^re- 
mains. For  matter  is  neither  realisable  nor  uiink- 
able  without  its  correlative.  The  proper  object  of 
intelligence,  and  likewise  the  subject  of  oeing,  is  EnSf 
Verum,  Hence  St.  Thomas  teaches  further  that  prim- 
ordial matter  is  "a  substantial  reality"  (i.  e.,  a  reality 
reductivelv  belonging  to  the  category  of  substance), 
"  potential  towards  aU  forms,  and,  under  the  action  ot 
a  fit  and  proportioned  efficient  cause,  determinable  to 
any  species  of  corporeal  substance"  (In  VII  Met., 
sect.  2) ;  and,  again: "  It  is  never  stripped  of  form  ana 
privation;  now  it  is  under  one  form  now  under  an- 
other. Of  itself  it  can  never  exist"  (De  Princip. 
Natur.).  What  has  been  said  may  appear  to  deny  to 
matter  the  reality  that  is  predicated  of  it.  This  is  not 
the  case.  As  the  determinable  element  in  corporeal 
substance  it  must  have  a  reality  that  is  not  that  of  the 
determining  form.  The  mind  by  abstraction  may 
consider  it  as  potential  to  any  form,  but  can  never 
overstep  the  limit  of  its  potentiafity  as  inexistent  (cf. 
Aristotle's  n  irvwdpxorrot  TPhys.,  iii,  194b,  16)  and  real- 
ised in  bodies  without  finoinff  itself  contemplating  ab- 
solute nothingness.  Of  itseu  matter  can  never  exist, 
and  consequently  of  itself  it  can  never  be  thought. 

(4)  Privation, — ^Tlie  use  of  the  term  "  privation"  by 
Aauinas  brings  us  to  an  exceedingly  interesting  oon- 
siaeration.  While  primordial  matter,  as  "under- 
stood" without  any  form  or  privation,  is  an  indifferent 
potentiality  towards  information  by  any  corporeal 
form,  the  same  matter,  considered  as  realised  by  a 
given  form,  and  actually  existing,  does  not  connote 
this  indefinite  capacity  of  information.  There  is,  in 
fact,  a  certain  rtiythmic  evolution  of  forms  observable 
in  nature.  By  electrolysis  only  oxygen  and  hvdrogen 
can  be  obtained  from  water;  from  oxygen  and  hyc&o- 

fen  in  definite  proportions  only  water  is  generated, 
'his  fact  St.  Thomas  expresses  in  the  physical  terms 
of  his  time: "  If  any  particular  matter,  e.  g.  fire  or  air, 
were  despoiled  of  its  form,  it  is  manifest  that  the  po- 
tentiality towards  other  educible  fonns  remaining  in  it 
would  not  be  so  ample,  as  is  the  case  in  regard  to  mat- 
ter (considered)  umversally  "  (De  Nat.  Mat.,  v).  The 
consideration  nves  us  the  signification  of  "  privation", 
as  used  in  the  9ieoiy  of  substantial  change.  Matter  is 
"deprived  "  of  the  form  or  fonns  towards  which  alone 
it  is  potential  when  actually  existing  in  some  one  or 
other  state  of  determination.  Hence  th^  distinction 
that  is  found  in  the  Opuscule  "  De  Principiis  Natune  "• 

(5)  Permanent  Matter. — *'  Matter  that  does  not  con- 


BCATTSft                              55  BCATTBB 

note  A  privation  is  permanent,  whereas  that  which  dimensioni"  (In Boeth.de Trin.,Q.iv.  a. 2),  "materia 

does  is  transient".    The  connotation  of  a  privation  sub  certis  dimensionibus"  (De  Nat.  Mat.,  iii).    This 

limits  primordial  matter  to  that  which  is  realised  by  a  needs  some  explanation.  Quantity,  as  such,  is  an  acci- 

form  msposing  it  towards  realisation  by  certain  other  dent;  and  it  is  evident  that  no  accident  can  account 

definite  forms.     '*  Privation"  is  the  absence  of  those  for  the  individuality  of  its  own  subject.    But  quantity 

forms.     Permanent  matter  is  matter  considered  in  the  results  in  corporeal  substance  by  reason  of  matter, 

highest  degree  of  abstraction,  and  connoting  thereby  Primordial  matter,  then,  considered  as  such,  has  a 

no  more  tium  its  correlation  to  form  in  general.  relation  to  quantity  conseauent  upon  its  necessary 

(6)  The  Unity  of  M otter . — ^Further,  this  (permanent)  relation  to  form  (De  Nat.  Mat.,  iv).  When  actuated 
matter  is  said  to  be  one;  not  however,  in  the  sense  of  a  by  form  it  has  dimensions — ^the  ** inseparable  concom- 
numerical  unity.  Every  corporeal  being  is  held  to  re-  hants  that  determine  it  in  time  and  place  "  (De  Prin- 
suit  from  the  union  of  matter  and  form.  There  are  in  dp.  Individ.).  The  abstract  essence,  then,  embracing 
eoosequence  as  many  distinct  individual  realised  por-  matter  as  it  does  form,  will  connote  an  aptitude  or 
lions  of  matter  as  there  are  distinct  bodies  (atoms,  for  potentiality  towards  a  quantitative  determination, 
example)  in  the  universe.  Nevertheless,  when  the  necessarily  resultant  in  each  concrete  subject  realised, 
severally  determining  principles  and  privations  are  Here,  as  formerly,  the  fact  must  not  be  lost  sight  of 
abstracted  from,  when  matter  is  cognised  in  its  great-  that  the  reasoning  begins  with  the  concrete  bodies 
est  abstraction,  it  is  cognised  as  possessing  a  logical  actually  existing  in  nature.  It  is  by  an  abstraction 
unity.  It  is  understood  without  any  of  those  disposi-  that  we  consider  matter  without  the  actual  quantity 
tions  that  make  it  differ  numerically  with  the  multipli-  that  it  always  exhibits  when  realised  in  corporeal  sub- 
cation  of  bodies  (De  Principiis  Naturae).  stance.    Peter,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  differs  from  Paid, 

(7)  Matter  as  the  Principle  of  Individuation. — More  yet  ihey  are  specifically  identical  as  rational  animals, 
important  is  the  doctrine  that  grounds  in  matter  the  Peter  is  ''this''  man,  and  Paul  is  "that",  but  ''this" 
numerical  distinction  of  specifically  identical  corporeal  and  "  that " ,  beokuse  "  here  "  and  "  there  ".  "  Form  is 
beings.    In  the  general  doctrine  of  St.  Thomas,  the  not  individuated  in  that  it  is  received  in  matter,  but 


individual — "  this  thing  "  {hoc  cdiquid) — ^is  a  primor-    onlv  in  that  it  is  received  in  this  or  that  distinct  matter, 


.   .  .        I 

plete,  capable  of  subsisting  m  itself  as  the  subject  of  vidual.   The^  indicate  ^'  hoc  caro  et  ossa  ".   And  they 

accidents  in  the  ontolo^cal  order,  and  of  predicates  in  are  only  possible  b^  reason  of  (informed)  matter,  the 

the  logical.    It  is  undivided  in  itself,  distmct  from  all  ground  oi  divisibihty  and  location  in  space.    Still,  it 

other,  incommunicable  (cf.  De  Principio  Individua-  must  be  noted  that  "materia  signata  quantitate"  is 

tionis).    These  characteristic  notes  are  realised  in  the  not  to  be  understood  as  primordial  matter  having  an 

case  of  two  substances  that  differ  by  essence.    Thus,  aptitude  towards  fixed  and  invariable  dimensions. 

for  St.  Thomas,  no  two  angels  (q.  v.)  are  specifically  Tne  determined  dimensions  that  are  found  in  the 

identical  (Summa,  Pars  I,  Q.  1,  a.  4).    More  than  this,  existing  subject  are  to  be  attributed,  St.  Thomas 

even  a  corporeal  form,  however  material  and  low  teaches,  to  matter  as  "  individuated  by  indeterminate 

in  the  hierarchy  of  forms,  would  not  be  other  than  dimensions  preunderstood  in  it"   ("In   Boeth.  de 

unique  in  its  species,  if  it  could  exist  (or  be  thought),  Trin.",  Q.  iv,  a.  2;  "  De  Nat.  Mat.",  vii).   This  remark 

apart  from  its  relation  to  matter  (cf.  De  Spiritual,  explains  how  an  individual  (as  Peter)  can  vary  in 

Cieaturis,  Q.  i,  a.  8).    Whiteness,  if  it  could  subsist  dimension  without  varying  in  identity;   and  at  the 

without  Any  subject,  would  be  unic^ue.    If  a  plurality  same  time  gives  the  reply  of  Aquinas  to  the  difficulty 

of  such  accidental  forms  could  subsist  they  also  would  raised  above.    Primoraial  matter,  as  connoted  in  the 

differ  specifically-HM  whiteness,  redness,  etc.     But  essence,  has  an  aptitude  towards  indeterminate  dimen- 

this  distinction  evidently  does  not  obtain  in  the  oue  sions.  These  dimensions  when  realised  are  the  ground 

of  a  number  of  individuals  belonging  to  one  species,  of  the  determined  dimensions  (ibid.)  that  make  the 

lliey  are  essentially  identical.    How  is  it,  then,  that  individual  hie  et  nunc  an  object  of  sense-perception 

they  can  constitute  a  plurality?^  The  answer  given  by  (De  Nat.  Materise,  iii). 

St.  Thomas  to  this  question  is  his  doctrine  of  the  (8)  The  Causalitv  of  Matter. — Since  Primordial 
I^inciple  of  Individuation.  Whereas  the  pluralitv  Matter  is  numbered  among  the  causes  of  corporeal 
of  simple  substances,  or  "forms",  is  due  to  a  real  dif-  being,  the  nature  of  its  causality  remains  to  be  con- 
ference of  their  essences  (as  a  tnangle  differs  from  a  siderra.  (See  Cause.)  All  scholastics  admit  its  con- 
circle),  the  plurality  of  identical  essences,  or  "  forms  ",  currence  with  form,  as  an  intrinsic  cause ;  but  they  are 
supposes  an  intrinsic  principle  of  individuation  for  not  unanimous  as  to  the  precise  part  it  plays.  For 
each  (as  two  triangles  realisea  in  two  pieces  of  wood).  Suares  it  is  unitive;  for  John  of  St.  Thomas  receptive. 
Thus,  simple  substances  differ  by  reason  of  their  The  Conimbricences  place  its  causality  in  both  notes. 
nature,  formally;  while  composite  ones  differ  by  rea-  It  would,  perhaps,  seem  more  consonant  with  the  doo- 
oon  of  an  inherent  principle,  materially.  They  are  trine  of  St.  Thomas  to  adopt  Cardinal  Mercier's  opin- 
multiplied  within  a  given  eroecies  by  reason  of  matter,  ion  that  the  causality  of  matter  is  first  receptive  and 
At  this  point  a  peculiarly  delicate  question  arises,  second  unitive;  provided  always  that  its  essential 
The  abstract  essence  of  man  connotes  matter.  If,  potentiality  be  never  lost  sight  of. 
then,  primordial  matter  be  the  principle  of  individua-  (9)  Variant  Theories  of  Matter .y— The  teaching  of 
tion,  it  would  seem  that  the  abstract  essence  is  alreadv  Aqumas  has  been  given  as  substantially  identical  with 
individualised.  Wherein  would  lie  the  admitted  dif-  that  of  Aristotle.  The  main  point  of  divergence  lies  in 
ference  between  the  species  and  the  individual?  On  the  opinion  of  Aristotle  that  the  world — and  coxise- 
the  other  hand,  if  that  be  not  the  case,  it  would  appear  auently  matter — is  eternal.  St.  Thomas,  in  accepting 
equally  evident  that,  in  adding  to  the  individual  a  tne  doctrine  of  Creation,  denies  the  eternity  of  pnmor- 
prindple  not  contained  in  the  abstract  essence,  it  dial  matter.  It  is  interesting  to  note  how  tnis  dtoctrine 
would  no  longer  be  an  object  of  classification  in  the  of  matter,  as  the  potential,  or  determinable,  element 
species.  It  would  not  be  merely  the  concrete  realiza-  in  chan^,  unites  and  corrects  the  views  of  Heraclitus, 
tion  of  thQ  essence,  but  something  more.  In  either  Parmemdes,  and  Plato.  The  perpetual  flux  of  the  first 
case  the  doctrine  would  seem  to  be  incompatible  with  is  found  in  the  continual  transformations  that  take 
modem  Realism.  St.  Thomas  avoids  the  difficult3r  by  place  in  material  nature.  The  changeless  "  one  "  of  the 
teaching  that  matter  is  the  principle  of  individuation,  second  is  recognised  in  the  abstract  essences  eternally 
but  only  as  correlated  to  quantity.  The  expressions  identical  with  themselves.  And  the  world  of  "  ideas'' 
that  he  usee  are  "  materia  signata  ^', "  materia  subjeota  of  Plato  is  assigned  its  place  as  a  world  of  intellectual 


MAttStCet                         56  MATTHIW 

sbstracUona  practised  upon  the  bodies  that  fall  under  Halu,  In  duodecm  A rUiattU*  UtiaphyHca  Ubn*  (1672):  Idbit, 

the  observation  (tf  the  senses.   The  universal  is  inuna-  Vnivena  T^toaia  Sumtm  (Cologne,  i«22):    St.  Thomjui 

nent  in  the  individual  and  multipUed  by  reason  of  its  j^SST^^.  ^'^''JSSUS^'j^i^^SSSS:  S^tel^U*^ 

matter.    In  the  system  of  Plato,  matter  (m^  Bp^  axcipop:  CrealurU,  In  Boethium  de  TrinitaU,  De  Principiia  Natww,  Quodr 

the  "formless  and  invisible")   is  also  the  condition  '*J<*^ IX.  Q.  iv,  Z)«  Af ix(um«  AY^mcntorum;   Aristotle,  Opera 

under  whi«di  being  becomes  the  object  of.  the  senses.  g"Si,nti^2!r^^''^^?liJ!^^^^rc':^^^!^ 

It  gives  to  bemg  all  its  imperfections.    It  is  by  a  mix-  .  .  .  Thoma  aVio  ,  .  .  Commmtariia  iUuMrata  (I^ons,  1662); 

ture  of  being  and  nothingness,  rather  than  by  the  2"  ^^»-?>  ^.^^^  J^  ^  Phihmphie  MidUvaU  (Lou vain); 

realisal^n  of  a  potentiality,  that  sensible  things  ^^:S!:\^Slro:ir^7HZiriiZLtiin^.Stp!Z 

exist.    While  for  Aristotle  matter  is  a  real  element  of  and  the  other  companion  ofSocnUea  (london,  1865);  Harper, 

being,  for  Plato  it  is  not.    Of  NeoplatonistS,  Philo  (f ol-  £{«,  Metaphyn^  of  the  School  (London.  1879);    LoRENEELLi. 

lowin,5  Plato  and  the  Stoics)  also  .considered  matter  gSlS^%%r^irNnr?oi2?^  S.^r?S5Tl 

the  prmciple  of  imperfection,  of  limitation  and  of  evil;  Scorus,  Opera  (Lyons,  1639);  8aint-Hilaxre,  (Euvree  dTAri*- 

Plotmus  made  it  empty  space,  or  a  pure  possibility  of  ft?  .^^^^A?^'t?^^'  ^^^^i^-.if^P^yncarumdxepuiiUionum 

-D-'    _                             r  J    r       f           f        f                J  (Mamr.  1606);  Ueberwbg:  Htdory  of  Philosophy,  tr.  Morris 

^^8-         ^                        X.       ji.        u              XI-          u  4}872);  WwDEMANi)MHMtoruo/PAtao«jiAy.tr.TDFTB(New 

These  systems  are  mentioned  here  because  through  York,  i893). 
them  St.  Augustine  drew  his  knowledge  of  Greek  phi-  Francis  Avbuno. 
losophy.  And  in  the  doctrine  of  St.  Augustine  we  nnd  •*  **  ^  /^  i.  .  .  r 
the  source  of  an  important  current  of  thought  that  _  Matteucd,  Carlo,  physicist,  b.  at  Forli,  m  the 
ran  through  the  Middle  Ages.  He  puts  forward  at  differ-  Romagna,  21  June,  1811;  d.  at  Ardenza,  near  Leg- 
ent  times  two  views  as  to  the  nature  of  matter.  It  is  ^ora,  25  July,  1868.  He  studied  mathematics  at  the 
first,  corporeal  substance  in  a  chaotic  state;  second.  University  of  Bologna,  receiving  his  doctorate  in  1829. 
an  element  of  complete  indetermination,  approaching  Then  he  went  to  the  Paris  Ecole  Polytechnique  for  two 
to  the  M^  ^^  of  Plato.  St.  Augustine  was  not  directly  X®*"  ^  *  foreign  student.  In  1831  he  returned  to 
acquainted  with  the  works  of  Aristotle,  yet  he  seems  ^'^'"^^  *°d  be^n  to  experiment  in  physics.  In  taking 
to  have  approached  very  closely  to  this  thought  (prob-  "P  *^®  Voltaic  pile  he  took  sides  against  Volta's  con- 
ably  throu^  the  Latin  writings  of  the  Neoplatonists)  ^^  theory  of  electricity.  He  remained  at  Florence 
in  certain  passages  of  the  "Confessions'*^  (cf.  Lib.  ^^  ^  father's  death  in  1834,  when  he  went  to 
XIII,  v.  and  xxxiii):  "For  the  changeableness  of  Ravenna  and  later  to  Pisa.  His  study  of  the  Voltaic 
changeaole  things  is  capable  of  all  those  forms  to  battery  led  him  to  announce  the  law  that  the  decom- 
which  the  changeable  are  changed.  And  what  is  this?  portion  in  the  electrolytic  cell  corresponds  to  the  work 
Is  it  soul?  Or  body?  If  it  could  be  said:  '  Nothing:  developed  in  the  elements  of  the  pile.  From  the  ex- 
something  that  is  and  is  not',  that  would  I  say.".  .  .  temal  effect  it  became  possible  to  calculate  the  mate- 
"  For  from  nothing  they  were  made  by  Thee,  yet  not  "*^  ^^^^  ^P  ^  ^^  ?**«•  ^^  ^^7  he  was  invited  by  his 
of  Thee:  nor  of  anything  not  Thine,  or  which  was  be-  ^"©nd  Buoninsegm,  president  of  the  Ravenna  Hos- 
fore,  but  of  concreated  matter,  because  Thou  didst  P^^f  ^  ^^^  charge  of  its  chemical  laboratory  and  at 
create  its  informity  without  any  interposition  of  t^®  same  time  assume  the  title  and  rank  of  professor 
time."  St.  Augustine  does  not  teach  the  dependence  ^^  pbysics  at  the  college.  There  he  did  most  excellent 
of  quantity  upon  matter;  and  he  admits  a  quasi-  work  and  soon  became  famous.  Arago,  hearing  of  the 
matter  in  the  angels.  Moreover,  his  doctrine  of  the  vacancy  in  the  chair  of  physics  at  the  University  of 
roHanes  aemtrudes  (of  Stoical  origin),  which  found  P^»  wro^te  to  Humboldt  asking  him  to  recommend 
many  adherents  among  later  scholastics,  clearly  as-  Matteucci  to  the  Grand-Duke  of  Tuscany.  This  apph- 
signs  to  matter  something  more  than  the  character  of  <»tion  was  successful  and  there  at  Pisa  he  contmued 
pure  potentiality  attributed  to  it  by  St.  Thomas.  It  ^'^  researches.  Beginning  with  Arago's  and  Faraday's 
may  be  noted  that  Albert  the  Great,  the  predecessor  discovenes  he  developed  by  ingenious  experiments  our 
of  St.  Thomas,  also  taught  this  doctrine  and,  further,  knowledge  of  electro-statics  electroKlynami<»,  in- 
was  of  the  opinion  that  the  angelic  "  forms"  must  be  <*"ced  currents,  and  the  like,  but  his  greatest  achieve- 
held  to  have  &fundamerUum,  or  ground  of  differentia-  ^.e?^  howeverwere  in  the  field  of  electro-physiology, 
tion,  analogous  to  matter  in  corporeal  beings.  witn  frogs,  torpedoes,  and  the  hke. 

FoUowing  St.  Augustine,  Alexander  of  Hales  and  ^  He  was  also  successful  as  a  politician.    In  1848 

St.  Bonaventure,  with  the  Franciscan  School  ae  a  Commissioner  of  Tuscany  to  (Charles  Albert;  sent  to 

whole,  teach  that  matter  is  one  of  the  intrinsic  ele-  Frankfort  to  plead  the  cause  of  his  country  before  the 

ments  of  all  creatures.    Matter  and  form  together  are  Gerinan  Assembly;  1849  m  Pisa,  director  of  the  tele- 

the  principles  of  individuation  for  St.  Bonaventure.  graphs  of  Tuscany;  1859  provisional  representative  of 

Duns  Scotus  is  more  characteristically  subtle  on  the  Tuscany  at  Tunn,  and  then  sent  to  Pans  with  Peru2« 

point,  which  is  a  capital  one  in  his  synthesis.    Blatter  ^^^  NenCorsmi  to  plead  the  annexation  of  Piedmont; 

IS  to  be  distinguished  as:  (a)  Materia  pnmo  vnma,  the  l^!f  Inspector-General  of  the  telegraph  Imes  of  the 

universalized  indeterminate  element  of  contingent  be-  Italian  Kmgdom.   Senator  at  the  Tuscan  Assembly  m 

ings.   This  has  real  and  numerical  unity,    (b)  Materia  1848,  and  again  m  the  Italian  Senate  in  1860;  Minister 

aecundo  pnma,  united  with  "form"  and  quantified,  of  Public  Instruction,  1862  in  the  cabinet  of  Rattazzi. 

(c)  Materia  tertio  prima,  subject  of  accidental  change  ?®  ^<^^  the  Copley  niedal  of  the  Royal  Societv  of 

in  existing  bodies.   For  Scotus,  who  acknowledges  his  Jt^".^^?'  ^?^  was  njade  corresponding  member  of  the 

indebtedness  to  Avicebron  for  the  doctrine  (De  rerum  ^^ns  Academy  of  Sciences  m  1844     He  published  a 

princip.,  Q.  viii,  a.  4),  Materia  pnmo  prima  is  homoge-  «^^^  ^^^K\^  English,  French,  and  Itahan  journals  of 

neous  in  aU  creatures  without  exception.    His  system  science     His  larger  works  were:     Leaioni  di  fisica 

is  dualistic.  Among  later  notable  scholastics  Suarez  (f^^  .^•'  T^^>  .^8.^^)'  .  . ^^T*,  ®^i-^^'^??l^"N*  ^fiS^ 
may  be  cited  as  attributing  an  existence  to  primordial  chimici  dei  corpi  vwenti  (2nd  ed.  Pi^,  1846) ;  Ma- 
matter.  This  is  a  logical  consequence  of  his  doctrine  S^^^®  ^*  telegrafia  elettnca'  (2nd  ed.,  Pisa,  1851); 
that  no  real  distinction  is  to  be  admitted  between  P^^J^  ^P^^  ^^^  ^*?^ll^^*?/V  *®  niagn^tisme  de  rota- 
essence  and  existence  (q.  v.).  God  could,  he  teaches,  ^''?-^^^?/^^^^^*\^^V  ^ttres  sur  1  instruction 
"preserve  matter  without  a  form  as  He  can  a  fomJ  pubhque"  (Pans,  1864);  "Traits  des  ph^nom^nes 
without  matter"  (Disput.  Metaph.,  xv,  sec.  9).   In  his  electro-physiologiques  des  animaux    (Pans,  1844). 

^•«.:»;^««    **lo«    v,..»V«;i^Lri  ^»^4^.  ^I  i^JL.- 1^^  __  Bianchi,  Carlo  Matteucci  e  Vltalxa  da  %uo  tempo  (Rome. 

opmion,  also,  quwitified  matter  no  longer  appears  as  1374);  S^iva  Endehpedia  Italiana  (Turin.  1882). 

the  pnnciple  of  individuation.   A  considerable  number  Wiluam  Fox. 
of  theologians  and  philosophers  have  professed  his 

doctrine  upon  both  tnese  points.  Matthew,  Saint.  Apostle  and  Evangklist. — The 

Albsrtub  Magnus,  Opera  (Lyons,  1651);  Auxandbr  ov  name  Matthew  is  oerived  from  the  Hebrew  MaUijOf 


ST.  MATTHEW 
oiovANNi  FRANOwrn  nAitniERi  (il  cubrcino),  tiib  oaiiert,  drfjiden 


MATTHIW 


67 


MATTHIW 


being  shortened  to  Mattai  in  post-Biblical  Hebrew. 
In  Greek  it  is  sometimes  spelled  Matftfawr,  B  D,  and 
sometimes  Martfacbr,  GEKL,  but  grammarians  do  not 
agree  as  to  which  or  the  two  s|)ellings  is  the  original. 
Matthew  is  spoken  of  five  times  in  the  New  Testament ; 
fiist  in  Matt.,  ix,  9,  when  called  by  Jesus  to  follow 
Him,  and  then  four  times  in  the  list  of  the  Apostles, 
where  he  is  mentioned  in  the  seventh  (Luke,  vl  15, 
and  Mark,  iii,  18),  and  again  in  the  eighth  place  (Matt., 
X,  3,  and  Acts,  i,  13).  The  man  designated  in  Matt., 
ix,  9,  as  "sitting  in  the  custom  house",  and  '' named 
Matthew"  is  the  same  as  Levi,  recorded  in  Mark,  ii, 
14,  and  Luke,  v,  27,  as  "sitting  at  the  receipt  of  cus- 
tom " .  The  account  in  the  three  S^optics  is  identical , 
the  vocation  of  Matthew-Levi  bem^  alluded  to  in  the 
same  terms.  Hence  Levi  was  the  original  name  of  the 
man  who  was  subsequently  called  A^tthew;  the 
Ha^^cbs  \rfhitM9ot  of  Matt.,  ix,  9,  would  indicate  this. 
The  fact  of  one  man  having  two  names  is  of  frequent 
occurrence  among  the  Jews.  It  is  true  that  the  same 
person  usually  bears  a  Hebrew  name  such  as  "  Shaoul " 
and  a  Greek  name,  Ila&Xor.  However,  we  have  also 
examples  of  individuals  with  two  Hebrew  names  as, 
for  instance,  Joseph-Caiphas,  Simon-Cephas,  etc.  It 
is  probable  that  Mattija,  "gift  of  laveh",  was  the 
name  conferred  upon  the  taxrgatherer  by  Jesus  Christ 
when  He  called  him  to  the  Apostolate,  and  by  it  he 
was  thenceforth  Imown  among  his  Christian  brethren, 
Levi  being  his  original  name.  Matthew,  the  son  of 
Alpheus  (Mark,  ii,  14)  was  a  Galilean,  although  Euse- 
bius  informs  us  that  he  was  a  Syrian.  As  tax-gatherer 
at  Caphamaum.  he  collected  custom-duties  for  Herod 
Antipas  and,  although  a  Jew,  was  despised  by  the 
Pharisees,  who  hated  all  publicans.  When  summoned 
by  Jesus,  Matthew  arose  and  followed  Him  and  ten- 
dered Him  a  feast  in  his  house,  where  tax-gatherers  and 
sinners  sat  at  table  with  Christ  and  His  disciples.  This 
drew  forth  a  protest  from  the  Pharisees  wnom  Jesus 
rebuked  in  these  consoling  words:  "  I  came  not  to  call 
the  just,  but  sinners."  No  further  allusion  is  made  to 
Blatthew  in  the  Gospels,  except  in  the  list  of  the  Apos- 
tles. As  a  disciple  and  an  Apostle  he  thenceforth  fol- 
lowed Christ,  accompanying  Him  up  to  the  time  of 
His  Passion  and^  in  Galilee,  was  one  of  the  witnesses 
of  His  Resurrection.  He  was  also  amongst  the  Apos- 
tles who  were  present  at  the  Ascension,  and  afterwards 
withdrew  to  an  upper  chamber,  in  Jerusalem,  praying 
in  union  with  Mary,  the  Mother  of  Jesus,  ana  with  his 
brethren  (Acts,  i,  10  and  14). 

Of  Matthew's  subsequent  career  we  have  only  inac- 
curate or  legendary  data.  St.  Ireneeus  tells  us  that 
Matthew  preached  the  Gospel  among  the  Hebrews, 
St.  Clement  of  Alexandria  claiming  that  he  did  this  for 
fifteen  years,  and  Eusebius  maintains  that,  before  go- 
ing into  other  countries,  he  gave  them  his  Gospel  in 
the  mother  tongue.  Adcient  writers  are  not  as  one  as 
to  the  countries  evangelized  by  Matthew,  but  almost 
all  mention  Ethiopia  to  the  south  of  the  Caspian  Sea 
(not  Ethiopia  in  Africa) ,  and  some  Persia  and  the  king- 
dom of  the  Parthians,  Macedonia,  and  Syria.  Accord- 
ing to  Heracleon,  who  is  quoted  by  Clement  of  Alex- 
andria, Matthew  did  not  die  a  mart3rr,  but  this  opinion 
conflicts  with  all  other  ancient  testimony.  Let  us  add, 
however,  that  the  account  of  his  martyrdom  in  the 
apocrypnal  Greek  writings  entitled  "Martyrium  S. 
liatthsi  in  Ponto "  and  published  by  Bonnet,  "  Acta 
apostolorum  apocrypha"  (Leipzig,  1898),  is  absolutely 
devoid  of  historic  value.  Lipsius  holds  that  this 
"Martyrium  S.  Matth^Di",  which  contains  traces  of 
Gnosticisin,  must  have  been  published  in  the  third 
century.  There  is  a  disagreement  as  to  the  place  of 
St.  Matthew's  martyrdom  and  the  kind  of  torture 
inflicted  on  him,  therefore  it  is  not  known  whether 
he  was  burned,  stoned,  or  beheaded.  The  Roman 
Martyrology  simply  says:  "S.  Matthtei,  qui  in  iGthio- 
pia  pra^dicans  martyrium  passus  est  "•  Various  writ- 
ipp  that  are  qqw  considered  apocryphal,  have  been 


attributed  to  St.  Matthew.  In  the  "  Evangelia  apo- 
crypha"  (Leipzig,  1876),  Tischendorf  reproduced  a 
Latm  document  entitled:  "De  Ortu  beatse  Biaris  et 
infantia  Salvatoris",  supposedly  written  in  Hebrew 
by  St.  Matthew  the  Evangelist,  and  translated  into 
Latin  by  Jerome,  the  priest.  It  is  an  abridged  adapta- 
tion of  the  "  Protoevangelium  "  of  St.  James,  which  was 
a  Greek  apocryphal  of  the  second  century.  This 
pseudo-Matthew  dates  from  the  middle  or  the  end  of 
the  sixth  century,  and  M.  Aman  has  just  given  us  a 
new  edition  of  it:  "Le  Prot^vangile  de  Jacques  et 
ses  remaniements  latins"  (Paris,  1910).  The  Latin 
Church  celebrates  the  feast  of  St.  Matthew  on  21 
September,  and  the  Greek  Church  on  16  November. 
St.  Matthew  is  represented  under  the  symbol  of  a 
winged  man,  carrying  in  his  hand  a  lance  as  a  char- 
acteristic emblem. 

E.  Jacquier. 

Matthew,  Saint,  Gospel  of. — ^I.  CANONicmr. — 
The  earliest  Christian  commimities  looked  upon  the 
Books  of  the  Old  Testament  as  Sacred  Scripture,  and 
read  them  at  their  religious  assemblies.  That  the  Gos- 
pels, which  contained  tne  words  of  Christ  and  the  nar- 
rative of  His  life,  soon  enjoyed  the  same  authority  as 
the  Old  Testament,  is  made  clear  by  Hegesippus 
(Eusebius,  *'  Hist,  eccl.",  IV,  xxii,  3),  who  tells  us  that 
in  every  citv  the  Christians  were  faithful  to  the  teach- 
ings of  the  law,  the  prophets,  and  the  Lord.  A  book 
was  acknowledged  as  canonical  when  the  Church  re- 
garded it  as  Apostolic,  and  had  it  read  at  her  assem-. 
blies.  Hence,  to  establish  the  canonicity  of  the  Gos- 
pel according  to  St.  Matthew,  we  must  investigate 
primitive  Clmstian  tradition  for  the  use  that  was 
made  of  this  document,  and  for  indications  proving 
that  it  was  regarded  as  Scripture  in  the  same  manner 
as  the  Books  of  the  Old  Testament. 

The  first  traces  that  we  find  of  it  are  not  indubitable, 
because  post- Apostolic  writers  quoted  the  texts  with  a 
certain  freedom,  and  principally  because  it  is  difiScult 
to  say  whether  the  passages  thus  quoted  were  taken 
from  oral  tradition  or  from  a  written  Cvoepel.  The 
first  Christian  document  whose  date  can  be  nxed  with 
comparative  certainty  (95-98),  is  the  Epistle  of  St. 
Clement  to  the  C!orinthians.  It  contains  sayings  of 
the  Lord  which  closely  resemble  those  recorded  in  the 
First  Gospel  (Clement,  xvi,  17=Matt.,  xi,  29;  Clem., 
xxiv,  5=Matt.,  xiii,  3),  but  it  is  possible  that  they  are 
derived  from  Apostolic  preaching,  as,  in  chapter  xiii, 
2,  we  find  a  mixture  of  sentences  mm  Matthew,  Luke, 
and  an  imknown  source.  Again,  we  note  a  similar 
commingling  of  E  van^lical  texts  elsewhere  in  the  same 
Epistle  of  Clement,  m  the  Doctrine  of  the  Twelve 
Apostles,  in  the  Epistle  of  Polycarp,  and  in  Clement  of 
Alexandria.  Whether  these  texts  were  thus  combined 
in  oral  tnidition  or  emanated  from  a  collection  of 
Christ's  utterances,  we  are  unable  to  say. — ^The  Epistles 
of  St.  Ignatius  (martyred  110-17)  contain  no  literal 
(quotation  from  the  Hol^  Books;  nevertheless,  St.  Igna- 
tius borrowed  expressions  and  some  sentences  from 
Matthew  ("Ad  Polyc",  ii,  2=Matt.,  x,  16;  "Eph.", 
xiv,  2=Matt.,  xii,  33,  etc.).  In  his  *' Epistle  to  the 
Philadelphians"  (v,  12),  he  speaks  of  the  Giospel  in 
which  he  takes  reiuge  as  in  the  Flesh  of  Jesus;  conse- 
quently, he  had  an  Evangelical  collection  which  he  re- 
garded as  Sacred  Writ,  and  we  cannot  doubt  that  the 
Gospel  of  St.  Matthew  formed  part  of  it. — In  the  Epis- 
tle of  St.  Polycarp  (110-17),  we  find  various  passages 
from  St.  Matthew  quoted  literally  (xii,  3=Matt.,  v,  44; 
vii,  2=Matt.,  xxvi,  41,  etc.). — The  Doctrine  of  the 
Twelve  Apostles  contains  sixtynsix  passages  that  recall 
the  Gospel  of  Matthew;  some  of  them  are  literal  (quota- 
tions (viii,  2=Matt.,  vi,  7-13;  vii,  l=Matt.,  xxviii,  19; 
xi,  7= Matt.,  xii,  31,  etc.). — In  the  so-called  Epistle  of 
Barnabas  (117-30),  we  find  a  passage  from  St.  Mat- 
thew  (xxii,  14),  introduced  by  the  scriptural  formula, 
^f  Y^paTTOi,  wl^ch  proves  that  the  ^uthpr  90Q3i4erw 


MATTHEW 


58 


MATTHIW 


the  Gospel  of  Biatthew  equal  in  point  of  authority  to 
the  writings  of  the  Old  Testament. — ^The  "Shepherd 
of  Hermas"  has  several  passages  which  bear  close  re- 
semblance to  passages  of  Biatthew,  but  not  a  single 
literal  Quotation  from  it. — In  his  ''Dialogue"  (xcix, 
8),  St.  Justin  quotes,  almost  literallv,  the  prayer  of 
Christ  in  the  Garden  of  Olives,  in  Matthew,  xxvi,  39, 40. 

A  great  number  of  passages  in  the  writings  of  St. 
Justin  recall  the  Gospel  of  Matthew,  and  prove  that  he 
ranked  it  among  the  Memoirs  of  the  Apostles  which,  he 
said,  were  called  Gospels  (I  ApoL,  Ixvi),  were  read  in 
the  services  of  the  Chturh  (ibid.,  Ixvii),  and  were  con- 
sequently regarded  as  Scripture. — In  his  *'  L^gatio  pro 
christianis",  xii,  11,  Athenagoras  (117)  quot^  almost 
literally  sentences  taken  from  the  Sermon  on  the 
Mount  (Matt.,  v,  44). — ^Theophilus  of  Antioch  (Ad 
Autol.,  Ill,  xiii-xiv)  quotes  a  passage  from  Matthew 
(v,  28,  32),  and,  according  to  St.  <^rome  (In  Matt. 
Prol.),  wrote  a  commentary  on  the  Gospel  of  St.  Mat- 
thew.— We  find  in  the  Testaments  of  tne  Twelve  Pa- 
triarchs—drawn up,  according  to  some  critics,  about 
the  middle  of  the  second  century — ^numerous  passages 
that  closely  resemble  the  Gospel  of  Matthew  (Test. 
Gad,  V,  3;  vi,  6;  v,  7= Matt.,  xviii,  15, 35;  Test.  Jos.,  i, 
5,  6= Matt.,  XXV,  35,  36,  etc.),  but  Dr.  Charles  main- 
tains that  the  Testaments  were  written  in  Hebrew  in 
the  first  century  before  Jesus  Christ,  and  translated 
into  Greek  towards  the  middle  of  the  same  century.  In 
this  event,  the  Gospel  of  Matthew  would  depend  upon 
the  Testaments  ana  not  the  Testaments  upon  the  Gos- 
pel. The  question  is  not  yet  settled,  but  it  seems  to 
us  that  there  is  a  greater  probability  that  the  Testa- 
ments, at  least  in  their  Greek  version,  are  of  later  date 
than  the  Gospel  of  Matthew;  they  certainly  received 
numerous  Christian  additions. — ^Tne  Greek  text  of  the 
Clementine  Homilies  contains  some  quotations  from 
Matthew  (Hom.  ill,  52= Matt.,  xv,  13);  in  Hom. 
xviii,  15,  the  (juotation  from  Matt.,  xiii,  35,  is  literal. — 
Passages  which  suggest  the  Gospel  of  Matthew  might 
be  quoted  from  heretical  writings  of  the  second  cen- 
tury and  from  apocryphal  gospels — ^the  Gospel  of 
Peter,  the  Protoevangeuum  of  James,  etc.,  in  which 
the  narratives,  to  a  considerable  extent,  are  derived 
from  the  Gospel  of  Matthew. — ^Tatian  incorporated 
the  Gospel  of  Matthew  in  his  *'  Diatesseron";  we  shall 
quote  below  the  testimonies  of  Papias  and  St.  Irenseus. 
For  the  latter,  the  Gospel  of  Matthew,  from  which  he 
quotes  numerous  passages,  was  onei  of  the  four  that 
constituted  the  quadriK>rm  Gospel  dominated  by  a 
single  spirit. — ^Tertullian  (Adv.  Marc.,  IV,  ii)  asserts, 
that  the  "  Instnmientum  evan^licum''  was  com- 
posed by  the  Apostles,  and  mentions  Matthew  as  the 
author  of  a  Gospel  (De  came  Christi,  xii). — Clement 
of  Alexandria  (Strom.,  Ill,  xiii)  speaks  of  the  four 
Gospels  that  have  been  traxismittea,  and  quotes  over 
three  hundred  passages  from  the  Gospel  ot  Matthew, 
which  he  introduces  by  the  formula,  ip  M  r  j»  icari 
Hatf^aSbr  cOa77cX/y  or  by  ^fifflp  6  K6ptot, 

It  is  unnecessary  to  pursue  our  inquiry  further. 
About  the  middle  of  the  third  centunr,  the  Gospel  of 
Matthew  was  received  by  the  whole  Christian  Church 
as  a  Divinely  inspired  document,  and  consequently  as 
canonical.    The  testimony  of  Origen  ("In  Matt.", 

Suoted  by  Eusebius,  ''Hist,  eccl.",  III.  xxv.  4),  of 
lusebius  (op.  cit.,  Ill,  xxiv,  5;  xxv,  1),  ana  of  St. 
Jerome  ("De  Viris  111.",  iii,  "Prolog,  in  Matt.")  are 
explicit  in  this  respect.  It  might  be  added  that  this 
Gospel  is  found  in  the  most  ancient  versions:  Old 
Latm,  Syriac,  and  Egyptian.  Finally,  it  stands  at  the 
head  of  the  Books  of  the  New  Testament  in  the  Canon 
of  the  Council  of  Laodicea  (363)  and  in  that  of  St. 
Athanasius  (326-73),  and  very  probably  it  was  in  the 
last  part  of  the  Muratorian  Canon.  Furthermore,  the 
canonicity  of  the  Gospel  of  St.  Matthew  is  accepted  by 
the  entire  Christian  world. 

II.  AuTHENnciTT  OF  THS  FxssT  GoBPEL. — The 
<}i4^on  of  f^utbeu^citjfr  aflsqmea  an  altogether  specif^l 


aspect  in  regard  to  the  First  Gospel.  The  early  Chris- 
tian writers  assert  that  St.  Matthew  wrote  a  Gospel  in 
Hebrew;  tliis  Hebrew  Gospel  has,  however,  entirely 
disappeared,  and  the  Gospel  which  we  have,  and  from 
which  ecclesiastical  writers  borrow  quotations  as  com- 
ing from  the  Gospel  of  Matthew,  is  in  Greek.  What 
connexion  is  there  between  this  Hebrew  Gospel  and 
this  Greek  Gospel,  both  of  which  tradition  ascribes  to 
St.  Biatthew?  Such  is  the  problem  that  presents  itself 
for  solution.    Let  us  first  examine  the  facts. 

A.  TesHmony  of  Traditum, — ^According  to  Eusebius 
(Hist.  eocL.  Ill,  xxxix,  16),  Papias  said  that  Matthew 
collected  (ffvperd^ro;  or,  according  to  two  manu- 
scripts, ffvptyfid^aro,  composed)  rd  xi^^ca  (the  oracles 
or  maxims  of  Jesus)  in  the  Hebrew  (Aramaic)  lan- 
guage, and  that  each  one  translated  them  as  best  he 
could. 

Three  questions  arise  in  regard  to  this  testimony  of 
Papias  on  Matthew:  (1)  What  does  the  word  Xiyia 
signify?  Does  it  mean  only  detached  sentences  or 
sentences  incorporated  in  a  narrative,  that  is  to  say. 
a  Gospel  such  as  that  of  St.  Matthew?  Among  classical 
writers,  X^coi^,  the  diminutive  of  X^ot,  signifies  the 
"answer  of  oracles",  a  "prophecy";  in  the  Septua- 
gnt  and  in  Philo,  "oracles  of  God"  (r&  Bixa  X^ca,  the 
Ten  Conmiandments).  It  sometimes  has  a  broader 
meaning  and  seems  to  include  both  facts  and  sayings. 
In  the  New  Testament  the  signification  of  the  word 
X67tor  is  doubtful,  and  if,  strictly  speaking,  it  may  be 
claimed  to  indicate  teachings  and  narratives,  the 
meaning  "oracles"  is  the  more  natural.  However, 
writers  contemporary  with  Papias— e.  g.  St.  Clement 
of  Rome  (Ad  Cor.,  Uii),  St.  Irenseus  (Adv.  Hser.,  I,  viii. 
2),  Clement  of  Alexandria  (Strom.,  I,  cccxcii),  ana 
Origen  (De  Prindp.,  IV,  xi) — ^have  used  it  to  desi^ate 
facts  and  sayings.  The  work  of  Papias  was  entitled 
"Exposition  of  the  Oracles  psoyUap]  ot  the  Lord ",  and 
it  also  contained  narratives  (Eusebius,  "  Hist.  eccL", 
III,  xxxix,  0).  On  the  other  hand,  speaking  of  the 
Gospel  of  Mark,  Papias  says  that  tnis  Evangelist 
wrote  all  that  Cluist  had  said  and  done,  but  adds  that 
he  established  no  connexion  between  the  Lord's  say- 
ings Mrr«i^i9  rQp  KvpuucQp  Xoylup).  We  may  believe 
that  here  \oylup  comprises  all  that  Christ  said  and  did. 
Nevertheless,  it  would  seem  that,  if  the  two  passages 
on  Mark  and  Matthew  followed  each  other  in  rapias  as 
in  Eusebius,  the  author  intended  to  emphasize  a  differ- 
ence between  them,  by  implying  that  Mark  recorded 
the  Lord's  words  and  deeds  and  Matthew  chronicled 
His  discourses.  The  question  is  still  unsolved;  it  is, 
however,  possible  that,  in  Papias,  the  term  Xbyta 
means  deeds  and  teachmip. 

(2)  Second,  does  Papias  refer  to  oral  or  written 
translations  of  Matthew,  when  he  says  that  each  one 
translated  the  sayings  "as  best  he  could "?  As  there 
is  nowhere  aziy  allusion  to  numerous  Greek  transla- 
tions of  the  Logia  of  Biatthew,  it  is  probable  that 
Papias  speaks  here  of  the  oral  translations  made  at 
Christian  meetings,  similar  to  the  estemporaneous 
translations  of  the  Old  Testament  made  in  the  s^rna- 
gogues.  This  would  explain  why  Papias  mentions 
that  each  one  (each  reader)  traxislated  "as  best  he 
could". 

(3)  Finally^  were  the  Logia  of  Matthew  and  the 
Gospel  to  which  ecclesiastical  writers  refer  written  in 
Hebrew  or  Aramaic?  Both  hypotheses  are  held. 
Papias  says  that  Matthew  wrote  the  Logia  in  the 
Hebrew  (ifipatdi)  language;  St.  Irensus  and  Eusebius 
maintain  that  he  wrote  his  Gospel  for  the  Hebrews  in 
their  national  language,  and  the  same  assertion  is 
found  in  several  writers.  Biatthew  would,  therefore, 
seem  to  have  written  in  modernised  Hebrew,  the  lan- 
guage then  used  by  the  scribes  for  teaching.  But,  in 
the  time  of  Christ,  the  national  language  of  the  Jews 
was  Aramaic,  and  when,  in  the  New  Testament,  there 
is  mention  of  the  Hebrew  language  Wpoh  didXtrrot). 
i^  is  An^miuc  that  is  impli<^.    Hence^  the  aforesaid 


MATTBIW 


59 


ICATTHIW 


writers  may  allude  to  the  Aramaic  and  not  to  the 
Hebrew.  Besides,  as  they  assert,  the  Apostle  Matthew 
wrote  his  Gospel  to  help  popular  teaching.  To  be 
understood  by  his  readers  who  spoke  Aramaic,  he 
would  have  had  to  reproduce  the  original  catechesis 
in  this  language,  and  it  cannot  be  imagined  why,  or 
for  whom,  he  should  have  taken  the  trouble  to  wnte  it 
in  Hebrew,  when  it  would  have  had  to  be  translated 
thenoe  into  Aramaic  for  use  in  religious  services. 
Moreover,  Eusebius  (Hist.  eccL,  III,  xxiv,  6)  tells  us 
that  the  uospel  of  Matthew  was  a  reproduction  of  his 
prea<^ung,  and  this,  we  know,  was  m  Aramaic.  An 
mvestigation  of  the  Semitic  idioms  observed  in  the 
Gospel  does  not  f)ermit  us  to  conclude  as  to  whether 
the  original  was  in  Hebrew  or  Aramaic,  as  the  two 
languages  are  so  closely  related.  Besides,  it  must  be 
borne  in  mind  that  the  greater  part  of  these  Semitisms 
simply  reproduce  colloquial  Greek  and  are  not  of 
Hebrew  or  Aramaic  origin.  However,  we  believe  the 
second  hypothesis  to  be  the  more  probable,  vis.,  that 
Matthew  wrote  his  Gospel  in  Aramaic. 

Let  us  now  recall  the  testimonv  of  the  other  eccle- 
siastical writers  on  the  Gospel  of  St.  Matthew.  St. 
Iremeus  (Adv.  Hser.,  IIL  i,  2)  affirms  that  Matthew 
published  among  the  Hebrews  a  Gospel  which  he 
wrote  in  their  own  language.  Eusebius  (Hist,  eccl.,  V. 
X,  3)  says  that,  in  Indfia,  Pantsenus  found  the  Gospel 
according  to  St.  Blatthew  written  in  the  Hebrew  Ian- 
gua^,  the  Apostle  Bartholomew  having  left  it  there. 
Agam,  in  his  "Hist,  eccl."  (VI.  xxv,  3,  4),  Eusebius 
tells  us  that  Origen,  in  his  first  book  on  the  Gospel  of 
St.  Blatthew,  states  that  he  has  learned  from  tradition 
that  the  First  Gospel  was  written  by  Matthew,  who, 
having  composed  it  in  Hebrew,  published  it  for  the 
converts  from  Judaism.  According  to  Eusebius  (Hist, 
eccl.,  Ill,  xxiv,  6),  Matthew  preached  first  to  the 
Hebrews  and^  when  obliged  to  ^o  to  other  countries, 
gave  them  his  Gospel  written  m  his  native  tongue. 
St.  Jerome  has  repeatedly  declared  that  Matthew  wrote 
his  Goroel  in  Hebrew  ("Ad  Damasum",  xx;  "Ad 
Hedib.  ,  iv),  but  says  that  it  is  not  known  with  cer- 
tainty who  translated  it  into  Greek.  St.  Cyril  of  Jeru- 
salem, St.  Gregory  of  Nazianzus,  St.  Epiphanius,  St. 
John  Chrysostom,  St.  Augustine,  etc.,  and  all  the  com- 
mentators of  the  Middle  Ages  repeat  that  Matthew 
wrote  his  Gospel  in  Hebrew.  Erasmus  was  the  first  to 
express  doubts  on  this  subject:  "It  does  not  seem 
probable  to  me  that  Matthew  wrote  in  Hebrew,  since 
no  one  testifies  that  he  has  seen  any  trace  of  such  a 
volume."  This  is  not  accurate,  as  St.  Jerome  uses 
Matthew's  Hebrew  text  several  times  to  solve  diffi- 
culties of  interpretation,  which  proves  that  he  had  it 
at  hand.  Pantsenus  also  had  it,  as,  according  to  St. 
Jerome  ("  De  Viris  111.",  xxxvi),  he  brought  it  back  to 
Alexandria.  However,  the  testimony  of  Pantsenus  is 
only  second-handj  and  that  of  Jerome  remains  rather 
ambiguous,  since  m  neither  case  is  it  positively  known 
that  the  writer  did  not  mistake  the  Uospel  according 
to  the  Hebrews  (written  of  course  in  Hebrew)  for  the 
Hebrew  Gospel  of  St.  Matthew.  However,  all  eccle- 
siastical writers  assert  that  Matthew  wrote  his  Gospel 
in  Hebrew,  and,  by  quoting  the  Greek  Gospel  and 
ascribing  it  to  Matthew,  thereby  affirm  it  to  be  a  trans- 
lation of  the  Hebrew  Gospel. 

B.  Examination  of  the  Greek  Gospd  of  St,  Matthew. — 
Our  chief  object  is  to  ascertain  whether  the  character- 
istics of  the  Greek  Gospel  indicate  that  it  is  a  trans- 
lation from  the  Aramaic,  or  that  it  is  an  original 
document;  but,  that  we  may  not  have  to  revert  to  the 
peculiarities  of  the  Gospel  of  Matthew,  we  shall  here 
treat  them  in  full. 

(1)  The  Language  of  the  Gospel. — St.  Matthew  used 
about  1475  words,  137  of  which  are  Sira^  Xry^fwuv 
(words  used  by  him  alone  of  all  the  New  Testament 
writers).  Of  these  latter  76  are  classical;  21  are  found 
in  the  Septuagint;  15  {fiarToXoytip,  /9i«urT^$.  cdKovx^^ny, 
ete.)  were  introduced  for  the  first  time  by  Matthew,  or 


at  least  he  was  the  first  writer  in  whom  they  were  dis* 
covered;  8  words  (dtfttdpi&p,  '^aid^iv,  etc.)  were  em- 
plosred  for  the  first  time  by  Matthew  and  Mark,  and  15 
others  {iKx6vwdai^  irtod^ios  etc.)  by  Matthew  and 
another  New  Testament  writer.  It  is  probable  that, 
at  the  time  of  the  Evangelist,  all  these  words  were  in 
current  use.  Matthew's  Gospel  contains  many  pecul- 
iar expressions  which  help  to  give  decided  colour  to 
his  style.  Thus,  he  employs  thirty-four  times  the 
expression  fiaviKeia  tQp  oipawQp;  this  is  never  found 
in  Mark  and  Luke,  who,  in  parallel  passages,  replace  it 
by  fioffiXela  rov  tfeoO,  whicn  also  occurs  four  times  in 
Matthew.  We  must  likewise  note  the  expressions: 
6  rar^p  6  /rovpdriot,  6  4p  toU  odpawots,  trvrriXtta  rod 
altawos^  ovpalptip  Xbyop^  drtlp  n  irard  rtvot.  lUxp^  t^ 
cijfiepoVf  Toi^ai  cSyf,  Cnnrtpf  ip  iKtiptp  t$  iraip^,  iytlpw&at 
dw6,  etc.  The  same  terms  often  recur:  r6rc  (90  times), 
dird  rSre,  ical  ISod  etc.  He  adopts  the  Greek  form 
'lflpoa6\vfjui  for  Jerusalem,  and  not'IijpowrdXijM,  which 
he  uses  but  once.  He  has  a  predilection  for  the  prepo- 
sition Awdf  using  it  even  when  Mark  and  Luke  use  ix, 
and  for  the  expression  vlbt  Aavtd.  Moreover,  Matthew 
is  fond  of  repeating  a  phrase  or  a  special  construction 
several  times  within  quite  a  short  interval  (cf.  ii, 
1,  13,  and  19;  iv,  12,  18,  and  v,  2;  viii,  2-3  and  28; 
ix,  26  and  31;  xiii,  44,  45,  and  47,  etc.).  Quotations 
from  the  Old  Testament  are  variously  introduced,  as: 
o&rtat,  KoBC^s  y&ypawrtu,  fra,  or  Ihrtat,  ir\fip<a$i  t6  ^p&ip 
inrb  Kvplov  did  rod  wpo^iifroVj  etc.  These  peculiarities 
of  language,  especially  the  repetition  of  the  same 
words  and  expressions,  would  indicate  that  the  Greek 
Gospel  was  an  original  rather  than  a  translation,  and 
this  is  confirmed  by  the  paronomasiis  (/SarroXoYccr, 
TtikuKoyla;  K&^oprai  koX  tf^orrat,  etc.),  which  ought  not 
to  have  oeen  found  in  the  Aramaic,  by  the  emplov- 
ment  of  the  genitive  absolute,  and,  above  all,  by  the 
linking  <^  clauses  through  the  use  of  /*dp  ,  .  ,  94,  a 
construction  that  is  peculiarly  Greek.  However,  let 
us  observe  that  these  various  characteristics  prove 
merelv  that  the  writer  was  thoroughly  conversant 
with  his  language^  and  that  he  translated  his  text 
rather  freely.  Besides,  these  same  characteristics  are 
noticeable  m  Christ's  sayings,  as  well  as  in  the  narra- 
tives, and,  as  these  utterances  were  made  in  Aramaic, 
they  were  consequently  translated ;  thus,  the  construc- 
tion puh  ,  ,  ,  64  (except  in  one  instance)  and  all  the 
examples  of  paronomasia  occur  in  discourses  of  Christ. 
The  fact  that  the  ^nitive  absolute  is  used  mainly  in 
the  narrative  portions,  only  denotes  that  the  latter 
were  more  freely  translated;  besides,  Hebrew  pos- 
sesses an  analogous  grammatical  construction.  On 
the  other  hand,  a  fair  number  of  Hebraisms  are  noticed 
in  Matthew's  Gospel  (odir  4ytpi09Ktp  atriip,  6fMo\oy^n 
4p  4fiol,  el  K^Tip,  rt  ii/up  koX  col,  etc.),  which  favour 
the  belief  that  the  original  was  Aramaic.  Still,  it 
remains  to  be  proved  that  these  Hebraisms  are  not 
colloquial  Greek  expressions. 

(2)  General  Character  of  the  Gospel. — ^Distinct 
unity  of  plan,  an  artificial  arrangement  of  subject- 
matter,  and  a  simple,  easy  style — ^much  purer  than 
that  of  Mark — suggest  an  original  rather  tmui  a  trans- 
lation. When  the  First  Gospel  is  compared  with 
books  translated  from  the  Hebrew,  such  as  those  of 
the  Septuagint,  a  marked  difference  is  at  once  appar- 
ent. The  original  Hebrew  shines  through  every  line 
of  the  latter,  whereas,  in  the  First  Gospel  Hebraisins 
are  comparatively  rare,  and  are  merely  such  as  might 
be  looked  for  in  a  book  written  by  a  Jew  and  repro- 
ducing Jewish  teaching.  However,  these  observations 
are  not  conclusive  in  favour  of  a  Greek  original.  In 
the  first  place,  the  unity  of  style  that  prevails  through- 
out the  book,  would  rather  prove  that  we  have  a  trans- 
lation. It  is  certain  that  a  good  portion  of  the  matter 
existed  first  in  Aramaic — at  all  events,  the  sayings  of 
Christ,  and  thus  almost  three-quarters  of  the  Gospel. 
Consequently,  these  at  least  the  Greek  writer  has 
translated.    And,  since  no  difference  in  language  and 


HATTSKW                            60  ttATTBIW 

style  can  be  detected  between  the  savings  of  Christ  any  definite  text  (v,  21b,  23,  43).  In  those  passag;es 
and  the  narratives  that  are  claimed  to  have  been  com-  where  Matthew  runs  parallel  with  Mark  and  Luke  or 
posed  in  Greek,  it  would  seem  that  these  latter  are  with  either  of  them,  all  the  quotations  save  one  (xi, 
also  translated  from  the  Aramaic.  This  conclusion  is  10)  are  taken  almost  literally  from  ^e  Septuagint. 
based  on  the  fact  that  they  are  of  the  same  origin  as  (4)  Analogy  to  the  Gospels  of  St.  Mark  and  St. 
the  discourses.  The  unity  of  plan  and  the  artificial  Luke. — From  a  first  comparison  of  the  Gospel  of  Mat- 
arrangement  of  subject-matter  could  as  well  have  thew  with  the  two  other  Synoptic  Gospels  we  find 
been  made  in  Matthew's  Aramaic  as  in  the  Greek  doc-  (a)  that  330  verses  are  peculiar  to  it  alone;  that  it  has 
ument;  the  fine  Greek  construction,  the  lapidary  style,  between  330  and  370  in  common  with  both  the  others, 
the  elegance  and  good  order  claimed  as  cnaracteristic  from  170  to  ISO  with  Mark's,  and  from  230  to  240  with 
of  the  Gospel,  are  largely  a  matter  of  opinion,  the  Luke's;  (P)  that  in  like  parts  the  same  ideas  are  ex- 
proof  being  that  critics  do  not  agree  on  this  question,  pressed  sometimes  in  identical  and  sometimes  in  differ- 
Although  tne  phraseolog^r  is  not  more  Hebraic  than  in  ent  terms;  that  Matthew  and  Mark  most  frequently 
the  other  Gospels,  still  it  is  not  much  less  so.  To  siun  use  the  same  expressions,  Matthew  seldom  agreeing 
up,  from  the  uteraiy  examination  of  the  Greek  Gospel  with  Luke  against  Mark.  The  divergence  in  their  use 
no  certain  conclusion  can  be  drawn  against  the  exist-  of  the  same  expressions  is  in  the  number  of  a  noun  or 
ence  of  a  Hebrew  Gospel  of  which  our  First  Gospel  the  use  of  two  different  tenses  of  the  same  verb.  The 
would  be  a  translation;  and  inversely,  this  examina-  construction  of  sentences  is  at  times  identical  and  at 
tion  does  not  prove  the  Greek  Gospel  to  be  a  transla-  others  different.  (7)  That  the  order  of  narrative  is,  with 
tion  of  an  Aramaic  original.  certain  exceptions  which  we  shall  later  indicate,  almost 
(3)  Quotations  from  the  Old  Testament. — It  is  the  same  in  Matthew,  Mark,  and  Luke.  These  facts 
claimed  that  most  of  the  quotations  from  the  Old  Tes-  indicate  that  the  three  Synoptists  are  not  independent 
tament  are  borrowed  from  the  Septuagint,  and  that  of  one  another.  They  borrow  their  subject-matter 
this  fact  proves  that  the  Gospel  of  Matuiew  was  com-  from  the  same  oral  source  or  else  from  the  same  written 
posed  in  Greek.  The  first  proposition  is  not  acciu^te,  documents.  To  declare  oneself  upon  tiiis  altema- 
and,  even  if  it  were,  it  would  not  necessitate  this  con-  tive,  it  would  be  necessary  to  treat  tne  synoptic  ques- 
dusion.  Let  us  examine  the  facts.  As  established  by  tion.  and  on  this  critics  have  not  yet  agreed.  We 
Stanton  (''The  Gospels  as  Historical  Documents  ",  II,  shall,  therefore,  restrict  ourselves  to  what  concerns  the 
Cambridge,  1909,  p.  342),  the  quotations  from  the  Old  Gospiel  of  St.  Matthew.  From  a  second  comparison  of 
Testament  in  the  First  Gospel  are  divided  into  two  this  Gospel  with  Mark  and  Luke  we  ascertain:  (a)  that 
classes.  In  the  first  are  ranged  all  those  quotations  Mark  is  to  be  found  almost  complete  in  Matthew,  with 
the  object  of  which  is  to  show  that  the  prophecies  have  certain  divergences  which  we  shall  note;  (b)  that  Mat- 
been  realised  in  the  events  of  the  life  of  Jesus.  They  thew  records  many  of  our  Lord's  discourses  in  common 
are  int»*oduced  by  the  words:  "Now  all  this  was  done  with  Luke;  (c)  that  Matthew  has  special  passages 
that  it  might  be  fulfilled  which  the  Lord  spoke  by  the  which  are  unknown  to  Mark  and  Luke.  Let  us  ex- 
p»rophet,"  or  other  similar  expressions.  The  quota-  amine  these  three  points  in  detail,  in  an  endeavoiu*  to 
tions  of  this  class  do  not  in  general  correspond  exactly  learn  how  the  Gospel  of  Matthew  was  composed, 
with  any  particular  text.  Three  among  them  (ii,  15;  (a)  Analogy  to  Aiark. — (i)  Mark  is  found  complete 
viii,  17;  xxvii,  9,  10)  are  borrowed  from  the  Hebrew;  in  Matthew,  with  the  exception  of  numerous  slight 
five  (ii,  18;  iv,  15,  16:  xii,  18-21 :  xiii,  35;  xxi,  4.  5)  omissions  and  the  following  pericopes:  Mark,  i,  23-28, 
bear  points  of  resemblance  to  the  Septuagint,  but  35-39  ;iv,  26-29 ;  vii,  32-36;  viii,  22-26;  ix,  39, 40;  xii, 
were  not  borrowed  from  that  version.  In  the  answer  41-44.  in  all.  31  verses  are  omitted,  (ii)  The  gen- 
of  the  chief  priests  and  scribes  to  Herod  (ii,  6),  the  text  eral  order  is  identical  except  that,  in  chapters  v-xiii, 
of  the  Old  Testament  is  slightly  modified,  without,  how-  Matthew  groups  facts  of  the  same  nature  and  sayings 
ever,  conforming  either  to  the  Hebrew  or  the  Septua-  conveying  the  same  ideas.    Thus,  in  Matt.,  viii,  1-15, 

S'nt.    The  Prophet  Micheas  writes  (v,  2) :  "  And  thou  we  have  uiree  miracles  that  are  separated  in  Mark:  in 

ethlehem,  Epnrata,  art  a  little  one  amonjg  the  thou-  Matthew,  viii,  23-ix,  9,  there  are  gathered  togetner 

sands  of  Juda";  whereas  Matthew  says  (ii,  6):  "And  incidents  otherwise  arranged  in  Mark,  etc.    Matthew 

thou  Bethlehem  the  land  of  Juda  art  not  the  least  among  places  sentences  in  a  different  environment  from  that 

the  princes  of  Juda*\    A  single  quotation  of  this  given  them  by  Mark.    For  instance,  in  chapter  v,  15, 

first  class  (iii,  3)  conforms  to  the  Septuagint,  and  Matthewinsertsa  verse  occurring  in  Mark,  iv,  21,  that 

another  (i,  23)  is  almost  conformable.    These  (^uota-  should  have  been  placed  after  xiii.  23,  eto.     (iii)  In 

tions  are  to  be  referred  to  the  first  Evangelist  himself,  Matthew  the  narrative  is  usually  snorter  because   he 

and  relate  to  facts,  principally  to  the  birth  of  Jesus  (i,  suppresses  a  great  number  of  details.    Thus,  in  Mark, 

ii) ,  then  to  the  mission  of  John  the  Baptist,  the  preach-  we  read : ' '  And  the  wind  ceased :  and  there  was  made  a 

ing  of  the  Gospel  by  Jesus  in  Galilee,  the  miracles  of  great  cahn",  whereas  in  Matthew  the  fijst  part  of  the 

Jesus,  eto.    It  is  surprisin^j  that  the  narratives  of  the  sentence  is  omitted.    Ail  unnecessary  particulars  are 

Passion  and  the  Resurrection  of  Our  Lord,  the  fulfil-  dispensed  with,  such  as  the  numerous  picturesque 

ment  of  the  very  clear  and  numerous  prophecies  of  the  features  and  indications  of  time,  place,  and  number,  in 

Old  Testament,  should  never  be  brought  into  relation  which  Mark's  narrative  abounds,     (iv)  Sometimes, 

with  these  prophecies.    Many  critics,  e.g.Burkitt  and  however,  Matthew  is  the  more  detailed.    Thus,  in 

Stanton,  think  that  the  quotations  of  the  first  class  chapter  xii,  22-45,  he  ^ives  more  of  Christ's  discourse 

are  borrowed  from  a  collection  of  Messianic  passages,  than  we  find  in  Mark,  iii,  20-30,  and  has  in  addition  a 

Stanton  being  of  opinion  that  they  were  accompanied  dialogue  between  Jesus  and  the  scribes.    In  chapter 

|yy  Uie  event  that  constituted  their  realisation.    Hiis  xiii,  Matthew  dwells  at  greater  length  than  Blark,  iv, 

*' catena  of  fulfilments  of  prophecv",  as  he  calls  it,  ex-  upon  the  object  of  the  parables,  and  introduces  those 

isted  originally  in  Aramic,  but  whether  the  author  of  of  the  cockle  and  the  leaven,  neither  of  which  Blark 

the  First  Gospel  had  a  Greek  translation  of  it  is  uncer-  records.    Moreover,  Our  Lord's  apocalyptic  discourse 

tain.    The  second  class  of  quotations  from  the  Old  is  much  longer  in  Matthew,  xxi v-xxv  (97  verses),  than 

Testament  is  chiefly  composed  of  those  repeated  either  in  Mark,  xiii  (37  verses),     (v)  Changes  of  terms  or 

by  the  Lord  or  by  His  interrogators.    Except  in  two  divergences  in  the  mode  of  expression  are  extremely 

passages,  they  are  introduced  oy  one  of  the  formul®:  frequent.     Thus,  Matthew  often  uses  €d64w9,  when 

"It  is  written";  "As  it  is  written";  "Have  you  not  Mark  has  M&t;   /liw  ,  ,  »  W,  instead  of   ical,  as  in 

read?"  "Moses  said".    Where  Mattliew alone  quotes  Mark,  etc.;  the  aorist  instead  of  the  imperfect  em- 

the  Lord's  words,  the  quotation  is  sometimes  bor-  ployed  by  Mark.     He  avoids  double  negatives  and  the 

rowed  from  the  Septuagint  (v,  2  la,  27, 38),  or,  again,  it  construction  of  the  participle  with  el/d;  his  style  is 

18  a  free  translation  winch  we  are  unable  to  refer  to  more  correct  and  less  harsh  than  that  of  Mark,  he 


BCATTHSW 


61 


MATTHEW 


roaol  ves  Mark's  Compound  verbs,  and  replaces  by  terms 
in  current  use  the  rather  unusual  expressions  intro- 
duced by  Mark,  etc.  (vi)  He  is  free  from  the  lack  of 
precision  which,  to  a  slight  extent,  characterises  Mark. 
Thus,  Matthew  sa3r8  "  the  tetrarch "  and  not  "  the 
king  as  Mark  does,  in  speaking  of  Herod  Antipas ;  "  on 
the  third  day  "  instead  of  *'  in  three  days  ",  At  times 
the  changes  are  more  important.  Instead  of  "Levi, 
son  of  Alpheus,"  he  says:  **&  man  named  Matthew"; 
he  mentions  two  demoniacs  and  two  blind  persons, 
whereas  Mark  mentions  onl^  one  of  each,  etc.  (vii) 
Matthew  extenuates  or  omits  everything  which,  in 
Mark,  might  be  construed  in  a  sense  derogatory  to  the 
Person  of  Christ  or  unfavourable  to  the  disciples. 
Thus,  in  speaking  of  Jesus,  he  suppresses  the  following 
phrases:  *' And  looking  round  about  on  them  with 
anger"  (Mark,  iii,  5);  "And  when  his  friends  had 
heard  of  it,  they  went  out  to  lav  hold  on  him.  For 
they  said:  He  is  beside  himself  (Mark,  iii,  21),  etc. 
Speaking  of  the  disciples,  he  does  not  say,  like  Mark, 
that  "they  understood  not  the  word,  and  they  were 
afraid  to  ask  him"  (ix,  31;  cf.  viii,  17, 18);  or  that  the 
disciples  were  in  a  state  of  profoimd  amazement,  be- 
cause "they  understood  not  concerning  the  loaves;  for 
their  heart  was  blinded"  (vi,  52),  etc.  He  likewise 
omits  whatever  miffht  shock  his  readers,  as  the  saying 
of  the  Lord  recorded  by  Mark:  "The  sabbath  was 
made  for  man,  and  not  man  for  the  sabbath"  (ii,  27). 
Omissions  or  alterations  of  this  kind  are  very  numer- 
ous. It  must,  however,  be  remarked  that  between 
Matthew  and  Mark  there  are  many  points  of  resem- 
blance in  the  construction  of  sentences  (Matt.,  ix,  6  = 
Mark,  ii,  10;  Matt.,  xxvi,  47  =  Mark,  xiv,  43,  etc.);  in 
their  mode  of  expression,  often  unusual,  and  in  short 
phrases  (Matt.,  ix,  16  =  Mark,  ii^  21;  Matt.,  xvi,  28  = 
Mark,  ix,  1;  Matt.,  xx,  25  =  Mark,  x,  42);  in  some 
pericopes,  narratives,  or  discourses,  where  the  greater 
part  of  the  terms  are  identical  (Matt.,  iv,  1^22  = 
Mark,  i,  16-20;  Matt.,  xxvi,  36-38  =  Mark,  xiv,  32- 
34;  Matt.,  ix,  5,  6  =  Mark,  ii,  9-11),  etc.  (C^f.  Haw- 
kins, "Hor»  synoptic®",  pp.  54-67.) 

(b)  Analogy  to  Luke. — A  comparison  of  Matthew 
and  Luke  reveals  that  they  have  out  one  narrative  in 
common,  viz.,  the  cure  of  the  centurion's  servant 
(Matt.,  viii,  5-13  =  Luke,  vii,  1-10).  The  additional 
matter  common  to  these  Evangelists,  consists  of  the 
disoourses  and  sayings  of  Christ.  In  Matthew  His  dis- 
courses are  usually  gathered  together,  whereas  in  Luke 
they  are  more  frequently  scattered.  Nevertheless, 
liatthew  and  Luke  have  in  common  the  following  di^ 
courses:  the  Sermon  on  the  Mount  (Matt..  v-vii= 
the  Sermon  in  the  Plain,  Luke,  vi) ;  the  Lora's  exhor- 
tation to  His  disciples  whom  He  sends  forth  on  a  mis- 
sion(Matt.,  x,  19-20. 26-33  =  Luke,  xii,  1 1-12, 2-9) ;  the 
discourse  on  John  tne  Baptist  (Matt.,  xi  =  Luke,  vii); 
the  discourse  on  the  Last  Judgment  (Matt.,  xxiv  = 
Luke,  xvii).  Moreover,  these  two  Evangelists  possess 
in  common  a  large  numoer  of  detached  sentences,  e.  g., 
Matt.,  iii,  7b-10,  12  =  Luke,  iii.  7b-9,  17;  Matt.,  iv, 
a-11  =  Luke,  iv,  3-13;  Matt.,  ix,  37,  38  =  Luke,  x, 
2;  Matt.,  xii,  4^-15  =  Luke,  xi,  24-26,  etc.  (cf.  Rush- 
brooke,  "Synopticon",  op.  134-70).  However,  in 
these  parallel  passages  of  Matthew  and  Luke  there  are 
numerous  differences  of  expression,  and  even  some 
divergences  in  ideas  or  in  the  manner  of  their  presen- 
tation. It  is  only  necessary  to  recall  the  Beatitudes 
(Matt.,  V,  3-12  =  Luke,  vi.  20b-25) :  in  Matthew 
there  are  eight  beatitudes,  whereas  in  Luke  there  are 
only  four,  which,  while  approximating  to  Matthew's 
in  point  of  conception,  diner  from  them  in  general 
form  and  expression.  In  addition  to  having  in  com- 
mon parts  that  Mark  has  not,  Matthew  and  Luke  some- 
times agree  against  Mark  in  parallel  narratives.  There 
have  been  coimted  240  passages  wherein  Matthew  and 
Luke  harmonise  with  each  other,  but  disagree  with 
Mark  in  the  way  of  presenting  events,  and  particularly 
in  the  use  <d  the  same  terms  and  the  same  grammati<»J 


emendations.   Matthew  and  Luke  omit  the  vety  peri- 
copes that  occur  in  Mark. 

(c)  Parts  peculiar  to  Matthew. — ^These  are  numer- 
ous, as  Matthew  has  330  verses  that  are  distinctly  hifr 
own.  Sometimes  long  passages  occur,  such  as  those 
recording  the  Nativity  and  early  Childnood  (i,  ii),  the 
cure  of  the  two  blind  men  and  one  dumb  man  (ix,  27- 
34),  the  death  of  Judas  (xxvii,  3-10),  the  guard  placed 
at  the  Sepulchre  ^xxvii,  62-66),  the  imposture  of  the 
chief  priests  (xxviii,  11-15),  the  apparition  of  Jesus  in 
Galilee  (xxviii.  16-20),  a  ^at  portion  of  the  Sermon 
on  the  Mount  (v,  17-37;  vi,  1-8;  vii,  12-23).  parables 
^xiii,  24-30;  35-53;  xxv,  1-13),  the  Last  Judgment 
(xxv,  31^6),  etc.,  and  sometimes  detached  sentences, 
as  in  xxiii,  3,  28,  33;  xxvii,  25.  etc.  (cf.  Rushbrooke, 
"  Sjrnopticon  ",  pp.  171-97) .  Tnose  passages  in  which 
Matthew  reminds  us  that  facts  in  the  life  of  Jesus  are 
the  fulfilment  of  the  prophecies,  are  likewise  noted  as 
peculiar  to  him,  but  of  this  we  have  already  spoken. 

These  various  considerations  have  given  rise  to  a 
great  number  of  hypotheses,  varying  in  detail,  but 
agreeing  fundamentally.  According  to  the  majority 
of  present  critics — H.  Holtzmann,  Wendt,  Jiilicher, 
Wemle,  von  Soden,  Wellhausen,  Hamack,  B.  Weiss, 
Nicolardot,  W.  Allen,  Montefiore,  Plummer,  and  Stan- 
ton— the  author  of  the  First  Gospel  used  two  docu- 
ments: the  Gospel  of  Mark  in  its  present  or  in  an 
earlier  form,  and  a  collection  of  discourses  or  sayings, 
which  is  designated  by  the  letter  Q.  The  repetitions 
occurring  in  Matthew  (v,  29,  30  =  xviii,  8, 9;  v,  32= 
xix,  9;  X,  22a  =  xxiv,  9b;  xii,  39b  =  xvi,  4a,  etc.) 
may  be  explained  by  the  fact  that  two  sources  fur- 
nished the  writer  with  material  for  his  Gospel.  Fur- 
thermore, Matthew  used  documents  of  his  own.  In 
this  hypothesis  the  Greek  Goepel  is  supposed  to  be 
original,  and  not  the  translation  of  a  complete  Ara- 
maic Gospel.  It  is  admitted  that  the  collection  of 
sayings  was  originally  Aramaic,  but  it  is  disputed 
whether  the  Evangelist  had  it  in  this  form  or  in  that 
of  a  Greek  translation.  Critics  also  differ  regarding 
the  manner  in  which  Matthew  used  the  sources.  Some 
would  have  it  that  Matthew  the  Apostle  was  not  the 
author  of  the  First  Gospel,  but  merely  the  collector  of 
the  sayings  of  Christ  mentioned  b3r  Papias.  "  How- 
ever", says  JOlicher,  "the  author's  individuality  is  so 
strikin^y  evident  in  his  style  and  tendencies  tnat  it 
is  impossible  to  consider  the  Gospel  a  mere  compila- 
tion ' .  Most  critics  are  of  a  like  opinion.  ^  Endeavours 
have  been  made  to  reconcile  the  information  furnished 
by  tradition  with  the  facts  resulting  from  the  study  of 
the  Gospel  as  follows:  Matthew  was  known  to  have 
coUectea  in  Aramaic  the  sayings  of  Christ,  and,  on  the 
other  hand,  there  existed  at  the  beginning  of  the  sec- 
ond century  a  Gospel  containing  the  narratives  found 
in  Mark  and  the  sayings  gathered  hv  Matthew  in  Ara- 
maic. It  is  held  that  the  Greek  Gospel  ascribed  to 
Matthew  is  a  translation  of  it^  made  by  him  or  by 
other  translators  whose  names  it  was  later  attempted 
to  ascertain. 

To  safeguard  tradition  further,  while  taking  into 
consideration  the  facts  we  have  already  noted,  it 
might  be  supposed  that  the  three  Synoptists  worked 
upon  the  same  catechesis,  either  oral  or  written  and 
originally  in  Aramaic,  and  that  they  had  detached 
portions  of  this  catechesis,  varying  in  literary  condi- 
tion. The  divergences  may  be  explained  first  by  this 
latter  fact,  and  then  by  the  hypothesis  of  different 
translations  and  by  each  Evangelist's  peculiar  method 
of  treating  the  subiect-matter,  Mattnew  and  Luke 
especially  having  adapted  it  to  the  purpose  of  their 
Gospel.  There  is  nothing  to  prevent  the  supposition 
that  Matthew  worked  on  the  Aramaic  catechesis;  the 
literary  emendations  of  Mark's  text  by  Matthew  may 
have  been  due  to  the  translator,  who  was  more  con- 
versant with  Greek  than  was  the  popular  preacher  who 
furnished  the  catechesis  reproduced  by  Mark.  ^  In 
reaUty,  the  only  difficulty  lies  in  explaining  the  simi- 


ItATTHtW  62  MATT&tW 

larity  of  style  between  Biatthew  and  Biark.  First  of  Mount  (v,  1-vii,  29);  (ii)  the  propagation  of  the  King- 
all,  we  may  observe  that  the  points  of  resemblance  are  dom  in  Galilee  (viii,  1-xviii,  35) .  He  groups  together: 
less  numerous  than  the^^  are  said  to  be.  As  we  have  (a)  the  deeds  by  which  Jesus  established  tnat  He  was 
seen,  they  are  very  rare  in  the  narratives  at  all  events,  the  Messias  and  the  King  of  the  Kingdom:  various 
much  more  so  than  in  the  discourses  of  Christ.  Why,  cures,  the  calming  of  the  tempest,  missionary  journeys 
then,  should  we  not  suppose  that  the  three  Synoptists,  throu^  the  land,  the  calling  of  the  Twelve  Apostles, 
depending  u{>on  the  same  Aramaic  catechesis,  some-  the  prmciples  that  should  guide  them  in  their  mission- 
tiroes  agreed  in  rendering  similar  Areunaic  expressions  arv  travels  (viii,  1-x,  42) ;  (/3)  divers  teachings  of  Jesus 
in  the  same  Greek  words?  It  is  also  possible  to  sup-  called  forth  oy  circumstances:  John's  message  and  the 
pose  that  saving  of  Christ,  which  in  tne  three  Ssmop-  Lord's  answer,  Christ's  confutation  of  the  false  charges 
tic  Gospels  (or  m  two  of  them)  differed  only  in  a  few  of  the  Pharisees,  the  departure  and  return  of  the  un- 
expressions,  were  unified  by  copyists  or  other  persons,  clean  spirit  (xi,  1-xii.  50) ;  finally,  the  parables  of  the 
To  us  it  seems  probable  that  Matthew's  Greek  trans-  Kingdom,  of  which  Jesus  makes  known  and  explains 
lator  used  Mark's  Greek  Gospel,  especiaUv  for  Christ's  the  end  (xiii,  3-52).  (iii)  Biatthew  then  relates  the  dif- 
discourses.  Luke,  also,  may  have  simimrly  utilized  ferent  events  that  termmate  the  preaching  in  Galilee: 
Matthew's  Greek  Gospel  in  rendering  the  discourses  of  Christ's  visit  to  Nasareth  (xiii,  53-58) .  the  multiplica- 
Christ.  Finally,  even  though  we  should  suppose  that  tion  of  the  loaves,  the  walking  on  the  lake,  discussions 
Biatthew  were  the  author  only  of  the  Logia,  the  full  with  the  Pharisees  concerning  legal  pmrifications,  the 
scope  of  which  we  do  not  know,  and  that  a  part  of  his  confession  of  Peter  at  Csesarea,  the  Transfiguration  of 
Greek  Gospel  is  derived  from  tnat  of  Biark,  we  would  Jesus,  prophecv  regarding  the  Passion  and  Resurreo- 
stiU  have  a  ri^ht  to  ascribe  this  First  Gospel  to  Mat-  tion,  and  teachings  on  scandal,  fraternal  correction, 
thew  as  its  prmcipal  author.  and  the  forgiveness  of  injuries  (xiv,  1-xviii,  35). 

Other  hypotheses  have  been  put  forth.  In  Zahn's  (2)  Outside  Galilee  on  the  way  to  Jerusalem  (xix- 
opinion,  Matthew  wrote  a  complete  Gospel  in  Ara-  xx). — Jesus  leaves  Galilee  and  goes  beyond  the  Jor- 
maic;  Mark  was  famiUar  with  this  document,  which  dan;  He  discusses  divorce  with  the  Pharisees;  answers 
he  used  while  abridging  it.  Biatthew's  Greek  transla-  the  rich  young  man,  and  teaches  self-denial  and  the 
tor  utilised  Biark,  but  only  for  form,  whereas  Luke  danger  of  wealth;  explains  by  the  parable  of  the 
depended  upon  Bi&rk  and  secondary  sources,  but  was  labourers  how  the  elect  will  be  called;  replies  to  the 
not  acquainted  with  Biatthew.  According  to  Belser,  indiscreet  question  of  the  mother  of  the  sons  of  Zebe- 
Biatthew  first  wrote  his  Gospel  in  Hebrew,  a  Greek  dee,  and  cures  two  blind  men  of  Jericho, 
translation  of  it  being  made  in  59-60,  and  Mark  de-  (3)  In  Jerusalem  (xxi-xxv). — Jesus  makes  a  trium- 
pended  on  Biatthew's  Aramaic  document  and  Peter's  phal  entry  into  Jerusalem;  He  curses  the  barren  fig- 
preaching.  Luke  made  use  of  Mark,  of  Matthew  (both  tree  and  enters  into  a  dispute  with  the  chief  priests 
m  Aramaic  and  Greek),  and  also  of  oral  tradition,  and  the  Pharisees  who  ask  rlim  by  what  authority  He 
According  to  Camerlynck  and  Coppieters.  the  First  has  banished  the  sellers  from  the  Temple,  and  answers 
Gospel  in  its  present  form  was  composea  either  by  them  by  the  parables  of  the  two  sons,  the  murderous 
Matthew  or  some  other  Apostolic  writer  long  before  husbandmen,  and  the  marriage  of  the  king's  son.  New 
the  end  of  the  first  century,  by  combining  the  Aramaic  questions  are  put  to  Jesus  concerning  the  tribute,  the 
work  of  Matthew  and  the  Gospel  of  Luke.  resurrection  ot  the  dead,  and  the  greatest  command- 
Ill.  Plan  and  Contents  of  the  Fikst  Gospel. —  ment.  Jesus  anathematizes  the  scribes  and  Pharisees 
The  author  did  not  wish  to  compose  a  biography  of  and  foretells  the  events  that  will  precede  and  accom- 
Christ,  but  to  demonstrate,  by  recording  His  words  pany  tbs  fall  of  Jerusalem  and  the  end  of  the  world, 
and  the  deeds  of  His  life,  that  He  was  the  Messias,  the  C.  The  Passion  and  the  Resurrection  of  Jesus  (xxvi- 
Head  and  Founder  of  tne  Kingdom  of  God,  and  the  xxviii). — (1)  The  Passion  (xxvi-xxvii). — Events  are 
promulgator  of  its  laws.  One  can  scarcely  fail  to  reo-  now  hurrying  to  a  close.  The  Sanhedrin  plots  for  the 
ognize  that,  except  in  a  few  parts  (e.  g.  the  Childhood  death  of  Jesus,  a  woman  anoints  the  feet  of  the  Lord, 
and  the  Passion),  the  arrangement  of  events  and  of  and  Judas  betrays  his  Blaster.  Jesus  eats  the  pasch 
discourses  is  artificial.  Biatthew  usuallv  combines  with  His  disciples  and  institutes  the  Eucharist.  In 
facts  and  precepts  of  a  like  nature.  Whatever  the  the  Garden  of  Olives,  He  enters  upon  His  agony  and 
reason,  he  favours  groups  of  three  (thirty-eight  of  offers  up  the  sacrifice  of  His  life.  He  is  arrested  and 
which  may  be  counted) — three  divisions  in  tne  geneal-  brought  before  the  Sanhedrin.  Peter  denies  Christ; 
ogy  of  Jesus  (i,  17),  three  temptations  (iv,  1-11),  Judas  hangs  himself .  Jesus  is  condemned  to  death  b^ 
three  examples  of  justice  (vi,  1-18),  three  cures  (viii,  Pilate  and  crucified;  He  is  buried,  and  a  guard  is 
1-15).  three  parables  of  tne  seed  (xiii,  1-32),  three  placed  at  the  Sepulchre  (xxvi,  1-xxvii,  66). 
denials  of  Peter  (xxvi,  6^75),  etc.;  of  five  (these  are  (2)  The  Resurrection  (xxviii). — Jesus  rises  the  third 
less  numerous) — ^nve  long  discourses  (v-vii,  27;  x;  xiii,  day  and  appears  first  to  the  holy  women  at  Jerusalem, 
1-52 ;  xviii;  xxiv-xxv) ,  ending  with  the  same  formula  then  in  Galilee  to  His  disciples,  whom  He  sends  forth  to 
(Kai  iyivtTo^  5rc  iriXtff€P  6  'Ii^out),  five  examples  of  the  propagate  throughout  the  world  the  Kingdom  of  God. 
fulfilment  of  the  law  (v,  21-48),  etc.;  and  of  seven —  lY.  Objectt  and  Doctrinal  Teaching  of  thk 
seven  parables  (xiii),  seven  maledictions  (xxiii),  seven  First  Gospel. — Immediately  after  the  descent  of  the 
brethren  (xxii,  25),  etc.  The  First  Gospel  can  be  veiy  Holy  Ghost  upon  the  Apostles,  Peter  preached  that 
naturally  divided  as  follows : —  Jesus,  crucified  and  risen,  was  the  Messias,  the  Saviour 

A.  Introduction  (i-ii). — The  genealogy  of  Jesus,  the  of  the  World,  and  proved  this  assertion  by  relating  the 
prediction  of  His  Birth,  the  Blagi,  the  Flight  into  Ufe,  death,  and  resurrection  of  the  Lord.  This  was 
Egypt,  the  Massacre  of  the  Innocents,  the  return  to  the  first  Apostolic  teaching,  and  was  repeated  by  the 
Nazareth,  and  the  life  there.  other  preachers  of  the  Giospel,  of  whom  tradition  telle 

B.  The  Public  Ministry  of  Jesus  (iiir-xxv). — ^This  us  that  Biatthew  was  one.  This  Evangelist  pro- 
may  be  divided  into  three  parts,  according  to  the  claimed  the  Gospel  to  the  Hebrews  and,  before  his  de- 
place  where  He  exercised  it.  parture  from  Jerusalem,  wrote  in  his  mother  tongue 

(1)  In  Galilee  (iii-xviii^. — (a)  Preparation  for  the  the  Giospel  that  he  had  preached.  Hence  the  aim  of 
public  ministry  of  Jesus  (iii,  1-iv,  11):  John  the  Bap-  the  Evangelist  was  primarily  apologetic.  He  wished 
tist,  the  Baptism  of  Jesus,  tne  Temptation,  the  return  to  demonstrate  to  his  readers,  wnether  these  were  con- 
to  Galilee,  (b)  The  preaching  of  the  Kinniom  of  God  verts  or  still  imbelieving  Jews,  that  in  Jesus  the  an- 
(iv,  17-xviii,  35) :  (i)  the  preparation  of  the  Kingdom  cient  prophecies  had  beien  realized  in  their  entirety, 
by  the  preaching  of  penance,  the  call  of  the  disciples.  This  thesis  includes  three  principal  ideas:  (A)  Jesus  is 
and  numerous  cures  (iv,  17-25),  the  promulgation  or  the  Messias,  and  the  kingdom  He  inaugurates  is  the 
the  code  of  the  Kingdom  of  God  in  the  Sermon  on  the  Messianic  kingdom  foretold  by  the  prophets;  (B)  be* 


MATTHIW                              63  MATTHIW 

cause  of  their  sins,  the  Jews,  as  a  nation,  shall  have  no  St.  Jeromei  whose  testimony  has  been  given  above 

part  in  this  kingdom;  (C)  the  Gospel  will  be  announced  Ql,  A),  agree  in  declaringthat  St.  Biatthew  wrote  his 

to  all  nations,  and  all  men  are  called  to  salvation.  Gosi>el  f^r  the  Jews.    Evexything  in  this  Gospel 

A.  St.  Matthew  has  shown  that  in  Jesus  all  the  an-  prov^,  that  the  writer  addr^ses  himself  to  Jewish 
cient  prophesies  on  the  Messias  were  fulfilled.  He  readers.  He  does  not  explain  Jewish  customs  and 
was  the  Emmanuel,  bom  of  a  Viigin  Mother  (i,  22,  usages  to  them^  as  do  the  other  Evangelists  for  their 
23),  announced  by  Isaias  (vii,  14);  He  was  bom  at  Greek  and  Latm  readers,  and  he  assumes  that  they 
Bethlehem  (ii,  6),  as  had  been  predicted  bv  Micheas  (v,  are  acquainted  with  Palestine,  since,  imlike  St.  Luke. 
2);  He  went  to  Egypt  and  was  recalled  thence  (ii,  15)  he  mentions  places  without  j^vinjg  any  indication  ot 
as  foretold  by  Osee  (zi,  1).  According  to  the  pre-  their  topographical  position.  It  is  true  that  the  He- 
diction  of  Isaias  (xl,  3),  He  was  heraldea  by  a  precur-  brew  wonu,  Emmanuel^  Golgotha,  Ehi,  are  translated. 
Bor,  John  the  Baptist  (iii,  1  sqq.) ;  He  cured  all  the  sick  but  it  is  likely  that  these  translations  were  inserted 
(viii,  16  so.),  that  the  prophecy  of  Isaias  (liii,  4)  might  when  the  Aramaic  text  was  reproduced  in  Greek.  St. 
be  fulfillea;  and  in  alt  His  actions  He  was  indeed  the  Matthew  chronicles  those  discourses  of  Christ  that 
same  of  whom  this  prophet  had  spoken  (xlii,  1).  His  would  interest  the  Jews  and  leave  a  favourable  im- 
teaching  in  parables  (xiii,  3)  was  conformable  to  what  pression  upon  them.  The  law  is  not  to  be  destroyed, 
Isaias  had  said  (vi,  9).  Finally,  He  sufifered,  and  the  out  fulfilled  (v,  17).  He  emphasises  more  strongly 
entire  drama  of  His  Passion  and  Death  was  a  fulfil-  than  either  St.  Mark  or  St.  Luke  the  false  interpreta- 
ment  of  the  prophecies  of  Scripture  (Isaias,  liii,  3-12;  tions  of  the  law  given  by  the  scribes  and  Pharisees,  the 
Ps.  xxi,  13-22).  Jesus  proclaimed  Himself  the  Mes-  hypocrisy  and  even  the  vices  of  the  latter.  aU  of  which 
Bias  by  Hi<3  approbation  of  Peter's  confession  (xvi,  16,  could  be  of  interest  to  Jewish  readers  only.  Accord- 
17)  and  bv  His  answer  to  the  high  priest  (xxvi,  63,  in^  to  certain  critics,  St.  Irenseus  (Fragment  xxix) 
64).  St.  Matthew  also  endeavours  to  show  that  the  said  that  Matthew  wrote  to  convert  tne  Jews  by  prov- 
Kingdom  inaugurated  by  Jesus  Christ  is  the  Messianic  ing  to  them  that  Christ  was  the  Son  of  David.  This 
Kingdom.  From  the  beginning  of  His  public  life,  interpretation  is  badly  founded.  Moreover,  Origen 
Jesus  proclaims  that  the  Kingdom  of  Heaven  is  at  (In  Matt.,  i)  categorically  asserts  that  this  Gospel 
hand  (iv,  17);  in  the  Sermon  on  the  Mount  He  promul-  was  published  for  Jews  converted  to  the  Faith, 
gates  the  charter  of  this  kingdom,  and  in  parables  He  Eusebius  (ffist.  eccl.,  Ill,  xxiv)  is  also  explicit^  on 
speaks  of  its  nature  and  conditions.  In  His  answer  this  point,  and  St.  Jerome,  summarising;  tradition, 
to  the  envoys  of  John  the  Baptist  Jesus  specifically  teaches  us  that  St.  Matthew  published  his  Gospel  in 
declares  that  the  Messianic  Kingdom,  foretold  by  the  Judea  and  in  the  Hebrew  language,  principally  for 
Prophets,  has  come  to  pass,  and  He  describes  its  char-  those  among  the  Jews  who  believed  in  Jesus,  and  did 
acteristics: "  The  blind  see,  and  the  lame  walk,  the  lep-  not  observe  even  the  shadow  of  the  Law,  the  truth  of 
ers  are  cleansed,  the  deaf  hear,  the  dead  rise  again,  the  tiie  Gospel  having  replaced  it  (In  Matt.  Prol.).  Subse- 
poor  have  the  gospel  preached  to  them."  It  was  in  quent  ecclesiastical  writers  and  Catholic  exegetes  have 
these  terms,  that  Isaias  had  described  the  future  king-  taught  that  St.  Matthew  wrote  for  the  converted  Jews, 
dom  (xxxv,  5,  6;  bd,  1).  St.  Matthew  records  a  very  ''However,"  savs  Zahn  (Introd.  to  the  New  Testa- 
formal  expression  of  the  Lord  concerning  the  coming  ment,  II,  562),  *'the  apologetical  and  polemical  char- 
of  the  Kingdom;  *'  But  if  I  by  the  Spirit  of  Gk>d  cast  acter  of  the  book,  as  well  as  the  choice  of  language, 
out  devils,  then  is  the  kingdom  of  God  come  upon  you  "  make  it  extremely  probable  that  Matthew  wished  nis 
(xii,  28).  Moreover,  Jesus  couldcall  Himself  the  Mes-  book  to  be  read  pnmariiy  by  the  Jews  who  were  not 
Bias  only  inasmuch  as  the  Kingdom  of  God  had  come,  yet  Clffistians.    It  was  suited  to  Jewish  Christians 

B.  The  Jews  as  a  nation  were  rejected  because  of  who  were  still  exposed  to  Jewish  infiuenoe,  and  also  to 
their  sins,  and  were  to  have  no  part  in  the  Kingdom  of  Jews  who  still  resisted  the  Gospel". 

Heaven.    This  rejection  had  been  several  times  pre-  VI.  Date  and  Place  of  Composition. — ^Ancient  eo- 

dicted  by  the  prophets,  and  St.  Matthew  shows  that  it  clesiastical  writers  are  at  variance  as  to  the  date  of 

was  because  of  its  incredulity  that  Israel  was  excluded  the  composition  of  the  first  Gospel.    Eusebius  (in  his 

from  the  Kingdom;  he  dwells  on  all  the  events  in  which  Chronicle),  Theophvlact,  and  Euthymius  Zigabenus 

the  increasing  obduracy  of  the  Jewish  nation  is  con-  are  of  opinion  that  tne  Gospel  of  Matthew  was  written 

spicuous,  manifested  first  in  the  princes  and  then  in  the  eight  years,  and  Nicephorus  Callistus  fifteen  year^ 

hatred  of  the  people  who  beseech  Pilate  to  put  Jesus  &neT  Christ  s  Ascension^,  e.  about  a.  d.  38^45.    Ao- 

to  death.    Thus  tne  Jewish  nation  itself  was  account-  cording  to  Eusebius,  Matthew  wrote  his  Gospel  in 

able  for  its  exclusion  from  the  Messianic  kingdom.  Hebrew  when  he  left  Palestine.    Now,  following  a  cer- 

C.  That  the  pagans  were  called  to  salvation  instead  tain  tradition  (admittedly  not  too  reliable),  the  Apo&- 
of  the  Jews,  Jesus  declared  explicitly  to  the  unbeliev-  ties  separated  twelve  years  after  the  Ascension,  hence 
ing  Israelites:  ''Therefore  I  say  to  you  that  the  king-  the  Gospel  would  have  been  written  about  the  year 
dom  of  God  shall  be  taken  from  you,  and  shall  be  given  40-42;  but  following  Eusc1)ius  (Hist,  eccl..  Ill,  v,  2),  it 
to  a  nation  3ielding  the  fruits  thereof  "  (xxi,  43) ; "  He  is  possible  to  fix  Uie  definitive  departure  of  the  Apostlee 
that  soweth  the  good  seed,  is  the  Son  of  man.  And  about  the  year  60,  in  which  event  the  writing  of  the  Goe- 
the field  is  the  world  "  (xlii,  37-38) .  ^  And  this  gospel  pel  would  have  taken  place  about  the  year  60-68.  St. 
of  the  kingdom  shall  be  preached  in  the  whole  world  iren^:)us  is  somewhat  more  exact  concerning  the  date  of 
for  a  testimony  to  all  nations,  and  then  shall  the  con-  the  First  Gospel,  as  he  says:  *'  Matthew  produced  his 
summation  come"  (xxiv,  14).  ^  Finally,  appearing  to  Gospel  when  Peter  and  Paul  were  evangelizing  and 
His  Apostles  in  Galilee,  Jesus  g^vee  them  this  supreme  founding  the  Chureh  of  Rome,  consequently  about  the 
command :  *'  All  power  is  given  to  me  in  heaven  and  in  years  6^-67."  However,  this  text  presento  difficultiee 
earth.  Going  therefore,  teach  ye  all  nations"  (xxviii,  of  interpretation  which  render  ito  meaning  uncertain 
18, 19).  These  last  words  of  Christ  are  the  summary  and  prevent  us  from  deducing  any  positive  conclusion, 
of  the  First  (xospel.  Efforto  have  been  made  to  main-  In  our  day  opinion  is  rather  divided.  Catholic  crit- 
tain  that  these  words  of  Jesus,  commanding  that  all  ics,  in  ^neral,  favour  the  years  40-45,  although  some 
nations  be  evangelised,  were  not  authentic,  but  in  a  (e.  g.  ratrizi)  go  back  to  36-39  or  (e.  g.  Aberle)  tc 
subsequent  paragraph  we  shall  prove  that  all  the  37.  Belser  assigns  41-42;  Comply,  40-^;  Sch&fer, 
Lord's  sayings,  recorded  in  the  First  Gospel,  proceed  50-51;  Hug,  Reuschl,  Schans,  and  Rose,  60-67.  This 
from  the  teaching  of  Jesus.  For  this  particular  ques-  last  opinion  is  founded  on  the  combined  testimonies  of 
tion  see,  Meinertz,  "Jesus  und  die  Heidenmlssion"  St.  Irenaeus  and  Eusebius,  and  on  the  remark  inserted 
(MQnster,  1908).  parenthetically  in  the  discourse  of  Jesus  in  chapter 

V.  Destination  of  the  Gospel. — The  ecclesiasti-  xxiv,  15: "  When  therefore  you  shall  see  the  abonuna- 

^  Wiitoi^  Papias,  St.  Ir^p^iWi  Origen,  Eusebiiys,  ^4  ^^i^  Pf  desolation,  which  was  spoken  of  by  Daniel  the 


MATTHEW                              64  MATTHIW 

prophet,  standing  in  the  hol^r  place  " :  here  the  author  point  of  the  author,  and  what  he  wished  to  demonstrate, 
mterrupts  the  sentence  and  invites  the  reader  to  take  The  comments  that  we  are  about  to  make  concerning 
heed  of  what  follows,  viz.:  "Then  they  that  are  in  the  Lord's  utterances  are  also  applicable  to  the  Gospe' 
Judea,  let  them  flee  to  the  moimtains."  As  there  narratives.  For  a  demonstration  of  the  historic  yclae 
would  have  been  no  occasion  for  a  like  warning  had  of  the  narratives  of  the  Holy  Childhood,  we  recommend 
the  destruction  of  Jerusalem  already  taken  place.  Father  Durand's  scholarly  work,  *'  L'enfance  de  J6sus- 
Matthew  must  have  written  his  Gospel  before  the  year  Christ  d'apr^  les  ^  vangiles  canoniques  "  (Paris,  1907). 
70  (about  65-70  according  to  Batiffol).  Protestant  (2)  0/  the  Discoursea. — ^The  greater  part  of  Christ's 
and  Liberalistic  critics  also  are  greatly  at  variance  as  short  sayings  are  found  in  the  tniee  ^jmoptic  Gospels, 
regards  the  time  of  the  composition  of  the  First  Gos-  and  conse<juently  spring  from  the  early  catechesis 
pel.  Zahn  sets  the  date  about  61-66,  and  Godet  about  His  lone  discoiurses,  recorded  by  St.  Matthew  and  St 
60-66;  Keim,  Meyer,  Holtzmann  (in  his  earlier  writ-  Luke,  ateo  formed  part  of  an  authentic  catechesis,  and 
ings),  Beyschlag,  and  Maclean,  before  70;  Bartlet  critics  in  general  are  agreed  in  acknowledging  their 
about  68-69;  W.  Allen  and  Plummer,  about  65-75;  historic  vsQue.  There  are,  however,  some  who  main- 
Hilgenfeld  and  Holtzmann  (in  his  later  writings),  soon  tain  that  the  Evangelist  modified  his  documents  to 
after  70;  B.  Weiss  and  Hamack,  about  70-75;  Kenan,  adapt  them  to  the  faith  professed  in  Cluristian  com- 
later  than  85;  R^ville.  between  69  and  96;  jQlicher,  in  munities  at  the  time  when  he  wrote  his  (jospeL  They 
81-96;  Montefiore,  about  90-100;  Volkmar,  in  110;  also  claim  that,  even  prior  to  ibe  composition  of  the 
Baur,  about  130-34.  The  following  are  some  of  the  Gospeb,  Christian  faith  had  altered  Apostolic  reminis- 
arguments  advanced  to  prove  that  the  First  Gospel  oences.  Let  us  first  of  all  observe  that  these  objections 
was  written  several  years  after  the  Fall  of  Jerusalem,  would  have  no  weight  whatever,  unless  we  were  to 
When  Jesus  prophesies  to  His  Apostles  that  they  wiU  concede  that  the  First  Cvospel  was  not  written  by  St. 
be  delivered  up  to  the  councils,  scourged  in  the  syna-  Matthew.  And  even  assummg  the  same  point  of  view 
gogues,  brought  before  governors  and  kings  for  His  as  oiur  adversaries,  who  think  that  oiur  Synoptic  Gos- 
sake;  that  they  will  give  testimony  of  Him,  will  for  pels  depend  upon  anterior  soiurces,  we  maintain  that 
Him  be  hated  and  driven  from  city  to  citv  (x.  17-23) ;  these  changes,  whether  attributable  to  the  Evangelists 
and  when  He  commissions  them  to  teach  all  nations  or  to  their  sources  (i.  e.  the  faith  of  the  early  ChriS' 
and  make  them  His  disciples,  His  words  intimate,  it  is  tians),  could  not  have  been  effected, 
claimed,  the  lapse  of  many  ^ears,  the  establishment  of  The  alterations  claimed  to  have  been  introduced 
the  Christian  Church  in  distant  parts,  and  its  cruel  into  Christ's  teachings  could  not  have  been  made  by 
persecution  by  the  Jews  and  even  oy  Roman  emperors  the  Evangelists  themselves.  We  know  that  the  latter 
and  governors.  Moreover,  certain  sayings  of  the  Lord  selected  uieir  subject-matter  and  disposed  of  it  each 
— such  as:  "Thou  art  Peter;  and  upon  this  rock  I  will  in  his  own  way,  and  with  a  special  end  in  view;  but 
build  my  church"  (xvi,  18) ;  ''  If  he  [thy  brother]  will  this  matter  was  the  same  for  all  three,  at  least  for  the 
not  hear  them:  tell  the  Church"  (xviii,  10) — carry  us  whole  contents  of  the  pericopes,  and  was  taken  from 
to  a  time  when  the  Christian  Church  was  already  con-  the  original  catechesis,  which  was  already  sufficiently 
stituted,  a  time  that  could  not  have  been  much  earlier  well  established  not  to  admit  of  the  introduction  into 
than  the  year  100.  The  fact  is,  that  what  was  pre-  it  of  new  ideas  and  imknown  facts.  Again,  all  the  doo- 
dicted  by  Our  Lord,  when  He  announced  future  events  trines  which  are  claimed  to  be  foreign  to  the  teachings 
and  established  the  charter  and  foundations  of  His  of  Jesus  are  found  in  the  three  Synoptists,  and  are  so 
(}hurch,  is  converted  into  reality  and  made  coexistent  much  a  part  of  the  very  framework  of  each  Gospel  that 
with  the  writing  of  the  First  Gospel.  Hence,  "to  give  their  removal  would  mean  the  destruction  of  the  order 
these  arguments  a  probatorv  value  it  would  be  nece»-  of  the  narrative.  Under  these  conditions,  that  there 
saiy  either  to  deny  Christ's  knowledge  of  the  future  or  might  be  a  substantial  change  in  the  doctrines  taught 
to  maintain  that  the  teachings  embodied  in  the  First  by  Christ,  it  would  be  necessary  to  suppose  a  previous 
Gfospel  were  not  authentic.  understanding  among  the  three  Evan^lists,  which 
VII.  Historic  Value  of  the  First  GosPEii. — 0/  seems  to  us  impossible,  as  Matthew  and  Luke  at  least 
iheNarraiivea, — (1)  Apart  from  the  narratives  of  the  appear  to  have  worked  independently  of  each  other. 
Childhood  of  Jesus,  the  cure  of  the  two  blind  men,  the  and  it  is  in  their  Cvospels  that  Christ's  longest  dis- 
tribute money,  and  a  few  incidents  connected  with  the  courses  are  found.  These  doctrines,  which  were  al- 
Passionand  Resurrection,  all  the  others  recorded  by  St.  ready  embodied  in  the  sources  used  by  the  three 
Blatthew  are  found  in  both  the  other  Synoptists,  with  Synoptists,  could  not  have  resulted  from  the  delibera- 
one  exception  (viii,  5-13)  which  occurs  only  in  St.  tions  and  opinions  of  the  earliest  Christians.  First  of 
Luke.  Critics  agree  in  declaring  that,  regarded  as  a  all,  between  the  death  of  Christ  and  the  initial  drawing 
whole,  the  events  of  the  life  of  Jesus  recorded  in  the  up  of  the  oral  catechesis,  there  was  not  sufficient  time 
Synoptic  Gospels  are  historic.  For  us,  these  facts  are  Tor  originating,  and  subsequently  enjoining  upon  the 
historic  even  in  detail,  our  criterion  of  truth  being  the  Christian  conscience,  ideas  diametrically  opposed  to 
same  for  the  aggregate  and  the  details.  The  Gospel  of  thooe  said  to  have  '^een  exclusively  taught  W  Jesus 
St.  Mark  is  acknowledged  to  be  of  great  historic  value  Christ.  For  example,  let  us  take  the  doctnnes  claimed, 
because  it  reproduces  the  preaching  of  St.  Peter.  But,  above  all  others,  to  have  been  altered  by  the  belief  ot 
for  almost  all  the  events  of  the  Gospel,  the  Infor-  Jie  first  Cliristianr,  namely  that  Jesus  Christ  had  called 
mation  given  by  St.  Mark  is  foimd  in  St.  Matthew,  all  nations  to  salvation.  It  is  said  that  the  Lord  re- 
while  such  as  are  peculiar  to  the  latter  are  of  the  same  str  ctod  His  mission  to  Israel,  and  that  all  those  texts 
nature  as  events  recorded  bv  St.  Mark,  and  resemble  wherein  He  teaches  that  the  Gospel  should  be  preached 
them  so  closelv  that  it  is  hard  to  understand  why  they  throughout  the  entire  world  originated  with  the  early 
should  not  be  historic,  since  they  also  are  derived  from  Christians  and  especially  with  Paul.  Now.  in  the  firet 
the  primitive  catechesis.  It  may  be  further  observed  place,  these  universalist  doctrines  could  not  have 
that  the  narratives  of  St.  Matthew  are  never  contra-  spnmg  up  among  the  Apostles.  Thev  and  the  primi- 
dictory  to  the  events  made  known  to  us  by  profane  tive  Christians  were  Jews  of  poorly  cieveloped  inteUi- 
documents,  and  that  they  ^ve  a  very  accurate  account  pence,  of  very  narrow  outlook,  and  were  moreover 
of  the  moral  and  religious  ideas,  the  manners  and  cus-  imbued  with  particularist  ideas.  From  the  Gospels 
toms  Qf  the  Jewish  people  of  that  time.  In  his  re-  and  Acts  it  is  easy  to  see  that  these  men  were  totally 
cent  work,  *'The  Synoptic  Gospels"  (London,  1909),  unacquainted  with  universalist  ideas,  which  had  to  be 
Montefiore,  a  Jewish  critic,  does  full  justice  to  St.  urged  upon  them,  and  which,  even  then,  tl\ey  were 
Matthew  on  these  different  points.  Finally,  all  the  slow  to  accept.  Moreover,  how  could  this  firbt  Chris- 
objections  that  could  possibly  nave  been  raised  against  tian  generation,  who,  we  are  told .  believed  that  C^hnst  s 
tb^irver^citv  vanish,  if  we  but  k^p  in  mind  the  stand-  Second  Coming  was  close  at  hand,  have  ori|inav^* 


ICATTHBW  65  MATTHEW 

these  paflsages  pcodaimiiiK  that  before  this  event  took  became  M.A.  5  JuTy^  1697.    He  seems  to  have  been 

place  the  Gosj^  should  oe  preached  to  all  nations?  harshly  treated  by  his  parents,  who  were  angered  at 

These  doctrines  do  not  emanate  from  St.  Paul  and  his  his  youthful  extravagance.    On  15  May,  1599,  he 

disciples.     Long  before  St.  Paul  could  have  exercised  was  admitted  at  Gra^r  s  Inn,  where  he  began  his  close 

any  mfluenoe  ^^atever  over  the  Christian  conscience,  intimacy  with  Sir  Francis  Bacon,  and  two  years  later 

•the  Elvangelical  sources  containing  these  precepts  had  became  M.P.  for  Newport,  Cornwall.    During  this 

already  been  composed.     The  Apostle  of  the  Gentiles  beriod  of  his  life  he  frequented  the  dissolute  court  of 

was  the  special  propagator  of  these  doctrines,  but  he  Elizabeth.    On  the  accession  of  James  I  he  sat  in 

was  not  their  creator.     Enlightened  by  the  Holy  Parliament  for  St.  Alban  s,  and  joined  the  new  court, 

Spirit,  he  imderstood  that  the  ancient  prophecies  had  receiving  a  lar^  grant  from  the  Crown  which  amply 

been  realized  in  the  Person  of  Jesus,  and  that  the  provided  for  his  future.    Having  always  desired  to 

doctrines  taught  by  Christ  were  identical  with  those  travel,  he  left  England  in  November.  1604,  visiting 

revttded  bv  the  dcrii>ture8.  France  on  his  way  to  Florence,  thougn  he  had  prom- 

FinaUy,  by  oonaidenng  as  a  whole  the  ideas  consti-  ised  his  father  he  would  not  go  to  Ital^.    At  Florence 

tuting  the  basis  of  the  earliest  Christiaa  writings,  we  he  came  into  the  society  of  several  Catholics  and 

ascertain  that  these  doctrines,  taught  by  the  prophets,  ended  b^  being  received  into  the  Church.    A  new 

and  accentuated  by  the  life  and  words  of  Christ,  form  persecution  was  raging  in  England,  but  he  determined 

the  framework  of  the  Gk)spe]s  and  the  basis  of  Pauline  to  return.    He  was  imprisoned  in  the  Fleet  for  six 

preaching.    They  are,  as  it  were,  a  kind  of  fasces  months,  and  every  eSort  was  made  to  shake  his 

which  it  would  be  impossible  to  unbind,  and  into  resolution.     Finally  he  was  allowed  to  leave  England, 

which  no  new  idea  could  be  inserted  without  destroy-  and  he  traveled  in  Flanders  and  Spain.    In  1614  he 

iog  its  strength  and  unity.    In  the  prophecies,  the  studied  for  the  priesthood  at  Rome  and  was  ordained 

GoJBpds,  the  Pauline  Epistles,  and  the  mt  Christian  by  Cardinal  BeOarmine  (20  Mav).    The  king  allowed 

writu^  an  intimate  correlation  joins  all  together,   him  to  return  to  England  in  1617,  and  he  stayed  for  a 

JesusQirist  ffirnaftlf  being  the  centre  and  the  common  time  with  Bacon,  whose  eesays  he  translated  into 

bond.    What  one  has  saia  of  Him,  the  others  reiterate,   Italian.    From  1619  to  1622  he  was  again  exiled,  but 

and  never  do  we  hear  an  isohited  or  a  discordant  on  his  return  was  favourably  received  by  the  king,  and 

voice,    n  Jesus  taught  doctrines  contrary  or  foreign  acted  as  an  agent  at  court  to  promote  the  marriage  of 

to  those  which  the  CSvangelists  placed  upon  Hjs  lips,  Prince  Charles  with  the  Spanish  Infanta.    In  the  same 

then    He    beoomes    an    inexplicable    phenomenon,   cause  James  sent  him  to  Madrid  and  on  his  return 

because,  in  the  matter  of  ideas,  He  is  in  contradiction  Imighted  him,  20  Oct.^  1623.    During  the  reign  of 

to  the  society  in  which  He  moved,  and  must  be  Charles  I  he  remained  m  high  favour  at  court,  where 

ranked  with  the  least  intelligent  sections  among  the  he  laboured  indefatigably  for  the  CathoUc  cause. 

Jewish  people.    We  are  justified,  therefore,  in  con-  When  the  Civil  War  broke  out  in  1640  he,  now  an  old 

eluding  that  the  discourses  of  Christ,  recorded  in  the  man,  took  refuge  with  the  English  Jesuits  at  their 

^rstGospel  and  rewoduoing  the  Apostolic  cateche-  house  at  Ghent,  where  he  died.    He  was  always  an 

sis,  are  authentic.     We  may.  however,  again  observe  ardent  supporter  of  the  Jesuits,  and,  though  it  has 

that,   his  aim  being   chidSy   apolosetic,    Matthew  long  been  denied  that  he  was  ever  himself  a  Jesuit, 

selected  and  presented  the  events  of  uhrist's  life  and  papera  recently  discovered  at  Oulton  Abbey  show 

also  these  discourses  in  a  way  that  would  lead  up  to  strong  reason  for  supposing  that  he  was  in  fact  a  mem- 

the  conslusive  iHroof  which  he  wished  to  ffive  of  the  ber  of  the  Society.      Besides  the  Italian  version  of 

Measiahahip  of  Jesus.     StiU  the  Evangelist  neither  Bacon's  *'  Essays  ",  he  translated  St.  Augustine's 

substantial^    altered    the   original    catechesis   nor  '*  Confessions  "  (1620),  the  Life  of  St.  Teresa  written 


invented  doctrines  foreign  to  the  teaching  of  Jesus,  by  herself  (1623),and  Father  Arias's  "  Treatise  of  Pa- 

His  action  bore  upon  details  or  form,  but  not  upon  tience  **  (1650).    His  original  works  were:  "A Relation 

the  bai^  of  words  and  deeds.  of  Uie  death  of  Troilo  Savelle,  Baron  of  Rome  ** 

Oathotie  Authow;  Maumkatds, /n  MtM.  (Mains,  1874) ;  (1Q20) ;"  A  Missive  of  Consolation  sent  from  Flanders 

5^.!?£Sn8S»iS«!'SKirX?r*JS5?ii^  tottoCathoUc8ofEngland(1647)j«ATVueH^^^ 

1878);  SoHAMi.  CiNiMMfitar  4iber  da9  Bvang.  dM  hi.  Mau.  (Frai-  ical  Relation  of  the  Conversion  of  Sur  Tobie  Matthews 

bozs.  i870);^AB»niAOTB.  Comment,  in  Bvang.  •fff''^'^'^  to  the  Holie  Catholic  Faith  "  (first  published  in  1904) ; 

CpS..^^l«MV'G^TSSHi**l^^  some  manuscript  works  (see  GiUow,  "  Bibl.  Diet.  Eng. 

1904);  jAOQuxn.  Hit.  iet  Uvtm  du  Nouneau  Tt^mmi,  11  05th  Cath.",  IV,  541-42).    His  letters  were  edited  by  Dr. 

^••i'*»J?^*2;  ^^;^  Comment,  of  Go»p€li^^  MajtKewCSew  j^y^  Donne  in  1660. 

Yorl^  1898);  MacEtiixt,  BxpoeUton  of  Om  Goep^  (Dublin.  Matthbw.  Life  of  Sir  Tobie  Matthew  (with  portrait  and  many 

1876).   _,-....          -«                     ^          Ml.    ^       I  new    doeumento)    (London,  1907):    Insii,    A    True   Hietorieal 

Npn-Oathpho  Authow!  Maxwil  m  OpoK,  The  Ooepetae^  n^ation  of  the  Convereion  of  Sir  Totrie  Matthew  (London.  1904): 


lv%  Mtlu  Ootpd  aceordineto  Si.  ^oMm  (Edinbiuiib.  180^;  ^Mrt.  KaL  Bioo.  (with  nomaroiu  and  valuable  other  tefereneea). 

S2?'i&iEintiS2J±"" J^  fe;Sdlff2Ui''3::  M«tthew  of  Cracow,  renowned  achoUr  and  preacher 

Halle,  1902)   HoLnuAinr,  Die  Synoptiker  (3rd  ed.,  TQbinsen;  of  the  fourteenth  century,  b.  at  Cracow  about  1335; 

1901),  Zahk.  Dae  Bvanoeiiun^dee  MaMhdue  (L«p»i«.  1903).  ±  at  Pisa,  5  March,  1410.     The  view,  once  generally 

"SilSS^SSTN'^"!^^  ^^A  that  he  was  descended  frem  tke  Pomeranian 

GBMMAinv  AifD  KLoaTBBMAMir,  Motthdue  (Tabinsen.  1909).  noble  family  of  Crakow.  IS  now  entirely  discredited 

E.  Jacquieb.  (cf.  Sommerlad,  "  Matthftus  von  Krakow  ''1891). 

W»^    ^^'^    '''    ^'-    ^    '^"^  SSSS'y''^'ffi.erffiSw'^XatS'^ 

biteLdturgy.  ^    ^    ^        ,      ^     ^        ^            ^  elorof  arts  in  1366  and  master  in  1367,  and  later  fiUed 

Hatmew,    Paeudo-Goepel    of.    Bee    Apocrypha,  for  several  terms  the  office  of  dean  in  the  same  faculty. 

Matthew*  Sir  Tobie.  English  priest,  b.  at  Salis-  In  1387  we  first  find  documentary  reference  to  him  as 

bury,  3  Oct.,  1677;  diea  at  Ghent,  13  Oct.,  1666.    He  professor  of  theologv,  and  one  manuscript  speaks  of 

WS8  the  son  of  Dr.  Tobie  Matthew,  then  Dean  of  nim  as  "  city  preacher  of  Prague".     About  1^2  he 

Christ  Chureh,  Oxford,  afterwards  Anglican  Bishop  head^  an  embassy  from  his  university  to  Urban  VI. 

of  Durham,  and  finally  Archbishop  of  York,  and  before  whom  he  delivered  a  dissertation  in  favour  ot 

FSrances,    daughter    of    William    Barlow,    Anglican  r^orm.    Accepting;  an  invitation  from  the  University 

Bishop  of  Chichester.    Tobie  Matthew  matricidated  of  Heidelberg,  he  joined  its  professorial  staff  in  1396, 

from  Christ  Church,  Oxford,  13  March,  1689-90,  and  and  a  year  biter  was  appointed  rector.    In  1996  b^  was 


ICATTHBW  66  ICATTHUJI 

named  ooimcillor  to  Ruprecht  11,  and  the  raising  of  then  beheaded  (cf.  TiUemont,  "M^moires  pour  aervir 

Ruprecht  III  to  the  dignity  of  King  of  Rome  in  1400  k  Thistoire  eccl.  des  six  premiers  sidcles",  I,  406-07). 

marks  the  begining  of  Matthew's  career  as  a  states-  It  is  said  that  St.  Helena  brought  the  reucs  of  St. 

man.   Freauently  employed  by  the  king  both  at  court  Matthias  to  Rome,  and  that  a  portion  of  them  was  at 

and  on  embassies,  he  appeared  at  Rome  in  1403  to  Trier.    Bollandus  (Acta  SS.,  May,  III)  doubts  if  the 

solicit   Boniface   IX's   confirmation   of   Ruprecht '9  relics  that  are  in  Rome  are  not  ratiier  those  of  the  St.* 

claims.    On  the  elevation  of  Innocent  VII  to  the  Matthias  who  was  Bishop  of  Jerusalem  about  the  year 

papal  throne  in  1404,  Matthew  greeted  him  on  behalf  120,  and  whose  history  would  seem  to  have  been  con- 

of  Kuprecht.    During  the  same  year  Matthew  was  ap-  founded  with  that  of  the  Apostle.    The  Latin  C3iurch 

point^  Bishop  of  Wonns,  but,  oevond  his  settling  of  celebrates  the  feast  of  St.  A^tthias  on  24  February, 

the  dispute  between  the  people  and  clergy  of  that  city,  and  the  Greek  Church  on  9  August. 
we  know  little  of  his  episcopal  activity.  Clement  of  Alexandria  (Strom.,  Ill,  4)  records  a 

That  he  continued  to  reside  at  Heidelberg  is  very  sentence  that  the  Nicolaitans  ascribe  to  Matthias: 

probable,  and  also  that  he  continued  to  act  as  pro-  **  We  must  combat  our  flesh,  set  no  value  upon  it,  and 

lessor.    Gregory  XII  wished  to  name  him  Carmnal  concede  to  it  nothing  that  can  flatter  it,  out  rather 

Priest  of  S.  Cynaci  in  Thermis,^ut  Matthew  declined  increase  the  growth  of  our  soul  by  faith  and  knowl- 

the  honour.    As  ambassador  of  Ruprecht  to  the  edge".     This  teaching  was  probably  found  in  the 

Council  of  Pisa,  he  displayed  the  greatest  seal  on  be-  Gospel  of  Matthias  which  was  mentioned  by  Origen 

half  of  Gregory  XII,  whom  he  regarded  as  the  legiti-  (Hom.  i  in  Lucam);  by  Eusebius  (Hist,  eccl.,  Ill,  25), 

mate  occupant  of  the  papal  throne.    He  was  a  very  who  attributes  it  to  heretics;  by  St.  Jerome  (Prsef .  in 

prolific  theological  writer.    Apart  from  Biblical  com-  Matth.);  ^  and  in  the  Decree  of  Gelasius  (VI,  8)  which 

mentaries,  sermons,  and  works  on  current  topics,  the  declares  it  apocryphal.    It  is  at  the  end  of  the  list  of 

of  his  writings  are:  "De  consolatione  the  Codex  Barroccianus  (206).    This  Gospel  is  prob- 


most  important 

theologi£e";"Demodoconfitendi";''Depuritatecon-  ably  the  document  whence  Clement  of  Alexandria 

scienti£3",'  "De  corpore  Cluisti";  "De  celebratione  quoted  several  passa^,  saying  that  they  were  bor- 

Missffi".    That  he  wrote  "De  arte  moriendi" — ^to  be  rowed  from  the  tradi<.ions  of  Matthias,  UapadSfftiSf  the 

distinguished  from  a  similar  work  by  Cardinal  Cap-  testimony  of  which  he  claimed  to  have  been  invoked 

ran — cannot  be  maintained  with  certainty,  and  recent  by  the  heretics  Valentinus,  Marcion,  and  Basilides 

investigation  has  shown  beyond  doubt  that  the  work  (Strom.,  VII,  17).     According  to  the  Philosophou- 

"De  squaloribus  curis  Romans"   is   not  from  his  mena,  VII, 20,  BasiUdes quotedapocryphal discourses, 

hands  (Scheiiffgen,  "  Beitr&ge  zur  Gesch.  des  grossen  which  he  attributed  to  Matthias.    These  three  writ- 

Schismas",  1889,  p.  91).  inp;8:  the  Gospel,  the  Traditions,  and  the  Apocryphal 

In  addition  to  the  works  already  mentioned,  consult  Sommer-  Discourses  Were  identified  by  Zahn  (Gesch.  des  N.  T. 

«LDT.  Zu  f^' *«~T^J«JS3;- «^«/!S7,i^^^  Kanon,  II,  751),  but  Hamack  (Chron.  der  altchrist. 

Sj^LSli^SJSJlS^  litteratur,  697)  denies  this  identification.    Tischen- 

M.  A.  (1907),  46  sqq.;  Bubhktsribder,  MattMhu  v.  /c.,  der  dorf  ("Acta  apostolorum  apocrypha' ,  Leipzig,  1851) 

VerftuMrder  PoBttUenf  in  ^imu.  Mfttal.  atu  dtm  Bmedik-  published  after  Thilo,  1846,  "  Acta  Andre«  et  Matthi» 

Swiiite^s.  v!^aS^^  murbeanthropophagarum',which,acoordmgtoLip- 

Tbomab  Kennedy.  bius,  belonged  to  the  nuddle  of  the  second  century. 

••  M^^      wv    J 1     M,        a     TWT  w  This  apocrypha  relates  that  Matthias  went  among  the 

Matthew  Westminster.    See  WEBTMrnsTBR,  Mat^  cannibals  and,  being  cast  into  prison,  was  delivered  by 

'^B.vw,  Andrew.  Ne^ess  to  say,  the  entire  narrative  is  with- 

MatthiaSy  Saint,  Apobtle. — The  Greek  MarBlas,  out  historical  value.    Moreover,  it  should  be  remem- 

K  A  C  E,  or  MttWtof.  B*  D,  is  a  name  derived  from  bered  that,  in  the  apocryphal  writmgs,  Matthew  and 

Uarraetas,  Heb.  Mattithiah,  signifjring  *'gift  of  Jah-  Matthias  have  sometimes  oeen  confounded. 

veh. "    Matthias  was  one  of  the  seventy  disciples  of  £•  Jaoquzer. 

Jesus,  and  had  been  with  Him  from  His  baptism  by        Matthias,  Gospel  op.    See  Apocrypha. 
John  to  the  Ascension  (Acts,  i,  21,  22).    It  is  related 

(Acts,  i,  15-26)  that  m  the  days  following  the  Ascen-        Matthias  Ooryinns,  Kingof  Hungary,  son  of  J^os 

sion,  Peter  proposed  to  the  assembled  brethren,  who  Hunyady    (see   Huntadt,   JXnob)   and    Elisabeth 

numbered  one  nundred  and  twenty,  that  they  choose  Szil^igvi    of    Horogssey,   was    bom    at    Kolozsvar, 

one  to  fill  the  place  of  the  traitor  Judas  in  the  Aposto-  23  Feb.,  1440;  d.  at  Vienna,  6  April,  1490.    In  the 

late.     Two  disciples,  Joseph,  called  Barsabas,  and  house   of  his    father   he   received  along  with  his 

Matthiaswereselected,  and  lots  were  drawn,  with  the  brother  Ladislaus,  a  careful   education  under   the 

result  in  favour  of  Matthias,  who  thus  became  asso-  supervision  of  Gregor  Sanocki^  who  taught  him  the 

ciated  with  the  eleven  Apostles.    Zeller  has  declared  humanities.    Johann  Vitez,  Bishop  of  Grosswardein 

this  narrative  unhistoric,  on  the  plea  that  the  Apostles  from  1445,  the  friend  of  Matthias's  father  when  a 

were  in  Galilee  after  Uie  dealii  of  Jesus.    As  a  matter  boy.  and  himself  an  enthusiastic  i)atron  and  promoter 

of  fact  they  did  return  to  Galilee,  but  liie  Acts  of  tbe  of  classical  studies,  had  a  decided  influence  on  his  edu- 

Apostlesclearlv  state  that  about  the  feast  of  Pentecost  cation.    The  chequered  career  of  his  father  likewise 

they  went  back  to  Jerusalem.  left  its  imprint  on  the  life  of  Matthias.    On  political 

All  further  information  concerning  the  life  and  grounds  he  was  betrothed  in  1455  to  Elisabeth,  the 

death  of  Matthias  is  vague  and  contradictorv.    Ac-  daughter  of  Coimt  Ulric  Czilley,  his  father's  dc^ly 

cording  to  Nicephorus  (Hist,  eccl.,  2,  40),  he  first  enemy,  with  the  aim  of  effecting  the  reconciliation  of 

preached  the  Gospel  in  Judea,  then  in  Ethiopia  (that  the  two  families.    The  early  death  of  Elizabeth  inter- 

u  to  say,  Cc^chis),  and  was  crucified.   The  Synopsis  of  fered  with  this  plan,  and  after  the  death  of  J&nos 

Dorotheus  contains  this  >adition:  Matthias  in  inte-  Hunyady,  Czilley 's  emnity  was  directed  a|;ain8t  the 

riore  iEthiopia,  ubi  Hyssus  maris  portus  et  Phasis  sons.    At  the  instigation  of  Czillev  and  ms  accom- 

iluvius  est,  hominibus  barbaris  et  camivoris  pnedi-  plices,  who  accused  LAdislaus  and  Matthias  Himyady 

cavit  Evangelium.    Mortuus  est  autem  in  Seoasto-  of  a  conspiracy  against  King  Ladislaus  V,  both  were 

poli,  ibiqueprope  templum  Soils  sepultus  (Matthias  arrested,  Ladislaus  being  executed,  and  Matthias  being 

preached  the  GK)spel  to  barbarians  and  cannibals  in  taken  to  Vienna  to  the  court  of  the  king.    Later  he 

the  interior  of  Ethiopia,  at  the  harbour  of  the  sea  of  followed  the  king  to  Prague.     After  the  death  of  King 

Hyssus,  at  the  mouth  of  the  river  Phasis.   He  died  at  Ladislaus  at  Prague,  Matthias  settled  down  at  the 

Sebastopolis,  and  was  buried  there,  near  the  Temple  court  of  the  Bohemian  king,  George  Podiebrad,  who 

of  the  Sun).    Still  another  tradition  mAintRina  t£at  betrothed  him  to  his  daughter  Catharine.    On  23  Jan., 

Matthias  wae  stoned  at  Jerusalem  by  the  Jews,  and  1458,  Matthias  was  proclaimed  King  of  Hungary  at 


IftATTBIAS 


67 


IftATTHIUI 


Buda,  his  uncle  Michael  Ssil^igyi  at  the  same  time  be- 
ing appointed  ko vemor  for  five  years.  Matthias  soon 
freed  himself,  however,  from  the  r^genc^r  of  Siildgsd, 
and  took  the  reins  of  government  into  his  own  hands. 
At  the  very  beginning  of  his  reign  he  had  to  contend 
with  a  movement  among  discontented  Hmi^^arians, 
who  offered  the  crown  to  the  Emperor  Frederick  III, 
who  had  assumed  the  title  of  King  of  Hungary.  The 
quarrel  with  Frederick  lasted  till  1462,  when  an  agree- 
ment was  made  by  which,  among  other  things,  it  was 
settled  that  if  Matthias  should  die  without  leaving  an 
h^,  Frederick  would  be  authorized  to  bear  the  title  of 
King  of  Hungary  as  long  as  he  lived.  At  the  same 
time  Frederick  adopted  Matthias  as  his  son,  and 
pledged  himself  to  aeliver  up  the  Hungarian  crown 
which  he  had  in  his  possession.  The  treaty  was  con- 
firmed bythe  Hun- 
garian Keichstag 
and  Matthias  was 
crowned  king  in 

1463.  Not  long 
before  he  had 
married  Catha- 
rine, the  daugh- 
ter of  thf 
Bohemian  kin^ 
Podiebrad,  who, 
however,  died  at 
the   b^inning  of 

1464.  Relations 
with  the  Em- 
peror Frederick 
again      became 

'strained;  politi- 
cal conditions 
and,  in  particu- 
lar, the  question 
of  the  Bohemian 
crown,  affected 
them  considera- 
bly. The  friction 
between  the  Holy 
See  and  King  Podiebrad  led  to  the  deposition  of  the  lat- 
ter, and  Matthias  was  now  called  upon  by  the  pope  to 
take  up  arms  against  the  deposed  king,  in  1468  came 
the  Bohemian  expedition  ot  Matthias,  elected  king  by 
the  Catholics  of  Bohemia.  The  war  continued  tiuthe 
death  of  Podiebrad  in  1471,  when  the  Bohemians,  de- 
feating Matthias,  chose  Wladislaw,  son  of  C^imir, 
KinK  of  Poland,  as  king.  The  years  up  to  1474  were 
manced  by  indecisive  battles  with  the  Bohemian  king 
and  with  the  Emperor  Frederick.  An  armistice 
caused  a  brief  cessation  of  hostilities,  but  from  1476 
relations  with  the  Emperor  Frederick  ^w  continu- 
ally more  strained.  In  1477  Matthias,  invading  Aus- 
tria, besieged  Vienna.  Peace  was  effected  between 
Matthias  and  Frederick  by  the  intervention  of  the 
papal  legate  in  1477,  but  war  soon  broke  out  again, 
and  in  1485  Matthias  took  Vienna.  In  the  war  with 
the  Emperor  Frederick,  Matthias  had  in  view  the  Ro- 
man crown.  In  this  connexion  he  was  led  not  merely 
by  the  aim  of  securing  for  Hungary  a  leading  position 
m  the  West  of  Europe,  but  also  by  the  design  to  imite 
the  powers  of  Europe  in  a  crusacle  against  the  Turlra. 
He  was  obliged,  however,  to  abandon  this  scheme. 
Equally  fruitless  was  the  plan  of  a  crusade  against  the 
Turks;  nevertheless  he  managed  to  fix  a  limit  to  the 
advance  of  the  Turks,  and  to  strengthen  the  suprem- 
acy of  Hungary  over  Bosnia.  In  1463  Bosnia  fell 
again  into  the  hands  of  the  Turks.  The  victory  of 
luttthias  over  the  Turks  in  Servia,  Bosnia,  and  Tran- 
sylvania  resulted  in  1483  in  a  truce  with  the  Sul- 
tan Bajaset.  Matthias's  relations  with  the  Catholic 
Church  were  good  till  the  year  1471;  but  the  second 
part  of  his  reign  was  marked  by  a  series  of  most  serious 
blunders  and  acts  of  violence.  In  spite  of  legal  enact- 
ments, he  gave  bishoprics  to  foreigners,  and  rewarded 


Matthiab  C>0BTINU8 
Kmc  of  Hungary,  1458-1490 


golitical  services  with  gifts  of  church  property,  which 
e  dealt  with  as  thougn  it  were  the  property  of  the 
state.  His  relations  with  the  Holy  See  were  at  first 
decidedly  cordial,  but  later  there  was  danger  of  a  rup- 
ture, which  was  happily  avoided.  Under  Matthias  the 
humanities  made  their  entry  into  Hunj|;ary.  His  li- 
brary in  Buda,  the  Bibliotheca  Corvinianaf  wins  just 
admiration  even  toKlay  by  virtue  of  the  remnants  of  it 
scattered  over  Europe.  During  his  reign  the  first 
printing  press  in  Hungary  was  established,  that  at 
Buda,  the  first  known  production  of  which  is  the 
"Chronicle  of  Buda",  prmted  in  1473.  The  arts,  too, 
found  in  Matthias  a  generous  Miecenas.  Matthias  in- 
troduced reforms  in  the  army,  in  finance,  and  in  the 
administration  of  the  ^urts  and  the  law.  The  reor- 
ganization of  military  affairs  was  based  on  the  princi- 
ple of  a  standing  army.  With  this  body,  the  so-called 
black  troops,  he  defeated  the  Turks  and  the  Hussite 
troops  of  Giskra,  which  were  laying  waste  Upper  Hun- 
gary. In  financial  affairs,  a  reform  in  the  mode  of 
taxation  was  introduced,  while  his  enactments  in  judi- 
cial affairs  earned  for  him  among  the  people  the  title 
of  "The  Just".  In  1476  he  married  Beatrice,  the 
daughter  of  the  Kinp  of  Naples,  but  the  union  was 
childless.  His  exertions  to  secure  the  throne  for  his 
illegitimate  son,  Johann  Corvinus,  were  rendered  fu- 
tile by  the  opposition  of  Hun^^ary  and  the  plotting  of 
Beatrice.  Matthias  was  buned  at  SȤkes-Feh^rv^ 
(Stuhl  weissenburg) . 

Telbri,  a  Hunyaduak  kora  MaTyarorudgon  (Pesth,  1852), 
{a  llunsarian .  i.  e.  T  le  Age  of  tlid  Htinyadys  in  Hungarsr. 
^  vcUj.:  Cs  vnki,  Af  a(7yait>rMtt(7  ((>r<^ne<i/dUra;ta  a  Hunyadyak 
kordban  (Budapest,  1890),  i.  e.  The  Historical  Geography  of 
Hungary  in  the  Age  of  Uie  H  inyadys,  3  vols,  have  appeared; 
Frarn^i,  a  Hunyat^uak  i»  JageUok  korn  14W-66  (Budapest. 
1896),  Hungarian:  i.  e.  The  Age  of  the  Hunyaoya  and  Jai^ellona; 
li)B^  MathioM  Corvinua,  Kenig  von  Ungam  (Freibuig  im  Br.« 
1891).  For  information  as  to  church  conditions  in  Hungry 
see  the  blbliogcrapiiy  of  Hunoabt.  For  Matthias's  relations 
with  the  Holy  See,  see  the  Latin  introduction  to  M<m%anenta 
Vatieana  Hunqarica:  MathicB  Corvini  Hungaria  regit  epiUota  ad 
Romano9 pont%ficea data tt abets  aecemta  (Budapest,  loOl).  For 
the  foreign  politiaB  of  Bfatthias  see  Monumenia  Hungaria  Hi*' 
torica.  Acta  extera,  1468-90  (Budapest,  1875);  Mdtud9  Kirdkf 
UveUx  KQlQpyi  outily  (Budapest,  1893-96).  i.  e.  Letters  of 
Kini^  Matthias,  foreii^n  section,  2  vols.  For  infonnation  con- 
cemins  Joannes  Oorvinus  see  SchOnberr,  Corvin  Jdnos  ^uda- 
pest.  1894) ;  concerning  Queen  Beatrice  see  BsRSBViGiT,  Beatri* 
kirdlynd  (Budapest,  1906).  . 

A.  AldAst. 

Matthias  of  Meuburg  or  Neuenburg  (Neobub- 
GENSis),  chronicler,  b.  towards  the  close  of  the  thir- 
teenth century,  possibly  at  Neuburg,  in  Baden;  d. 
between  1364  and  1370^  probably  at  Strasburg,  in 
Alsace.  He  studied  jurisprudence  at  Bologna,  and 
later  received  minor  orders^  but  never  became  a  priest. 
In  1327  we  meet  him  as  sohcitor  of  the  episcopal  court 
at  Basle,  and  shortlv  after,  while  clerk  to  Bishop 
Berthold  von  Buchecke.  holding  a  similar  position  in 
Strasburg.  At  present  ne  is  generally  considered  the 
author  of  a  Latm  chronicle  from  1243  to  1350,  and  of 
its  first  continuation  from  1350  to  1355.  Later,  three 
other  writers  carried  on  the  work  to  1368,  1374,  and 
1378  respectively.  It  is  an  important  contribution  to 
Alsatian  and  Habsburg  history  and  for  the  times  in 
which  Alatthias  lived;  indeed,  the  part  covering  the 
period  between  1346  and  1350  is  one  of  the  best  au- 
thorities, not  only  for  the  history  of  his  own  countrv, 
but  for  that  of  the  entire  empire.  It  has  been  attrib- 
uted to  dififere^t  writers,  among  them  to  the  Speyer 
notary,  Jacob  of  Mainz  (cf.  Wichert.  "Jacob  von 
Mainz",  Kdnigsberg,  1881),  also  to  Albert  of  Stras- 
burg, especially  by  earlier  editors^  while  those  of 
later  times  attribute  it  to  Matthias  of  Neuburg. 
For  the  voluminous  literature  on  this  controversy  see 
Potthast,  "Bibliotheca  Kin.  Med.  iEvi."  (Berlin, 
1896).  Among  the  editions  mav  be  mentioned: 
"Alberti  Argentinensis  Ghronici  fragmentum",  an 
appendix  to  Guspinian's  work  "  De  consulibus  Roman- 
orum  commentarii"  (Basle,  1553),  667-710,  vei7 
much  abridged;  Q.  Studer,  "Mattm»  Neoburgenais 


IftATUfilNS                           68  IftAUBICl 

• 

ehronica  cum  continuationeet  vita  Berohtold]'';'' Die  offertory.    The  "Sacramentaiy"  of  Pope  Gelaaiui 

Chronik  des  Matthias  von  Neuenburg",  from  the  contains  an  Ordo    agentibua  pyhUeam  poBnUentiam 

Berne  and  Strasburg  manuscripts  (Berne,  1866);  A.  (Muratori,  "Liturgia  romana  vetus",  I,  648-651). 

HOber,   "Mathi»  Neuwenburgensis  Cronica,   1273-  Olei  exorcizati  an^fecUo. — ^In  the  fifth  century  the 

1350"  in  BOhmer,  ''Pontes  rerum  Qermanicarum  ",  custom  was  established  of  consecrating  on  Holy  lliurB- 

lY  (Stuttmrt,  1868),  14^276;    "ContinuaUones".  day  all  the  chrism  necessary  for  ^  anointing  of  the 

276-297.    It  has  also  been  edited  from  a  Vienna  and  newly  baptiaed.    The  "Comes  Hieronymi",  tne  Gie- 

a  Vatican  manuscript  in  "Abhandlungen  der  Qesell-  gorian  and  Gelasian  sacramentaries  and  the  "Bfissa 

schaft  der  Wissenschaften",  xxxvii-viii  (Gdttingen,  ambroeiana"  of  Pamelius,  all  agree  upon  the  confeo- 

1891-2),  and  translated  into  German  by  Grandaur  tionof  the  chrism  on  that  day,  as  does  sJso  the  "Ordo 

(Leipzig,  1892).  romanus  I". 

PoTTHAJw,  BiUwtheea  (Beriin.  isoj).  780  sq.;  Wbiland,  Anniversarium  Euehan8ti4B.'^The  nocturnal  ode- 

SSS.                     above-meotioned  Qeiman  venion.  pp.  y^^^^^^  ^^  ^^  ^^^^,1^  oblation  early  became  the  ob- 

pATBicins  Sghlaqub.  i^^  ^^  increasing  disfavour,  until  in  692  the  Council 

••      ^         n     m-                   r\  of  TruUo  promulgatcd  a  fonual  prohibition.    TheEu- 

Matnzinfl.    See  Trinitakian  Order.  charistic  celebration  then  took  place  in  the  morning, 

Mati,  NiCHouus  C.    See  Denver,  Diocbbe  op.  f^^J^  ^^®P  '^'^^^  P*^  ®^  the  sacred  specie 

'                                               '  for  the  commumon  of  the  morrow,  Mtasa  prcuaneit-' 

Maundy  Thursday. — The  feast  of  Maunder  (or  ficatorum    (Muratori,  "Litui^e.  rom.  Vetus  ,11,  993). 

Holy)  Thursday  solemnly  commemorates  the  insU-  Other  Observances. — On  Holy  Thursday  the  ringing 

tution  of  the  Eucharist  and  is  the  oldest  of  the  ob-  of  bells  ceases,  the  altar  is  stripped  after  vespers,  and 

servances  peculiar  to  Holy  Week.    In  Rome  various  the  night  office  is  celebrated  under  the  name  of  Tene- 

accessory  ceremonies  were  early  added  to  this  com-  bne. 

memoration,  namel3r  the  consecration  of  the  holy  oils  H.  Lsclercq. 
and  the  reconciliation  of  penitents,  ceremonies  ob- 
viously practical  in  character  and  readily  explained  by  MaunonZT,  AnonaTE-FRAN(x>i8,  Hellenist  and  exe- 
the  proximity  of  the  Christian  Easter  and  the  neceb-  eete,  b.  at  Champsecret,  Ome,  France,  30  Oct.,  1811; 
sily  of  preparing  for  it.  Hol>r  Thursday  could  not  d.  at  Sdez,  Ome,  17  Nov.,  1898.  He  made  brilliant 
but  be  a  day  of  liturgical  reimion  since,  m  the  cycle  classical  studies  at  the  preparatory  seminaiv  at  S^s. 
of  movable  feasts,  it  brings  around  the  anniversary  of  to  which  institution  he  returned  after  his  theological 
the  institution  of  the  Lituigy.  On  that  dav,  whilst  course,  and  where  he  spent  the  whole  of  his  long 
the  preparation  of  candidates  was  being  completed,  the  priestly  career.  Until  1852,  he  taught  the  classics 
Church  celebrated  the  Miata  chrismatia  of  which  we  with  great  success,  and  then  became  professor  of  rhet- 
have  already  described  the  rite  (seeJioLT  Oiui)  and,  oric,  a  position  which  he  occupiea  for  twenty-two 
moreover,  proceeded  to  the  reconciliation  of  penitents,  years.  During  this  period,  keeping  abreast  of  the 
In  Rome  everythixig  was  carried  on  in  da^rlight,  progress  of  HeUenistic  studies  in  France  and  Germanv, 
whereas  in  Africa  on  Sol^  Thursday  the  Euchanst  was  he  composed,  published,  and  revised  those  of  his  works 
celebrated  after  the  evenmg  meal,  in  view  of  more  exact  ("Gnunmaire  de  la  Lan«nie  Grecoue";  "Chrestoma- 
conformity  with  the  circumstances  of  the  Last  Sup-  thie"  etc.)  which  proved  him  to  oe  one  of  the  best 
per.  Canon  xxix  of  the  Council  of  Carthage  dispenses  Greek  scholars  of  his  day.  Towards  1866,  Maunoury 
the  faithful  from  fast  before  communion  on  Holy  began  his  work  as  a  commentator  of  Holy  Writ,  by 
Thursday,  because,  on  that  day,  it  was  customary  to 
take  a  bath,  and  the  bath  and  fast  were  considered 

incompatible.     St.  Augustine,  too,  speaks  of  this     ,^ 

custom  (Ep.  cxviii  ad  Januarium,  n.  7) ;  he  even  cal  studies.  In  1877^  he  became  canon  of  the  cathe- 
says  that,  as  certain  persons  did  not  fast  on  that  dral  of  S^s;  and  the  following  year,  he  began  to  nub- 
day,  ^e  oblation  was  made  twice,  morning  and  even-  li^  his  commentaries  on  all  the  Epistles  of  the  New 
ing,  and  in  this  way  those  who  aid  not  observe  the  Testament. 

fast  could  partake  of  the  Eucharist  after  the  mom-  These  commentaries  appeared  in  five  volumes,  as 

ing  meal,  wnilst  those  who  fasted  awaited  the  evening  follows :  (1)  *'  Com.  sur  L'Epttre  aux  Remains  "  (Paris, 

repast.  1878);  (2)  "Com.  sur  les  deux  Epttres  aux  Corinthi- 

Holy  Thursday  was  taken  up  with  a  succession  of  ens''  (Paris,  1879);  (3)  *'Com.  sur  les  Epttres  aux  Ga- 

oeremonies  of  a  jo^rful  character:  the  baptism  of  neo-  lates,  aux  Eph^siens,  aux  Phillippiens,  aux  Colossiens, 

ph3rte8,  the  reconciliation  of  penitents,  the  consecra-  et  aux  Thessaloniciens"  (Paris,  1880);  (4)  ''Com.  sur 

tion  of  the  holy  oils,  the  washing  of  the  feet,  and  the  les  Epftres  k  Timothy,  k  Tite,  k  Philemon,  aux  H^ 

commemoration  of  the  Blessed  Eucharist,  and,  be-  breux"  (Paris,  1882);  (5)  "Com.  sur  les  Epttres  Catho- 

cause  of  all  these  ceremonies,  the  day  received  different  Uques  de  St.  Jacques,  St.  Pierre,  St.  Jean  et  St.  Jude  " 

names,  all  of  which  allude  to  one  or  another  of  its  (Paris,  1888).    In  explaining  the  Sacred  Text  he  made 

solemnities.  an  excellent  use  of  his  great  familiarity  with  Greek 

ReddiHo  symboli  was  so  called  because,  before  being  grammar  and  authors,  availed  himself  chiefly  of  the 

admitted  to  baptism,  the  catechumens  had  to  recite  commentaries  of  St.  John  Chrysostom  and  Theodoret, 

the  creed  from  memory,  either  in  presence  of  the  and  always  remained  an  enlightened  and  safe  theolo- 

bishop  or  his  representative.  nan.    In  1894,  he  publisheahis  "Com.  in  Psalmos" 

Peailavium  (washing  of  the  feet),  traces  of  which  (2  vols.,  Paris), a  Latin  work,  written  with  elegance,  al- 

are  foimd  in  the  most  ancient  rites,  occurred  in  many  most  exclusively  on  the  bains  of  the  Vulgate  and  the 

churches  on  Holy  Thursday,  the  capitilamum  (wash-  Septuagint.    lus  onl^  contribution  to  apologetics  is  a 

ing  of  the  head)  having  taken  place  on  Palm  Sunday  volume  entitled  "Souses  d'Automne,  ou  la  Religion 

(St.  Augustine,  "Ep.  cxviii,  cxix'',  c.  18).  prouv6e  aux  gens  dumonde"  (Paris,  1887). 

ExomologesiSy  and  reconciliation  of  penitents:  the  Huktbr,  ATofiwnctator;  Vio.,  Did.  d«  to  Bt6le.  •.  ▼. 

letter  of  Pope  Innocent  I  to  Decentius  of  Gubbio,  tes-  Francis  E.  Giqot. 
tifies  that  in  Rome  it  was  customary  '*  quinta  feria  ante 

PSsscha"  to  absolve  penitents  from  their  mortal  and  Maurice,  Saint,  leader  {,pnmiceriu»)  of  the  Theban 

venial  sins,  except  in  cases  of  serious  illness  which  kept  Legion,  massacred  at  Agaunum,  about  287  (286,  297, 

them  away  from  chmtjh  (Labbe,  "Concilia",  II,  col.  302,  303),  by  order  of  Maximian  Herculius.    Feast, 

1247;  St.  Ambrose,  "Ep.  xxxiii  ad  Marcellinam").  22  Sept.    The  legend  (Acta  SS.,  VI,  Sept.,  308,  895) 

The  penitents  heard  the  Miasa  pro  reconeiliaHons  relates  that  the  legion,  composed  entirely  of  Chria- 

pcmitenHumj  and  absolution  was  given  them  before  the  tians,  had  been  called  from  Africa  to  suppress  a  revolt 


lUOSIOl 


MitTBISTS 


cf  the  **«eit"i1»  in  Gaul.  The  soldien  were  ordered  to  ransom  12,000  Roman  soldiers  taken  m^nen  by  tte 

aacsifice   to  Uie   gods   in   tbanksgiving  but  refused.  Avars,  and  they  were  all  murdered.     Further  hanaa* 

Every  tenth  was  then  killed.    Another  order  to  sacri-  ing  regulations  made  for  the  army  with  a  view  to  more 

fiee  and  another  refusal  caused  a  second  decimation  economy  caused  a  revolt  that  beuime  a  revolution.  In 

and  then  a  general  maaaacre.     (On  the  value  of  the  602  the  soldiers  drove  away  their  officers,  made  a  cer- 

leseiul,  etc.,  see  Agaunvm  and  Thtian  Ugiim.)    St.  tain  centurion,  Phocas,  their  leader  and  marchoi  on 

Maurice  ia  represented  as  a  knight  in  full  armour  Constantinople.    Maurice,  finding  that  he  could  not 

(•ometimes  as  a  Moor),  bearing  a  standard  and  a  organiie  a  resistance,  fled  across  t£e  Bosporus  with  hia 

pabn;   in  Italian  paintings  with  a  red  cross  on  his  family.    He  was  overtaken  at  Chalceaon  and  mur- 

breaat,  which  is  ttw  badge  of  the  Sardinian  Order  of  dered  with  his  five  sons.    Phocas  then  began  his 

St.  Maurice.    Many  places  in  Bwitierland,  Piedmont,  tyrannical  reign  (602-6IO). 

fWice,  and  Germany  have  chosen  him  as  celestial  In  Church  history  Maurice  has  some  importanoe 

patron,  as  have  also  the  dyers,  clothmakers,  soldiers,  through  his  relations  with  Gr^ory  I  (590-604). 


■,Sw-fi<M.,«.v. 


■wordamiths,  and  others.  He 
is  invoked  against  gout, 
enjope,  et«, 

Bb«  CBKVALlKK-o»ff-iiw*l. 

Hulgr.  Ja/trtuck,  XIII ,  783. 

Fkanob  Mershman. 
Manric*  (Haubicittb, 
UtupUiBi),  Roman  Emperor, 
b.  in  539;  d.  in  Nov.,  602. 
He  sprang  from  an  old 
Roman  (Latin)  family  set- 
tled in  Cappadocia,  and 
b^an  his  career  as  a  soldier. 
Under  the  Emperor  Tiberius 
n  (578-582)  he  was  made 
commander  of  a  new  legion 
levied  from  allied  barbarians, 
with  which  he  did  good  ser- 
vice aniinst  the  Persians. 
When    lie    returned   trium- 

Ehant  to  Constantinople,  Ti- 
erius  gave  him  his  daughter 
Constantina  in  marriage  and 
appointed  him  his  successor 
(578).  Almost  immediately 
afterwards  (Theophylact, 
infra,  says  the  next  day) 
Tiberius  died  and  Maurice 
succeeded  peaceably.  At  his 
accession  he  found  that 
through  the  reckless  cTtrava- 
gknce  of  his  predecessor  the 
exchequer  was  empty  and  the 
State  bankrupt.  Inorderto 
remedy  this  Maurice  estab- 
lished the  expenses  of  t^ 
court  on  a  basis  of  strict 
economy.    He  gained  a  repu- 


ooopuU  <E 
Hadrid 


do  not  in  any  way  stand  out  conspicuously  from  early 
Bysantine  history.  The  forces  at  work  since  Justin- 
ian, or  even  Constantine,  continued  the  gradual  decay 
of  the  Empire  under  Maurice,  as  under  Tiberius  his 
predecessor  and  Phocas  his  successor.  For  the  first 
ten  years  the  long  war  with  the  Persians  continued; 
then  a  revolution  among  the  enemy  brought  a  respite 
knd  the  Roman  Emperor  was  invoked  by  Chosroes  II 
to  restore  him  to  his  throne.  Unfortunately  Maurice 
was  not  clever  enough  to  draw  any  profit  for  the  Em- 
pire from  this  situation.  The  Avars  and  Slavs  con- 
tinued their  invasion  of  the  northern  provinces.  The 
Slavs  penetrated  even   to   the   Peloponnesus.     The     monks 


,  Gregory  was  elected, 
he  wrote  Ui  the  emperor  beg- 

B*ng  him  to  annul  the  election, 
le  fact  has  often  been  quoted 
as  showing  Gregory's  accept- 
ance of  an  imperial  right  of 
veto.  Later  the  ^pe^s  or- 
ganisation of  resistance 
against  the  Lombards  was 
very  displeasing  to  the  em- 
peror, though  the  govern- 
ment at  Constantinople  did 
nothing  ia  protect  Italy. 
Further  trouole  was  caused 
by  tiie  tyranny  of  the  im- 
perial exarch  at  Ravenna, 
Romanus.  Against  this  per- 
son the  pope  took  the  Italians 
under  his  protection.  On 
the  other  hand  the  exarch 
and  the  emperor  protected 
tiu  bishops  in  the  North  of 
Italy  who  still  kept  up  the 
whism  that  be^n  witb  the 
Three  Cliapters  quarrel  (Pope 
VigiliuB,  540-555).  The  as- 
sumption of  thetitleof 
" oecumenical  patriarch"  by 
John  IV  of  Constantinopfe 
(see  John  the  Fastbk) 
caused  more  friction.  AU 
this  explains  St.  Gregory's 
unfriendly  feeling  towards 
Maurice;  and  it  also  helps  to 
explain  his  ready  andf  riendiv 
recognition  of  Phocas  which 
has  been  alleged  by  some  to 
be  a  blot  in  toe  great  pope's 
career.  But  it  is  quite  probable  that  the  pope  was 
misinformed  and  not  placed  in  full  possession  of  all 
the  circumstances  attending  the  change  of  govern- 
ment in  the  distant  East. 

ETAQRina,  Hilt,  fed,  VI;  TBCOFBTucniB.  RiiloTia,  sL 
DC  Uooiis  (Lapiu,  18S7):  Adxuu,  Si^tnlM  lur  Qcich.  da 
Kaitrr,  Maur^VilGnu,  1891):  Gibboh,  D^int  and  Fail,  xlv. 
xlvi^ed.  Burt,  V  (London.  180S).  10-22,57-63:  Burt,  ffi^oiv 
o/  Uu  Laiir  Roman  Empin,  II  (Loadoa,  ISS9),  83-04. 

Adrian  FoaxEscnE. 


Lombards  ravaged  Italy  with  impunity.  As  the  Em- 
pire could  do  nothing  to  protect  the  Italians,  they  in- 
vited the  Franks  totheirhelp  (5S4).    This  first  inva- 


.T  .  _.     -    ,    >.  MauilceuidLuarTU.KNiaHTBOP.    SeeLAXARus, 

Untortumtely  Maimee    Kniqhtb  or  Saint. 

Hanrianae.    See  Saint-Jean  db  Mahriennb. 
HaniistB,   The,    a   congregation   of   Benedictine 
■  I  France,  whose  history  extends  from  I6I8- 


1818.  It  began  as  an  offshoot  from  the  famous  n. 
formed  Congregation  of  St-Vannes.  The  reform  haid 
spread  from  Lorraine  into  France  through  the  influ- 
ence of  Dom  Laurent  B^nard,  Prior  of  the  CoU^  de 
Cluny  in  Paris,  who  inaugurated  the  reform  in  his  own 
college.    Thence  it  spread  to  St-Augustin  de  Limoges, 


o  NouaillS,  to  St^Faron  de  Heaux,  t 


Empire  and  the  establishment  of  the  rival  line  of  Em- 
perors with  Charles  the  Great  (800).     Mauricehadtc  . 

buy  off  the  Avars  with  a  heavy  bribe  that  further  re-  to  the  BUncs-Manteaux  in  Paris.     In  1618 

ductxl  his  scanty  resources  and  made  economy  still  chuiter  of  the  Congregation  of  St-Vannes  was  held  at 

mote  imperative.     The  emperor  became   more  and  St>Mansuet  de  To^,  whereat  it  was  decided  that  an 

nore  unpopular.     In  500  he  could  not  or  would  not  independent  congregation  should  be  erected  for  the 


BftAUBISTS  70  BftAUBISTS 

reformed  houses  in  France,  having  its  superior  residing  lished  the  Ck>neregation  of  France  under  the  govern- 
within  that  kingdom.  This  proposal  was  supported  by  ance  of  the  Abbey  of  Solesmes,  the  new  congregation 
Louis  XIII  as  well  as  by  Cardinals  de  Retz  and  Riche-  was  declared  the  successor  of  all  the  former  congrega- 
lieu;  letters  patent  were  granted  by  the  kin^,  and  the  tions  of  French  Benedictines,  including  that  of  Si- 
new organization  was  named  the  Congregation  of  St-  Maur. 

Maur  m  order  to  obviate  any  rivalry  oetween  its        Constitution. — The  early  Maurists,  like  the  Con<- 

component  houses.     It  was  formally  approved  by  ^regation  of  St-Vannes  from  which  they  sprang. 

Pope  Gregory  XV  on  17  May,  1621,  an  aporoval  that  imitated  the  constitution  of  the  reformed  Congregi^ 

was  confirmed  by  Urban  VIII  six  years  later.    The  tion  of  Monte  Cassino.    But  before  many  years  uie 

reform  was  welcomed  by  many  of  great  influence  at  need  of  new  regulations  more  suitable  to  France  was 

the  Court  as  well  as  by  some  of  the  greater  monastic  recognized  and  Dom  Gr^goire  Tarisse,  the  first  Supe« 

houses  in  France.    Already,  imder  the  first  president  rior-General,  was  entrusted  with  the  task  of  drawmg 

of  the  congregation,  Dom  Martin  Tesnidre  (1618-21),  them  up.    Dom  Maur  Dupont,  who  was  elected  presi- 

it  had  included  about  a  dozen  great  houses.    By  1630  dent  in   1627,  had  already  made  an  attempt  to 

the  congregation  was  divided  into  three  provinces,  accomplish  this;  but  the  Chapter  of  1630  appointed  a 

and,  imder  Dom  Gr^^ire  Tarisse,  the  first  Superioi^  commission,  of  which  Dom  Tarisse  was  the  cnief  mem<- 

General  (1630-48),  it  mcluded  over  80  houses.  Before  ber,  to  reconstruct  the  whole  work.    The  result  of 

the  end  of  the  seventeenth  century  the  number  had  their  labours  was  first  submitted  to  Dom  Athanase  de 

risen  to  over  180  monasteries,  the  congregations  being  Mongin  in  1633,  then  again  to  Dom  Tarisse  and  three 

divided  into  six  provinces:  France,  Normandy,  Brit-  others  in  1639,  and  was  finally  confirmed  by  the  Gen- 

tany,  Burgundy,  Chezal-Benoit,  and  Gascony.  eral  Chapter  of  1645.    Under  these  constitutions  the 

In  its  earlier  years,  however,  the  new  congregation  president  (now  styled  "superior-general")  and  the 

was  forced,  by  Cardinal  Bichelieu,  into  an  alliance  priors  of  the  commendatory  houses  of  the  congregi^ 

with  the  Congregation  of  Cluny.    Bichelieu  desired  an  tion  were  to  be  elected  every  three  years.    They  were 

amalgamation  of  all  the  Benedictines  in  France  and  eli^ble  for  re-election.     The  superior-general  was  to 

even  succeeded  in  bringing  into  existence,  in  1634,  an  reside  at  the  Abbey  of  St-Germain-des-Pr^s  and  was 

organization  that  was  called  the  "  Congregation  of  St.  to  be  subject  only  to  the  general  chapter,  which  met 

Benedict"  or  "of  Cluny  and  St-Maur".   This  arrange-  every  tlu^  years.    With  him,  however,  were  asso- 

ment,  however,  was  short-lived,  and  the  two  congre-  ciated  two  "assistants"  and  six  "visitors",  one  for 

gations  were  separated  b^  Urban  VIII  in  1644.    From  each  province.   These  also  resided  at  St-Germain-des- 

that  date  the  Congregation  of  St-Maur  grew  steadily  Pr^s,  were  elected  by  the  general  chapter  every  three 

both  in  extent  and  m  influence.   Although  the  twenty-  years,  and  constituted,  with  the  superior-general,  the 

one  superior-generals  who  succeeded  Dom  Tarisse  executive  council  of  the  congregation.    Besides  these 

steadily  resisted  all  attempts  to  establish  the  congre-  officials,  the  general  chapter  was  composed  of  three 

gation  beyond  the  borders  of  France,  yet  its  influence  priors  and  three  conventuals  from  each  province, 

was  widespread.    In  several  of  its  houses  schools  were  Every  three  years,  there  were  chosen  from  its  ranks 

conducted  for  the  sons  of  noble  families,  and  education  nine  "  definitors  "  who  appointed  the  six  visitors,  the 

was  provided  eratuiteusly  at  St-Martin  de  Vertou  for  heads  of  all  the  houses  that  possessed  no  regular  abbot, 

those  who  had  become  poor.    But  from  the  banning  the  novice-masters,  the  procurator  in  curiaj  the  preach- 

the  Maurists  refused  to  admit  houses  of  nuns  mte  the  ers,  professors,  ete.,  of  the  con^gation.    Each  prov- 

congregation,  the  only  exception  beins  the  Abbey  of  ince  also  possessed  ite  provincial  chapter,  which  was 

CheUes,  where,  through  Bichelieu's  influence,  a  house  presided  over  by  the  visitor,  and  consisted  of  the  priors 

was  established  with  six  monks  to  act  as  confessors  and  one  elected  representative  from  each  house.    In 

to  the  nuns.  each  province  there  were  to  be  two  novitiates.    Those 

The  congregation  soon  attracted  to  its  ranks  many  who  desired  to  embrace  the  monastic  state  spent  one 

of  the  most  learned  scholars  of  the  period,  and  though  year  as  "postulants",  a  second  as  "novices",  and 

ite  greatest  glory  undoubtedly  lies  m  the  seventeenth  then,  when  they  had  completed  the  five  years'  course 

century,  yet,  tluoughout  the  eighteenth  century  also,  of  philosophy  and  theology,  spent  a  "  year  of  recollec- 

it  continued  to  produce  works  Whose  solidity  and  crit-  tion"  before  they  were  admitted  to  the  priesthood, 

ical  value  still  render  them  indispensable  to  modem  The  discipline  was  marked  by  a  return  to  the  strict  rule 

studente.    It  is  true  that  the  Mauriste  were  not  free  of  St.  Benedict.    All  laboured  with  their  hands,  all 

from  the  infiltration  of  Jansenist  ideas,  and  that  the  abstained  from  flesh-meat,  all  embraced  regular  pov- 

work  of  some  of  ite  most  learned  sons  was  hampered  erty;  the  Divine  Office  was  recited  at  the  canonical 

and  coloured  by  the  fashionable  heresy  and  by  the  hours  with  great  solemnity,  silence  was  observed  for 

effoits   of  ecclesiastical   superiors  to   eradicate   it.  many  hours,  and  there  were  regular  times  for  private 

Towards  the  end  of  the  eighteenth  century,  also,  there  prayer  and  meditetion.    And  teds  discipline  was  uni- 

had  crept  into  at  least  the  central  house,  St-Germain-  form  throughout  every  house  of  the  congregation, 

des-l^s,  a  desire  for  some  relaxation  of  the  strict  None  were  dispensed  from  ite  strict  observance  save 

regularity  that  had  been  the  mark  of  the  congregation ;  the  sick  and  the  infirm.    Until  the  movement  towards 

a  desire  that  was  vigorously  opposed  by  other  nouses,  relaxation  at  the  end  of  the  eighteenth  centuiy ,  the 

And,  though  there  is  reason  to  believe  that  the  laxity  Mauriste  were  as  renowned  for  the  austerity  of  their 

was  much  less  serious  than  it  was  represented  to  be  by  observance  as  for  the  splendour  of  their  intellectual 

the  rigoriste,  the  dissensions  caused  thereby  and  by  the  achievemente. 

teint  of  Jansenism  had  weakened  the  congregation        To  the  great  body  of  studente,  indeed,  the  Mauriste 

and  lowered  it  in  public  esteem  when  the  crash  of  the  are  best  known  by  their  services  to  ecclesiastical  and 

Revolution  came.    Yet,  right  up  to  the  suppression  literary  history,  to  patrology,  to  Biblical  studies,  to 

of  the  religious  orders  in  1790,  the  Mauriste  worked  diplomatics,    to   chronology   and    to   liturgy.    The 

steadily  at  their  great  undertekings,  and  some  of  their  names  of  DD.  Luc  d'Achery,  Jean  Mabillon/Thiernr, 

publications  were,  by  general  consent,  carried  on  by  Ruinart,  Frangois  Lami,  iSerre  Coustent,  Denys  de 

kamed  Academies  after  the  disturbance  of  the  Revo-  Sainte-Marthe,  Edmond  Martene,  Bernard  de  Mont- 

lution  had  passed.    In  1817  some  of  the  survivors  of  faucon,  Maur  Frangois  Dantine,  Antoine  Rivet  de  la 

those  who  nad  been  driven  from  France  in  1790  re-  Grange  and  Martin  Bououet  recall  some  of  the  most 

turned,  and  an  attempt  was  made  to  restore  the  con-  scholarly  works  ever  produced.    To  these  and  to  their 

gregation.    The  project,  however,  did  not  meet  with  confreres  we  are  indebted  for  critical  and  still  indis- 

the  approbation  of  the  Holy  See  and  the  congregation  pensable  editions  of  the  great  Latin  and  Greek  Fathers, 

ceased  to  exist.    The  last  surviving  memter,  Dom  tor  the  history  of  the  Benedictine  Order  and  the  lives 

Brial, died  in  1833.  In  1837,  when  Gregory  XVI  estab-  of  ite  sainte,  for  the  ''Gallia  Christiana"  and  the 


1CAUBI8T8  71  1CAUBI8T8 


lecUo'%  the  "Tbesauius  Aneodotorum'',  toe^Spicile-  Mans:   St-Calais. — ^Diooese  of  Lyons;  Ambronay. — 

giumveterumscriptorum",  the  "Museum  Italicum",  Diooese  of  Orleans:  Bonne-Nouvelle,  St-Benott-sur- 

the  "Voyage  litteraire",  and  numerous  other  works  Loire. — ^Diocese    of    Sens:    Ferridres.  St-Pierre-de- 

that  are  the  foundation  of   modem  historical  and  Melun,St-Pierre-le-Vif-de-Sens,Ste-Colombe-lds-Sens. 
liturgical  studies.    For  nearly  two  centuries  the  great        (5)  Province  of  Chezal-Benott. — Diocese  of  Bourges: 

works  that  were  the  result  of  the  foresight  and  high  Chezal-Benott,     St-Benoft-du-Sault,     St-Sul[)ice-de- 

ideals  of  Dom  Gr^goiie  Taiisse,  were  carried  on  with  Bourges,  Vierzon. — ^Diocese  of  Cahors:^  SouHlac. — 

an  industryi  a  devotion,  and  a  mastery  that  aroused  Diooese  of  Clermont:  Chaise-Dieu,  Issoire,  Mauriac, 

the  admiration  of  the  learned  world.    To  this  day,  all  St-Allyre-de-Clermont. — ^Diocese    of    La    Rochelle: 

who  labour  to  elucidate  the  past  ages  and  to  under-  Mortagne-sur-Sdvre. — ^Diocese  of  Limoges:  Beaulieu, 

stand  the  growth  of  Western  Christendom,  must  ao-  Meymac.    St-Angel,    St-Augustin-de-Limoges,   Soli- 

Imowkdge  their  indebtedness  to  the  Maurist  Congre-  gnac. — ^Diocese  of  Lucon:  St-Michel-en-rHerm. — Dio^ 

Satlonu  ^  ^  oese  of  Lyons:    Savigneux. — ^Diocese  of  P^rigueuz: 

The  following  were  the  monasteries  of  the  Mauiist  Brant6me. — ^Diooese  of  Poitiers:  Nouaill^  St-Cypriei^ 

Congregation  in  the  latter  half  of  the  eighteenth  cen-  de-Poitiers,   St-Jouin-de-Mames,   St.   Ltonard   der 

tury: —  ^  ^  ^  Ferridres.    St-Maixent.    St-Savin. — ^Diocese    of   St- 

(1)  Province  of  France. — ^Diocese of  Amiens:  Corbie,  Flour:  Cnanteuges. — ^Diocese  of  Saintes:  Bassac,  St- 
St-Fu8cien-aux-Bois^t-Josse-6ur-mer,  St.  Riouier,  St-  Jean-d '  Angely . 

Val4ry. — ^Diocese  of  Beau vais:  Breteuil-^ur-Noye,  St-        (6)  Province  of  Gasoony. — Diocese  of  Agde:  St- 

Lucien-de-Beauvais. — Diocese  of  Boulogne:  St-Sauve-  Tiberi. — ^Diocese  of  Agen:  Eysses,  St-Maurin,  Ste- 

de-M(Hitreuil,  Samer. — ^Diocese  of  Chartres:  Meulan.  Livrade. — ^Diocese    of    Aire:    La  Reule,    St-P6-de- 

— ^Diooese  of  Laon:   Nogent-sous-Coucy,  Ribemont,  Generez,      St-Savin,      St-Sever-Cap-de-Gascogne. — 

St-Jean-de-Laon,  St-Nicholas-aux-Bois,  St-Vincent-  Diooese   of  Alais:    St-Pierre-de-Salve. — ^Diooese  of 

de-Laon. — ^Diocese  of  Meaux:   Rebais,  St-Faron-de-  Aries:  Montmajeur. — ^Diocese  of  Avignon:  Rochefort, 

Meaux,  St-Fiacre.^Diocese  of  Noyon:   Mont-Saint-  St-Andr^e-Villeneuve. — ^Diocese  of  B^ziers:  Ville- 

Quentin,     St-£loi-de-Noyon,     St-Quentin-en-risle.  magne. — ^Diocese  of  Bordeaux:    La  Sauve-Majeure, 

— ^Diooese   of   Paris:    ArgenteuiL    Chelles,    Lagny,  Ste-Croix-de-Bordeaux. — ^Diocese     of    Carcassonne: 

Les-Blancs-Manteaux-de-Paris,    St-Dems-de-France,  Montolieu,     Notre-Dame-de-la-Grasse. — ^Diocese     of 

St-Geimain-des-Pr^. — ^Diocese    of    Reims:     Notre-  Dax:   St-Jean-de-Sorde. — Diocese  of  Grenoble:  St- 

Dame-de-Rethel,   St-Basle,   St-Marcoul-de-Corbeny,  Robert-de-Comillon. — ^Diocese   of  Laveur:    Sordse. 

St-Nicaise-de-Reims,  St-Remi-de-Rdm&,  St-Thierry.  ^Diocese  of  Lescar:  St-Pierre-de-Ia-R^ole. — ^Diocese 

— ^Diooese  of  Rouen;  Le  Tr^port.  St-Martin-de-Pon-  of  LodSve:  St-Guilhem-le-D^rt. — ^Diocese  of  Mire- 

toise. — Diocese  of    Soissons:     Ch^zv,    Orbais,    St-  poix:  Camon. — ^Diocese  of  Montpellier:  St-Sauveur- 

Comeille-de-Compidgne,    St-Cr6pin-de-Soissons,    St-  d'Aniane. — ^Diocese  of  Narbonne:  La  Morguier.  St- 

M^ard-de-Soissons.  ^  Pierre-de-Caunes. — ^Diocese  of  Nimes:  St-Bausille. — 

(2)  Province  of  Normandy. — ^Diocese  of  Bayeux:  Diocese  of  St-Pon8:St-Chinian. — Diocese  of  Toulouse: 
Cerisy-]&-Foret,  Fontenay,  st-£tienne-de-Caen,  St-  Le-Mas-Gamier,  Notre-Dame-de-la-Daurade. 
Vigor-le-Grand. — ^Diocese  of  Beauvais:  St-Germer-  The  Superiors  of  the  Congregation  were: — ^Presi- 
de-Flay. — ^Diocese  of  Chartres:  Coulombs,  Josaphat-  dents:  D.  Martin  Tesni^re  (161S-21),  D.  Columban 
Ids-Chartres,  St-Florentin-de-Bonneval,  St-P^re-en-  R^gnier  (1621-24),  D.  Martin  TesniSre  (1624-27),  D. 
Vallte,  Tiron. — ^Diocese    of   Coutances:    Lessay. —  Maur  Dupont  (1627-30). 

Diocese  of  Evreux:  Conches,  Ivry-la-Bataille,  Lyre,        Superiors-general: — U,  Gr^goire  Tarisse  (163(M8), 

St-Taurin  d'Evreux.— Diocese  of  Le  Mans:  Loniay-  D.  Jean  Harel  (1648-60),  D.  Bernard  Audebert  (1660- 

I'Abbaye. — Diocese  of  Lisieux:   Beaumontrcn-Auge,  72),D.VincentMarsolle  (1672-81),  D.  Michel  Benoit 

La    Couture-de-Bemay,    St-Evroult  d'Ouches,  St-  Brachet  (1681-87),  D.  Claude  Boistard  (1687-1705), 

Pierre    de    Pr^ux. — Diocese  of  Rouen:    Aumale,  D.  Simon  Bougis  (1705-11),  D.Amoulde  Loo  (1711- 

Boone-Nouvelle,   Fecamp,   Jmni^ges,    Le  Bee,  St-  14),  D.  PeteydeTHostallerie  (1714-20).  D.  Denysde 

Georges-de-Boscherville,  St-Ouen-de-Rouen.  St-Wan-  Sainte-Bfarthe  (1720-25),  D.  Pierre  Thibault  (1725- 

driUe-Rengon.  Valmont. — ^Diocese  of  S6ez:  Si-Martin-  29),  D.  Jean  Baptiste  Alaydon  (1729-32),  D.  Herv6 

de-S^St-Piene«ur-Dive.  Menard  (1732-36),  D.  Claude  Dupr6   (1736-37),  D. 

(3)  Province  of  Brittany. — ^Diocese  of  Angers:  R^^  Laneau  T 1737-54),  D.  Jacques  Maumousseau 
Bourgeuil,  Ch&teau-Gontier,  Craon.  Notre-Dame-de-  (1754-56),  D.  Marie  Joseph  Delrue  (1756-66),  D. 
I'Evi^re,  St-Aubin-d'Angers,  St-Floren1rde-Saumur,  Pierre  Francois  Boudier  (1766-72),  D.  R^n^  Gillot 
St-Florent-le-Vieil,  St-Maur-sur-Loire,  St-Nicola»-  (1772-78),  D.  Charles  Lacrofac  (1778-81),  D.  Charti6- 
d'Angers,  St-Serge-d'Angers. — ^Diocese  of  Avranches:  Mousso  (1781-83),  D.  Antoine  Chevreux  (1783-92). 
MoQt-Saint-Michel.— ^Diocese  of  Dol:  Le  Tronchet,  St-  The  F^ocurators-General  in  Rome,  who  were  all  of 
Jacut-de-la-Mer. — ^Diocese  of  Le  Mans:  Evron,  St-  importance  in  the  history  of  the  Connegation,  were:— 
Pierre-de-la-Coutuie,  St-Vincentr<lu-Mans,  Solesmes,  D.  Placide  Le  Simon  (1623-61);  D.  Gabriel  Flam- 
Tuff^.— Diocese  of  Nantes:  Blanche-Couronne,  Notre-  bart  (1665-72),  D.  Antoine  Durban  (1672-81),  D. 
Danoe-de-la-Chaume,  Pirmil,  St-Gildas-des-Bois,  Ver-  Gabriel  Flambart  (1681-84),  D.  Claude  Estiennot 
tou.—Diooese  of  Poitiers:  Montreuil-Bellay.— Dio-  (1684-99),  D.  Bernard  de  Montfaucon  (1699-1701), 
oeae  of  Quimper:  Landevenec,  Quimperl^. — ^Diocese  D.  Guillaume  Laparre  (1701-11).  D.  Philippe  Rafier 
of  Rennes:  St-Magloire-de-Lehon,  St-Melaine-de-  (1711-16),  D.  Charles  Conrade  (171&-25),  D.  Pierre 
Rennes,  Ste-Croix-de-Vitr6. — ^Diocese  of  St-Brieuo:  Maloet  (1721-33).  No  successor  to  D.  Maloet  was 
Lantenac. — ^Diocese  of  Saint-Malo:  St-Malo. — ^Diocese  appointed. 

of  8t-Pol-de-L6on:   St-Mathieu-de-Fine-Terre. — ^Dio-        Albton.  Ths  ConorMotum  of  Si-Maw  in  Dowruide  Reviem 

oe9eofTour8:Beaulieu,Cormery,Marmoutier,Noyer8,  (March  wid  July,  1006):    Anobr,  U*  dipendancf  de  Sir 

flt-Jn1win^A.TniirA    Tiirn«nji.v    Villploin ^DinAMn  ti  Oermatn-deB-Pris,  3  vola.  (Pans,  1906-9);  Idem,  Let  mxttffatum* 

OWUIlcn-^e-lOUrs,    llMTOimy,   vmeiom.— ^  Ol  a„nandiea  var  lea  moinee  de  St-Germatr^-dee-Pria  en  1766  in 

Vannes:    St-GildaS-de-RhuiS,  St-Sauveur-de-Redon.  Revue  MabUion  IV,  (1909);   Bbaunier.  RecueU  hietorique  dea 

(4)  Province  of  Burgundy. — ^Diocese  of  Autun:  9«A«t;*«*^»i^,«^' ^SS^^v^**  p^^^'  <i;f^V^*  Introduction 
Avmne:    8t<jermcun.— X>ioceee  of  Bloia:  Pont-1^  cormprmtfemto  KUirwret  de  hMdictma  i»  Si-Um^  dm»  Im 


BUIIE1T1U8 


au'  CordHiol 

OvaUeno  in  Menu  BliMiitine,  XXIV  (190T),  41S-iai  Brwi, 
L«  Amdolfurt  iltf  la  tonoTieation  <U  St-Mavr  in  Rmu  da  wcieruiAM 
tcditiattma.  II  (1902),  143  »!.,  230  aq.,  632  k).;  C&atii 
Uu*4J«r  mUufAJf^utf  det  tcrivaw^  de  ta  oongr4iratvm  dt  St-}- 
(Lb  Uins,  1881);    Dahtier,  Rapportt  tur  la  eorrttpon 

Mill*  da  MB^iduu  da  ,St-ifaiir  (Pnni,  1SS7);   D>  u 

tr  Comwpvadana  hidoriqtt*  da  Mnididint  br^ont  (PatU, 


HAlinia,  Bn.vBnBK,  writer  on  philoeophy  and 

theology,  b.  at  Spoleto,  31  Deo.,  161B;  d.  in  Rome,  13 

Jan.,  1587.    He  entered  the  Society  of  Jesus,  21  April, 

' '""'     Aft«r  finiahing  his  course  of  studies  and  teacb- 

inities  at  the  Collie  of  Hacemta,  h 

place  the  chair  of  philosophy  for  three  yean, 

andsubs^uentlyin  Rome  forseveral  years.    Then  he 

_  _  "di'Z     '^*  promoted  to  the  chair  of  theology  at  the  Roman 

mgrigation   dt'  ^t-Moiir    (1052-1741)    (Coprnhwcn.    t8B3);      College,  and  remained  in  this  position  for  a  consider- 

•>  .  ^..  n_j._    .  .,  ■,  ..         ^j,  wS^'"^     able  numberof  years.     For  a  period  he  was  also  rector 

I~|Piiii8.'l79'J)"  288-98-  Isgold      "'  ^^^  latter  institution.     The  mental  endowment  of 

de  Sf-Aiwu^in  (Pans,  1B02):     FatherMauTus  was  a  happy  combination  Of  the  Hpecu- 

'        '"   '  '"'""' i^'Jl     lative  and  the  practical  turn  of  mind.     His  doctrine 

was  noted  for  its  soundness  and  solidity;  at  the  same 

-  — time,  he  constantly  put  in  practice  St.  Paul's  principle, 

M^^iAf^'r^^'  ,o:'^J^  J^.^:,{^,Ll^l^  -not  to  be  moie  wiie  than  it  behoveth  to  be  Vise,  tut 
of  St-Uavr  (Loadoa.  1868):  Hmoaoi,  Ln Inmuit  du  bint-  to  be  Wise  unto  Sobriety".  Though  he  was  a  good 
dictiiudeSi-Majir.iUSi-Vanne^Si-  philoBopher  and  theolc^ian,  he 


ilMaur    (1052-1741: 

-.  _-j  Ordenund  Konffrepaii 

Kinht.  I  (^Paderbora.   1907),   305-13; 

"■  -  ■■•  Z^rtdili. . 

raitegiibe  da  August 


Hittain  i  

KuKUU.  Die  Mour 


•x  dt  Sai< 


!a  Franrt 


Bvdmphi  tur  la  andtnna 
iatina  de  ta  Biblf  (Amieni 
Pn,  Bibliotliecabmediciino-, 
(AusBbui  "^ 


-  t  l%iMoire'iiaiTairt'de  io'ou*- 

grftation  de  St-Uaur  [Pans.  ISSl); 
SICAitD.  LaJtMda  daaiiiuee  avant  la 


:tter  religious.  Those 
well  acquainted  with  him  are 
oonvincedthat  he  never  lost  his 
baptismal  innocence.  Neither 
his  holiness  nor  his  learning 
made  him  a  disagreeable  com- 
panion or  an  undesirable  friend. 
It  would  be  hard  to  sav  whether 
he  was  more  admired  or  loved 
b^  those  who  came  into  contact 
with  him. 

The  folio  wing  works  of  Father 
HauruB  deserve  mention:  (I) 
"OuKstionumphilosophicarum 
Bylvestri  Mauri,  Soc.  Jesu,  in 
Collegio  Romano  Fhilosophin 
Profeasoria ".  This  work  ia 
divided  into  four  books,  and 
appeared  at  Rome  in  1658.  A 
■econd  edition  was  issued  in 
1670.  The  latest  edition,  !□ 
three  volumes,  is  prefaced  by 
w.«.iM...  A-  n«ri-      o_  *  letter  of  Father  Liberatore, 

MfctUlUM   da   Portu.      Sea  ^j    appeared    in    Le    Mans, 

OTiHELT,  M-.URicE.  a^^  ,^„^  1875-76!(2) "  Aristotelis  operi 

Mannifl,   Saint,    deacon,  Pwmino,  Churoh  of  at.  P»Ur.  qu^    extant    omnia,    brevi 

Bon   of   Equitius,  a  nobleman  Ptropa  paraph  rasi,  ac  litterse  per- 

of  Rome,  but  claimed  also  by  Fondi,  Gallipoli,  La-  petuo  inluerente  explanatione  illustrata".  The  work 
velloetc.  (Delehaye,"  Legenda",  London,  1907,  69);  appeared  in  six  volumes,  Rome,  1668.  The  second 
d.  S84.  Feast,  15  Jan.  He  is  represented  as  an  abbot  volume,  containing  Aristotle's  moral  philosophy,  waa 
with  crozier.  or  with  book  and  oeneer,  or  holding  the  edited  anew  in  1696-98.  The  whole  work  was  pub- 
weights  and  measures  of  food  and  drink  given  him  lished  again  in  Paris,  1885-S7.  by  Fathers  Ehrle,Felch- 
by  nis  holy  master.  He  is  the  patron  of  charcoal-  hn,  and  Beringcr;  this  edition  formed  part  of  the 
burners,  coppersmiths  etc. — in  Belgium  of  shoe-  collection  entitled  "  Bibliotheca  Theoiogin  et  Philoso- 
makers — and  is  invoiced  against  gout,  hoarveness  phis  scholaaticte".  (3)  "Quxationum  theologieanun 
etc.  (Kerler].  He  was  a  disciple  of  St.  Benedict,  and  11. 6",  published  at  Rome,  1676-79;  this  work  contains 
t  at  Subiaco.     By  St,  Gregory  the     all  the  principal  theological  treatises.    (4)  "Opustheol- 


is  described  as  a  model  of     ogicum  ",  published  in  three  foUo  v 


'Acta  SS.  O.  S.  B.",  I,  274)  he  w 


o  France  in  543, 


le  information  concerning  the  author,  and 
engraved  by  Louis  Lentant. 
neiatcT;   SoMUBBrooBL,  BMieOii^at  d<  la  C. 

A,  J.  Haas. 


ascribed  to  a  companion,  the  monk  Faustus  of  Monte 

Cassino,  has  been  severely  attacked.     Delehaye  (loc. 

cit.,  106)  calls  it  a  forgery  of  Abbot  Odo  of  Glanfeml  m 

the  ninth  century,  but  Adlhoch  (Stud.  u.  Mittheil., 

1903,3;   1906,  185)  makes  a  *ealoua  defence.     On  the     j-  j     .  «  ',«  ..         .dV-     'u         j    i.-        j' 

Signim  S,  Mauri,  a  blessing  of  the  rick  with  invoca-     J^.*'  .^"^  °°.?0  "*?■  '*•]■   .^^  ^«  ^"^  J^^ 

■■-"--  .  "..      .  ,.       .  „,.  studies  in  his  native  town  and  at  Avipion,  and  by 

the  age  of  nineteen  had  completed  his  theological 
course.  He  then  proceeded  to  Paris  and  entered  the 
CoUige  de  France.  Ordained  in  1769,  he  attracted 
the  attention  of  a  grand-nephew  of  F^nelon  by  a  eu- 
lopy  of  the  great  archbishop,  and  waa  appointed 
Vicar-General  of  the  Diocese  of  Lombes  in  Gascony. 
In  1772  he  waa  selected  by  the  Academy  to  preach  the 
panegyric  of  St.  Louis  at  the  Louvre.  His  succeea 
waa  such  that  the  audience  interrupted  him  with  loud 


Anal.  Ban.  (t 907).  342; 
ffOjT,  JahreAerieht    (Kempt* 
828:  Xin,  170;  XIV,  23. 318;  a 
tudet  de  Pabbayt  de   S.  MauT  a< 
1905):   Idem,  Ltt  deux  hiM.  n 
(Angen,  1907);  Cbiviueh,  I 


•  de  rabbaiic  de  S.  M. 
n,  Dis-Diiif..  B.  V.  Afaur.  St, 

Francis  MBnsnuAH, 
See  Rabanch  Maurvs, 


ItAZBHTlVS  73  MAZENTIUS 

applause.     As  a  reward  he  received  a  benefice  and  ap-  in  519  and  520.    These  monks  adopted  the  formula: 

poiniment  as  royal  preacher.     At  the  General  Synod  "  One  of  the  Trinitv  suffered  in  the  flesh"  to  exclude 

of  1775  he  fearlessly  exposed  the  failings  of  the  court  Nestorianism  and  Monophysitism,  and  they  sought  to 

bishops,  and  in  1784,  preachine  on  St.  Vincent  of  have  the  works  of  Faust  us  of  Riez  condemned  asbeing 

Paul,  he  denounced  the  mgratitude  of  France  towards  tainted  with  Pelagianism.    On  both  these  points  they 

one  of  her  worthiest  sons.    These  two  sermons  have  met  with  opposition.    John  Maxentius  presented  an 

been  preserved;  the  remainder  were  burnt  by  Maury  appeal  to  the  papal  legates  then  at  Constantinople  (Ep. 

himself — ^to  save,  as  he  said,  his  reputation.    Never-  ad  legatos  secus  apostolicee,  P.  G.,  LXXXVI,  i,  75-86); 

theless,  it  was  owing  to  them  that  ne  obtained  a  seat  but  it  failed  to  bring  forth  a  favourable  decision.   Some 

in  the  Academy  (1784).    In  1789  he  was  elected  by  of  the  monks  (not  Maxentius,  however)  proceeded, 

the  clergy  of  P^ronne  to  be  their  deputy  in  the  States-  therefore,  to  Rome  to  lay  the  case  before  rope  Hor- 

Geneial,  and  soon  became  the  acknowledged  leader  misdas.    As  the  latter  delayed  his  decision,  they  ad- 

of  the  Cburt  and  Ohurch  part^.     Mirabeau  s  name  at  dressed  themselves  to  some  African  bishops,  banished 

onoe  occurs  whenever  the  National  Assembly  is  men-  to  Sardinia,  and  St.  Fulgentius,  answering  in  the  name 

tioned.    Little  is  h^urd  of  the  Abb^  Maury,  who  was  of  these  prelates,  warmly  endorsed  their  cause  (Fulg. 

the  great  tribune's  most  doushty  adversary,  and  who,  ep.,  xvii  m  P.  L.,  LXV,  451-93) .  Elarly  in  August,  520, 

though  always  defeated  on  the  vote,  was  not  seldom  the  monks  left  Rome.    Shortly  after,  13  August,  520, 

the  conqueror  in  the  debate.     In  September,  1791.  Hormisdas  addressed  a  letter  to  the  African  bishop, 

the  A»emblv  was  dissolved,   and  Maury  quitted  Possessor,  then  at  Constantinople,  in  which  he  severely 

France  for  CoDlens,  the  headquarters  of  l^e  emigrants,  condemned  the  conduct  of  the  Sc3rthian  monks,  also 

Here  he  was  received  by  the  king's  brothers  with  declaring  that  the  writings  of  Faustus  were  not  r&- 

extraordinary  attention.    Pius  VI  invited  him  to  re-  ceived  among  the  authoritative  works  of  the  Fathers 

side  in  Rome,  and  created  him  Archbishop  of  Nicaea  and  that  the  sound  doctrine  on  grace  was  contained  in 

(April,  1792).    Soon  afterwards  he  represented  the  the  works  of  St.  Augustine  (Hormisdse  ep.,  cxxiv  in 

Holy  See  at  the  Diet  of  Frankfort,  where  Francis  II  Thiel,  p.  926).    Maxentius  assailed  this  letter  in  the 

was  elected  emperor.    The  royal  and  noble  person-  stron^t  language  as  a  document  written  by  heretics 

a^  assembled  there  vied  with  one  another  in  snowins  and  circulated  under  the  pope's  name  (Ad  epistulam 

him  honour.     On  his  return  he  was  made  cardinal  and  Hormisdse  responaio,  P.  G.,  LXXXVI,  i,  93-112). 

Archbi^op  of  Montefiascone.    When  the  Republican  This  is  the  last  trace  of  the  Scythian  monks  and  their 

armies  overran  Italy  in  1798,  Maury  fled  to  Venice,  leader  in  history.   The  identification  of  John  Maxen- 

and  took  a  prominent  part,  as  representative  of  Louis  tius  with  the  priest  John  to  whom  Fulgentius  ad- 

XVIII,  in  tne  conclave  at  which  Pius  VII  was  elected  dressed  his  *'  I)e  veritate  prsedestinationis  etc."  and 

(1800).    He  did  his  best  to  stop  the  drawing  up  of  the  with  the  priest  and  archimandrite,  John,  to  whom  the 

Concordat,  but  this  did  not  prevent  him  from  desert-  African  bishops  sent  their  *'  Epistula  s^odica",  rests 

ing  his  royal  master  and  returning  to  Paris.    Just  as  on  a  baseless  assumption.     Aiaxentius  is  also  the 

he  had  eiven  his  whole  energies  to  the  royal  cause,  so  author  of:   (1)  two  dialogues  against  the  Nestorians; 

now  he  devoted  himself  entirely  to  Napoleon.    In  the  (2)  twelve  anathematisms  against  the  Nestorians;  (3) 

difficult  question  of  the  divorce  he  sided  with  the  a  treatise  against  the  Acephali  (Monophysites).    As 

emperor,  and  it  was  he  who  suggested  a  means  of  dis-  to  the  "  Professio  de  Christo",  printed  as  a  separate 

pensing  with  the  papal  institution  of  the  bishops.  He  work,  it  is  but  a  part  of  the  ''  Epistola  ad  legatos  sedis 

accepted  from  Napoleon  in  this  way  the  See  of  Paris,  apostolicse".    His  works,  originally  written  in  Latin, 

though  he  never  styled  himself  an}rthing  but  arch-  have  reached  us  in  a  rather  unsatisfactory  condition, 

bishop-elect.     At  the  fall  of  the  Empire  (April,  1814),  They  were  first  published  by  Cochlseus  (Basle  and 

he  was  ordered  to  quit  France,  and  was  suspended  by  Hagenau,  1520),  reprinted  m  P.  G.,  LxXXVI,  i, 

the  pope.     During  the  Hundred  Days  he  was  con-  75-158. 
fined  in  the  Castle  of  St.  Angelo.     Consalvi  obtained        Norm.  Opera  Omnia  (Verona,  1729).  I.  ,474^604;  in.  775- 

his  reW,  «md  brought  about  hds  reconciliationwith  V^,^'m7i.^'1^);^ii^^^^"^^^  ^5."?^ 

Pius  VII.     His  position  as  cardmal  was  restored  to  MaxeruiuB  (4);   Bakdbnhbwbb.  Patnlow,  tr.  Shahan  (St 

him,  and  he  was  made  a  member  of  the  Ck>ngregation  Louis,  1908),  548-49. 

of  Bishops  and  Regulars.    Maury  did  not  live  long  to  N.  A.  Webeb. 

enjoy  his  restoration  to  papal  favour.    The  hardships        ^^        j.       ^,  *  «  -n 

of  his  prison  life  had  destroyed  his  constitution,  and        Bffaxentlufl,  Marcus  Aureltus,  Roman  Emperor 

aggravated  the  malady  from  which  he  had  long  been  306-12,  son  of  the  Emperor  Maxunianus  Hercuhus 

suffering.     Early  in  May,  1817,  his  strength  had  so  and  son-in-law  of  the  chief  Emperor  (ialenus.    After 

failed  that  the  Last  Sacraments  were  admSiistered  to  ^s  father's  abdication  he  lived  in  Rome  as  a  private 

him.    During  the  night  of  10  May  his  attendants  citisen;  but  when  Galerius  estoblished  in  Rome  and 

found  him  lying  dead  with  his  rosary  still  in  his  Italy  the  new  poll  and  Und  taxes  decreed  by  Diocle- 

gnep.  tian  he  was  elected  (28  October,  306)  rival  emperor. 

Louis  XVin  had  obstinately  refused  all  reconcilia-  Maxentius  owed  his  elevation  not  to  personal  merit 

tion,  and  now  forbade  his  body  to  be  buried  in  his  but  to  the  senators  and  pretorians  who,  because  of  the 

titular  church,  Trinitit  dei  Monti.     By  order  of  the  unusual  measures  of  the  emperor,  feared  lest  thev 

pope  the  remains  were  laid  before  the  high  altar  of  the  should  lose  their  privileged  position.    Maxentius's 

Chiesa  Nuova,  by  the  side  of  Baronius  and  Tarugi.  adherents  then  summoned  his  father  from  Campania 

When  Pius  VII  heard  of  his  death  he  said:  "  He  com-  to  Rome;  and  the  young  ruler  invested  him  with  the 

mitted  many  faults,  but  who  is  there  that  has  not  P.urple  as  co-regent.    Thus  the  Ronwn  empire  had 

done  the  like?    I  myself  have  committed  many  grave  six  rulers.    Severus,  the  AugjMtus  of  the  West,  re- 

OQQg /»  ceived  a  commission   from   Galerius  to  expel  the 

(EuvnM  ChaitiM  (Paris,  1827);   PoujoniJkT,  L«  Cardinal  youthful  usurper  from  Rome;  but  when  he  reached 

{rawy.*  m  Vie  0i  •u  (Buvru  (Paris,  1865);  Rio^bd.  L'AiAi  the  capital,  part  of  his  army  deserted  to  their  old  com- 

iSSS;'i;^i?^-,S^m'  ^^i.STSr;;^?5S!l?  mander    M«imian.    Severus  with  a  few  foUowem 

hm,  1891);  Bohvi^Maurt,  Le  Cardinal  Maury  d'apr^s  m  escaped  to  Ravenna  SO  as  to  maintain  mihtary  rela- 

CmnpondanoeH  «m  MMnoiresinfdiu^  (Paris.  1892);  Saiictb-  tions  with  (jalerius.     He  then   made    terms  with 

frSlk£'S2S?(l»2r'^**        ^        '  *  ®'^'*""'  "*  Maximian  and  surrendered  to  him,  expecting  honour- 

T.  B.  ScANNELL.  &^^  treatment,  but  he  was  imprisoned  soon  after- 
wards and,  Galerius  approaching  from  Ill3rria  with  an 

Mftzmtllis,  JoAMNBB,  leader  of  the  so-called  Scyth-  army,  he  was  forced  to  commit  suicide.    Alarmed  at 

kn  monks,  appears  in  history  at  Constantinople  Galerius's  intervention,  Maximian  on  behalf  of  Maxen- 


MAZFISLD 


74 


MATTMTANnS 


tiusi  negotiated  with  Constantine  to  whom  he  ^ve  his 
daiu;hter  Fausta  as  bride.  Meanwhile  Galenns  with 
his  rii3rrian  legions  pushed  forward  to  tha  neighbour- 
hood of  Rome,  but  finding  that  he  was  imable  to  oc- 
cupy it  or  any  of  the  fortified  places,  he  withdrew  his 
forces.  At  his  suggestion  a  conference  of  all  the 
CflBsars  took  place  at  Camuntum  on  the  Danube  (307) 
in  which  the  prestige  of  Diocletian  had  great  influence. 
Maxentius  retained  his  imperial  dignity.  Though  it 
is  true  that  soon  after  this  he  put  an  end  to  the  i)ersecu- 
tion  of  the  Christians  in  Italv  and  Africa,  his  reign  was 
stained  with  acts  of  debauchery  and  cruelty. 

After  his  father's  death,  Maxentius  and  Maximin, 
Emperor  of  the  East,  fearing  the  political  alliance  of 
Ck>nstantine  and  Licinius,  came  to  an  understanding 
imfriendly  to  Constantine.  Maxentius  made  exten- 
sive military  preparations,  and  destroyed  the  statues 
and  paintinjgs  of  Constantine.  Constantine  advanced 
over  what  is  now  Mont  Cenis  with  a  com{)aratively 
small  but  well-drilled  army  and,  victorious  in  several 
battles,  occupied  Upper  Italy;  he  then  marched 
against  Rome,  where  his  opponent,  strongly  en- 
trenched behind  the  Tiber  and  the  walls  of  Aiuielius, 
hoped  to  resist  him  successfully.  Thoughtlessly 
and  shortsightedly,  Maxentius,  abandoning  tins  ex- 
cellent position,  made  a  bridge  of  boats  across  the 
Tiber  (near  the  Milvian  Bridge  now  Ponte.Molle),  and 
awaited  the  troops  of  Constantine  on  the  right  bank  of 
the  river.  It  was  then  that  occun«d  the  miracle  re- 
lated by  Eusebius  (Vita  Constant.  1, 28-30),  that  when 
Constantine  implored  supematiural  aid,  a  fiery  cross 
appeared  over  the  sim  with  the  legend:  rodry  wUa, 
(conauer  with  this).  Further,  he  Imd  been  advised 
by  Cnrist,  in  a  dream  the  previous  nisht,  to  go  into 
battle  armed  with  this  sign.  Maxentius^s  soldiers  were 
thrown  into  confusion  bv  the  impetuosity  of  the 
Gallic  horsemen,  and  in  the  efforts  of  the  retreating 
masses  to  escape  over  the  narrow  bridge,  many  were 
thrown  into  tne  river  and  drowned,  among  them 
Maxentius  (28  October,  312).  His  son  and  counsel- 
lors were  put  to  death,  but  his  officials  and  depen- 
dents retamed  their  positions. 

SCHILI.XR,  Oeach.  d.  rdmixhen  Kauerxeil,  11  (Qotha,  1887); 
DB  Waal,  Boma  Sacra  (Munich,  1906). 

Karl  Hoeber. 

Mazfifild  {vere  BIacclesfield),  Tbobcab,  Vener- 
able, English  priest  and  martyr,  b.  in  Stafford  gaol, 
about  1590,  mart3rred  at  Tyburn,  London,  Monday, 
1  July,  1616.  He  was  one  of  the  younger  sons  of 
William  Macclesfield  of  Chesterton  and  Maer  and  As- 
ton, Staffordshire  (a  firm  recusant,  condemned  to 
death  in  1587  for  harbouring  priests,  one  of  whom  was 
his  brother  Humphrey),  and  Ursula,  daughter  of 
Francis  Roos,  of  Laxton,  Nottinghamshire.  William 
Macclesfield  is  said  to  have  died  in  prison  and  is  one  of 
the  prcetermissi  as  William  Maxfiela ;  but,  as  his  death 
occurred  in  1608,  this  is  doubtful.  Thomas  arrived  at 
the  English  College  at  Douai  on  16  March,  1602-3,  but 
had  to  return  to  England  17  May,  1610,  owing  to  ill 
health.  In  1614  he  went  back  to  Douai,  was  or- 
dained priest,  and  in  the  next  year  came  to  London. 
Within  three  months  of  landing  he  was  arrested,  and 
sent  to  the  Gatehouse,  Westminster.  After  about 
eight  months'  imprisonment,  he  tried  to  escape  by  a 
rope  let  down  from  the  window  in  his  cell,  but  was 
captured  on  reaching  the  ground.  This  was  at  mid- 
night 14-15  June.  1616.  For  seventy  hours  he  was 
placed  in  the  stocks  in  a  filthy  dungeon  at  the  Gate- 
nouse,  and  was  then  on  Monday  night  (17  June)  re- 
moved to  Newgate,  where  he  was  set  amongst  the 
worst  criminals,  two  of  whom  he  converted.  On 
Wednesday,  26  June,  he  was  brought  to  the  bar  at  the 
Old  Bailey,  and  the  next  day  was  condemned  solelv 
for  being  a  priest ,  under  27  Elic.,  c,  2.  The  Spanish 
ambassador  did  his  best  to  obtain  a  pardon,  or  at  least 
a  reprieve;  but,  finding  his  efforts  unavailing^  had 
solemn  exposition  of  the  Blessed  Sacrament  m  his 


chapel  during  the  martyr's  last  night  on  earth.  The 
procession  to  Tyburn  early  on  the  following  mominj^ 
was  joined  by  many  devout  Spaniards,  who,  in  spite  of 
insults  and  mockery,  persisted  in  forming  a  guard  of 
honour  for  the  martyr.  Tyburn -tree  itself  was 
found  decorated  with  garlands,  and  the  ground  round 
about  strewn  with  sweet  herbs.  The  sheriff  ordered 
the  martyr  to  be  cut  down  alive,  but  popular  feeling 
was  too  strong,  and  the  disembowelling  did  not  take 
place  till  he  was  quite  senseless.  Half  of  his  relics  are 
now  at  Downside  Abbey,  near  Bath. 

Life  and    Mariyrdom    of    Mr.    Mtu^eld,    Prie/t   1616,   ed. 


land  and  Wales  CLondon,  1887),  298;  The  WtUiam  SaU  Archcto- 
logical  Society' a  CoUeetione  for  a  HiHory  of  Staffordshire  (London, 
1»S2-1909),  III,  iii;  V,  u,  207;  new  aenes.  V,  128;  XII.  248. 

John  B.  Wainewright. 

Mazhnianopolis,  a  titular  see  of  Palestina  Secunda. 
sufiFragan  of  Scythopolis.  Its  ancient  name,  Adad- 
Remmon,  according  to  the  Vulgate  (according  to  the 
Hebrew.  Hadad-Rimmon)  is  found  in  Zach.,  xii,  11: 
"...  tnere  shall  be  a  great  lamentation  in  Jerusalem 
like  the  lamentation  of  Adadremmon  in  the  plain  of 
Mageddon,''  an  allusion  to  the  death  of  Josias.lCing  o^ 
Jerusalem,  killed  by  the  Pharaoh  Nechao  in  tne  battle 
fought  near  this  place  (IV  Kings,  xxiii,  29;  II  Par. 
XXXV,  20-25).  In  the  time  of  tne  so-called  "Pilgrim 
of  Bordeaux"  (ed.  Geyer,  19,  27)  and  of  St.  Jerome 
("Comment,  in  Zachar.",  ad  cap.  xii,  11;  "Conmient. 
in  Oz.",  5),  Adad-Remmon  already  bore  the  name  of 
Maximianopolis.  Three  of  its  ancient  bishops  are 
known:  Paul,  in  325  (Cielzer,  "Patrum  Nicaenorum 
nomina",  Ixi) — not  Biaximus,  as  Le  Quien  gives  it  in 
"Oriens  Christianus",  III,  703;  Megas,  in  518,  and 
Domnus,  in  536  (Le  Ouien,  op.  cit.,  703-06).  Maximi- 
anopolis  has  resimiied  its  ancient  name  of  Rimmon, 
and  is  now  the  almost  deserted  little  village  of  Roum- 
maneh,  nearly  four  miles  to  the  south  ofLedjun,  or 
Mageddo  (see  Legio). 

QutRXN,  Description  de  la  Palestine:  Samaris  (Paris,  1875). 
11,  228-230;  Gelsbr,  Oeorgii  Cyprii  Descriptio  orbis  romani 
(Leipxis.  1890),  193-96;  Lboenorb  in  Vio.,  Diet,  de  la  Bible, 
8.  V.  Adadremmon, 

S.  Vailh£. 

MazhniannB,  Mabcus  Aureuus  ViiLERius,  sur- 
named  Herculius,  Roman  Emperor,  was  adopted  by 
Diocletian  and  named  his  co-regent  in  285,  because  by 
this  division  of  the  sovereignty  the  danger  of  the  war- 
riors' mutiny,  the  ambitious  efforts  of  the  usurpers, 
and  the  attacks  of  foreign  enemies  seemed  to  be  pre- 
vented in  the  surest  way.  Diocletian  gave  him,  who 
had  been  hitherto  his  brother-in-arms  and  was  now  his 
fellow  regent,  the  surname  Herculius,  in  remembrance 
of  the  help  which  the  mythological  Hercules  rendered 
his  father  Jupiter  in  the  latter's  struggle  against  the 

fiants.  Like  Diocletian,  Maximianus  came  from 
llyria,  from  the  neighbourhood  of  birmium;  as  the  son 
of  a  simple  peasant,  he  possessed  onlv  very  httle  edu- 
cation; ne  was  violent  and  brutal,  but  was  a  brave 
fighter.  For  this  reason,  when  Diocletian  was  strug- 
gling with  the  Persians  in  Asia,  Maximianus  was  en- 
trusted with  the  leadership  of  the  punitive  expedition 
against  the  neasants  and  field  slaves  (Bagaudans)  in 
Gaul  who,  driven  by  economical  causes,  had  risen 
against  Diocletian.  The  new  emperor  soon  restored 
peace,  and  received  from  Diocletian,  in  token  of  the 
latter 's  gratitude,  the  title  of  Augustus  on  1  April,  286. 
However,  only  the  administration  of  tiie  empire  was 
divided;  the  sovereignty  remained  centraUsea  now  as 
ever,  and  the  will  of  the  emperor-in-chief,  Diocletian, 
was  absolute.  While  Maximianus,  having[  established 
his  head-quarters  at  Mainz,  was  successful  m  the  strug- 
gles with  the  Burgundians  and  the  Alamanni,  who  had 
crossed  the  frontier  and  the  Rhine,  he  found  many  ob- 
stacles in  repulsing  the  Menapian  pirate  chief  Carau- 
sius.    Originally  comnaander-in-chief  of  ih^  Roman 


«l  '  llAf  ^.^^^^^^^^BTIi^^^^^^^^^     rV«l  '  II 


navy,  GurauBius  had  pursued  and  conquered  the  pi-  he  returned  to  the  forgine  of  nefarious  schemes  asainst 

rates  of  the  German  ocean;  then,  driven  by  greed  and  his  son-in-law,  and  &ally  was  compelled  to  take  his 

ambition,  he  had  forced  Britain  to  do  homage  to  him,  own  life  in  310. 

and  seix^  the  whole  trade  in  Gaul  and  Britain.     In         S(sillbR|  Oeach.  d.  r&miachen  Kaueneit;  Alulrd,  La  pen^ 

286  he  even  appropriated  the  title  of  Augustus,  and  "^*^  ^  Dwditim  et  U  triomphe  de  r^Ziw  (Paris.  1890). 
caused  coins  to  be  struck  which  bore  his  own  portrait.  ^^^^^^  Uobber. 

Even  Diocletian,  by  a  compromise  in  290,  was  forced        m»-,^^i«.«    xu^  „««^«  r.t  <w.«r^»i  ^<>^«r^      /i\ 

to  recognise  CarauSus  as  the  legal  empen^r,  while  the  „  Maximilian,  the  name  of  several  martjjs.     (1) 

latteTi^reed  to  supply  Diocle^n  with  com,  as  had  ??^^"^,,^/  ^^SP^'  *  ^^"^^1'!  "^^Yp^  ''\^' 

been  thecustom  «**    ^  «,  «o  »•»  tioch,  Jan.  353,  with  Bonosus,  a  feUow  soldier,  of  the 

Aa  Diocletian  left  Syria  to  enter  the  countries  of  the  l^!IS^!f  ^L^^^^i^i^^^^.:^^  S^^^ 

Lower  Danube,  he  met  Maximianus,  and  both  the  em-  l""^}?  T^^^Y^  ^^li'^'^TTi^*'"''^^  k  ^}^^ 

perors  crossed  the  Alps  in  the  begini^ing  of  291  in  order  !^^°^/^^J^^  standard  as  had  been  ordered  by  Juhan 

tTattend  a  conferen^  at  Mik^,  therl  to  discuss  the  *^«  ^P^^.U^^,^*  ^'^^  "^^^^  ""^  J:^,V^^^ 

Ktt«4A«.  ^Ar^i*^io4^^*ir^T^  r»f  ♦K^  AmJlitv^  o*./i  ♦!,«  ;«n»^wv<.»,^  commandcd  them  to  replace  the  cknsmon  with  images 

rtitutM,  caUed  C<»wra»  were  to  supplement  the  two  afd  beheaded.    The  Roman  martjTolo^  and  most 

goyeinhig  emperors.    Constantius  aSd  Galerius  were  "^^  calendars  mention  them  on  21  August,  while  ma 

procl^a^  C^rs  1  March,  293;  the  first  was  forced  %  ^*J,"^|^7°1T ^l^l"!  ^^T^^T^nTK"^.^?.^ 

to  many  the  stepdaughter  of  Makimianus,  Theodora,  ^f^^  *.^^'',^'^;  ?}  -^P*- JB  ^^-  ^"fi^)!*^^^ 

after  tl^  exile  ifhi?moth«r  Helena.    Mwdmianu^  °**«d  as  the  day  of  theu-  martyrdom     Both  datw  are 

now  *«"fc  «»•»"«>  "f  *>««  «Jmin«t~tin„  nf  Ttelv  Afric«  WTong,  as  18  cvidcnt  from  the  Acts  of  the  two  martyrs, 
and 


S3Sr***&StaStiii"orhlB*';;;Srw"^^^^  23  Oct..  362.    (2)MAxunuANOpCELEiA.-HisAct8, 

in  hia  strunle  with  Carausius     TTie  war  came  auicklv  «>™P««d  in  th«  thirteenth  century  and  unreliable,  say 

to  an  endfas  Carausius  was  Assassinated  by  A&ectus,  ^  ^««  b.  at  Celeia  (CiUi,  Styria),  made  a  pUgrimaee  to 

prefect  of  his  guard,  in  293.    Constanti^  then  re^  ?.T*'  Tt*  "  "^^'O"^^  *°  Noncimi,  be(»me  Art^- 

Lnited  Britain  ^th  the  Roman  Empire,  while  Maxi-  J"^P  '^Jt^^'^'^^J^l^'  °^'  ^*?S^r  t?^: 

mianus  protected  the  frontiers  of  fiaul  against  the  f^J^  martyrdom  under  Numenanus  (283-4).    It  is 

Teutons  on  the  Upper  Rhine.    When  Constentius  had  h«rtoncally  oertam  that  Maximihan  was  a  missionajy 

ictuned  from  BnWn,  Maximianus  went  in  297  to  ?  ^S"S1?  *^  k"°l*''f  t  ***t'"  ^j  **«''^'^^'^' 

Africa,  where  he  sucessiully  made  war  upon  rebellious  ^^'?^^^  the  church  of  Loreh,  and  sulfei^l  martjnxiom. 

tribes  of  the  Moors,  and  wnt  a  great  lAany  captives  S""  «'^*/**^/i,^'^l™!S  *•>«  e'l*t.l»  S?"*"^-  ,^ 

into  tiie  other  proviAees.    In  302le  celebrated  a  great  2^V«^?1"7^*-^X'*^'{!*kj*''''^?k^»°  ''-rJo^ 

triumph  with  biocletian  in  Rome;  seventeen  timis  he  Bischofshofen^d  brought  hwrehcs  thither.    They 

had  bSme  the  title  of  Imperetor.    The  persecution  of  ^f  J'^S^IT^  ^  ^***Y  ^  ^-  r^  X^^^ 

the  Christians,  which  DiilcMiiin  had  «indiicfi>H  with  Crated  12  Oct.,  at  some  places  29_pct.    (3)  Mahmi- 

lecklees  brutality 
up  by  Maximiani 

ItfaSid  ttSt  during  these  persecutions-it  is  im-  f  nd  was  beheaded.    Smce  death  wasnot  then  tte 

poesible  to  state  the  «j£e  correctly-the  Christian  sol-  •««»•  Punishment  for  those  who  refuaedto  lom  tto 

aion  of  the  Theban  legion  also  suBered  martyrdom  in  ?j™y  (^^^f  ^TS*^    '     ^  ^'Ih^Lt^l?}! 

Agsunum  (St-Maurice,  Canton  of  Valais,  Switzerland)  I*. «  probable  that  he  was  beh«»ded  because  he^e 

Srthe  then  Diocese  of  Octodurum.     The  Christian  ^  Py^"?""*?:  *"  *^  !f^°°w  ^  ?^-  ^^-  ^ 

soldien  of  this  legion  refused  to  execute  his  orders  ^uned  at  Carthage  by  the  noble  matron  Pompejana. 

^V       mi     •     •       *'«■''"  .ciuai-v.  v«  c^»vu«.  MA^  W.UC.O  ^^^^  gg     Aug.,  IV,  425-430;    Rcinabt,  Acta  Matbmim 

irtien  Maximianus,  on  a  march  over  what  is  now  the  {R»tiabon.  1859)7  «(»-l2;  Lbclbboq,  Le»  Martyn,  III  (Paria, 

Great  St.  Bernard,  commanded  them  to  punish  the  1904),  100-04;  TihixuovT,MhiunTupouraervirhi'hut.»cdM. 

Christians  U ving  in  these  districts ;  for  this  refusal  the  *•  "^  premiertnMu,  ^JI  fPa™.  * J"?L!S2?:^-wwSiI2: 

1.                 x'j*       xJuxL              J         J         A.\.  D%9cur809  apoloaHxcoB  de  las  ratquxaa  d.  S.  Bonoao  y  Maxtrnxliano 

legion  was  twice  decimated  by  the  sword,  and,  as  the  (Baexa.  ieJ32).      (2)  VUa  ac  Agenda  S.  Maximaiani  in  Pm. 

survivors  held  out  to  the  last,  all  the  soldiers  were  mas-  script,  rtnim  Auatr.,  I,  22-34.  Concerning  its  value  see  Rwnv 


of  a  provincial  town,  and  because  Galerius's  new  and  (3)  AhUMo.La^^tietaiondeDiocUiien,  I  (Paris,  1908).  99-105; 

hard  system  of  taxes  was  to  be  extended  also  to  Italy  9i"*A^5 ^*'*'%^^"K!;i'%^KS?^i/i?^ iV  VJ* li'A, ^^J^fL 

"'^j  ^•'t>  XL  X  jxv  J.     *  Ada  Martyrum  (Ratisbon,  1859),  340-2,  Fr.  tr.  LiECLEROQ,  Let 

and  to  Rome,  the  senators  and  the  pretonans  pro-  Martyn,  II  (Pans.  1903),  152-5. 
claimed  as  Cesar  M.  Aurelius  Maxentius,  the  son  of  Michael  Ott. 

Ifaximianus;  the  latter  laid  down  the  purple  at  Milan. 

But  the  new  emperor  proved  to  be  incapable  of  gov-        Maximilian  I,  Duke  of  Bavaria,  1598-1622,  Elector 

eming,  and  Maximianus,  who  was  popular  with  the  of  Bavaria  and  Lord  High  Steward  of  the  Holv 

army,  was  recalled  to  restore  order  for  the  new  Angus-  Roman  Empire,  1623-1651;  b.  at  Munich,  17  April, 

tus.    This  he  did  not  accomplish,  and  the  old  Diocle-  1573;    d.  at  Ingolstadt,  27  September,  1651.    The 

tian,  living  as  a  private  person  in  Salona,  called  a  meet-  lasting  services  he  rendered  his  country  and  the  Cath- 

ing  of  all  the  members  of  the  dynasties  at  Camuntum  olic   Church   justly  entitle  him  to  uie  surname  of 

for  the  end  of  the  year  307.    Maximianus  had  to  re-  **  Great ".    He  was  the  son  of  zealous  Catholic  parents, 

nounce  the  purple  for  the  second  time.    He  now  went  William  V,  the  Pious,  of  Bavaria,  and  Renate  of  Lor- 

to  Gaul,  and  gave  his  youngest  daughter  Fausta  in  raine.    Mentally  well  endowed,  Maximilian  received  a 

marriage  to  Constantine.     &  his  hope  to  regain  his  strict  Catholic  training  from  private  tutors  and  later 

former  imperial  dignity  failed  here  also,  he  returned  to  (1587-91)  studied  law,  histoi^,  and  mathematics  at 

his  son  Maxentius  in  Italy.     Repulsed  by  the  latter  the  University  of  Ingolstadt.   He  further  increased  his 

and  spumed  by  Galerius  on  account  of  his  ambitions,  knowledge  by  visits  to  foreign  courts,  as  Prague  and 

he  departed  once  more  for  Gaul  and  donned  the  im-  Naples,  and  to  places  of  pilgrimage  including  Rome, 

penal  piuple  for  the  third  time.    When  the  news  of  Loretto,  and  Einsiedeln.    Thus  equipped  Maximilian 

Constantine's  approach  reached  his  own  soldiers,  they  assumed  (15  Oct.,  1597)  the  government  of  the  small, 

aurrendered  him  to  his  rival  and  opponent  at  Marsilia.  thinly  populated  coimtry  at  his  father's  wish  during 

Although  Constantine  in  his  generosity  pardoned  him,  the  latter's  lifetime.   Owing  to  the  over-lenient  rule  o! 


the  two  preoediiij  mien  the  land  was  burdened  with  a 
bwvjr  debt.    Bv  curtailing  expenditure  sjid  enloiging 


complaints  of  the  powerless  estates,  the  finances  were 
not  only  brought  into  a  better  condition  but  it  was 
also  possible  to  collect  a  reserve  fund  whicb,  in  spite  of 
the  unuHually  difficult  conditions  of  the  age,  was  never 
quit«  exhausted.  At  the  same  time  internal  order  waa 
maintained  by  a  scries  of  laws  issued  in  1610.  Maxi- 
milian gave  great  attention  to  miUtary  matters.  No 
other  Carman  prince  of  that  time  po^essed  an  army 
so  well  oi^nized  and  equipped.  lis  commander  was 
the  veteran  soldier  from  the  Netherlands  Jobann 
Tserclaes,  Count  of  Tilly,  who,  austere  himself,  know 
bow  to  maintain  discipline  among  his  troops.  The 
forti&cationa  at  Ingolstadt  on  the  Danube  were  greatly 
Strengthened,  and  Munich  and  other  towns  were  aur- 


tablished  in  dilTerent  places 
■B  preparation  for  time  of 
need.  Opportunity  for  the 
use  of  this  armament  soon 
offered  itself. 

The  small  free  city  of 
DonauwiJrth  fell  under  the 
Imperial  ban  for  violating 
tiie  religious  peace.  In  exe- 
cuting the  imperial  decree 
Hazinulian  not  only  suc- 
ceeded in  bringing  this  city 
into  subjection  to  Bavaria 
but  also  in  re-establishing  the 
Catholic  Church  as  the  one 
and  only  religion  in  it.  This 
led  to  the  forming  (1608)  of 
the  ProtesUnt  Union,  an 
offensive  and  defensive  con- 
federation of  Protestant 


both  coalitions  were  headed 
byprincesof  theWittelabach 

line:  Maximilian  I  as  head  of  Maiiuiuah 

the  League,  Frederick  IV  of 

the  Palatinate,  of  the  Union.  The  Thirty  Years'  War, 
during  which  Bavaria  suffered  terribly,  broke  out  in 
1619.  Under  Tilly's  leadership  the  Bohemian  revolt 
was  crushed  at  the  battle  of  the  White  Mountain 
(Weisaen  Beig}  near  Prague,  S  November,  1620,  and 
the  newly  elected  King  of  Bohemia,  Frederick  V. 
V>rced  to  flee.  His  allies,  the  Margrave  of  Baden  ana 
tjie  Duke  of  Brunswick,  were  defeated  by  the  forces  of 
Bavaria  and  the  League  at  Wimpfen  and  Hbchst 
(1622),  as  was  also  at  a  later  date  (1626)  King  Chris- 
tian of  Denmark.  Conditions,  however,  changed  when 
Maximilian,  through  jealousy  of  the  House  of  Haps- 
buigh,  was  led  in  1630  to  seek  the  dismissal  of  the  head 
<rf  the  imperial  army,  Wailensteln.  The  youthful 
Swedish  king,  Gustavus  Adolphus,  defeated  Tilly,  the 
veteran  leader  ot  the  army  of  the  League,  at  Breiten- 
feld  (1631),  and  in  a  battle  with  Gustavus  Adolphus 
near  the  Lech,  16  April,  16.12,  Tilly  was  again  van- 
quished, receiving  a  wound  from  which  he  died  two 
weeks  lat«r  at  Ingolstadt.  Although  the  sir^gc  of  this 
city  by  the  Swedes  waa  unsuccessful,  Gustavus  plun- 
dered the  Bavarian  towns  and  villages,  laid  waste  the 
eountry  and  pillaged  Munich. 

Maximilian,  who  since  1623  had  been  both  Elector 
and  ruler  of  the  Upper  Palatinate,  implored  Wallen- 
atein,  now  once  more  the  head  of  the  imperial  forces, 
for  help  in  vain  until  he  agreed  to  place  himself  and 
bis  army  imder  Wallenstein's  command.  The  united 
iforoes  ujider  Wallenst«in  took  up  an  entrenched  posi- 


tion near  Nuremberg  where  Wallenstein  repulsed  th« 
Swedish  attacks;    oy  advancing  towards  Saxony  he 
even  forced  ^em  to  evacuate  Maximilian's  territoriea. 
The  relief  to  Bavaria,  however,  waa  not  of  long  dura- 
tion.   After  the  death  of  Gustavus  Adolphus  at  the 
battle  of  Lutsen  (1632)  Bemhard  of  Weimar,  unmo- 
lested by  Wallenstein,  ravaged  Bavaria  until  be  re- 
ceived a  crushing  defeat  at  the  battle  of  NSrdlingen 
(fl  Sept.,  1634).    Even  in  the  last  ten  veais  of  the  war 
the  country  was  not  spared  from  hostile  attacks. 
Consequently  Maximilian  sought  by  means  of  a  truce 
with  the  enemy  (1647)  to  gain  for  Bavaria  an  oppoi^ 
tunity  to  recover.    The  desired  result,  however,  not 
being  attained,  he  united  his  forces  to  those  of  the 
imperial  army,  but  the  allied  troops  were  not  sufficient 
to  overthrow  the  confederated  French  and  Swedes, 
and  Bavaria  once  more  suffeied  all  the  terrors  of  a 
pitiless  invasion.    Thq  fighting  ended  with  the  capture 
of  the  Swedish   generals,  S 
Oct.,  1648,  and  the  Peace  of 
.Westphalia   was    signed   at 
MUnster,  24  Oct.  of  the  same 
year,    'The  material  benefits 
derived  by  Maximilian  from 
bis  attitude  in  politics  were 
meagre:   the  Electoral  dig- 
nity, the  office  of  Lord  EigD 
Steward,    and    the    Upper 
Palatinate.    The  abstract 
gains,  on  the  other  band,  a^ 
I>ear  far  greater.     Not  on|y 
since  then  has  Bavaria  had 
the  second  place  among  the 
Cathohc  principahties  ofGer- 
many,  ranking  next  to  Aus- 
tria,    but    for    centuries    ft 
strong  bulwark  was  opposed 
to  the  advance  of  Prot««tant- 
ism,  and   the  latter  was,  at 
times,  even  driven  back.    A 
few  years  after  the  Peace  of 
Westphalia  and  eighteen 
montlis  after  the  administra- 
tion of  Bavaria   had    been 
transferred  to  his  still  minor 
son  Ferdinand  Maria,  Maxi- 
:  or  Bataria  milian's   eventful   and  toil- 

some life  closed.  He  was 
buried  in  the  church  of  St.  Michael  at  Munich.  A 
fine  equestrian  statue,  designed  by  Thorwaldsen  and 
cast  by  Stiglmayer,  was  erected  at  Munich  by  King 
Louis  I  in  18:)9. 

Although  there  was  almost  incessant  war  during  his 
reign,  and  Bavaria  ic  the  middle  of  the  seventeenth 
centuiy  was  like  a  desert,  nevertheless  Maximilian  did 
much  for  the  arts,  e.  g.  by  building  the  palace,  the 
MoT-ientauU  (Marv's  Column),  etc.  Learning  also, 
especially  at  the  University  of  Ingolstadt,  had  m  this 
era  dlstingiiished  representatives.  The  Jesuit  Balde 
was  a  brilliant  writer  both  of  Latin  and  German  veise, 
and  Father  Scheiner,  another  member  of  the  same 
order,  was  the  first  to  discover  the  spots  on  the  sun; 
historians  also,  such  as  Beinrich  Canisius,  MatthAus 
Rader,  etc.,  produced  important  works  of  lasting 

Maximilian,  however,  ^ve  far  more  attention  to 
the  advancement  of  religion  among  the  people  than 
to  art  and  learning.  He  founded  five  Jesuit  ooUegea: 
Amber^,  Burghausen,  Landshut,  Hindelheim,  and 
Straubing.  Msides  establishing  ft  monastery  for  the 
Hinims  and  one  for  the  CarmeUtes  at  Munich,  he 
founded  nine  monasteries  for  Franciscans  and  fourteen 
for  Capuchins  who  venerate  him  as  one  of  their  great- 
est benefactors.  He  also  fouikded  at  Munich  a  name 
for  aged  and  infirm  Court  officials,  and  gave  30,000 
guldens  for  the  Chinese  missions,  as  well  as  large  aimis 
to  the  Scotch-English  college  of  the  Jesuits  ftt  li^. 


« I ; I iTii7:^^^^^^^^Brr^^^^^^^^B >  f 


8  77 

private  oharitiee  amonff  the  poor  and  needy  of  all  sius, "  Apol.  ad  Const.  Imp.",  0).   His  cult  began  right 

deecriptionfl  were  unlimitea.  after  his  death.    His  feast  is  celebrated  on  29  May,  on 

Maximilian  wsa  endowed  with  an  uncommon  ability  which  day  his  name  stands  in  the  martyrologies  of  St. 

for  work.    He  was  also  sincerely  religious  and  rigidly  Jerome^  St.  Bede,  St.  Ado,  and  others.    Trier  honours 

moral  in  conduct;  he  even  went  beyond  the  permissi-  him  as  its  patron.    In  the  autumn  of  353  his  body  was 

ble  in  his  efforts  to  uphold  and  spread  tne  faith,  buried  in  the  church  of  St.  John  near  Trier,  where  in 

Maintaining  like  all  princes  of  his  time  the  axiom  the  seventh  centuiy  was  founded  the  famous  Benedie- 

*'CujiJS  regio  ejus  religio",  he  not  only  put  down  tine  Abbey  of  St.  Maximinus,  which  flourished  till 

every  movement  in  opposition  to  the  Church  in  his  1802. 

own  country  but  also  exterminated  Calvinism  and  ,  Altfe,  ftxllof  fabulo\wa«»imte,byamjTOkpf  St.M^^ 

LuU-^nuusmroot  and  branch  in  the  temtones  he  had  ^^"^^''ul'^ri'  ?y''s'S?f iS.lU^^i.'SSll/S'A'^^i 

acquired.      Where  admomtion  and  instruction  were  p.  L..  CXIX.  21-24.  and  in  Mon.  Oem.  Script,  renm  Menv., 

not  sufficient  the  soldier  stepped  in,  and  the  poor  peo-  HI,  7^2;  Dibl,  Der  heMqe  Mjunminw  imd  der  heilipe  Paul' 

»lc    who  had  already  been  obBged  to  change  tW  S'l'r^M  TSJ^Z  i7S''JSJSwSSTS°.;^'-<£'Sr 

faith  several  times  with  change  of  ruler,  had  now  no  hiai.,  n  (Parta,  1867).  6d-96;  Bbnnbtt  in  Did.  Christ.  Biog,, 

choice  but  return  to  the  Church  or  exile.   Maximilian,  ■•  v.                                                     Michael  Ott. 
in  addition,  never  lost  sight  of  secular  advantage,  as  is 

shown  by  his  numerous  acquisitions  of  territory.    Es-  Mazixni&iUi  Caius  Valerius  Daja,  under  his  uncle 

peciallv  valuable  was  the  purchase  of  two-thirds  of  the  Augustus  Galerius,  the  Cesar  of  Syria  and  Egypt, 

oountship  of  Helfenstein,  now  a  part  of  WOrtemberg,  from  the  year  305;  in  307  following  the  examme  of 

which  as  a  Bavarian  dependence  was  preserved  to  the  Constantine,  he  assumed  the  title  of  Augustus.    When 

Church  and  has  remained  Catholic  up  to  the  present  Galerius  died  in  311,  the  Caesar,  Licinius,  set  out  for 

time,  notwithstanding  its  Protestant  surroundings,  the  Hellespont  to  besieg^  the  provinces  of  the  Near 

Maximilian  was  twice  married.    The  first  marriage  East.    Maximinus  obtained  tne  sympathy  of  the 


.„  childless.    By  his  second  wife  Maria,  daughter  of  population  by  granting  a  remission  of  taxation  to  the 

the  Emperor  Ferdinand  II,  whom  he  married  15  July,  threatened  provinces;    also,  he  had  in  his  power 

1635,  he  had  two  sons;  the  elder  of  these,  Ferdinand  Galerius's  widow  and  Valeria,  Diocletian's  daughter. 

'  k,  as  already  mentioned,  succeeded  him.  An  agreement  was  made  fixing  the  ^gean  Sea  and 


STixTB,M«nm.«i«in/inXa0m.dei^«eA«BMg.,X^  (1886).  the  Straits  between  Europe  and  Asia  as  the  boun- 

21  sq.,  dveB  bibliogmphy  before  1885;   cf.  the  statements  in  d«-:pa  of  thft  dominioriH  and  aa  no  npw  CffiRars  wpi* 

I>6bxsi.,  Bntwiekelunatgetchiehte  BauemM,  I  (2nd  ed.,  1908).—  """es  oi  ine  Qominions  ana  as  no  new  ^eesars  were 

lUauDi^Bekehnmo  der  OberpfaU^volB.,  1903);  RAbkuDob  appointed,  there  were  three  lecal  emperors.    Thus 

^omtaHoe^Benmiiktiner^AddaiiftWeiaamqhe  inyoArfr.  de*  Hid.  Diocletian's  plan  of  governing  tne  empire  was  aban- 


fiSS5l£?^.i»;^"i'''M5""fe/«r^S:^^  doned.  Maximinus,  •  fanatical  idolater  and  tyrant. 
1603-1909  (1902).— DsuTiNGBR.  BeUrAgB  »wr  OeaehicMe  det  continued  the  persecution  of  the  Christians  m  his 
Bnlfitthwna   ^^^^^^^^^^^J^f^^^SS*    ^    (1^1).—    part  of  the  empire  with  especial  severity  and  persis- 


feS^teSSW  £JSSS*'^£lfe.^  rTu^L^:-Ii  tency,  even  where  the  cruel  Galerius  had  ceased  Be- 
(1876),  164  sqq.;  CobrAard,  Pr6ci»  d*histoire  moderru  el  am-  Sides  sangumary  measures  for  the  suppression  of 
tanporaine,  36  sqq.  Pixjs  WxTTMANN.  Christianity,  he  made  attempts  to  establish  in  both 
....  -  ^.  ,  -r«  .  1  «.«  town  and  country  a  heathen  organization  similar  to 
Maadininiu, SAnrr^ishop  of  Tner^b. at SUly n^r  the  Christian  Church.  The  emperor  made  the  hea- 
Poitien,  d.  there,  29  May,  352  or  12  Sept.,  349.  He  then  high-priests  and  magicians  of  equal  rank  with  the 
was  educated  and  ord^ed  pnest  by  St.  Agntius,  governors  of  provinces.  His  attempt  to  achieve  re- 
whom  he  succeeded  as  Bishop  of  Tner  m  332  or  335.  nown  by  a  war  against  the  Persians  in  Armenia  was 
At  that  time  Trier  was  the  government  seat  of  the  frustrated  by  pestilence  and  bad  harvests  (Eusebius). 
Western  Emperor  and.  by  force  of  his  office,  Maxi-  when  Constantine  and  Licinius  published  the  edict  of 
minus  stood  m  close  relation  with  the  Emperors  Con-  toleration  for  the  Christians  at  Milan  in  312,  and 
stantine  II  and  Constans.  He  was  a  strenuous  de-  Maximinus  was  asked  to  promulgate  it  in  his  part  of 
fender  of  the  orthodox  faith  against  Ananism  and  an  the  empire,  he  did  so,  because  he  saw  clearly  that  it 
intimate  friend  of  St.  Athanasius,  whom  he  harboured  was  directed  against  his  anti-Christian  policy.  When 
as  an  honoured  guest  durm^  his  enle  of  two  years  and  in  the  winter  of  312  Constantine's  Galhc  troops  were 
four  months  (336;-8)  at  Tner.  He  hkewise  received  withdrawn  from  Italy,  and  Licinius  was  still  at  Milan, 
with  honours  the  banished  patriarch  Paul  of  Constan-  Maximinus  pushed  on  by  forced  marches  to  the  capital. 
tinople  in  341  and  effected  his  recall  to  Constantinople.  Byaantium,  and  captured  it  together  with  Heraclea. 
When  four  Ajian  bishops  came  from  Antioch  to  Trier  Licinius,  taken  by  surprise,  offered  to  make  terms  with 
m  342  with  the  purpose  of  wmnmg  Emperor  Constans  him,  which  Maximinus  trusting  to  gain  an  easy  victory 
to  their  side,  Maxinunus  refused  to  receive  them  and  refused.  Contrary  to  his  expectation,  and  in  spite  of 
mduoed  the  emperor  to  reject  their  proposals.  In  con-  the  superiority  m  numbere  of  his  troops,  he  was  de- 
ranction  with  Pope  Juhiw  I  and  Bishop  Hosius  of  Coi^  feated  near  Adrianople,  30  April,  313,  and  fled  precip- 
dova,  he  perauaded  the  Emperor  Constans  to  convene  itately  to  Nicomedia  to  endeavour  to  rally  his  army. 
the  Sjmod  of  Sardica  m  343  and  orobably  took  part  in  Licimus  harassing  him  incessantly,  published  an  edict 
It.  That  the  Anans  considered  hun  as  one  of  theur  of  toleration  for  the  Christians  of  Nicomedia  so  that 
diief  opponents  is  evident  from  the  fact  that  they  con-  Maximinus  was  obliged  to  withdraw  to  the  Taurus 
demned  him  by  name  alone  with  Pope  Julius  1  and  where  he  entrenched  himself  in  the  passes.  He  then 
Hosius  of  Cordova  at  theu-  heretical  synod  of  Phihp-  tried  to  wm  the  Christians  ^  issuing  an  edict  of  tole- 
R^.!?*,?l^L(^*v°^'^'^«®5?'*^9^°®  ^®^,®*«*"^P^-  ration;  but  his  miUtaiy  situation  was  hopeless  and 
9??;.,'™'^,^.^^V  In  345  he  took  part  m  the  Synod  he  took  poison  (313).  Licinius  exterminated  the 
of  Milan  and  is  said  to  have  presided  over  a  synod  held  Jovian  family,  murdering  all  the  relatives  of  Diocletian 
at  Cologne  m  346,  where  Bishop  Euphratas  of  Cologne  who  were  at  the  court  ofMaximin.  The  edicts  of  the 
was  deposed  on  account  of  his  leanings  towards  Arian-  deceased  emperor  were  cancelled,  and  decrees  favour- 
ism.  [Conceming  the  authenticity  of  the  Acts  of  this  able  to  the  Christians  were  now  promul^ted  in  the 
synod  see  the  new  French  translation  of  Hefele's  "  Con-  East. 

oliengBSChichte  ",  I,  ii  (Paris,  1907),  pp.  830-34.]     He  Scbzlubb,  Oeech,  der  rOmieehen  Kaieerzeit.  11  (Qotha.  1887). 

also  sent  Sts.  Castor  and  Lubentius  as  missionaries  to  Karl  Hoeber. 
the  valleys  of  the  Mosel  and  the  Lahn.    It  is  doubtful 

whether  the  Maximinus  whom  the  usurper  Magnen-  MaziiiiinnB  Thraz,  Caius  Julius  Verus,  Roman 

tius  sent  as  leipate  to  Constantinople  in  the  interests  of  Emperor  235-8,  son  of  a  Goth  and  an  Alanic  mother. 

Deace  is  identical  with  the  Bishop  of  Trier  (Athana-  When  the  Emperor  Septimius  Severus  was  returning 


1CAZIM0P0LI8 


78 


MATTMUS 


through  Thrace  in  202,  Maximinus,  a  shepherd  of 
enormous  stature  and  strength,  distinguished  himself 
in  a  contest  with  the  soldiers  by  such  Herculean 
strength  and  bravery  that  the  emperor  enrolled  him 
in  the  Roman  body-guard.  Befusmg  to  serve  imder 
the  worthless  emperors,  Macrinus  and  Heliogabalus, 
he  withdrew  from  the  army;  but  under  the  righteous 
Alexander  Severus  he  was  entrusted  with  the  com- 
mand of  the  newly  raised  Pannonian  troops.  These, 
desiring  a  real  warrior  at  their  head  instead  of  the 
youthful  and  timid  Alexander,  who  was  entirely  sub- 
ject to  his  mother  Julia  Mamaea,  invested  him  with  the 
purple  at  Mainz,  in  March,  235,  at  the  same  time  pro- 
claiminj;  his  son  Maximus  co-regent.  The  adherents 
of  the  &rmer  Syrian  dvnastv  and  of  the  senate  tried 
xmsuccessfully  to  overthrow  nim.  Maximinus  taking 
the  field  with  great  energy  and  persistence  against  the 
Germans  across  the  Rhine,  regamed  the  district  of  the 
Agri  Decumatea  and  then  wa^d  successful  war  against 
the  Sarmatians  and  the  Dacians  on  the  Danube.  As- 
suming the  names  of  Germanicus  and  Sarmaticus,  he 
proceeded  with  sentences  of  death  and  confiscation 
against  the  patrician  Romans,  who  disliked  him  as 
a  wild  and  uncultured  barbarian;  on  the  other  hand 
he  distributed  the  State  revenues  among  the  soldiers 
who  were  devoted  to  him.  He  had  the  bronze  statues 
of  the  gods  and  their  treasures  melted  down  and 
coined;  ne  plundered  cities  and  temples,  and  caused 
so  much  discontent  that  a  rebellion  broke  out  in 
February,  238,  among  the  peasantry  in  Africa.  The 
procurator  and  the  octogenarian  consul  at  Carthage 
were  killed. 

M.  Antonius  Gordianus  and  his  son  of  the  same 
name,  were  made  co-regent  emperors.  The  Roman 
senate  willingly  recognized  them,  because  they  prom- 
ised, like  the  Antonines  in  former  times,  to  govern  ac- 
cording to  its  decisions;  the  people  despising  Maxi- 
minus, who  had  never  once  set  fqot  in  the  capital  of 
the  empire,  aereed  with  the  senate.  Maximinus  was 
outlawed,  ana  his  death  was  rumoured,  but  he  sent 
Gapellianiis,  Procurator  of  Numidia,  against  the  ad- 
herents of  the  Gordiani,  and  in  the  struggle,  the 
younger  Gordian  lost  his  life  whereupon  the  senior 
hanged  himself  in  despair.  Their  reign  had  lasted 
little  more  than  a  montn.  The  senate  now  decided  to 
elect  two  emperors  with  equal  authority,  M.  Clodius 
Pupienus  MaximuS  who  was  to  exercise  the  military 
power  de  facto,  and  Decimus  Cselius  Balbinus  who  was 
to  direct  the  civil  government  in  the  capital.  The 
Romans  dissatisfied  with  this  arrangement,  for  they 
had  expected  great  advantages  from  the  rule  of  the 
African  emperors,  raised  to  the  rank  of  Csesar  the  elder 
Gordian's  twelve  year  old  grandson  (afterwards  Gor- 
dian III),  then  residing  in  Rome.  Severe  street  fight- 
ing occurred  in  Rome  between  the  veterans  of  MeixI- 
mmus  and  the  people.  Owing  to  scanty  commissariat 
Maximinus  could  only  move  his  troops  slowly  from 
Pannonia.  Meanwhile  the  senate  levied  troops,  con- 
structed arsenals,  and  by  creating  twenty  military 
districts,  placed  Italy  in  a  satisfactory  defensive  posi- 
tion. When  Maximinus  arrived  in  Upper  Italy,  he 
could  not  at  once  cross  the  Isonzo  on  account  of  the 
floods  and  his  attacks  on  the  stronghold  of  Aquileia 
were  repulsed.  Under  the  foolish  impression  that  his 
officers  were  the  cause  of  his  misfortunes,  he  had 
several  of  them  executed,  thereby  arousing  discontent 
among  the  soldiers,  especially  in  the  Second  Parthian 
Legion  whose  wives  and  children  were  in  the  power  of 
the  Roman  Senate  at  Albano.  A  mutiny  suddenly 
occurring,  Maximin  and  his  son  were  murdered. 
Pupienus,  who  hastened  thither  from  Ravenna,  re- 
warded the  troops  liberally  and  administered  to  them 
the  oath  of  fidelity  on  behalf  of  the  three  senator  em- 
perors resident  in  Rome. 

MoiocsKN,  Riim%9ehe  Oeachiehte^  V  (Beilin,  1885):  Schiller 
Oetch,  d,  r&m.  Kaiseneii,  vol.  I.  pt.  II  (Qotha,  1883);  Doma- 
SBwaxi,  OemA.  der  rom.  Kaiteneit,  II  (Leipsig,  1909). 

Earl  Hoebeb. 


MazimopollBy  a  titular  see  of  Arabia,  suffragan  of 
Bostra.  The  true  name  of  the  city  is  Maximianopolis, 
and  it  so  appears  in  the  "  Notitia  episcopatuum"  of 
the  Patriarch  Anastasius  in  the  sixth  century  ("  Echos 
d'Orient",  X,  Paris,  1907, 145) .  Pursuant  to  a  decree 
of  the  Propa^nda  (1885),  the  title  is  to  be  suppressed 
in  future;  Torquato  Armellini  having  confounded 
this  town  with  Maximianopolis  in  Palestina  Secunda 
("  Catalogo  dei  vescovati  titolari",  Rome,  1884,  appen- 
dix 8) .  Its  last  titular  was  consecrated  m  1876.  Two 
ancient  bishops  of  this  see  are  known:  Severus,  a  signa- 
tory of  the  Council  of  Chaloedon  in  451  (Mansi,  "Coll. 
Conc.**j  VII,  168),  and  Peter,  known  by  an  inscription 
rWaddmgton,  "Inscriptions  grecques  et  latines  de 
Gr^  et  r Asie-Mineure  ' ,  no.  236 1 ) .  The  name  which 
preceded  that  of  Maximianopolis  is  not  known,  and  we 
are  equally  ignorant  of  its  actual  identification,  though 
many  authorities  place  it  at  Sheikh-Middn,  a  locality 
in  the  Hauran,  famous  for  the  extent  and  beauty  of  its 
ruins,  where  an  inscription  has  been  found  bearing  the 
name  of  Bishop  Thomas  ("  Bulletin  de  corresp.  hell4- 
nique,"  Paris,  1897,  52).  S.  Vailh6. 

MazimnB  of  Oonstantmople,  Saint,  known  as  thb 
Theologian  and  as  Maximus  Confbssor,  b.  at  Con- 
stantinople about  580;  d.  in  exile  13  August,  662.  He 
is  one  of  the  chief  names  in  the  Monothelite  controversy, 
one  of  the  chief  doctors  of  the  theology  of  the  Incarna- 
tion and  of  ascetic  mysticism,  and  remarkable  as  a  wit- 
ness to  the  respect  for  the  papacy  held  by  the  Greek 
Chm'ch  in  his  day.  This  great  man  was  of  a  noble 
family  of  Constantinople.  He  became  first  secretary 
to  the  Emperor  Heraclius,  who  piyed  him  much;  but 
he  (][uitted  the  world  and  gave  himself  up  to  contem- 
plation in  a  monastery  at  Chrysopolis,  opposite  Con- 
stantinople. He  became  abbot  tnerej  but  seems  to 
have  left  this  retreat  on  account  of  its  msecurity  from 
hostile  attacks.  He  speaks  of  the  Palestinian  ascetic, 
St.  Sophronius,  afterwards  Patriarch  of  Jerusalem,  as 
his  master,  father,  and  teacher  (Ep.  13),  so  that  he 
probably  passed  some  time  with  him,  and  he  was  with 
mm  in  Africa  with  other  monks  during  the  prepara- 
tions which  issued  in  the  "watery  union"  by  which 
Cyrus  the  Patriarch  reconciled  a  number  of  Monophy- 
sites  to  the  Church  by  rejecting  the  doctrine  of  ''two 
operations"  in  Christ  (see  Monothelism).  The  first 
action  of  St.  Maximus  that  we  know  of  in  this  affair  is 
a  letter  sent  by  him  to  Pyrrhus,  then  an  abbot  at  Chry- 
sopolis, a  friend  and  supporter  of  Sergius.  Patriarch  of 
Constantinople,  the  patron  of  the  Monotnelite  expre»- 
sion ''  two  operations".  As  the  letter  is  said  to  nave 
entailed  a  long  voyage  on  the  monks  who  carried  it, 
St.  Maximus  was  perhaps  already  in  Africa  when  he 
wrote  it.  Pyrrhus  had  published  a  work  on  the  Incar^ 
nation,  for  which  St.  Maximus  gives  him  rather  ful- 
some praise,  as  an  introduction  to  the  question  (which 
he  puts  with  much  difldence  and  many  excuses)  what 
Pyrrhus  means  by  one  it^pyeta  or  ivipnniiui,  Maxi- 
mus is  clearly  anxious  to  get  him  to  withdraw  or  ex- 
plain the  mistaken  expression,  without  exasperating 
nim  by  contradiction. 

The  Ecthesis  of  Heraclius  was  published  in  638,  and 
Sergius  and  Pope  Honorius  both  died  in  that  year.  A 
letter  of  Maximus  tells  us  on  the  authority  of  his 
friends  at  Constantinople,  that  the  Roman  apocrisiarii 
who  had  come  thither  to  obtain  the  emperor's  oonfii^ 
mation  for  the  newly  elected  Pope  Sevennus,  were  met 
by  the  clergy  of  Constantinople  with  the  demand  that 
they  should  promise  to  obtam  the  pope's  signature  to 
the  Ecthesis,  otherwise  they  should  receive  no  assist- 
ance in  the  matter  for  which  they  had  made  so  long  a 
voyage:  "Having  discovered  the  tenor  of  the  docu- 
ment, since  by  refusing  they  would  have  caused  the 
first  and  Mother  of  Churches,  and  the  city,  to  remain 
so  long  a  time  in  widowhood,  they  replied  quietly:  We 
cannot  act  with  authority  in  this  matter,  for  we  have 
received  a  commission  to  execute,  not  an  order  to 


MAxnnra  7d  mazimus 

fliake  a  profession  of  faith.    But  we  assure  you  that  Ecthesis:  "they  have  not  conformed  to  the  sense  of 

we  will  relate  all  that  you  have  put  forward,  and  we  the  Apostolic  see,  and  what  is  laughable,  or  rather 

will  show  the  document  itself  to  him  who  is  to  be  con-  lamentable,  as  proving  their  ignorance,  the]^  have  not 

aecrated,  and  if  he  should  judge  it  to  be  correct,  we  will  hesitated  to  lie  against  the  Apostolic  see  itself  .  .  . 

stfk  him  to  append  his  signature  to  it.    But  do  not  but  have  claimed  the  great  Honorius  on  their  side. 

therefore  place  any  obstacle  in  our  way  now,  or  do  ...  What  did  the  divine  Honorius  do,  and  after  him 

violence  to  us  by  delaying  us  and  keeping  us  here.  For  the  aged  Severinus,  and  John  who  followed  him?   Yet 

none  has  a  right  to  use  violence  especially  when  faith  further,  what  supplication  has  the  blessed  pope,  who 

is  in  question.    For  herein  even  the  weakest  waxes  now  sits,  not  maae?    Have  not  the  whole  'East  and 

mighty  and  the  meek  becomes  a  warrior,  and  by  com-  West  brought  their  tears,  laments,  obsecrations,  dep- 

f orting  his  soul  with  the  Divine  Wora,  is  hardened  recations,  both  before  God  in  prayer  and  before  men 

against  the  greatest  attack.    How  much  more  in  the  in  their  letters?   If  the  Roman  see  recognizes  Pyrrhus 

of  the  clerpQT  and  Church  of  the  Romans,  which  to  be  not  only  a  reprobate  but  a  heretic,  it  is  certainly 


from  of  old  until  now,  as  the  elder  of  all  the  Gnurches  plain  that  everyone  who  anathematizes  those  who 

under  the  sun,  presides  over  all?    Having  surely  re-  nave  rejected  Pvrrhus,  anathematizes  the  see  of  Rome, 

eeived  this  canonically,  as  well  from  councils  and  the  that  is,  he  anathematizes  the  Catholic  Church.   I  need 

Apostles,  as  from  the  princes  of  the  latter,  and  being  hardly  add  that  he  excommunicates  himself  also,  if 

numbered  in  their  company,  she  is  subject  to  no  writ-  indeed  he  be  in  communion  with  the  Roman  see  and 

ings  or  issues  of  synooical  documents,  on  account  of  the  Church  of  God.  ...  It  is  not  right  that  one  who 

the  eminence  of  her  pontificate,  even  as  in  all  these  has  been  condemned  and  cast  out  by  the  Apostolic  see 

things  all  are  equally  subject  to  her  according  to  sacer-  of  the  city  of  Rome  for  his  wrong  opinions  should  be 

dotal  law.    And  so  when  without  fear  but  with  all  named  with  any  kind  of  honour,  until  he  be  received 

holv  and  becoming  confidence,  those  ministers  of  the  by  her,  having  returned  to  her — ^nay,  to  our  Lord — ^by 

truly  firm  and  immovable  rock,  that  is.  of  the  most  a  pious  confession  and  orthodox  faith,  by  which  he  can 

great  and  Apostolic  Church  at  Rome,  haa  so  replied  to  receive  holiness  and  the  title  of  holy.  .  .  .  Let  him 

the  clergy  of  the  royal  city,  they  were  seen  to  have  con-  hasten  before  all  things  to  satisfy  the  Roman  see,  for 

ciliated  them  and  to  have  acted  prudently,  that  the  if  it  is  satisfied  all  will  agree  in  calling  him  pious  and 

others  might  be  humble  and  modest,  while  they  made  orthodox.    For  he  only  speaks  in  vain  who  thinks  he 

known  the  orthodoxy  and  purity  of  their  own  faith  ought  to  perauade  or  entrap  persons  like  myself,  and 

from  the  beginning.    But  those  oi  Constantinople,  ad-  does  not  satisfy  and  implore  the  blessed  pope  of  the 

miring  their  piety,  thought  that  such  a  deed  ought  to  most  holy  Chimdi  of  the  Romans,  that  is.  tne  Apos- 

be  recompensed;  and  ceasing  from  ur^g  the  docu-  tolic  see,  which  from  the  incarnate  Son  ox  God  Him- 

ment  on  tnem,  they  promised  bv  their  diligence  to  pro-  self,  and  also  by  all  holy  synods,  according  to  the  holy 

cure  the  issue  of  the  emperor  s  order  with  regard  to  canons  and  definitions,  has  received  universal  and 

the  episcopal  election  ...  Of  the  aforesaid  document  supreme  dominion,  authority  and  power  of  binding 

a  copy  has  been  sent  to  me  also.    They  have  explained  and  loosing  over  all  the  holy  Churches  of  God  which  are 

in  it  the  cause  for  being  silent  about  the  natural  opera-  in  the  whole  world ;  for  with  it  the  Word  who  is  above 

tions  in  Christ  our  God^  that  is,  in  His  natures,  of  the  celestial  powers  binds  and  looses  in  heaven  also. 

which  and  in  which  He  is  believed  to  be;  and  how  in  For  if  he  thinks  he  must  satisfy  others,  and  fails  to 

future  neither  one  nor  two  are  to  be  mentioned.    It  is  implore  the  most  blessed  Roman  pope,  he  is  acting  like 

cmly  to  be  allowed  to  confess  that  the  divine  and  hu-  a  man  who,  when  accused  of  munler  or  some  other 

man  (works)  proceeded  from  the  same  Word  of  God  crime,  does  not  hasten  to  prove  his  innocence  to  the 

incarnate,  and  are  to  be  attributed  to  one  and  the  judge  appointed  by  the  law,  but  only  uselessly  and 

same  (person)."  This  passage  does  not  call  the  prohibi-  without  profit  does  his  best  to  demonstrate  his  inno- 

tion  m  "two  operations"  yet  by  the  name  of  heresy,  cence  to  private  individuals,  who  have  no  power  to 

and  does  not  mention  the  "  one  Will  **  confessed  in  the  acquit  him." 

Ecthesis.    But  it  gives  very  clearly  St.  Maximus's  ^rrhus  thought  he  might  regain  his  see  by  the  help 

view  that  the  smallest  point  of  faith  is  to  be  held  at  the  of  the  pope.    He  came  to  Africa,  and  in  July,  645,  a 

risk  of  one's  life,  and  it  demonstrates  the  ample  admis-  public  dii^utation  took  place  between  him  and  Maxi- 

don  made  at  Constantinople,  before  the  struggles  be-  mus,  in  the  presence  of  the  Governor  Gregory  (called 

gan,  of  the  prerogatives  of  Rome.  George  in  the  MSS.  of  St.  Maximus),  who  was  a  friend 

when  in  641  John  IV  wrote  his  defence  of  Pope  and  correspondent  of  the  saint.    The  minutes  are  in- 

Honorius,  it  was  re-echoed  by  St.  Maximus  in  a  letter  teresting.    Pyrrhus  argues  that  two  wills  must  imply 

to  Marinus,  a  priest  of  Cyprus.  He  declares  that  Hono-  two  Persons  willing;  Maximus  replies  that  in  that  case 

rius,  when  he  confessed  one  will  of  our  Lord,  only  there  must  be  three  wills  in  the  Holy  Trinity.    He 

meant  to  deny  that  Christ  had  a  will  of  the  flesh,  of  shows  that  the  will  belongs  to  the  Nature,  and  distin- 

ooncupisoence^  since  he  was  conceived  and  bom  with-  guishes  between  will  as  a  faculty  and  will  as  the  act  of 

out  stain  of  sm.    Maximus  appeals  to  the  witness  of  the  faculty.    Pyrrhus  then  admits  two  wills,  on  ao- 

Abbot  John  Symponus,  who  wrote  the  letter  for  Hono-  count  of  the  two  natures,  but  adds  that  we  should  also 

rius.   Pyrrhus  was  now  Sergius's  successor,  but  on  the  confess  one  will  on  account  of  the  perfect  union, 

accession  of  the  Emperor  Constans  in  642  he  was  Maximus  replies  that  this  would  lead  us  to  confess  one 

exiled.    Maximus  then  sent  a  letter  to  the  patrician  nature  on  account  of  the  perfect  union.   He  then  cites 

Peter,  apparently  the  Governor  of  Syria  and  Palestine,  many  passages  of  Scripture  for  two  wills  and  two  oper- 

who  had  written  to  him  concerning  Pyrrhus,  whom  he  ations.    Pyrrhus  puts  forward  Honorius  and  Vigilius. 

now  calls  simply  abbot.    Pjrrhus  was  in  Palestine.  Maximus  defends  the  former  from  the  charge  of  teach- 

and  Peter  haa  restrained  him  from  putting  f orwara  ing  two  wills,  and  denies  that  the  latter  ever  received 

his  heretical  views.   Pyrrhus  had  declared  that  he  was  the  letter  of  Mcnnas,  the  authenticity  of  which  is 

ready  to  satisfy  Maximus  as  to  his  orthodoxy.    The  assumed.     He  complains  of  the  changeableness  of 

latter  says  he  would  have  written  to  Peter  before,  Sergius.    Lastly  the  famous  "new  theandric  opera- 

"but  I  was  afraid  of  being  thought  to  transgress  the  tion"  of  the  Pseudo-Dionysius  is  discussed,  and  is 

holy  laws,  if  I  were  to  do  this  without  knowing  the  explained  and  defended  by  St.  Bfaximus.    Then  Pyr- 

will  of  the  most  holy  see  of  Apostolic  men.  who  lead  rhus  gives  in,  and  consents  to  go  to  Rome,  where  in 

aright  the  whole  plenitude  of  the  Catholic  Cnurch,  and  fact  he  condemned  his  former  teaching,  and  was  recon- 

rule  it  with  order  according  to  the  divine  law."    The  died  to  the  Church  by  the  pope.    But  the  revolt  of 

new  Ecthesis  is  worse  than  the  old  heresies;  Pyrrhus  Gregory,  who  made  himself  emperor  in  Africa,  but  was 

and  his  predecessor  have  accused  Sophronius  of  error;  defeated  in  647,  brought  Biaximus  into  disfavour  at 

they  persuaded  Heradlus  to  give  nis  name  to  the  court,  and  destroyed  the  hope  of  restoring  Pyrrhus  as 


MAxnnrs 


80 


liAZIHVS 


orthodox  patriarch.  After  the  Ecthesb  had  been  with- 
drawn, and  the  Type,  TOwos,  substituted  by  the  Em- 
peror Constans,  St.  Maximus  was  present  at  the  great 
Lateran  oouncu  held  by  St.  Martin  at  his  instance  in 
649.  He  wrote  from  Kome  (where  he  stayed  some 
years) :  ''The  extremities  of  the  earth,  and  afi  in  everv 
part  of  it  who  purely  and  rightly  confess  the  Lord, 
look  directly  towards  the  most  holy  Roman  Church 
and  its  confession  and  faith,  as  it  were  to  a  sun  c^  un- 
failing light,  awaiting  from  it  the  bright  radiance  of 
the  sacred  aogmas  of  our  Fathers,  according  to  what 
the  six  inspired  and  holy  councils  have  purely  sind 
piously  decreed,  declaring  most  expressly  the  symbol 
of  faitn.  For  from  the  coming  down  of  the  incarnate 
Word  amongst  us,  all  the  Churehes  in  every  part  of  the 
world  have  held  that  greatest  Church  alone  as  their 
base  and  foundation,  seeing  that  according  to  the 
promise  of  Christ  our  Saviour,  the  gates  of  hell  do 
never  prevail  against  it,  that  it  has  the  keys  of  a  right 
oo'^ession  and  faith  in  mm,  that  it  opens  the  true  and 
only  religion  to  such  as  approach  with  piety,  and  shuts 
up  and  locks  every  heretical  mouth  that  speaks  injus- 
tice against  the  Most  High." 

Pope  Martin  was  dragged  from  Rome  in  653,  and 
died  of  ill  treatment  at  Inkerman  in  Mareh^  655.  It 
was  probably  later  in  that  year  that  an  official  named 
Gregory  came  to  Rome  to  get  Pope  Eugene  to  receive 
the  Type.  He  came  to  the  cell  of  St.  Maximus,  who 
argued  with  him  and  denoimced  the  Type.  As  the 
saint  was  recognized  as  the  leader  of  the  orthodox 
Easterns,  he  was  sent  to  Constantinople  at  the  end  of 
655  (not^  as  is  commonly  stat^,  at  tne  same  time  as 
St.  Martm).  He  was  now  seventy-five  years  old.  The 
acts  of  his  trials  have  been  preserved  by  Anastasius 
Bibliothecarius.  He  was  accused  of  conspiring  with 
the  usurper  Gregory,  together  with  Pope  Theodore, 
and  it  was  said  that  he  had  caused  the  loss  to  the 
empire  of  Egypt,  Alexandria,  Pentapolis,  and  Africa. 
He  refused  to  communicate  with  the  See  of  Constanti- 
nople, "  because  the^r  have  cast  out  the  four  holy  coun- 
cils by  the  propositions  made  at  Alexandria,  by  the 
Ecthesis  and  by  the  Type  .  .  .  and  because  the  dog- 
mas which  they  asserted  in  the  propositions  they 
damned  in  the  Ectheos,  and  what  tney  proclaimed  in 
the  Ecthesis  they  annulled  in  the  Type,  and  on  each 
occasion  they  deposed  themselves.  What  mysteries, 
I  ask,  do  they  celebrate,  who  have  condemned  them- 
selves, and  have  been  condemned  by  the  Romans  and 
by  the  (Lateran)  svnod.  and  stripped  of  their  sacer- 
dotal dignity?"  He  disDelieved  the  statement  made 
to  him  that  the  envo^rs  of  the  pope  had  accepted  the 
confession  of  "  two  wills  on  account  of  the  diversity 
and  one  will  on  account  of  the  union  ",  and  pointed  out 
that  the  union  not  being  a  substance  comd  have  no 
will.  He  wrote  on  this  account  to  his  disciple  the 
Abbot  Anastasius,  who  was  able  to  send  a  letter  to 
warn  "the  men  of  elder  Rome  firm  as  a  rock"  of  the 
deceitful  confession  which  the  Patriarch  Peter  was 
despatching  to  the  pope.  On  the  day  of  the  first  trial, 
a  coimcil  of  clergy  was  held,  and  the  emperor  was  per- 
suaded to  send  Maximus  to  Byzia  in  Tnrace,  and  his 
disciples,  Abbot  Anastasius  and  Anastasius  the  papal 
apocrisiarius,  to  Perberis  and  Mesembria. 

They  suffered  greatly  from  cold  and  hunger.  On  24 
September,  656,  Theodosius.  Bishop  of  Csesarea  in 
Bithynia,  visited  Maximus  by  the  emperor's  com- 
mand, accompanied  by  the  consuls,  Theodosius  and 
Paul.  The  saint  conlounded  his  visitors  with  the 
authority  of  the  Fathers,  and  declared  that  he  would 
never  accept  the  Type.  The  bishop  then  replied: 
*'  We  declare  to  you  m  response  that  if  you  will  com- 
municate, our  master  the  emperor  will  annul  the 
Type."  Maximus  answered  that  the  Ecthesis,  though 
tsKiNi  down,  had  not  been  disowned,  and  that  the 
canons  of  the  Lateran  Council  must  be  formally  ac- 
cepted before  he  would  communicate.  The  Byzantine 
bishop  unblushin^y  urged:  "The  synod  ia  invalid, 


since  it  was  held  without  the  Ehnperor's  orders." 
Maximus  retorts: "  If  it  is  not  pious  faith  but  the  order 
of  the  emperor  that  validates  synods,  let  Hiem  accept 
the  synods  that  were  held  against  the  Homoousion  at 
Tyre,  at  Antioch,  at  Seleucia,  and  the  Robber  council 
of  Ephesus."  The  bishop  is  ready  to  consent  to  two 
wills  and  two  operations:  but  St.  Bfaximus  says  he  is 
himself  but  a  monk  and  cannot  receive  his  declaration; 
the  bishop,  and  also  the  emperor,  and  the  patriarch 
and  his  synod,  must  send  a  supplication  to  uie  pope. 
Then  all  arose  with  joy  and  tears,  and  knelt  down  and 
prayed,  and  kissed  the  Gospels  and  the  crucifix  and 
the  image  of  the  Mother  ot  God,  and  all  embraced. 
But  the  consul  doubted:  ''Do  you  think,"  he  said 
"that  the  emperor  will  make  a  supplication  to 
Rome?"  "Yes*',  said  the  abbot,  "if  he  will  humble 
himself  as  God  has  humbled  Himself."    The  bishop 

gave  him  money  and  a  tunic ;  but  the  tunic  was  seized 
y  the  Bishop  of  Byzia.  On  8  September,  the  abbot 
was  honouraoly  sent  to  Rhegium,  and  next  day  two 
patricians  arrived  in  state  with  Bishop  Theodosius, 
and  offered  the  saint  great  honour  if  he  would  accept 
the  Type  and  communicate  with  the  emperor.  Maxi- 
tnus  solemnly  turned  to  the  bishop  and  reminded  him 
of  the  day  of  judgment.  "What  could  I  do  if  the 
emperor  took  another  view?"  whispered  the  misera- 
ble man.  The  abbot  was  struck  and  spat  upon.  The 
patrician  Epiphanius  declared  that  all  now  accepted 
two  wills  and  two  operations,  and  that  the  Type  was 
only  a  comproftiise.  Maximus  reiterated  the  Roman 
view  that  to  forbid  the  use  of  an  expression  was  to 
deny  it.  Next  morning,  19  September,  the  saint  was 
stripped  of  his  money  and  even  of  his  poor  stock  of 
clotnes,  and  was  conveyed  to  Salembria,  and  thence 
to  Perberis  (Perbera). 

Six  years  later,  in  662,  Bfaximus  and  the  two  Ana»- 
tasii  were  brought  to  trial  at  Constantinople.  They 
were  anathematized,  and  with  them  St.  Martin  and 
St.  Sophronius.  The  prefect  was  ordered  to  bc^t 
them,  to  cut  out  their  tongues  and  lop  off  their  right 
hands,  to  exhibit  them  thus  mutilated  in  every  quar- 
ter of  the  city,  and  to  send  them  to  perpetual  exile  and 
imprisonment.  A  long  letter  of  the  Roman  Anastasius 
tells  us  of  their  sufferings  on  the  journey  to  Colchis 
where  they  were  imprisoned  in  different  forts.  He 
tells  us  that  St.  Maximus  foresaw  in  a  vision  the  day 
of  his  death,  and  that  miraculous  lights  appeared 
nightly  at  his  tomb.  The  monk  Anastasius  had  died 
in  the  preceding  month;  the  Roman  lived  on  until 
666. 

Thus  St.  Maximus  died  for  orthodoxy  and  obedience 
to  Rome.  He  has  always  been  considered  one  of  the 
chief  theological  writers  of  the  Greek  Church,  and  has 
obtained  the  honourable  title  of  the  Theologian.  He 
may  be  said  to  complete  and  close  the  series  of  patris- 
tic writines  on  the  Incarnation,  as  they  are  summed  up 
by  St.  John  of  Damascus.  His  style  is  unfortunately 
very  obscure;  but  he  is  accurate  in  his  thought  and 
deeply  learned  in  the  Fathers.  His  exeKetical  works 
explam  Holy  Scripture  allegorically.  We  have  com- 
mentaries on  Psalm  lix,  on  the  Lord's  Prayer,  and 
a  number  of  explanations  of  different  texts.  These  are 
principally  intended  for  the  use  of  monks,  and  deal 
much  with  mystical  theology.  More  professedly  mys- 
tical are  his  "Scholia"  on  Pseudo-Dionjrsius,  his  ex- 
Slanations  of  difficulties  in  Dionysius  and  St.  Gregoipr 
fazianzen  and  his  "  Ambigua"  on  St.  Gregory.  Thia 
last  work  was  translated  into  Latin  by  Sootus  Erigena 
at  the  request  of  Charles  the  Bald.  The  polemical 
writings  include  short  treatises  against  the  Monophy- 
sites,  and  a  more  important  series  aeainst  the  Mono- 
thelites,  beside  which  must  be  placed  the  letters  and 
the  disputation  with  Pyrrhus.  The  numerous  asceticad 
writings  have  always  received  great  honour  in  Eastern 
monasteries.  The  best  known  is  a  beautiful  dialogue 
between  an  abbot  and  a  young  monk  on  the  spiritual 
life;   there  are  also  various  collectiona  of  sefOmlicii 


acAzmus                    81  mazwiu. 

Hhieal  ftnd  devotional,  for  use  in  the  cloister.    The  to  stop,  so  that  the  cleric  could  partake  of  its  milk. 

*  Mystagogia"  is  an  explanation  of  ecclesiastical  spnr  This  legend  accounts  for  the  fact  that  St.  Mazimus  is 

boUsm,  of  importance  for  liturgical  history.    Three  reraesented  in  art  as  pointing  at  a  roe. 

hjrmns  are  preserved,  and  a  chronological  work  (pub-  He  is  Uie  author  of  numerous  discourses,  first  edited 

liahed  in  Petavius's  *'Uranologium",  Faris,  1630,  and  by  Bruni,  and  published  by  order  of  Pius  VI  at  the 

ID  P.  G.,  XIX).    Some  writings  exist  only  in  MS.    St.  Iropaganda  in  1784  (reprinted  in  P.  L.,  LVID.   These 

Ifaxixnus's  literary  labours  had  thus  a  vast  range.   He  discourses,  deliverea  to  the  people  bv  the  saint, 

essentially  a  monk,  a  contemplative,  a  mystic,  consist  of  one  hundred  and  eighteen  nomilies,  one 


thoroughly  at  home  in  the  Platonism  of  Dionysius.  hundred  and  sixteen  sermons,  and  six  treatises  (trcLO" 

But  be  was  also  a  keen  dialectician,  a  scholastic  theo-  UUu8).    Homilies  1-^  are  de  tempore,  i.  e.  on  the  sea- 

logian,  a  controversialist.    His  influence  in  both  lines  sons  of  the  ecclesiastical  ^ear  and  on  the  feasts  of 

has  been  very  great.     His  main  teaching  may  be  Our  Lord;  64-82,  de  Sanctis ,  i.  e.  on  the  saints  whose 

summed  up  under  two  heads,  the  union  of  God  with  feast  was  commemorated  on  the  day  on  which  thev 

humanitv  oy  the  Incarnation,  and  the  union  of  man  were  deUvered;  83-118,  de  diversis,  i.  e.  exegetical, 

with  God  by  the  practice  of  perfection  and  contempla-  dogmatical,  or  moral.    Sermons  1-55  are  de  tempore; 

tion.    St.  Maximus  is  commemorated  in  the  Roman  56-93,  de  sanctie;  93-116,  de  diversia.    Three  oi  the 

Mar^yiokigy  on  13  August,  and  in  the  Greek  Mensea  treatises  are  on  baptism,  one  against  the  Pagans,  and 

on  21  Januaiy  and  12  and  13  August.   His  Greek  office  one  against  the  Jews.    The  last  two  are  extant  only  in 

IB  given  by  (jomb^fis  (P.  G.,  XG,  206).  fragments,  and  their  genuineness  is  doubtful.    The 

A  complete  edition  of  his  works  was  begun  by  the  sixth  treatise,  whose  genuineness  is  also  doubtful, 

Dominican  Comb^fis.   Two  volumes  appeared  (Paris,  contains  short  discourses  on  twenty-three  topics  taken 

1675),  but  the  third  is  wanting    In  the  reprint  b^  from  the  Four  Gospels.    An  appendix  contains  writ- 

Mupe  (P.  G.,  XC-XCI)  there  is  added  the  "  De  Locis  ings  of  uncertain  authorship;  thirty-one  sermons, 

dificHibus  Dionysii  et  Gregorii ",  from  Oehler's  edition  tmee  homilies,  and  two  long  epistles  addressed  to  a 

(HaUe,  1857),  and  the  hymns  from  Daniel  "Thesau-  sick  friend.    Many  writings,  however,  which  Bruni 

ma  Hymnolog."  III.    Anastasius  Bibliothecarius  has  ascribes  to  Maximus  are  of  doubtful  origin.    The  dis- 

preserved  some  letters  and  other  documents  in  Latin  courses  are  usually  very  brief,  and  couched  in  forcible, 

m  his  "Collectanea"  (P.  L.,  CXXIX,  and  Mansi,  X).  though  at  times  over  flowery  language.    Among  the 

The  "Scholia"   on  Dionykius  the   Areopagite  are  many  facts  of  litur^  and  history  touched  on  in  the 

printed  with  the  works  of  the  latter  (P.  G.,  IV).   The  discourses  are:  abstinence  during  Lent  (hom.  44),  no 

aneient  "Vita  et  certamen"  (P.  G.,  AC;  Acta  SS.,  13  fasting  or  kneeling  at  praters  during  paschal  time 

Aug.)  is  not  contemporary  and  cannot  be  trusted.  (hom.  61),  fasting  on  the  Vigil  of  Pentecost  (hom.  62), 

Tbr  IHemture  see  Honorxus  I  and  Monothblism;  Ada  38„  the  synod  of  Biilan  in  389  at  which  Jovinianus  was  con- 

18  Aug.;  Waowmann  akd  Sbbbbbo  in  ReaUneydap.^  (^dth  a  demned  (hom.  9),  the  impending  barbarian  invasion 

^rSS?;^B^ci!'!S2^  *om.  86-92),.the  destruction  of  the  Church  of  miap 

ISnu   Ehrhakd  in  Krumbachbr,  Oeaeh.  der  bytant.  Liu.  by  the  barbarians  (hom.  94),  various  pagan  supersti- 

(Mniueh,  IW);  Wbbbii,  8.  Maanmi  Conf€99oria  pre^pia  dein-  tions  still  prevalent  at  his  time  (hom.  16, 100-02),  the 


MM    •  V^DtifdfffiefioMhominiBi^       I8e9)j  PiujuflsMd    supremacy  of  St.  Peter  (hom.  54,  70,  72,  serm.  114). 

Maxtmi  Conf.de  Deo  Homtnfque  deificattone  dodnnam  adnoU^     ^  ,fV^     jV*'  *  *sw^*  v*w»*x.  %^.,v,  t «,  ^^a^.  aa^^. 

SehnMban.  1894):  IIichaud.  sl  MaximeeirattoeataaiaM    All  his  discourses  manifest  his  sohcitude  for  the  etcp- 


t  (S^meebexs*  1894);  IIichaud,  SL  Maxime  et  Vapocata  tta w 

in  RemaeintemaLde  thiol  {1902),  267,  On  the  authenticity  of  the  nal  Welfare  of  his  flock,  and  in  many  he  fearlessly 

fSn^KSS^^^^S^  ?^<SS:2;fG^£?±'r&  rebukes  ttoainrvivato  of  paganism  an^ 

Lit   (Lapsic»   1807);    Idem,  Fraomente  vomicAniacher  Voter,  thoaox  faith  against  the  inroadS  Of  heresy. 

Aid.  (1889);  Kwi»w*»n  in  ByaanL  Zeitachr,  (1901),  394.  Fbbbxbi,  S.  Maeeimo.  veaoovo  di  Torino  e  %  suoi  tempi  (3rd  ed., 

John  Chapman  Turin,  1868);  Savio,  01%  antieki  veecovi  d* Italia  (Turin.  1899). 

JUHN  KjOJLFMAH.  283-294;  FiBBLER-JraoiiANN.  Inetittdionee Patrolooia,  it  (Inni 

bruck,  1892),  ii,  258-76;   Abolbs  in  Diet,  Chriet.  Biog.,  a.  v. 

Mudmiia  of  Toxin,  Saint,  Bishop  and  theological  ¥°^*^i}^^*  BABDwirawBR,  Patrologu,  tr.  Shahan  (St. 

writer,  b.  probably  in  Rhaetia,  about  380;  d.  shortly  *^^  ^^^'  ^^'^                                Michael  Oft 

after  465.    Only  two  dates  are  historically  established  jiuchael  urr. 

in  his  life.    In  451  he  was  at  the  synod  of  Milan  where  Maxwell,  Wiluah,  fifth  Earl  of  Nithsdale  (Lord 

the  bishops  of  Northern  Italy  accepted  the  celebrated  Nithsdale  si^ed  as  Nithsdaill)  and  fourteenth  Lord 


letter  (epietola  dogmaiica)  of  Leo  I,  setting  forth  the 
orthodox  doctrine  of  the  incarnation  against  the  Nes- 


Maxwell,  b.  in  1676;  d.  at  Rome,  2  March,  1744.    He 

succeeded  his  father  at  the  early  age  of  seven.  .  BGs 

torians  and   Eutychians    (Mansi, ''SS.   Cone.  (3oll.  mother,  a  daughter  of  the  House  of  Douglas,  a  clever 

Ampl.",  VI,  143).    Among  nineteen  subscribers  Maxi-  enexgetic  woman,  educated  him  in  sentiments  of  devo- 

muB  is  the  ei^th,  and  since  the  order  was  determined  tion  to  the  Catholic  faith  and  of  loyalty  to  the  House 

by  age,  Mazimus  must  then  have  been  about  seventy  of  Stuart,  for  which  his  family  was  famous.    When  he 

Tears  old.    The  second  established  date  is  465,  when  was  about  twentv-three,  Lord  Nithsdale  visited  the 

he  was  at  the  Synod  of  Rome.     (Mansi,  VII,  959,  965  French  Court  to  do  homage  to  Kins  James,  and  there 

sq.)    Here  the  subscription  of  Mazimus  follows  imme-  met  and  wooed  Lady  Winifred  Herbert,  ^roungest 

mately  after  the  pope'is,  showing  he  was  the  oldest  of  daughter  of  William,  first  Marauis  of  Powis.    The 

the  forty-eight  bishops  present.    The  approximate  marriage  contract  is  dated  2  Marcn,  1699.    The  young 

time  ana  place  of  his  birth  may  be  surmised  from  a  couple  resided  chiefly  at  Terregles,  in  Dumfriesshire, 

passage  in  Sermo  81  (P.  L.,  LVII,  695),  where  he  desig-  ana  here  probablv  their  five  children  were  bom.    Un- 

iiates  himself  aa  a  witness  of  the  martyrdom  of  thr^  til  1715  no  special  event  marked  their  lives,  but  in  that 

missionaiy  priests  in  397  at  Anaunja  m  the  Rhaetian  year  Lord  Nithsdale's  principles  led  him  to  join  the 

Alps.    History  does  not  mention  him  after  465.    He  rising  in  favour  of  Prince  James  Stuart,  and  he  shared 

IB  the  first  known  bishop  of  Turin,  then  a  suffragan  see  in  the  disasters  which  attended  the  royal  cause,  being 

of  Milan.    His  successor  was  St.  Victor.    His  name  is  taken  prisoner  at  Preston  and  sent  to  the  Tower.    In 

in  the  Roman  martyrology  on  25  June,  and  the  city  of  deep  anxiety  Lady  Nithsdale  hastened  to  London  and 

Turin  honours  him  as  its  patron.    A  life  which,  how-  there  made  every  effort  on  behalf  of  her  husband,  in- 

ever,  is  entirely  unreliable,  was  written  after  the  elev-  eluding  a  personal  appeal  to  George  I,  but  no  sort  of 

enth  century,  and  is  printed  in  "  Acta  SS.",  June,  VII,  hope  was  neld  out  to  her.    She,  therefore,  with  true 

3rd  ed.,  44-46.    It  states  that  a  cleric  one  day  fol-  heroism,  planned  and  carried  out  his  escape  on  the  eve 

lowed  lum  with  an  evil  intention  to  a  retired  chapel,  of  Uie  aay  fixed  for  his  execution.    Lord  Nithsdale 

where  the  saint  was  wont  to  pray.    The  cleric  sud-  had  prepared  himself  for  death  like  a  good  Catholic 

den^  became  so  thirstv  that  he  implored  Maximus  for  and  yoysl  servant  of  his  king,  as  his  "  D^n^  Speech" 

help.     A  roe  happened  to  pass  which  the  saint  caused  and  farewell  letter  to  his  family  attest.    After  his  es* 


MAXWELL                             82  M4TA 

oape  he  fled  in  disguise  to  France.    He  and  Lady  to  be  siznpljr  the  sun-god  common  to  the  whole  Ifayfts 

Nithsdale  spent  their  last  years  in  great  poverty,  in  stock.    He  is  represented  as  having  led  the  first  mignb- 

Rome,  in  attendance  on  their  exiled  king.  tion  from  the  Far  East,  beyond  the  ocean,  along  s 

M.  M.  Maxwell  Scott.  pathway  miraculously  oi>ened  through  the  waters. 

The  second  migration,  which  seems  to  have  been  hi»- 

Maxwell,  Winifred,  Countess  of  Nithsdale,  d.  at  tone,  was  led  from  the  west  by  Kukulcan,  a  miraeu- 
Rome,  May,  1749.  She  was  the  daughter  of  William,  '  lous  priest  and  teacher,  who  became  the  founder  of  the 
first  Marquis  of  Powis,  who  followed  James  II  into  ex-  Maya  kingdom  and  civilization.  Fairly  ^ood  author-' 
tie.  She  is  famous  in  history  for  the  heroic  deliver-  ity.  based  upon  study  of  the  Maya  chromdes  and  cal- 
ance  of  her  husband  from  the  Tower  on  23  Feb.,  1716.  endar,  places  this  beginning  near  the  dose  of  the  seo- 
Her  married  life  was  passed  chiefly  at  the  family  seat  ond  centuiy  of  the  Christian  Era.  Under  Kukulcan 
of  Terregles,  and  here  she  received  the  fatal  news  of  the  people  were  divided  into  four  tribes,  ruled  by  as 
her  husband's  defeat  at  Preston.  After  concealing  many  kmgly  families:  the  Cocom,  Tutul-xiu,  Itzd,  and 
the  family  papers  in  a  spot  still  pointed  out,  she  hast-  Chel^.  To  the  first  family  belonged  Kukulcan  him- 
ened  to  London  to  intercede  for  her  husband,  having  self,  who  established  his  residence  at  Mayapan,  which 
Uttle  hope  however,  for,  to  use  her  own  words:  "A  thus  became  the  capital  of  the  whole  nation.  The 
Catholic  upon  the  borders  and  one  who  had  a  great  fol-  Tutul-xiu  held  vassal  rule  at  Uxmal,  the  Itsi  at  Chi- 
lowing  ana  whose  family  had  ever  upon  all  occasions  chen-Itzd.  and  the  Chel^  at  Izamal.  To  the  Chel^  was 
stuck  to  the  royal  family,  could  not  look  for  mercy",  appointea  the  hereditar^r  high  priesthood,  and  their 
And  so  it  proved;  even  her  personal  appeal  to  George  I  city  became  the  sacred  dty  oi  the  Maya.  Each  pro- 
was  disregarded,  and  Lord  Nithsdale  was  to  owe  his  vincial  king  was  obligeKi  to  spend  a  part  of  each  year 
safety  to  her  alone.  With  great  courage  and  ingenu-  with  the  monarch  at  Mayapan.  This  condition  con- 
ity  she  contrived  his  escape  from  the  Tower  in  female  tinued  down  to  about  the  eleventh  century,  when,  as 
dress — on  the  eve  of  the  day  appointed  for  his  execu-  the  result  of  a  successful  revolt  of  the  provmcial  kingsL 
tion,  according  to  Lady  Cowper  s  **  Diarv,''  Ist  ed.,  p.  Mayapan  was  destroyed,  and  the  supreme  rule  pasaea 
85,  a  reprieve  was  signed  for  Lord  Nithsdale  on  the  to  the  Tutul-xiu  at  Uxmal.  Later  on  Mayapan  was 
very  night  of  his  escape — and  after  concealing  him  in  rebuilt  and  was  again  the  capital  of  the  nation  until 
London  and  arranging  for  his  journey  to  France,  this  about  the  middle  of  the  fifteenth  century,  when,  in 
heroic  lady  returned  again  to  Scotland  to  secure  the  consequence  of  a  general  revolt  against  the  reigning 
family  papers  which  she  knew  would  be  of  vital  im-  dynasty^  it  was  finally  destroyed,  and  the  monarchy 
portance  to  her  son.  In  fact  her  zeal  made  Lady  was  spht  up  into  a  number  of  independent  petty 
Nithsdale's  position  a  hazardous  one,  and  Kins  George  states,  of  which  eighteen  existed  on  the  peninsula  at 
declared  she  had  done  him  "  more  mischief  than  any  the  arrival  of  the  Spaniards.  In  consequence  of  this 
woman  in  Christendom".  As  soon  as  she  was  able  dvil  war  a  part  of  the  Itzi  emigrated  south  to  Lake 
she  joined  Lord  Nithsdale  abroad  and  they  spent  their  Petdn,  in  Guatemala,  where  they  establislrad  a  Idng- 
long  exile  in  Rome,  where  she  survived  her  husband  dom  with  their  capital  and  sacred  dty  on  Flores 
for  about  five  years.    The  autograph  letter  in  which  Island,  in  the  lake. 

Lady  Nithsdale  gives  the  account  ot  her  husband's  es-  On  nis  second  voyage  Columbus  heard  of  Yucatan 

cape,  and  the  brown  cloak  worn  bv  him  on  the  occa-  as  a  distant  ooimtry  of  clothed  men.    On  his  fifth  voy- 

sion,  are  now  in  possession  of  the  Duchess  of  Norfolk,  age  (1503-04)  he  encountered,  south-west  of  Cuba,  a 

who  represents  tne  Nithsdales  in  the  female  line.  canoe-load  of  Indians  with  cotton  clothing  for  barter, 

Frasbr,  BookofCaerkireraehJlLd^          1873);  Paul.  The  who  said  that  they  came  from  the  countnr  of  Maya. 

SeoU  Peerage  (Edinbunsh,  1909).   VI;  Maxwell  Scott,  The  t„  t  e^ft  Pinvnn  oiAf^  tha  fviAAf   atiH  in  1^11  ftvontv 

Making  of  AbboUford  and  Incidents  in  SeoUieh  History  (London.  ^^  l&UO  ±Tnzon  Sl^ntea  tne  COast.  ana  in  Ibll  twenty 

1897).                                  M.  M.  Maxwell  Scott.  men  xmder  Valdivia  were  wrecked  on  the  shores  of  the 

sacred  island  of  CozumeL  several  being  captured  and 

Maya  Tndianfl,  the  most  important  of  the  cul-  sacrificed  to  the  idols.  In  1517  an  expedition  under 
tured  native  peoples  of  North  America,  both  in  the  Francisco  de  Cordova  landed  on  the  north  coast.,  dia- 
degree  of  their  civilization  and  in  population  and  re-  covering  well-built  dties^  but,  after  several  bloody  en* 
sources,  formerly  occupying  a  temtory  of  about  60,-  fi&gements  with  the  natives,  was  compelled  to  retire. 
000  square  miles,  including  the  whole  of  the  peninsula  Father  Alonso  Gonzalez,  who  accompanied  this  expe- 
of  Yucatan,  Southern  Mexico,  together  with  the  adja-  dition,  found  opportunity  at  one  landing  to  explore  a 
cent  portion  of  Northern  Guatemala,  and  still  consti-  temple,  and  bnng  off  some  of  the  sacred  images  and 
tuting  the  principal  population  of  the  same  region  gola  ornaments.  In  1518  a  strong  expedition  imder 
outside  of  the  larger  cities.  Their  language,  which  is  Juan  de  Grijalva,  from  Cuba,  landed  near  Cozumei 
actually  supplanting  Spanish  to  a  great  extent,  is  still  and  took  formal  possession  for  Spain.  For  Father 
spoken  by  aoout  300,000  persons,  of  whom  two-thirds  Juan  Diaz,  who  on  this  occasion  celebrated  Biass  upon 
are  pure  Maya,  the  remainder  being  whites  and  of  mixed  the  summit  of  one  of  the  heathen  temples,  the  honour 
blood.  The  Mayan  linguistic  stock  includes  some  is  also  claimed  of  having  afterwards  been  the  first  to 
twenty  tribes,  speaking  closely  related  dialects,  and  celebrate  Biass  in  the  City  of  Mexico.  Near  Cozumei, 
(excepting  the  Huastec  of  northern  Vera  Cruz  and  also,  was  rescued  the  ^oimg  monk  Aguilar,  one  of  the 
south-east  San  Luis  Potosf ,  Mexico)  occupying  contigu-  two  survivors  of  Valdivia's  party,  who,  though  naked 
ous  territory  in  Tabasco,  Chiapas,  and  the  Yucatan  to  the  breech-cloth,  still  carried  his  Breviary  in  a 
pNeninsula,  a  large  part  of  Guatemala,  and  smaller  por-  pouch.  Proceeding  northwards.  Grijaba  made  the  en- 
tions  of  Honduras  and  Salvador.  The  andent  build-  tire  circuit  of  the  peninsula  before  returning,  having 
ers  of  the  ruined  dties  of  Palenque  and  Copdn  were  of  had  another  desperate  engagement  with  tne  Majra 
the  same  stock.  The  most  important  tnbes  or  na-  near  Campeche.  After  the  conquest  of  Mexico,  in 
tions.  after  the  Maya  proper,  were  the  Quiche  and  1521,  Francisco  de  Montejo,  imder  commission  as 
Cakcniquel  of  Guatemala.  All  the  tribes  of  this  stock  Governor  of  Yucatan,  landed  (1527)  to  efiect  the  con- 
were  of  high  culture,  the  Mayan  dvilization  being  the  quest  of  tl^  coimtry,  but  met  with  such  desperate  re- 
most  advanced,  and  probably  the  most  andent,  in  sistance  that  after  eight  y^rs  of  incessant  fighting 
aboriginal  North  America.  They  still  number  alto-  every  Spaniard  had  been  driven  out.  In  1540,  after 
gether  about  two  million  souls.  two  more  years  of  the  same  desperate  warfare,  his  son 

I.  History. — The  Maya  proper  seem  to  have  en-  Francisco  established  the  first  Spanish  settlement  at 

tered  Yucatan  from  the  west.    As  usual  with  andent  Campeche.    In  the  next  year,  in  a  bloodv  battle  at 

nations,  it  b  difficult  in  the  beginning  to  separate  Tihoo,  he  completely  broke  the  power  of  Maya  resist- 

myth  from  history,  their  earliest  mentioned  leader  and  anoe,  and  a  few  months  later  (Jan.,  1542)  founded  OD 

ieified  hero,  Itzamnd,  being  considered  by  Brinton  the  site  of  the  ruined  dty  the  new  capital,  M6rida.   In 


BUTA  1 

1546,  however,  there  was  a  general  revolt,  and  it  was 
Dot  until  a  year  later  that  the  conquest  was  asaured. 

In  the  ori^aal  commission  to  Hontejo  it  hod  been 
expivssly  stipulated  that  miagionariee  should  accom- 
pauy  all  hia  expeditions.    This,  however,  he  had  neg- 
lected to  attend  to,  and  in  1531  (or  1534),  by  special 
order.  Father  Jacobo  de  Testera  and  four  others  were 
sent  tojoin  the  Spanish  camp  near  Campecbe.    They 
met  a  kiodly  welcome  from  the  Indians,  who  came 
with  their  children  to  be  instructed,  and  thus  the  con- 
quest of  the  country  might  have  been  effected  through 
q>iritual  agencies  but  for  the  outrages  committed  by  a 
band  of  Spanish  outlaws^  in  consequence  of  which  the 
piiesta  were  forced  to  withdraw.     la  1537  five  more 
miaaionariea  arrived  and  met  the  same  willing  recep- 
tion, remaining  about  two  years  in  spite  of  the  war 
■till  in  progress.     About  1545  a  large  number  of  mis- 
sioDariea  were  seat  over  from  Spain.    Several  of  these 
— apparently  nine,  all  Franciscans — under  the  direc- 
tion of  Father  Luis  de  Vil- 
lalpando,    were   assigned   to 
Yucatan.     Landing  at  Cam- 
peche,   the   governor  ex- 
plained their  purpose  to  the 
chiefs,    the    convent    of   St. 
Francis  was  dedicated  on  ita 
present  site,  and  translations 
were  begun  into  the  native 
language.  The  first  baptized 
convert  was  the  chief  of  Cam- 
pecbe, who  learned  Spanish 
and  thereafter  acted  as  inter- 
pieter  for  the  priests. 

Here,  as  elsewhere,  the 
nuBsicMUiries  were  the  cham- 
piona  ol  the  rights  of  the  In- 
dians. In  consequence  of 
their  repeated  protests  a  royal 
edict  was  issued,  in  1549,  pro- 
hibiting Indian  slavery  m  the 
province,  while  promising 
oompensation  to  the  alave- 
ownera.  As  in  other  cases, 
local  opposition  defeated  the 
purpose  of  this  law;  but  the 
agitation  went  on^  and  in  1551 
another  royal  edict  liberated 
150  000  male  Indian  slaves, 
witn  their  families,  through- 
out Mexico.  lnl557andl55S 

the  Crown  intervened  to  re-  Bculpto— -  "■ — — 

strain  the  tyrannv  of  the  na-  M&yt  t 

tive  chiefs.  Within  a  very 
short  time  Father  Villalpando  had  at  hia  mission  station 
atH^d  I  over  a  thousand  converts,  including  several 
chiefs.  He  himself,  with  Father  Malchior  de  Bena- 
vente,  then  set  out,  barefoot,  for  the  city  of  ManI,  in 
the  mountains  fartner  south,  where  their  success  was 
■o  great  that  two  thousand  converU  were  soon  en- 
gaged in  building  them  a  church  and  dwelling.  All 
went  well  until  they  began  to  plead  with  the  chiefs  to 
release  their  vassals  from  certain  hard  conditions, 
when  the  chiefs  resolved  to  bum  them  at  the  altar. 
On  the  appointed  night  the  chiefs  and  their  retainers 
approached  the  church  with  this  design,  but  were 
ftwed  from  their  purpose  on  finding  the  two  priests, 
who  had  been  warned  by  an  Indian  boy,  calmiy  pray- 
ing before  the  crucifix.  After  remainmg  all  night  m 
prayer,  the  fathers  were  fortunately  reacued  by  a 
BiMUUsh  detachment  which,  almost  miraculously, 
ebanced  to  pass  that  way.     Twenty-seven  of  the  con- 

r'  aton  were  afterwards  seized  and  condemned  to 
th,  but  were  all  saved  bv  the  interposition  of  Vil- 
lalpando. In  1548--49  otner  missionaries  arrived 
fnxn  Spain,  Villalpando  was  made  custodian  of  the 
province,  and  a  convent  was  erected  near  the  site  of 
tail  chapel  at  Manf.    The  yucatan  field  having  been 


assigned  to  the  Franciscans,  all  the  missionaiy  work 
among  the  Maya  was  done  by  priests  of  that  order. 
In  1561  Yucatan  was  made  a  diocese  with  it 


79),  becoming  aware  that  the  natives  througno 

peninsula  still  secretly  cherished  their  ancient  rites, 
mstituted  an  investigation,  which  he  conducted  with 
such  cruelties  of  torture  and  death  that  the  proceed- 
ings were  stopped  by  order  of  Bishop  Toral,  Francis- 
can provincial  of  Mexico,  inunediately  upon  his  arri- 
val, during  the  same  summer,  to  occupy  the  See  of 
M^rida.  Before  this  could  be  done,  however,  there 
had  been  destroyed,  as  is  asserted,  two  milUon  sacred 
images  and  hundreds  of  hieroglyphic  manuscripts — 
practically  the  whole  of  the  voluminous  native  Mava 
literature.  As  late  as  1586  a  royal  edict  was  issued  for 
the  suppression  of  idolatiy.  In  1575-77,  a  terrible 
visitation  of  a  mysterious  disease,  called  maUaltahiiiUl, 
which  attacked  only  the  In- 
dians, swept  over  Southern 
Mexico  andYuca  tan,  destroy- 
ing, as  was  estimated,  over 
two  million  lives.  This  was 
its  fourth  appearance  since 
the  conquest.  At  its  close  it 
was  estimated  that  the  whole 
Indian  population  of  Mexico 
had  been  reduced  to  about 
1,700,000  souls.  In  1583  and 
1597  there  were  local  revolts 
under  chiefs  o(  the  ancient 
Cocom  royal  family.  By  this 
latter  date  it  was  estimated 
that  the  native  population  of 
Mexico  had  dechned  by  three- 
fourths  since  the  discovery, 
through  massacre,  famine, 
disease,  and  oppression.  Up 
to  1593  over  150  Franciscan 
monks  had  been  engaged  in 
missionary  work  in  Yucatan. 
The  Maya  fiistory  of  the 
seventeentn  century  is  chiefly 
one  of  revolts,  vis.,  1610-33, 
1636-14,  1653,  1669.  1670, 
and  about  1675.  Of  all  these, 
that  of  1636-44  was  the  most 
extensive  and  serious,  result- 
ing in  a  temporary  revival 
of  the  old  heathen  rites.  In 
1697  the  island  capital  of  the 
ItsA,  in  Lake  Fet^n,  Guate- 
mala, was  stormed  by  Governor  Martfn  de  Ursua, 
arkd  with  it  fell  the  last  stronghold  of  the  indepen- 
dent Maya.  Here,  also,  the  manuscripts  discov- 
ered were  deatroyed.  In  1728  Bishop  Juan  Gomes 
Farada  died,  beloved  by  the  Indians  for  the  laws 
which  he  had  procured  mitigating  the  harahness  of 
their  servitude.  The  reimpoeition  of  the  former  hard 
conditions  brought  about  another  revolt  in  1761,  led 
by  the  chief  Jacinto  Canek,  and  ending,  as  usual,  in 
the  defeat  of  the  Indiana,  the  destruction  of  their  chief 
stronghold,  and  the  death  of  their  leader  under  horri- 
ble torture. 

In  1847^  taking  advantage  of  the  Government's  dif- 
ficulties with  the  United  States,  and  urged  on  by  their 
"unappeasable  hatred  toward  tlieir  rulers  from  the 
earliest  time  of  the  Spanish  conquest ",  the  Maya  again 
broke  out  in  general  rebelUon,  with  the  declared  pur- 
pose of  driving  all  the  whites,  half-breeds  and  negroes 
Irom  the  peninsula,  in  which  they  were  so  far  success- 
ful that  all  the  fugitives  who  escaped  the  wholesale 
massacres  fled  to  the  coast,  whence  most  of  them  were 
taken  off  by  ships  from  Cuba.  Arms  and  ammunition 
for  the  riaing  were  freely  supplied  to  the  Indians  by 
the  British  traders  of  Beliie.    In  1851  the  rebel  Ha;» 


If  in  Britiah  Muuutn 


M4TA 


84 


M4TA 


Mtablished  their  headquarters  at  Chan-Santa-Crus  in 
the  eastern  part  of  the  peninsula.  In  1853  it  seemed 
as  if  a  temporary  understanding  had  been  reached,  but 
next  year  hostilities  beean  again.  Two  expeditions 
agaiost  the  Maya  stronghold  were  repulsed,  Valladolid 
was  besieged  by  the  Indians,  Yecax  taken,  and  more 
than  two  thousand  whites  massacred.  In  1860  the 
Mexican  Colonel  Ao^reto,  with  3,000  men,  occupied 
Ghan-Santa-Crus,  but  was  finally  compelled  to  retire 
with  the  loss  of  1,500  men  killed,  and  to  abandon  his 
wounded — ^who  were  all  butchered-7-as  well  as  his 
artillery  and  suppUes  and  all  but  a  few  hundred  stand 
of  small  arms.  The  Indians  burned  and  ravaged  in 
every  direction,  nineteen  flourishing  towns  being  en- 
tirely wiped  out,  and  the  population  in  three  districts 
bein^  reduced  from  97,000  to  35,000.  The  war  of  ex- 
termmation  continued,  with  savage  atrocities,  through 
1864,  when  it  gradually  wore  itself  out,  leaving  the 
Indians  still  unsubdued  and  well  supplied  with  arms 
and  munitions  of  war  from  Belise.  In  1868  it  broke 
out  again  in  resistance  to  the  Juares  government.  In 
1871  a  Mexican  force  again  occupied  Cnan-Santa-Crus, 
but  retired  without  producing  any  permanent  result. 
In  1901,  after  long  preparation,  a  strong  Mexican 
force  invaded  the  territory  of  the  independent  Maya 
both  by  land  and  sea,  stormed  Chan-Santa-Crus  and, 
after  determined  resistance,  drove  the  defenders  into 
the  swamps.  The  end  is  not  3ret,  however,  for.  even  in 
this  year  of  1910^  Mexican  troops  are  in  the  field  to  put 
down  a  serious  rising  in  the  northern  part  of  the  penin- 
sula. 

II.  Institdtions,  Abtb,  and  Literatube. — ^Under 
the  ancient  system,  the  Maya  Government  was  an 
hereditary  absolute  monarchy,  with  a  close  union  of 
the  spiritual  and  temporal  elements,  the  hereditary 
high  priest,  who  was  also  king  of  the  sacred  dty  of 
Isamal,  being  consulted  by  the  monarch  on  all  impor- 
tant matters,  besides  having  the  care  of  ritual  and 
ceremonials.  On  public  occasions  the  king  appeared 
dressed  in  flowing  white  robes,  decorated  witn  gold 
and  precious  stones^  wearing  on  his  head  a  golden 
circlet  decorated  with  the  beautiful  quetzal  plumes 
reserved  for  Tbydlty,  and  borne  upon  a  canopied  palsin- 
quin.  The  provincial  governors  were  nobles  of  the 
four  royal  families,  and  were  supreme  within  their  own 
governments.  The  rulers  of  towns  and  villages  formed 
a  lower  order  of  nobility,  not  of  royal  blood.  The  king 
usually  acted  on  the  advice  of  a  council  of  lords  and 
priests.  The  lords  alone  were  military  commanders, 
and  each  lord  and  inferior  official  had  for  his  support 
the  produce  of  a  certain  portion  of  land  which  was 
cultivated  in  common  by  tne  people.  They  received 
no  salary,  and  each  was  responsible  for  the  mainte- 
nance of  tne  poor  and  helpless  of  his  district.  The  lower 
priesthood  was  not  hereditary,  but  was  appointed 
through  the  high  priest.  There  was  also  a  female 
priesthood,  or  vestal  order,  whose  head  was  a  princess 
of  royal  blood.  The  plebeians  were  farmers,  artisans, 
or  merchants;  they  paid  taxes  and  militaiy  service, 
and  each  had  his  interest  in  the  common  land  as  well 
as  his  individual  portion^  which  descended  in  the  fam- 
ily and  could  not  be  ahenated.  Slaves  also  existed, 
the  slaves  being  chiefly  prisoners  of  war  and  their  cdiil- 
dren,  the  latter  of  whom  could  become  freemen  by 
puttmg  a  new  piece  of  unoccupied  groimd  under  culti- 
vation. Society  was  organised  upon  the  dan  i^stem, 
with  descent  in  the  inale  line,  the  chiefs  being  rather 
custodians  for  the  tribe  than  owners,  and  having  no 
power  to  alienate  the  tribal  lands.  Game,  fish,  and  the 
salt  marshes  were  free  to  all,  with  a  certain  portion  to 
the  lords.  Taxes  were  paid  in  kind  through  authorised 
•collectors.  On  the  death  of  the  owner,  the  property 
was  divided  e<iually  among  his  nearest  male  neirs. 

The  more  important  cases  were  tried  by  a  royal 
council  presided  over  by  the  king,  and  lesser  cases  by 
the  provincial  rulers  or  local  judges,  according  to  their 
importance,  usually  with  the  assistance  of  a  council  and 


with  an  advocate  for  the  defence.  Crimes  were  pun* 
ished  with  death — frequently  by  throwing  over  a 
predpioe— enslavement,  fines,  or,  rarely,  by  imprison- 
ment. The  code  was  merciful,  and  even  murder  could 
sometimes  be  compounded  by  a  fine.  Children  were 
subject  to  parents  imtil  of  an  age  to  many,  which  for 
boys  was  about  twenty.  The  children  of  the  oommon 
people  were  trained  only  in  tiie  occupation  of  their 
parents,  but  those  of  the  nobility  were  highly  edu- 
cated, under  the  care  of  the  priests,  in  writing,  musie, 
history,  war,  and  religion.  The  daughters  m  noblee 
were  strictly  secluded,  and  the  older  boys  in  each  vil- 
lage lived  and  slept  apart  in  a  public  building.  Birth- 
days and  other  anmversaries  were  the  occasions  of 
family  feasts. 

^  Marriage  between  persons  of  the  same  gens  was  for- 
bidden, and  those  who  violated  this  law  were  regarded 
as  outcasts.  Marriage  within  certain  other  degrees  of 
relationship— as  with  the  sister  of  a  deceased  wife,  or 
with  a  mother's  sister — was  also  prohibited.  Polyg- 
amy was  unknown,  but  concubinage  was  permitted, 
and  divorce  was  easy.  Marriages  were  peitormed  by 
the  priests,  with  much  ceremonial  rejoicing,  and  pre- 
ceded by  a  solemn  confession  and  a  baptismal  rite, 
known  as  the  "  rebirth  ",  without  which  there  could  be 
no  marriage.  No  one  could  many  out  of  his  own  rank 
or  without  the  consent  of  the  chief  of  the  district. 
Religious  ritual  was  elaborate  and  imposing,  with  fre- 
quent festival  occasions  in  honour  of  the  gods  of  the 
winds,  the  rain,  the  cardinal  points,  the  harvest,  of 
birth,  death,  and  war,  with  epecial  honours  to  the 
deified  national  heroes  Itsamna  and  Kukulcan.  The 
whole  country  was  dotted  with  temples,  usually  great 
stone-built  pyramids,  while  certam  places — as  the 
sacred  dty  of  Izamal  and  the  island  of  Cosumel — ^were 
places  of  pilgrimage.  There  was  a  special "  feast  of  all 
the  gods^.  The  prevailing  mildness  of  the  Maya  cult 
was  in  strong  contrast  to  the  bloody  ritual  of  the 
Aztec.  Human  sacrifice  was  forbidden  by  Kukulcan, 
and  crept  in  only  in  later  years.  It  was  never  a  fre- 
quent or  prominent  feature,  excepting  at  Chichen^ 
Itzd,  where  it  at  least  became  customary,  on  occasion 
of  some  great  national  crisis,  to  sacrifice  hundreds  of 
voluntary  victims  of  their  own  race,  frequently  virgins, 
by  drowning  them  in  one  of  the  subterranean  rock 
wells  or  cenotes,  after  which  the  bodies  were  drawn  out 
and  buried. 

The  Maya  farmer  cultivated  com,  beans,  ca<M, 
chile,  maguey,  bananas,  and  cotton^  besides  giving 
attention  to  bees,  from  which  he  obtamed  both  honey 
and  wax.  Various  fermented  drinks  were  prepaied 
from  com,  maguey,  and  honey.  They  were  much 
given  to  drunkexmess,  which  was  so  common  as  hardly 
to  be  considered  disgraceful.  Chocolate  was  the 
favourite  drink  of  the  upper  classes.  Cacao  beans,  as 
well  as  pieces  of  copper,  were  a  common  medium  of 
exchange.  Very  little  meat  was  eaten,  except  at  cere- 
monial feasts,  although  the  Maya  were  expert  hunters 
and  fishers.  A  small  "barkless"  dog  was  also  eaten. 
The  ordinary  garment  of  men  was  a  cotton  breechcloth 
wrapped  around  the  middle,  with  sometimes  a  sleeve- 
less snirt,  either  white  or  dyed  in  colors.  The  women 
wore  a  skirt  belted  at  the  waist,  and  plaited  their  hair 
In  loncj  tresses.  Sandals  were  worn  by  both  sexes. 
Tattoomg  and  head-flattening  were  occasionallyprao- 
tised,  and  the  face  and  body  were  always  pamted. 
The  Maya,  then  as  now,  were  noted  for  personal  neat- 
ness and  frequent  use  of  both  cold  and  hot  baths. 
They  were  expert  and  determined  warriors,  using  the 
bow  and  arrow,  the  dart  with  throwing-stick,  the 
wooden  sword  edged  with  flints,  the  lance,  sling,  cop- 
per axe,  shield  of  reeds,  and  protective  armour  of  heavy 
quilted  cotton.  They  understood  military  tactics  and 
signalling  with  drum  and  whistle,  and  knew  how  to 
build  barricades  and  dig  trenches.  Noble  prisoners 
were  usually  sacrificed  to  the  gods,  while  those  of 
ordinary  rank  became  slaves.   Their  obiect  in  war 


MAYA 

TABLET   WITH    RIBHOGLYPa    INSCBIPTION  STHCCO   ALTAR-PIECE,    WITH   BIBROGLYPH    INBCBIPTION 


M4TA                                 85  M4TA 

was  rather  to  make  prisoners  than  to  kill.  As  the  de  Bourbour^  in  volume  two  of  the  "Mission  Soientl- 
peninsula  had  no  mines,  the  Maya  were  without  iron  fique  au  Mexique"  (Paris,  1870);  "Arte  de  el  Idioma 
or  any  metal  excepting  a  few  copper  utensils  and  gold  Maya  "  l^  Father  Pedro  de  Santa  Rosa  Maria  Beltran, 
ornaments  imported  from  other  countries.  Their  tools  a  native  of  Yucatan  and  instructor  in  the  Maya  Ian- 
were  almost  entirely  of  flint  or  other  stone,  even  for  guage  in  the  Franciscan  convent  of  Bi^rida  (Mexico, 
the  most  intricate  monumental  carving.  For  house-  1746,  and  M^rida,  1850);  "Gram&tica  Yucateca"  by 
hold  purposes  they  used  day  pottery,  dishes  of  shell,  Father  Joaquin  Rus,  of  the  Franciscan  convent  of 
or  gourds.  Their  pottery  was  of  notable  excellence,  M^rida,  also  a  native  of  Yucatan  and  "  the  most  fluent 
as  were  also  their  weaving,  dyeing,  and  feather  work,  of  the  writers  in  the  Maya  language  that  Yucatan  has 
Along  the  coast  they  had  wooden  dugout  canoes  capa-  produced  "  (M^rida,  1844),  ana  republished  in  an  Eng- 
ble  01  holding  fifty  persons.  ush  translation  by  the  Baptist  missionary,  Rev.  John 

They  had  a  voluminous  literature,  covering  the  Kingdom  (Belize,  1847).  Each  of  these  writers  was 
whole  ranee  of  native  interests,  either  written,  in  their  also  the  author  of  other  works  in  the  language, 
own  peculiar  "calculiform"  hieroglyphic  characters.  Of  publi^ed  dictionaries  may  be  mentioned:  finft 
in  books  of  maguey  paper  or  parchment  which  were  and  earliest,  a  "Diccionario",  credited  to  Father  \^ 
bound  in  wood,  or  carved  upon  the  walls  of  their  pub-  llalpando  (Mexico,  1571) ;  then  "  Diccionario  de  la  Len- 
Mc  buildings.  Twenty-seven  parchment  books  were  gua  Maya"^  by  Juan  Peres  (M^rida,  1866-77);  and 
publidy  destroyed  bv  Bishop  Landa  at  Manf  in  1562,  "  Dictionnaure.  Grammaire  et  Chrestomathie  de  la 
othere  elsewhere  in  the  peninsula,  others  again  at  the  langue  Maya' ,  bv  the  Abb^  Brasseur  de  Bourbourg 
storming  of  the  Itsd  capital  in  1697,  and  almost  all  (Paris,  1872).  The  most  valuable  dictionaries  of  the 
that  have  come  down  to  us  are  foiu*  codices,  as  they  are  language  are  still  in  manuscript.  Chief  is  the  one 
called,  viz.,  the  ''Codex  Troano",  published  at  Paris  known  as  the  "Diccionario  del  Convento  de  Motul", 
in  1869;  another  codex,  apparently  connected  with  the  from  the  name  of  the  Franciscan  convent  in  Yucatan 
first,  published  at  Paris  m  1882;  the  "Codex  Peresi-  in  which  it  was  found;  it  is  now  in  the  Carter  Brown 
anus  ",  published  at  Paris  in  1869-'71 ;  and  the"  Dresden  library  at  Providence.  It  is  beautifully  written  and 
Codex'  y  originally  mistakenly  published  as  an  Aztec  is  supposed  to  be  a  copy  of  an  original  written  by  a 
book  in  Kingsborough's  great  work  on  the  "  Antiqui-  Franciscan  priest,  who  was  evidenuy  a  master  of  the 
ties  of  Mexico"  (London,  1830-48).  Besides  these  language,  about  1590.  "In  extent  the  dictionaxy  is 
pre^panish  writings,  of  which  there  is  yet  no  ade(;[uate  not  surpassed  bv  that  of  any  aboriginal  language  of 
mterpretation,  we  have  a  number  of  later  works  written  America  "  (Bartlett) .  Other  manuscript  dictionaries 
in  the  native  language  by  Christianized  Maya  shortly  are  those  of  the  Convent  of  M^rida  (about  1640);  of 
after  the  conquest.  Several  of  these  have  been  the  Convent  of  Ticul  (about  1690);  and  one  by  the 
brought  together  by  Brinton  in  his  "  Maya  Chroni-  Rev.  Alexander  Henderson,  a  Methodist  nussionaxy  of 
des".  The  intricate  calendar  system  of  the  Maya,  Belize  (1859-66),  now  the  property  of  the  Bureau  of 
which  exceeded  in  elaboration  that  of  the  Aztec,  American  Ethnology.  (See  also  Brinton.  "Maya 
Zapotec,  or  any  other  of  the  cultured  native  races,  has  Chronicles",  and  Mava  titles  in  Pilling.  ''Bibliog- 
been  the  subject  of  much  discussion.  It  was  based  on  raphy,  Proofsheets"  (Washington,  1885).) 
a  series  of  kaktnaf  or  c^des,  consisting  of  20  (or  24),  52,  Phvsically,  the  Ma^  are  dime,  short,  muscular,  and 
and  260  years,  and  bv  its  means  they  carried  their  broad-headea.  Intellectually,  the^  are  alert,  straight- 
history  down  for  possioly  thirteen  centuries,  the  com-  forward,  reliable,  of  a  cheerful  disposition,  and  neat 
pletion  of  each  lesser  katun  being  noted  by  the  inser-  and  orderlv  habits.  Their  wars  with  Mexico  have 
tion  of  a  memorial  stone  in  the  wall  of  the  great  temple  been  wa^d,  however,  with  the  utmost  savagery,  the 
at  Mayapan.  provocation  beinj^  as  great  on  the  other  side.    Their 

The  art  in  which  above  all  the  Maya  excelled,  and  daily  life  differs  httle  m>m  that  of  the  ordinary  Mexi- 

through  which  they  are  best  known,  is  architecture,  can  peasant,  their  ordinary  dwelling  being  thatched 

The  splendid  ruins  of  temples,  pyramids,  and  great  huts,  their  dress  the  common  white  Siirt  and  trousers, 

cities — some  of  which  were  mtact  and  occupied  at  the  with  sandals  and  straw  hat,  for  men,  and  for  women 

time  of  the  conquest — scattered  by  scores  and  hun-  white  embroidered  skirt  and  sleeveless  gown.    They 

dreds  throughout  the  forests  of  Yucatan,  have  been  cultivate  the  ordinary  products  of  the  region,  including 

the  wonder  and  admiration  of  travellers  for  over  half  a  sugar  and  hennequm  hemp,  while  the  independent 

oentury ,  since  they  were  first  brought  prominently  to  bands  give  considerable  attention  to  huntinjg.    While 

notice  by  Stephens.    Says  Brinton:   "The  material  they  are  all  now  Catholics,  with  resident  priests  in  aU 

was  usually  a  hard  limestone,  which  was  poUshed  and  the  towns,  that  fact  in  no  way  softens  their  animosity 

carved,  and  imbedded  in  a  firm  mortar.    Such  was  towards  the  conc|uering  race.    Thev  still  keep  up 

also  the  character  of  the  edifices  of  the  Quiches  and  many  of  their  ancient  rites,  particularly  those  relating 

Cakchiauels  of  Guatemala.    In  view  of  the  fact  that  to  the  planting  and  harvesting  of  the  crops.    Many  of 

none  ot  these  masons  knew  the  plumb-line  or  ths  these  survivals  are  described  djt  Brinton  in  a  chapter 

square,  the  accuracy  of  the  adjustments  is  remarkable,  of  his  "  Essa3rs  of  an  Americanist".    The  best  recent 

Tneir  efforts  at  sculpture  were  equally  bold.    They  accoimt  (1894)  of  the  independent  Maya  is  that  of  the 

did  not  hesitate  to  attempt  statues  in  the  round  of  German  traveller  Sapper,  who  praises  in  the  highest 

life  size  and  liUT^er,  and  the  fa9ades  of  the  edifices  were  terms  their  honesty,  punctuality,  hospitality^  and 

covered  with  extensive  and  intricate  designs  cut  in  peaceful  family  life.    A  translation  of  it  is  given  m  tito 

hi^  relief  upon  the  stones.    All  this  was  accom-  bowditch  collection.    At  that  time  the  Mexican  gov- 

Ehshed  without  the  use  of  metal  tools,  as  they  did  not  emment  officially  recognized  three  independent  Imtya 
ave  even  the  bronze  chisels  familiar  to  the  Aztecs."  states,  or  tribes,  in  Southern  and  Eastern  Yucatim, 
The  interior  walls  were  also  fre<}uently  covered  with  the  most  important  being  the  hostiles  of  the  Chan- 
hieroglyphic  inscriptions  carved  m  the  stone  or  wood.  SantarCruz  aistrict,  estimated  at  not  more  than  10,000 
or  painted  upon  the  plaster.  Among  the  most  noted  souls  as  against  about  40,000  at  the  outbreak  of  the 
of  the  Mava  ruins  are  those  of  Palenque  (in  Chiapas),,  rebellion  of  1847.  The  other  two  bands  together 
Uxmal,  Chichen-Itz^,  and  Mayapan.  '  numbered  perhaps  as  many,  having  decreased  in 
The  Maya  language  has  received  much  attention  about  the  same  ratio. 


la  fengua  de  Yucatan"  of  Luis  de  Villalpando,  pub-     Amerioa  (3  vola.,  San  FnuiciBoo,  1886-^7):   Idem,  J7u^  ^ 
fished  about  1565.    Others  of  note  are  ''Arte  de  la    ^f«*»  («  vob-.  Smi  Francisco.  1886-88):  Bowditct  (ed.) 

(Mexioo,  1684),  and  repubhshed  by  the  Abb6  Brasseur    mbvf),  fai  Btdldin  as,  Bwtau  of  Am,  Ethn,  (Wmrfifagton, 


ftuf  der  kurfOrstL  Stemwarte  endeckt  worden  rind" 
(Blaimheim,  1778).  In  the  following  year  he  pub- 
lished ft  l4>tin  work  on  the  same  subject.  The  obeer- 
vatione,  which  were  m&de  in  good  faith,  were  evi- 
dently due  to  an  ofitical  illuaioa.  Mayer  spent  some 
time  at  Paris  in  the  interests  of  his  science,  and  visited 
Germany  in  company  with  Caasini.  Upon  the  invitW- 
tion  of  Empress  Cktnerine  of  Russia,  De  went  to  St. 
PetenbUTg  to  obaerve  the  tnuisit  of  Veniu  in  1769. 
He  was  a  member  of  numerous  learned  sooieticfl,  ut- 
eluding  those  of  Mannheim^  Munich,  London,  Bologna, 
GSttingen,  and  Philadelphia.  He  published  a  number 
of  memoirs,  among  which  may  be  mentioned  "Baria 
Palatina"  fHannheim,  1763),  "Ezpositia  de  tisnsitu 
Veneris"  (St.  Petersburg,  1769),  "Pantometrum 
Paoechianum,  sen  instnunentum  novum  pro  elicienda 
ex  una  etatione  distantia  loci  inaccessi"  (Hannheim, 
1763);  "  Nouvelle  m^thode  pour  lever  en  peu  de  temps 
et  &  peu  de  f rais  une  carte  g&i£rale  et  exaote  de  touta 
la  RuBsie"  (St.  Petersburg,  1770);  "  Observations  da 
la  CamMe  del781"  in  the  "AcU  Acad.  Petropolit." 
(1782),  ete. 

SoHNESToaii..  BiU.  it  la  Conp.  ifa  JH<tt,  V,  7H;  Dbi.*m- 

Hbmbt  H.  Bbock. 

Hayhsw,  Euwabd,  b.  in  1560;  d.  14  Bept.  1626. 
He  belonKed  to  the  old  English  family  of  Haynew  or 
Hayow  of  Winton,  near  Salisbury,  Wili«hire,  which 
hod  endured  much  persecution  for  the  Faith.  On  10 
July,  1583,  he  entered,  with  his  elder  brother  Henry, 
the  English  College  at  Reinu,  where  he  displayed 
conspicuous  talente,  and  received  the  tonsure  and 
minor  orders  on  22  August,  1590.  Thence  proceeding 
to  Rome,  he  there  continued  his  studies  imtil  his  or- 
dination, after  which  he  left  for  the  English  missions 
in  1595.  Having  served  for  twelve  years  on  the  mis- 
sion as  a  secular  priest,  he  jmned  the  Benedictine 
Order,  being  profeMed  b^  Dom  Sigebert  Buckley,  the 
sole  survivor  of  the  English  congregation,  in  his  cell  at 
the  Gatehouse  prison,  Westminster,  on  21  November, 
1607.  The  old  English  coagiegation  would  thus  have 
ended  with  Dora  Buckley,  nad  not'  Mayhew  and  an- 
other secular  priest,  Father  Robert  Sadler,  sought  pro- 
fession, thus  preserving  its  continuity  to  the  present 
da^.  tinder  these  two  new  members  the  English 
congregation  began  to  revive.  Becoming  affiliated 
.  ,,  with  the  Spanish  congregation  in  1612,  it  was  ^ven  an 

James  Moonbt.  ^^^j  ^^^^^  ^  gj  Lawrence's  monasteij  at  Dieulwart, 
Lorraine,  henceforth  the  centre  of  the  English  congre- 
MaTor,  Chribtiait,  Moravian  astronomer,  b.  at  sstion.  Retiring  from  the  EngUsh  mission  in  1613, 
Mederiienhi  in  Moravia,  20  Aug.,  1719;  d.  at  Heidel-  Mayhew  took  up  his  residence  at  Dieulwart^bere  he 
berg,  16  April,  1783.  He  entered  the  Society  of  Jesus  filled  the  office  of  prior  frora  1613  to  1620.  The  union 
at  Mannheim  on  26  Sept.,  1745,  and  after  completing  of  the  three  congregations  engaged  on  the  Eln^ish 
his  studies  taught  the  humanities  for  some  time  at  missions  hod  for  some  time  been  canvassed,  and  in 
Aschaffenbui^.  He  likewise  cultivated  his  taste  for  161 7  Mayhew  was  appointed  one  (rf  the  nine  definjtors 
mathematics,  and  later  was  appointed  professor  of  to  bring  this  about.  That  irf  the  Elnglish  and  Spanish 
mathematics  and  physics  in  the  University  of  Heidel-  congregations  was  accomplished  by  the  Apostoiia 
berg.  In  1755  he  was  invited  by  the  Elector  Palatine  Brief,  "  Es  incumbenti ",  of  August,  1619,  but  the 
Charles  Theodore  to  construct  and  take  chai^of  the  membersof  the  Italian  congregation  refused  to  beomne 
astronomical  observatory  at  Mannheim,  Here  as  well  united.  The  seal  (or  the  strict  observance  of  the 
as  at  Schwetzingen,  where  he  hod  also  built  an  observ-  Benedictine  Rule,  so  characteristic  of  Dieulwart,  was 
Story,  he  carried  on  his  observations  which  led  to  ingreatpartduetoMayhew'sreligiouBeamestnessand 
numerous  memoirs,  some  of  which  were  published  in  strength  of  character.  Frora  1623  until  his  death  he 
the  "Philosophical  Transactions  "of  London.  Oneof  acted  as  vicar  to  the  nuns  at  Cambrai.  His  lemoins 
hisobservations,  recorded  in  the  "Tables  d'aberration  lie  in  the  parish  church  at  St.  Vedast.  The  moetim- 
et  de  mutation"  (Mannheim,  1778)  of  his  assistant  portant  of  Mayhew's  works  are;  "Sacra  Institutio 
He^e,  gave  rise  to  much  discussion.  He  claimed  to  Baptizandi  ete."  (Douai,  1604);  "Treatise  on  the 
have  discovered  that  many  of  the  more  conspicuous  Groundes  of  the  Olde  and  Newe  Religion  ete."  (s.  1,, 
Stars  in  the  southern  heavens  vrere  surrounded  \iy  1608);  "Congregationis  Anglicante  Ordinis  8,  Beue- 
smaller  stars,  which  he  regarded  as  soteUitee.  His  dictiTrophtea"  (2  vols.,  Reims  1619^  1625). 
contemporaries,  including  Herachel  and  SchrSter,  who  Pim,  Dt  niiul.  AittL  arripl.,  □.  SlE;  Wood.  Alkaia  Oaan., 


Ula  IlMd  (Madrid,  1701}. 


e  provided  with  mucn  more  powerful  telescopes,  |.f?t'¥^!'^5?l' 

failed  to  verify  his  observatioas.    Mayer,  however,  d&-  o£.  iSi'  clo^li!  . 
fended  their  reality  and  replied  to  one  of  his  critics,  '  Thohas  KxtntlDT. 

tlie  well-known  aatronomer  Father  Hall,  in  a  work         ««       »  c      ir     

entitled  "GrQndliche  Vertheidigung  neuer  Beobach-         ••»y  Laws.    See  Kultubxampf. 

tungen  yoa  Fixstem-trabanten  welche  au  Munnhaim        Kmjn»».    See  Ghachofotas,  Diocbsb  or. 


M4TNS 


87 


M47N00TR 


Mayne,  Cuthbert,  Blessed,  xxuutsrr,  b.  at  Youl- 
ston,  near  Banistaplei  Devonshire  (baptised  20  March, 
1543-4);  d.  at  Launceston,  Cornwall,  29  Nov.,  1577. 
He  was  the  son  of  William  Mayne;  his  uncle  was  a 
achismatical  priest,  who  had  him  educated  at  Barn- 
staple Grammar  School,  and  he  was  ordained  a  Prot- 
estant minister  at  the  ace  of  eighteen  or  nineteen. 
He  then  went  to  Oxford,  first  to  St.  Alban's  Hall,  then 
to  St.  John's  Ck>llege,  where  he  took  the  degree  of  M.  A. 
in  1570.  He  there  made  the  acquaintance  of  Blessed 
Edmund  Campion,  Gregory  Martin,  the  controver- 
sialistf  Humphrey  Ely,  Henry  Shaw,  Thomas  Bram- 
ston,  O.S.B..  Henry  Holland,  Jonas  Meredith,  Roland 
Russell,  and  William  Wiggs.  The  above  list  e^ows 
how  strong  a  Catholic  leaven  was  still  working  at 
Oxford.  LsLte  in  1570  a  letter  from  Gregory  Martin 
to  Blessed  Cuthbert  fell  into  the  Bishop  of  London's 
hands.  He  at  once  sent  a  pursuivant  to  arrest  Blessed 
Cuthbert  and  others  mentioned  in  the  letter.  Blessed 
Cuthbert  was  in  the  country,  and  being  warned  by 
Blessed  Thomas  Ford,  he  evaded  arrest  by  going  to 
Cornwall,  whence  he  arrived  at  Douai  in  1 573.  Having 
become  reconciled  to  the  Church,  he  was  ordained  in 
1575;  in  Feb.,  1575-6  he  took  the  degree  of  S.T.B. 
at  Douai  University;  and  on  24  April,  1576  he  left  for 
the  English  mission  in  the  company  of  Blessed  John 
Payne.  Blessed  Cuthbert  took  up  his  abode  with  the 
future  confessor,  Francis  Tr^ian,  of  Golden,  in  St. 
Probus's  parish,  Cornwall.  Tms  gentleman  suffered 
imprisonment  and  loss  of  possessions  for  this  honour 
done  him  by  our  martyr.  At  his  house  our  martyr 
was  arrested  8  June,  1577,  by  the  high  sheriff,  Gren- 
ville,  who  was  knighted  for  the  capture.  He  was 
brought  to  trial  in  September;  meanwhile  his  impris- 
onment was  of  the  harshest  order.  His  indictment 
under  statutes  of  1  and  13  Elizabeth  was  imder  five 
coimts:  first,  that  he  had  obtained  from  the  Roman 
See  a  ''faculty",  containing  absolution  of  the  queen's 
subjects;  second,  that  he  had  published  the  same  at 
Goldm;  third,  that  he  had  taught  the  ecclesiastical 
authority  of  the  pope  in  Launceston  Gaol;  fourth, 
that  he  had  brought  into  the  kinsdom  an  Amus  Dei 
and  had  deliveredthe  same  to  Mr.  Tr^ian;  futh,  that 
he  had  said  Mass. 

As  to  the  first  and  second  coimts,  the  martyr  showed 
that  the  supposed  "faculty"  was  merely  a  copy 
printed  at  Douai  of  an  announcement  of  the  Jubifee 
of  1575,  and  that  its  application  having  expired  with 
the  end  of  the  jubilee,  ne  certainly  had  not  published 
it  either  at  Golden  or  elsewhere.  As  to  the  third 
count,  he  maintained  that  he  had  said  nothing  definite 
on  the  subject  to  the  three  illiterate  witnesses  who 
asserted  the  contrary.  As  to  the  fourth  coimt,  he 
urged  that  the  fact  that  he  was  wearing  an  Agnus  Dei 
at  the  time  of  his  arrest  was  no  evidence  that  he  had 
brought  it  into  the  kingdom  or  delivered  it  to  Mr. 
Tremm.  As  to  the  fifth  coimt,  he  contended  that  the 
fincung  of  a  Missal,  a  chalice,  and  vestments  in  his  room 
did  not  prove  that  he  had  said  Mass. 

Nevertheless  the  jury  found  him  guilty  of  high 
treason  on  all  coimts,  and  he  was  sentenced  accora- 
ingly.  His  execution  was  delayed  because  one  of  the 
judges,  Jeffries,  altered  his  mind  after  sentence  and 
sent  a  report  to  the  Privy  Council.  They  submitted 
the  case  to  the  whole  Bench  of  Judges,  which  was 
divided  in  opinion,  though  the  weight  of  authority 
inclined  to  Jeffries's  view.  Nevertheless,  for  motives 
of  policy,  the  Council  ordered  Hie  execution  to  pro- 
ceed. On  the  night  of  27  November  his  cell  was  seen 
by  the  other  prisoners  to  be  full  of  a  strange  bright 
Ught.  The  details  of  his  martyrdom  must  be  sought 
in  the  works  hereinafter  cited.  It  is  enough  to  say 
that  all  agree  that  he  was  insensible,  or  almost  so, 
wbea  he  was  disembowelled.  A  rough  portrait  of  Uie 
martyr  still  exists;  and  portions  of  his  skull  are  in 
various  places,  the  larg^  being  in  the  Carmelite 
Omvent,  Lanheme,  Cornwall. 


Camm,  L%ve$  of  the  Bnoli»h  Martyrs,  II  (London,  1905).  204- 
222,  666;  Pollen,  Cardinal  AUerCt  Briefe  Hiatorie  (London, 
1908),  104-110;  Coopbr  in  Did.  Nat.  Biog.,  s.  v.;  Cballonsr, 
MemotTM  of  Mianonaty  Prieats,  I;  Gxllow,  Bwl.  Diet.  Bng, 
Calh.,  a.  v.;  Dasent,  Acto  of  ^  Privy  Council  (London,  1890- 
1907),  IX,  376.  390;  X.  6.  7.  86. 

John  B.  Wainewright. 

Maynootli  OoUege,  The  National  College  of  Saint 
Patrick,  at  Maynooth  in  (Dounty  Kildare,  about 
twelve  miles  from  Dublin,  founded  in  the  year  1795. 
Ireland  at  that  date  still  had  her  own  Parliament;  and, 
although  Catholics  could  not  sit  in  it,  the  spirit  of  tol- 
eration and  liberty  which  had  swept  over  the  United 
States  and  France  could  not  be  excluded  from  its 
debates.  Several  relaxations  had  already  been  granted 
in  the  application  of  the  penal  laws,  and  it  is  to  the 
credit  ot  Irish  Protestants  that  during  their  short 
period  of  Parliamentary  liberty  (1782-1801),  they 
should  have  entered  so  heartily  on  the  path  of  national 
brotherhood,  and  have  given  to  the  world  two  such 
illustrious  names  as  Edmund  Burke  and  Henry  Grat- 
tan.  It  was  to  these  two  men,  more  than  to  any 
statesmen  of  their  time,  that  the  foundation  of  May- 
nooth College  may  be  ascribed.  Other  circumstances 
were  also  favourable.  On  the  one  hand,  the  pro- 
gramme of  the  ''United  Irishmen"  (1798)  proclaimed 
the  doctrine  of  universal  toleration  and  lioerty  of  con- 
science. On  the  <Hher  hand,  the  British  Government 
was  glad  of  an  opportunity  to  withdraw  youn^  Iri^ 
ecclesiastics  as  far  as  possible  from  the  revolutionaiy 
influences  to  which  they  were  exposed  on  the  Conti- 
nent. Moreover,  soldiers  were  needed  at  a  time  when 
war  was  raging  or  threatening  on  all  sides;  and  it  had 
become  necessary  to  conciliate  the  class  from  amongst 
whom  the  best  Irish  soldiers  could  be  recruited. 

In  1794  a  memorial  was  presented  to  the  Irish  Vioe- 
rov  by  Dr.  Troy,  Archbishop  of  Dublin,  on  behalf  of 
all  the  Catholic  prelates  of  Ireland.  This  memorial 
set  forth  that  the  Roman  Catholic  clei^  of  Ireland 
had  never  been  charged  with  disaffection  to  the  State 
or  irregularity  in  their  conduct;  that,  on  the  contrary, 
the^  had  been  complimented  more  than  once  for  incul- 
cating obedience  to  the  laws  and  veneration  for  His 
Majesty's  royal  person  and  government.  It  was  then 
pointed  out  that  the  foreign  colleges,  in  which  about 
400  students  were  educated  for  the  Irish  mission,  had 
been  closed,  and  their  funds  confiscated;  and  that, 
even  had  they  remained  open,  it  would  no  longer  be 
safe  to  send  Irish  students  abroad,  *'  lest  they  should 
be  contaminated  with  the  contagion  of  sedition  and 
infidelity"  and  thus  become  the  means  of  introducing 
into  Ireland  the  pernicious  maxims  of  a  licentious  phil- 
osophy. The  memorial  was  favourably  received,  and, 
in  the  following  vear  Mr.  Pelham,  the  Secretajry  of 
State,  introduced  his  Bill  for  the  foundation  of  a 
Catholic  college.  The  Bill  passed  rapidly  through  all 
its  stages  and  received  the  royal  assent  on  5  June, 
1795.  The  management  of  the  institution  was  given 
to  a  Board  of  Trustees  who  were  to  appoint  all  the  offi- 
cers, the  president,  masters,  fellows,  and  scholars;  to 
fix  their  salaries  and  make  all  necessary  by-laws,  rules, 
and  statutes.  No  Catholic  could  act  as  trustee,  or  fill 
any  other  office,  or  be  admitted  as  a  student,  who  did 
not  first  take  the  oath  of  allegiance  prescribed  for 
(Ilatholics  in  the  thirteenth  and  fourteenth  years  of 
Georse  III.  No  Protestant  or  son  of  a  Protestant 
could  be  received  in  the  new  Academy  under  the  sever- 
est pains  and  penalties.  The  Lord  Chancellor,  how- 
ever, and  several  judges  of  the  high  courts,  were  to  act 
as  Trustees  ex  officio.  The  endowment  voted  by  Par- 
liament was  £8,000  (about  $40,000)  a  vear.  Dr. 
Thomas  Hussey,  a  graduate  of  the  Irish  College  of  Sal- 
amanca, who  had  long  been  chaplain  to  the  Si)anish 
Embassy  in  London,  was  appointed  first  president. 
The  next  step  was  to  fix  upon  the  site.  At  first  Dub- 
lin, or  the  suDurbe  of  Dublin,  seemed  to  offer  the  chief 
advantages;  finally,  however,  after  a  variety  of  pro- 


BUTHOOTB  8S  HATHOOTH 

poaak  hiui  been  considered,  Maynooth  was  ohosen,  be-  land  the  financial  subsidy  to  Haynooth  from  the  StMt 

cause  it  was  considered  favourable  to  the  monia  and  underwent  various  changes  and  gave  rise  to  debate  ot 

BtudieeofacoU^;al80,  because  the  Dukeof  Leinster,  considerable  acrimony  in  the  House  of  Commons.     In 

who  had  always  D^n  a.  friend  of  the  Catholics,  wished  1845,  however,  the  government  of  Sir  Robert  Peel 

(o  have  the  new  institution  on  his  estate.     The  monev  raised  the  nrant  from  £9,506  (about  $47,500)  to  £26,< 

Cted  by  Partuunent  was  voted  for  a  Catholic  col-  000  (9130,000)  a  year  and  placed  it  on  the  oonsoU- 

for  the  education  of  the  Irish  cler»':  that  was  the  datea  fund,  where  it  formea  part  of  the  ordinary  n»- 

express  intention  of  the  Government,  out,  as  the  Act  tional  debt  and  was  free  from  annual  discussion  on  the 

was  diawn  in  general  terms,  the  trustees  proceeded  to  estimates.     Sir  Robert  Peel  also  granted  a  sum  of 

erect  »  colle^  for  laymen  in  connexion  with  the  eo-  £30,000  (about  1150,000)  for  suitable  buildings;  and 

olesiaatical    establishinent.     This    college    was    sup-  it  was  then  that  the  Gothic  structure  deeixned  by 

piesaedby  theGovemmentinlSOl.    Another  lay  col-  Pugin,  one  of  the  handsomest  ooU^  buildinn  in 

lege  was  then  erected  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  the  Europe,  was  erected.    The  disestabushment  of  the 

ecclesiastical  college,  and  was  continued  up  to  1817  Irish  Church  by  Mr.  Gladstone  in  1869,  had  serious  fi- 

under  lay  trustees.    The  establidmient  of  various  col-  nancial  results  for  Haynootb  which  was  also  disen- 


Bt,  Uabt**,  Uimoota  Oouaaa,  tasuifD 
leges  tn  other  parts  of  the  country  for  the  education  of  dowed ;  but  a  sum  of  about  £370,000  (about  SI  ,850,- 
lajmien  made  it  unnecessary.  Not  long  after  the  000)  was  given  once  for  all  to  enable  the  college  to  con- 
foundation  of  Maynooth,  the  whole  country  being  con-  tinuc  its  work.  This  sum  was  invested  for  the  most 
vulsed  by  the  rebellion  of  1798,  the  eeneral  disturb-  part  in  land,  and  has  been  very  ably  managed  by  the 
anoe  found  an  echo  in  the  new  institution.  Of  ito  trustees.  Some  of  the  most  prominent  Catholic  lay- 
sixty-nine  students  no  fewer  than  eighteen  or  twenty  men  in  the  country,  such  as  the  Earls  of  Fingall  and 
were 'xpelled  for  having  taken  the  rebel  oath.  Kenmare,  had  acted  as  Trustees  up  to  the  date  of 
A  valuable  endowment  was  obtained  for  the  new  the  disendowment:  from  that  time  no  further  lay 
college  on  the  death  of  John  Butler,  twelfth  Baron  trusteea  were  appointed. 

Dunboyne,  who  had  been  Bishop  of  Cork  from  1763  b>  Among  the  most  distinguished  of  the  past  mesidento 
1786.  On  the  death  of  his  nephew.  Pierce  Butler,  the  of  Maynooth  were  Hussey,  Renehan,  and  Russell,  a 
eleventh  baron,  the  bishop  succeeded  to  the  title  and  full  account  of  whom  is  to  t)e  found  in  the  College  His- 
estatea.  This  temporal  dimity,  however,  proved  his  tory  by  the  Most  Rev.  Dr.  Healy.  Archbishop  of  Tuam. 
undoing;  he  gave  up  his  bishopric,  abjured  the  Catho-  Dr.  Hussey  was  the  firet  president,  and  to  his  tact, 
lie  FaiUi,  and  took  a  wife.  In  his  last  illness  he  re-  judgment  and  skill  the  suoceaa  ot  the  original  project 
pented  and  endeavoured  to  make  reparation  for  his  was  mainly  due.  Dr.  Recehan  was  a  distinguished 
conduct  by  willing  his  property  in  Meath,  valued  at  Irish  schobr,  who  did  a  ^^reat  deal  fo  rescue  Irish 
about  £1,000  (about  SS.OOO)  a  year,  to  the  newly  manuscripts  from  destruction.  Dr.  Russell  is  chiefly 
founded  college.  The  will  was  disputed  at  law  by  the  known  for  his  "  Life  of  Cardinal  Mesiofantj  "  and  for 
next  of  kin.  The  case  of  the  college  was  pleaded  by  the  part  he  took  in  the  conversion  of  Cardinal  New- 
John  Philpot  Cunan,  and  a  compromise  was  effected  man.  Amongst  the  most  distinguished  teachers  and 
by  which  about  one  half  of  the  property  was  secured  to  men  of  letters  who  shed  lustre  on  the  college  during 
thecoUw-  The  income  from  the  bequest  became  the  its  first  century  were  John  MacHale,  Paul  O'Brien, 
foundation  of  a  fund  for  the  maintenance  of  a  higher  Daniel  Murray,  Edmund  O'Reilly,  Nicholas  CUlan, 
couiw  of  ecclesiastical  studies  in  the  case  (rf  such  stu-  Patrick  Murray,  Mathew  Kelly,  John  O'Hanton,  Wil- 
dents  as  should  have  distinguished  themselves  in  the  liam  Jennings,  James  O'Kane,  and  Gerald  MoUoy.  It 
ordinaty  course.  iW  is  still  known  as  the  "  Dun-  is  interesting  to  notice  that,  on  the  staff  of  the  eoUegt 
boyne  Establishment".    After  the  union  with  Eng-  in  its  early  years,  were  four  French  refugees — thoSev. 


M4YO 


89 


M4TO 


FeCer  J.  Delort,  the  Rev.  Andrew  Darr6,  the  Rev. 
Louis  Delahogue  and  the  Rev.  Francis  Anglade — all 
Doctors  of  the  Sorbonne.  On  the  original  staff  may 
also  be  found  the  name  of  the  Rev.  John  C.  Eustace, 
author  of  the  well-known  "Classical  Tour  in  Italy". 
AxDongBt  the  distinj^ished  personages  who  have  visited 
the  coll^  were  Tnackerav,  Montalembert,  Carlvle, 
Robert  Owen,  Cardinal  Perraud,  Huxlev,  the  kte 
Empress  of  Austria,  and  King  Edward  VII.  The  col- 
lege possesses  several  memorials  of  the  Empress  of 
Austria,  who  lived  in  the  neighbourhood  during  her 
visits  to  Ireland.  The  Centenaxy  of  the  foimdation  of 
the  college  was  celebrated  in  1895,  on  which  occasion 
congratiuations  were  sent  from  all  the  Catholic  educa- 
tional centres  in  the  world.  The  college  library  con- 
tains upwards  of  40,000  volumes.  It  possesses  a  great 
many  rare  and  precious  works  and  some  very  valuable 
manuscripts.  The  Atda  Maxima  which  was  opened 
about  the  year  1893  was  the  gift  to  his  Alma  Mater  of 
the  Right  Rev.  Mgr.  MacMahon  of  the  Catholic  Univer- 
sity at  Washington,  D.  C,  and  previously  of  New 
York.  The  chapel  which  has  just  been  completed  is  a 
work  of  rare  beauty  both  in  design  and  ornamentation. 
Maynooth  has  already  sent  out  into  the  world  upwards 
of  7,000  priests.  Her  alumni  are  in  all  lands  and  in 
almost  every  position  that  an  ecclesiastic  could  oc- 
cupy. The  average  number  of  students  in  recent 
years  is  about  600.  The  ordinary  theological  comse  is 
four  years,  and  the  extra  coiuse  of  the  *'  Dimboyne  Es- 
tablishment" three  years  more.  Students  in  arts  and 
philosophy  have  to  graduate  in  the  National  Univer- 
sitv  of  which  Maynooth  is  now  a  "  recognised  College  ". 
Hbalt,  Maynooth  Cottoffe,  Its  Centenary  HUtory  (Dublin, 
1895);  Catendarium  ColUgit  Sancti  Patricii  (Dublin);  A  Record 
of  ike  CenUnary  CeUbration  ,  .  .  Maynooth  CoUege  (Dublin, 
18S5);  ComwaUxe  Correspondence:  Memoire  of  Vieoount  Caetle- 
reayh;  Life  and  Timea  of  Henry  OraUan;  Hansard* a  Parliamen' 
iary  Debates;  Correspondence  of  Edmund  Burke;  Glajdstoni, 
The  Stale  in  its  Relatton  to  the  Church;  Hooan,  Maynooth  CoUege 
and  the  Laity  (Pubhn).  J.  F.  HOQAN. 

Mayo,  School  of  (Irish  Magh  Eo,  which  means, 
according  to  Colgan,  the  Plain  of  the  Oaks,  and,  ac- 
cording to  O'Donovan,  the  Plain  of  the  Yews),  was 
situat^  in  the  present  parish  of  liayo,  (Dounty  Mayo, 
ahnost  equidistant  from  the  towns  of  Claremorris  and 
Castlebar.  The  founder,  St.  Colman,  who  flourished 
about  the  middle  of  the  seventh  century,  was  in  all 
probability  a  native  of  the  West  of  Ireland,  and  made 
nis  ecclesiastical  studies  at  lona  during  the  abbacy  of 
the  renowned  Segenius.  After  the  death  of  Finian,  the 
second  Bishop  of  Lindisf  ame,  Colman  was  appointed  to 
succeed  him.  His  episcopate  was  much  disturbed  by  a 
fierce  renewal  of  tne  EAster  Controversy.  Colman 
vigorously  advocated  the  old  Irish  custom,  and  cited 
the  example  of  his  predecessors,  but  all  to  no  effect. 
At  a  s3mod  specially  summoned  to  meet  at  Whitby  in 
664,  the  Roman  method  of  calculation  triumphed,  and 
Colman,  tmwilling  to  abandon  the  practice  oi  the 
"holy  elders  of  the  Irish  Church",  resolved  to  quit 
Lindisfame  forever. 

In  668  he  crossed  the  seas  to  his  native  land  again, 
and  in  a  remote  island  on  the  western  coast  called 
Inishbofin,  he  built  a  monastery  and  school.  These 
things  are  clearly  set  out  in  the  "Historia  Ecclesias- 
tics "  of  Bede,  who  then  proceeds  to  describe  how  thev 
led  to  the  founding  of  the  great  school  of  Mayo.  **  Col- 
man the  Irish  Bishop",  says  Bede,  "departed  from 
Britain  and  took  witn  him  all  the  Irish  that  he  had 
assembled  in  the  Island  of  Lindisfame.  and  also  about 
thirty  of  the  English  nation  who  had  oeen  instructed 
in  the  monastic  life.  .  .  •  Afterwards  he  retired  to  a 
small  island  which  is  to  the  west  of  Ireland,  and  at 
some  distence  from  the  coast,  called  in  the  language  of 
the  Irish,  Ini^bofinde  [island  of  the  white  cpwj. 
Arriving  there  he  built  a  monastery,  and  placed  in  it 
the  mo^u  he  had  brought  with  him  of  both  nations". 

It  appears,  however,  the  Irish  and  English  monks 
ooakl  not  agree.    "Then  Colman  sought  to  put  an  end 


to  their  dissensions,  and  travelling  about  at  length 
found  a  place  in  Ireland  fit  to  biiild  a  monastery, 
which  in  the  language  of  the  Irish  is  called  Magh  So 
(Mayo) ".  Later  on  we  are  told  by  the  same  historian 
that  this  monastery  became  sin  important  and  flour* 
ishing  institution,  and  even  an  episcopal  see. 

Though  Colman,  we  may  assume,  lived  mainly  with 
his  own  countrymen  at  Inishbofin,  ne  took  a  deep  and 
practical  interest  in  his  new  foundation  at  Mayo— 
"  Mayo  of  the  Saxons  ",  as  it  came  to  be  called.  In  the 
year  670,  with  his  consent,  ite  first  canonical  abbot  was 
appointed.  This  was  St.  Gerald,  the  son  of  a  northern 
English  king,  who^  annoyed  at  tne  way  Colman's  most 
cherished  convictions  had  been  slighted  at  Whitby, 
resolved  to  follow  him  to  Ireland.  The  school  gained 
greatly  in  fame  for  sanctity  and  learning  imder  this 
youthful  abbot.  About  679  St.  Adamnan,  the  illus- 
trious biographer  of  St.  Columba.  visited  Mayo  and, 
according  to  some  writers,  ruled  tnere  for  seven  years 
after  Gerald's  death.  This  latter  statement  is  not,  on 
the  face  of  it,  improbable  if  Gerald,  as  Colgan  thinks, 
did  not  live  after  697;  but  the  Four  Masters  give  the 
date  of  his  death  as  13  March,  726,  and  the  "  Ajonals  of 
Ulster"  put  the  event  as  late  as  731.  After  Gerald's 
death  we  have  only  the  record  of  isolated  facts  con- 
cerning the  school  he  ruled  so  wisely  and  loved  so  well, 
but  they  are  often  facts  of  considerable  interest  ana 
importance.  We  read,  for  example^  that  the  monas- 
tery was  burned  in  783,  and  agam  m  805;  also— but 
only  in  the  old  Life  of  St.  Gerald — ^that  it  was  plun- 
dered by  Turgesius  the  Dane  in  818.  ^  That  the  mo- 
nastic grounds  were  regarded  as  exceptionally  holy  we 
can  gather  from  the  entry  that  Domhnall.  son  of 
Torlough  O'Conor,  Lord  of  North  Connacnt,  "the 
glory  and  the  moderator  and  the  good  adviser  of  the 
Irish  people  "  (d.  1176),  was  interred  therein.  That  it 
had  tne  stetus  of  an  episcopal  see  long  after  the  Synod 
of  Kells  (1152),  is  clear  from  the  entry  imder  date  of 
1209,  recording  the  death  of  "  Cele  O'Duffy,  Bishop  of 
Magh  Eo  of  the  Saxons". 

Mayo,  like  the  other  ancient  Irish  monastic  schools, 
suffered  from  the  raids  of  native  and  foreigner,  espe- 
cially during  the  fourteenth  century.  But  it  survived 
them  all,  for  the  death  under  date  1478  is  recorded  of 
a  bishop^"  Bishop  Higgins  of  Mayo  of  the  Saxons". 
The  time  at  which  the  See  of  Mayo,  on  the  ground  that 
it  conteined  not  a  cathedral  but  a  parochial  church, 
was  annexed  to  Tuam,  cannot  with  certainty  be  ascer- 
tained^ but  as  far  back  as  1217,  during  the  reign  of 
Hononus  III,  the  question  was  before  the  Roman 
authorities  for  discussion.  It  was  probably  not  set- 
tled definitively  for  centuries  after.  James  O'Healy, 
"Bishop  of  Mayo  of  the  Saxons",  was  put  to  death 

for  the  Catholic  Faith  at  Kihnallock  in  1579. 

BsDB,  Historia  Beclesiastiea  (London,  1907);  CoXiOAif,  Ada 
Sanctorum  Hibemia  (Louvain,  1045);  O'Haklon,  Lives  of  the 
Irish  Saints  (Dublin,  s.  d.);  Hbalt,  Ireland^ s  Ancient  Schools 
and  Scholars  (5th  ed.,  DubUn,  1906). 

John  Hkalt. 

Majo  Indians. — ^An  important  tribe  occupying 
some  fifteen  towns  on  Mayo  and  Fuerte  rivers,  south- 
em  Sonora  and  northern  Sinaloa,  Mexico.  Their  lan- 
guage is  known  as  the  Cahita,  being  the  same  as  that 
spoken,  with  dialectic  differences,  by  their  neighbours, 
tne  Tehueco  and  Yaqui,  and  belonging  to  the  Piman 
branch  of  the  great  Shoshonean  stock.  The  name 
Mayo  is  said  by  Ribas  to  be  properly  that  of  their 
principal  river  and  to  signify  "boundary".  The 
known  history  of  the  tribe  begins  in  1532  with  the 
naval  expedition  of  Diego  Hurtado  de  Mendoza,  who 
landing  at  the  mouth  of  the  Fuerte.  went  up  the  river 
to  the  villages,  where  he  was  killed  with  his  com- 
panions while  asleep.  In  1533  a  land  expedition, 
imder  Diego  de  Guzman  crossed  through  their  country 
and  penetrated  to  beyond  the  Yaqui  river  in  the 
north.  In  1609-10  they  aided  the  Spaniards  against 
the  Yaqui,  the  two  tribes  being  hereditary  enemies, 


M4YOB                                 90  MAYOTTI 

.ind  on  the  suppression  of  the  revolt  it  was  made  Scotland "  (Edinburgh,  1892),  is  written  in  barbaroua 
a  condition  of  the  agreement  that  the  Yaqui  should  Latin,  but  truthfull^r  and  faithfully  portrays  the  au- 
live  at  peace  with  the  Mayo.  In  1613.  at  their  own  thor'g  vigour  and  siiirit  of  independence.  His  other 
request,  the  first  mission  was  establishea  in  their  ter-  works  are  mostly  philosophical,  viz.:  a  commentary  on 
ritory  by  the  Jesuit  Father  Pedro  Mendez,  who  had  Peter  Lombaid  s  Books  of  Sentences  (Paris^  1508), 
visited  them  some  ]^ears  before,  over  3000  persons  "Introductorium"  or  a  commentarv  on  Aristotle's 
receiving  baptism  within  fifteen  days,  in  a  popula-  dialectics  (Paris,  1508),  the  lectures  which  he  delivered 
tion  variously  estimated  at  from  nine  to  twenty  thou-  on  logic  in  the  College  of  Montaigu  (Lyons,  1516), 
sand.  Within  a  short  time  seven  mission  churches  commentaries  on  Aristotle's  physical  and  ethical  writ- 
were  built  in  as  man  v  towns  of  the  tribe.  This  was  ings  (Paris,  1526),  '' Qusestiones  logicales"  (Paris, 
the  beginning  of  regular  mission  work  in  Sonora.  1528),  a  commentaxy  on  the  four  Gospels  (Paris,  1529). 
In  1740  the  Mayo,  hitherto  friendly  as  a  tribe,  He  was  also  the  first  to  edit  the  so-called  "Reportata 
joined  the  Yaqui  in  revolt,  apparently  at  the  instance  Parisiensia"  of  Duns  Scotus  (Paris.  1517-8). 
of  Spanish  omcials  jealous  of  missionary  influence.  Mackat,  Life  of  John  Major,  prefixed  to  Constable's  tr.  of 
Till*  p1iiimfi«»«  wprp  hiimAH  nripiitjti  onH  oAfflprH  rlrivpn  Mayor's  History  (Edinbur«h,  1892).      The  preceding  work  oon- 

1  ne  cnurcnes  were  Durnea ,  pnests  ana  settlers  anven  ^^j^^  ^j^^,  ^  complete  list  of  works  written  by  Mayor,  and  aa  es- 

out  of  the  country;   and  although  the  nsmg  was  put  timate  of  them  by  the  translator;  Brown,  George  Buchanan, 

down  in  the  following  year  after  hard  fighting,  it  HwMtiiet  and  Reformer  OSdmbnn^ 

marked  the  beginning  of  the  decline  of  the  missions  ^'^'^  "*  -S^""*  ^«^'  ^"^^  ^8^2.          w              (. 

wliich  culminated  in  the  expulsion  of  the  Jesuits  in  ju.        b    vztt. 

1767.    After  their  departure  the  Indians  were  for  Mayonma  Indians,  a  noted  and  savage  tribe  of 

some  time  without  religious  teachers,  but  are  now  Panoan  linguistic  stock  ranging  the  forests  between 

ser\'ea   by  secular  priests.    In   1825-7  they  agam  the  Ucayali,  the  Yavari  and  the  Marafion  (Amason) 

joined  the  Yaqui,  led  by  the  famous  Bandera  (Juzu-  rivers,  in  north-east  Peru  and. the  adjacent  portion  of 

caaea)  m  revolt  against  Mexican  aggression,  and  have  Brazil.    From  the  fact  tnat  some  of  them  are  of  light 

several  times  since  taken  occasion  to  show  their  sym-  gtin  and  wear  beards,  a  legend  has  grown  up  that  they 

pathy  with  their  fighting  kinsmen.    The  Mavo  are  are  descended  from  Spanish  soldiers  of  Ursua's  expedi- 

sedentary  and  industrious  farmers  and  mme  laborers,  tion  (1569),  but  it  is  probable  that  the  difference  comes 

and  skilful  artisans  m  the  towns.    They  cultivate  from  later  admixture  of  captive  blood.  As  a  tribe  they 

com,  squashes,  beans,  tobacco,  cotton,  and  maguey,  ^re  full-blood  and  t3rpically  Indian.    It  has  been  sug- 

from  wnich  last  they  distill  the  mescal  intoxicant,  gested  that  the  story  may  have  originated  from  a 

Their  houses  are  light  structures  of  cane  and  poles,  confusion  of  "Marafiones",  the  name  given  to  the  fd- 

thatched  with  palm  leaves.    They  are  all  Cathohc  and  lowera  of  Ursua  and  Aguirre,  with  Mayonmas,  which 

very  much  Mexicanized,  though  they  retain  their  seems  to  \ye  from  the  Quichua  language  or  Peru, 

language,  and  have  manjr  of  the  old  Indian  ideas  still  Markham  interprets  the  name  as  "Men  of  Muyu" 

latent  in  them.    Their  principal  town  is  Santa  Cruz  de  (Mu3ru-nina),  indicating  an  ancient  residence  about 

Mayo,  and  they  are  variously  estimated  at  from  7000  Moyobamba  (Muyubamba),  farther  to  the  west.    One 

to  10,000  souls.    The  most  important  study  of  the  of  their  subtribes  is  known  as  "Barbudo"  (Spanish, 

language,  the  Cahita,  is  a  ^mmar  (Arte)  by  an  Bearded).    Other  subtribes  are  Itucale,  Muomo  or 

anonymous  Jesuit  published  m  Mexico  m  1737.  Musquima,  Urarina.  The  Mayonma  tribes  were  among 

B^^"o?J:  ^SS.'SfSiSr^^SS  ts^TnidlSnsJi^il  thosegathertxiintothemissionsoftheMa^ 

RiBAs,  Triumphoa  de  Nueatra  Santa  Fe  (Madrid.  1546);  Wahd,  (see  Maina  Indians)  m  the  seventeenth  and  eight- 

Mexico  in  I8t7  (London,  1828).  eenth  centuries,  being  represented  in  the  missions  of 

James  Moonet.  San  Joaquin  (Mayonma  proper),  Nuestra  Sefiora  del 

Carmen  (Mayonma  proper),  and  San  Xavier  (Urarina 

Masror  (Major,  Mair),  John,  also  called  Joannes  and  Itucale).    By  the  repeated  attacks  of  the  Portu- 

MaJoris  and  Haddingtonus  Scotus,  a  Scotch  phi-  guese  slave-hunters  (see  Mameluco)  between  1680 

losopher  and  historian,  b.atGleghomie  near  Haddmg-  and  1710,  and  the  revolts  of  the  mission  Indians  in 


particularly 

1494  and  as  doctor  of  theology  in  the  College  of  Mon-  enter  their  territory,  even  successfully  repelling  a 

taigu  in  1505.    He  spent  the  greater  part  of  his  re-  joint  government  exploring  expedition  in  1866.    In 

maining  life  as  professor  of  logic  and  theology;  from  person  they  are  tall  and  weU  formed,  with  rather  deli- 

1505-18  at  the  University  of  Pans,  from  1518-23  at  cate  features,  going  perfectly  naked,  with  flowing  hair 

the  University  of  Glasgow,  from  1523-5  at  the  Univer-  cut  across  the  forehead.    Instead  of  bows,  they  use 

sity  of  St.  Andrew's,  and  from  1525-1530  again  at  spears,  clubs  and  blow-guns,  and  are  famous  for  the 

Paris.     In  1530  he  returned  to  St.  Andrews  and  was  strength  of  the  deadly  euran  poison  with  which  they 

made  provost  of  St.  Salvator's  College,  a  position  tip  their  arrows.    They  avoid  the  river  banks  and  do 

which  ne  occupied  till  his  death.    One  of  the  greatest  not  use  canoes.    The  charge  of  cannibalism  has  not 

scholastic  philosophers  of  his  times,  he  had  among  his  been  proven.    (See  also  Pano.) 

pupils  the  future  Scotch  reformers  John  Knox,  Pat-        Rodriquu,  Anuuonaay  Maraiion  (Madrid,  1684);  Hbrtab, 

rick  Hamilton,  and  George  Buchanan.    In  philosophy  CatatoffodelaaLenouaa  (Madrid.  1800);  Marmam,  7Vifr«  in  the 

he  was  the  chief  exponent  of  the  nommalistic  or  i886f;BRiim)K.rA4ii4mmcan/Jace(New  virk.  1891). 
terministic  tendency  which  was  then  prevalent  at  James  Moonet. 

the  Universitv  of  Paris,  while,  as  a  canonist,  he  held 

that  the  chief  ecclesiastical  authority  does  not  reside        Mayotte,  No88i-B6a  and  Oomoro,  Prefecturi 

in  the  pope  but  in  the  whole  Church.    In  like  manner  Apostouc  of  (Matott^,  NossiBEiB,  et  Comorjb). — 

he  hela  tnat  the  source  of  civil  authority  lies  with  the  Mayotte  is  the  farthest  south  and  most  important  oi 

people  who  transfer  it  to  the  ruler  ana  can  wrest  it  the  group  of  Comoro  Islands:  Mayotte  (Maote),  An* 

from  him,  even  by  force,  if  necessary.    He  remained  a  juan  (Insuani),  Mohilla  (Moheli),  and  Great  Comoro 

Catholic  till  his  death,  though  in  1549  he  advocated  (Komoro,  i.  e.  where  there  is  nre,  or  Angasidya) 

a  national  Church  for  Scotland.  His  numerous  literary  These  islands,  with  Nossi-B^  Oc^r^  island)  and  Santa 

productions  were  all  written  in  Latin.    His  chief  Maria  (Nossi  Burai,  Nossi  Ibrahim),  form  the  archi« 

work, ''Historiamaj oris  Britannise,  tamAnglisequam  pelago  known  as  ''the  Satellites  of  Madagascar". 

Scotiu"  (Paris,  1521  and  Edinburgh,  1740),  trana-  The  Comoro  Islands,  with  their  craggy  evergreen 

lated  into  English  for  the  first  time  by  Archibald  Con-  shores,  look   like  the  cones  of  submerged  groves 

stable, "  History  of  Greater  Britain,  both  En^nd  and  separated  from  the  mainland  by  deep  abjrsse?.    Tbc 


ICATB 


91 


M4TB0N 


smnmita  are  not  all  of  the  same  altitude;  the  high- 
est point  of  Mayotte  is  not  over  1800  feet,  whereas 
the  highest  peak  of  Anjuan  is  about  5000  feet, 
while  the  central  cone  of  Great  Comoro,  whose 
volcanic  activity  is  not  yet  exhausted,  rises  to 
over  7000  feet.  Two  monsoons,  consemiently  two 
seasons,  alternately  affect  the  climate  of  the  archipel- 
ago, which  is  sometimes  visited  by  cyclones.  The  soil 
of  these  islands  is  very  fertile,  and  produces  in  abun- 
dance vanilla,  cloves,  sugar-cane,  coffee,  etc.  The  total 
population  is  about  80,000,  mostlv  African  negroes, 
often  erroneously  called  Makoas  (a  Mosambique  tribe). 
Hiere  are  also  some  Sakalavas  from  Madagascar, 
moetly  former  slaves  freed  when  the  islands  were  oo- 
eupied  by  the  French.  This  Comoro  Archipelago  was 
for  many  centuries  an  Arabian  colony  ana  was  once 
very  prosperous.  As  they  navigated  alone  the  Afri- 
can coast,  the  merchants  of  Idumea  and  Yemen  cre- 
ated a  special  and  interesting  tvpe,  the  Comorinos. 
Conuningled  with  these  Arabian  half-breeds,  once  the 
sole  owners  of  the  country,  there  are  now  Banians 
from  Cutch  and  Hindus  from  Bombay,  who  carry  on 
almost  the  entire  commerce.  There  are  also  a  few  Eu- 
ropean or  Creole  planters  and  officials  from  Reunion 
or  Mauritius,  ni  1843  the  French  Government, 
called  in  by  the  sultan,  took  possession  of  Mayotte, 
widch  became,  with  Nossi-B6,  a  post  of  surveillance 
over  Biadagascar.  All  these  islands  now  form  a 
French  colony.  In  1844,  Mayotte,  Nossi-B^,  and  the 
Comoros  were  made  an  Apostolic  prefectiue  and  con- 
fided to  the  Fathers  of  the  Holy  Ghost.  In  1898, 
when  the  same  missionaries  were  given  the  ecclesiasti- 
cal administration  of  Northern  Madagascar,  these 
smaller  islands  and  Santa  Maria  were  attached  to  the 
Apostolic  Vicariate  at  Diego  Snares.  Santa  Maria 
and  Nossi-B6  have  resident  missionaries;  the  other 
islands  are  regularly  visited. 

The  population  of  these  islands  is  largely  Moham- 
medan and  therefore  strongly  anti-Christian;  for  this 
reason  little  religious  progress  is  made.  In  all  of  the 
islands  there  are  hardly  three  or  four  thousand  Catho- 
lics.   There  are  no  Protestants. 

MiMMumM  Catholiem  (Rome,  1907). 

Alexander  Lb  Rot. 

MagrTi  Beda,  a  Bavarian  Benedictine  philosopher, 
i^wlogist,  and  poet,  b.  15  January,  1742,  at  Daiting 
near  Augsburg;  d.  28  April,  1794,  m  the  monastery  of 
Heiligenkreus  in  DonauwOrth.  After  studying  at 
Scheyem,  Augsburg^  Munich  and  Freiburg  im  Breis- 
gau.  he  took  vows  m  the  Benedictine  monastery  of 
Heiiigenkieua  on  29  September,  1762,  studied  theol- 
ogy at  the  common  study-house  of  the  Bavarian 
Benedictines  in  Benediktbeuem,  was  ordained  priest 
on  6  January,  1766,  taught  mathematics,  philosophy, 
rhetoric,  theology  and  canon  law  at  his  monastery, 
where  he  was  also  librarian  and,  for  some  time,  prior. 
The  last  28  years  of  his  life  he  spent  in  his  monastery, 
with  the  exception  of  four  years  during  which  he  was 
pastor  of  Mandling.  He  was  an  exemplary  reUgious 
and  a  popular  preacher,  but,  as  a  philosopher,  he  was 
imbued  with  the  subjectivistic  criticism  of  Kant  and, 
as  a  theologian,  he  was  irenic  beyond  measure.  In  a 
letter  to  Henry  Braim,  superintendent  of  the  Bavarian 
sdiools,  he  sets  forth  the  opinion  that  a  unification  of 
the  Catholic  and  the  Protestant  religion  is  possible. 
Braun  published  this  letter  without  the  consent  of  the 
author  under  the  title  "  Der  erste  Schritt  zur  kUnftigen 
Vereinigung  der  katholischen  imd  evangelischen 
Kirche"  (Munich.  1778).  In  consequence  Mayr  was 
censured  by  the  Bishop  of  Augsburg  and  temporarily 
forbidden  to  teach  theology.  His  chief  work,  '*  Ver- 
theidigung  der  nattkrlichen,  christlichen  und  katho- 
lischen Religion  nach  den  BedUrfnissen  unserer  Zeiten" 
in  three  parts  (Augsburg,  1787-90),  is  equally  irenic 
and  permeated  with  the  philosophy  of  Kant.  It  was 
placed  on  the  Index  in  1792  and  ably  refuted  by  the 


ex-Jesuit  Hochbichler  (Augsburg,  1790).  Londner 
l^ra)  enumerates  58  literary  productions  of  Mayr. 
They  include  21  dramas,  four  volumes  of  sermons 
(Augsburg,  1777),  numerous  occasional  poems,  and 
various  treatises  on  philosophical,  theological,  and 
mathematical  subjects. 

Baader,  Lexikon  veraloH>ener  baierUcher  SchriflsUUer  dea  18 
tt.  IQJahrh.,  I,  ii  (Augsburg  u.  LeipBig,  1825),  12-16;  Lindner, 
Die  SchriftaUller  des  Beneaiktiner  Ordena  im  hetUigem  KdntQ' 
reieh  Bayem  Meit  1760,  II  (Ratisbon,  1880),  137-41. 

Michael  Ott. 

Mayron  (de  Matbonib),  Francis,  b.  about  1280, 

Erobably  at  Mayronnes,  Department  of  Basses- Alpes, 
e  entered  the  Franciscan  order  at  the  neighbour- 
ing Di^e  (or  Sist^ron).  He  had  been  teaching  at 
the  University  of  Paris  for  a  long  time  as  bachelor  of 
theology,  when,  on  24  May,  1323,  John  XXII.  at  the 
request  of  King  Hobert  of  Naples,  commanaed  the 
chancellor  of  the  university  to  confer  the  degree  of 
master  of  theology  upon  him.  On  27  Sept.,  1317,  St. 
Elsear  de  Sabran  died  at  Paris  in  Francis's  arms. 
Francis  was  afterwards  sent  to  Italy,  and  died  at  Pia- 
cenza,  probably  26  July,  1327.  It  is  generally  ac- 
cepted that  Mayron  introduced  the  famous  *' Actus 
Sorbonicus"  into  the  University  of  Paris.  This  oc- 
curred at  a  disputation  lasting  from  5  a.  m.  to  7  p.  m., 
in  which  the  advocate  had  to  defend  his  theses  against 
any  and  all  opponents  who  might  offer  to  attack  them, 
without  any  assistance  and  without  either  food  or 
drink.  Denifle  has,  however,  denied  this  C'Chartu- 
larium  Universit.  Paris^',  II,  Paris,  1891, 273),  though 
only  for  this  reason,  that  no  "document"  mentions 
anything  about  an^  such  introduction  by  Mayron. 
Mayron  was  a  distinguished  pupil  of  Duns  Scotus, 
whose  teaching  he  usually  followed.  He  was  sur- 
named  Doctor  acutus,  or  Doctor  illuminatus,  also  Ma- 
gister  abetractionum.  His  "Scripta  super  4  libros 
Sententiarum"  appeared  at  Venice,  in  1507-8,  1519- 
20,  1520,  1526, 1556,  1567. 

The  treatises  added  thereto.  ''De  formalitatibus", 
"De  primo  principio",  "Explanatio  divinorum  ter- 
minorum",  are  not  his,  but  have  been  collected  from 
his  teachings.  The  "De  univocatione  entis",  edited 
with  other  writings  at  Ferrara  before  1490,  is  Ma3rron's. 
His  work  "CJonniatus",  on  the  sentences,  appeuned 
at  Treviso  m  1476;  Basle,  1489,  1579(?);  (3olo«ne, 
1510.  Distinct  from  the  latter  are  the  "Conflatile", 
Lyons,  1579;  "Passus  super  Universalia",  "Prsedica- 
menta",  etc.,  Bologna,  1479,  Lerida,  1485,  Toulouse, 
1490,  Venice.  1489;  "Sermones  de  tempore  cum  Qua- 
dragesimali' ,  two  editions  without  place  or  date, 
probably  Brussels,  1483,  and  Cologne,  Venice,  1491; 
^'Sermones  de  Sanctis",  Venice,  1493,  Basle,  1498 
(with  fourteen  dissertations);  "TVactatus  de  Concep- 
tione  B.M.V.",  ed.  Alva  and  Astorga  in  "  Monumenta 
Seraphica  pro  Immaculata  Conceptione",  Louvain, 
1665;  "Theologic®  Veritates  in  St.  Augustinum  de 
Civitate  Dei",  Cologne,  1473,  Treviso,  1476,  Toulouse, 
1488,  Venice,  1489(  ?) ; "  Veritates  ex  libris  St.  Augustini 
de  Trinitate ' ' ,  Lyons,  1 520.  There  are  many  other  un- 
edited writings  on  itte  works  of  St.  Augustine,  and 
philosophical  and  theological  works,  which  testifv  to 
the  extensive  knowledge  and  the  penetrating  intellect 
of  this  eminent  pupil  of  Duns  Scotus.  The  treatise, 
"  De  celebratione  Misss",  is  also  probably  by  him  (cf. 
Ad.  Franz,  "Die  Messe  im  deutschen  Mittelalter", 

Freiburg,  1902, 493-5). 

RiNONioo  A  PxBis,  Liber  Conformitatum  in  AruUecta  Francis^ 
eana,  IV  (Quaracchi,  1906).  339,  523, 540.  544;  Wadding.  Scrip 
tores  Ordmia  Minorum  (Rome,  1650),  123-«;  Und.  (1806),  84 
ibid.  (1906),  85-6;  Sbaralea,  Supplementum  ad  Scriptorea  O.M. 
(Rome.  1806).  267-72  (2nd  ed.,  ibid..  1908),  283-88:  Job.  a 
S.  Antonio,  Bibliotheca  univeraa  franciacana,  I  (Madrid,  1732), 
405  aq.;  Fbret.  La  FaculUde  ThAologie  de  Parxa,  III.  323-30 
(Paris.  1884—);  Stockl.  OeachichU  der  Philoaophie  imMiUd' 
aUer,  II  (Mainx.  1865),  II.  868;  HAmttAU.  Hiatoire  de  la  Philoao- 
phie aeolaatigue,  II.  ii  (Faria.  1880),  298  sq.;  'BiiraTKR,Nomenclator 
hierariua,  II  (Innabruck.  1906),  522-25;  Ghevaubr,  Riperioira 
da  aoureaa  Mai.,  U  (Parifl,  1907).  3271. 

MiCHABIi  BlHI^ 


Hanriiii  Jdlxb,  b.  either  at  Rome  or  at  Fiadiu  in  oontributed  to  hia  elevBtioa,  aad  Annc'a  aS«etiao  for 
the  Abruin,  of  a  my  old  Sicilian  family,  14  July,  him  was  the  be«t  guarantee  of  hia  ecmtinuanoe  in  office. 
1602;  d.  at  Viiioennee,g  March,  leai.  Hisfatfaerwas  The  i>i«eiae  character  of  hia  i«latiooa  with  Anne  of 
majordomo  to  the  Cdonna  family  at  Rome.  Chie  of  hia  Austria  is  one  of  the  enigmas  of  history.  Certain  let- 
uncles,  Giulio  Haiarini  (1544-1622),  a  Jesuit,  enjoyed  taia  of  Anne  of  Austria  to  Haiarin,  published  by 
!t  great  reputation  in  Italy .  particubriv  at  Bologna,  as  Cousin,  and  admisstona  made  by  Anne  to  Hme  de 
a  pteacher,  and  published  several  volumea  of  sacred  Brienne  and  recorded  in  the  Ifemoin  of  Lom^nie  de 


eloquence.    His  youth  was  full  of  excitement;  he  ao-  Brienne,  prove  that  the  queen  regent  waa  deeply 

companied  the  future  Cardinal  Colonna  to  Madrid ;  he  attached  to  the  cardinal.    Still,  "  my  sensibilities  have 

vaa  m  turn  a  captain  of  pontifical  troops  and  then  a  no  part  in  it ",  she  said  to  Hme  de  Brienne.     Few  hia- 

pontifical  diplomat  in  the  Voltelline  War  (1624)  and  tonans  give  credence  to  Anne's  assertion  on  this  point, 

the  Uantuan  War  of  Succession  (1628-30) .  The  truce  and  some  go  ao  far  a«  to  accept  the  allegations  of  the 

which  he  negotiated  (26  October,  1630)  between  the  Princess  Palatine  in  her  letters  of  1717,  1718,  and 


French,  on  one  aide,  aikd  itia  Spa 


insignia  of  a  cardinal  until  his  death ;  probably  lww_ 
even  a  cardinal-priest,  though  he  never  visited  Rome 
after  his  elevation  to  the  purple  and  seems  never  to 
have  received  the  hat.  And  m  any  case  he  held  the 
title  of  Bishop  of  Hets  from  1653  to  1668. 

Uaiarin  continued  Richelieu's  policy  against  the 
House  of  Austria.  Aided  by  the  victories  of  Condi 
and  Turenne,  he  auoceeded  in  bringing  the  Thirty 
Years'  War  to  a  conclusion  with  the  'Treaties  of  Mon- 
ster and  OmabrOdc  (Treatv  of  WestphalU),  which 
gave  Alsace  (without  Strasourg)  to  France;  and  in 
1659  he  ended  the  war  with  Spain  in  the  Peace  of  the 
Pyrenees,  which  gave  to  France  Roussillon,  Cerdagne. 
and  part  of  the  Low  Countries.  Twice,  in  1651  and 
1652,  he  waa  driven  out  rf  the  country  by  the  Pariia- 
mentary  Fronde  and  the  Fronde  of  tne  Nobles,  with 
the  innumerable  pamphlete  (Vasarinades)  whiui  thQr 
published  against  him,  but  the  final  defeat  of  both 
Frondes  was  the  victoiy  d  royal  absolutism,  and 
MaEsrin  thus  prepared  toe  way  lor  Louis  XIV's  om- 
nipotence. Lastly,  in  1668,  he  placed  Germany,  in 
some  sort,  under  the  youn^ king's  prot»cti<m,  by  form- 
ing the  League  of  the  Rhme,  which  was  destined  to 
hold  the  House  of  Austria  in  check.  Thus  did  he  lay 
the  foundation  of  Louis  XIV's  greatness.  Bis  foreign 
policy  was,  as  Richelieu's  had  often  been,  indifferent 
to  the  interests  of  CathoUdsm;  the  Peace  of  West- 
phalia ^ye  its  solemn  sanction  to  the  legal  existence 
fall  into  the  hands  of  the  French.  The  Spaniards  tried  of  Calvinism  in  Germany^  and,  while  the  nuncio  vainly 
to  injure  him  with  Pope  Urban  VIII,  but  the  influence  protested.  Protestant  prmces  were  ntwarded  with  seo- 
of  Cardinal  Antonio  Barberini  and  a  letter  from  Rich-  ulariied  bishoprics  and  abbacies  for  their  political 
elieu  saved  him.  He  became  canon  of  St.  John  Lat-  opposition  to  Austria.  Neither  did  it  matter  much  to 
eran,  vice-legate  at  Avignon  (1632),  and  nuncio  extra-  him  whether  the  monarchical  principle  was  respected 
ordinaryinFrance(1634).  "The  Spaniards  complained  or  contemned  in  a  foreign  country:  he  was  Cromwell's 
that  in  this  lost  post  Maxarin  made  it  his  exclusive  sUy.  Towards  the  Protestants  he  pursued  an  adroit 
business  to  support  Richelieu's  policy,  and  he  waa  dis-  policy.  In  1654  Cromwell  opened  negotiations  with 
missed  from  the  nunciature  by  Urban  VIII  (17  Jan.,  the  CalviniHts  of  the  South  of  France,  who,  the  year 
1636).  Soon  after  leaving  the  papal  service,  he  went  before,  had  taken  up  arms  in  Ardfiche  to  secure  certain 
to  Paris,  placed  himself  at  Richelieu's  disposition,  and  hberiiea  tor  themselves,  Hosarin  knew  how  to  keep 
was  naturalised  as  a  French  subject  in  April,  1639.  the  Calvinista  amused  with  fine  words,  promises,  and 
Richelieu  oommissioned  him,  late  in  1640  to  sign  a  calculated  delays:  for  six  years  they  believed  them- 
secret  treaty  between  France  and  Prince  Thomas  of  selves  to  be  on  the  eve  of  recovering  their  privileges 
Savoy,  and  caused  him  to  be  made  a  cardinal  on  16  and  in  the  end  they  obtained  nothing.  Ttw  cardinal 
Dec,  1641.  Shortly  before  Richelieu's  death,  Mazarin  well  knew  how  to  retain  in  the  kind's  service  valuable 
by  a  piece  of  clever  management,  bad  been  able  to  Protestants  like  Turenne  and  Goaaion. 
effect  the  reoccupation  of  Sedan  by  French  troops,  and  His  personal  relations  with  the  Holy  See  were  hardly 
Richelieu  on  his  deathbed(4  Dec.  1642)  recommended  oordial.  Hecould  not  prevent  Cardinal  Pamfili,afriend 
him  to  the  king.  On  the  death  of  Louis  XIII  (14  Hay,  of  Spain,  from  being  elected  pope  (15  Sept.,  1644)  as 
1642),  Anne  of  Austria,  leaving  the  Due  d'Orlfiana  the  Innocent  X.  He  received  in  Francs,  one  after  the 
shadowy  title  of  heutenant^general  of  the  kingdom,  other,  Cardinals  Antonio  and  Francesco  Barberini, 
gave  the  reality  of  power  to  Uaiarin,  who  first  pre-  nephews  of  the  late  pope,  and  the  Bull  of  21  Februaiy, 
tended  to  be  on  the  point  of  setting  out  for  Italy,  and  1646,  fulminated  by  Innocent  X  against  the  cardinal, 
then  pretended  that  his  acceptance  of  office  was  only  who  were  absenting  themselves  without  authorisation. 
provisional,  until  such  time  as  the  peace  of  Europe  (by  the  tenor  of  which  Bull  Hatarin  himself  was  bound 
should  be  re-established.  to  repair  to  Rome),  was  voted  by  the  Parhament  of 

But  Hasarin,  like  Richelieu,  waa,  in  the  event,  to  Paris  "  null  and  abusive  ".  Hasann  obtained  a  decree 
retain  power  until  his  death,  first  under  the  queen  re-  of  the  Royal  Council  forbidding  money  to  be  remitted 
gent  and  then  under  the  king  after  Louis  XlV  (q.  v.)  to  Rome  for  expediting  Bulls,  there  waa  a  show  of  pre- 
bad  attained  his  maiority.  His  very  humble  ap-  paring  an  expedition  against  Avignon,  and  Innocent 
pearanoe  and  manner,  his  gentle  and  kindly  waya,  had    X,  yielding  to  these  menaces,  ended  by  restoring  tJwir 


CARDINAL  MAZARIN 

PAINTINQ    BT    PHILIPPB 


»  I  ,■ 


□roperty  and  dignities  to  Haiarin'sproMg^s,  the  Bai^  dt 

twnni.    Following  up  his  policy  of  buDying  the  pope,  ^^ 

Mmiana  sent  two  neets  to  iOB  Neapolitan  court  to  ^ 

•cite  the  Spanish  prentHoa  nearest  to  the  papal  fraa~  r  dt 

tiers.     Apart  from  thia,  he  had  no  Italian  policy,  |"g» 

properly  speaking,  and  hia  demoostratiohs  in  Italy  ^ 

tad  DO  other  object  than  to  compel  Spain  to  keep  her  rui 

tro<^>s  there,  and  to  bring  the  pope  to  a  complaisant  ^ 

attitude  towards  Franoe  and  towards  Haaarin'a  own  ^ 

relations.    The  elevation  of  his  brother  Blichael  Mac-  trim 

arin  to  the  eardinalate  (October,  1047)  was  one  of  his  '^ 

dipltMnatic  victories.  J5 

Though  not  interested  in  questions  of  theolo^, 
Haiarin  detested  the  Jansenists  for  the  part  taken  kiy 

■ome  of  them— disavowed  however,  by  Antoine  Uuatac  Indiana, — An  important  Mexican  tribe  of 
Amauld — in  the  Fronde,  and  for  their  support  (rf  Car-  Zapotecan  linijuiBtio  stock,  occupying  the  mountain 
dinal  de  Reti  (q.  v.).  A  declaration  oi  the  king  in  region  ot  nor^-eaet  Oaxaca,  chiefly  in  the  districts  of 
July,  1653,  and  an  assembly  of  bishops  in  May,  1666,  Cmcatlan  and  Teotitlan,  and  estimated  to  number 
over  which  Uaiarin  presided,  gave  executive  loree  to  from  18,000  to  20,000  souls.  Their  chief  town,  Huan- 
the  decrees  of  Innocent  X  against  Jansenism.  The  tla,  with  its  dependent  villages,  has  a  population  of 
orderoondemningp8scars"Provinoiales"tobebunit.  about  7,000.  'nieu'popularname"MaEateca"ia  that 
the  order  for  the  dismissal  of  pupils,  novices,  and  giventhemby  the  Aatec  and  is  said  to  mean  "Lords  of 
postulants  from  the  two  oonventa  of  Port-Royai,  the  {he  Deer";  they  call  thomselvea  A-a,  with  nasal  pro- 
formuht  prepared  by  the  Assembly  of  the  Clergy  nur.ciation  (Bauer).  Althoueh  closely  related  to  their 
a^inst  the  "Augustmus"  (1661),  which  formula  all  neighbours,  the  formerly  highly  cultured  Zapotcc  and 
ecdenaatios  had  to  sign — all  these  must  be  regarded  Mixtec,  the  Maaatcc  were^ruder  habit,  as  became  a 
as  eiHsodes  of  Uaaarin  s  anti-Janseniat  policy.  On  his  nee  of  mountaineers.  Like  the  Zapotec  also  they 
deathbed  be  warned  the  king  "not  to  tolerate  the  muntained  their  independence  apinst  the  powerful 
Janseniat  sect,  not  even  their  name  ".  Ait«c  empire,  with  which  they  maintained  almost  con- 
Having  little  by  little  become  "as  powerful  as  Qod  stant  defenaive  war.  The  principal  portion  of  the 
the  Father  when  the  world  be^n  '  enjoying  the  present  state  of  Oaxaca  was  brought  under  Spanish 
levenuea  of  twenty-seven  abbacies,  always  ready  to  dominion  by  Cort^a  in  1521.  In  1535  it  was  estab- 
enrich  himself  by  whatever  means,  and  pceseasipg  a  lished  as  a  diocese,  with  Father  Juan  Lopes  de  Barate 
fortune  equivalent  to  about  $40,000,000  in  twentieth-  of  the  Dominicans,  as  ita  first  bishop,  tbroush  whose 
century  American  monev,  !4a«arin^  towards  the  end  influence  the  converaion  ot  the  natives  was  intrusted 
of  his  hfe,  multiphed  in  Paris  the  manifestations  of  bis  to  missionaries  of  that  order,  by  whom  it  was  success- 
wealth.  He  organised  a  tree  lottery,  at  hia  own  ex-  (u]]y  accomplished  in  spite  of  the  extreme  devotion  of 
Knse,  with  prises  amounting  to  more  than  a  million  the  Indianstotheirancient  rites,  even  to  secreting  their 
inca,  collected  in  his  own  palace  more  wonderful  sacred  images  beneath  the  very  altar  in  order  tliat 
things  than  the  king's  palace  contained,  bad  no  objeo-  they  might  unsuspected  do  reverence  to  the  one  while 
tion  toprceidingat  toumamentB,  exhibitions  ot  horse-  appearing  to  venerate  the  other.  In  1575  the  Jesuits 
hip,   and   oallets,   and   patronised   the   earliest  reinforced  the  Dominica 


uuuiBui^,  luni  ijBUEio,  a-u  j»i,.u>-~<.u  ^—.  •«> — •  iciiuuivcu  bue  Dominicans.  Even  to-day,  while  out- 
efforts  of  the  comic  poet  Holi6ra.  The  young  Louia  vardly  conforming  to  all  the  rules  ot  the  Church  and 
XIV  entertained  a  profound  affection  for  him  and,  manifesting  the  greatest  deference  and  affection 
whatismore.fellinlovewiththeeardinal'stwoniecea,  toward  Ute  resident  priests,  the  Maaateo  retain  most 
Olympe  Mandni  and  Uarie  Hancini,  one  after  the  of  their  ancient  bcliefa  and  many  of  their  ceremonies, 
o^r.  Maaarin  sent  Marie  away,  to  prevent  the  king  By  tolerance  of  the  Mexican  Government  they  main- 
from  entertaining  the  idea  ot  marrying  her.  But  it.  tained  their  tribal  autonomy  under  their  hereditaiT 
for  reasons  of  state,  be  refused  to  become  the  uncle  oi  chiefs  up  to  1857,  as  also  a  profeeaional  keeper  of  their 
the  King  of  France,  it  seems  that  there  were  momenta  sacred  traditions,  the  last  of  whom,  a  descendant  of 
when  he  dreamed  of  the  tiara:  the  Abb^Cboiay  asserts  their  ancient  kings,  died  in  1869. 

Uiat  Maaarin  died  "in  the  vision  of  being  made  pope".  Their  native  cult,  atill  kept  up  to  a  large  ext«nt  in 
One  reminiscence  at  least  of  the  old  political  ideas  of  combination  with  the  newer  rites,  was  an  animal  wof- 
Christian  Europe  is  to  be  fourtd  in  his  will:  he  left  the  ship,  the  snake,  panther,  alligator,  and  eagle  being 
pope  a  fund  ^00,000  livres)  to  prosecute  the  war  laoet  venerated.  The  soul  after  death  went  to  the 
against  the  Turks.  The  cardinal,  who  throughout  hia  "kingdom  of  animals",  where  for  a  long  time  it  wan- 
life  had  given  but  little  thought  to  the  interests  of  deredabout.beingassiBtedorattacked  by  the  animals 
Chriatianity,  leems  to  have  aou^t  pardon  bv  remem-  there,  according  as  the  dead  person  had  been  kind  or 
bering  them  on  bis  deathbed.  The  same  will  directed  cruel  to  them  in  life.  At  one  point  in  the  journey  the 
the  foundation  of  the  Colle^  of  the  Four  Nations,  tor  soul  was  assisted  across  a  wide  stream  by  a  black  dog. 
the  free  education  of  aixtv  children  from  those  prov-  It  seems  to  have  been  held  that  the  sou!  was  finallvre- 
inces  which  he  bad  united  to  France.  To  this  college  incarnated  in  an  animal.  Hence  in  many  villages 
be  bequeatjied  the  library  now  known  as  the  Biblio-  black  dogs  arc  still  kept  in  almost  every  family  and 
th^ue  Haaarine.  Maiarin's  nieces  made  princely  buried  in  the  grave  with  the  owner.  The  ancient  aow- 
marriacea:  Anne  Marie  Martinoiii  became  the  Prin-  ingand  harvest  rit«s  also  are  still  kept  up,  with  invo- 
ceMe  (M  Conti;  Laura  Martinoiii,  the  Duchesse  de  cation  ot  the  animal  gods  and  epirita  of  the  mountain, 
Hod&K;  laure  Hancini  died  in  1657,  Duchesse  de  and  burial  of  curious  aacred  bundles  in  the  fields 
Hercteur;  Olympe  Mancini  became  Comtesse  de  Sola-  Marriages  and  baptisms  are  solemniicd  in  regular 
Bona'  Hortenae  Hancini,  Marquise  de  la  Meilleraie  and  church  form  by  the  priest,  but  the  baptism  is  followed 
Duebene  de  Maaarin;  Marie  Hancini,  Countess  Co-  later  by  a  house  festival,  of  which  a  principal  feature 
lonna;MarieAnneHancini,Ducheasede Bouillon.  All  is  the  washing  of  the  godfather's  hands  in  order  to 
these  women,  and  particularly  the  last  four,  had  sin-  cleanac  him  of  the  ain  which  has  come  upon  him  from 
(ularly  stormy  careen.  holding  the  infant  in  bis  arms  during  the  baptism. 
CabDiL  xxD  n'AvMit,  td»..Lntra  du  Cardinat  Vatatw  The  occupations  of  the  Maiatec  are  farming  and  the 
ptHdaot  *m  minUUTt  (9  vok..  Faiu.  1872-1906)!  R,i*ehiu  simpler  trades.  The  women  are  expert  weavera  of 
t^  .  l''''™f;J'^:^}'%'^i^^i'f;^,*',^'^J^'^  cotton.  The  houses  are  light  huta  daubed  with  clay 
i'^^UyjJLa^^:!^^y^'!'^M£i^Ut  and  thatched  with  pahnlea^s.    Men  and  women  are 


94 

fully  dressed,  the  women  being  picturesque  in  shawls  Maiiara  del  VaUOp  Diocese  of  (Mazabiensis). — 

and'  gowns  of  their  own  weaving,  decorated  with  rib-  The  city  is  situated  in  the  province  of  Trenani,  Sicily, 

bons  and  worked  with  human  and  animal  figiu'es,  par-  on  the  Mediterranean,  at  the  mouth  of  tne  Massaca 

ticularly  that  of  the  eagle.    They  have  still  their  own  River.     It  carries  on  a  lar|^  lemon  trade,  has  several 

calendfur  of  thirteen  months,  wilii  days  bearing  animal  tnineral  springs  in  the  vicinity,  and  occupies  the  site  of 

names.    The  second  volume  of  PimenteFs  ' '  Cuadro  "  the  emporium  of  ancient  Selinus.    The  port  veiy  earl^ 

contains  a  sketch  of  the  languaee.    See  also  Zapotec.  attracted  a  Megarian  colony  (630  B.  c.) ;  in  409  b.  c.  it 

Bancrovt,  Hitt.  Mexico,  II  (San  Frandsoo,  188Q);  Baukb,  was  taken  by  tne  Carthaginians:  and  in  249  was  com- 

f^SSJ^^r'Sin^^  (l!^%lfrSSS!^;^:SS3c^  oletely  d«troved  and  iteUaWtante  deported  to  lily- 

Reuse  (N.  Y..  1891);  Pxuentbl.  Cuadro  ,  .  .  de  laa  Lerntuae  b»um  (Marsala).    Gradually  there  arose  around  the 

Miaiiauude  Af^rico(2  vols.,  Mexico,  1862-5) ;  Starr,  In  Indian  port  a  new  city,  captured  by  the  Saiacens  in  827.    It 

Metteo  (Chicaao,  1908).                        Jambb  Moonby.  was  later  made  the  capital  of  one  of  the  three  great 

MaidelBiii.    See  Avesta  The.  ^^'^  ^^^  which  the  Sa^'acens  divided  Sicily.    In  the 

'                _       '    _  '                -n.  t        *  struggle  of  the  Saracens  against  the  Normans  for  the 

Maienod,  Chables  Joseph  Eugene  de,  Bishop  of  possession  of  the  island,  Mazsara  was  hotly  contested, 

Marseilles,  and  Founder  of  the  Congregation  of  the  especially  in  1076  when  the  Saracens  were  completely 

Oblates  of  Mary  Immaculate,  b.  at  Aix,  in  Provence,  routed  by  Coimt  Roger.    The  episcopal  See  of  Lily- 

1  August,  1782;  d.  at  Marseilles  21  May,  1861.    De  baeum  was  then  transferred  toMazsara.     Of  thebish- 

Mazenod  was  the  offspring  of  a  noble  family  of  south-  ops  of  Lilybseum  the  best  known  is  Paschasinus,  legate 

em  France,  and  even  in  his  tender  years  he  showed  un-  of  Leo  I  at  the  Council  of  Chalcedon  (461).    Themst 

mistakable  evidence  of  a  pious  disposition  and  a  high  Bishop  of  Mazsara  was  Stefano  de  Ferro,  a  relative 

and  independent  spirit.    Sharing  the  fate  of  most  of  Count  Roger  (1093).    The  cathedral  was  then 

French  noblemen  at  the  time  of  the  Revolution,  he  founded,  and  later  embellished  by  Bishop  Tristiano 

passed  some  years  as  an  exile  in  Italy,  after  which  he  (1157).     Other  noteworthy  bishops  were  Cardinal 

studied  for  the  priesthood,  though  he  was  the  last  Bessarion  (1449);  Giovanm  da  Monteaperto  (1470), 

representative  of  his  family.    On  21  December,  181 1,  who  restored  the  cathedral  and  founded  a  libraiy ;  Ber^ 

he  was  ordained  priest  at  Amiens,  whither  he  had  eone  nardo  Gasco  (1579),  of  Toledo,  founder  of  the  semi- 

to  escape  receiving  orders  at  the  hands  of  Cardinal  nary;  Cardinal  Gian  Domenico  Spinola  Ci637);  the 

Maury,  who  was  then  governing  the  archdiocese  of  Franciscan  Francesco  M.  Graffeo  (1686).     In  1844  the 

Paris  against  tho  wishes  of  the  pope.     After  some  newly  erected  diocese  of  Maraft-jft  was  separated  from 

vears  of  ecclesiastical  labours  at  Aix,  the  young  priest,  Mazzara.    Mazzara  is  a  suffragan  of  Palermo,  has  23 

bewailing  the  sad  fate  of  religion  resulting  amone  the  parishes,  430  priests,  6  religious  houses  of  men  and  29 

masses  from  the  French  Revolution,  gathered  to-  ©f  women,  3  schools  for  boys  and  25  for  girls,  and  a 

gether  a  little  band  of  missionaries  to  preach  in  the  population  of  276,000. 

vernacular  and  to  instruct  the  rural  populations  of  dApraLLBm,  Le  Chieee  d* Italia,  XXI  (Venice,  1867). 

Provence.     He  commenced,  25  January,  1816,  his  U.  Benioni. 
Institute  which  was  immediately  proli  fie  of  much  good 

among  the  people,  and  on  17  February,  1826,  was  MasiellA,  Camillo,  theologian  and  cardinal,  b.  at 

solemnly  approved  bv  Leo  XII  under  the  name  of  Vitulano,  10  Feb.,  1833;  d.  at  Rome,  26  Mareh,  1900. 

Congregation  of  the  Oblates  of  Mary  Inmiaculate.  He  entered  the  ecclesiastical  seminary  of  Benevento 

After  having  aided  for  some  time  his  uncle,  the  aged  when  about  eleven  years  of  age,  completed  his  classi- 

Bishop  of  Mairaeilles,  in  the  administration  of  his^dio-  cal,  philosophical,  and  theologic^  studies  before  his 

'^    *'  "*  ii-jx_T^  J   __  -       .  .  1  Sept., 

havinjg 

^ ^ ^ after  his 

exchange  for  that  of  Bishop  of  Marseilles.    His  episco-  ordination  he  remain^  at  Vitulano,  attending  to  the 

ptate  was  marked  by  measures  tending  to  the  restora-  duties  of  canon  in  the  parish  chureh,  a  position  he 

tion  in  all  its  integrity  of  ecclesiastical  discipline,  held  from  his  family.    Resigning  this  oflHice  he  entered 

De  Mazenod  unceasingly  strove  to  uphold  the  rights  the  Society  of  Jesus,  4  Sept.,  1857.    On  the  expulsion 

of  the   Holy  See,  somewhat   obscured    in   France  of  the  Jesuits  from  Italy  in  1860,  he  was  sent  to 

by  the  pretensions  of  the  Galilean  Chiu-ch.     He  fa-  Fourvidres,  where  after  reviewing  his  theology  for  a 

voured  the  moral  teachings  of  Blessed  (now  Saint)  year  and  making  a  public  defence  "de  universa  theo- 

Alphonsus  Liguori,  whose  theological  system  he  was  logia",  he  taught  dogmatic  theology  for  three  years, 

the  first  to  introduce  in  France,  and  whose  first  life  in  and  moral  theology  for  two.    In  the  early  autumn  of 

French  he  caused  to  be  written  by  one  of  his  disciples  i867  he  came  to  America  and  taught  theology  for  two 

among  the  Oblates.    At  the  same  time  he  watched  yearstothemembersoftheSocietyof  Jesus  at  George- 

with  a  jealous  eye  over  the  education  of  youth,  and,  in  town  University,  Washington.     On  the  opening  of 

spite  of  the  susceptibilities  of  the  civil  power,  he  never  Woodstock  College,  Maryland,  he  was  appomted  pre- 

swerved  from  what  he  considered  the  path  of  justice,  feet  of  studies  and  professor  of  dogmatic  theology. 

In  fact,  by  the  apostolic  freedom  of  his  public  utter-  While  there  he  published  four  volumes: "  De  Religione 

ances  he  deserved  to  be  compared  to  St.  Ambrose.  He  et  Ecclesia", "  De  Deo  Creante", "  De  Gratia  Christ! *\ 

was  ever  a  strong  supporter  of  papal  infallibility  and  a  and  "  De  virtutibus  inf usis  ",  which  went  through  sev- 

devout  advocate  of  Mary's  immaculate  conception,  in  eral  editions.   In  October,  1878,  he  was  called  to  Rome 

the  solemn  definition  of  which  (1864)  he  took  an  active  by  Leo  XIII  to  fill  the  chair  of  theolo^  at  the  Grego- 

part.    In  spite  of  his  well-known  outspokenness,  he  nan  University,  left  vacant  by  FaSer  Franzelin's 

was  made  a  Peer  of  the  French  Empire,  and  in  1861  elevation  to  the  cardinalate,  and  shortly  afterwards, 

Pius  IX  gave  him  the  pallium.  on  the  retirement  of  Father  Kleutgen,  was  made  pre- 

Meanwhile  he  continued  as  Superior  General  of  the  feet  of  studies.    On  7  June,  1886,  Leo  XIII  created 

religious  family  he  had  founded  and  whose  fortunes  Father  Mftg«^llft  a  cardinal  deacon.    Ten  yeare  latei 

wilTbe  found  described  in  the  article  on  the  Oblates  he  became  cardinal  priest.    Not  quite  a  year  after- 

of  Mary  Immaculate.    Such  was  the  esteem  in  which  wards  (18  April,  1897),  at  the  express  wish  ot  thepope, 

he  was  held  at  Rome  that  the  pope  had  marked  him  he  became  Cardinal  Bishop  of  Palestrina,  to  the  gov- 

out  as  one  of  the  cardinals  he  was  to  create  when  death  emment  of  which  see  he  applied  himself  with  untiring 

claimed  him  at  the  ripe  age  of  almost  seventy-nine,  energy.    He  was  the  first  Jesuit  on  whom  was  be- 

.eS2??5>SSf.2l^^bfi^r?^^  stowed  the  dignity  of  cardinal  l^^^^^^     As  cardinal 

E.  De  Matenod  (Toura,  1883);  Ricard.  Mgr  de  Mazenod,  Mque  he  took  an  active  part  m  the  deliberations  of  a  num- 

dr  MarmUle  (Paris,  n.  d.).                       A.  G.  MoBicB.  ber  of  Congregations,  was  for  several  years  president 


MAZZOUMI  95  BIBAYA 


of  Iht  Academy  of  St.  Thomas,  and,  at  various  times, 
prefect  of  the  Gongregatioiifl  of  the  Index,  of  Studies, 


and  defence  will  account  for  defects  of  style  in  some  ot 

_    _  his  writing.    His  principal  works  are  :"!Dejuridicaet 

and  of  Ritea.  irrefragabili  veritate  Homan»  Ecclesis  Komanique 

Timothy  Bbosnahan.  Pontificis''  (Rome,  1520);  "Epitoma  responsionis  ad 

Luthenmi "  (Perugia,  1619): "  Errata  et  argumenta  M. 
MMWfiWnl,  LoDOVioo  (abo  known  as  MAzaouNi  da  Lutheri"  (Rome,  1520);  ''Summa  Summarum,  quie 
Ferrara,  Lodovioo  Frrrarksa,  and  II  Febbarese),  Sylvestrina  dicitur"  (Rome,  1516),  reprinted  forty 
Italian  painter,  b.  in  Ferrara  in  1480;  d.,  according  to  tunes;  an  alphabetical  encvclopsBdia  of  theological 
one  account,  in  1528,  and  to  another,  in  1530;  place  of  c^^uestions;  "Rosa  aurea"  (&Iogna,  1510)  an  exposi- 
death  unknown.  This  artist  is  generally  represented  tion  of  the  Gospek  of  the  year;  "In  theoricas  plane- 
as  having  been  a  pupU  of  Lorenso  Costa,  and  as  having  tarum"  (Venice,  1513). 
come  under  the  influence  of  Ercole  Roberti,  but  should  ^  Qp*5^SS^^  ^S'  9T^-  f"^-  5*  ^l  J°ff*°^'  HommM 

be  more  correctly  described  as  a  pupil  of  Panetti.  SSf'P&.i^"'  '^t^S'S!2^M^rt2r"^iM2r^''^  ^ 

MoreUi  caUed  h&i  "the  Glow-wom^  "der  Glmh^  S«lv.Prtsra^  .  .  .  «to ^ acnp^t. (Munger.y 8M^ ^^^^^ 

wtcmt",  from  his  brilliant  gem-like  colour  and  limii- 

nous  sparkling  quality,  andhe  proved  that  Mazsolini  MamcheDit  Pietbo  Frakcesco  (also  known  as  II 


...»  a  pupil  of  Panetti  rather  than  Costa,  by  the  form  Morazzone,  Marazzone,  and  Moranzone),  Milanese 

of  the  ear  andhiuid  in  his  paintings,  by  nis  landscape  painter,  b.  at  Moranzone  near  Milan,  either  in  1571  or 

backgrounds  with  steep  conical  blue  mountains  and  1575;  a.  at  Piacenza  in  1626.    In  the  early  part  of  his 

streaa  of  H^Mlmg  white,  and  by  his  scheme  of  colour,  life,  this  painter  resided  in  Rome,  where  he  painted 

Comparing  Lorenzo  Costa  with  Perugino,  Morelli  com-  various  altar-pieces,  then  he  passed  on  to  Vemce,  and 

Fianetti  witii  Pmtorrichio,  although  he  says  as  made  a  profound  study  of  the  work  of  Titian,  llnto- 


an  artist  the  Perugian  far  surpassed  the  somewhat  dry  retto,  and  Paolo  Veronese,  so  entirely  altering  his  style 

and  narrow-minded  artist  or  Ferrara,  but  it  is  per-  and  improving  his  scheme  of  colour,  that  the  pictures 

fectlv  clear  that  it  was  to  this  dry  and  so-called  narrow-  he  painted  when  he  came  to  Milan,  although  repre- 

minded  man  that  Maszolini  owed  his  excellent  work,  senting  subjects  similar  to  those  he  had  earned  out  in 

Tlie  architectural  backgrounds  of  his  pictures  are  their  Rome,  could  hardly  be  recognized  as  having  come 

specially  distinctive  feature,  and  notably  the  creamy-  from  the  same  hand.   He  was  patronized  by  Cardinal 

toned  marble.    Attention  ^ould  further  be  directed  Boronuneo,  and  from  the  Duke  of  Savoy  received  the 

to  his  use  of  gold  in  the  high  lights  of  his  draperies.  honoiu*  of  knighthood  and  the  order  of  St.  Maurice. 

Of  his  personal  history  we  know  nothing,  save  that  In  1626  he  was  called  to  Piacenza  to  paint  the  cupola 

he  worked  both  in  Ferrara  and  Bologna,  and  that  he  of  the  catJiedral,  but  was  not  able  to  finish  this  work, 

married  in  1521  Giovanna,  the  dau^ter  of  Bartolo-  which  he  commenced  in  a  grand  and  vigorous  style, 

meo*Vacchi,  a  Venetian  painter,    His  most  notable  and  died,  it  is  believed,  from  an  accident  in  conneo- 

picture  represents  Christ  disputing  with  the  doctors,  tion  with  the  scaffolding,  in  consequence  of  which 

IB  dated  1524,  and  to  be  seen  at  Berlin.     It  Is  in  Guereinowas  called  in  to  complete  the  work.    The 

his  pictures  with  small  figures  that  he  displays  the  chief  painting  by  Mazzuchelli  is  that  in  the  chureh  of 

power  of  imparting  pleasure,  as  his  pft  was  rather  in  San  Giovanni  at  Como,  and  represents  St.  Michael 

the  direction  of  genre  than  of  historical  painting,  and  and  the  aogels. 

to  most  observers  there  is  something  curiously  Flem-       Vasari,  G.,  Le  Viu  dei  Pittori  (Florence,  1878,  1885);  Ob- 
ish  about  his  work.   There  is  a  second  important  pic  SJSi'jl&  ^toSSo**'*'  ^^^^""^  (Bologna.  1719).  alao  thm 
ture  of  his  in  Berlm,  a  Virgin  and  Child,  two  at  the  '       ^^  'Gborqb  Chablbs  Williamson. 
Lottvre,  one  in  Ferrara,  three  in  the  National  Gallery.        iur—«^i«    ■c««.^,.«.«.^     a,w>  Oa^^^^ta-^t^   Tt 
and  th^e  in  Florence,  other  examples  in  Munich,  and        Masraola,  Francbsco.    See  Parmigiano,  II. 
in  various  private  collections.   The  chief  work  of  his  in        Mbaya  Indians  (Guatcurt5),  a  predatory  tribe  fop- 
England  is  one  betonging  to  Lord  Wimbome.    He  is  merly  ranging  on  both  sides  of  the  Paraguay  River,  on 
also  remesented  in  the  galleries  of  Turin,  St.  Petera-  the  north  and  northwest  Paraguay  frontier,  and  in  the 
burg.  The  Hague,  and  m  the  Capitol  at  Rome,  tie  adjacent  portion  of  the  Province  of  Matto  Grosso, 
Dona,  and  the  Boighese.  Brazil.    They  are  one  of  a  group  of  ecjuestrian  warlike 

~  ~  ---._--_  ._  ^^^  savage  tribes,  constituting  a  distinct  linguistic 


stock,  the  Guaycuran,  formerly  roving  over  Northern 

jj«noygoK,|pum/xw;-.  ^ab^.  ^  rueae^i-uun^  vnoreoce.  p^j^^y  ^nd  the  upper  Chaco  region,  and  of  which 

Gbobgb  Charlbb  Williamson.  the  Mst  known  are  the  Abipon,  niade  famous  by  the 

missionary  Dobrizhoffer,  the  Guaycurd  proper,  or 

KoUiii  (MozouNi,  also  Phiebias),  Sylvbstbb,  Mbaya,  the  Mocobf  and  the  still  savage  and  powerful 

theologian,  b.  at  Priero,  Piedmont,  1460;  d.  at  Rome,  Toba.    The  Lengua,  sometimes  included  under  the 

1523 — sometimes  confounded  with  Sylvester  Ferrari-  same  name,  are  now  known  to  be  a  branch  of  the  Chi- 

ensis  (d.  1526).     At  the  age  of  fifteen  he  entered  the  quite  of  Bolivia.    The  name,  Mbaya,  given  to  them  bv 

Order  of  St.  Dominic.     Passing  brilliantly  through  a  tne  more  peaceful  Guaranf ,  signifies  "terrible  ", "  bad  , 

course  of  studies  he  taught  theolonr  at  Bologna,  or  "savage".    The  name  Guaycurd,  now  most  com- 

P^via  (by  invitation  of  the  senate  of  Venice),  and  in  monlv  used,  is  said  to  mean  '^ runner".    They  have 

Rome,  whither  he  was  called  by  Julius  II  in  1611.    In  also  been  called  CabaUeros  by  the  Spaniards,  on  ao- 

1515  he  was  appointed  Master  of  the  Sacred  Palace,  count   of   their   fine   horsemanship.    According  to 

filling  that  oflSioe  until  his  death.    His  writings  cover  Father  Lozano  they  had  three  main  divisions,  viz :  £pi- 

a  vast  range,  including  treatises  on  the  planets,  the  oua-^qui  (Eyiguaye^)  in  the  North,  Napin-yiqui  in 

gower  of  the  demons,  history,  homiletics,  the  works  of  the  West,  and  Taqui-yiqui  in  the  South.    lolis,  an- 

t.  Thomas  Aquinas,  the  primacy  of  the  popes.    He  is  other  authority,  eives  a  different  list  of  six  divisions. 

eredited  with  being  the  first  theologian  who  by  his  The  Guaycurawere  accustomed  to  prey  upon  the 

writings  attacked  publicly  the  subversive  errors  of  more  sedentary  and  industrious  Guaranf  tribes,  mak- 

Martin  Luther.    John  Tetzel's  productions  against  the  ing  sudden  raids,  with  quick  retreats  into  their  own 

arch-reformer  are  called  by  Echard  scattered  pages  country,    where    tangled    forests    and    treacherous 

(folia  volUanHa),and  Mazzolini  stands  forth  as  the  first  swamps  made  pursuit  difficult  and  subjection  almost 

oiampion  of  Uie  Roman  Pontiffs  against  Luther.   The  impossible.    In  1542,  Alvar  Nuiiez  Cabe^a  de  Vaca, 

heresiareh  replied  to  Mazzolini's  arguments:  the  latter  governor  of  Buenos  Aires,  with  a   detachment  of 

published  rejoinders,  and  there  was  a  regular  contro-  Spaniards  and  a  contingent  of  Guaranf,  inflicted  imon 

versy  between  the  innovator  and  the  defender  of  the  them  a  signal  defeat,  chiefly  by  the  terror  of  his  field 

anoieat  Faith.    The  necessil^  of  promptness  in  attack  guns  and  honses,  with  both  of  which  the  Guayeuru 


MEADX 


96 


were  still  unacquainted.  The  acquisition  of  horses 
loon  transformed  them  into  a  race  of  expert  and  dar- 
ing equestrians,  and  for  two  centuries  they  continued 
their  raids  upon  the  Spanish  settlements  on  the  Para- 
guay River  and  the  neighbouring  missions.  As  early 
as  1610  the  Jesuits  unsuccessfully  attempted  their  con- 
version. About  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  oentuiy 
a  peace  was  arranged,  which,  accordmg  to  Dobrizhof- 
fer,  was  faithfully  kept  by  the  Indians.  The  Jesuit 
Joseph  Sanchez  Labrador  was  then  sent,  at  his  own 
request,  to  work  among  these  Guaycurd,  who  had  been 
considered  the  wildest  and  most  dangerous  tribe  of  the 
region.  Having  made  good  progress  in  their  difficult 
language,  he  established  for  them,  in  1760,  the  mission 
of  Viigen  de  Belen  (now  Belen)  east  of  the  present 
Concepci6n,  in  Paraguay.  They  were  impatient  of 
lestramt,  and,  although  many  infants  and  dying 
adults  received  baptism,  according  to  Dobrizhoffer, 
"the  rest  did  little  else  thim  wander  over  the  plains". 
The  mission  influence,  however,  effectually  tamed  their 
ferocity.  At  the  expulsion  of  the  Jesuits,  in  1767.  the 
Belen  mission  contained  260  Christian  Indians,  eignt  of 
the  nine  bands  still  remaining  in  the  forest. 

In  this  same  year  was  established  by  Father  Manuel 
D\iran  the  last  of  the  Paraguay  Jesuit  foundations, 
the  mission  of  San  Juan  ^^pomuceno,  on  the  east 
bank  of  the  river,  among  the  Guana,  or  Ghana,  a  num- 
erous agricultural  and  pedestrian  tribe  of  the  same 
territory,  subject  to  the  Mbaya.  When  the  mission- 
aries were  driven  out,  this  station  contained  600  In- 
dians. The  conversion  of  the  Guana  had  been  under- 
taken more  than  a  century  before  by  Father  Pedro 
Romero,  who  lost  his  life  m  1645  at  the  hands  of  a 
neighbouring  wild  tribe.  Among  the  Guana,  infanti- 
cide, polygamy,  and  intoxication  were  unknown,  and 
men  and  women  worked  tc^ther  in  the  fields.  About 
the  close  of  the  eighteenth  century  the  Franciscans  took 
up  the  work  begun  by  the  Jesuits,  and  in  the  course  of 
the  next  fifty  years  gathered  a  number  of  the  Guajr- 
curd  and  Guana  into  missions,  which  continued  until 
the  tribes  themselves  declined  or  were  assimilated. 
Lieutenant  Page,  who  commanded  an  expedition  sent 
by  the  United  States  Government  to  explore  the  Para- 
guay River,  gives  an  interesting  and  extended  account 
of  ms  visit  to  one  of  these  missions,  Nossa  Senhora  de 
Bon  Conselho,  near  Albuquerque,  Brazil,  in  1853 
(Page, "  Report  to  the  Secretary  of  the  Navy  ".  Wash- 
ington. 1855).  Here  the  Christian  Guanas  cultivated 
v^etaoles  for  the  market  afforded  by  neighbouring 
wmte  settlements.  Under  the  care,  both  temponu 
and  spiritual,  of  a  Franciscan  father,  these  aborigines, 
who,  only  a  few  years  earlier  had  been  wanoerine 
savaiges,  were  now  a  remarkably  neat,  orderly,  and 
thrifty  community  of  husbimdmen.  Fronting  upon  a 
public  square,  there  stood  the  village  church,  the 
ichoolhouse,  and  a  number  of  well-constructed 
thatched  dwelling^,  each  dwelling  having  a  frontage 
of  20  feet,  the  interiors  partitioned  with  curtains  and 
fitted  with  raised  platforms  to  serve  either  as  tables  or 
as  beds.  Among  the  vegetables  cultivated  was  a 
native  rice,  which  they  harvested  in  canoes.  Cotton, 
too,  was  grown,  spun,  dyed,  and  woven  by  the  women 
of  the  settlement.  The  men  wore  trousers  and 
ponchos;  the  women,  a  chamise  girdled  at  the  waist; 
the  boys  were  exercised  in  military  tactics,  and  the 
children  in  general  were  not  only  taught  "the  rudi- 
ments of  a  conunon  education,  but  made  some  progress 
in  music  and  dancing".  A  few  of  the  Mba3ra  proper 
still  exist  on  the  western  bank  of  the  Paraguay  in 
the  neighbourhood  of  the  town  of  Concepci6n.  Other 
bands  known  as  Guaycurd  roam  over  the  adjacent  dis- 
tricts of  Matto  Grosso,  BrasH,  and  may  number  per- 
haps 1500  souls  as  against*  an  estimated  15,000  or 
18,000  about  a  century  ago.  The  Guana,  on  the 
faqiiari  and  Miranda  Rivers  in  the  same  r^on,  are 
now  labourers  among  the  whites,  although  still 
'/laimcd  as  dependents  oy  the  Guaycuni. 


In  their  primitive  condition  the  men  of  the  Guay- 
curd went  entirely  naked,  while  the  women  wore  only 
a  short  skirt.    Tne  men  trinmied  their  hair  in  a  eiiv 
cular  tuft.    Girb  had  the  head  closely  shaven.    The 
men  painted  their  bodies,  and  wore  fines  in  the  lower 
lip.    Boys  were  painted  black  until  about  fourteen 
years  old,  then  red  for  two  years,  when  they  were 
subjected  to  a  painful  ordeal,  before  taking  their 
station  as  warriors.    War  was  their  chief  business, 
their  weapons  being  the  bow,  club,  and  haae  knife. 
The  children  bom  of  captives  were  sold  as  slaves. 
Their  chief  tribal  ceremony  was  in  honour  of  tiia 
Pleiades,  and  was  accompanied  by  a  sham  battle  be-^ 
tween  the  men  and  women,  ending  with  a  general  in- 
toxication.   They  buried  their  dead  in  the  ground^ 
and  voluntary  human  victims  were  sacrificed  when  ik 
chief  died.    Polygamy  was  unknown,  but  separation 
was  frequent,  and  infanticide  common.    They  sub- 
sisted by  fishing  and  hunting.    Their  vUla^  con- 
sisted each  of  a  simple  communal  structure  m  three 
lai]ge  rooms,  the  middle  of  which  was  reserved  for  the 
chief  and  head  men,  and  for  the  storage  of  weapons. 
The  chief  had  great  authority,  and  with  his  h^  men, 
seems  to  have  belonged  to  a  different  clan,  or  gena, 
from  the  common  warriors.    Captives  and  their  de- 
scendants constituted  a  pennanent  slave  class.    As  a 
people,  they  were  tall  and  strongly  built.    Those  still 
remaining  show  the  admixture  of  white  captive  blood 
and  are  gradually  assimilating  to  the  settled  popula* 
tion. 

Brintok,  Amtriean  Race  (Kew  York,  1801);  Cbaxlevozx. 
Hiat.  o(Paraouaif,  I  (London,  1796);  DoBRUHorrBB.  iicootml  of 
the  Abtpones  (London,  1822):  HxktXs,  Cal:'ilooo  dBUu  UngutUp 
I  (Madrid.  1800);  Losako,  Deaeripeion  Choroffraphiea  dd  Oran 
Chaco  ((Cordoba,  1733) ;  Paox.  La  Plata,  the  Argeniine  Confederal 
Hon  and  Paraotuw  (New  York,  1860);  Rbclus,  South  America^ 
n :  AmoMonia  mdLa  Plata  (New  York.  1897). 

Jambs  Moonst. 

Bteade,  John.    See  Almeida,  John. 

Meagher,  Thomas  Francis,  soldier,  politician,  b. 
at  Waterford,  Ireland,  3  August.  1823;  accidentally 
drowned  in  the  Miosouii  River,  u.  8.  A.,  1  July,  1867. 
Educated  in  the 
Jesuit  colleges  of 
Clongowes  and 
Stonyhurst,  he 
finished  his  college 
career  in  1843  with 
a  reputation  for 
great  oratorical 
ability  which  he  de- 
votedat  once,under 
O'Connell,  to  the 
cause  of  RepeaL 
His  impetuous  na- 
ture chafed  under 
the  restraint  of  con- 
stitutional agita- 
tion, and  his  impas- 
sioned  eToauenoe 
stimulated  the 
more  radical  revo-  ^ 
lutionary  efforts  of 


Iboumb  Franob  Msaohmi 


as  member  of  a  deputation  to  Lamartine  to  con- 
gratulate the  people  of  France  on  the  establishment 
ol  a  republic.  A  trial  for  "exciting  the  people  to 
rise  in  rebellion",  the  following  May  resulted  in  a 
disagreement  of  the  jury,  but  in  the  abortive  rebel- 
lion in  July  he  was  among  those  arrested,  teied  for 
high  treason^  and  sentenced  on  23  October  to  be 
hanged.  This  was  commuted  to  penal  servitude  for 
life  and  on  29  July.  1849,  with  O'Brien  and  Terence 
Bellew  MacManus,  ne  was  transported  to  Tasmaija. 
Escaping  from  this  penal  colony  m  1852,  he  landed  in 


dew  Yoik^faere  his  oounttTmoi  ^-n  Um  ft  hfiftrtjr  Lombaida^aria,  was  oonaecrated  bishop  bv  the  papal 

w«leame.  BJspapuluityasalecturerwuimmectiata;  nundo  at  Fam  in  1779.    The  vessel  in  which  he  r^ 

he  also  Btudied  law  and,  admitted  to  the  i>ar  in  1866,  turned  to  Inland  was  attacked  and  plundered  by  the 

■tarted  &  p^per  oaUed  the  "Irish  News"  (12  April,  famguaPaulJones,  the  American  privateer,  who,  now- 

U5fi),  in  which  he  published  his  "  Personal  Recolleo-  ever,  to  his  credit  be  it  said,  afterwards  restored  the 

tions  .    Two  years  later  he  undertook  an  exploring  episcopal  property.    For  eight  and  forty  J^ears,  with 

expedition  in  Centnl  America;  his  narrative  was  a  truly  Apoetoho^irit,  this  great  bishop  traversed  th« 

Cted  in  "Harper's  Hagasine".    Whea  the  Civil  War  whole  dioceee  yearVi  visiting  every  parish,  preaching, 
:e  out  he  espoused  the  cause  of  the  Union,  raised  catechising,  giving  seasonable  counsel  to  the  clergy 
ft  company  of  Zouaves,  went  to  the  front  with  the  andBuitableinstruotiontothepeople.Hothatinhisde- 
Sixtv-Ninth  New  Yoric  Volunteers,  and  participated  dining  years  he  was  fittingly  called,  by  the  Primate 
in  toe  first  battle  of  Bull  Run.     He  then  orgsjiiied  ot  Armagh,  "  the  ornament  and  father  of  the  Irish 
the  famous  Irish  Brigade,  of  which  he  was  ooramis-  Church".    The  catechism  compiled  by  Dr.  Plunket 
■iooed  brigadier-general,  and  with  it  participated  in  cannot  easilv  be  improved,  and  is  still  used  in  the 
the  operations  of  the  Aii^  of  the  Potomac,  in  which  schools  of  tne  diooese.    He  died  in  January,  1827, 
it  nieeially  distinguished  itself  in  the  battles  of  Fair  in  his  eighty-ninth  year.     His  auooessor.  Dr.  Logan, 
Oak  (1  June,  1862)/the  seveo  days' fight  before  Rich-  lived  only  a  few  years,  and  was  suooeededDy  Dr.  Cant- 
mood,  Antietam,  Fredericksburg   (13    Dec.    1802),  well,  the  steadfast  fnend  of  Daniel  O'Connell.    With 
where  it  was  almost  annihilated,  and  Chancelioreville  great  energy  Dr.  Cantwell   ^thered   the  scattered 
(1863).    He  then  resi^ied  his  command  because,  he  stones  of  tae  sanctuary,  and  re-erected  tiie  temples 
said,  "  it  was  perpetrating  a  public  deception  to  keep  levelled  in  the  penal  days.    Dr.  Nulty  became  bUnop 
up  a  brigade  so  reduced  in  numbets,  and  which  he  in  1804,  and  during  his  episoopate  (rf  thirty-four  years 
had  been  refused  permission  to  withdraw  from  service  spent  himself  in  the  semoe  at  God  and  his  people.  A 
mnd  recruit".   A  command  of  a  military  district  in 
Tenneaaee  was  at  once  given  him,  which  be  resi^ied 
after  a  short  time.    At  the  close  of  the  war  he  was 
made  (July,  IS66)  Territorial  Secietai}]  of  Montana. 
During  a  trip  made  in  the  course  of  his  administra- 
tion of  this  office  he  fell   from  a  steamer  into  the 
Minouri  River  at  night  and  was  drowned.    His  body 
was  never  found. 

Mstw.  Han.,  1892);  Conthqham.  TA*  Iri^  BHgadr  and  iU 
Cmiuwu  (Nbw  York,  18fi71;  S*T*ai,  '98  and  '48  tt'—  "'-■- 
•-M)poTTr,  Youna  Inland  ILoodoo    ""•"'     " 


fkJ  (LondoD.  1880):  Four  Y tan  c 
I:  HcCahtht,  Mi^ory  of  Our  Om 
IrUh  Amtniai  (New  York).  Gin. 


9t.  U&bt'b  CbTSHDau.  Huumtua 


Twin.U(Now  York,  1887); /rirtii  .    _      

Thomas  F,  Meghan. 
BCmUi,  Diocese  or  (Midenbib),  in  Ireland,  suffra- 
ua  of  Armagh.  In  extent  it  is  the  largest  diocese 
m  Ireland,  and  includes  the  greater  part  of  the  coun- 
ties Heath,  Weetmeath,  Kio^'s,  and  a  small  portion  of 
tbe  counties  Ii<wgford,  Dublm,andCavan.  Thepres- 
•ot  Dioeeae  of  Meath  anciently  comprised  eight  epia-  profound  theologian  and  ardent  student,  he  put  be- 
copal  sees,  the  chief  of  which  was  Ulonard,  founded  fore  his  prieste  a  high  intellectual  standard :  at  the 
m  the  middle  of  the  sixth  century  by  St.  Finian,  same  time  he  did  much  to  overthrow  landlordism 
"Tutcrof  the  Saints  of  Erin".  At  the  national  Synod  and  to  root  the  people  firmly  in  their  native  soil. 
ofKells,  in  1172,  over  which  Cardinal  Paparo presided  The  population  <rf  the  Diocese  of  Heath  at  the  last 
as  k^te  of  Eugene  Iir  it  was  decided  that  these  sees  census  (1901)  was  143,164,  <d  whom  132  802  wei« 
be  joined  together.  The  united  see  was  assigned  as  Catholics.  Since  1871  the  population  of  the  diocese 
first  suffiagan  to  Armagh,  and  ranks  immediately  has  decreased  27  per  cent.;  during  the  same  period 
after  the  metropolitan  sees  in  Ireland.  In  his  "Hi-  the  non-Catholic  population  deor^ised  35  per  cent. 
bemia  Dominicana"  De  Burgo  says  that  Heath  is  the  There  are  144  churcnea  and  66  parishes,  ISS  secular 
foremost  sufTra^n  of  Armagh,  and  has  precedence  prieete  and  13  regulars,  3  monastic  houses  of  men 
eventhou^itsbishopbetheyoungestof thelrishprel'  with  17  members,  and  13  convents  of  nuns  with 
ates  in  wder  of  c<»iBecration.  Meath  being  the  coun-  134  memben.  St.  Finian's  College,  an  imposing 
try  of  the  Pale,  many  Englishmen  were  appointed  structure  erected  in  Hullingar  and  opened  in  1S08,  re- 
bishops  of  Meath,  among  them  the  notorious  Staples  places  the  old  '  uildine  in  Navon,  which  had  held,  for 
who  apostatised  m  the  reign  of  Edward  VI,  and  was  more  than  one  hundred  years,  an  honoured  ploM 
depoeed  in  1564.  Dr.  Wabb,  a  Cistercian  monk,  sue-  among  the  ^.hixils  cf  Ireland.  The  new  college, 
eeeded,  and  more  than  repaired  the  scandal  caused  by  which  cost  over  ."40,000,  has  accommodation  for  150 
his  recreant  predecessor.  This  noble  confessor  of  the  studente  and  b  intended  both  as  a  seminary  to  pre- 
Fitith  bravely  withstood  all  the  threate  and  blandish-  pore  priects  for  '.'.^e  diocese,  and  to  impart  a  sound 
ments  of  Queen  Elisabeth  and  her  agents.  He  spent  Catholic  Uberal  education  to  those  intended  for  worldly 
thirteen  years  in  a  dungeon  in  Dublin  Castle,  and  pursuits.  There  is  a  Jesuit  novitiate  and  college  at 
finally  died  an  exile  at  Alcali  in  Spain.  His  name  is  Tullamore,  and  a  house  of  Carmelite  Fathers  at  Hoate. 
radconed  in  more  than  one  Irish  Martyrology.  like  TheFranciacansofthelrishprovincehaveamonastory 
honour  ia  paid  to  him  by  his  own  order,  and  his  Cis-  and  preparatory  school  at  Hultyfamham,  near  the 
tervian  biographer  contends  that  the  martyr's  crown  cathedral  town  of  Hullingar.  The  Abbey  of  Hulty- 
is  his  as  truly  as  if  he  had  died  in  torraente.  The  famham  has  been  in  Franciscan  hands  since  pre- 
auccession  irf  bishops  in  the  See  lA  Heath  has  been  Reformation  times,  and  has  witnessed  the  good  and 
continued  without  interruption  to  the  present  day,  evil  fortunes  of  the  friarein  Ireland.  The  Franciscan 
except  during  a  few  brief  mterregnums  m  the  penal  Brothers  have  a  school  at  Gara,  and  the  Christian 
days.  It  is  a  noteworthy  fact  that,  omitting  Dr.  Brothers  have  a  school  at  Hullingar  |[500  pupils)  and 
Lagan's  short  reign  of  a  few  years,  but  three  bishops  at  Clara  (200  pupils).  AtRochfortbridge,St.  Joaeph's 
rufed  the  Diocese  of  Meath  from  1779  to  1890,  Drs.  Institute  for  the  Deaf  and  Dumb  is  conducted  by  the 
Plunket,CantweU,  and  Nulty.  Dr.  Plunket,  who  had  Sisters  of  Mercy.  The  Loreto  Nuns  have  educational 
been  profeosor  and  quperior  m  the  Imb  College  of  the  houaea  in  Navas  and  UuUingar,  which  have  WW 
X" — 7 


98 


MBAUX 


fareurable  recognition.  The  Presentation  Sisters  have 
foundations  in  Mullingar  and  Rahan,  where  tl^y  have 
charge  of  the  primaiy  schools,  while  the  Sisters  ofBiercy 
have  orphanages  at  Navan  and  Kells,  take  care  of  thie 
hospitalB  in  Tullamore,  Trim,  Mullingar,  Drogheda. 
and  Navan,  and  at  the  same  time  conduct  national 
schools  in  the  principal  towns  of  the  diocese. 

The  Diocese  of  Meath,  often  called  the  "royal  dio- 
cese"|  is  rich  in  historic  associations,  pagan  and  Chris- 
tian. In  Meath  was  Tara  "  of  the  kmgs",  the  palace 
of  the  Ard-righ.  whither  came  the  chieftains  and 
princes,  the  bards  and  brehons  of  Erin.  The  princi- 
pal cemetery  of  the  pagan  kings  of  Ireland  was  at 
Brugh-na-B6inne.  Competent  authorities  dedare 
that  the  surrounding  tumuli  are  among  the  oldest 
in  Europe.  Close  at  hand  is  Rosnaree,  where 
Cormac  Mac  Art,  the  first  Christian  King  of  Ireland, 
who  refused  to  be  buried  in  pagan  Brush,  awaits  the 
last  smnmons.  Uisneach  in  Westmeaui,  Tlachtgha, 
or  the  Hill  of  Ward,  and  Teltown  were  celebrated  for 
their  royal  palaces,  their  solemn  conventions,  their 
TOigan  games,  and  their  druidic  ceremonies,  and  in 
Christian  times  were  sanctified  by  the  labours  of  St. 
Patrick  and  St.  Brigid.  Slane  reminds  us  of  St. 
Patrick's  first  Holy  Saturday  in  Ireland,  when  he  lit 
the  paschal  fire.  S3rmboli2in^  the  lamp  of  Faith  which 
has  never  since  been  extinguished.  Trim,  foimded  bv 
St.  Loman,  one  of  the  first  disciples  of  St.  Patrick,  still 
retains  in  its  many  ruins  striking  evidences  of  its 
departed  glories.  ICells,  with  its  round  tower,  its 
splendid  sculptured  crosses,  and  the  house  of  Colum- 
cille,  reminds  us  of  that  "Dove  of  the  Irish  Church", 
whose  memory  is  also  cherished  in  his  beloved  Durrow. 
Finally,  Meath  is  the  birthplace  of  the  Venerable 
Oliver  Plunket.  the  martyred  Primate  of  Armagh,  the 

last  victim  publicly  sacrinced  in  England  for  the  Faith. 
Coo  AN,  D%ocese  of  Meath  (Dublin,  1862);    Hkalt,  Ancient 
SehooU  of  Irdand  (Dublin,  1890);    Irish  Bcelentuiieal  Record 
(Juzie.  1900);  Irish  Caiholic  Dtrectorv  (Dublin,  1910). 

Patbick  E.  Duffy. 

Meauz,  Diocbse  of  (Mbldensis),  comprises  the  en- 
tire department  of  Seine  and  Mame,  suffragan  of  Sens 
imtil  1622,  and  subsequently  of  Paris.  The  Concor- 
dat of  1801  had  given  to  the  Diocese  of  Meaux  the  de- 
partment of  Mame,  separated  from  it  in  1821  and  1^22 
by  the  establishment  of  the  archiepiscopal  See  of 
Ileims  and  the  episcopal  See  of  Ch&lons.  The  pres- 
ent Diocese  of  Meaux  is  made  up  of  the  greater  part  of 
the  former  Diocese  of  Meaux,  a  large  part  of  the  former 
Diocese  of  Sens,  a  part  of  the  former  Diocese  of  Paris, 
and  a  few  parishes  of  the  former  Dioceses  of  Tropres, 
Soissons  and  Senlis.  Hildegaire,  who  lived  in  the  nmth 
century,  says  in  his  "Life  of  St.  Faro"  (Burgundo- 
faro),  tnat  this  bishop  was  the  twentiem  since  St. 
Denis.  According  to  the  tradition  accepted  by  Hilde- 
gaire, St.  Denis  was  the  first  Bishop  of  Meaux,  and 
was  succeeded  by  his  disciple  St.  Saintin,  who  in  turn 
was  succeeded  by  St.  Antoninus;  and  another  saint, 
named  Rigomer,  occupied  the  See  of  Meaux  at  the  close 
of  the  fift£  century.  In  876  or  877,  Hincmar  showed 
Charles  the  Bald  a  document  which  he  claimed  had 
been  transcribed  from  a  very  old  copy  and  according 
to  which  St.  Antoninus  and  St.  Saintin,  disciples  of 
St.  Denis,  had  brought  to  Pope  Anacletus  the  account 
of  the  martyrdom  of  St.  Denis,  and  on  their  return  to 
Qaul  had  successively  occupied  the  See  of  Meaux. 
(For  these  traditions  see  Paris.) 

According  to  Mgr.  Duchesne,  the  first  Bishop  of 
Meaux  historically  known  is  Medovechus,  present  at 
two  councils  in  549  and  552.  Of  the  bishops  of  Meaux 
the  following  may  be  mentioned  (following;  Algr.  Allou's 
chronology) :  St.  Faro  (626-72),  whose  sister  St.  Fara 
founded  the  monastery  of  Faremoutiers,  and  who  him- 
self built  at  Meaux  the  monasteiy  of  St-Oroix;  St.  Hil- 
devert  (672-680) ;  St.  Pathus,  who  died  about  684  be- 
fore being  consecratei:  St.  Ebrieisilus  (end  of  the 
MveatJh  oentuiy) ;  St.  Qnbert  (first  naif  of  the  eleventii 


century);  Durand  de  St-Pour^ain  (1326-1334),  com- 
mentator on  the  " Book  of  Sentences",  known  as  the 
"resolutive  doctor";  PhiUppe  de  Vitnr  (1351-1361), 
friend  of  Petrarch  and  author  of  the  "  Metamorphoses 
d'Ovide  Moralis6es";  Pierre  Fresnel  (1390-1409),  sev- 
eral times  ambassador  of  Charles  VI;  Pierre  de  Ver- 
sailles (1439-1446),  chaned  with  important  missions 
by  Eugene  IV,  and  who,  when  commissioned  by 
doarles  VII  in  1429  to  examine  Joan  of  Arc,  had  de- 
clared himself  convinced  of  the  Divine  mission  of  the 
Maid  of  Orleans;  Guillaume  Briconnet  (1516-1534), 
ambassador  of  Francis  I  to  Leo  X,  and  during  whose 
episcopate  the  Reformation  was  introduced  by  Fare) 
and  Gerard  Roussel,  whom  he  had  personally  called  to 
his  diocese  for  the  revival  of  studies;  Cardinal  Antoine 
du  Prat  (1534-1535),  who  had  an  active  share  in  the 
drawing  up  of  the  concordat  between  Francis  I  and 
Leo  X;  the  controversial  writer  and  historian  Jean  du 
Tillet  (1564-1570);  Louis  de  Bi^e^.  twice  bishop,  first 
from  1554  to  1564,  then  from  1570  to  1589,  during 
'v^hose  episcopate  the  diocese  was  greatly  disturbed  by 
religious  wars;  Dominique  Siguier  (1637-1659),  the 
first  French  bishop  to  establish  "ecclesiastical  con- 
ferences" in  his  oiocese;  the  great  Bossuet  (1681— 
1704);  Cardinal  de  Bisffjr  (1705-1737),  celebrated  for 
his  conflict  with  the  Jansenists;  De  Barral  (1802- 
1805),  later  Grand  Almoner  of  Empress  Josephine  and 
Archbishop  of  Tours,  who  took  a  prominent  part  in 
1810  and  1811  in  the  negotiations  between  Napoleon 
and  Pius  VII.  In  1 562  most  of  the  inhabitants  of  Meaux 
had  become  Protestants,  and  Joachim  de  Montluc, 
sent  by  the  king,  proceeded  with  rigour  against  them. 
They  were  still  sufficiently  powerfuTin  1567  to  attempt 
to  carry  off.  in  the  vicinity  of  Meaux,  Catherine  oe' 
Medici  and  Charles  IX;  ana  so  for  that  reason,  shortly 
after  St.  Bartholomew's  day,  Charles  IX  ordered  the 
massacre  of  the  Ftotestants  of  Meaux.  At  the  chateau 
of  Fontainebleau,  built  by  Francis  I,  was  held  the 
theolajpcal  conference  of  4  May,  1600,  between  the 
Catholics  (Cardinal  du  Perron,  de  Thou,  I4thou)  and 
the  Calvinists  (du  Plessis  Momay,  PhiUppe  Canaye, 
Isaac  Casaubon). 

A  number  of  saints  are  found  in  the  histoiy  of  this 
diocese:  St.  Autharius,  a  relative  of  St.  Faro,  who  re- 
ceived St.  Columbanus  in  his  domain  at  Ussy-sur- 
Mame,  and  father  of  Blessed  Ado,  who  founded  about 
630  the  two  monasteries  of  Jouarre,  and  of  St.  Ouen, 
who  founded  the  monastery  of  Rebais  in  634  ana 
subsequently  became  Bishop  of  Rouen;  the  anchorite 
St.  Fefre  or  Fiacre,  and  the  missionary  St.  ChiUen, 
both  Iridunen,  contomporaries  of  St.  Faro  (first  half  of 
the  seventh  century);  St.  Aile  (Agilus).  monk  of  Lux- 
euiLwho  became  m  634  the  first  Abbot  of  Rebais; 
St.  Telchilde,  died  about  660,  first  Abbess  of  Jouarre; 
St.  A^Iberte,  second  Abbess  of  Jouarre,  a  sister  of  St. 
Ebrigisilus  (end  of  seventh  century);  St.  Bathilde. 
wife  of  Clovis  II,  foundress  of  the  abbey  of  Chelles, 
died  in  680;  St.  Bertille,  first  Abbess  of  Chelles,  and  St. 
Ethcria,  first  Abbess  of  Notre-Dame  of  Soissons  (658), 
both  of  them  pupils  at  the  abbey  of  Jouarre;  finally, 
St.  Vincent  Madelgaire  (or  Mauger),  founder  of  the 
monasteries  of  Haumont  and  Soignies;  his  wife,  St. 
Waldetrude,  foundress  of  the  monastery  of  Mons;  St. 
Aldegonde,  sister  of  St.  Waldetrude,  first  Abbess  of 
Maubeuge;  St.  Landry,  Abbot  of  Soixnies,  claimed  by 
some  as  a  Bishop  of  Meaux;  St.  Aaeltrude  and  St. 
Malberte,  nuns  of  Maubeuge,  the  last  three  being 
children  of  St.  Vincent  Madelgaire  and  St.  Walde- 
trude (seventh  century). 

Eugene  III  stayed  some  da3r8  at  Meaux  in  1 1 47.  In 
1664  Blessed  Eudes  preached  for  two  months  at 
Meaux.  Mme  Guyon  passed  the  first  six  months  of 
1695  at  the  Visitation  convent  of  Meaux,  where  Bos- 
suet had  frequent  conferences  with  her,  but  failed  to 
make  her  abandon  her  peculiar  views.  The  celebrated 
Pdre  Loriquet  (1767-1845)  was  superior  from  1812  to 
1814  of  the  preparatory  seminary  of  (JhAage,  in  the 


mocA 


99 


IBGCA 


IKooeae  of  Means.  The  Paris  massacres  on  2  and  3 
September,  1792^  at  the  prisons  of  the  Cannes  and  tiie 
Abbaye  had  their  counterpart  at  Meaux  where  seven 
priests  were  massacred  in  prijwn  on  4  September.  The 
Abbey  of  Notre  Dame  de  JuiUy  of  the  GEuions  Regular 
of  St.  Augustine  was  established  in  1184,  and  adopted 
the  rule  ot  the  Abbey  of  St-Victor  of  Paris.  Cardinal 
de  Joyeuse  was  abbot  from  16ia~1616.  In  1637  Pto 
de  Condren,  Superior  of  the  Oratorv,  took  possession 
of  it,  and  in  1038  the  house  of  Juilly  became  a  royal 
academy  for  the  education  of  young  men.  The  new 
order  of  studies  approved  by  Richelieu  marked  a  peda- 

E^ical  revolution:  the  Latin  grammars  written  in 
tin  were  abandoned  and  Frencn  textbooks  were  used 
in  the  study  of  the  dead  languages.  The  college  be- 
came national  property  in  1791,  and  was  re-purcnased 
in  1796  by  a  few  Chratorians;  in  1828  by  Sidinis,  future 
Bidiop  of  Amiens  and  Scorbiac,  chaplain-j^eneral  of 
the  university;  in  1840  by  the  Abb6  Bautam;  finally, 
in  1867,  the  college  returned  into  the  hands  of  the  new 
Congregation  of  tiie  Oratory  founded  by  the  Abb6 
P6tetot.  In  the  salon  of  the  Abb6deSalinis,  at  Juilly, 
was  established  in  December,  1830,  the  Agence  g6n4r- 
ale  pour  la  defense  de  la  liberty  reUsieuse.  Lamen- 
nais  resided  at  Juilly  while  editor  of  "  L'Avenir".  It 
was  at  Juilly,  in  1836,  that  the  future  bishop,  Gerbet, 
founded  the  review  "L'Universit^  Catholique". 
Among  the  students  at  Juilhr  in  the  seventeenth  cen- 
tury were  the  Marshals  de  Berwick  and  de  VilLus;  in 
the  nineteenth.  Mgr  de  M^rode  and  the  famous  law- 
yer, Berryer. 

A  coimcil  convoked  in  846  at  Meaux  by  Charles  the 
Bald  adopted  important  measures  for  the  re-establish- 
ment of  oiscipline  in  the  three  eccledastical  provinces 
of  Sens,  Bourges,  and  Reims.  Other  councils  were 
heki  at  Meaux  in  962,  1082.  1204,  1229  (ended  in 
Paris),  where  the  Count  of  Toulouse  was  reconciled 
with  the  Church;  in  1240  a  coimcil  was  held  in  which 
the  sentence  of  excommunication  was  inY>nounced 
against  Frederick  II  by  Joannes  of  Pidestrina,  le^te 
of  Gregory  IX;  there  was  held  an  important  council  in 
1523.  Four  councils  were  held  at  Melun,  in  1216, 
1225,  1232, 1300.  The  city  of  Provins  was  famous  in 
the  Middle  Ages  for  its  burlesque  ceremonies  (f^  de 
fous,  fto  de  TAne,  f6te  des  Innocents)  held  in  the 
church.  The  cathedral  of  St-£tienne  de  Meaux  is  a 
fine  Gothic  edifice  begun  about  1170.  The  church  of 
Champigny  has  a  nuuppificent  crypt  dating  from  the 
thirteenth  century.  The  principal  pilgrimages  of  the 
diocese  are:  Notre  Dame  de  Lagnv,  datinjg  from  1128; 
Notre  Dame  du  Ch6ne  de  PreuiUv,  dating  from  the 
foundation  of  the  Cistercian  Aboey  (1118);  Notre 
Dame  du  Chtoe  at  Crouy-sur-Ourcq,  dating  from 
the  beginning  of  the  seventeenth  century:  Notre 
Dame  de  Bon  Secours  near  Fontainebleau  (the  pil- 
grimage was  established  in  1661  by  d'Auberon,  an  offi- 
cer of  the  great  Cond^);  Notre  Dame  de  la  Cave  at 
Champisny ;  Notre  Dame  de  Piti6  at  Verdelot:  Notre 
Dame  &  Melun  at  Melun;  Notre  Dame  du  Puy  at 
Sigy.  The  head  of  St.  Veronica  at  Pomponne  has 
long  been  the  object  of  a  pilgrimage,  greatlv  furthered 
bv  the  Jesuits  in  1670;  the  cloak  {chape)  of  St.  Martin 
of  which  a  large  portion  is  preservea  at  Bussy-St- 
Martin,  also  attracts  pilgrims. 

Before  the  application  of  the  Associations  Iaw  of 
1901  religious  communities  were  represented  in  the 
diocese  W  the  Lasarists,  Oratorians,  Little  Brothers 
of  Marv,  Fathers  and  Brothers  of  St.  Mary  of  Tinche- 
bray,  School  Brotheis  of  the  Christian  Doctrine.  Of 
the  congregations  of  women  the  following  may  be  men- 
tkmed:  the  Celestine  Sisters,  a  teaching  and  nursing 
order  founded  in  1839  (mother-house  at  Provins); 
the  Sisters  of  St.  Louis,  a  nursing  and  teaching  order, 
founded  in  1841  by  the  Abb6  Bautain  (mother-house  at 
Juilly),  the  Carmelites  of  Meaux,  called  Carmel  of  Pius 
IX,  founded  30  August,  1860.  The  Benedictines  of 
tiie  Sacred  Heart  of  Maiy,  devoted  to  teaching  and 


contemplation,  restored  in  1837  the  ancient  abbev  of 

Jouarre.    The  religious  congregations  had  imder  tneir 

care :  4  crtehes,  52  day  nurseries,  1  orphanage  for  boys, 

15  orphanages  for  prls,  14  industrial  rooms,  10  houses 

of  mercy,  26  hospitals  or  asylums,  19  houses  for  the 

care  of  the  sick  in  their  own  homes,  1  house  of  retreat. 

In  1908  the  Diocese  of  Meaux  had  361,939  mhabltants, 

39  parishes,  402  succursal  parishes,  8  vicariates. 

ChUlia  ChrUUana  (nova,  1744),  Vni,  1506-1070.  inBtrumaita, 
547-674;  Ducbbsns.  FaaUa  Epiacopaux,  II,  471-475;  Du 
Plbbsxs,  HUtoire  de  VEgliae  de  Meaux  (2  vols.,  Meaux,  1731); 
Cabko,  Hietoire  de  Meaux  el  du  vaye  Meldoie  (Meaux,  18S5); 
Allou,  Chronique  dee  Mquee  de  Meaux  (Meaux,  1876) :  N  Arw^ 
Martyn  ei  eon/eeeeure  dslqjoi  du  dioeiee  de  Meaux,  1702-1706 
(Meaux,  1005);  Haiol,  Hialoire  de  VEglxee  et  du  CoUiff  d» 
JmOy  (3rd  ed.,  Paris,  1888);  Tbxsrcbxjn,  Le  numaeUre  d& 
Jouam  (Paris,  1861);  Chmvalebb,  Topo-BibL,  1886-87. 

Georges  Gotau. 

BSecca,  the  capital  of  Arabia  and  the  sacred  cit^  of 
the  Mohunmedims,  is  situated  in  the  district  of  Hijas 
about  21<»  30^  N.  latitude  and  40<'  20^  E.  lonjgitude, 
some  seventy  miles  east  of  the  Red  Sea.  It  lies  in  a 
sandy  valley  surrounded  by  rockv  hills  from  two  hun- 
dred to  five  hundred  feet  in  height,  barren  and  desti- 
tute of  vegetation.  The  birthplace  of  Mohammed 
and  the  seat  of  the  famous  Kaitba,  it  was  celebrated 
even  in  pre-Islamio  times  as  the  chief  sanctuary  of 
the  Arabs,  and  visited  by  numerous  pilgrims  and  dev- 
otees. The  city  presents  an  aspect  more  pleasing 
than  that  of  the  ordinary  Eastern  town,  with  oom- 
parativel^r  wide  streets  and  stone  houses,  usually  of 
three  stories,  and  well  aired  and  lighted.  The  inhabit- 
ants, numbering  about  60,(XX),  are  with  few  excep- 
tions Arabians  whose  chief  employment  consists  m 
lod^;ing  the  pilgrims  and  serving  the  temple,  althoujgh 
no  mconsiderable  amount  of  trade  is  carried  on  with 
the  Bedouins  of  the  surrounding  desert.  Mecca,  the 
seat  of  government  durine  the  reign  of  the  first  five 
Khalifs,  is  now  eovemed  d v  a  Sharif,  chosen  bv  the 
people  from  the  ^yyids  or  tne  descendants  of  Moham- 
med, but  under  the  immediate  authority  of  the  Sultan 
of  Turkey  (Hughes,  "Dictionary  of  Islam",  q.  v.). 
Mecca  is  annually  visited  by  some  80,000  pilgrims 
from  all  over  the  Mohanunedan  worid.  Gn  their  way 
the  pilgrims  pass  through  Medina,  the  second  sacred 
town  m  Arabia,  and  on  approachmg  Mecca  they  un- 
dress, laying  aside  even  their  headiear,  and  put  on 
aprons  and  a  piece  of  doth  over  the  left  shoulder. 
Tnen  they  perform  the  circuit  of  the  Kaaba,  kiss  the 
Black  Stone,  hear  the  sermon  on  Mount  Araf it,  pelt 
Satan  with  stones  in  the  valley  of  Mina,  and  conclude 
their  pilgrimage  with  a  great  sacrificial  feast.  In  a 
year  or  two  Mecca  will  be  reached  by  the  Hijas  Rail- 
way already  completed  as  far  as  Meaina,  (about  eight 
hundred  and  fiity  miles  from  Damascus).  From 
Medina  to  Mecca  the  distance  jb  two  hundred  and 
eightv  miles,  and  from  Mecca  to  Damascus  about 
one  tnousand  one  hundred  and  ten  miles.  The  rail- 
way passes  through  the  old  caravan  route,  Damas- 
cus, Meaarib,  Maan,  Medawara,  Tebuk,  Madain  Saleh, 
£l-UIa,  Medina,  and  Mecca. 

The  earlv  history  of  Mecca  is  shrouded  in  obscurity, 
although  Mohanunedan  writers  have  preserved  an 
abundance  of  legendary  lore  according  to  which  the 
city  dates  back  to  Abraham  who  jb  said  to  have  there 
worshipped  the  true  God.  It  is  also  stated  that  after 
the  death  of  Abraham,  the  inhabitants  of  Mecca,  ow- 
ing to  the  evil  influence  of  the  heathen  Amalekites, 
feU  into  idolatry  and  pasanism,  and  the  Kaaba  itself 
became  surrounded  with  their  idob.  Hundreds  of 
these  idols  were  destroyed  by  Mohammed  on  his  en- 
trance into  the  city  at  the  head  of  a  Moslem  ann^  in  the 
eighth  year  of  the  Hejira,  or  ▲.  n.  620.  Dunng  the 
oentuiy  before  Mohammed  we  find  the  tribe  of  Qur- 
aish  in  undiiBputed  possession  of  the  city  and  the  ao- 
knowledged  guardians  of  the  Kaaba.  The  leading 
events  in  Mecca  at  that  period,  such  as  the  Abyssinian 
expedition  against  Yemen  and  the  utter  defeat  of 


MlC&ANtSM                          100  MtCBAMtSM 

Abraha's  army  at  the  hand  of  the  Meccans,  have  sleep,  because  it  has  the  sleep-inducing  property  *« 

been  already  discussed  in  the  article  CHBiSTiANiTr  in  Each  thing  was  what  it  was  by  virtue  of  an  approprl- 

Arabia.  ate  form;  man  by  the  human  form,  a  pebble  by  its 

See  the  bibHofraphy  appeoded  to  the  articles  Arabia,  Mo-  pebble  form:  and  each  thing  perfoimed  its   chanieter- 

BAMMXD,  AND  MoHAMMBDANXBii ;  BuRKHAROT,  TrooeUin Arabia  \f.4\g,  fiinnf  innfl  hv  onmA  "  viHbiiA  "        Thna  if  la  aIImmwI 

(London.  1830) :  Burtok,  Perianal  narrative  of  a  Pilgrimage  to  ^^^  lUncilOns  Dy  BOme    Virtue    .       1  nus,  It  IS  all^ea, 

El  Medina  and  Mecca  Oiondon.  1867);  HtTRORONjB,  Snouck,  all  explanations  fell  mto  tautology,  and  science  was 

Jtf«m.mgB%Uerii(to«,n  (The  Hague,  1888);  Idw,  HeiMek-  doomed  a  priori  to  puTBue  a  monotonous  round  in 

kanucheFeeet  (Leyden,  1888).           Gabribl  Oussani.  complete  Sterility.    K  Mechanism  did  nothing  more 

than  deliver  us  from  this  absurd  logomachy,  it  would 

BSechaolBXii. — ^There  is  no  constant  meaning  in  the  possess  at  least  a  n^^tive  value,  emphasising  b^  its 

histoiy  of  philosophy  for  the  word  Mechanism.  Origin-  opposition  the  weakness  of  qualitative  explanations, 

ally,  the  term  meant  that  cosmological  theory  wmch  (2)  The  general  laws  of  applied  logic  are  cited  in 

ascribes  the  motion  and  changes  of  the  world  to  some  favour  of  the  principles  of  Mecnanism.    The  scientific 

external  force.    In  this  view  material  things  are  fact  is  not  the  initial  fact  of  observation.    The  scien- 

purely  passive,  while  according  to  the  opposite  the-  tist  is  not  satisfied  with  seeing,  he  must  understand; 

ory  (i.  e..  Dynamism),  they  possess  certam  internal  and  the  only  way  to  understand  is  to  explain.    Now 

sources  of  energy  which  account  for  the  activity  of  there  is  but  one  conceivable  method  ol  explaining  the 

each  and  for  its  influence  on  the  course  of  events,  new  realitv;  the  things  which  are  not  understood  must 

These  meanings,  however,  soon  underwent  modifi-  be  reduced  to  known  antecedents.    The  barrenness  of 

cation.    The  question  as  to  whether  motion  is  an  in-  formal  and  final  causes  is,  aooordine  to  the  Mechanists, 

herent  property  of  bodies,  or  has  been  communicated  at  once  manifest.    The  form  is  what  makes  a  thing 

to  them  bv  some  external  agency,  was  veiy  often  what  it  is,  but  the  fact  or  thing  which  is  to  be  explained 

ignored.    With  a  h&m  numMr  of  cosmologists  the  does  not  become  intelligible  by  reason  of  its  being 

essential  feature  of  Mechanism  is  the  attempt  to  re-  what  it  is.    Therefore,  to  allege  the  fonn  as  an  ex- 

duce  all  the  qualities  and  activities  of  bodies  to  quan-  planation  is  to  explain  a  thing  by  itself.    The  inter- 

titative  realities,  i.  e.  to  mass  and  motion.    But  a  pretations  based  on  ''ends"  are  not  more  productive 

further  modification  soon  followed.    Living  bodies,  as  of  scientific  results.    Aside  from  the  anthropomoiphio 

is  well  known,  present  at  first  sight  certain  character-  illusions  to  which  such  inteipretations  are  liable,  the 

istic  properties  which  have  no  counteipart  in  lifeless  ends  help  us  no  better  than  tne  forms  to  avoid  tautol* 

matter.    Mechanism  aims  to  go  beyonci  these  appear-  o^.    The  end  of  a  thing  is  only  the  action  towsjrds 

ances.    It  seeks  to  explain  all  "  vital "  phenomena  as  which  it  tends,  the  term  of  its  development.    But  this 

ph3r8ical  and  chemical  facts;   whether  or  not  these  action  and  this  tenn  can  be  known  only  through 

facts  are  in  turn  reducible  to  mass  and  motion  be-  further  observatk)n;  thev  constitute  new  facts  which 

oomes  a  secondaiv  question,  although  Mechanists  are  require  an  explanation  of  their  own.    We  learn  noth* 

generally  indinea  to  favour  such  reduction.    The  ing  from  them  as  to  the  nature  of  the  original  thin^; 

Qieory  opposed  to  this  biological  mechanism  is  no  they  do  not  tell  us  how  or  by  what  internal  factors  it 

longer  DynamJBm,  but  Vitalism  or  Neo-vitalism,  which  peitorms  its  action  or  reaches  its  term.    To  explain 

maintains  that  vital  activities  cannot  be  explained,  the  e^e  by  declaring  that  it  was  made  to  see,  is  to  state 

and  never  will  be  explained,  by  the  laws  which  that  it  is  an  eye  but  nothing  more.    To  understand 

govern  lifeless  matter.     As  MechaniBm  professes  to  the  eye  it  is  necessary  to  know  by  what  internal  struct- 

furnish  a  complete  system  of  the  world,  its  extreme  ure,  and  under  what  sort  of  stimulation  the  oigan 

partisans  apply  it  to  psychical  manifestations  and  perfonns  its  visual  functions. 

even  to  social  phenomena;  but  here  it  is  at  best  only  Hence,  say  the  Mechanists,  all  ends  and  final  causes 

tentative  and  the  result  very  questionable.    Its  aa-  must  be  banished  from  scientific  systematisations. 

Tocates  merely  connect,  more  or  less  thoroughly.  The  unknown  can  be  explained  only  oy  reduction,  to 

psychological  and  social  facts  with  the  general  laws  or  the  known,  the  new  by  reduction  to  the  anterior,  the 

leading  hypotheses  of  biology.    It  is  preferable,  there-  complex  by  reduction  to  the  simple.    Now,  if  we  look 

fore,  in  the  present  state  of  our  knowledge,  to  disre-  for  the  only  senuinely  scientific  explanation,  we  can- 

gard  these  features  of  mechanistic  doctrine,  which  are  not  stop  untfl  we  reach  mass  and  motion.    Such  in- 

certainly  of  a  provisional  character.    In  a  word  then,  deed  is  human  intelli^noe,  that  we  first  grasp  the 

Mechanism  in  its  various  fonns  shows  a  tendency  to  most  general  and  the  simplest  realities,  and  we  grasp 

interpret  phenomena  of  a  higher  order  in  terms  of  the  these  the  best.    Take  for  example  the  very  genenu 

lower  and  less  complex,  and  to  carry  this  reduction  phenomenon  of  life.    To  explain  it  by  a  vital  force  or 

down  to  the  simplest  attainable  forms,  i.  e.  to  those  principle  would  simply  be  not  to  explain  it  at  all.    We 

?uantitative  realities  which  we  call  mass  and  motion,  must,  if  we  would  understand  life,  reduce  it  to  some- 
'sychology  and  sociology  derive  their  explanation  thing  which  is  not  life,  to  something  simpler  and  better 
from  biology;  biology  derives  its  explanation  from  the  known.  We  must  therefore,  the  Mecnuiist  asserts, 
physical  and  chemical  sciences,  while  these  in  turn  have  recourse  to  the  physical  and  chemical  phenom- 
Dorrow  their  explimation  from  mechanics.  The  ena,  and  our  imderstanding  of  life  is  measured  by 
science  of  mechamcs  becomes  by  a  very  simple  pro-  the  possibilities  of  this  reduction.  It  may  be  that  we 
oess  a  particular  phase  of  mathematicai  analysis,  so  have  not  explained  by  this  method  everjrthinni  con- 
that  the  ideal  of  Mechanism  is  Mathematism,  that  nected  with  vital  phenomena,  since  their  reduction  to 
is  to  say,  the  representation  of  all  phenomena  by  physical  laws  is  as  yet  incomplete:  but  this  does  not 
mathematical  equations.  Hence  it  is  plain  that  justify  the  assumption  of  a  latent  quality:  it  only 
Mechanism  tends  to  eliminate  from  science  and  from  means  that  our  biological  knowledge  is  far  from  per- 
leality  all  "qualitative"  aspects,  all  "forms"  and  feet.  Chemical  phenomena  and  physical  qualities 
''ends".  We  shall  first  state  the  aiguments  brought  must  likewise  be  accounted  for.  Under  pain  of  fruit- 
forward  in  support  of  the  theory,  and  then  subject  it  less  tautology,  we  must  reduce  them  to  that  which  is 
to  criticism.  already  known.  But  we  find  here  only  quantitative 
I.  Arguiontb. — (1)  Modem  Mechanism,  which  matter  and  motion,  realities  which  may  be  reduced  to 
imouestionably  goes  back  to  Descartes,  arose,  it  is  mathematical  formube,  thus  bringing  us  to  a  practi- 
saia,  from  a  legitimate  reaction  against  the  errors  of  oally  pure  idea  of  quantity.  Beyond  this  we  cannot 
decadent  Soholastioism.  The  latter  had  abused  the  go,  for  if  we  suppress  quantitjr  our  mind  loses  aJl  hold 
old  theory  of  forms  and  latent  qualities.  Whenever  on  the  real.  It  apparently  follows  that  by  the  veiy 
a  phenomenon  called  for  explanation,  it  was  furnished  requirements  of  logic.  Mechanism  alone  has  an  indis- 
by  endowinf^  the  substance  with  a  new  quality  *  and,  putable  claim  to  a  place  in  the  realm  of  science.  Any 
as  Molidre  jestingly  puts  it,  "the  poppy  made  one  other  system,  the  Mechanists  claim,  must  necessarilj 


1BGHANI8M 


101 


MECHANISM 


be  provisional,  tautologieali  and  therefore  mislead- 


1< 


3)  There  is  another  consideration  which  is  said  to 
outweigh  all  reasoning  a  priori:  Mechanism  succeeds. 
Its  exidanaticms,  we  are  told,  are  clear  and  precise  to  a 
decree  unattainable  in  any  other  theory,  and  they 
satisfy  the  mind  with  a  synthetic  view  of  reality. 
They  alone  have  deliverea  us  from  an  intolerable 
pluralism  in  the  cosmic  system,  secured  that  unity  of 
thought  which  seems  to  oe  an  imperative  need  of  our 
mind,  and  brought  under  control  phenomena  which 
had  defied  all  amdysis  and  which  had  to  be  accepted 
as  primary  data.  Furthermore,  the  doctrines  of 
Mecnanism  have  enabled  us  to  anticipate  observation 
and  to  make  forecasts  which  facts  in  nature  have 
actually  confirmed.  Herein  is  a  guarantee  which,  for 
the  Mechanists,  is  well  worth  all  theoretical  proofs. 

Such,  in  the  main,  is  the  line  of  reasoning  followed 
bv  the  adherents  of  Mechanism.  That  it  is  not  con- 
clusive will  i^pear  quite  clearly  from  the  following 
examination  into  its  value. 

Criticism. — It  cannot  be  denied  that  mechtaistie 
ideas  haveplayed  a  useful  and  creditable  part  in 
science.  Whatever  one  may  think  of  the  Cartesian 
revolution  in  the  realm  of  philosophy,  it  has  certainly 
stimulated  research  in  the  scientific  field.  This  ser- 
vice cannot  be  overlooked,  even  though  one  be  con- 
vinced of  the  inability  of  Mechanism  to  provide  us 
with  a  formula  of  the  universe.  It  is  none  the  less 
true,  however,  that  Mechamsm  as  a  cosmic  theory 
must  be  rejected. 

(1)  First  of  aU,  there  is  in  the  progress  of  natural 
phenomena  a  fundamental  fact  wnich  Mechanism  is 
unable  to  account  for,  the  irreversibility  of  cosmic 
events.  All  motion  is  reversible:  when  a  moviog 
object  has  covered  the  distance  from  A  to  B,  we  at 
Qoce  understand  that  it  can  go  back  over  the  path  from 
B  to  A.  If,  therefore,  everything  that  happens  is 
motion,  it  is  not  clear  why  events  in  nature  should 
not  at  times  retrace  their  inarch,  why  the  fruit  should 
not  return  to  the  flower,  the  flower  to  the  bud,  the 
tree  itself  to  the  plant  and  finally  to  the  seed.  True, 
it  is  shown  that  tnis  reversion,  even  in  the  mechanistic 
hypothesis,  is  exceedingly  improbable,  but  it  would 
not  be  impossible.  Now  such  reversion,  in  the  case  of 
certain  phenomena  at  least,  is  more  than  improbable : 
it  is  inconceivable,  for  instance,  that  our  limbs  should 
be  bruised  before  the  fall  which  causes  the  bruise. 
This  irreversibility  of  cosmic  processes  is  undoubtedly, 
as  the  Mechanists  themselves  admit,  the  chief  diffi- 
culty against  their  system. 

(2)  When  we  enter  within  the  field  of  biology,  the 
difficulties  against  Mechanism  multiply.  Granted 
that  this  doctrine  has  served  as  a  guide  to  man^  suc- 
cessful investigators,  what  have  they  attained  m  the 
last  analysis?  They  have  not  advanced  one  step 
nearer  to  the  "formula  of  life."  All  the  biological 
facts  so  far  examined  and  understood  have  been 
brought  into  the  catesoiy  of  physico-chemical  activi- 
ties— ^indeed,  this  might  have  Deen  expected ;  but  that 
is  not  life.  A  particular  i)ha8e  is  isolated  for  examina- 
tion, and  the  cnaracteristic  mark  of  life  is  thereby  de- 
stroyed. For  that  which  characterises  life  expenmen- 
tally  considered,  is  the  unity,  the  solidarity  of  all  these 
particular  activities;  all  convei;^  to  one  common  pur- 
pose, the  constitution  of  the  livm^  being  in  its  unaeni- 
able  individuslity.  Its  explanation  surelycannot  be 
found  in  disintegrating  it  by  analysis.  The  conflict 
with  Mechanism  nas  now  been  earned  into  the  experi- 
mental field,  and  the  last  few  years  have  yielded  an 
ever  increasing  number  of  observations  which  seem  to 
defy  all  mechimistic  reduction.  These  are  chiefly  con- 
cerned with  abnormal  conditions  which  are  brought 
about  during  the  first  stages  of  individual  develop- 
ment. Sea  urehin  embryos,  taken  when  they  have 
progressed  far  enough  to  permit  the  determination  of 
the  nonnal  growth  of  eacn  part,  and  divided  into  two 


or  three  s^ments,  produce  as  many  animals  as  there 
were  artificial  segments.  Must  not  the  conclusion  be 
that  there  exists  in  each  embryo  a  simple  principle — 
an  enteUchy  as  Dnesch  says,  using  Aristotle's  term — 
which  is  one  in  the  whole  organism  and  is  entire  within 
each  part?  Is  not  this  the  very  contrary  of  Mechan- 
ism which  claims  to  reduce  everything  to  the  move- 
ments (interwoven  of  course,  but  really  independent) 
of  the  parts?  It  is  not  surprising,  therefore,  that  the 
adherents  of  neo-Vitalism  should  now  be  numerous, 
and  that  their  ranks  are  growing  fast. 

(3)  But  it  is  principally  before  logical  and  philo- 
sophical criticism,  that  Mechanism  seems  to  give  way 
completely.  Those  very  ideas  on  the  nature  of  ex- 
planation, according  to  which  it  is  attempted  to  re- 
duce all  reality  to  terms  of  the  supposed  primary  no- 
tions of  mass  and  motion,  preclude  Mechanism  from 
ever  attaining  the  whoU  of  reality.  The  present  must 
be  reduced  to  the  past,  the  new  to  that  which  is  al- 
r^uiy  known,  the  complex  to  the  more  simple;  but 
this  original  oatum  remains,  that  the  complex  and  the 
simple  are  not  identical,  that  the  new  fact  is  not  the 
fact  which  was  already  known.  If  we  suppose  all  that 
was  contained  in  the  complex  to  have  been  reduced  by 
analysis  to  simple  elements  already  known,  we  have 
still  to  explain  their  combination,  their  unity  in  the 
complex;  and  it  is  just  these  that  have  been  destroyed 
by  tne  explanatory  analysis.  Given  that  there  is 
something  to  explain,  something  unknown,  it  is  clear 
that  there  is  something  bevond  the  known  and  the  old, 
and  there  must  inevitably  be  some  principle  which 
moulds^nto  unity  the  numerous  elements,  and  which 
either  for  the  species  or  for  the  individual,  may  in  a 
very  broad  sense  be  called  the  ''form".  Explana- 
tions based  on  analysis  do  not  discover  the  form,  be- 
cause  they  begin  by  destroying  it.  It  may  be  said .  in 
a  particular  but  entirelv  acceptable  sense,  tnat 
"form"  explains  nothing,  oecause  to  explain  is  to  re- 
duce, and  form  is  by  its  veiy  nature  irreducible.  But 
from  this  to  the  denial  of  form  is  a  very  far  cry.  The 
scholastics  of  the  decadent  period  erred  in  regarding 
forms  as  expkmatory  principles,  but  Mechanism  dis- 
torts the  reality  by  reducing  it  to  its  "matter",  by 
ignoring  its  specific  and  its  individual  unit^.  For  the 
same  reason,  the  mechanical  interpretations  of  the 
dynamic  aspect  of  things,  that  is  to  say  of  cosmic  evo- 
lution, prove  futile.  It  is  of  course  instructive  in  the 
highest  degree  to  know  what  previous  state  of  the  uni- 
verse accounts  for  the  present  state  of  things;  but  to 
look  on  those  anterior  efficient  causes  of  things  as  the 
adequate  representations  of  their  effects,  is  to  lose 
sight  of  the  fact  that  these  latter  are  effects,  while  the 
former  were  caueee;  the  consequence  is  an  absolute 
"statism"  and  a  denial  of  all  causality. 

Similar  observations  might  be  made  on  the  subject 
of  final  causes.  Tlie  meaning  itself  of  the  word  final- 
ity has  undergone  singular  changes  since  Aristotle  and 
tiie  thirteenth  century.  Let  it  suffice  to  note  that 
finality  has  its  basis  m  the  intellectual  nature  of  an 
efficient  cause,  or  in  the  internal  tendency  of  a  form 
viewed  from  the  standpoint  of  activitv,  of  dynamism. 
Tlie  decadent  Scholastics  weakened  their  position 
when  they  relied  on  forms  and  ends  only  as  means  of 
scientific  explanations  strictly  so  called,  while  Mech- 
anists are  clearly  in  error  when  they  seek  in  these  same 
scientific  explanations  for  an  account  of  reality  to  the 
exclusion  oi  forms  and  ends.  More  might  be  said  of 
the  manifest  inadequacy  of  (quantitative  images,  of 
cosmological  Mathematism  which  reduces  all  continu- 
ity to  discontinuity  and  all  time  to  coincidences  without 
duration,  and  of  the  anti-mechanistic  reaction  which 
asserts  itself  under  the  name  of  Eneigism,  and  with 
which  the  researches  of  Ostwald  and  ofDuhem  are  as- 
sociated. But  these  are  complex  and  general  prob- 
lems.   We  may  now  resume  and  draw  our  conclusions. 

Conclusion. — ^Mechanism  is  a  cosmological  theory 
which  holds  that  all  phenomena  in  nature  are  reduci- 


MKOBffAft                          102  laottlTA&ISTS 

ble  to  simple  phenomena  in  such  a  manner  that  the  caped  to  the  Morea,  thenoe  to  Venetian  territoiy,  find- 
ultimate  realities  of  the  material  world  are  mass  and  ing  shelter  in  a  Jesuit  house.  He  attributed  his  safety 
motion.  This  system  has  rendered  signal  service:  it  to  our  Blessed  Lady,  under  whose  protection,  on  8 
exhibits  in  great  clearness  the  material  causes  or  phe-  Sept.,  the  Feast  of  ner  Nativity,  &  had  solemnly 
nomena;  indeed,  this  explains  wh;;'  its  formuke  may,  placed  himself  and  his  society, 
in  exceptional  cases,  provide  a  formula  applicable  to  The  Venetians  kindly  gave  him  some  property  at 
some  fact  as  yet  unknown.  But  it  is  impossble  to  re-  Modon  (1701),  where  he  built  a  church  and  convent, 
gard  Mechanism  as  a  real  representation  of  our  uni-  and  laid  the  foundations  of  the  Mechitarist  Order, 
verse.  It  wrought  its  own  ruin  when  it  claimed  a  Clement  XI  gfkve  it  formal  approval  in  1712,  and  ap- 
scope  and  a  significance  which  are  denied  it  by  the  pointed  Mechitar  Abbot.  Three  years  later  war  broke 
reality  of  things  and  the  exigencies  of  logic.  out  between  Venice  and  the  Porte,  and  the  new  abbey 
All  gmieral  treaties  on  phUoaophy  give  at  least  a  few  pa^ea  was  in  jeopardy.    The  abbot,  leaving  seventy  of  his 

l§06)T&2'<«a^2nW,"!itelSSi)^  ^^iSISS  ««>nk8  tehind   c,^«ed  over  U>\^oe  with  sixteen 

Pb8ch.  Dis  groMen  Wehixtad  (Freiburs,  1907);  Obiiblli,  compamons  With  the  mtention  Of  begimung  a  second 

UEnigma  deUa  vila  e  %  nuovi  oruMotUi  deUa  btologia  (Florence,  foundation.    It  was  well  that  he  did  SO  for  the  Vene* 

i§S§|;  ?^:^:J:^v'Z^,^S:!^^%'lS^%(]^^^  tia^were  defeated  and  the  More»  was  ^gained  by  the 

1906);  DB  MuNNTNCK.  Lea  baaea  p»vcholooique9  du  Mieaniame  Turks.    Modon  was  taken,  the  monastery  destroyed 

in  Revue  dea  aciencea  philoa.  et  thiol.  (Kain,  Belfjum,  1907);  and  the  monks  dispersed.    The  house  rented  at  Ven- 

BRUNHB8.  La  D6oradatton  da  I  EnerotelPans,  i?2^;^^  i<»  P^ved  too  smaU  and  Mechitar  exerted  all  his 

M.  r.  DE  MUNNTNCK.  influence  to  obtain  the  gift  of  San  Laszaro,  an  island 

Mechitar   (Mechithab,  Mekhitab.  Mchitar  or  about  two  miles  south-east  of  the  city,  not  far  from  the 

MocHTOB,  a  word  which  means  ''Comforter")}  is  the  Lido.    His  request  granted,  he  restored  the  old  ruined 

name  taken  b}r  Peter  Manuk,  founder  of  the  religious  church,  and  a  second  time  built  a  monastery  for  his 

order  of  Mechitarists,  when  he  became  a  monk.    A  monks.  This  establishment  has  remained  undisturbed 

native  of  Sebaste  (Sivas)  in  Lesser  Armenia,  b.  7  Feb-  in  the  hands  of  the  Mechitarists  to  the  present  day. 

ruaiy,  1676,  of  parents  reputed  noblCj  he  was  left  imtil  At  8.  Lazsaro  he  devised  many  schemes  for  the  re- 

the  age  of  fifteen  in  the  care  of  two  pious  nuns.   Then  generation  of  his  country.    An  accusation  brought 

he  entered  the  cloister  of  the  Holy  Cross  near  Sebaste,  against  him  at  Rome — ^not  a  personal  charee  but  one 

and  the  same  year  (1691),  was  ordained  deacon  by  connected  with  the  labours  undertaken  by  the  order — 

Bishop  Ananias.   Shortly  afterwards,  impelled  by  his  resulted  in  a  better  imderstanding  with  the  Holy  See, 

thirst  for  knowledge,  he  left  the  cloister — ^not  putting  and  the  personal  friendship  of  the  pope.    He  lived  at 

off  the  habit  or  infringing  his  vows  (the  East^in  monk  S.  Lazzaro  for  thirty  years,  busy  with  his  printing- 

could,  for  a  proper  reason,  lawfully  leave  the  endo-  press  and  his  literary  labours,  and  died  at  tne  age  of 

sure)  and  set  forth,  in  the  company  of  a  doctor  of  seventy-four,  on  16  April,  1749.   Since  his  death  he  is 

that  city,  for  Etchmiadzin,  the  capital  of  Greater  alwa^rs  spoken  of  bv  his  children  as  the  Abbas  Pater, 

Armenia,  persuaded  that  it  was  the  centre  of  civiUza-  Abbai  hairm  (see  Mechitarists). 

tion  and  the  home  of  all  the  sciences.    During  the  The  most  important  of  his  literary  works  are  the 

journey  he  met  with  a  European  missionary  and  following:    "Commentary  on  the  Gospel  of  St. Mat- 

a  fellow  Armenian,  whose  accounts  of  the  wonders  thew"    (1737);     "Commentary    on   Ecclesiasticus" 

of  the  West  changed  the  course  of  his  life.    Stirred  (Venice);  "Armenian  Grammar";  "Armenian  Gram- 

with  an  admiration  of  Western  culture  and  the  desire  mar  of  the  Vulgar  Tongue  ";  "  Armenian  Dictionanr " 

to  introduce  it  among  his  countr3anen,  he  wan-  (1744,  and  in  two  volumes,  Venice,  1749-69);  "Ar- 

dered  from  place  to  place,  earning  a  scanty  living  by  menian  Catechism ",  both  in  the  literary  and  vulgar 

teaching.     After  eighteen  months  he  retumedf  to  tonnes;   "A  Poem  on  the  Blessed  Virgin";  "Ar- 

Sebaste  where  he  remained  for  some  time,  still  ambi-  menian  Bible"  (1734). 

tious  to  study  Western  civilization.   Even  then  he  had  ^  ^J??  <wr  aMaU  Meckuar  (Venice.  I8im  ;LavUdu  aerviuw 

conceived  the  idea  of  founding  a  reU^OUS  society—  Meehitarutaa  de  Vmiaa,  ainH  qua  La  via  dea  abUa  gMraux  at  dea 

suggested,  doubtless,  by  the  well-mtentioned  but  long  moinea  lea  plva  UUbraa  de  la  eongrigation  (Venice,  1901). 

since  suppressed  association  of  the  "  United  Brothers"  J.  C.  Almond. 
—which  would  labour  to  introduce  Western  ideas  and 

Western  influence  into  Armenia.   This  would  imply  a  MechitaristB,  Armenian  Benedictines,  founded  by 

formal  re-union  of  the  Armenian  Church  with  Rome,  Mechitar  in  1712.     In  its  inception  the  order  was 

and  there  would  be  an  end  of  that  wavering  between  looked  upon  merely  as  an  attempted  reform  of  Eastern 

Constantinople  and  Rome,  so  injurious  to  the  ^iritual  monachism.     P.  Filippo    Bonanni,  S.J.,  writes   at 

and  intellectual  welfare  of  his  countnr.    At  Sebaste,  Rome,  in  1712  when  the  order  received  its  approval, 

he  devoted  himself  to  the  reading  of  the  Armenian  of  the  arrival  of  P.  Elias  Martyr  and  P.  Joannes 

sacred  writers  and  the  Syrian  and  Greek  Fathers  in  Simon,  two  Armenian  monks  sent  by  Mechitar  to 

translations,  and,  after  a  vain  attempt  to  readi  Eu-  Pope  Clement  XI  to  offer  His  Holiness  the  most 

rope  from  Alexandria,  he  was  ordained  priest  (169^)  humble  sub|ection  of  himself  and  convent  (u/  ei  se  cum 

in  his  own  city,  and  (1699)  received  the  title  and  staff  8uis  rdigiosia  humilUme  subjiceret).    There  is  no  men- 

of  doctor  (Vartabed).    Then  he  began  to  preach,  and  tion,  at  the  moment,  of  tne  Benedictine  rule.   The 

went  to  Constantinople  with  the  intention  of  founding  momu,  such  as  St.  Anthony*  instituted  in  Egypt  (quo9 

an  Armenian  College.    He  continued  his  preaching  St.  Antonius  in  Aegypto  tnstUuerat),  have  begun  a 

there,  generally  in  the  church  of  St.  George,  gathered  foundation  in  Modon  with  Mechitar  (Mochtiir)  as 

some  disciples  around  him,  and  distinguished  himself  abbot. 

by  his  advocacy  of  union  with  the  Holy  See.    Serious  After  two  jrears'  noviceship,  they  take  the  usual 

trouble  ensued  with  a  violent  persecution  of  the  Cath-  vows,  with  a  fourth  in  addition — "  to  give  obedience  to 

olics  by  the  Turks,  excited  by  the  action  of  Count  the  preceptor  or  master  deputed  by  their  superior  to 

Ferrol,  minister  of  Louis  XIV  at  Stamboul,  who  car-  teacn  them  the  dogmas  of  the  Catholic  Faith' .   Many 

cied  off  to  Paris  the  anti-Catholic  Patriarch  of  Con-  of  them  vow  themselves  also  to  missionary  work  in 

stantinople.    Naturally,  the  fervour  of  Mechitar  and  Armenia,  Persia,  and  Turkey,  where  they  live  on  alms 

his  disciples  in  the  Catnolic  cause,  and  the  success  cl  and  wear  as  a  badge,  beneath  the  tunic^  a  ,cross  of  red 

their  preaching  singled  them  out  for  special  attention,  doth,  on  which  are  certain  letters  signifying  their 

The  two  patriarchs,  urged  bv  a  schismatic,  Avedik,  desire  to  shed  their  blood  for  the  Catholic  Faith.  They 

led  the  attack.   Mechitar  wisely  dismissed  his  disciples  promise  on  oath  to  work  together  in  harmony  so 

and  himself  took  refuge  in  a  Capuchin  convent  imder  that  thev  mav  the  better  win  the  schismatics  bade  to 

French  protection.    Pursued  by  his  enemies,  he  es-  God.   They  elect  an  abbot  for  life,  who  has  the  power 


UCHITABISTS                         103  BBCHITABISTS 

to  diflDiai  suminarihr  any  of  his  monks  who  should  strict  justioe,  to  have  preserved  from  degradation  and 

prove  disorderly.    They  wear  the  beard,  Oriental  neglect  the  language  and  literature  of  their  country, 

nahion,  and  have  a  black  habit — ^tunic,  doak  and  and  in  so  doing,  &ve  been  the  saviours  of  the  Ar- 

hood.  In  the  engraving  attached  to  the  description,  menian  race.     Individuallyi  the  monks  are  distin- 

ibe  Meehitarist  would  oe  undistinguishable  from  a  a^hed  by  their  linguistic  aocompHahments,  and  the 

mnilar  hermit  of  St.  AugusUne^except  for  his  beard.  Vienna  establishment  has  attracted  attention  by  the 

mim.  however,  Pope  Ctement  XI  gave  them  his  ap-  institution  of  a  Literary  Academy,  which  confers 

proval,  it  was  as  mcmks  under  the  rule  of  St.  Benedict,  honorary  membership  without  regard  to  race  or 

and  he  appointed  Mechitar  the  first  abbot.   This  was  religion. 

a  great  innovation;  nothing  less  than  the  introduction  In  every  one  of  their  many  undertakings  their 

of  Western  mooastidsm  into  the  East.   There,  up  to  founder,  Mechitar,  personally  showed  them  the  way. 

this  time,  a  monk  undertook  no  duties  but  to  fill  his  To  him  they  owe  the  initiative  in  the  study  of  the  Ar- 

plaoe  in  the  monastery.  He  admitted  no  vocation  but  menian  writings  of  the  fourth  and  fifth  oenturies, 

to  save  his  soul  in  the  cloister.   He  had,  in  theory,  at  which  has  resulted  in  the  development  and  adoption 

feast,  broken  off  all  relations  with  the  outside  world,  of  a  literary  langua^,  nearly  as  distinct  from  the  vul- 

He  had  no  idea  of  making  himself  useful  to  mankind,  gar  toxi^e  as  Latin  is  from  Italian.    Thus  the  modem 

or  of  any  good  works  whatsoever  save  his  choir  duties,  Armenian  remains  in  touch  with  a  distinguished  and 

his  orayers,  his  fastings,  and  the  monastic  observance,  inspiring  past,  and  has  at  his  service  a  rich  and  impor- 

He  belonged  to  no  religious  order  but  was  simply  a  tant  literature  which  otherwise  would  have  been  left, 

monk.    Now,  as  a  Benedictine,  he  would  be  expected  unknown  or  unheeded,  to  decay.    Mechitar,  with  his 

to  devote  himself  to  some  useful  work  and  take  some  Armenian  "  Imitation   and  "  Bible  '*,  began  that  series 

thought  of  his  neighbour.   It  is  dear,  from  P.  Bonan-  of  translations  of  peat  books,  continued  unceasingly 

ni's  description,  that  Mechitar  and  ms  monks  wished  during  two  centuries,  and  ranging  from  the  early  Fa- 

this  change  and  had  already  adopted  the  Western  idea  thers  of  the  Church  and  the  works  of  St.  Thomas  of 

of  the  monk's  vocation.    The  adoption  of  the  Bene-  Aquin  (one  of  their  first  labours)  to  Homer  and  Virgil 

dictine  ruJe,  therefore,  was  merely  a  recognition  of  thdr  and  the  best  known  poets  and  historians  of  later  days, 

desire  to  devote  themselves  to  apostolic  work  among  At  one  period,  in  connexion  with  their  Vienna  house, 

their  schismatic  brethren,  to  instruct  their  ignorance,  there  existed  an  association  for  the  propagation  of 

exdte  their  devotion  and  bring  them  back  into  the  good  books,  which  is  said  to  have  distributeid  nearly 

communion  of  the  one  true  Catholic  and  Apostolic  half  a  million  volumes,  and  printed  and  published 

Chureh.    And  it  was  also  a  security  that  they  would  six  new  works  each  year.    To  him  also  they  owe  the 

not  afterwards  lapse  into  the  apathv  and  inactivity  guidance  of  their  first  steps  in  exegesis — ^the  branch 

associated  in  the  Eastern  mind  with  the  life  of  the  of  leamin|[  in  which  they  have  won  most  distinction^ 

doister.   It  is  not  quite  accurate  to  speak  of  them  as  a  and  the  kmdred  studies  of  the  Liturgy  and  the  reli- 

Benedictine"  Congregation",  though  It  is  their  custom-  nous  history  of  their  country.    At  S.  Lazzaro  he 

ar^  description.    They  are  a  new  "  Order"  of  monks  founded  the  printing  press  from  which  the  most  nota- 

hving  unaer  the  rule  of  St.  Benedict,  as  distinct  from  ble  of  their  productions  have  been  issued,  and  com- 

the  parent  order  as  the  Cistercians,  Camaldolese,  Sil-  menced  there  the  collection  of  Armenian  manuscripts 

vestrines,  or  Olivetans.    Hence  we  do  not  find  them  for  which  their  library  has  become  famous.    To  any 

classed  among  the  numerous  congregations  of  the  but  members  of  the  order  the  history  of  the  Mechitar- 

Benedictine  order.  ists  has  been  uneventful,  because  of  ihe  quiet,  untir- 

Missionaries,  writers,  and  educationists,  devoted  to  ing  plodding  along  ancient,  traditional  paths,  and  the 

the  service  of  their  Armenian  brethren  wherever  they  aomirabie  fidelity  to  the  spirit  and  ideals  of  their 

might  be  found,  such  were  and  are  these  Benedictines  founder  (see  Mechitar). 

of  the  Eastern  Church.    Their  subjects  usually  enter  It  has  been  principally  by  means  of  the  Mechitar- 

the  convent  at  an  early  age,  eight  or  nine  years  old,  re-  ists'  innumerable  periodicals,  pious  manuals.  Bibles, 

cdve  in  it  their  elementao'^  schooling,  spend  about  nine  maps,  engraving,  dictionaries,  histories,  geographies 

yean  in  philosophical  and  theologcal  study,  at  the  ana  other  contributions  to  educational  and  popular 

canonical  age  of  twenty-five,  if  sufficiently  prepared,  literature,  that  they  have  done  eood  service  to  the 

are  ordained  priests  by  their  bishop-abbot^  and  are  Armenian  Chureh  and  nation.   Following  are  the  most 

then  employed  by  him  m  the  various  enterprises  of  the  valuable  of  their  contributions  to  the  common  cause  of 

order,    first,  there  is  the  work  of  the  mission — ^not  learning.    First,  there  is  the  recovery,  in  ancient  Ar- 

the  conversion  of  the  heathen,  but  priestly  ministiy  to  menian  translations,  of  some  lost  works  of  ^e  Fathers 

the  Armenian  conununities  settled  m  most  of  the  com-  of  the  Chureh.    Among  them  may  be  noted  "  Letters 

merdal  centres  of  Europe.    With  this  is  Joined,  where  (thirteen)  of  St.  Ignatius  of  Antioch  "  and  a  fuller  and 

needed  and  possible,  the  apostolate  of  union  with  more  authentic  "History  of  the  Martyrdom  of  St. 

Rome.    Next  there  is  the  education  of  the  Armenian  Ignatius";  some  works  of  St.  Ephrem  the  Syrian, 

youth  and,  associated  with  this,  the  preparation  and  notably  a  sort  of  "Humony  of  the  (Gospels"  and  a 

publication  of  good  and  useful  Armenian  literature.  "Commentaiy  on  the  Epistles  of  St.  Paul ";  an  exeep- 

The  parent  abbey  is  that  of  St.  Lassaro  at  Venice;  tionally  valuable  edition  of  "Eusebius's  History^', 

next  in  mimortance  is  that  at  Vienna^  founded  in  1810;  The  publication  of  these  works  is  due  to  the  famous 

there  is  a  huge  convent  and  college  for  lay-students  at  Meclutarist  Dom  J.  B.  Anchor,  who  was  assisted  in  the 

Padua,  the  legacy  of  a  pious  Annenian  who  died  at  last  of  them  by  Cardinal  Mai.    To  Aucher  also  we  are 

ICadras;  in  the  year  1846  another  rich  benefactor,  indebted  for  a  German  translation  of  the  "Armenian 

Samuel  Morin,  founded  a  similar  establishment  at  Missal"  (Tabin^n,  1845)  and  "Dom  Johannis  pfail- 

Paris.    Other  houses  are  in  Austria-Hungaiy,  Russia,  osophi  Ozniensis  Armeniorum  Catholici  (a.  d.,  7l8) 

Persia  and  Turkey— fourteen  in  all,  accordiiu;  to  the  Opera"    (Venice,    1534).    Two    original   hi^orical 

latest  statistics,  with  one  hundred  and  fifty-two  works  may  also  be  noted:  "The  History  of  Armenia", 

monks,  the  majority  of  whom  are  priests.    Not  a  by  P.  Michel  Tschamtschenans  (1784-6)  and  the 

peat  development  for  an  order  two  hundred  years  old;  "  Quadro  della  storia  letteraria  di  Armenia "  by  M^. 

But  its  extension  is  necessarily  restricted  because  of  its  PI.  Sukias  Somal  (Venice,  1829). 

?f  ™i!f  i'^Y''*'^''  ^  ^^^  ^«   things  Wnian.  tvicha««sc«nan..  Campendiose  naiUi^  mOa  cmiar^ffOMian, 

Amongst  their  COUntrsrmen  the  mfluence  of  the  monks  dei  numaehi  Armeni  MKhiUxriUid  (Veaioe,  1819);  NauMAifir. 

has  been  not  only  directive  in  the  way  of  holiness  and  Buai  d^vne  huunre  de  la  lAtUratwf  arminumn*  (Leip^.  1836) ; 

toue  service  to  tfod  and  His  Ch^^^^  S^SS^SSoJf'::;^?^ 

^tesome  national  ambiUon  and  self-respect.    Apoe-  «iicyeloiiAi»stM  de  2a  7AA>L  Catted,  xtv,  Art.  M«eA<tonifM. 

tfes  of  culture  and  progress,  they  niay  b^  stud,  with  •  J*  C.  AMfQ^TOt 


104 


I  {♦). I 


Meehlia  (Lai.  MBCHumA;  Fr.  MjojnmB),  Aboh-  meni  manifested  iteelf  in  numerous  monastie  insiito 

oiocBBi  or   (MBCHTiTWiBNSig),   oomTOises  the  two  tions.    Afiiighem,  the  principal  Benedictine  ablw, 

Belgian  provinces  of  Antwerp  and  Brabant.    This  dates  from  1086.    The  people  of  Antwerp,  whom 

diocese  derives  its  present  confisuration  from  the  Tanchelm  had  fimaticiaea,  were  brought  baoK  by  St 

Blench  Concordat  of  1801.    TheACclesiasticalprovinoe  Norbeort  to  a  Christian  mode  of  life.    Soon  arose  in 

of  Mechlin  is  coextensive  with  the  Belgian  Kingdom  Brabuit  jnany  Premonstratensian  abbeys:  St.  Michel 

isuffracan  bishoprics:  Toumai,  Lidge,  Namur,  Gand,  at  Antwerp  (1124),  Tongerloo  (1128),  le  Fare  near 

iruges);  it  extended  to  the  Rhine  under  Napoleon  I.  Louvain    (1129),    Heylissem    (1130),    Orimberghen 

The  city  ofMechlin,priorto  1559,  belonged  to  the  dean-  (1131),  Averbode  (1132),  Dieligem  and  Poetel  (1140). 

ay  of  Brussels  and  to  the  archdeaconry  of  the  same  Amoni^  other  abbeys  for  men  nuty  be  mentioned :  the 

name  in  the  diocese  of  Cambrai.   Its  importance  eccle-  Benedictine  abbeys  of  Vlierbeek  (1125);   the  noble 

siastically  was  due  to  the  ancient  Chapter  of  Canons  of  abbey  of  St.  Gertrude  at  Louvain,  belonging  to  the 

the  ooll^iate  church  of  St.  Rombaut.    Paul  IV,  by  Augiistinian  canons;  the  Cistercian  abbeys  of  Villera 

his  bull  ^' Super  universi  orbis  ecclesias"  (12  May,  (1147)andof  St.  Bernard  (1237).   Some  of  the  numer- 

1559)  created  a  new  hierarchy  in  the  Netherlands  ous  colleges  of  Austin  Canons  are:   St.  Jacques  sur 

composed  of  three  metropolitan  (Mechlin.  CSambrai,  Caudenberg  at  Brussels,  Hanswijck  at  Mechlin,  Cors- 

Utrecht)  and  fifteen  episcopal  sees.    The  Archbishop  sendonck,  Groenendael,  Rougeclottre  and  Septfon- 

of  Mechlin  was  raised  to  the  dignity  of  primate  by  taines,  all  three  in  the  forest  of  Soignes.    In  most 

the  Constitutions  of  Pius  IV  in  1560  and  1561.    The  places  of  consequence   Augustinians,    Franciscans, 

ChristlanFaithwassealously  preached  in  the  present  Carmelites  and  Dominicans  were  establi^ied.    The 

diocese  during  the  seventh  and  eighth  centuries.   It  is  military  orders  were  represented  at  the  Teutonic 

known  that  Antwerp  was  visited  by  St.  Eligius,  Bishop  Commandeiy  of  Pitaembuiv  in  Mechlin  and  in  Bee* 

of  Toumai  (d.  660),  and  by  St.  Amand,  the  Apostle  of  guevoort.     The  leading  abbeys  for  women  were: 

Flanders  and  Bishop  of  Maestricht  (d.  679).   Thelat-  (irand  Bigard  and  Cortenbeiv    (Benedictines);    la 

ter's  successors  in  thie  see  of  Tonffres-Maestricht-Li^,  Cambre,  Roosendael,  Nasareth  (Cistercians).     The 

St.  Lambert  (d.  about  700)  and  St.  Hubert  (d.  727)  semi-monastic  institution  of  the  Beguinages  (q.  v.), 

are  said  to  have  visited  Mechlin  and  Brabant.    This  small  settlements  in  the  heart  of  cities  or  just  outside 

evanjgelical  work  was  followed  up  by  the  Anglo-Saxon  city  walls,  is  a  peculiar  feature  of  religious  life  in  the 

missionaries  St.  Willibrord  (d.  738)  and  St.  Kumold  or  Netherlands.   They  were  once  numerous  (the  number 

Rombaut  (d.  about  775).   St.  Rombaut  was  martyred  of  Beguines  who  went  forth  from  Mechlin  to  greet 

at  Mechlin,  and  became  the  city's  patron  saint,  and  Charles  the  Bold,  on  the  occasion  of  his  joyful  entrv 

subsequently  the  patron  of  the  whole  diocese.   Among  in  1467,  was  900),  and  still  endure,  though  much 

atxe  samts  of  this  diocese  are  several  members  of  Pepin  reduced  in  numbers,  at  Mechlin,  AntwerpTliOUvain, 

of  Landen's  family,  his  widow  St.  Itta,  foundress  of  Die8t,Lierre,Tumhout,HoogstraetenandHerenthals. 

the  Abbey  of  Nivelles,  his  daughters,  St.  Gertrude  (d.  The  increase  of  the  secular  clergy  and  its  improved 

659)  and  St.  Begga  (d.  698;;    the  two  sisters  St.  material  conditions  caused  the  chapters  of  Cuions  to 

Oudule  (d.  712)  and  St.  Rainelde;  in  the  ninth  cen-  grow    in    number,   and    eventually   the    collegiate 

tury  St.  Libert  of  Mechlin  and  St.  Guidon  of  Ander-  churches  of  the  diocese  reached  a  total  of  twenty, 

lecnt;  St.  Wivine,  foundress  of  the  Benedictine  abbey  Public  instruction  was  conducted  by  parocldal  and 

of  Grand  Bigard  (d.  1170);  St.  Albert  of  Louvain,  chapter  schools.    Finally  Martin  V,by  his  bull  of  9 

Prince  Bishop  of  Li^  and  martyr  (d.  1192);   St.  December,  1425,  erected  a  university  at  Louvain. 
^-*<''»  d'Origmes  (d.  1232);  St.  Lutgard  (d.  1246),  and        At  the  dose  of  the  Middle  Ages,  it  is  well  known. 


Blessed  AKce  (d.  1250),  both  Cistercian  nuns,  the  for-  both  faith  and  morals  suffered  a  notable  decay.   More 

mer  in  Aywidres,  the  latter  at  la  CSambre;  St.  Boniface  or  less  rightly,  Jean  Pupper  de  Goch  (d.  1475),  supe- 

of  Brussels,  Bishop  of  Lausanne  (d.  1265);   Blessed  rior  of  the  Thabor  Convent  at  Mechlin,  has  been  styled 

Jean  de  Ruysbroeck,  an  Augustinian  monk  of  Groen-  the  precursor  of  Luther,  who  soon  found  numerous 

endael,  because  of  his  mystical  writings  known  as  the  partisans  in  the  diocese,  especially  at  Antwerp  where 

V  divine  and  admirable  doctor"  (d.  1381);   several  nis  Augustinian  brethren  declared  in  his  favour.   Prot- 

priests  put  to  death  by  the  Calvinists  at  Gorcum  estantism,  though  vigorously  opposed  by  Charles  V, 

(1572);   the  Jesuits,  St.  John  Berchmans  of  Diest,  was  again  menacing  at  the  ena  of  his  reign,  when 

Ktron  of  student  youth  (d.  1621),  and  Venerable  Lutheranism  gave  way  to  Calvinism.  Tlie  creation  in 
onard  Leys  (Lessius)  of  Brecht,  renowned  for  his  1559  of  new  sees,  though  an  indispensable  measure, 
piety  and  his  theolo^cal  works  (d.  1623).  broiight  about  a  coalition  of  all  discontented  parties. 
It  was  at  the  beginning  of  the  twelfth  century  that  Philip  II,  by  removing  the  first  Archbishop  of  Mechlin, 
Tanchelm,  a  native  of  Zealand,  became  known,  chiefly  CJardinal  de  Granvelle,  deprived  the  Catholic  and  mcm- 
in  Antweip,  for  his  violent  attacks  on  the  hierarchy,  archical  cause  of  its  ablest  champion,  and  thereby 
and  the  &craments,  especially  the  Holy  Eucharist,  hastened  the  impending  revolution.  In  1556  the  icon- 
He  shared  the  pernicious  errors  of  the  Adamites,  oclastic  mob  put  to  death  both  religious  and  priests, 
and  gave  an  example  of  the  worst  kind  of  debauch-  and  sacked  the  churches  and  monasteries.  Disorder 
ery.  Toward  the  middle  of  the  century,  Bishop  continued  until  the  advent  of  Uie  Archduke  Albert 
Nicolas  of  C!ambrai  excommunicated  Jonas,  one  of  and  Isabella.  The  people  remained  loyal  to  Cathoi- 
the  promoters  of  Catharism  in  Brabant.  A  little  icism  and  the  University  of  Louvain  proved  a  valiant 
later  numerous  BeKhards  and  Beguines  fell  into  the  defender,  though  Protestant  theories  exercised  at  the 
errors  of  the  sect  known  as  the  Brothers  of  the  Free  university  a  certain  influence,  particularly  on  Baius 
Spirit.  To  this  sect  also  belonged  the  nun,  Sister  and  Jansenius.  The  Archbishop  of  Mechhn,  Jacques 
Hadewijc  (Hedwig)  or  Bloemarmne,  who  gained  nu-  Boonen  (1621-55),  evaded  the  publication  of  the  con- 
merous  pMtisans  in  Brussels.  Her  writm^  were  stitution  "In  eminenti",  by  wnich  Urban  VIII  con- 
refuted  by  Jean  de  Ruysbroeck.  Bloemardme  died  demned  the  "  Augustinus";  he  was  even  temfwrarily 
about  133iS,  but  her  followers  lived  on,  and  as  late  as  suspended  by  Iimocent  X.  Boonen's  submission  did 
about  1410  Pierre  d' AiUy,  Bishop  of  Cambrai,  was  not  put  an  end  to  the  Jansenistic  quarrels  in  the  dio- 
oompelled  to  take  measures  against  them.  Hie  Black  cese.  Oratorians,  brought  in  by  him,  were  inclined  to 
Plague  of  1349  gpve  rise  to  the  processions  of  Flagel-  rigorism.  Tliey  opened  colleges  for  the  education  of 
lants.  These  hailed  from  Germany  and  traversed  the  youth,  and  found  themselves  Doth  in  this  field,  and  in 
oountnr  practising  the  mortification  from  which  their  their  Jansenistic  views,  in  rivalry  with  the  Jesuits 
name  has  arisen.  The  ecclesiastical  authorities  were  already  active  in  anti-IVotestant  controversy.  Hie 
obliged  to  intervene  on  behalf  of  the  Jews  detested  by  partisans  and  the  adversaries  of  Jansenius  took  sides  at 
the  Fla^llant^.   On  the  otb«r  hand»  religious  senti-  -  pnce  with  one  or  oUwr  of  the  conflicting  parties.  Tlie 


105 


mOSTXLDI 


fimmefls  of  the  arohbiahops  at  Precipiano  (1690-1711) 
and  of  Cardinal  d'Alaaoe  (1715-^9)  repelled  Jansen- 
jan,  which  endured  however  in  Josephinism  and 
Pebronianisin.  Joseph  II  suppressed  many  conve^^ts 
fl783),  and  created  the  Qeneial  Seminary  of  Lou  vain 
[1786),  the  doctrines  of  which  were  condemned  by 
3aidinal  de  Frankenbeig  (1759-1801).  Persecution 
broke  out  afresh  in  the  waJce  of  the  fVench  Revolu- 
tion; Catholic  worship  was  abolished,  churches  were 
piUaged»  a  multitude  of  ecclesiastics  exiled,  among 
them  Cardinal  de  Frankenberg.  The  anti-Concordat 
schism  of  the  St^venists  arose  under  Napoleon  Bona- 
parte. Later,  King  William  revived  the  General  Semi- 
narr  under  the  name  of  Philosophical  CoU^,  but  met 
with  as  much  opposition  as  Joseph  II.  The  Belgian 
Revolution  of  ISSto  freed  the  Chiu«h  from  these  fetters. 
For  the  later  history  of  Mechlin  see  Bbloium.  The  f  ol- 
k>wing  archbishops  of  Mechlin  were  made  cardinals: 
Antoine  Perrenot  de  Granvellai  first  archbi8hop(1560- 
83)  and  a  remarkable  statesman  (q.  v.);  Thomas 
niilippe  d' Alsace  (1716-59);  Henri  de  Frankenberg 
(175^1801);  Engelbert  Sterckz  (1832-67);  Victor 
Auguste  I^hamps,  theologian  and  pulpit  orator 
(q.  V.)  (1867-83);  Pierre  Lambert  Goossens  (1884- 
1906)  ;  D^M  Joseph  Mercier  (1905—),  the  chief 
orurinator  of  the  neo-scholastic  movement  in  Belgium. 

fielinous  monuments:  numerous  edifices  especially 
of  Gothic  style  (Roman:  St.  Germain  at  Tirkmont,  St. 
Gertrude  at  Ni  velles) .  At  Mechlin  is  the  metropolitan 
church  of  St.  Rombaut  (thirteenth  and  fourteenth 
centuries),  with  a  tower  318  feet  high.  There  is 
also  Notre  Dame,  and  St.  Pierre  (Jesuit  style).  Prin- 
cipal other  edifices:  churches  of  Lierre,  Hoogstraeten, 
Tuiemont,  Hal,  Diest;  and  the  ruins  of  the  Abbey  of 
ViUers,  the  most  striking  monastic  ruins  in  Belgium. 
The  ornamentation  has  suffered  greatly  from  the  dis- 
orders of  the  sixteenth  and  eighteenth  centuries,  par- 
ticularly the  organ  gallery  at  Lierre,  the  tabernacle  at 
L6au,  the  tombs  at  Hoogstraeten  and  the  stained 
glasses  in  Lierre  and  Hoogstraeten.  Of  the  paintings 
still  preserved,  many  belong  to  the  Antwerp  School. 
At  Mechlin  there  are  works  of  Rubens  in  the  churches 
of  Notre  Dame  and  St.  Jean.  See  Antwerp,  Brus- 
SBi^  LouvAiN.  Pilgrimages:  St.  Sang  at  Hoog- 
straeten, St.  Sauveur  at  BuEiekendover  (Tirlemont), 
Notre  Dame  at  Montaigu,  at  Hal,  at  Hanswyck  (Mech- 
lin). Population  (1909):  2,450,680  inhabitants;  745 
parishes;  51  deaneries;  one  theological  seminary;  3 
petits  s^minaires;  24  episcopal  colleges;  108  convents 
lor  men,  and  726  for  women. 

The  "Vie  Dioc^saine"  is  a  monthly  periodical 
founded  in  1907.  The  "Theoloffia  Mechliniensis" 
fundamental  and  sacramental  theoTogy,  with  treatises 
on  virtues,  indulgences,  and  reserved  cases  fills  ten 
volumes;  notable  also  are  the  "Scripture  Commen- 
tary" of  Ceulemans  (nine  volumes)  on  ihe  Psalms  and 
New  Testament,  and  the  work  of  Van  der  Stappen 
(five  volumes)  on  the  Lituigy. 

a^Oia  Chriatiana,  V  (Paris,  mi):  Van  Qanvu  Hi§tor%a 
maera  tt  profana  afehupiteopahu  MechtinieiuU  (La  Have,  1725) ; 
CLASMsirs,  HiHoin  d€»  arcMvtque  de  Malintt,  II  (Louvain, 
1881):  (3oDBinra,  MaUnst  jadia  tl  aujounThui  (MeehUn,  1908); 
Forrara,  Hidoria  qnMopoltM  Ant9trpi«ngi9  (Bnuada,  1717). 

A.  ASMPISNEER. 

Machtalt  Johann,  chronicler;  b.  1562  at  Pfaliel 
near  Trier  (Qermany);  d.  after  1631,  perhaps  as  late 
as  1653  at  Trier.  He  is  often  named  Pfalsel  after  his 
native  town  where  he  first  studied  and  then  went  to  the 
university  at  Trier,  conducted  by  the  Jesuits,  where 
the  historian  Christopher  Brote  acquired  a  lasting  in- 
fluence over  him.  Aifter  his  ordination  (about  1587), 
he  was  appointed  pastor  at  Elts,  near  Limburg;  in 
1502  he  became  canon  at  Limbuig  and  as  such  aomin- 
istered  for  two  years  the  troublesome  parish  of  Cam- 
beig.  In  1604  ne  was  appointed  dean,  but  soon  got 
into  difficulties  with  his  canons  and  finally,  by  request 
oi  the  elector  of  Trier  in  order  to  restore  peace,  ha  re- 


sig^ned,  and  accepted  the  canonry  at  St.  Pbulinua  in 
Tner.  In  Limburg  as  well  as  in  Trier  he  studied  hi»- 
tory  assiduously  and  carefully,  and  conscientiously  col- 
lected documents  and  records,  as  well  as  inscriptions 
on  monuments.  Many  of  his  sources  are  now  lost 
therefore  his  works  almost  possess  the  value  of  origi- 
nals for  us.  Of  his  writings  may  be  mentioned : "  Lim- 
burg Chronicle'',  the  "ragus  Lohenahe".  and  the 
**  Introductio  in  Pagum  Lohenahe. "  His  cnief  work, 
the  "Limburg  Chronicle",  was  begun  in  1610  ana 
finished  in  1612,  but  it  was  not  edited  until  1757  bv 
Hontheim  in  his  "Prodromus  historis  Trevirensis  , 
II.  1046-1166.  This  edition,  marked  by  many  mis- 
takes and  omissions,  was  published  in  its  entirety  by 
Knetsch.  in  the  ''Publications  of  the  Historical  Com- 
mission for  Nassau",  VI  (Wiesbaden,  1909).  It  is  a 
revision  and  continuation  of  the  old  Limbuig  chroni- 
cle, begun  by  the  town  clerk,  Tilemann,  but  utilises 
also  man3r  other  sources  both  printed  and  unprinted. 
His  chronicle  is  of  great  value  because  Mechtel  utilises 
various  accounts  which  contain  important  informa- 
tion as  to  social  conditions,  the  price  of  com  and  wine, 
the  ciiltivation  of  the  vine,  climatic  conditions  ana 
wages.  In  treating  German  and  early  medieval  his- 
tory he  does  not  rise  above  the  level  of  the  lustorians 
of  the  fifteenth  and  sixteenth  centuries.  Both  his 
other  works  are  as  yet  unpublished;  Knetsch  reviews 
their  contents  in  his  edition  of  the  chronicle  X-XVI. 
Carl  Enxtsch,  Dm  ZAmburoer  Chronik  dea  Johannea  Mack' 
id  (Wiesbaden.  1000),  I-XXV. 

Patriciub  Schlagbr. 

Mechtilda  (Matilda  von  Hackeborn-Wippra). 
Saint,  Benedictine;  b.  in  1240  or  1241  at  the  ancestral 
castle  of  Helfta,  near  Eisleben,  Saxony;  d.  in  the  mon- 
astery of  Helfta,  19  Nov.,  1298.  She  belonged  to  one 
of  the  noblest  and  most  powerful  Thuringian  families, 
while  her  sister  was  the  saintly  and  illustrious  Abbess 
Gertrude  von  Hackebom.  Some  writers  have  consid- 
ered that  Mechtilde  von  Hackebom  and  Mechtilde 
von  Wippra  were  two  distinct  persons,  but,  as  the 
Barons  of  Hackebom  were  also  Lords  of  Wippra,  it 
was  customary  for  members  of  that  familv  to  take 
their  name  indifferently  from  either,  or  both  of  these 
estates.  So  fragile  was  she  at  birUi,  that  the  attend- 
ants, fearing  she  might  die  unbaptised,  hurried  her  oflF 
to  the  priest  who  was  just  then  preparing  to  say  Mass. 
He  was  a  man  of  great  sanctity,  and  after  baptising 
the  child,  uttered  these  prophetic  words :"  What  do  you 
fear?  This  child  most  certainly  will  not  die,  but  she 
will  become  a  saintly  reli^ous  in  whom  God  will  work 
many  wonders,  and  she  will  end  her  days  in  a  jgood  old 
age.  When  she  was  seven  years  old,  having  been 
taken  bv  her  mother  on  a  visit  to  her  elder  sister  Ger- 
trude, tnen  a  nun  in  the  monastei^  of  Rodardsdorf, 
she  became  so  enamoured  of  the  cloister  that  her  nious 
parents  srielded  to  her  entreaties  and,  acknowledging 
the  workings  of  grace,  allowed  her  to  enter  the  alum- 
nate.  Here,  being  highly  gifted  in  mind  as  well  as  in 
body^  she  inade  remarkable  progress  in  virtue  and 
learning'. 

Ten  years  later  (1258)  she  followed  her  sister,  who, 
now  aboessj  had  transferred  the  monastery  to  an  estate 
at  Helfta  given  her  by  her  brothers  Louis  and  Albert. 
As  a  nun,  Mechtilde  was  soon  distinguished  for  her  hu- 
mility, her  fervour,  and  that  extreme  amiability  which 
had  characterised  her  from  childhood  and  which,  like 
piety,  seemed  hereditary  in  her  race.  While  still  very 
young,  she  became  a  valuable  helpmate  to  Abbess  Ger- 
trude, who  entrusted  to  her  direction  the  alumnate 
and  tne  choir.  Mechtilde  was  fully  equipped  for  her 
task  when,  in  1261,  God  committed  to  her  prudent 
care  a  child  of  five  who  was  destined  to  shed  lustre 
upon  the  monastery  of  Helfta.  This  was  that  Gertrude 
wno  in  later  generations  became  known  as  St.  Ger- 
trude the  Great.  Gifted  with  a  beautiful  voice,  Mech- 
tilde also  possessed  a  special  talent  for  rendering  the 
solemn  and  sacred  music  over  which  she  presided  as 


MBOBTILDS                           106  MBCHTILD 

dornna  eantrix.    All  her  life  she  held  this  office  and  Dante's  prayer  that  she  may  draw  neai^  toletUm 

trained  the  6ti<wt  with  indefatigable  seal.    Indeed.  Di-  understand  her  song,  turns  towards  him  "not  other- 

yine  praise  was  the  ke^ote  of  her  life  as  it  is  ot  her  wise  than  a  virgin  that  droppeth  her  modest  eyes", 

book;  in  this  she  never  tired,  despite  her  continual  and  In  more  places  than  one  the  revelations  granted  to  the 

severe  physical  sufferings,  so  that  in  His  revelations  mystics  of  Helf ta  seem  in  turn  to  have  become  the  in- 

Christ  was  wont  to  call  her  His  "nightingale".  Richly  spuations  of  the  Florentine  poet.    All  writers  on 

endowed,  natundly  and  supematuraUy,  ever  gracious,  Dante  recognize  his  indebtedness  to  St.  Augustine,  the 

beloved  of  all  who  came  within  the  radius  of  her  Pseudo-Dionysius,  St.  Bernard,  and  Richard  ot  St. 

saintly  and  charming  personality,  there  is  Uttle  won-  Victor.    These  are  preciseljr  the  writers  whose  doo- 

der  that  this  cloistered  virgin  should  strive  to  keep  hid-  trines  had  been  most  assimilated  by  the  mystics  of 

den  her  wondrous  life.    Souls  thirsting  for  consouition  Helfta,  and  thus  they  would  the  more  appeal  to  the 

or  groping  for  Ueht  sought  her  advice;  teamed  Domini-  sympathies  of  the  poet.     The  city  of  Florence  was 

cans  consulted  ner  on  spiritual  matters.    At  the  be-  among  the  first  to  welcome  St.  Mechtilde's  book.  Now 

sinning  of   her  own  mystic  life  it  was  from  St.  Dante,  like  all  true  poets,  was  a  child  of  his  age,  and 

Kechtude  that  St.  Gertrude  the  Great  learnt  that  the  could  not  have  been  a  stranger  to  a  book  which  was  so 

marvellous  gifts  lavished  upon  her  were  from  God.  popular  amozu;   his   fellow-dtisens.    The    "  Purga- 

Only  in  her  fiftieth  year  aid  St.  Mechtilde  learn  that  tono"  was  finished  between  1314  and  1318,  or  1319 — 

the  two  nims  in  whom  she  had  especially  confided  had  just  about_the  time  when  St.  Mechtilde's  book  was 
noted 
that 

had  recourse  to  prayer.  She  had  a  vision  of  Christ  same  figure  of  a  seven-terraced  mountain.  The  coin- 
holding  in  His  hand  the  book  of  her  revelations,  and  ddence  of  the  simile  and  of  the  name,  Bfatelda,  can 
saying:  "All  this  has  been  committed  to  writing  by  scarcely  be  accidental.  For  another  among  many 
my  will  and  inspiration;  and  therefore  you  have  no  points  of  resemblance  between  the  two  writm  com- 
cause  to  be  troumcd  about  it."  He  also  told  her  that,  pare  "  Purgatorio  ",  Canto  zzxi,  where  Dante  is  drawn 
as  He  had  been  so  generous  towards  her,  she  must  by  Bfatelda  through  the  mysterious  stream  with  pt. 
make  TTiin  a  like  return,  and  that  the  diffusion  of  the  II,  c.  ii,  of  the  ''  liber  Specialis  Gratis".  The  serene 
revelations  would  cause  many  to  increase  in  His  love;  atmosphere  which  seems  to  clinf[  about  the  gracious 
moreover.  He  wished  this  book  to  be  oJled  "The  and  beautiful  scmgstress,  her  virgm  modesty  and  sim- 
Book  of  Special  Grace",  because  it  would  prove  such  pie  dignity,  all  seem  to  point  to  the  recluse  of  Helfta 
to  many.  When  the  saint  understood  that  the  book  rather  than  to  the  stem  heroine  of  Canoesa,  whose 
would  tend  to  God's  gloiy,  she  ceased  to  be  troubled  hand  was  thrice  bestowed  in  marriage.  Besides,  in 
and  even  corrected  the  manuscript  herself.  Immedi-  politics  Dante,  as  an  ardent  Ghibelline,  supported  the 
ately  after  her  death  it  was  made  public,  and  copies  unperial  pretensions  and  he  would  have  been  little  in- 
were  rapidly  multiplied,  owing  chiefly  to  the  wide-  dined  to  sing  the  praises  of  the  Tuscan  Countess.  The 
spread  influence  of  the  Friars  Preachers.  Boccaodo  oondusion  may  therefore  be  hasarded  that  this 
teUs  how.  a  few  years  after  the  death  of  Mechtilde,  the  "  Donna  Bfatelda"  of  the  "  Purgatorio "  personifies  St. 
book  of  ner  revelations  was  brought  to  Florence  and  Mechtilde  as  representing  mystic  theology, 
popularised  under  the  title  of  "La  Laude  di  donna  ^  fi^.  M»CTmi^ni.L*«rtp«i^*«flr8ft»;ST^ 
fiaW  It  is  related  that  the  Florentines  we«»^  SS&lHflS.S^p'aSSte'aS^ 
customed  to  repeat  daily  before  their  sacred  images  the  (Paris,  1007) ;  ZtBOBuiAUBR,  Bui.  lAt.  Bened,  (vieima,  1764) ; 
praises  learned  from  St.  MechtOde's  book.  St.  Ger-  ™o«r,  Gem^  ^uUeh.  MuM,  I  (Mpiis.  1874);  RivOaHona 
tnide,  to  whose  devotedness  we  owe  the  "  liber  Sped-  *^  ^'  ^^^  (P«™  *ad  ft)itierB,  im6)  p^^^„^^^ 
alis  Gratia  "exclaims:  "Never  has  there  arisen  one  like  ^  ^^,^  ^  ^^  ^,  Ubbteudu  CAflAJfoVA. 
to  her  in  our  monastery;  nor,  alasl  I  fear,  will  there  MachtUda  of  the  BlMsed  BacrainAnt.  See  Ado- 
ever  arise  another  such!"— httle  dreaming  that  her  Ration,  Pubpbtual. 

own  name  would  be  inseparably  linked  with  that  of  MochtUd  of  Maffdebnr^ ,  a  celebrated  medieval 

Mechtilde.    With  that  of  St.  Gertrude,  the  bodvof  mystic,  b.  of  a  noble  family  m  Saxony  about  1210;  d. 

St.  Mechtilde  most  probably  still  reposes  at  Old  Helfta  at  the  Cistercian  nunnery  of  Helfta  near  Eisleben,  c. 

though  the  exact  spot  is  unknown.    Her  feast  is  kept  1285.   She  experienced  her  first  inspirations  at  the  age 

26  or  27  February  in  different  congregations  and  mon-  of  twelve,  when,  as  she  herself  states,  die  was  peeted 

asteries  of  her  order,  by  special  permisdon  of  the  Holy  by  the  Holy  Ghost.   From  that  time,  the  greeting  was 

See.     (For  an  account  of  the  general  Ufe  at  Helfta  and  repeated  didly.    Under  this  inspiration  she  dedred  to 

an  estimate  of  the  writings  of  St.  Mechtilde,  see  Ger-  be  despised  by  all  without,  however,  deserving  it,  and 

TRUDB  OF  Hackbborn  ;  GERTRUDE  THE  Grbat,  Saint.)  f or  thls  purpose  left  her  home,  where  she  had  always 

There  is  another  honour,  inferior  certainly  to  that  been  loved  and  respected,  to  become  a  Beguine  at 

of  sanctity,  yet  great  in  itself  and  worthy  of  mention  Magdeburg  in  1230.    Here,  under  the  spiritual  guid- 

here:  the  nomage  of  a  transcendent  genius  was  to  be  ance  of  the  Dominicans,  she  led  a  life  of  prayer  and 

lud  at  the  feet  of  St.  Mechtilde.    Critics  have  lone  extreme  mortification.   Her  heavenly  inspirations  and 

been  perplexed  as  to  one  of  the  characters  introduced  ecstatic  visions  became  more  frequent  and  were  of 

by  Dante  in  his  "  Purgatorio  "  imder  the  name  of  Ma-  such  a  nature  that  they  dispelled  from  the  mind  ci  her 

telda.    After  ascending  seven  terraces  of  a  mountain,  confessor  all  doubt  as  to  their  Divine  orijnn.    By  his 

on  each  of  which  the  process  of  purification  is  carried  order  she  reluctantly  wrote  her  vidons.    Shortly  after 

on,  Dante,  in  Canto  xxvii.  heara  a  voice  singing:  "  Ve-  1270  she  joined  the  Cistercian  nuns  at  Helfta,  where 

nite,  benedicti  patris  mei " ;  then  later,  in  Canto  xxviii,  she  spent  the  remaining  twelve  years  of  her  Ufe,  hi|^y 

there  appears  to  him  on  the  oppodte  bank  of  the  mjrs-  respected  as  one  dgnauy  favoured  by  God,  especially 

terious  stream  a  lady,  solitary,  beautiful,  and  gracious,  by  ner  namesake  St.  Mechtilde  of  Hackebom  and  by 

To  her  Dante  addresses  himself;  she  it  is  who  initiates  St.  Gertrude  the  Great.     Mechtild  left  to  the  world 

him  into  secrets,  which  it  is  not  given  to  Virgil  topene-  a  most  wonderful  book,  in  which  she  recoided  her 

trate,  and  it  is  to  her  that  Beatrice  refers  Dante  m  the  manifold  inspirations  and  vidons.    According  to  her 

words:  "Entreat  Matilda  that  she  teach  thee  this."  assertion,  God  ordered  the  title  of  the  book  to  be 

Most  commentators  have  identified  Matilda  with  the  "  Vliessende  licht  miner  gotheit  in  allu  die  herxen  die 

warrior-Countess  of  Tuscany,  the  spiritual  daughter  da  lebent  ane  valscheit",  i.  e.  "Light  of  m^^  divinity, 

and  dauntless  champion  of  St.  Gregory  VII,  but  all  flowinj^  into  all  hearts  that  live  without  suile".    The 

agree  that  beyond  the  name  the  two  have  little  or  work  is  commonly  styled  "Das  fliessende  Licht  der 

notUng  in  oommon.    She  is  no  Amason  who,  at  Gottheit".    She  wrote  her  inspirations  on  separate 


MBCKLBNBUBO  107  IBCKLENBUBO 


sbeets  of  paper,  which  she  handed  to  the  Dominican,  district;  Slavonic  tribes  poured  in,  and  bv  about  a.  d. 
Heniy  of  Halle,  lector  in  Rupin.  The  original,  which  600  they  had  complete  posoession  of  the  land.  These 
was  written  in  Low  Qerman,  is  not  extant,  out  a  South  Slavonic  tribes  were  pnncipally  Wends,  of  whom  the 
German  translation,  which  was  prepared  by  Henrv  of  Obotrites  occupied  the  western  parts,  the  Lusici,  or 
Ndrdliiijj^  about  the  year  1344.  is  still  preserved  in  Wilzen,  the  eastern.  Their  chief  occupations  were 
the  orianal  manuscript  in  the  library  of  Einsiedeln,  forestiy,  cattle-raising,  hunting,  and  fishing.  Their 
Codex  277.  Mechtild  began  the  work  in  1250  and  religion  was  a  pure  worship  of  nature.  The  chief  god 
finished  the  sixth  volume  at  Magdeburg  in  1264,  to  was  Radegast  Zuarasici,  whose  sanctuary  at  Rethra 
which  Bhe  added  a  seventh  volume  at  Heuta.  A  Latin  was  the  centre  of  his  worshio  for  the  whole  of  Meek- 
translation  of  the  six  volumes  written  at  Magdeburg  lenbuig  \mtil  it  was  destroyea  in  the  twelfth  century, 
was  made  by  a  Dominican,  about  the  year  1^0,  and  and  replaced  by  Svantevit,  the  "holy  oracle",  whose 
is  reprinted,  together  with  a  translation  of  the  seventh  temple  was  at  Arkona  on  tne  Island  of  Rttgen.  After 
volume,  in  "  Rievelationes  Gertrudianss  ac  Mechtil-  Charlemagne  had  brought  the  Saxons  into  subjection, 
dians",  II  (Paris,  1877),  435-707. .  The  manuscript  of  the  tribes  of  Mecklenburg  became  the  immediate 
Einsiedeln  was  edited  by  Gall  Morel,  O.S.B.,  who  also  neighbours  of  the  Frankiw  Empire,  with  which  an 
translated  it  into  modem  German  (Ratisbon,  1869).  active  trade  soon  sprang  up.  Commerce  was  still  fur- 
Other  modem  German  translations  were  prepared  by  ther  developed  unaer  the  Saxon  exnperois  (919-1024), 
J.  MQller  (Ratisbon,  1881)  and  Eschench  (Berlin,  the  most  important  mart  for  the  Slavs  being  Bardo- 
1909).  wiek. 

Mechtild's  language  is  generally  forcible  and  often  Charlemame's  conquests  in  this  rwon  were  lost 
exceedingly  flowery.  Her  prose  is  occasionaUy  inter-  soon  after  nis  death.  Henry"  I  of  uennany  (91  &- 
spersed  with  beautiful  original  pieces  of  poetry,  which  36)  was  the  first  to  force  the  Slavonic  territoiy  again 
manifest  that  she  had  all  the  natural  gifts  of  a  poet,  to  pay  tribute  (about  928) ;  he  also  placed  it  under 
She  is  never  at  a  loss  to  give  vent  to  her  feelings  of  joy  the  j  urisdiction  of  Saxon  coimts.  With  the  dominion 
and  grief  in  the  most  impressive  form.  Often  also  she  of  tne  Germans,  Christianity  found  ingress  into  the 
deHi^ts  in  aphoristic  ana  abrupt  sentences.  It  is  some-  land.  Bishop  Adalward  of  Verden  brought  the  first 
times  difficiut  to  ascertain  just  how  far  her  narrations  Obotrite  prince  into  the  Church.  Otto  the  Great 
are  faithful  reproductions  of  her  visions,  and  bow  far  (936-973)  divided  the  territoiy  of  Mecklenbuig  be- 
they  are  additions  made  by  her  own  poetic  fancy,  tween  the  two  maigravates  he  had  formed.  Eccleslas- 
Tius  is  especially  true  of  her  realistic  description  of  the  ticallv.  the  land  belonged  partly  to  the  Dioceses  of 
hereafter.  Writing  on  hell,  she  says, "  I  saw  a  horrible  Havel  oeig  and  Brandem)uig,  partly  to  the  Diocese  of 
and  wretched  place;  its  name  is  'Eternal  Hatred'."  Oldenbuig,  that  was  erected  in  968.  However,  there 
She  then  represents  Lucifer  as  chained  by  his  sins  in  can  hardly  be  said  to  have  been  a  systematic  attempt 
the  lowest  aoyss  of  hell,  all  sin,  acony,  p^ilence  and  at  conversion  to  Christianity,  for  the  German  author- 
ruin,  that  fill  hell,  purgatory,  ana  earm,  flowing  from  ity  had  no  secure  foundation.  The  early  successes  in 
his  burning  heart  and  moutn.  She  divides  hell  into  conversion  to  Christianity  were  swept  away  bv  an  in- 
three  parts;  the  lowest  and  most  horrible  is  filled  with  surrection  of  the  Slavs,  after  the  defeat  of  the  !l^peror 
condemned  Christians,  the  middle  with  Jews,  and  the  Otto  II  in  Calabria  in  928.  The  Obotrites  under  Mis- 
highest  with  Pagans.  Hell,  purgatory  and  heaven  are  tiwoi.  who  had  previously  accepted  Christianity,  plun- 
situated  one  immediately  above  the  other.  The  low-  derea  and  burned  Hamburg,  ravaged  the  whole  of 
est  portion  of  purgatory  is  filled  with  devils,  who  tor-  North  Albingia  (Holstein),  crossed  the  Elbe  and  ad- 
ment  the  souls  in  the  most  horrible  manner,  while  the  vanced  as  far  as  Milde.  Every  trace  of  Christianity 
highest  portion  of  purgatory  is  identical  with  the  was  destroyed.  There  was  much  strife  between  Ger- 
lowest  portion  of  heaven.  Blany  a  soul  in  the  lowest  man  and  Wend  in  the  succeeding  decades.  It  was  not 
pmrgatory  does  not  know  whether  it  will  ever  be  saved,  until  the  reign  of  Henry  II  (1002-1024)  that  the 
Ttle  last  statement  was  condemned  in  the  Bull  Lusici  and  Obotrites  became  allies  of  the  Crerman 
"Exsum  Domine",  15  June,  1520,  as  one  of  the  Empire  against  the  Polish  Duke  Boleslaw.  Towaids 
errors  m  Luther:  "  Animee  in  purgatorio  non  sunt  the  end  of  his  life  Mistiwoi  turned  in  repentance  once 
aecurss  de  earum  salute,  saltem  omnes".  Mechtild's  more  to  Christianity,  and  ended  his  days  in  the  mon- 
ooneeption  of  the  hereafter  is  believed  by  some  to  be  astery  of  Bardowiek. 

thebasisof  Dante's ''Divine  Comedy'',  and  the poet*s  Archbishop  Unwanus  of  Hamburg  (from  1013) 
Matelda  ("Purgatoi^",  Canto  27-33)  to  be  identical  laboured  with  energy  and  success;  but  the  Saxon 
with  our  Mechtild  (see  Preger,  "Dante's  Matelda".  dukes  exacted  a  heavy  tribute^  which  was  the  chief 
Munich,  1873).  Whatever  we  mav  think  of  these  and  reason  why  the  Christian  teachmg  protected  by  them 
other  statements  in  the  work  of  Mechtild,  much  of  it,  was  regarded  with  little  favour,  even  though  the 
no  doubt,  has  all  the  signs  of  a  special  inspiration  from  Wendic  rulers  Udo  and  Ratibor  oecame  Christians. 
above.  That  she  did  not  seek  the  favour  of  man  is  e vi-  Udo 's  son  Gottschalk  faithfully  supported  Archbishop 
dent  from  her  fearless  denimciation  of  the  vices  of  the  Adalbert  of  Bremen,  and  frequently  explained  Chris- 
clergy  in  general  and  especially  the  clergy  of  Magde-  tian  doctrine  at  church  to  his  people.  Churches  and 
burg.  Some  authors  call  her  saint,  though  she  has  not  monasteries  rapidly  appeared,  rfew  dioceses  were 
been  canonised  and  apparently  has  never  received  any  founded  in  addition  to  the  Diocese  of  Oldenburg, 
public  cult.  namely,  Ratzebure  imder  Bishop  Aristo,  and  Meck- 
-•''/'Pf'*  j?!**???"®^^*'"  j'*''&*^«K??^«5'*^ft?^  ^^  lenburg  under  Biimop  John,  a  Scot.  The  conversion 
iiziSlSS^f^^.^^.T^'h^^^l^ll^t  of  the  entii*  country  to  Catholicity  seemed  assured. 
ISO:  Orbitb,  DU  deutseke  Mydik  m  Predigenrden  (Freibuis  But  the  ferment  of  the  old  antagonism  to  the  tribute 
imBr.,  1861).  207-277;  Stoauch,  XMne  BeiMi0»  «ur  GeacAicAto  to  the  empire  and  the  Saxon  dukes  led  to  a  heathen 

fcfr^Sri&riMr^.l^r^^ll'^^  V^^-   pe  first  viotim  was  Gottschalk  himself. 

OtadvUkUdm'dmAmihm  M^ittk  im  MHidafter.l  (Lcdpsig.  1874),  m  1066.     On  15  July  of  the  same  year  the  twenty- 

91-112;  SiuBUNo.  Stvdten  au  MechlOd  v.  Magd,  (Q6ttiiige&,  eight  monks  of  the  Benedictine  monastery  at  Ratze- 

^**^'  MirwAEL  Otp  ^¥^  ^^^  stoned  to  death;  in  Mecklenburg  the  a^ 

AucHABii  v-rrr.  Bishop  John  and  many  other  Christians  were  slfon, 

MeeUeobnrgi  a  division  of  the  German  Empire,  and  in  a  few  months  the  German  supremacy  was 

consists  of  the  two  Grand  Duchies  of  Mecklenburg-  thrown  ofiF.    The  Wends  even  plundered  the  Christian 

SchwerinandMecklenburg-Strelitz.  cities  of  Schleswig  and  Hamburg,  the  bishop  of  the 

History. — ^At  the  begimung  of  the  Christian  era.  Latter  being  obli^d  to  transferals  see  to  Bremen. 

Meeklenbure  was  inhabited  by  Germanic  tribes,  but  The  bloody  national  god  Radegast  of  Rethra  became 

«•  early  as  tne  second  century  they  b^gan  to*  leave  the  once  more  dominant. 


VSCELENBUBO                         108  IBCELENBUBO 

Cruto,  Prince  of  the  Island  of  Rtlgen,  ruled  the  that  of  Werie  flourished  until  1436.  The  main  branch 

oountiy  for  neariy  thirty  years.    Finally  in  1003,  of  the  MecJdenbuK  line  was  founded  by  John  II 

Cruto    having    been    murdered,    Gottschalk's    son,  (1226-64).    One  ofits  members,  Henry  the  Pikrim 

Henr^,  was  able  to  gain  his  inheritance.    Although  (1264-1302)  was  captured  at  Cairo  in  1271,  white  oa 

a  Christian  he  never  attempted  to  force  Christianitv  a  crusade,  and  kept  prisoner  until  1297.    His  son, 

upon  the  Wends.    The  only  church  was  in  his  capital,  Henry  the  Lion,  oDtamed  the  district  of  Stargard  as 

LQbeck,  where  St.  Vicelin  proclaimed  the  word  oi  dowry  with  his  wife,  Beatrice  of  Brandenburg,  and,  on 

God  from  1126.    Soon  after  Henry's  death  (1126)  the  Rostock  line  becoming  extinct,  forced  the  Danes 

his  familv  became  extinct,  and  the  Emperor  Lothair  to  recognize  him  as  the  hereditary  possessor  of  the  city 

granted  the  vacant  territorv  in  fief  to  Henry's  Danish  and  territory  of  Rostock,  then  under  Danish  suprem- 

cousin.  Knut  Laward,  Duke  of  Schleswig.    Claims  acy.    Henry's  two  sons,  Albert  II  (d.  1379)  and  J<>hn  I 

were  also  made  b^  Henry's  nej^ew  Pribislaw,  and  by  (d.  1392),  were  made  dukes  and  princes  of  the  empire 

Niklot,  an  Obotrite  noble.    These  two  divided  the  by  the  Emperor  Charles  IV.    Tlie  partition  of  1352 

rulerless  land  between  them  when  in  1131  Knut  led  to  the  founding  of  the  Stargard  line,  which  be- 

Laward  was  killed  by  his  cousin  Magnus.    Pribislaw,  came  extinct  in  1471. 

however,  could  not  maintain  himself  long  against  the  In  1358  Albert  succeeded  in  obtaining  the  C!ounty 
German  advance.  He  was  obliged  to  surrender  in  of  Schwerin  bv purchase ;  his  scheme  to  place  his  eldest 
1142  to  Count  Adolf  of  Schauenburg,  who  repeopled  son,  Henry  III,  on  the  Danish  throne  failed  com- 
the  almost  desolate  territoi^  with  colonists  from  pletely,  but  his  second  son,  Albert  III,  was  elected 
Flanders,  Holland,  Westphalia,  and  Frisia.  Niklot,  Kins  of  Sweden  in  1363.  However,  soon  after  Albert 
m  the  other  hand,  pneserved  fajs  independence  until.  III  nad  succeeded  his  father  in  the  government  of 
sdier  a  protracted  struggle,  he  was  subdued  by  Henry  Mecklenburg  (1383),  a  rival  claimant  of  the  throne  of 
vhe  Lion,  Duke  of  Saxony.  Upon  agreeing  to  accept  Sweden  appeared  in  the  person  of  Queen  Margaret  of 
Christianity  and  to  acknowledge  German  supremacy,  Denmark.  In  1389  Margaret  took  Albert  prisoner, 
Niklot  was  allowed  to  retain  his  possessions  (1147).  and  did  not  release  him  until,  after  six  years  of  cap> 
However,  he  subsequentlv  headed  a  revolt,  which  tivity,  he  renounced  all  claims  to  the  Swedish  throne, 
ended  in  his  overthrow  (1160).  After  Niklot's  son.  His  son,  Albert  V  (1412-22),  was  followed  by  his  own 
Pribislaw  II,  the  ancestor  of  the  reigning  dvnasty,  cousin,  Henry  the  Fat  (1422-77),  who,  after  the  Star- 
had  been  baptized  in  the  year  1167,  he  was  estaolished  gard  line — ^to  which  the  foimdation  of  a  university  at 
as  ruler.  Rostock  in  1418  is  due — ^had  become  extinct,  reigned 

Hartwig  of  Stade,  Bishop  of  Bremen,  soon  provided  over  the  whole  of  Mecklenbuig,  thus  once  more  united 

for  the  restoration  of  the  former  Wendic  dioceses,  under  a  single  ruler  (1471).  Henri's  successor,  Ma^us 

(n  1150  he  consecrated  Vicelin  Bishop  of  Oldenburg,  (1477-1503),  was  a  very  eneigetic  prince.    The  cities 

and  Emmehard  Bishop  of  Mecklenburg,  Schwerin  now  had,  under  the  weak  rule  of  his  predecessor,  become 

becoming  the  see  of  the  latter.    Hartwig  had  not  insubordioate;  Magnus  directed  his  efforts  towards 

waited  to  secure  an  endowment  sufficient  for  them  bringing  them  imder  the  control  of  the  ruler  and 

from  the  Saxon  duke.    Henr^  the  Lion,  therefore,  evolving  a  unified  state  out  of  a  confused  medley  of 

was  soon  able  to  obtain  for  himself  what  otherwise  districts,  cities,  and  estates.    For  a  time  his  sons, 

only  belonged  to  the  emperor,  the  ri^t  of  investiture  Henry  V  (1503-52)  and  Albert  VII  (1503-47),  reigned 

for  the  Obotrite  dioceses.    This  privilege  was  granted  jointly  so  as  to  maintain  the  country  imdivided.    In 

bv  Ihe  Emperor  Frederick  Barbarossa  (1152-1189),  1523  the  prelates,  knighthood,  and  cities  formed 

who  regarded  Henry  as  one  of  the  most  trustworthy  a  Landesunion,  which  was  the  basis  of  -the  present 

supporters  of  his  power.    At  the  same  time  Henry  constitution,  and  established  a  common  diet  for  all 

was  empowered  to  found  dioceses  and  churches  in  the  the  divisions  of  the  territory  without  regard  to  any 

region  on  the  farther  side  of  the  Elbe  and  to  endow  partitions.    In  1536  the  brothers  divided  their  do- 

them  with  imperial  domains,  which  was  what  the  minions,  Henry  becoming  Duke  of  Schwerin  and  Al* 

conquered  Slavonic  territory  was  held  to  be.    In  1154  bert  Duke  of  GOstrow. 

Henry  re-established  the  Diocese  of  Ratzeburg,  ap-  The  Reformation  in  Mecklenburg  was  entirely  the 

pointmg  as  bishop  Evermod,  cathedral  provost  of  work  of  the  two  joint  rulers,  Henry  V  and  Albert 

Magdeburg.    A  number  of  Christian  Germans  came  VII.    Even  Protestant  historians  have  testified  that 

into  the  region,  and  the  Wends  were  brought  to  accept  before  the  Reformation  the  country  had    excellent 

Christianity.    The  land  was  rapidly  covered  with  bishops,  a  pious  clergy,  and  a  genuinely  Catholic  popu- 

churches,  parishes,   and  monasteries.    Besides  the  lation.    Both  dukes  were  early  won  over  to  Luther's 

CiBtercian  monastery  of  Dobberan  that  Pribislaw  cause  by  the  Humanist  Konrad  Pegel,  whom  Henry 

endowed  larroly  with  lands,  there  were  founded  mon-  had  called  from  the  University  of  Rostock  as  tutor  for 

asteries  of  Benedictines,  Franciscans,  Premonstra-  his  son  Magnus,  the  postulated  Bishop  of  Schwerin. 

tensians,  of  the  rdigious  orders  of  Knights  Hospital-  The  duke  had  permitted  Pegel  to  go  to  Wittenberg, 

lers,  of  St.  Anthony,  ete.  whence  the  latter  returned  an  ardent  adherent  of 

In  1170  Frederick  Barbarossa  raised  Pribislaw  to  Luther.    Albert,  indeed,  soon  abandoned  the  new 

the  dignity  of  a  prince  of  the  empire.    On  Pribislaw's  doctrine  and  maintained  the  old  faith  in  his  part  of 

death  in  1178,  however,  domestic  disputes  broke  out,  the  country.    On  the  other  hand,  from  1524  Henry 

and  the  overthrow  of  Duke  Henry  the  Lion  of  Saxony  allowed  the  new  doctrine  to  be  proclaimed  in  the 

in  1180  weakened  German  power  in  the  northern  part  chapel  of  the  castle  at  Schwerin,  and  protected  the 

of  the  empire.    Denmark  was  thus  enabled  to  bring  preachers  even  in  his  brother's  domains.    Henry's 

under  its  authority  lam  portions  of  North  Germany,  chief  desire  was  to  obtain  the  Bishopric  of  Schwerm. 

Mecklenburg  bein^  obliged  to  recognize  Danish  su-  Its  administrator,  his  son  Magnus,  who  had  married 

premacy  in  the  reign  of  Henry  Burwyl  (1178-1227).  in  1543,  died  childless  in  1550,  and  Henry  saw  to  it 

In  1227  Henry  Burwy,  in  confederation  with  the  that  the  chapter  elected  as  successor  nis  nephew 

Counte  of  Schwerin,  the  Archbishop  of  Bremen,  and  Ulrich. 

the  citv  of  IiObeck,  cast  off  the  Danish  yoke.    There-  When  after  Albert's  death  in  the  year  1547  his  son 

upon  tne  iufiux  of  German  coloniste  received  a  new  John  Albert  (1547-76)  cameto  power,  the  Reformation 

impetus,  a7id,  in  the  first  half  of  the  thirteenth  cen-  was  comoletely  established.    John  Albert  was  first  sole 

tury,  a  German  municipality  had  already  developed  ruler  in  nis  father's  dominions,  then  in  1552  he  also 

there.    After  the  death  of  Henry  Burwy,  the  terri-  succeeded  his  uncle  in  Schwerin,  but  he  resigned  the 

tory  was   divided    (1229)   into   four  principalities:  latter  principality  in   1555  to  his  brother  Ulrich. 

Mecklenburg,  Werle,  Rostock,  and  Parehim.    The  In  1549  the  joint  diet  at  Sternberg  proclaimed  the 

two  latter  lines  died  out  in  1314  and  1310  respectively ;  Lutheran  Faith  to  be  the  religion  of  the  state,  and  from 


MBCKLBNBXntO 


109 


IBCKLBNBUBO 


1552  the  monasteries  were  secularized,  except  Dobbe- 
din,  Mai  chow,  and  Ribnitz,  which  in  1572,  in  exchange 
for  awniming  the  ducal  debts,  were  kept  in  existence 
for  the  unmarried  daughters  of  the  nobility,  and  have 
so  eontinued  to  the  present  day.  The  administration 
of  the  now  Protestant  Dioceses  of  Schwerin  and  Rat- 
s^urg  was  carried  on  by  members  of  the  ruling 
dynasty.  The  Mass,  pil^images,  vows  of  religion 
etc.,  were  forbidden,  and  by  a  consistorial  decree  of 
1570  the  pi^lic  profession  of  the  Catholic  Faith  was 
prcdiibitea. 

After  a  brief  reimion  of  the  two  principalities  in 
1610,  they  were  again  divided  (1621)  into  Mecklen- 
burg-Schwerin  and  Mecklenbu^-GOstrow  by  John 
Albert's  grandsons,  Adolf  Frederick  I  and  John  Albert 
II.  Tliev  stiU  retained,  however,  in  common  the 
diet  (hela  now  in  Stembeig  and  now  in  Malchow),  the 
University  of  Rostock,  and  the  consistorv.  Durins 
the  Thirtv  Years'  War  both  dukes  formea  a  brief  af 
liance  witn  King  Giristian  IV  of  Denmark.  For  this 
they  were  placed  under  a  ban  by  the  Emperor  Ferdi- 
nand IV  in  1628,  and  their  territories,  from  which  they 
were  expelled,  were  granted  to  Wallenstein  in  1629  as 
an  imperial  fief.  In  1631  Qustavus  Adolphus  restored 
them  their  lands,  and  in  1635,  after  the  fall  of  Wallen- 
stein, they  were  again  recognized  by  the  emperor. 
During  the  war  Mecklenburg  suffered  terribly  from 
the  oppression  of  both  the  Swedish  and  the  imperial 
forces,  and  also  from  pestilence  and  famine.  The 
Peace  of  Westphalia  (1648)  assii^ed  the  Dioceses  of 
Schwerin  and  Ratzeburg  as  principalities  to  Schwerin, 
in  return  for  which  the  city  of  Wismar  and  the  dis- 
tricts of  Poel  and  Neukloster  were  yielded  to  Sweden. 
Adolf  Frederick  I  was  succeeded  in  Mecklenbuig- 
Schwerin  by  Christian  Ludwig  (1658-92),  who,  bom 
before  and  after  his  succession,  lived  mainly  at  Paris, 
where  he  became  a  Catholic  in  1663.  Thou^  this 
step  opened  Mecklenbuig  once  more  to  Cathohcs  (see 
below),  it  gave  them  no  secure  legal  footing  even  in 
Schwerin,  while  ia  Mecklenburg-GQstrow  the  most 
bitter  intolerance  of  everything  Catholic  continued  to 
prevafl. 

When  Christian  Ludwig  I  died  childless  in  1692, 
his  nephew  Frederick  William  laid  claim  to  the  suc- 
cession, and  was  opposed  by  Adolf  Frederick  II  of 
Strelitz,  the  only  brother  of  Christian  then  livine. 
After  a  long  dispute,  the  Hamburg  Compact  was  made 
in  1701,  tnrou^  the  mediation  of  the  Emperor 
Leopold.  Adolf  Frederick  II  received  the  Princi- 
pality of  Ratzebura,  and  other  territories ;  the  remain- 
mg  territoiy  (by  tar  the  greater  part)  was  given  to 
Frederick  William.  As  the  latter  selected  Schwerin 
for  his  residence,  and  Adolf  Frederick  Strelitz,  the 
two  ruling  houses  have  since  always  been  distinguished 
as  Mecklenburg-Schwerin  and  Mecklenburg-Strelitz. 

In  Mecklenburg-Schwerin  Frederick  William  and 
his  successor  CSiaries  Leopold  had  to  contend  with  the 
estates,  especially  with  the  landed  proprietors  (RtUer^ 
achaft),  who  since  the  Thirty  Years'  War  had  secured 
the  farms  of  most  of  the  peasants  for  themselves,  and 
bv  oppression  had  forced  the  peasants  into  serfdom. 
With  the  aid  of  Russia  the  duke  drove  the  estates 
out  of  the  country.  These  applied  to  the  Emperor 
Charies  VI  for  help ;  after  the  Russians  withdrew,  an 
imperial  comnussion  with  an  army  to  execute  its  de- 
mands entered  the  coimtiy,  and  the  duke  was  forced 
in  1719  to  flee.  For  many  years  war  was  waged  in 
Meddenburg  between  the  imperial  army  and  the  duke, 
who  was  supported  by  Prussia  and  other  powers. 
Hie  ruler  ana  the  estates,  in  the  reign  of  Charles 
Leopold's  successor  Christian  Ludwig  II  (1747-56), 
finafiy  came  to  an  agreement  in  1755 ;  this  compact, 
stall  essentially  the  basis  of  the  constitution  ot  the 
country,  gave  the  estates  a  large  share  in  the  enact- 
ment of  mws  and  extensive  rights  in  the  voting  of 
supplies.  By  this  agreement  feudalism  won  a  com- 
plete vietoiy  over  the  power  of  the  prince,  in  con- 


trast to  most  of  the  other  divisions  of  Germany,  where 
at  that  era  the  absolutism  of  the  ruler  had  retained  its 
BvmremsLcy. 

Christian  Ludwig  II's  son  Frederick  (1756-85)  im- 
proved the  primaiy  schools,  strengthened  the  Uni- 
versity of  Rostock,  founded  the  hi^  school  at  BQtzow, 
and  by  the  Peace  of  Teschen  obtamed  the  Privilegium 
denonappeUando  (i.  e.,  there  could  be  no  appeal  to  the 
imperiai  courts),  against  which  the  landed  proprietora 
vehemently  protested.  In  1803  his  nephew,  Fred- 
erick Francis  I  (1785-1835)  received  the  city  of 
Wismar  and  the  counties  of  Neukloster  from  Sweden 
as  pledges  for  a  loan  of  1,250,000  talers  (approxi- 
matelv  $937,500) ;  in  1903  Sweden  finally  relinquished 
its  right  of  redemption.  At  the  dissolution  of  the  Holy 
Roman  Empire  in  1806,  the  two  dukes  became  inde- 
pendent sovereigns.  In  1808  both  princes  entered  the 
Confederation  of  the  Rhine,  but  jomed  the  Allies  op- 
posed to  Napoleon  in  epod  time  in  1813;  in  1815  both 
took  the  title  of  grand  duke  and  entered  the  German 
Confederation. 

The  movement  of  1848  spread  rapidly  in  both  ^rand 
duchies,  especially  in  the  cities.  A  proclamation  of 
23  March,  1848,  of  Archduke  Fredenck  Francis  I  of 
Mecklenburg-Schwerin  (1842-83)  acknowledged  the 
necessity  of  a  reform  in  fhe  constitution — ^an  example 
followed  by  Duke  George  of  Strelitz  (1816-60).  An 
extraordinary  diet  (1848-9)  drew  up  a  liberal  consti- 
tution, to  which  the  Grand  Duke  of  Schwerin  swore 
in  August,  1849,  but  against  which  the  Grand  Duke  of 
Strelitz,  the  i^nates  of  both  houses,  and  also  Prussia, 
on  account  of  its  rights  of  inheritance  of  1442,  pro- 
tested. In  September,  1850,  a  court  of  arbitration 
of  the  German  Confederation  decided  in  favour  of  the 
claimants,  and  on  14  September  the  Grand  Duke  of 
Schwerin  annulled  the  new  constitution  and  the  old., 
semi-feudal  constitution  came  again  into  force.  In 
the  war  of  1866  both  princes  sided  with  Prussia 
against  Austria;  on  21  August  of  the  same  year  they 
signed  the  Prussian  draft  of  the  North  German  Con- 
f^eration,  and  in  1867  joined  this  confederacy.  In 
1866  both  states  became  members  of  the  Customs 
Union,  and  in  1871  they  became  constituent  parts  of 
the  German  Empire.  Since  their  union  with  the  Ger- 
man Empire  in  1871,  imceasin^  efforts  have  been  made 
for  a  reasonable  reform  of  thev  obsolete  constitution, 
which  is  no  longer  in  accord  with  the  new  empire.  So 
far  all  attempts  have  failed,  owing  to  the  opposition  of 
the  estates,  especially  of  the  landed  proprietors  (Ri^ 
terachaft)  wno  have  held  to  their  privileges  with  unusual 
obstinacy.  The  present  Grand  Duke  of  Mecklenburg- 
Schwerin  ia  Frederick  Francis  IV,  succeeded  1897;  the 
Grand  Duke  of  Mecklenbuig-Strelitz  is  Adolf  Frederick 
V,  succeeded  1904. 

SttUistica, — ^Mecklenburg-Schwerin  has  an  area  of 
about  5068  sq.  miles.  In  1905  it  had  625,045  in- 
habitants, of  whom  609,914  were  Lutherans,  12,835 
Catholics,  and  1482  Jews.  Mecklenburg-Strelitz  has 
an  area  of  about  1131  sq.  miles.  In  1905  it  had  103,- 
451  ijDliabitants,  of  whom  100,314  were  Lutherans, 
2627  Catholics,  and  298  Jews.  Both  grand  duchies 
are  hereditary  monarchies;  from  1523  they  have 
had  a  common  assembly  or  diet  made  up  of  the  landed 
proprietors  {RxUerachaft)y  and  the  buigomasteis  of 
specified  towns  (Landschaft).  The  RiUerschaft  con- 
sists of  about  750  owners,  whether  noble  or  not,  of 
about  1200  landed  properties  which  carry  with  them 
the  r^t  to  a  vote  in  tne  assembly.  The  Landachaft 
is  composed  of  the  buigomasters  of  the  cities  of  Ros- 
tock and  Wismar,  and  the  municipal  authorities  of 
the  forty  inland  cities  of  Schwerin  and  the  seven 
inland  cities  of  Strelitz.  The  principality  of  Ratze- 
burg, which  has  an  assembly  of  estates  of  its  own,  is 
not  represented  in  the  general  estates,  neither  are  the 
city  of  Neustrelitz,  nor  the  inhabitants  of  the  crown 
domain  (domanium),  that  is,  the  land  personally 
owned  by  the  ruler,  in  which  he  is  still  absolute 


IBCKLBNBUBO 


110 


MBCELENBXntO 


sovereigii  in  makinfl;  laws  and  levying  taxes.  The 
crown  domain  includes  about  43  per  cent  of  the  area 
and  about  32  fjer  cent  of  the  innabitants.  The  es- 
tates have  an  important  share  in  lepjslation  and  a 
deciding  vote  in  questions  of  taxation,  and  in  aU 

Suestions  pertaining  to  their  rights;  in  other  matters 
leir  opimon  has  to  be  obtained. 

The  Xutheran  Church  has  a  consistorial  constitu- 
tion. The  head  of  the  church  is  the  sovereign,  who 
exercises  his  rights  in  Mecklenburg-Schwerin  by 
means  of  an  upper  consistory;  in  Mecklenbiu^ 
Strelits  by  a  consistory.  Mecklenbuig-Schwerin  is 
divided  into  7  superintendencies  and  36  provostships 
or  deaneries:  Meckienburg-Strelitas  into  1  stq)erin- 
tendency  ana  7  svnods. 

The  datholic  Cnurch  in  both  grand  duchies  is  under 
the  supervision  of  the  Vicar  Apostolic  of  the  Northern 
Missions,  the  Bishop  of  OsnabrQck.  After  the 
Reformation  Catholicism  was  almost  extinguished  in 
Mecklenburg,  and  its  public. exercise  threatened  with 
punishment.  For  nearly  a  hundred  years  it  could 
oni^r  be  practised  in  secret.  The  conversion  of  Duke 
Christian  Ludwig  I  in  1663  produced  the  first  chan^ 
of  conditions.  Notwithstanding  the  protests  of  his 
ducal  brothers  and  the  estates,  he  ^led  Catholic 
priests  into  the  country  and  granted  them  the  castle 
chapel  at  Schwerin  for  the  cdebration  of  Mass.  The 
right  to  do  this  was  confirmed  to  him  in  1666  by  the 
imperial  Diet.  Afany  of  the  chief  nobility  foUowed. 
at  that  time,  the  example  of  their  ruler,  and  retumea 
to  t^e  Church  of  their  forefathers,  as  the  hereditary 
Marshal  Joachim  Christian  Hahn,  of  the  same  family 
as  that  from  which  the  convert  Ida,  Coimtess  Hahn- 
Hahn,  came. 

The  Catholic  Faith,  notwithstanding  this,  did  not 
attain  a  legal  position,  and  the  duke  never  permitted 
a  Catholic  cnurch  to  be  built,  although  the  Vicar  Apos- 
tolic of  the  Northern  Missions,  Nicholas  Steno^  who 
lived  in  Schwerin  from  1685,  made  every  exertion  to 
gain  his  consent.  Consequently,  when  Oiristian  Lud- 
wig  died  the  Catholic  services  ceased.  The  only 
chur(^  services  now  allowed  were  held  in  the  private 
chapel  of  the  chancellor  of  the  next  duke.  Count  Horn, 
who  had  become  a  Catholic.  With  the  death  of  the 
coimt  this  privilege  expired.  It  was  not  imtil  1701 
that  the  free  exercise  of  the  Catholic  religion  was 
again  permitted,  this  time  in  the  chapel  of  the  im- 
perial ambassador  von  £}gk.  In  1702.  when  the  am- 
bassador left  Schwerin,  Duke  Frederick  William 
transferred  this  right  to  a  Catholic  lady,  Frau  von 
Bibow.  Through  her  efiForts  the  Jesmts  were  en- 
trusted with  the  mission  in  Schwerin;  from  1709  they 
established  themselves  here  permanently.  Father 
von  Stdcken  (1730-43)  was  able  to  brin^  it  about 
that  in  1731  a  house  was  secured  for  the  mission,  and 
that  the  church  service,  which  up  to  then  had  been 
private,  could  be  a  public  one.  He  also  succeeded 
Dv  unwearied  effort  in  founding  a  school  at  Schwerin, 
wnere  five  to  seven  boys  could  be  prepared  for  the 
Collegium  Nordicum  at  Linz  in  Upper  Austria. 

From  1764  a  priest  from  Schwenn  was  able  to  dis- 
tribute communion  to  the  Catholic  soldiers  at  Rostock 
in  the  hall  of  the  exchange,  and  to  hold  Mass  for 
Catholics  who  attended  the  market  there  at  Pentecost. 
Although  Christian  Ludwig  II  had  granted  permission 
for  thel)uildin^  of  a  church.  Frederick,  who  inclined 
to  a  rigorous  pietism,  forbaae  its  erection.  The  pre- 
paratory school  at  Schwerin  came  to  an  end  ^en 
the  Emperor  Joseph  II  suppressed  the  Collegium 
Nordicum.  Fredenck  Frauds  I,  two  of  whose  chil- 
dren became  Catholics,  eave  the  money  to  build  the 
Catholic  church  at  Ludwigslust.  On  entering  the 
Confederation  of  the  Rhine,  Frederick  had  agr^d  to 
place  the  exercise  of  the  Catholic  religion  on  a  le^ 
parity  with  that  of  the  Lutheran,  and  in  1811  this  was 
done. 

F^VL  that  time  on  the  Catholics  in  reality  enjoyed 


complete  freedom,  and  in  the  year  1842  for  the  first 
time  since  the  Reformation  a  Catholic  bishop,  LQpcke 
of  Osnabrdck,  wsa  able  to  hold  a  confirmation  at 
Schwerin.  However,  the  conversion,  from  1848  on- 
wards, of  many  important  men,  among  them  von 
Vogelsang,  vonBtdow,  von  der  Kettenburg,  Professor 
Msassen,  etc.,  gave  an  opportunity  to  the  intolerant 
party  to  withdraw  the  freedom  granted  the  Catholics, 
to  which  action  both  estates  and  Government  gave 
their  aid.  In  1852  extension  to  other  localities  of  the 
Catiiolic  services  was  forbidden,  also  the  coming  into 
Mecklenburg  of  priests  not  natives  of  the  country; 
these  measures  were  so  strictly  enforced  that  the  pri- 
vate chaplain  of  Herr  von  der  Kettenburg  was  taken 
over  the  Doundaiy  by  gendarmes. 

In  1857  permission  to  bury  the  dead  according  to 
the  Cathohc  ceremonial,  and  the  li^t  to  celebrate 
Mass  publicly  were  limited  to  Schwerin  and  Ludwigs- 
lust. The  Government  of  Mecklenburg-Strelitz  was 
still  more  intolerant.  For  many  years,  even  in  the 
nineteentli  century,  no  priest  was  permitted  to  have 
a  permanent  residence  m  its  territory;  all  that  was 
conceded  was  that  the  Catholic  priest  at  Wittstock 
in  Brandenburg  could  stay  at  Neustrelitz  one  week 
of  each  month  for  ecclesiastical  functions.  This  per- 
secution of  Catholics  was  kept  up.  not  by  the  rulers, 
who  were  generally  well  inclmed,  but  by  the  narrow- 
minded  estates.  Public  opinion,  even  outside  of 
Catholic  Germany,  repeatedly  arose  aeainst  this  per- 
secution, and  was  often  expressed  in  sharp  protest  in 
the  German  Diet. 

The  Governments  of  the  two  duchies  were  finally 
forced  by  pressure  from  the  empire  to  wnj^t  the  Catho- 
lics a  certain,  yet  still  entirely  insufficient,  amount 
of  freedom.  Tnere  is  however  no  equality  as  there 
should  be  to  bring  Mecklenburg^  into  acoora  with  the 
constitution  of  the  empire  or  with  a  modem  civilised 
state.  Altfaoush  an  ordinance  of  5  January,  1903 
granted  to  Catholics  the  public  exercise  of  their  re- 
ligion everywhere,  nevertheless  the  permission  of  the 
rmer  is  necessary  for  the  erection  and  alteration  of 
parishes,  the  building  of  churches  and  chapels,  ap- 
pointment of  priests,  for  the  settling  in  ihe  country 
of  orders  and  congregations,  and  for  the  holding  of  pro- 
cessions; nor  have  the  Caliiolics  any  legal  redress  if 
this  consent  is  refused. 

Furthermore  in  regard  to  educational  matters. 
Catholics  are  not  on  an  equality  with  Protestants. 
They  must  indeed  contribute  to  the  expenses  of  the 
schools,  but  for  their  purely  private  Catholic  schools 
they  receive  no  allowance  from  the  civil  communes, 
often  indeed  they  are  not  allowed  to  use  the  state 
schools  for  giving  instruction.  There  is  no  hislier 
Catholic  education  in  either  grand  duchy.  Meckien- 
burg-Schwerin  has  two  Catholie  parishes,  one  each  at 
Schwerin  and  Ludwigplust,  and  dependent  churches 
at  Rostock  and  Wismar;  the  priests  altogether  num- 
ber 8.  Mecklenburg-Strelits  has  1  pansh  with  2 
{meets.  The  spirituial  care  of  the  summer  farm- 
abourers  presents  great  difficulties.  These  men, 
who  number  about  20,000-22,000  and  are  chiefly 
Poles,  sojourn  in  Mecklenburg  annually  from  March 
until  September  in  order  to  work  on  ue  farms  and 
estates. 

Bachmanit.  Die  landstikundKehe  LUeratw  liUr  dis  Cfromhtt' 
aogllitner  MeokUnburg  CWiamar,  1890);  Lisch,  MedtUnbrnger 
Urkunden  (3  vob.,  Schwerin.  1837-41);  Wiggbbs,  JCtrdUn- 
OMehiehU  MedcUnbvrge  (Parchim  Mid  Ludwlcslust,  1840) ;  M«dk- 
l0/i6tivver  Urktsndenbuch  (22  vob..  Schwerin.  1863-1907);  Boix, 
QttehichU  Meekimhwnn  (2  pts.,  Neubrandenbuiv,  1856-M); 
FKtrnjG€msh%ehUM«deUnburo9 (2oia.,  Wismar.  1872) ;  Lmksk. 
Au9MeckUrUntroaVermno€nheU  (Ratisbon,  1880) :  Raabs,  M§ek- 
UnburtfUehe  VaUrlandsktauU  (2nd  ed.,  3  vob.,  1898-96);  Meek- 
fen^urvudb  OeaehieMt  in  BiruManldlunQen  (12  pta.,  BeiUn, 
189^1910);  Schmidt,  MeeklerUfwrqiaehea  Kirehenreehi  (Beriin, 
1908);  ScHLBSiNOKR,  Staata-  und  YenraUunotrecht  dsa  Cfrouher- 
woatuma  Mteklmhwv-Sehvotnn  (Hanover,  1909);  Bruhswio, 
StaaU-  und  Verwallyncan^  d$9  Orotkenoatmnt  MaekUnbunh 
StrtUU  (Hanover.  1910);  WrrrB.  Meddenbwtfitekt  OtKfuehte 
(Wismar,  1909);  Scbnbll,  Dtu  Unterriehtswemn  d^r  GroMlUf- 
togtOmer  MackiembwnHSekwtnn  und  MeekUnbunhStrditt  (8  voK» 


BtriiB.  1907-10)  i  JakrbiielitT  df  Vtnuupr  OnMdile  UiUn-  Faith,  auch  S8  the  Bleued  Sacrament  or  the  Divine 

Ss;S?x~i.a;i,£:isXiss*AWiS:  Atirib«t«).  «..?„•»  »»j  to  i«=«ici«  i»o™  ot 

Scbwenn,  1890-1902).  piety,  ore  specially  blessed  to  Berv«  as  badges  of 

JoBBPH  LiNS.  pious   associations   or  to  oonseorate    and    protect 

,.,                                                             ,  the  wearer,  and  finaUy  are  often  enriched  with  indul- 

MuhIm,   Jban-Paul,   Jesuit  missionary;   b.   at  gences. 
CarcasoDne,  the  capital  of  the  Departinent  of  Aude,  lu   xhb    Earlt   Chubch  — It   was   at   one   time 
Fraaoe,  29  January,  1618;  d.  at  Auch,  the  capital  doubted  whether  anything  in  the  nature  of  a  purely 
of  the   Department  of  Gers,  France,  16  May,  1689.  devotional  medal  waa  known  in  the  early  agea  of 
He  entered  the  Society  of  Jesua,  15  August,  1640,  and  Christianity.    Certain  objecU  of  this  kind  were  do- 
afWr  completing  his  studiw  spent  a  number  of  years  in  scribed  and  figured  by  seventoenth-century  writers  on 
the  classroom,  teaching  both  the  lower  and  higher  the  Catacombs,  and  a  few  such  were   preaerved  in 
studies  of  the  coilege  courees  and  particularly,  for  the  muaeums.     Ail  these,  however,  were  regarded  with 
atlwe  of  six  years,  philosophy.      Later  he  was  ap-  niuch  suspicion  before  the  appearance  of  an  epoch- 
plied  to   the  work  of  preachmg,  which  may  be  re-  making  ttri,icle   by   de   Rossi   in  the   "  BuUettino  dj 
garded  as  his  life  work;    to  this  he  gave  hunself  up  Aroheologia  Criatiana"  for  1869,  since  which  time  the 
almosterelusively  for  eighteen  yeara,  until  advancing  question  has  been  practically  act  at  rest  and  the  au- 
•ge  and  the  infirmities  brought  on  by  hb  laborious  and  iJienticity  of  some  at  least  of  these  specimens  has  re- 
auatere  life  forced  him  to  devote  hmiself  to  the  leas  mained  undisputed.     A  moment's  consideration  will 
latiEumg  work  of  directmg  Bodalities  and  of  heanng  esUblish  the  mtrinsic  probability  of  the  existence  of 
oooiessioos,  especially  of  the  poor.    He  was  one  of  the  guch  objects.    Ihe  uae  of  amuleta  in  pagan  antiquity 
number  of  illustrious  missioners  formed  in  the  school 
of  St.  Francis  Regis  of  the  Society  of  Jeeus,  and  spent 
the  best  yeais  of  his  life  in  the  evangelization  of  Veja^, 
Auvergne,   Languedoc,  and  Aveyron.     His  apostolic 
labours  were  attended  with  greater  and  more  lasting 
fruit,  because  he  established  wherever  he  preached 
fervent  sodalities  of  men  and  women  who,  by  all  sorts 
of  works  of  charity,  such  as  instructing  children,  visit- 
ing the  fiick.  helping  the  poor,  perpetuated  and  ex-  i                                                   i 
tended  the  fruits  of  his  missions.     These  pious  sodali-  | 

ties,  however,  lacked  certain  elements  wbich  Father  ' 
Uedaille  regarded  aa  necessary  for  the  stability  of  his 
work.     Their  members,  although  devoted,  were  ham- 
pered in  many  ways  and  by  many  ties  intheexereiae  of 
their i«al.   Father  Medaille resolved,  therefore,  tostart 

a  congregation  of  nuna  who  should  give  themselves  up  ^^^"^ 
wholly  and  unreservedly  to  all  the  spiritual  and  cor- 
poral works  of  mercv.     Having  matured  his  plans, 

belaid  them  before  MgrdeMaupas,  who  gave  them  was  widespread.     The  word  amuWunt  itself  occurs  in 

his  fullest  approval.     Shortly  after.  Father  MedaiUe  pliny,  and  many  monumenta  show  how  talismans  of 

founded  the  Congr^ation  of  the  Sisters  of  St.  Joseph,  thia  kind  were  worn  around  the  neck  by  all  classes. 

The  general  idea  of  the  congregation  was  drawn,  at  That  the  early  Chureh  should  have  found  the  abuse 

least  to  a  certain  extent,  from  the  works  of  St.  Francis  ineradicable  and  should  have  striven  to  counteract  it 

de  Sale*,  but  the  details  of  ita  practical  development  by  suggesting  or  tolerating  some  analogous  practice  of 

were  based  almost  entirely  on  the  constitutions  of  the  »„   innocent  character,  is  in   itaelt  highly  probable. 

Society  of  Jesus.     It  is  as  the  founder  of  this  con-  Many   parallel   concessions   of  this   loncf  might   be 

gregation  that  Father  Medaille  is  best  known.     His  quoted.     The  letter  of  Gregory  the  Great  to  St.  Melli- 

active  lite  left  hun  no  time  for  writing ;  consequently  tus  about  the  dedication  of  pagan  temples,  preserved 

we  have  nothmg  from  bis  pen,  aside  from  some  corre-  to  us  by  Bede  (Hiat.  Eccl.,  I,  xxx),  auppliea  perhaps 

spondence,  except  the  "  Constitutions  pour  la  Congrt-  the  most  famous  example.     Moreover  we  know  that 

gation  des  S<Eura  de  Samt-Joaeph   ,     These  constitu-  the  same  St.  Gregory  sent  to  TheodoUnd,  Queen  of  the 

tiona  have  been  incorrectly  attnbuted  to  Father  Peter  Lombards,  two  phylacteria— the  cases  are  atill  pre- 

Medaille,  S.J.     It  la  true  that  Father  Peter  MedaiUe  gerved   at   Monaa— containing  a   relic   of  the  frw 

contributed  much  m  later  years  to  the  eatabltahment  Cross  and  a  aentenoe  from  Uie  Goapela.  which  her 

on  a  firm  baais  and  to  the  spread  of  the  congr^ation,  child  Adulovald  was  to  wear  around  his  neck. 

but  at  the  time  of  its  foundation  he  was  atill  a  novice  xhia,  however,  and  the  practice  of  wearing  "encol- 

and  had  neither  the  expnence  nor  the  authority  nee-  pia",  little  pectoral  crosses,  lent  itaeif  to  abuses  when 

ea^ry  for  BO  responsible  a  work.  magical  formuto  began  to  bo  joined  to  Christian  sym- 

j:SSi.tpSr^4)1'.S  4r-  a^l^STk-SSyrS^  lj>b,  as  w«  reguUny  the  practice  of  the  Gnoati«. 

Cmp.  lU  jina,  Hinriaiica  da  Fmitt,  I  (Puis,  1803),  631  iq.  Hetice  We  find  many  of  the  Fathers  of  the  fourth  and 

J.  H.  FiSHEB.  •»'*'■   centuries   protesting   more   or   iem  vigorouslv 
against  these  phylacteries  (cf.  8t,  Jerome, '  In  Uatt.   , 

Hadali,  Devotional.— A  medal  may  be  defined  iv,  33;  P.  L.,  XXVI,  174).    But  that  Christians  of 

to  be  a  piece  of  metal,  usually  in  the  form  of  a  coin,  good  name  did  wear  such  objects  of  piety  round  their 

not  used  as  money,  but  struck  or  cast  for  a  oommem-  necks  is  certain,  and  it  is  consequently  probable  that 

orative  purpoae,  and  adorned  with  some  appropriate  tokens  bearing  various  Christian  devices,  should  have 

effigy,  device,  or  inscription.     In  the  present  article  been  cast  in  metal  for  a  similar  purpose.     In  Africa 

we  are  concerned  only  with  religious  medals.    These  (see  "BuUettino  di  Arch.  Crist.    ,  1891),  the  moulds 

are  more  varied  even  than  secular  medals,  for  they  are  have  been  found  in  which  little  crosses  were  cart  with 

produced  not  only  to  commemorate  persons  (e.  g-  ringa  to  hang  them  by.      It  follows  therefore  that 

Christ,  the  Blessed  Virgin,  and  the  Sainta),  plAcea(e.g.  certain  coin-like  objects,  for  which  there  exiata  good 

famoua  shrinea)  and  paat  hiatorical  events  (e.  g.  dog-  evidence  of  their  being  actually  discovered  in  the  Cat- 

matic  definitions,  miracles,  dedications,  etc.).  aa  well  acombs,  must  be  regarded  as  genuine  relics  of  the  de- 

as  personal  graces  like  Firat  Oommunioo,  OraJnation,  votional  practices  of  the  early  Church.     Two  or  three 

etc..  but  they  are  also  often  concerned  with  the  order  of  these  are  specify  famous.     One,  which  de  Rowi 

of  ideas  (e.  g.  they  may  recall  the  mysteries  of  our  attributea  to  the  oloae  of  the  fourth  century,  bean  upon 


MEDALS  112  HEDALB 

both  faces  the  leeend  Soccbbba.  Vivas,  an  "acclanu-  entirely  died  out,  atill  little  evidence  exiata  of  the  use 

tion"  which  probably  indicates  th&t  the  mecUl  was  at  medals  in  the  Middle  A^.     No  traeee  of  such  ob- 

cast  for  a  certain  Successs  to  commemorate,  perhaps,  jects  survive  remarkable  either  for  artistie  ektU  or  for 

her  dedication  to  God.    On  one  side  we  see    repre-  the  value  of  the  metal,  and  to  apeak  positively  of  the 

sented   the   martyrdom  of  a  saint,  presumably  St,  date  of  certain  objects  of  lead  and  pewter  which  may 

Lawrence,  who  is  being  roasted  upona  cmdiron  in  the  have  been  hung  round  the  neck  with  a  religious  intent, 

presence  of  the  Roman  magistrate.     The   Christian  is  not  always  easy.     But  in  the  course  ctt  the  twelfth 


character  of  the  scene  is  shown  by  the  chrisma,  ^3  the     century,  if  not  earlier,  a  very  general  practice  grew  u: 
*   "ad  0,  and  the  martyr's  crown.     On  the 'T*  re-    at  well-known  places  of  pilgmnage,  of  casting  token 
e  is  depicted  a  cancellated  structure,  no  doubt  the     in   lead,  and  sometimes   probably  in   other  metals. 


tomb  of  St.  Lawrence,  while  a  figure  stands  in  a  lever-  which  served  the  pilgrim  ss  a  souvenir  and  stimulus 
ent  attitude  befoteitholdins  aloft  a  candle.  todevotion  and  atthesame  time  attested  the  fact  that 
A  second  remarkable  medal,  which  bears  the  name  he  had  duly  reached  his  destination.     These  signacula 
of  GAtTDEKTiANTTB  on  the  obverse  and  Urbicus  on  the  (ensei^nes)  known   in  English  as  "pilgrims'  signs" 
reverse,  depicts  seemingly  on  one  face  the  sacrifice  of  often  took  a  medallic  form  and  were  carried  in  a  eon- 
Abraham  ;  on  the  other  we  see  apparently  a  slirine  or  spicuous  way  upon  the  hat  or  breast.     Giraldus  Caro- 
kltar,  above  which  three  candles  are  burning,  towards  brensis  referring;  to  a  journey  he  made  to  Canteibiuy 
which  a  tall  figure  carrying  a  chalice  in  one  hand  is  about  the  year  1180,  ten  years  after  the  martyrdom  of 
conductingalittlechild.  .St.  Thomas,  describes  himself  and  his  companions 
The  scene  no  doubt  rep-  returning  to  Ix>ndon  "cum  signaculis  Beati  Thomte  a 
resents  the  consecration  collo  suspensis"  [with  the  tokens  of  St.  Thomas  hang- 
to  God  of  the  child  as  an  ing  round  their  neck]  (Opera,  Rolls  Series,  I,  p.  53). 
oblaU  (q.  V.)  by  his  fa-  Again  the  author  of  Piers  the  Plowman  writes  of  hia 
thcr  before  the  shrine  of  imaginary  pilKrim : 
i   some  martyr,  a  custom  '   An  hundrca  of  ampulles  on  his  hat  seten, 
\  for  which  tneie  is  a  good  Signes  of  syse  and  shelles  of  Galice ; 
I  deal  of  early  evidence.  Andmanyacroucheonhiscloke.andkeyesofRome, 
I  Other  medals  are  much  And  the  vemicle  bifore,  for  meo  shulde  knowe 
'  mote  simple,  bearing  And  see  by  bis  signes  whom  he  sought  hadde. 
only  the  chrisma  with  The   "ampulles"  probably  represent  Canterbury, 
a   name   or   perhaps  a  but  may  have  been  tokens  of  the  Holy  Tear  of  Ven- 
cross.  Others  impressed  dOme  (see  For^jeais,  "Collection",  IV,  65  sq.) ;  Syse 
with  more  complicated  stands  for  Assisi.      The  "shelles  of  Galice",  i.  e.  the 
Lead  Medju.                devices  can  only  be  scallop-shellsof  St.  Jamesof  Compostella;  thecrouche, 
Fh>m  "Bullettino di  uoheoloiis  dated    with    difficulty,  Or  cross,  of  the  Holy  Land;  the  k^s  of  St.  Peter;  the 
crirtUna"                    and    some    are    either  "  vemicle  ",  or  figure  of  the  Veronica,  etc.  ate  ail  very 
apuriotis,  or,  as  in  the  case  particularly  of  some  repre-  familiar  types,  represented  in  most  collections  of  sucn 
sentations  of  the  adoration  of  the  Magi  which  seem  to  objects.     The  privilege  of  casting  and  selling  these 
show  strong  traces  of  Byiantine  influence,  they  be-  pilgrim's  signs  was  a  very  valuable  one  and  became  a 
long  to  a  much  later  epoch.    Some  of  the  medals  or  regular  source  of  income  at  most  places  of  religious 
medallions  reputedly  Christian  are  stamped  upon  one  resort. 

Bideonly.andofthisclass  is  a  famous  bronse  medallion  Then,  as  maner  and  custom  is,  signes  there  they 

of  very  artiatio  execution  discovered  by  Boldeti  in  the  bought  .  .  . 

cemetery  of  Domitilla  and  now  preserved  in  the  Vati-  E^h  man  set  his  silver  in  such  thing  as  he  liked, 

canLibmry.     It  bears  two  portmit  types  of  the  heads  writes  a  fourteenth-century  satirist  of  one  of  these 

of  the  Apostles  SS.  Peter  and  Paul,  and  is  assigaed  by  shrines.     Moreover  we  find  that  the  custom  was  finnly 

de  Rossi  to  the  second  centun'.      Other  medallions  established  in  Rome  itself,  and  Pope  Innocent  111,  by 

with  the  (confronted)  heads  of  the  two  apostles  are  a  letter  of  18  Jan.,   1200  (Potthast,  "Regesta",  n. 

also  known  and  a  lively  controversy  largely  based  on  939),  grants  to  the  canons  of  St.  Peter's  the  monopoly 

these  medallic  materiaui  has  been  carried  on  regarding  of  casting  and  selling  those  "signs  of  lead  or  pewter 

the  probahiUty  of  their  havingpreserved  the  tradition  impressed  with  the  image  oE  tha  Apostles  Peter  and 
of  an  authentic  likeness.     (See  particularly  Weia- 
Liebeisdorf,  "Christus   imd   Apostelbilder",   pp.  83 
sq.).    Certain  supposed  early  medals  with  the  head  of 
our  Saviour  are  distinctly  open  to  suspicion. 

How  far  the  use  of  such  medals  of  devotion  ex- 
tended in  the  early  Church,  it  is  not  easy  to  decide. 
One  or  two  passages  in  the  works  of  St.  Zeno  of 
Verona  have  suggested  that  a  medal  of  this  kind  was 
commonly  given  as  a,  memorial  of  baptism,  but  the 
point  ia  doubtfuL  In  the  Ufe  of  St.  Genevieve, 
which,  despite  the  opinion  of  B.  Krusch,  is  of  early 
date,  we  read  that  St.  Qermanus  of  Auierre  hung 
around  her  neck  a  perforated  bronie  coin  marked 

with  the  sign  of  the  cross,  in  memory  of  her  having  M«du.  o 

con»ecrat«(f  her  virginity  to  God  (Mon.  Ger.  Hist.:  From  "Bull ettint 

Script.  Merov.,  111,217).    The  language  seems  to  sug-  Paul  with  which  those  who  visit  their  thresholds  [K- 


„__t  that  an  ordinary  coin  was  boredTor  the  purpose,  mtno]  adorn  themselves  for  the  increase  of  their  own 

and  when  we  recall  how  many  of  the  coins  of  the  late  devotion  and  in  testimony  of  the  journey  which  they 

empire  were  stamped  with  the  chrisma  or  with  the  have  accomplished",  and  the  pope's  language  implies 

figure  of  the  Saviour,  it  is  easy  to  believe  that  the  or-  that  this  custom  had  existed  for  some  time.     In  form 

dmory  currency  may  often  have  been  used  for  similar  and  fashion  these  pilgrims'  signs  are  very  various  and 

pious  purposes.  a  considemble  literature  exists  upon  tlie  subject  (sc* 

DtmiHo  THB  MinnLE  AoEs. — Althoush  it  is  probable  especially  the  work  of  Foi^eais.    "Collection    de 

that  the  traditions  formed  by  the  class  OC  objects  Plombe  historic",  5  vols..  Pans,  1864).     From  about 

irtiich  we  have  been  considering,  and  which  were  the  twelfth  century  the  casting  of  these  devotional 

•qually  familiar  at  Rmne  and  at  Constantinople,  never  objects  continued  until  the  close  of  the  Middle  Agea 


113  HXDAL8 

and  even  Uter,  but  in  the  sixteenth  or  wveuteenth  rolle,  "Les  HSdaHleim  Fran^aia",  1002-1904,  v<d.  I. 
eentury  tbey  began  to  be  lepUced  by  medals  property    page  Hi). 

■ocalled  iDbn)nieoriUBilver,ofteQ  withmucliKreater  In  Modern  Times. — Although  roughly  speaking  it 
pntAuionB  to  artistic  execution.  With  theae  leaden  is  correct  to  say  that  medals  were  unluiown  in  the 
mfou  should  be  noted  the  custom  of  castins  coin-like  Middle  Ages,  still  their  introduction  belongs  to  the 
to*i»"»  in  connexion  with  tbe  Feast  of  Fools  (q.  v.)i  the  early  Renaissance  period,  and  it  is  only  when  we  con- 
ce1ebi«tion  of  the  Boy  Bishop  and  the  Innocents.  The  eider  them  as  a  form  of  popular  devotion  that  we  can 
extant  specimens  belong  mostly  to  the  sixteenth  oen-  describe  them  as  of  poet-Reformation  origin.  Medals 
tury,  but  the  pnetioe  must  be  much  cdder.  Though  properly  so  called,  i.  e.  pieces  of  metal  struck  or  cast 
then  is  often  a  burlesque  element  introduced,  the  with  a  commemorative  purpose,  began,  though  there 
legends  and  devices  shown  by  such  pieces  are  uearly  are  only  a  few  rate  specimena,  in  the  last  years  of  the 
all  nlJgjous;  e.  g.,  sx  obe  infanciuu  i>iiKrBCieTi  fourteenth  century  (Rondot,  loc.  cit.,  60-62).  The 
I^udbm;  INNOCEN8  voos  AiDBRA,  etc  (see  Vanhende,  first  certainly  known  medal  was  struck  for  Francesco 
"Plommdsdes  Innocents,"  Lille,  18771.  Canara  (Novello)  on  the  occasion  ot  the  capture  of 

Better  deserving  of  attention  are  the  vast  coltec-  Padua  in  1390,  but  practically  the  vogue  of  ttiis  form 
tion  of  iettma  and  m^reouz  which,  be^nmng  in  the  of  art  was  created  by  Vittore  Pisano,  called  FisaiieUo 
thirteenth  century,  continued  to  be  produced  all 
thnnigh  the  Middle  Ages  and  lasted  on  in  some  places 
down  to  the  French  Revolution.  The  jetona  were 
strictly  speaking  counteis,  i.  e.,  they  were  thin  pieces 
of  metal,  mostly  latten.  a  sort  of  brass,  stamped  on 
both  sides  with  some  device  and  originally  used  in 
conjunction  with  a  eomptoir  (i.  e.,  on  abacus  or  count- 
mz  board)  to  perform  arithmetical  computations. 
The  name  comes  from  jtter,  through  the  form  jectair. 
because  they  were  "thrown  down  upon  this  board 
(see  Rondot,  "M^dailleurs  Frangaia",  Paris,  1904,  p. 
48).  It  soon  became  the  fashion  for  every  personage 
of  distinction,  especially  those  who  had  anytnin^  to  do 
with  finance,  to  have  special  jetons  bearing  his  own 
device,  and  uoon  some  of  these  conaideiabTc  artistio 
skill  was  lavisned.  These  pieoes  served  various  pur- 
poses besides  that  for  which  they  were  or^inally  d»> 
■jened,  and  thev  were  often  used  in  the  Middle  Ages 
mere  we  shoula  now  use  a  ticket  or  printed  card.  As 
Bi^kt  be  expected,  they  tended  to  take  a  religious 
tona.  Upon  nearly  half  the  medieval  jetons  which 
survive,  pious  mottoes  are  found  and  often  pious  de- 

vioea  (Rouyer,  "Histoire  du  Jeton",  p.  30).     Among  MenAUJOH  o»  Enauii,  Paste  xnn  Coloursd  Botn 

the  commonest  of  these  mottoes,  which  however  vaiy  *^"  Armeiiioi.  "Il  dmitera  di  SuitB  Agn-e" 

infinitely,  we  might  name  a.vk  iuru  gratia  plena;  (c.  1380-1451),  and  its  fiist  developments  were  sH 
AM^Dixo-ETLO  (i.e.aimei  dieuetlouesle);  IHSson  Italian.  These  early  Renaissance  medals,  magnifi- 
OBX  sotT  rATT  ci;  vutoo  HATKB  BccLEsiE  ETEBNE  Cent  ss  they  are,  belong  to  civil  life  and  only  t«uch 
Voita;  DOHiNa  ooiaNue  nobter,  etc.  Often  these  upon  our  immediate  subject,  but  though  not  reli^ous 
jetona  were  given  as  presents  or  "  pieces  de  plaisir "  es-  in  intent  many  of  them  possess  a  strong  religious 
pearly  to  persons  <n  high  consideration,  and  on  such     colouring.     Nothing  more  aevotional  coulcl  be  ii 


.     y  were  often  specially  struck  in  gold  or  ined  than  the  beautiful  reverse  of  Pisano's  medal  of 

One  particular  and  very  common  use  of  ie-  Malatesta  Novello,  where  the  mail-clail  warrior  di»- 

ras  to  serve  as  vouchers  for  attendance  at  tne  mounting  from  his  horse  is  represented  as  kneeling  bo- 
eatbedral  offices  and  meetings  of  various  kinds.  In  fore  the  crucifix.  So  again  the  laree  medal,  in  the 
thiscasetheyoftencarried  with  them  a  title  to  certain  British  Museum,  of  Savonarola  holding  the  crucifix, 
rations  or  payments  of  money,  the  amount  being  some-  probably  executed  by  Andres  della  Rol}l)ia,  portrays 
times  stamped  on  the  piece.  The  tokens  thus  used  with  lare  fidelity  bis  deep-set  glowing  eye,  ms 
wereknownas  j«(on«dapriMnceoTnWreaui,  and  they  bonv  cheeks,  the  strong  nose  and  protruding  lips" 
werelargelyused,e^>eciallyat  aocnnewhat  laterdate,  (Fabricsy,  "Italian  Medals",  p,  133),  while  the  re- 
tosecuretnedueattendanceof theoanonsattheeathe-  verse  displays  the  avenging  sword  of  God  and  the 
dial  offioea,  ete.  What,  however,  specially  justifies  Holy  Choet  hoverii^  over  the  doomed  city  of  Flor- 
tfaeir  mention  in  the  present  place  is  the  fact  that  in  ence.  Wonderful  again  in  their  religious  feeling  are 
many  eases  the  pious  device  they  bore  was  as  much  or  Antonio  Bdareaeotti's  (c.  1453)  supei^  medals  of  San 
even  more  considered  than  the  use  to  which  they  were  Bernardino  da  Siena,  while  among  the  series  of  early 
put,  and  they  seem  to  have  discharged  a  function  papal  medals  we  have  such  masterpieces  as  the  por- 
analogous  to  the  ChUd-ot-titry  medals,  the  scapulars,  trait  of  Sixtus  IV  bv  Andrea  GuasKolotti  (1435-95). 
the  badges  and  even  the  pious  pictures  of  our  own  day.  But  it  was  long  before  this  new  art  made  its  in- 
One  famous  example  is  the  "mfireau  d'estaing"  beaiv  fluenoe  so  far  widely  felt  as  to  bring  metal  representa- 
fa^  stamped  up«xi  it  the  name  of  Jeeus,  whicn  tbe  fa-  tions  ot  aunts  and  shrines,  of  mysteries  and  miracles, 
lUotM  Fitoe  Richard,  whose  name  is  doray  if  not  too  together  with  emblems  and  devices  of  all  kinds,  in  -a 
creditablT  assooiated  with  the  history  of  Blessed  Joan  cheap  form  into  the  hands  of  tbe  people.  Undoubtedly 
of  Am,  dvtributed  to  his  followers  in  Paris,  1429  (see  the  gradual  substitution  d  more  artistic  bronse  and 
Rouyer,  "Le  Nom  de  Jfrnue"  in  "Revue  Beige  de  nlver  medals  for  the  rude  pilgrim's  doia  at  such  great 
Numis.  ,  1896-7).  These  jetons  stamped  with  the  sanctuaries  as  Loreto  or  St.  Peter's,  did  much  to  help 
IH8,  wUoh  is  only  another  my  of  writing  the  Holy  on  the  general  acceptance  of  medals  as  objects  of  de- 
Name,  were  very  numerous  and  were  probably  closely  votton.  A^n  the  papal  jubilee  medals,  which  cer- 
eonneeted  with  the  apostate  of  St.  Bsmardine  ot  tainly  began  as  early  as  1475,  and  which  from  the 
fWnnn      Finally  it  is  to  be  noted  that  for  the  puipoae  nature  of  the  case  were  carried  into  all  parts  of  the 

-*  ' it  royal  ooroiwtion*  or  for  the  Maundy,  world,  must  have  helped  to  make  the  idea  familiar. 

often  struck  which  perhaps  are  rather  to  But  this  was  not  all.    At  some  time  during  the  six- 

R^tded  as  medals  tbaa  actual  money  (see  Ha»e-  teenth  century  the  practice  was  ad<9ted,  possibly 
X.— 8 


pieees 

be  rep 


IBDALS  114  mr%ktJt 

following  an  uaa^  long  previously  in  vogue  in  the  For  example  f.  s.  f.  D.  I.  A.  etc.    These  letten 
case  of  Agnus  Deis  (q.  v.)i  of  giving  a  pkapal  blessing  to  stand  for  ^'  Crux  Christi  salva  nos  " ;   "  Zelus  domus 
medals 
On  the 
benediction- 
pie  is  found  of  a  blessinj;  for  numiamata.    A  pilgrim's  lein,  "ifunxef  bayerischer  KlOster",  and  the  mono- 


89),  not  the  leaden  tokens  spoken  of  above.'  The  (^  Medahcommemor(U%ngliiira^oftkeEuchanai, 
stoiy  runs  that  the  use  of  blessed  medals  began  with  — ^There  were  a  very  large  number  of  these  struck  for 
the  revolt  of  the  Gueuz  in  Flanders,  a.  d.  1566.  A  jubilees,  centenaries,  etc.,  in  the  different  places  where 
certain  medal  or  rather  set  of  medals  bearing  on  the  these  miracles  were  believed  to  have  happened,  often 
obverse  the  head  of  Philip  II  with  the  motto  en  tout  adorned  with  very  quaint  devices.  There  is  one.  for 
FIDELE8  AU  Roi  and  ou  the  reverse  a  beggar's  wallet  example,  commemorative  of  the  miracle  at  Seefeld, 
and  the  words  jusqub  a  porter  la  bb8ace,  was  used  upon  which  the  stoiy  is  depicted  of  a  nobleman  who 
by  the  Gueux  faction  as  a  badge.  To  this  the  Span-  demanded  to  receive  a  large  host  at  communion  like 
iards  replied  by  striking  a  medal  with  the  head  of  our  the  priest's.  The  priest  complies,  but  as  a  punish- 
Saviour  and  on  the  reverse  the  image  of  our  Lady  of  ment  for  the  nobleman's  presumption  the  groimd 
Hal,  and  Pius  V  granted  an  indulgence  to  those  who  opens  and  swallows  him  up  (see  Pachinger,  "  Wall- 
wore  this  medal  in  their  hats  (Simonis,  ''Art  du  M6-  fahrts  MedaiUen  der  Tirol",  Vienna,  1008). 
dailleuren  Belgique",  1904,  II,  pp.  76-80).  (3)  PriwUe  medals. — These  form  a  very  large  class, 
From  this  the  custom  of  blessmg  and  indulgendng  but  particular  specimens  are  often  extremely  scarce, 
medals  is  said  to  have  rapidly  extended  under  the  for  tney  were  struck  to  commemorate  incidents  in  Hie 
sancticm  of  the  popes.  Certam  it  is  that  Sixtus  V  life  of  individuals,  and  were  only  distributed  to  friends, 
attached  indulgences  to  some  ancient  coins  discovered  Baptisms,  marriages,  first  communions,  deaths  formed 
in  the  foundations  of  the  buildings  at  the  Scala  Santa,  the  prindpal  occasions  for  striking  these  private 
which  coins  he  caused  to  be  richly  mounted  and  sent  medals.  The  baptismal  or  sponsor  medals  {pathen 
to  persons  of  distinction.  Thus  encouraged,  and  medaiUen)  are  particularlv  interesting,  and  often  con« 
stimulated  further  by  the  vogue  of  the  jubilee  and  tain  precise  details  as  to  the  hour  of  birth  which  would 
otJier  papal  medals  of  which  we  have  still  to  speak,  the  enable  the  child's  horoscope  to  be  calculated.  (See 
use  of  these  devotional  objects  spread  to  every  part  of  Domanig,  "  Die  deutsche  Privat-Medailie  ",  Vienna, 
the  world.    Austria  and  Bohemia  seem  to  have  taken  1893,  3,  pp.  2&~26.) 

the  lead  in  introducing  the  fashion  into  central  Europe.  (4)  Afeaals  cammemoraHve  of  special  legends, — Of 

and  some  exceptionally  fine  specimens  were  produced  this  class  the  famous  Cross  of  St.  tllrich  of  Augsburg 

under  the  inspiration  of  the  Italian  artists  whom  the  may  serve  as  a  specimen.    A  cross  is  supposed  to 

Emperor  Maximilian  invited  to  his  court.      Some  of  have  been  brought  by  an  angel  to  St.  Ulrich  that  he 

the  religious  medals  cast  by  Antonio  Abondio  and  his  might  bear  it  in  his  hands  in  the  great  battle  against 

Supils  at  Vienna  are  of  the  nighest  order  of  excellence,  the  Huns,  a.  d.  955.    Freisenegger  in  his  monograph 

lut  in  the  course  of  the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth  "Die   Ulrichs-kreuse"  (Augsburg,  1895),  enumerates 

centuries  almost  eveiy  considerable  city  in  Catholic  180  types  of  this  object  ol  devotion,  sometimes  in 

Europe  came  to  have  craftsmen  of  its  own  who  f ol-  cross,  sometimes  in  medal  form,  often  associated  with 

lowea  the  industry,  and  the  tradition  created  bv  such  the  medal  of  St.  Benedict. 

Italian  artists  as  Lesne  Leoni  at  Brussels,  with  men  Papal  medals  do  not  immediately  belong  to  this 

like  Jonghelinck  and  Stephen  of  Holland  for  his  pupils,  place,  for  they  are  not  precisely  devotional  in  purpose, 

and  by  John  de  Candioa,  Nicholas  of  Florence  and  out  a  very  large  number  of  these  pieces  are  ultimately 

Benvenuto  Cellini  in  France,  was  bound  to  have  lasting  associated  with  ecclesiastical  functions  of  various 

effects.  kinds,  and  more  particularlv  with  the  opening  and 

The  number  and  variety  of  the  reli^ous  pieces  pro-  closing  of  the  Holy  Door  in  the  years  of  Jubilee.    The 

duced  at  a  later  date,  as  Domanig  (Die  deutsche  Pri-  series  be^s  with  the  pontificate  of  Martin  V,  in  1417, 

vat-Medaille,  p.  29)  is  fain  to  attest,  defies  all  classifi-  and  continues  down  to  the  present  day.    Some  types 

cation.    ()nly  one  writer^the  Benedictine  L.  Kuncse  professing  to  commemorate  the  acts  of  earlier  popes, 

(in  his  "Systematik  der  WeihmQnsen  ",  Raab,  1885),  e.  g.  the  Jubilee  of  Boniface  VIII,  are  reconstructions 

seems  to  have  seriously  grappled  with  the  task,  and  his  (i.  e.  fabrications)  of  later  date.    Nearly  all  the  most 

success  is  very  moderate.    As  an  indication  of  the  noteworthy  actions  of  e^ch  pontificate  for  the  last 

vast  complexity  c^  the  subject^  we  may  note  that  in  five  hundred  years  have  been  commemorated  by 

the  thirty-first  of  his  fifty  divisions,  the  section  de-  medals  in  this  manner,  and  some  of  the  most  famous 

voted  to  medals  commemorative  of  diurches  and  artists,  such  as  Benvenuto  Cellini,  Caradosso,  and 

sanctuaries  of  the  Blessed  Virgin,  he  enumerates  over  others  have  been  employed  in  desi^ng  them,    The 

700  such  shrines  of  which  he  has  round  some  record —  wonderful  family  of  the  Hameram,  who  from  1605 

the  number  is  probably  immensely  greater — ^while  in  down  to  about  1807  acted  as  papal  medallists  and 

connexion  with  the  majority  of  these,  special  medals  supplied  the  greater  proportion  of  that  vast  series, 

have  at  some  time  been  struck,  often,  e.  g.  at  Loreto,  deserve  to  be  spedaUy  mentioned  for  the  uniform 

in  an  almost  endless  series.    Under  these  drcum-  excellence  of  their  work. 

stances,  all  that  can  be  done  is  to  point  out  a  few  illu»-  Other  semi-devotional  medals  are  those  which  have 

trative  groups  rather  apart  from  the  ccHnmon  run  been  struck  by  important  religious  associations,  as  for 

of  pious  medals;  those  connected  with  places,  con-  example  by  the  Knights  of  Malta,  by  certain  abbeys  in 

fraternities,  relinous  orders,  saints,  m3rsteries,  mira-  commemoration  of  their  abbots,  or  in  connexion  with 

des,  devotions,  &c.,  are  types  with  which  eveiyone  is  particular  orders  of  knighthood.    On  some  of  these 

familiar.  series  of  medals  useful  monographs  have  been  written, 

(1)  Plague  medals  struck  and  blessed  as  a  protection  as  for  example  the  work  of  O&non  H.  C.  Schembri,  on 

against  pestilence.    The  subjects  are  very  various;  "The  C<uns  and  Medals  of  the  Knights  of  Malta", 

e.  g.,  the  figure  of  St.  Sebastian  and  St.  Roch,  and  (London,  1908).    It  has  been  said  above  that  Agnus 

different  shrines  of  the  Blessed  Virgin,  often  also  with  Deis  seem  to  nave  been  blessed  by  the  popes  with 

a  view  of  some  particular  city.    Round  them  are  com-  more  or  less  solemnity  from  an  eariy  penod,  and 

monly  inscribed  mysterious  letters  analogous  to  those  similar  forms  of  benediction  were  used  in  connexioQ 

depicted  on  the  famous  medal  of  St.  Benedict  (q.  v.).  with  the  Qoklen  Rose,  the  Sword  and  (}ap,  and  other 


MEDABDUS 


115 


MEDABDUS 


objeets  gjven  by  the  popes  as  presents.  In  the  six- 
teenth century  this  practice  was  greatly  developed. 
The  custom  grew  up  not  only  of  bringing  objects 
which  had  touched  certain  relics  or  shrines  to  the  pope 
to  be  blessed,  but  also  of  the  pontiff  blessing  rosaries, 
"grains",  medals^  etc..  enriching  them  with  indul- 
gspees  and  sRnding  tnem,  through  his  privileged 
miasioDaries  or  envoys,  to  be  distributed  to  Catholics 
in  England.  On  these  occasions  a  paper  of  instruo- 
tions  was  often  drawn  up,  defining  exactly  the  nature 
of  these  indulgences  and  the  conditions  on  which  they 
could  be  gained.  Several  papers  of  this  kind— one  in 
favour  of  Mary  Queen  of  Scots  (1576)  and  others  for 
English  Catholics  north  of  the  Alps — ^have  been  pre- 
served, emanating  from  Gregory  XIII.  One  is  printed 
by  Knox  in  the  "  Douay  Diaries  ",  p.  367.  The ''  Apos- 
tdic  Indulgences"  (see  Indulgences,  Apostolic)  at- 
tached to  medals,  rosaries  and  similar  objects  l^  all 
priests  duly  authorized ,  are  analogous  to  these.  They 
are  imparted  by  making  a  simple  sign  of  the  cross,  but 
for  certain  other  objects,  e.  g.  the  medal  of  St.  Bene- 
dict (q.  ▼.),  more  special  faculties  are  required,  and  an 
elaborate  form  ot  benediction  is  provided.  Quite 
recently  Pius  X  has  sanctioned  the  use  of  a  blessed 
medal  to  be  worn  in  place  of  the  brown  and  other 
Ba^>u]ars.  The  concession  was  originally  made  for 
the  benefit  of  the  native  Christians  in  the  missions  of 
the  Congo,  but  the  Holy  Father  has  expressed  his 
readiness  to  grant  to  other  priests  who  apply,  the 
faculty  of  blessing  medals  which  may  be  worn  in  place 
of  the  scapular  (see  ''Le  Canoniste  Contemporain", 
Feb.,  1910,  p.  115). 

Almast  tiie  only  attempt  at  a  systematio  daarificatum  of  de- 
▼oiional  medab  in  eeneral  seema  to  have  been  made  by 
KuNciK,  SytUmatik  der  WeihmUnzen  (Raab,  1885).  but  the 
work  is  neither  Bcholariy  nor  scientific.  Much  moze  satisfao- 
toiy  in  every  way.  so  far  as  resards  the  limited  ^n^ound  covered, 
are  the  researches  of  PACHtNOBR,  who  has  pubhshed  a  valuable 
•eiies  of  studies  on  the  W<Ul/ahrt»-Bruderachaft9-  und  Onaden- 
MedailUn  of  various  distncts.  These  are  concerned  with 
Bavaria  (1904),  Duchy  of  Austria  (1004).  SaUburg  (1908),  and 
the  TVrol  (1909),  with  some  other  more  general  articles. 
Other  miscellaneous  works  are  Corbibrrb.  NumUmaiimis 
BinidieUne  (Rome,  s.  d.);  Idbii,  NtaniamaUmie  et  Iconoaraphis 
mariale  (Rome,  s.  d.);  Blanchbt,  Nouveau  ManuH  de  Numi^- 
matique  (Paris,  1890):  a  series  of  articles  by  Rouybr  (espe- 
daUy  in  1896-4)7)  and  by  db  Wrrra  (especially  1905-1910)  in  the 
Rtvue  Beiqe  d»  Numiamalique;  Migvb,  ^ncyciopA^M.  Series  IT, 
XXXII,  Nvm%9matiii%u  (Paris.  1850) ;  Mbrsbacbbr,  Kaidlog  der 
Bayriaeken  WaUf€thrt»-KUMer-  und  Kirchen-MedaiUen  (Munich, 
1S95):  VON  HoHBKVBST.  Weihmilnzen  fOr  Sammler  (Qras. 
1893);  this  is  a  slender  pamphlet  on  the  classification  oi 
relicloos  medals:  bknRATS.  Die  Denk-  und  WeihrnHmen  der  ehe- 
maRoen  baveriseken  Nonnenklnater  (BrOnn);  Idbm,  MUnzen  auf 
den  h.  Wolfoang  (BrOnn.  1890);  Bxibrlbxk.  MUnxen  der  Bay- 
erieeken  Kldtter  Ac.  (Munich.  1857-1879). 

Unon  early  (Christian  medab,  see  de  Rossi's  various  articles 
in  BvUeUino  di  Areheotogia  Criatiana,  especially  in  1869, 
1871.  and  1891;  Lbcl.brcq  in  Dictumnaire  d^archiolooie  ehri- 
Hmne,  s.  v.  Amulettee;  Babington  in  Diet,  of  Christ.  Antuj., 
a  V.  Money;  and  Hbubbr  in  the  Re(Ueney<uop&die  f.  chriet. 
AUertuma^  s.  V.  MedaiUen.  and  various  articles  in  the  ttdmiaehe 
QfuHaUehrift,  particularly  1889'.  On  the  papal  medals  see 
particularly  Bonanni,  Nwniamata  Pontificum  Romanorum  (2 
vols.,  Rome,  1699):  Ybkutz,  Numiomata  PontiAcum  Romano- 
nm  oneetantiara  (Rome,  1744). 

Outer  works  dealing  with  the  general  history  of  Medals  in  mod- 
eni  times,  but  which  also  have  many  notices  to  the  students  of 
idiipous  medals,  are  Forrbr,  BioQraj^ieal  Dietionary  of  MedaU 
^(London.  1904-1910);  Domanio.  Die  deutecKo  MedaiUe  m 
Kunet  und  Kutturhiatortacher  Hinaieht  (Vienna.  1907),  a  work 
Bugnificently  illustrated;  Hbxss,  Lea  Mfdailleura  de  la  Renaie- 
•nee  (8  vols.,  Paris,  1881-1892),  also  finely  illustrated;  Rondot, 
UeMidailUura  H  Qraveura  deMonnaiea  enFrarue  (Paris,  1904), 
vitb  admirable  illustrations.  Several  other  works  have  been 
nMBtbned  in  the  course  of  the  article. 

Herbert  Thubston. 

liiRAciTLOUB  Medal. — ^The  devotion  commonly 
known  as  that  of  the  Miraculous  Medal  owes  its  ori^ 
to  Zoe  Laboure,  a  member  of  the  Daughters  of  Chanty 
of  St.  Vincent  de  Paul,  known  in  religion  as  Sister 
Catherine,  to  whom  the  Blessed  Virgin  Marv  appeared 
three  aepaiate  times  in  the  year  1830,  at  tne  mother- 
house  01  the  community  at  Paris.  The  first  of  these 
apparitions  occurred  18  July,  the  second  27  Novem- 
ber, and  the  third  a  short  time  later,  in  December. 
On  the  second  occasion.  Sister  Catherine  records  that 


the  Blessed  Viigin  appeared  as  if  standing  on  a  ^obfl^ 
and  bearing  a  globe  m  her  hands.  As  u  from  rings 
set  with  precious  stones  dazzling  rays  of  light  were 
emitted  from  her  fin^rs.  These,  she  said,  were  sym^ 
bols  of  the  sraces  which  would  be  bestowed  on  all  who 
asked  for  tnem.  Sister  Catherine  adds  that  around 
the  figure  appeared  an  oval  frame  bearing  in  golden 
letters  the  words  "O  Mary,  conceived  without  sin, 
prav  for  us  who  have  recourse  to  thee";  on  the 
Dack  appeared  the  letter  M,  surmounted  bv  a  cross, 
with  a  crossbar  beneath  it,  and  under  all  the  Sacred 
Hearte  of  Jesus  and  Mary,  the  former  surroimded  by  a 
crown  of  thorns,  and  the  latter  pierced  by  a  sword. 
At  the  second  and  third  of  these  visions  a  command 
was  given  to  have  a  medal  struck  after  the  model  re- 
veal^, and  a  promise  of  great  graces  was  made  to 
those  who  wear  it  when  blessea.  After  careful  in- 
vestigation, M.  Aladel,  the  spiritual  director  of  Sister 
Catherine,  obtained  the  approval  of  Mgr  de  Quelen, 
Archbishop  of  Paris,  and  on  30  Jime,  1832,  the  first 
medals  were  struck,  and  with  their  distribution  the 
devotion  spread  rapidly.  One  of  the  most  remarkable 
facts  recorded  in  connection  with  the  Miraculous  Medal 
is  the  conversion  of  a  Jew,  Alphonse  Ratisbonne  (q.  v.) 
of  Strasburg,  who  had  resisted  the  appeals  of  a  friend  to 
enter  the  Church.  M.  Ratisbonne  consented,  somewhat 
reluctantly,  to  wear  the  medal,  and  being  in  Rome,  he 
entered,  uv  chance,  the  church  of  Sant'  Andrea  delle 
Fratte  ana  beheld  in  a  vision  the  Blessed  Villain  ex- 
actly as  she  is  represented  on  the  medal;  his  con- 
version speedily  followed.  This  fact  has  received 
ecclesiastical  sanction,  and  is  recorded  in  the  office 
of  the  feast  of  the  Miraculous  Medal.  In^  1847^  M. 
Etienne,  superior-general  of  the  Congregation  of  the 
Mission,  obtained  from  Pope  Pius  IX  the  privile^  of 
establisning  in  the  schools  of  the  Sisters  of  Chanty  a 
confratemitv  under  the  title  of  the  Immaculate  Con- 
ception, with  all  the  indulgences  attached  to  a  similar 
society  established  for  its  students  at  Rome  by  the 
Society  of  Jesus.  This  confraternity  adopted  the 
Miraculous  Medal  as  its  badge,  and  the  members, 
known  as  the  Children  of  Maiy,  wear  it  attached  to  a 
blue  ribbon.  On  23  July,  1894,  Pope  Leo  XIII,  after 
a  careful  examination  of  all  the  facts  by  the  Sacred 
Congregation  of  Rites,  instituted  a  feast,  with  a  special 
Office  and  Mass,  of  the  Manifestation  of  the  Immacu- 
late Virgin  under  the  title  of  the  Miraculous  Medal, 
to  be  cetebrated  yearly  on  27  November  by  the  Priests 
of  the  Congre^tion  of  the  Mission,  under  the  rite  of 
a  double  of  uie  second  class.  For  ordinaries  and 
religious  commimities  who  may  ask  the  privilege  of 
celeorating  the  festival,  its  nmk  is  to  be  that  of  a 
double  miuor  feast.  A  further  decree,  dated  7  Sep- 
tember, 1894,  permits  any  priest  to  say  the  Mass 
proper  to  the  feast  in  any  chapel  attached  to  a  house 
of  tne  Sisters  of  Charity. 

Joseph  Glass. 

Medardns,  Saint,  Bishop  of  Noyon,  b.  at  Salency 
(Oise)  about  456;  d.  in  his  episcopal  city  8  June,  about 
545.  His  father,  Nectardus,  was  of  Prankish  origin, 
while  his  mother,  named  Protagia,  was  Gallo-Roman. 
It  is  believed  Uiat  St.  Gildafdus,  Bishop  of  Rouen, 
was  lus  brother.  His  ^outh  was  entirely  consecrated 
to  the  practise  of  Christian  virtues  and  to  the  study 
of  sacred  and  profane  letters.  He  often  accompanied 
his  father  on  business  to  Vermand  and  to  ToumaL 
and  frequented  the  schools,  carefully  avoiding  all 
worldly  dissipation.  His  exemplary  piety  and  his 
knowledge,  considerable  for  that  time,  decided  the 
Bishop  of  Vermand  (d.  530)  to  confer  on  him  Holy 
Orders,  and  caused  him  to  be  chosen  as  lus  suc- 
cessor. Forced,  in  spite  of  his  objections,  to  accept 
this  heavy  charge,  he  devoted  himself  zealously  to 
his  new  duties,  ana  to  accomplish  them  in  greater  se- 
curity, since  Vermand  and  the  northern  part  of  France 
in  general  were  then  generally  troubled  by  wars  and 


expoand  to  ihe  mouisicms  of  the  barbariani,  he  re-  on  autooephaloiu  uohbisht^ric,  &nd  towuda  1330  ft 
moved  hu  episcopal  see  in  531  from  Verm&nd,  a  little  metropolitan  see  (Gelier,  op.  oit.,  601).  In  1623  the 
city  without  defence,  to  Noyon,  the  strongeet  place  metropolitanaeea  of  Medea  andSoiopaliawereunited, 
:_.»,_* — :_„      TT.^  ..„,.  („ii«,^ —  a.   i?i„..*i,„j...      •->— -—inseparated  in  1716,    A  little  later  HedcA  ma 

ihBuya,  at  least  among  theOrthodox  Greeks, 

.._.._.       BO  stiU.     Le  Quien  (Oriens  christianua,  I, 

refused  at  fint,  but  being  ur^^  byClotalrebimself  he  1143-1146)  gives  tbe  names  <^  five  Greek  metropui' 
at  last  accepted.  This  uman  of  the  two  dioceses  tans,  and  Eubel  (Hierarehia  catholica  medii  »vi,  I, 
lasted  until  1146,  when  they  were  a^in  separated.  355)  mentions  two  Latin  titularies  of  the  fourteenth 
Clotaire,  who  had  paid  bim  a  last  visit  at  Noyon,  century.  To-day  Hedea  or  Midieh  is  a  part  of  tbe 
had  his  body  transferred  to  the  royal  manor  of  Crouy  sanjak  of  Kirk-Kilissi  in  the  vilayet  of  Adiianople; 
at  the  ntes  of  the  city  of  Soissons.  Over  the  tontb  of  there  are  two  thousand  Greeks  and  some  Turks. 
St.  MtSardua  was  erected  the  celebrated  Benedictine  Ptombt.  OavrapAia  ■,  v.  aalmvdatot,  ed  Mcu,--  t  «»- 
abbey  which  bears  his  name.  St.  Medacdus  was  one  Smitb,  DvHomiTt  o/  Omt  o  '  "  ~  '  " 
of  the  most  honoured 
bishops  of  his  time,  bis 
memory  baa  always 
been  popularly  vener- 
ated m  the  north  of 
France,  and  he  soon 
became  the  hero  of  nu- 
merous legends.  The 
Church  celebrates  his 
feast  on  8  June. 

B&RONIUB,  Ann.  (1G97}, 
627,  80;  e04.  31-4;  Bice, 
Dimrt.  tur  guef^vu  data  H 
oudqiiu/aUK  oontttU*  d*  £a 
vitdeBt.  Midard  in  Com. 
Arch,  dt  JVowon,  comst. 
md.  (t  mtm..  II  (ISST), 
307-20:  CHiFTLniuH  in 
Ada  8S..  June.  II,  e&~10G-, 
CoHBLBT,  Notic*  hutariaut 
tur  it  cuZl( de SI.  Uidardia 
BulL  de  la  8oc.  da  ant.  dt 
PidrdH    (AmimB,    ISSfl);  — c/    — ~ 

CoHBi,R,  Haeiogr.  du  die-  mountain     of    gold") 

^-  "f^T^V  (If  V-  which  lay  in  theTjasini 

524-31;      OUBHBBAVLT      ID  _*      *L        \w      _  J      1      _ 

Rer.  ardiM.  XIII  [PBii*.  of    the   Hagdalena, 

lB67),^i6'l-K)^lxrtnjajuf,  Cauca,     and     At  rat  o 

rivere,  bad  bq  araa  Ot 
over  22,000  squan 
miles,  and  was  divided 


BbdelUn,  Abchdiiv 
OEBB  OF  (Hbdellck- 
Bisj,  in  the  Republic  of 
Colombia,  Metr(»>obtan 
<^  Antioquia  ana  Hani- 
■alee,  in  tbe  Depart- 
ments of  Medellin,  An- 
tioquia, and  Maniialea. 
Prior  to  1908,  when  a 
new  civil  territorial  di- 
vision was  adopted,  the 
limits  of  the  arehdlo- 
Oeee  were  conterminous 
with  the  former  Depart- 
ment of  Antioquia 
(from  native  words 
the  "hill  cw 


ttum— tat. 

li;ON  Cluonbt. 

HedeM,  a  titular  see 
of  Tbraoe,  suffragan  of 
Uetaclea.  Thia  name 
and  the  modem  name 

f Midieh)  am  derived 
rom  tbe  ancientSalmy- 
desBoe  or  Almydeesoe. 
Herudotua  (IV,  03}  says 
that  tbe  inhabitants 
yielded  to  Darius  after  a 


Centra  (cap.,  Medellin), 
Fredonia  (cap.,  Fre- 
donia),  Nordeste  (cap., 
Sta  Rosa  de  Oraa), 
Norte  (cap.,  Yanmuil), 
Occidents  (cap.  An- 
tioquia), Oriente  (cap., 
Mamnilla),  Sopetran 
'cap.,  Sopetran),  Sur 
^cap. ,  Manuales) ,  tlrab* 
,oap.,  Frontino).    The 


Camohb  or  EuuBiua 

EvuiariiviuiDof  Bt-HerUrdDtSoiiBnB(foL  llreolc 

BibliotUque  NMiooale,  Piru 

)mere^istance;Xenophonand  territory   of  the   archdiocese    is  comprised 

.     _    Bubiii^ted  it  with  much  diffi-  Andes   region;   means  ot  communication   are   poor, 

culty{Anab.,  VII,  6, 12).    The  city  is  also  mentioned  owing  to  the  mountainous   nature  of   the  country; 

bySophocleB(Antig.,96S),by j:8Chylus(PTOra.,726),  a    railway,   however,    is    beinB    built    from   Puerto 

whoplaceaitwron^yinAsia,  DiodorusSiculua(XIV,  Betrio  to  Medellin.     Tbe  CathoUc  religion  is  uni- 


^  e 


a./,ui..<.u«,  ,..,  .1,  .,^.1,  u.,  ,j,.,  ui, 4,  7),  Ptolemy  versally  professed,  but  tbe  exeraiae  of  all  cult*  not 

(VII, »i, etc.), who  all  agree  in  locatingitaharbouron  contrary  to  Christian   moralitv  is  permitted.     The 

the  Black  Sea  and  very  much  exposed  to  the  winds;  language  is  Spaniah,  and  tbe  inhabitants  are  deectind- 

moreover  the  shore  was  sandy  and  unfavourable  for  ants  of  the  Spanub  conquisladoTet,  of  tbe  mestiiosand 

navigatioQ.     Tbeophanes  (Chronogr.,  an.  m.  ^55)  negroes.     There  is  no  race  antagonism,  chiefly  becauaa 

mentions  it  imder  the  name  Hijsiu  in  tbe  year  763.  of  the  influence  and  teaching  of  the  Cathcdio  r«U- 

The  Emperor  Joannes  Cantacuxenus,  having  taken  it  ^oo.    The  Indians  of  the  Cauca  valley  were  originaUr 

in  1352,was  almost  killed  there  by  tbe  Turi[s(Histor.,  eomubals. 

rV,  10) ;  it  is  also  frequently  mentioned  in  official  acts        Education  is  gratuitous  and  as  far  aa  poaaibw  oom- 

(Mikloeich  and  Muller,  "Acta  patriarchatua  Conatan-  pulsoTy:  there  are  400  primary  lohocda  with  3fi,000 

tinopoUtani ",  Vienna,  II,  600).    Medea  is  mentioned  pupils,  besides  many  schools  conducted  by  religioua. 

aa  a  suffragan  of  Heradea  toirords  900  in  tbe  "  Noti-  During  the  civil  disturbanoee  of  the  past,  many  of  the 

tia"  of  Leo  tbe  Wise  (Gelxer,  " Ungedruekt«  .  .  .  monasteries  were  confiscated,  and  are  still  used  ■• 

Texte  der  Notitis  episcopatuum",  552):  it  is  men-  public  buildings;  but  the  relatims  between  Churah 

tioned  in  tbe  same  way  in  the  "  Notitia "  of  Manuel  and  Stat«  were  amio^ly  settled  by  tbe  Cnooidat  of 

Comnenus  about  1170  and  of  Michael  VIII  about  1887.  ,      . 

1270  (Parthey,  "HieroclU  Syneodemua",  104,  204).        Previous  to  IflW,  the  regfoi  was  within  tbe  |ii< 

Shortly  after,  under  Aujronicus  II,  Medea  was  made  riadloUon  of  the  MetropoUtao  of  BoRotA.     On  31 


ISEDIA 


117 


IfEDXA 


August,  1804,  the  See  of  Antioquia  was  erected,  and 
OQ  4  Februaiy,  1868,  the  title  or  the  diocese  was  re- 
moved from  Antioquia  to  the  growing  town  of  Medel- 
lin.  On  29  Jan.,  1873,  the  See  of  Antioquia  (An- 
noQunNSis)  was  re-established,  and  on  11  April,  1900, 
a  portion  of  the  Diocese  of  Medellin  went  to  consti- 
tute the  newly  erected  See  of  Manizales  (Manizalen- 
am).  As  the  civil  districts  are  now  constituted,  the 
Department  of  Antioquia  embraces  an  area  of  11,517 

S[uare  miles  with  a  population  of  160,000;  that  of 
edellin  an  area  of  12,137  with  a  population  of  275,- 
000;  that  of  Manisales  an  area  of  4439  with  a  popula- 
tion of  242,000  (The  Statesman's  Year-Book,  1910). 
There  are  about  5000  savage  Indians  scattered  in  these 
renona. 

MsDELLiK  on  the  River  Force,  147  miles  from  Bo- 
gota, and  4600  feet  above  sea-level,  is  the  capital  of  the 
Department  of  Medellin.  In  1910  it  had  a  population 
of  60,000.  It  was  named  in  1575  after  the  Count  of 
Medellin  in  Spain,  but  did  not  begin  to  prosper  until 
the  gold  ana  silver  mines  were  discovered  in  the 
neigmx>urhood  early  in  the  nineteenth  century.  It 
has  7  churches,  2  chapels,  and  a  |)ro-cathedral;  a 
new  cathedral  is  being  constructed  in  the  Plaza  de 
Bolivar.  Among  important  institutions  in  the  town 
are  a  seminary,  a  university,  the  College  of  St.  Ignatius, 
under  the  Jesuits  (founded  by  Father  Friere  in  the 
eighteenth  century),  and  the  CoU^  of  St.  Joseph, 
usKler  the  Christian  Brothers.  The  Presentation  Nuns 
conduct  schools  for  eirls;  the  Sisters  of  Charity  have 
chaige  of  a  hospital;  and  the  Discaloed  Carmelites 
have  a  c<Kivent.  Among  the  periodicals  published  in 
Medellin  are  ''Registro  Official",  ''Cronica  Judicial", 
"El  Preceptor",  ^El  Elector",  and  *'LaConsigna". 

The  See  of  Medellin  was  raised  to  metropolitan 
rank  on  24  Feb.,  1902.  The  archdiocese  has  363,710 
inhabitants,  110  priests,  15  regulars,  75  churches  and 
ehaoels,  141  Catholic  schools,  in  which  16,035  pupils 
are  Deing  educated.  The  present  archbishop  is  Mgr. 
Em.  Jos^  de  Cayzedo  y  Cuero,  bom  in  Boeotd,  16 
Nov.,  1850;  chosen  Bishop  of  Paste,  11  Feb.,  1892; 
transferred  to  Popavan,  2  Dec.,  1895 ;  made  archbishop 
14  Dec.,  1901 ;  and  transferred  to  Medellin  14  Dec., 
1905,  to  succeed  Mgr.  Pardo  Vergara,  the  first  Arch- 
bishop of  Medellin. 

Antioquia  on  the  Cauca  was  founded  by  Jorge 
Robiedo  in  1542;  until  1826  it  was  the  capital  of  the 
Department  of  Antioquia.  Its  population  is  esti- 
mated at  10,077.  In  1720  a  Jesuit  college  was  estab- 
lished at  Antioquia  under  the  auspices  of  Bishop  Go- 
mes Friar,  of  Popayan,  and  on  5  Feb.,  1727,  a  royal 
charter  was  granted  to  the  college,  and  the  fathers 
were  given  charee  of  the  church  of  St.  Barbara.  A 
few  years  later  tney  opened  a  second  college  at  Buga. 
Among  the  more  important  buildings  of  tne  citv  are 
the  cathedral,  the  bishop's  house,  the  Jesuit  college, 
and  a  hospital.  On  account  of  malaria  the  sem- 
inary has  been  removed  from  Antioquia  to  San 
Pedro. 

The  diocese  has  a  population  of  211,315;  75  priests; 
80  churches  and  chapels.  The  prep^nt  bishop  is 
Mgr  Em.  Ant.  Lopez  de  Mesa,  bom  at  Rio  Negro 
in  the  Diocese  of  Medellin.  22  March,  1846,  and  suc- 
eeeded  Mgr  Rueda  as  Bishop  of  Antioquia,  2  June, 
1902. 

Manizalks  18  about  100  miles  from  Bogota  and 
700O  feet  above  sea-level.  Foimded  in  1848  it  has 
developed  rapidly  owing  to  the  gold  mining  operations 
in  the  neighoourhood ;  population  in  1905,  20,000. 
The  town  suffered  severely  from  earthquakes  in  1875 
and  1878. 

The  Diocese  of  Manizales  was  created  11  April, 
1900,  from  territory  formerly  belongingto  the  arch- 
dioccMs  of  Popayan  and  Medellin.  The  cathedral 
is  dedicated  to  the  Blessed  Virgin.  The  present  and 
fint  bishop  is  Mgr.  Gregory  Hoyoe,  bom  at  Vahos,  1 
Dee.  1849;  appointed  11  May,  1901. 


Pktrjd,  Th$  Reptiblie  of  Colombia  (I/xadoo,  1906):  GAflSAin^ 
Huioria  de  la  Comvaliia  de  Jeetu;  Borda,  Compenaio  de  Hit- 
ioria  de  Colombia  (BomeoU.  1800);  Holton,  Ttoonty  Monthe  in 
the  Andee  (New  York);  Nui^sc,  La  Ripublique  de  Colombie 
(Bnuaeb,  1883);  Annnaire  Pontifical  (1910). 

J.  C.  Gbbt. 

Media  and  Medes  (Mi}d(a,  M^doi),  an  ancient 
countiy  of  Asia  and  the  inhabitants  thereof.  The 
Hebrew  and  Assvrian  form  of  the  word  Media  is 
^D  (Madai)  which  corresponds  to  the  Mada  by  which 
the  land  is  desi^ated  in  the  earliest  Persian  cuneiform 
texts.  The  origin  and  signification  of  the  word  are 
unknown.  In  Gen.,  x.  2,  Madai  is  mentioned  among 
the  sons  of  Japheth,  between  Magog  (probably  the 
Gimirrhi  and  the  Lydians)  and  Javan,  i.  e.  the  lonians. 
In  IV  Kings,  xvii,  6  (cf.  xvlii,  11)  we  read  that  Sal- 
manasar.  King  of  the  Assyrians  "  took  Samaria,  and 
carried  Israel  away  to  Assyria;  and  he  placed  them 
in  Hala  and  Habor  by  the  river  of  Gozan,  in  the 
cities  of  the  Medes  "•  Heference  is  made  to  the  Medes 
in  Jer.,  xiii,  17  (cf.  xxi,  2)  as  enemies  and  future  de- 
stroyers of  Babylon,  and  again  in  chapter  xxv,  verse 
25,  the  "kings  of  the  Medes''  are  mentioned  in  a 
similar  connection.  The  only  reference  to  the  Medes 
in  the  New  Testament  is  in  Acts,  ii,  9,  where  they 
are  mentioned  between  the  Parthians  and  the  Elam- 
ites. 

The  earliest  information  concerning  the  territory 
occupied  by  the  Medes,  and  later  in  part  bv  the  Per- 
sians, is  derived  from  the  Babylonian  and  Assyrian 
texts.  In  these  it  is  called  Anshan,  and  comprised 
probably  a  vast  region  boimded  on  the  north-west  by 
Armenia,  on  the  north  bv  the  Caspian  Sea,  on  the  east 
by  the  great  desert,  and  on  the  south  by  Elam.  It 
included  much  more  than  the  territory  originally 
known  as  Persia,  which  comprised  the  south-eastern 
portion  of  Anshan,  and  extended  to  Carmania  on  the 
east,  and  southward  to  the  Persian  Gulf.  Later,  how- 
ever, when  the  Persian  supremacy  eclipsed  that  of 
the  Medes,  the  name  of  Persia  was  extended  to  the 
whole  Median  territory.  Ethnological  authorities  are 
agreed  that  the  heterogeneous  peoples  who  under 
the  general  name  of  M^es  occupied  this  vast  region  in 
historic  times,  were  not  the  origpnal  inhabitants. 
They  were  the  successors  of  a  prehistoric  population 
as  in  the  case  of  the  historic  empires  of  Egypt  and 
Assyria;  and  likewise,  little  or  nothing  is  known  of 
the  origin  or  racial  ties  of  these  earlier  inhabitants.  If 
the  M^es  who  appear  at  the  dawn  of  history  had 
a  written  literature,  which  is  hardly  probable,  no 
fragments  of  it  have  been  preserved,  and  conse- 
quently nothing  is  directly  known  concerning  their 
language.  Judeing,  however,  from  the  proper  names 
that  have  come  aown  to  us,  there  is  reason  to  mfer  that 
it  difFered  only  dialectically  from  the  Old  Persian. 
They  would  thus  be  of  Aryan  stock,  and  the  Median 
empire  seems  to  be  the  result  of  the  earliest  attempt 
on  the  part  of  the  Aryans  to  found  a  great  conquering 
monarchy. 

The  first  recorded  mention  of  the  people  whom 
the  Greeks  called  Medes  occurs  in  the  cuneiform  in- 
scription of  Shalmaneser  II,  King  of  Assjrria,  who 
claims  to  have  vanauished  the  Madai  in  his  twenty- 
fourth  campaign,  aoout  836  b.  c.  Whatever  may 
have  been  the  extent  of  this  conquest,  it  was  by  no 
means  permanent,  for  the  records  of  the  succeeding 
reipns  down  to  that  of  Asshurbanipal  (668-625),  who 
vainly  strove  to  hold  them  in  check,  constantly  refer 
to  the  ''dangerous  Medes"  (so  they  are  called  in  the 
inscriptions  of  Tiglath-Pileser,  IV,  747-727),  in  terms 
which  show  that  tneir  aggressive  hostility  had  become 
a  grave  and  ever-increasing  menace  to  the  power  of  the 
Assyrians.  During  that  period  the  power  of  Anshan 
was  gradually  strengthened  by  the  accession  and  as- 
similation of  new  i^eoples  of  Aryan  stock,  who  estab- 
lished themselves  in  the  territory  once  held  by  the 
Assyrians  east  of  the  Tigris.  Thus  after  the  year 
640  B.  c.  the  names  of  the  native  rulers  of  Eoaro 


MEDIATOR  118  IBDIATOB 

disappear  from  the  inscriptioDS,  and  in  their  place  we  but  he  was  defeated  at  Opis.    After  this  disaster  the 

find  references  to  the  kings  of  Anshan.    The  capital  invading  forces  met  with  little  or  no  resistance,  and 

of  the  kingdom  was  Ecbatana  (the  Agamatanu  of  the  Cyrus  entered  Babylon,  where  he  was  received  as 

Babylonian  inscriptions)  the  building  of  which  is  a  deliverer,  in  539  b.  c.    The  following  year  he  issued 

attributed  by  the  author  of  the  Book  of  Judith  (i,  1)  the  famous  decree  permitting  the  Hebrew  captives  to 

to  "  Arphaxad  king  of  the  Medes."    Assuming  that  return  to  Palestine  and  rebimd  the  temple  (I  Esd.,  i). 

it  is  the  city  called  Amadana  in  an  inscription  of  It  ia  interesting  to  note  in  this  connexion  that  he  is 

Tiglath-Pileser  I,  its  origin  would  go  back  to  the  often  alluded  to  in  Isaias  (xl-xlviii,  pasHm),  where 

twelfth  centuiy  b.  c.    At  variance  with  this,  however,  according  to  the  obvious  literal  meaning  he  is  spoken 

is  the  Greek  tradition  represented  by  Herodotus,  who  of  as  the  Lord's  anointed.    With  the  ficcession  of  the 

ascribes  the  origin  of  Ecbatana  to  Deiokes   (the  Achsemenian  dynasty  the  history  of  Media  becomes 

Daiukkuof  the  Assyrian  inscriptions, about 710 B.C.),  absorbed  into  that  of  Persia  (q.  v.),  which  will  be 

who  is  described  as  the  first  flpeat  ruler  of  the  Median  treated  in  a  separate  article, 
empire.    The  "building  of  the  city"  is,  of  course,  a       Bbxtbukr  in  Vioourottx,  DtOumnnire  de  la  BibU,  s,  v. 

lather  elastic  expression  which  may  well  have  been  Midie:  Rogkrs  in   The  New  Schaff-Henog  Bneydovedia,  B.  v. 

used  to  d«a^^  the  lurtiviUes  of  monarcha  who  ,^^~;  t"lSh/^~A  ^S^'W  fe  1"^ 

enlarged  or  fortified  the  already  existing  stronghold;  Medee. 

and  it  is  scarcely  necessary  to  recall  that  most  of  these  Jabceb  F.  Driscoll. 

ancient  records,  though  containing  elements  of  truth, 

are  to  a  certain  extent  artificial.    At  all  events,  it  is        Mediator  (Christ  as  Mediator). — ^The  subject 

with  the  reign  of  Deiokes  that  the  Median  empire  will  be  treated  under  the  following  heads:    (1)  Defini- 

emerges  into  the  full  light  of  history,  and  hencefor-  tion  of  the  word  mediator;  (2)  Christ  the  Mediator; 

ward  the  Greek  sources  serve  to  check  or  corroborate  (3)  Christ's  qualifications;  (4)  Performance;  (5)  Re- 

the  information   derived  from   the   native  monu-  suits. 

ments.  ^  (1)  Mediator  Defined. — ^A  mediator  is  one  who 

According  to  the  somewhat  questionable  account  brings  estranged  parties  to  an  amicable  agreement.  In 

of  Herodotus,  Deiokes  reigned  from  700  to  647  b.  c.  New-Testament  theology  the  term  invariably  implies 

and  was  succeeded  by  Phraortes  (646-625),  but  of  the  that  the  estranged  beings  are  God  and  man,  and  it  is 

latter  no  mention  is  made  in  the  inscriptions  thus  far  appropriated  to  Christ,  the  One  Mediator.  When  spe- 

discovered.    His  successor  Cyaxares  (624-585),  after  cial  fnends  of  God — aneels,  saints,  holy  men — ^plead 

breaking  the  Scythian  power,  formed  an  alliance  with  our  cause  before  God,  tiiey  mediate  "with  Christ"; 

the  Babylonians,  who  were  endeavouring  to  regain  but  their  mediation  is  only  secondary  and  is  better 

their  long  lost  domination  over  Assyria.    In  league  called  intercession  (q.  v.).    Moses,  howev^  is  the 

with  Nabopolassar,  King  of  Babylon,  ne  captured  and  proper  mediator  of  the  Old  Testament  (Ual.,  iii, 

destroyed  Ninive  (606  b.  c.)  and  conquered  all  the  19-20). 

northern  portion  of  Mesopotamia.    Enriched  by  the        (2)  Chribt  the  Mediator. — 8t.  Paul  writes  to 

spoils  of  tne  great  Assyrian  capital,  Cyaxares  pushed  Timoth}r  (I  Tim.,  ii,  3-6)  ..."  God  our  Saviour, 

his  conauering  armies  westward,  and  soon  the  domin-  Who  will  have  all  men  to  be  saved,  and  to  come 

ion  of  tne  Medes  extended  from  the  confines  of  Elam  to  tiie  knowledge  of  the  truth.    For  there  is  one 

to  the  river  Halys  in  Asia  Minor.    Astyages  (584-550  God,  and  one  mediator  of  God   and  men,  the  man 

b.  c),  the  son  and  successor  of  Cpraxares,  tailed  to  Christ  Jesus:  Who  gave  himself  a  redemption  for 

maintain  the  friendly  relations  with  Babylon,  and  all,  a  testimony  in  due  times."     The  object  of  the 

when  Nabonidus  succeeded  to  the  throne  of  the  latter  mediatorship   is   here   pointed   out   as   the   salva- 

kingdom,  the  Medes  and  Babylonians  were  at  war.  tion  of  mankind,  and  tne  imparting  of  truth  about 

In  the  meantime  a  great  internal  movement  was  God.    The  mediator  is  named:   Christ  Jesus;   His 

preparing  the  way  for  a  change  in  the  destinies  of  the  oualification  for  the  office  is  implied  in  His  being 

empire.    It  was  due  to  the  rising  influence  of  another  aescribed  as  man,  and  the  performance  of  it  is  ascribed 

branch  of  the  Aryan  race,  and  in  nistoiy  it  is  generally  to  His  redeeming  sacrifice  and  His  testifying  to  the 

known  as  the  transition  from  the  Median  to  the  truth.    All  this  originates  in  the  Divine  Will  of  "  God 

Persian  rule.    At  this  distance  both  terms  are  rather  our  Saviour.  Who  will  have  all  men  to  be  saved". 

vague  and  indefinite,  but  there  is  no  doubt  as  to  the  Christ's  mediatorship,  therefore,  occupies  the  central 

advent  of  a  new  dynasty,  of  which  by  far  the  most  position  in  the  economy  of  salvation:  all  human  souls 

conspicuous  ruler  is  Cyrus,  who  first  appears  as  King  of  are  both  for  time  and  eternity  dependent  on  Christ 

Anshan,  and  who  is  later  mentioned  as  King  of  Persia.  Jesus  for  their  whole  supernatural  life.    "  Who  fGod 

Doubtless  in  the  earlier  part  of  his  reign  he  was  but  a  the  Father]  hath  delivered  us  from  the  power  of  daric- 

vassal  king  dependent  on  the  Median  monarch,  but  ness,  and  hath  translated  us  into  the  kingdom  of  the 

in  549  B.  c.  he  vanquished  Astyages  and  made  himself  Son  of  his  love,  In  whom  we  have  redemption  through 

master  of  the  vast  empire  then  comprising  the  king-  his  bloody  the  remission  of  sins;  Who  is  the  image  of 

doms  of  Anshan,  Persia,  and  Media.    He  is  known  to  the  invisible  Gnd,  the  firstborn  of  evei^  creature  . . . 

Oriental  histoiy  as  a  great  and  brilliant  conqueror,  all  things  were  created  by  him  and  in  him.   And  he  is 

and  his  fame  in  this  respect  is  confirmed  by  the  more  before  Sil.  and  by  him  all  things  consist.  And  he  is  the 

or  less  fantastic  legends  associated  with  his  name  by  the  head  of  tne  bociy,  the  church,  who  is  the  bennning, 

Greek  and  Roman  writers.    His  power  soon  became  the  firstborn  from  the  dead;  tnat  in  all  things  ne  may 

a  menace  to  all  western  Asia,  ana  in  order  to  with-  hold  the  primacy:  Because  in  him,  it  hath  well  pleased 

stand  it  a  coalition  was  formed  into  which  entered  (he  Father,  that  all  fulness  should  dwell;  And  through 

Nabonidus,   King  of  Babylonia,   Amasis,   King  of  him  to  reconcile  all  things  unto  himself,  making  peace 

Egypt,  and  Croesus,  King  of  Lydia.    But  even  this  through  the  blood  of  his  cross,  both  as  to  the  tnings 

formidable  alliance  was  unable  to  check  the  progress  that  are  on  earth,  and  the  things  that  are  in  heaven  • 

of  CvruB  who,  after  having  reduced  to  subjection  the  (Col.,  i.  13-20). 

whole  of  the  Median  empire,  led  his  forces  into  Asia        (3)  Qualificationb. — The  perfection  of  a  mediator 

Minor.    Croesus  was  defeated  and  taken  prisoner  in  is  measured  by  his  influence  with  the  parties  he  has 

546,  and  within  a  year  the  entire  peninsula  of  Asia  to  reconcile,  and  this  power  flows  from  his  oonnexioa 

Minor  was  divided  into  satrapies,  and  annexed  to  the  with  both:  the  highest  possible  perfection  would  be 

new  Persian  empire.    The  west  being^  ^^Z  subdued,  reached  if  the  mediator  were  substantially  one  with 

Cyrus  led  his  victorious  armies  against  Babylonia,  both  parties.    A  mother,  for  instance,  is  the  best 

Belshaisar,  the  son  of  the  still  reigning  Nabonidus,  mediator  between  her  husband  and  her  son.    But  the 

was  sent  as  general  in  chief  to  derend  the  country,  matrimonial  union  of  ''two  in  one  flesh '',  and  th^ 


MIDIGI8 


119 


union  of  vcuMet  and  child  are  inferior  in  perfection  to 
the  hypostatio  union  of  the  Son  of  God  with  human 
nature.  Husband,  mother,  son.  are  three  persons; 
JesQs  Christ,  God  and  man,  is  on^  one  person,  identi- 
cal with  God,  identical  with  man.  Moreover,  the 
hypostatic  union  makes  Him  the  Head  of  mankind, 
and,  therefore,  its  natural  representative.  By  His  hu- 
man origin  Cluist  is  a  member  of  the  himian  family,  a 
partaker  of  our  flesh  and  blood  (Heb.,  ii,  11-15);  oy 
reason  of  His  Divine  Personality,  He  is  "the  image 
and  likeness  of  God"  to  a  degree  unapproached  by 
either  man  or  angel.  The  Incarnation  establishing 
between  the  First-bom  and  His  bretluen  a  real  kin- 
ship or  affinity,  Christ  becomes  the  Head  of  the  hu- 
man family,  and  the  human  family  acquires  a  claim  to 
participate  in  the  supernatural  privileges  of  their 
Head,  "Because  we  are  members  of  his  body,  of  his 
flesh,  and  of  his  bones."  (Eph.,  v,  30.)  Such  was  the 
expressed  will  of  God : "  But  when  the  fulness  of  the  time 
was  come.  God  sent  his  Son,  made  of  a  woman  .  .  . 
that  we  might  receive  the  adoption  of  sons. "  (Gal.,  iv, 
4-5;  also  Rom.,  viii,  29.)  The  man  Christ  Jesus, 
thereforei  who  was  designed  bv  God  to  mediate  be- 
tween Him  and  mankind,  ana  whose  mediatorship 
was  not  accidental  and  delegated,  but  inherent  in  His 
very  being,  was  endowed  with  all  the  attributes  re- 
quired in  a  perfect  mediator. 

Christ's  function  as  mediator  necessarily  proceeds 
from  His  human  nature  as  principium  quo  operandi; 
yet  it  obtains  its  mediating  efficacy  from  the  Divine 
nature,  i.  e.  from  the  dignity  of  the  acting  person.  Its 
first  object,  as  commonly  stated,  is  the  remission  of 
on  and  the  granting  of  grace,  where^  the  friendship 
between  God  and  man  is  restored.  Ijiis  object  is  at- 
tained bv  the  worship  of  infinite  value  which  is  offered 
to  God  oy  and  through  Christ.  Christ,  however,  is 
mediator  on  the  side  of  God  as  well  as  on  the  side  of 
man:  He  reveals  to  man  Divine  truth  and  Divine  com- 
mands; He  distributes  the  Divine  gifts  of  grace  and 
rules  the  world.  St.  Paul  sums  up  this  two-sided 
mediation  in  the  words:  "...  consider  the  apostle 
and  high  priest  of  our  confession,  Jesus"  (Heb..  iii, 
l)j  Jesus  IS  the  Apostle  sent  by  God  to  us,  the  ni^ 
pnest  leading  us  on  to  God. 

(4)  Pkrformancb. — ^How  do  we  benefit  b^  Christ's 
mediation?  Christ  is  more  than  an  enhghtening 
teacher  and  a  bright  example  of  holiness;  He  destroys 
sin  and  restores  grace.  Our  salvation  is  not  due  ex- 
clusively to  the  Mediator's  intercession  for  us  in 
His  glorified  state  in  heaven;  Christ  administera  in 
heaven  the  fruits  of  His  work  on  earth  (Heb.,  viL  25). 
Scripture  compels  us  to  regard  the  work  of  the  Media- 
tor as  an  efficient  cause  of  our  salvation:  His  merits 
and  satisfaction,  as  being  those  of  our  representative, 
have  obtained  for  us  salvation  from  God.  The  oldest 
expression  of  the  dogma  in  the  Church  formularies  is 
in  the  Nioene  Creed : "  crucified  also  for  us  ".  "  Vicari- 
ous satisfaction",  a  term  now  in  vogue,  is  not  found 
expressly  in  the  Church  formularies,  and  is  not  an 
ade<]uate  expression  of  Christ's  mediation.  For  His 
mediation  partly  replaces,  partly  completes,  partly 
lendere  possible  and  efficacious  the  saving  work  A 
man  himself;  on  the  other  hand,  it  is  a  condition  of, 
and  it  merits,  the  sarong  work  of  God.  It  begins  with 
obUdning  the  goodwill  of  God  towards  man,  with  ap- 
peasing the  offended  God  by  interceding  for  man. 
This  intercession,  however,  differs  from  a  mere  asking 
in  thiSj  that  Christ's  work  has  merited  what  is  asked  for: 
salvation  is  its  rightful  equivalent.  Further:  to  effect 
man's  salvation  from  sin,  the  Saviour  had  to  take  upon 
Himself  the  sins  of  mankind  and  make  satisfaction  for 
them  to  God.  But  though  His  atonement  gives  God 
more  honour  than  sin  gives  dishonour,  it  is  but  a  step 
towards  the  most  essential  part  of  Christ's  saving 
work — ^the  friendship  of  God  which  it  merits  for  man. 
Taken  together,  the  expiation  of  sin  and  the  meriting 
of  Divine  friendship  are  the  end  of  a  real 


I.e. 


of  "an  action  performed  in  order  to  give  €kxl  the 
honour  due  to  Him  alone,  and  so  to  gain  the  Divine 
favour"  (St.  Thomas,  m,  Q.  xlviii,  a.  3).  Peculiar 
to  Christ's  sacrifice  are  the  infinite  hoUness  of  the 
Sacrfficer  and  the  infinite  value  of  the  Mciim,  which 
give  the  sacrifice  an  infinite  value  as  expiation  and  as 
merit.  Moreover,  it  consists  of  suffering  voluntarily^  ac- 
cepted. The  sinner  deserves  death,  having  forfeited 
the  end  for  which  he  was  created ;  and  hence  Christ  ac- 
cepted death  as  the  chief  feature  of  Hisatoning  sacrifice. 
(5)  RsBULiB. — Christ's  saving  work  did  not  at  once 
blot  out  every  individual  sin  and  transform  every  sin- 
ner into  a  samt;  it  only  procured  the  means  thereto. 
Personal  sancUncation  is  effected  by  special  acts, 
partly  Divine,  partly  human;  it  is  secured  by  loving 
God  and  man  as  tiie  Saviour  did.  Chistiantu  alter 
Christua:  every  Christian  is  another  Christ,  a  son  of 
God,  an  heir  to  the  eternal  Kingdom.  Finally,  in  the 
fulness  of  time  idl  things  that  are  in  heaven  and  on 
earth  shall  be  re-establidied,  restored,  in  God  through 
Christ  (Eph.,  i,  9-10).  The  meaning  of- this  promiae 
is  that  the  whole  of*  creation,  bound  up  together  and 
perfected  in  Christ  as  its  Head,  shall  be  led  back  in  the 
most  perfect  manner  to  Goa,  from  whom  sin  had 
partly  led  it  away.  Christ  is  the  Crown,  the  Centre, 
and  the  Fountain  of  a  new  and  higher  oraer  of  things: 
"for  aU  are  yours;  And  you  are  Christ's;  and 
Christ  is  God's."  (I  Cor.,  iii,  22-23). 

Consult  any  treatise  on  the  Incarnation,  e.  g.  Wxiablm  and 
ScAKNBLL,  Mantioi  ofCath.  T/uoL,  II  (London.  1908),  bk.  V; 
HuMPBRST,  TAs  One  Mediator  (London).     J.  WiLHBLli. 

Medicea  (de  Medicib),  Hierontmub.  illustrious  as 
a  scholastic  of  acumen  and  penetration,  b.  at  Camerino 
in  Umbria,  1569,  whence  the  surname  de  Medicis  a 
Camerino.  He  was  clothed  with  the  Dominican  habit 
at  Ancona.  He  first  distinguished  himself  as  profes- 
sor of  philosophy  and  theology  in  various  houses  of  the 
Province  of  Lombardy,  whence  he  was  advanced  to  a 
professorship  in  the  more  important  theological  school 
at  Bologna.  He  was  ai)proved  by  the  funeral  chapter 
of  his  (Mer  held  at  Paris,  1611,  and  raised  to  the  mas- 
tership and  doctorate.  He  was  then  performing  the 
duties  of  general  censor  for  the  tribunal  of  the  Inquisi- 
tion established  at  Afantua.  for  which  reason  he  is  said 
eventually  to  have  securea  the  transfer  of  his  aflUia- 
tion  to  the  convent  of  that  place  (1618).  His  labori- 
ous and  fruitful  career  closed  in  1622.  It  had  been 
marked  by  a  studious  application  to  the  doctrines  of 
St.  Thomas.  Just  as  the  Paris  chapter  was  acknowl- 
edging his  intellectual  ability,  he  completed  the  first 
part  of  the  iQvaluable  "  Summss  thcwlogis  S.  Thomse 
Aquinatis  doctoris  angeliei  formalis  explicatio".  In 
this  work  he  puts  into  syllogistic  form  the  whole 
Summa.  Aiming  primarily  at  the  enlightenment  of 
beginners,  he  contnbutes  notably  to  the  instruction  of 
others  more  advanced.  The  first  part  was  not  pub- 
lished until  ti^e  first  section  of  the  second  part  was 
ready  (Venice) » 1614.  Three  years  later  followed  the 
second  section,  but  it  was  not  until  1622  that  the  third 
part  appeiured  at  Salo,  instead  of  Venice.  The  supple- 
ment had  preceded  the  third  part  by  a  year  (Venice, 
1621 ) ;  it  was  not  published  at  Mantua  in  1623.  Other 
more  correct  editions  have  followed  even  as  late  as  ( Vici) 
1858-1862.  It  is  to  Jacobus  Qu^tif  that  credit  is  due 
for  having  improved  the  original  in  accuracy.  He  re- 
produced the  work  in  five  tomes,  folio  (Paris),  in  1657. 
The  chief  advantage  to  be  derived  from  the  arrange- 
ment of  St.  Thomas  in  syllogistic  form  is  a  quickness 
of  grasp  with  an  easiness  of  assimilation  not  otherwise 
obtainable.  In  the  Vici  edition  certain  additions  have 
been  made  which,  although  raising  the  value  of  the 
work  as  a  manual,  are  outside  the  scope  of  the  original. 
They  serve  as  appendices  to  each  question  and,  under 
the  caption  *'Utilitas  pro  Ecclesia  S.  Dei",  furnish  the 
student  withpracticaiapplications  of  the  original  mat- 
ter in  view  of  dogmas  subsequently  developed  or  con- 
temporary heresy. 


UDIOI 


120 


lODia 


Quter-ECBABD,   SinptDrel  O.  P.  (P&li 


, . , - . I,  1721).  II.  425  h:    master  of  Flonmoe  and  her  denunions,  and,  wbile 

S'^5;5S;2^'%^>,,ilS^Rr^'isMVt™S?™™  M?v'^    continuing  and  deroloping  the  foreign  and  domea- 

S.^:?SSS"ja?S3S:o°rUi'"yKS.^"™°'    «.  noUcy  ^  hi.  g»iSather,  he  gieatly  itanded 

Thomas  a  K.  Reillt.        the  Medioean  influence  throughout  It&ly.    Hu  ■kilful 

diplomacy  wu  directed  to  maintaiiUDg  the  peace  of 

Hodid,  House  op,  a  Florentine  family,  the  mem-  the  peninsula,  and  keeping  the  five  chief  states  united 
bers  of  which,  having  acquired  great  wealth  as  bank-  in  the  face  <^  the  growing  danger  of  an  invasion  from 
ers.  rose  in  a  few  generations  '"        •  ■    " 

to  be  first  tlie  unofficial  rulers 
of  tlie  republic  of  Florence 
and  afterwards  the  recogniieii 
sovereigns  of  Tuscany. 

Cosiuo  THE  Elder,  b.  1389, 
d.  1  Aug.,  1464,  the  founder 
of  their  rtower  and  soK^allcd 
"Padre  della  Patria",  was  the 
son  of  Giovanni  di  Averardo 
de'  Medici,  the  richest  banker  in 
Italy.  He  obtained  the  virtual 
lordship  of  Florence  in  1434  by 
the  overthronv  and  expulsion  dF 
the  leaders  of  the  obgarchical  - 
faction  of  the  Albizzi.  Wiiile 
maintaining  republican  forms 
and  institutions,  he  held  the 
government  by  banishing  his 
opponents  and  concentrating 
the  chief  magiatraciea  in  the 
hands  of  hb  own  adbetcnte. 
His  foreign  policy,  which  be- 
came traditional  with  the  Medici 
throughout  the  fifteenth  cen- 
tury until  the  French  invasion 
of  1494,  aimed  at  establishing 
a  balance  of  power  between  the 
five  chief  states  of  the  Italian 
peninsula,  by  allying  Florence 
with  Milan  and  maintaining 
friendly  relations  with  Naples, 
to  countetpuise  the  similar  un- 
derstanding  existing  between 
Rome  and  Venice.  He  was  a 
munificent  and  discerning 
patron  of  art  and  letters,  a  thor- 
ough humanist,  and  through 
Marailio  Ficino,  the  founder  of 
the  famous  Neo-Platonic  acad- 
emy. Sincerely  devoted  to  reli- 
gion in  his  latter  days,  he  was 
closely  associated  with  St.  An- 
toninus and  with  the  Dominican 
friars  of  San  Marco ,  his  f a vourite 
foundation.  His  son  and  suo- 
oessor,  Piero  il  Gottoso,  the  hus- 
band of  Lucrezia  Tomabuoni,  a 
man  of  magnanimous  character 
but  whose  activities  were  crip- 
pled by  illness,  contented  him- 
self with  following  in  his  foot- 
steps. 

On  I^ero's  death  in  1469,  his 
sons  Lorenzo,  b.  1449,  d.  8 
April,  1492,  and  Giuliand,  b. 
1453,  d.  26  April,  1478.  suo- 
ceeded  to  his  power.  The  latter,  Cdoho  na*  Hidici 

a  genial  youtn  with  noparticu-  Pontormo.  Uffiii  GaUery,  Flor«i  ._, 

lar  aptitude  for  poUtica,  was  murdered  in  the  Pa*»i  oftruefelicity.andcloeesinanimpreasivepraj^rtoGod, 
conspiracy  of  1478,  leaving  an  illegitimate  son  Giuho,  somewhat  Platonic  in  tone.  To  purely  teligjous  poo- 
who  afterwards  became  Pope  Clement  VH.  Among  trybeIoiighia"Laude",and8niiracle-may,the"Rap- 
thoee  executed  for  their  share  in  the  conspiracy  was  presentazione  di  san  Giovanni  e  aan  Taolo",  with  ft 
the  Archbishop  of  Pisa.  \  war  with  Pope  Sixlus  curiously  modem  appreciation  <rf  the  Emperor  Julian. 
IV  and  King  Fenante  of  Naples  followed,  in  which  In  striking  contrast  to  these  are  his  canival-soogs, 
Florence  was  hard  pressed,  until  Lorenzo,  as  Hachia-  eartti  canuitciaiachi,  so  immoral  as  to  lend  colour  to 
velli  says,  "exposed  his  own  life  to  restore  peace  the  accusation  that  be  strove  to  undermine  the  roonl- 
to  his  country",  by  going  in  person  to  the  Neapol-  ity  erf  the  Florentines  in  order  the  mors  easily  to 
itau  sovereign  to  <^tain  favourable  terms,  in  1480.  enslave  them. 
Henceforth  until  his  death  Loreuso  was  undisputed        AttbecloaeofhiBlife,LoreiuowasbR]u^iiitO«D- 


'  have  been  possible  for  Florence 
to  have  had  a  bettor  or  a  mora 
pleasant  tyrant,  and  certainly 
the  world  has  seen  no  more 
(f>lendid  a  mtron  of  artists  and 
scholars.  The  poets,  Puld  and 
Poliiiano,  the  philosopher  and 
mystic.  Giovanni  Pico  della 
Uirandola,  and  a  wbole  mlaxy 
of  freat  artists,  such  as  Botti- 
oelh  and  Ghirlandaio,  shed  glory 
over  his  reign. 

Posterity  has  a^eed  to  call 
Lorenso  "  the  MagntBcent ",  but 
this  is,  in  part,  a  misunderstand- 
ing of  the  Italian  title  "ma- 
gnifico",  which  was  given  to  all 
the  members  of  his  family,  and, 
indeed,  during  the  fifteeuth  cen- 
tury, applied  to  most  persons  of 
importance  in  ftely  to  whom 
Uiehighertitle  of  "Excellence" 
liid  not  pertain.  Lorenso  sums 
tip  the  finest  culture  of  the 
early  Renaissance  in  his  own 
person.  Unlike  many  of  the 
liumanist«  of  his  epoch,  he  thor- 
oughly appreciated  the  great 
Italian  classics  of  the  two  pi^ 
ceding  centuries;  in  his  youth 
be  wrote  a  famous  epistle  on  the 
subject  to  Federigo  of  Aragoo, 
which  accompanied  a  collectim 
itf  early  Italian  lyrics.  His 
own  poems  in  the  vernacular 
rank  very  high  in  the  literature 
of  the  fifteenth  centurr.  They 
are  remarkably  varied  in  style 
and  subject,  ranging  from  Pe- 
barean  canzoni  and  sonnete, 
with  a  prose  commenteiy  in 
imitation  of  the  "Vita  Nuova", 
to  the  semipsrody  of  Danto 
entitled  ''I  Becmi".  His 
canzoni  a  baiio,  the  populsLT 
dancing  songs  of  the  Floren- 
tines, have  the  true  lyr'  " 
Especially  admirable 
compositions  in  oUanaoiiiu.  uk> 
"Caccia  col  Falcone",  with  its 
keen  feeling  for  nature;  the 
"Ambra",  amytholc^cal  fable 
of  the  Florentme  country-side; 
and  the  "NenciadaBarberino", 
an  idyllic  picture  of  rusticloves. 
His  "Altercaiione" ,  six  cantos  in 
lena  rima,  discusses  the  nature 


LACRENTIAV  LIBRARY, 


121  MEDICI 

fliet  with  Savonarola,  but  the  bgend  cf  the  latter  re-  murder  of  Alemandro,  be  came  into  Florence,  and  was 
fuaiiiK  him  abaolution  on  bia  deathbed  imkaa  he  re-  formally  recogniied  as  head  of  the  government  both 
•tored  liberty  to  Florence  ii  now  generally  rejected  by  by  the  citiieos  and  by  the  emperor.  At  the  outset, 
hiatoriana.  By  bis  wife,  Clarice  Onini,  Lorenio  had  with  the  aid  of  imperial  troope,  be  crushed  the  last  ef- 
tbraeMHia:  PiOTO,Qiuliano,  and  Giovanni,  of  whom  the  fori^sof  the  repubbcans,  who  were  led  by  Bacdo  Valori 
third  rooe  to  the  papa<^  as  Leo  X.  Although  a  man  and  Filippo  Stroui.  Varioua  constitutional  cbecka 
of  immoral  life,  hia  relation*  with  his  family  show  hiin  were  at  first  put  upon  him,  but  these  be  soon  dia> 
under  a  favourable  aspect,  and,  in  a  letter  Irom  one  of  carded,  and  openly  used  the  title  of  Duke  of  Ftoienoe. 
the  ladiee  of  the  Hantuan  court,  a  charmmg  account  is    Altbouigh  ruthlesB  and  implacable,  be  proved  himself 

fiven  of  how,  on  bis  way  to  the  congress  of  Cremona  in  the  ablest  Italian  ruler  of  the  sizteenta  century,  and 
483,  Lorenio  visited  the  Oonsaga  children  aitd  sat  gaveapermanentformtotliegovenunent  of  Florence, 
ammg  them  in  their  nursery.  finally  developii^  the  shapeless  remains  of  the  fallen 

PiBBo  Di  LoRBNEO,  Lorenso's  eldest  aon,  b.  1471,  d.     lepublic  into  a  modem  monarchical  state.    He  thor- 
1603,  (t  licentious  youth  with  none  of  his  father's  abil-    oughly  teorguiized  the  laws  and  administration,  cr«- 
hy,  proved  a  most  incompetent  ruler,  and,  on  the     ated  a  small  but  efficient  fleet  to  defend  the  sboree  of 
Fieneh  invasicHi  of  14M,  he  was  expelled  from  Flor-     Tuscany,  and  raised  a  national  army  out  (tf  the  old 
enoe  by  the  people,  led  by  the  patriotic  Piero  Cappooi.    Florentine  militia.    He  married  a  Spanish  wife,  the 
After  several  fruitless  attemnts  to  recover  bis  position,     noble  and  virtuous  Eleonora  da  ToWa,  and  in  foreign 
be  was  dr<rwned  at  the  battle  of  the  Garigliano  while    affairs  leaned  to  a  large  extent  upon  Spain,  by  whuh 
piower,  however,  he  was  prevented  from  aooeptmg  the 
crown  of  Corsica.    His  great  deaire  of  absorbing  tlie 
neighbouring  repubUcs  of  Lucca  and  Siena  into  his 
dominions  was  fulfilled  only  in  the  case  of  the  latter 
state;  he  conquered  Siena  in  1555,  and  in  1657  received 
it  as  a  fief  from  ttie  King  d  Spain. 

Tradition  baa  invested  Cosmio's  name  with  a  series 
<tf  horrible  domestic  crimes  and  tragedies,  all  of  which 
have  been  completely  disproved  by  recent  research. 
After  the  death  of  Eleonora  da  Toledo  in  1562,  beap- 

Csars  to  have  abandoned  himself  to  vice.    A  few  years 
ter  he  married  bis  mistress,  CammiUa  HarteUi.     ' 


1670  be  was  crowned  in  Rome  by  Pius  V  as  Grand 
Duke  of  Tuscany,  thereby  taking  place  among  the  sov- 
ereigns of  Europe,  The  title  was  confirmed  to  his  sod 
Utd  successor,  Francis  1,  in  1576,  by  the  Emperor 
Maximilian  II.  Cosuno's  descendants  reigned  as 
Grand  Dukes  of  Tuscany  in  an  unbrdten  Ime  until 
1737,  when,  on  the  death  of  Gian  Gastone  de'  Medici, 
their  dominions  passed  to  the  House  of  Austria. 

Cappohi,  SloHa  <Mta  RipuMIica  di  f  irmH  (Florenm,  1888); 
pBLLKaHiNi.  La  Repubblica  Fiortntvia  a  ttmpiy  di  Commo  U  v«a- 
cAiD  (I^ISW);  EwuT,  Cotimo  da'  Madici  (London,  IBM): 
HoBCOE,  Tht  Lilt  of  Lormto  dt'  lltdici  (LoDdoD,  1T9S,  eU.): 
RnutioHT,  LoTtm  tU  Mtdid  il  Mapnifiai  (Leipiis.  1S74); 
Opn  di  LoTcnut  de'  Uidici  ditio  iJ  Maonifta  T«  vol*., 
Ftonuce,  1825);  Cabcdccs.  Pottie  di  Lorauo  dJ  Mtdiei  (nor- 
earn,  lS69)i  Bohi,  II  (JuaUnKntoJHibo.  1900):  Viluki,  La 
Blona  a  Ginlamo  Samnanla  (Floreuos.  1887)1  Qauuisi, 
Btafia  dd  Omnducalo  di  Tmauta  tolto  il  ooHnu  dtUa  Cata  M»- 
dia(V^imait,l7&\,^Ui.y.BloriaPiiiTtntviadiBer\edtaoVarcki, 
«d.  iiujMMatmo»ma,,l8SJy.htiwrtKmiq,Loma,di'  Mtdia 
(London  and  Naw  York,  1897);  Baltini,  Traetdin  MmiicM  do- 
meitiiA*  (Flonn«.  1898);  Febrai.  LotatMino  de'  Mtdiei  (Uilan, 
ISei);  Qauthiei.  L'llalit  du  xvi'  SiM*  ^uia,  1001):  Youxa, 
The  Mtdid  <London.  19O0);  Qahdneb.  Tht  Story  of  Floraia 
(London  and  Naw  york,  now  sd.,  1610). 

Edmuhd  G.  Oabdnbr. 

aervinB  in  the  French  army.    On  the  restoration  of  the  Hedid,  Habia  di'.  Queen  of  France;  b.  at  Florence, 

Hedici  in  1612,  bis  son  Lorenio  was  made  ruler  of  FloF-  26  April,  1573;d.at  Cologne,  3  Julf,  1&42.   She  was  a 

ence.     With  him,  in  1619,  the  legitimate  male  descent  daughter  of  the  Grand  Duke  Francis  I  of  Tuscany  and 

of  Cosimo  the  Elder  came  to  an  end.    By  bis  wife,  the  Archduchess  Joan  of  Austria,  and  married  Henry 

Madeleine  de  la  Tour  d'Auvergne^  he  was  the  father  of  IV   of  France,   6  October,   1600.     In  March,   1610, 

C^terina  de'  Medici,  afterwards  Queen  of  France.  Henry  IV,  who  was  preparing  to  lead  an  exradition 

liie  Medici  were  B.f^m  expetied  from  Florence,  and  into  Germany,  arainst  tne  Spaniards  and  the  Imperi- 

tbe  republic  once  more  established,  in  1527.    But  in  alists,  appointed  Maria  de' Medici  regent,  with  a  ooun- 

1630,  after  the  famous  siege,  the  city  was  compelled  to  cil  of  fifteen;  yielding  to  her  inaatence,  he  also  caused 

■urreiider  to  the  imperial  forces,  and  Charles  V  made  her  to  be  crowned  queen  on  13  May,  1610.  Two  hours 

Aleasandro  de'  Hedici,  an  illegitimate  son  of   the  after  the  assassination  of  Henry  iV  (U  May,  1610), 

younger  Lorenio.  hereditary  head  of  the  Florentine  the  Due  d'Epemon  vent  to  the  Parliament  and  hu 

government.     All  republican  forms  and  offices  were  Maria  de'  Medici  declared  regent,  the  little  Louis  XIII 

swept  away,  and  Alessandro  ruled  as  duke  until,  in  beingrtot  yet  nine  years  of  age.     The  policy  of  Henry 

1637,  he  was  assassinated  by  bis  kinsman,  Lorenso  di  TV,  who,  had  be  Uved,  would  have  striven  more  and 

Tierfranoeaco  de'  Medici,  who  fled  to  Venice  without  more  to  secure  alliances  with  Protestant  powers,  was 

attempting  either  to  assert  bis  own  claims  to  the  sue-  replaced  ^  a  Catholic  policy,  aiming  at  a  Spanish  al- 

cession  or  to  restore  the  republican  regime.  liance.     'The  first  act  m  this  direction  was  the  be- 

Cooiuo  de'  Medici,  usually  known  as  Cosimo  I,  b,  trotbol  of  Louis  XIII  to  the  Infanta  Anna  fafterwarda 

1619,  d.  1574,  was  the  descendant  of  a  brother  of  Cfoe-  knownasAnne  of  Austria),  and  c^Elizabetn  of  France 

imo  the  Elder  and  representative  of  the  j;ounger  Medi-  to  the   Infant  Philip  (1612).      There  was  agitation 

oean  line.     He  was  the  son  rf  Giovanni  delle  Bande  among  the  prinoee  and  the  Protestants.    The  Statee- 

Kere,  the  great  aoldi^,  and  Maria  Solviati.    On  the  General,  convoked  by  the  queen  regent  in  16li.  W  a 


concearion  to  the  princes,  waa  the  last  attempt  under 
the  dd  monarchj^  to  usodato  reprewDtatives  of  the 
nation  in  the  naticHial  govemment,  and  the  attempt 
succeeded  ill.  Finally,  defying  the  susoeptibilitiee  at 
Cond4  and  the  Proteetanta,  Louis  XIII  married  the 
Infanta  Anna  on  28  November,  1615,  and  the  revolt  i^ 
the  prinoea,  following  on  the  ancat  of  Condi  (I  Sept., 
1616),  was  the  cause  of  the  queen  regent's  summomng 
Richelieu  (q.  v.),  Bishop  of  Lucon,  to  her  council,  as 
minister  of  war.  E*ublic  opinion  was  aroused  by  the 
influence  which  Maria  allowed  her  lady-in-waiting, 
Leonora  Gahgal,  and  Leonora's  FlorenUne  husband, 
Condni,  Marshal  d'Anora,  to  obtain  over  her;  Con- 
am  was  asaaaunated,  24  April,  1617,  and  thencefor- 
ward the  influence  of  Albert  de  Luynee,  a  favourite  of 
the  young  king,  predominated.  If 
to  leave  Paris,  2  May,  1617,  and 
it  was  through  the  intervention 
of  Richelieu  that  she  was  al- 
lowed to  establish  her  houseludd 
at  Btois. 

The  Kgency  of  Maria  da* 
Medici  is  int««stin^  from  the 
point  of  view  of  religious  historf 
because  of  the  Gailican  a^tation 
which  marked  it.  After  me  eon* 
demnation  by  the  Parliament  of 
Paris  of  Bellarmiae'a  treatise  00 
the  temporal  power  of  the  pope 
(1610),  Edmond  Richer,  syncUo 
of  the  faculty  of  theolt^,  de- 
veloped, in  his  "  Libellus  de  Eo- 
clesiastica  et  Politiea  Fotestate  ", 
the  theory  that  the  eovemment 
of  the  Church  ahould  be  aristo- 
cratical,  not  monarchical.  Maria 
de'  Medici  decidedly  oppomd 
Richer,  and.  when  he  had  been 
condemned  by  an  assembly  of 
bishops  held  at  Sens  undn  the 
presidency  of  Cardinal  du  Ber- 


supported  her  met  those  of  the  Ung  at  Lea  Pmts  da 
a  and  were  beaten  (August,  1620).    On  the  death  ct 
Luynes  (16  December,  1621),  she  regained  some  of  her 
influence;  she  caused  Richelieu  to  be  admitted  to  the 
council  (1624)  and  was  even  entrusted  with  the  re- 
gency during  the  war  in  Italy.    But  as  Richelieu's  baa> 
tiiity  to  Spain  became  more  marked,  she  sou|^  his 
dismissal.    Allying  herself  with  Gasiton  d'Orltena,  she 
once—' '  the  Day  of  the  Dupes",  12  November,  1630— 
thought  herself  successful  m  m^ilgTig  Louis  H|«iwj—  the 
cardinal.   She  was  mistaken.   Banished  to  Ompilgne 
in  February,  1631,  she  vainly  endeavoured  to  obtain 
admission  to  the  stronghold  of  La  Capelle,  whence  she 
might  have  dictated  terms  to  the  lung.    At  laet  she 
went  into  exile,  to  wait  (or  the  triumph  of  Oaston 
d'OrlSans:  but  Qaaton  was  beaten,  and  Haria  de' 
Medici  never  more  set  foot  in 
Prance.     From  1631  to   1638 
she  spent  her  time  in  the  Low 
Countries,  sending  across   the 
French  frontier  manifestos 
which  no  one  read.    After  that, 
taking  refuge  in  England  ( 1638- 
41}  with  her  son-in-law  Charles 
I,  she  was  as  a  Catholic  an  ob- 
ject (tf  suspicion  to  the  Protea- 
taotaof  that  country.   Last  of 
all,  she  betook  herself  to  Ger- 
many, where  she  died,  a  help- 
leas  onlooker  at  the  triumph  of 
that  foreign  policy  of  Richelieu 


<B  luxury  and  splen- 
dour had  been  blatoned  in  Ru- 
bens's  immense  canvases,  poa- 
seaaed  but  a  moderate  fortune 
at  the  time  of  her  death. 


den^  of  the  Parhame , , 

fused  to  appoint  in  his  place  de 
Thou,  a  Gailican,  and  appointed 
instead  Nicolas  de  Verdun,  an 
Ultramontane.  In  the  States' 
General  of  1614,the'nurd  Estate, 
through  its  Hpokesman,  Miron, 
made  a  declaration  of  Gailican 
principles,  and  tried,  with  >£he  iStaiiL  i 

support  of  the  Protestont  Cond^.  Pourbui,  Tlw 

to  introduce  into  its  cahier  an  artjcle  on  the  power  of 
ktaes,  which  aimed  at  the  Ultramontanes;  Haria  de' 
Medici  ended  the  business  tiy  ordering  this  article  to  bo 
taken  out  of  the  cahier,  and  forl.iddini;  any  further  dis- 
cussion of  the  question.  Another  interesting  event  of 
this  r^ncy  was  the  Asscmbty  of  Saumur  (1611),  in 
which  uic  Froteetante.  anxious  to  preserve  and  develop 
the  poUtical  privileges  given  them  by  the  Edict  of 
Nantes,  set  about  organizing  all  over  France  a  vast  net- 
work 01  provincial  assemblies  to  wateh  over  the  inter- 
eels  of  Protestantism,  and  assemblia  de  arrdes,  com- 
tHning  several  provinces,  which  would  be  able  to  impose 
their  will  on  the  State.  It  was  thus  tliat,  through  the 
Initiative  of  Henri  de  Rohan,  Sully's  aon-in-law,  there 
began  to  form  within  the  French  State  a  sort  of  sepa- 
rate Protestant  party,  to  which  Richelieu  was  to  put 

_  After  1617,  Maria  de'  Medici  lived,  with  many  vicis- 
situdes, a  life  full  of  intrigue,  which  she  sometimea 
carried  to  conspiracy.  Escaping  from  Blois,  22  Feb., 
1619,  she  made  her  way  into  Angoulbne  and  obtained 


IfilD):    Pardob,    Lilt  ol  Mnry  de  Medicit    (Londoa,  1862); 
LoKD,  TU  Rteauv  of  Mori*  <U  M-diat  (London.  IB0«. 


Georgzb  Qot».v, 


Msdldne,  Hibtokt  op.— The  hi&tory  of  medical 
science,  considered  as  a  part  of  the  ^neral  history  of 


where  tradition  and  philological  investigation  have 
placed  the  cradle  of  the  human  race.  But,  in  a  eon- 
dcnaed  article  such  as  this,  there  are  unportant  n 


r  starting 
I  a  Greek 


foundation,  and  whatever  other  civilised  peoples  may 
have  accomplished  in  this  field  lies  outside  our  in- 
quiry. It  is  certain  that  the  Gieeka  brought  much 
with  them  from  their  original  home,  and  also  that 
they  learned  a  great  deal  from  their  intereourse 
with  other  civilised  countries,  especially  Egypt  and 
India;  but  the  Greek  mind  saaimilated  knowledge 
in  such  a  fashion  that  ite  origin  can  rarely  be  recog- 

Mtthical,  HoHKBic,  AND  Pkb-Hippocratic  Tihcs. 
— Greek  medical  seienee,  like  that  of  all  civiliied  peo- 


MBBICINS 


123 


MEDICIMB 


pksy  flihofWB  in  the  beginning  a  purely  theurgical  char- 
acter. Apollo  is  regarded  aa  the  founder  of  medical 
science,  and,  in  post-Homeric  times,  his  son  ^Escula- 
pius  (in  Homer,  a  Thessalian  prince)  is  represented  as 
the  deity  whose  office  it  is  to  Bring  about  man's  resto- 
ration to  health  by  means  of  healing  oracles.  His 
oldest  place  of  worship  was  at  Tricca  in  Thessaljr. 
The  temples  of  JSsculapius,  of  which  those  at  Ei)i- 
dauniB  and  Cos  are  the  oest  known,  were  situated  in 
a  healthv  neighbourhood.  The  sick  pilgrims  went 
thither,  that,  after  a  long  preparation  of  prayer,  fasting 
and  ablutions,  thejr  might,  through  the  mediation  or 
the  priests,  receive  in  their  dreams  the  healing  oracles. 
This  kind  of  medical  science  already  shows  a  rational 
basis,  for  the  priests  interpreted  the  dreams  and  pre- 
scribed a  suiU^le  treatment,  in  most  cases  purely 
dietetic  Imp(utant  records  of  sicknesses  were  made 
and  left  as  votive-tablets  in  the  temples.  Side  by 
side  with  the  priestly  caste,  and  perhaps  out  of  it, 
there  arose  the  order  of  temple  pnysicians,  who,  as 
supposed  descendants  of  the  god  ./Esculapius,  were 
known  as  the  Ascl^iada,  and  formed  a  kind  ot  guild 
or  corporation.  This  separation  of  offices  must  nave 
oocurmi  at  an  early  time,  for  even  in  Homer  we  find  lay 
physicians  mentioned,  especially ''  the  sons  of  iEscula- 
pius  " ,  Machaon  and  Podalirius.  In  the  vegetable  drugs 
of  Egyptian  origin  mentioned  in  Homer  we  recognize 
the  early  influence  of  the  country  of  the  Pharaohs  upon 
Greek  medical  science.  The  schools  of  the  philoso- 
phers likewise  exerted  no  small  influence  upon  its  devel- 
opment, medical  problems  being  studied  by  Pythagoras 
of  Samoa,  Alcnueon  of  Crotona,  Parmemdes  of  Elea, 
Heraclitus  of  Ephesus  (sixth  century  b.  c),  Empedo- 
cles  of  Agrigentum,  and  Anaxa^oras  of  Clazomense 
(fifth  century  b.  c).  The  earliest  medical  schools 
were  at  Cyrene  in  Northern  Africa,  Crotona,  Cnidus, 
and  Cos.  From  Cnidus  came  Euiyphon  and  also 
Ctesias  the  geographer,  who  was  at  first  physician  in 
the  army  of  Cynis  and,  after  the  battle  of  Cunaxa  (401 
B.  c),  to  Artaxerxes  Memnon.  Of  greater  interest  is 
the  medical  school  adjoining  the  shnne  of  iEsculapius 
at  Cos,  for  from  it  arose  tne  man  who  first  placed 
medicine  upon  a  scientific  basis,  and  whose  name  is 
even  to-day  well  known  to  all  physicians,  Hippocrates. 

HlPPOCBATKS  AND  THE  SO-CALLED  COBPUS  HlPPO- 

CRATicuM . — ^Tradition  knows  seven  physicians  named 
Hippocrates,  of  whom  the  second  is  regarded  as  the 
most  famous.  Of  his  life  we  know  but  little.  He  was 
bom  at  Cios  in  460  or  459  b.  c,  and  died  at  Larisea 
about  379.  How  great  his  fame  was  during  his  life- 
time is  shown  by  the  fact  that  Plato  compares  him 
with  the  artists  Polycletus  and  Phidias.  Later  he  was 
called  "  the  Great  *^  or  ''  the  Divine  ".  The  historical 
kernel  is  probably  as  follows:  a  famous  physician  of 
this  name  from  Cos  flourished  in  the  days  of  Pericles, 
and  subsequently  many  thines,  which  his  ancestors  or 
his  descendants  or  his  school  accomplished,  were  at- 
tributed to  him  as  the  hero  of  medical  science.  The 
same  was  true  of  his  writings.  What  is  now  known 
under  the  title  of  "  Hippocratis  Opera''  represents  the 
work,  not  of  an  individual,  but  of  several  persons 
of  different  periods  and  of  different  schools.  It  has 
thus  become  customary  to  designate  the  writings  as- 
cribed to  Hippocrates  by  the  general  title  of  the 
*' Hippocratio  Collection  (Corpus  Hippocraticum), 
and  to  divide  them  according  to  their  ongin  into  the 
worics  of  the  schools  of  Cnidus  and  of  Cos,  and  those 
of  the  Sophists.  How  difficult  it  is,  however,  to  de- 
termine their  genuineness  is  shown  by  the  fact  that 
even  in  the  third  century  before  Clu'ist  the  Alex- 
andrian librarians,  who  for  the  first  time  collected  the 
anonymous  scrolls  scattered  through  Hellas,  could  not 
reach  a  definite  conclusion.  For  the  development  of 
medical  science  it  is  of  little  consequence  who  com- 
posed the  works  of  the  school  of  Cos,  for  they  are  all 
more  or  less  penneated  by  the  spirit  of  one  great  mas- 
ter.   The  secret  of  his  immortalitv  rests  on  the  fact 


that  he  pointed  out  the  means  whereby  medicine  be- 
came a  science.  His  first  rule  was  the  observation  of 
individual  patients,  individualizing  in  contradistino- 
tion  to  the  schematizing  of  the  school  of  Cnidus.  By 
the  observation  of  all  the  perceptible  symptoms  in  a 
patient,  a  number  of  principles  were  gradually  derived 
from  experience,  and  these,  uniforml/  arranged,  led 
by  induction  to  a  knowledge  of  the  nature  of  the  dis- 
ease, its  course,  and  its  treatment.  This  is  the  origin 
of  the  famous  "  Aphorismi'*,  short  rules  which  contain 
at  times  principles  derived  from  experience,  and  at 
times  conclusions  drawn  from  the  same  source.  They 
form  the  most  valuable  part  of  the  Collection.  The 
school  of  Cos  and  its  adherents,  the  Hippocratics. 
looked  upon  medical  science  from  a  purely  practical 
standpoint'  they  regarded  it  as  the  art  of  healing  the 
sickj  and  tnerefore  laid  most  stress  on  prognosis  and 
treatment  by  aiding  the  powers  of  nature  through 
dietetic  means,  while  the  whole  school  of  Cnidus 
pridcJ  it  elf  u^on  its  scientific  diagnosis  and,  in  har- 
mony with  the  E.  st,  adopted  a  varied  medicinal  treat- 
ment. The  method  which  the  school  of  Cos  estab- 
liihed  more  than  2000  years  ago  has  proved  to  be  the 
only  correct  one,  and  thus  Hippocratic  medical  science 
celebrated  its  renascence  in  the  eighteenth  century 
with  Boerhaave  at  Leyden  and  subsequently  with 
Gerhard  van  Swieten  at  Vienna.  In  his  endeavour  to 
attain  the  truth  the  earnest  investigator  often  reaches 
an  impassable  barrier.  There  is  nothing  more  tempt- 
ing than  to  seek  an  outlet  by  means  of  reflection  and 
deduction.  Such  a  delusive  course  may  easily  become 
fatal  to  the  physicist;  but  a  medical  system,  erected 
upon  the  results  of  speculative  investigation,  carries 
the  germ  of  death  within  itself. 

The  Dogmatic  School. — ^In  their  endeavour  to 
complete  the  doctrine  of  their  great  master  the  succes- 
sors of  the  Hippocratics  fell  victims  to  the  snares  of 
speculation.    In  spite  of  this,  we  owe  to  this  so-called 

dogmatic  school  some  fruitful  investigation.  Dio- 
des C^rystius  advanced  the  knowledge  of  anatomy, 
and  tried  to  fathom  the  causal  connexion  between 
symptom  and  disease,  in  which  endeavours  he  was 
imitated  by  Praxagoras  of  Cos,  who  established  the 
diagnostic  importance  of  the  pulse. 

Unfortunately,  there  already  began  with  Aristotle 
(384-22  B.  c.)  that  tendency — later  rendered  so  fatal 
through  Galen's  teaching — ^to  regard  organic  struc- 
ture and  function  not  in  accordance  with  facts  but 
from  the  teleological  standpoint. 

The  Alexandrian  Period. — ^The  desire  to  give  to 
medicine  a  scientific  basis  found  rich  nourishment  in 
the  ancient  civilized  soil  of  Egypt  under  the  Ptolemies. 
Herophilus  of  Chaloedon  (about  300  b.  c.)  and  Erasls- 
tratus  of  lulls  (about  330-240  b.  c)  are  mentioned  in 
this  connexion.  As  anatomists,  tney  were  the  first 
systematic  investigators,  and,  following  Hippocrates, 
tney  tried  to  complete  clinical  experience  by  exact 
methods.  This  tendency  was  opposed  by  the  em- 
pirics, whose  services  lay  solely  in  the  field  of  drugs 
and  toxicology.  Erasistratus  as  well  as  Phillnus,  the 
empiric,  attacked  the  doctrine  of  humors  (humoral 
patnology),  which  developed  out  of  the  Hippocratic 
tendency.  The  former  alone  was  a  serious  opponent, 
since,  as  an  anatomist,  he  looked  for  the  seal  of  the 
disease  in  the  solid  parts,  rather  than  in  the  four  fim- 
damental  humors  (blood,  mucus,  black  and  yellow 
gall)  and  their  different  mixtures. 

The  Method] zers. — One  of  the  opponents  of  hu- 
moral pathology  was  Asclepiades  of  Prusa  in  Bithynia 
(b.  about  124  B.  c).  He  tried  to  utilise  in  medicine 
the  atomistic  theory  of  Epicurus  and  Heradeides  of 
Pontus.  He  taught  that  health  and  disease  depend 
upon  the  motion  of  the  atoms  in  the  fine  capillaries  or 
pores,  which,  endowed  with  sensation,  pass  tbjrough 
the  entire  body.  With  Themison  as  their  leader,  the 
followers  of  Asclepiades  simplified  his  doctrine  by  sup- 
posing  disease  to  be  only  a  contraction  or  relaxatioD, 


MXDXCINS  124  MEDXCINI 

&nd  later  only  a  mixed  condition  (partly  contracted,  lived  at  Alexandria,  and  was  one  of  the  last  to  come 
partly  relaxed)  of  the  pores.  This  simple  and  con-  from  its  once  famous  school,  which  became  extinct 
venient  explanation  of  all  diseases  without  regard  to  after  the  capture  of  the  city  bv  Omar  in  640.  At  the 
anatomy  and  physiology,  taken  in  conjunction  with  end  of  the  tnirteenth  century  Nicolaus  Myrepsus,  Uv" 
its  allied  system  of  physical  dietetic  therapeutics,  ex-  ing  at  the  court  in  Nicsa,  made  a  collection  of  prescript 
plains  why  this  doctrine  enjoyed  so  long  a  life,  and  tions  which  was  extensively  used.  In  the  time  of 
why  the  works  of  the  methodist.  Cselius  Aurelianus  of  Emperor  Andronicus  III  (1328-42)  lived  a  highly 
Sicca  in  Numidia  (beginning  ot  fifth  century  a.  d.),  gifted  physician,  Joannes  Actuarius,  and  the  mention 
were  diligently  studied  down  to  the  seventh  century,  of  his  writings  closes  the  accoimt  of  this  period. 
^  Gai^en. — Departure  from  the  Hippocratic  observa-  Ababian  Medicine. — ^Arabian  medical  sdenoe 
tion  of  nature  led  physicians  to  form  numerous  mutu-  forms  an  important  chapter  in  the  history  of  the  de- 
ally  opposing  sects.  A  man  of  great  industry  and  velopment  of  medicine,  not  because  it  was  especially 
comprenensive  knowledge,  Galen  of  Pergamum  (about  productive,  but  because  it  preserved  Greek  medicaJ 
A.  D.  130-201),  tried  to  rescue  medical  science  from  science  witn  that  of  its  most  important  representative, 
this  labyrinth.  He  chose  the  path  of  eclecticism,  on  Galen.  It  was,  however,  strongly  influenced  by  ori- 
which  he  built  his  (as  he  thought)  infallible  system,  ental  elements  of  later  times,  llie  adherents  of  the 
Whatever  sense-perception  and  clincal  observation  left  heretic  Nestorius,  who  in  431  settled  in  Edessa,  were 
obscure,  he  triecl  to  explain  in  a  speculative  manner,  the  teachers  of  the  Arabs.  After  their  expulsion 
That  this  system  of  teaching  could  hold  medicine  in  these  Nestorians  settled  in  Dschondisapor  in  489,  and 
bondage  until  modem  times  shows  the  genius  of  the  there  founded  a  medical  school.  After  the  conquest 
master,  who  understood  how  to  cover  up  the  gaps  by  of  Persia  by  the  Arabs  in  650,  Greek  culture  was  neld 
brilliancy  of  style.  Galen  took  the  entire  anatomical  in  great  esteem,  and  learned  Nestorian.  Jewish,  and 
knowledge  of  his  time,  and  out  of  it  produced  a  work  even  Indian  physicians  worked  diligently  as  transla- 
the  substance  of  whicn  was  for  centuries  regarded  as  tors  of  Greek  writings.  In  Arabian  Spam  conditions 
inviolable.  His  anatomy  was  to  a  large  extent  based  similarly  developed  from  the  seventh  centurv.  Among 
upon  the  dissection  of  mammals,  especially  of  monkevs,  important  physicians  in  the  first  period  of  Greek-Ara- 
and,  like  his  physiology,  was  under  teleological  innu-  bian  medicine — the  period  of  dependence  and  of  trans- 
ence.  His  presentation  of  things  lacks  dispassionate-  lations — come  first  the  Nestorian  family  Bachtischua 
ness.  Instead  of  explaining  the  functions  of  the  or-  of  Syria,  which  flourished  until  the  eleventh  century; 
gans  on  the  basis  of  their  structure,  Galen  chose  the  Abu  Zakerijja  Jahja  ben  Maseweih  (d.  875),  known  as 
reverse  method.  His  anatomy  and  physiology  were  Joannes  Damasoenus;  Mesu6  the  Elder,  a  Christian, 
the  most  vulnerable  part  of  his  system,  and  an  earnest  who  was  a  director  of  the  hospital  at  Bagdad,  did  in- 
re-examination  of  these  fields  must  necessarily  have  dependent  work,  and  supervised  the  translation  of 
shaken  his  entire  scheme  of  teaching.  Galen  ex-  Greek  authors;  Abu  JusufJacub  ben  Ishak  ben  el-Sub- 
pressed  the  greatest  respect  for  Hippocrates,  pub-  bah  el-Kindi  (Alkindus,  813-73),  who  wrote  a  woric 
lished  his  most  important  works  witn  explanatory  about  compound  drugs;  and  the  Nestorian  Abu  Zeid 
notes,  but  never  entered  into  the  spirit  of  the  school  of  Honein  ben  Ishak  ben  Soliman  ben  Ejjub  el  'Ibadi 
Cos.  although  he  adopted  manv  of  its  doctrines.  Galen  (Joannitius,  809-about  873),  a  teacher  in  Bagdad 
is  tne  culminating  point  and  end  of  ancient  Greek  who  translated  Hippocrates  and  Dioscurides,  and 
medical  science.  In  nis  vanity  he  thought  he  had  com-  whose  work  ''  Isagoge  in  artem  parvam  Galeni  '*  earhr 
pleted  all  investigation,  and  that  his  successors  had  translated  into  Latin,  was  much  read  in  the  Middle 
only  to  accept  without  effort  what  he  had  discovered.  Ages.  Wide  activitv  and  independent  observation — 
As  will  be  snown  in  the  following  paragraph,  his  ad-  based,  however,  wholly  upon  the  doctrine  of  Galen — 
vice  was,  unfortunately  for  science,  followed  literally,  were  shown  by  Abu  Bekr  Muhammed  ben  Zakarijja 

Pedanius  Dioscurides  from  Anazarbe,  who  lived  er-Razi  (Rhazes,  about  850-923)  ^  whose  chief  work, 

in  the  time  of  Nero  and  Vespasian,  may  be  mentioned  however, "  El-Hawi  fi'l  Tib  "  (Contmens)  is  a  rather  un- 

here  as  the  most  important  pharmaceutical  writer  of  systematic  compilation.    In  the  Middle  Ages  his  ''  Ke- 

anclent  times.    He  simplifiea  greatty  the  pharmaco-  taab  altib  Almansuri  "  (Liber  medidnalis  Almansoris) 

pceia.  which  had  then  assumed  unwieldy  dimensions,  was  well  known  and  had  many  commentators.   The 

and  treed  it  from  ridiculous,  superstitious  remedies,  most  valuable  of  the  thirty-six  productions  of  Rhazes 

Our  modem  pharmacology  is  based  on  his  work,  Td  which  have  come  down  to  us  is  "  De  variolis  et  mor- 

tQp  itXiKQv  pipxta.  billis ",  a  book  based  upon  personal  experience.    We 

CoRNEUUS  Celsub  (about  25-30  b.  c— 45-50  a.  d.)  ought  also  to  mention  the  aietetic  writer  Abu  Jakub 
is  the  only  Roman  who  worked  with  distinction  in  the  Ishak  ben  Soleiman  el-Isra!li  (Isaac  Judieus.  830- 
medical  field;  but  it  is  doubtful  whether  he  was  a  phy-  about  932),  an  Egyptian  Jew;  the  Persian,  All  oen  el- 
sician.  His  work,  "  De  re  medica  libri  viii",  which  is  Abbas  Ala  ed-Din  el-Madschhusi  (Ali  Abbas,  d.  994), 
written  in  classical  Latin,  and  for  which  he  used  sev-  author  of  "El-Maliki"  (Regalisdispositio.Pantegpaum). 
entv-two  works  lost  to  posterity,  gives  a  survey  of  Abu  Dshafer  Ahmed  ben  Ibrahim  ben  Abu  ChAlid  Ibn 
medical  science  from  Hippocrates  to  imperial  times.  el-Dshezzar  (d.  1009)  wrote  about  the  causes  of  the 
Very  famous  is  his  descnption  of  the  operation  of  plague  in  Egr^t.  A  work  on  pharmaceutics  was  writ- 
lithotomy.  Celsus  was  altogether  forgotten  until  the  ten  by  the  physician  in  ordinary  to  the  Spanish  Caliph 
fifteenth  century,  when  Pope  Nicholas  V  (1447-55)  is  Hisham  II  (976-1013).  Abu  Daut  Soleiman  ben  Has- 
said  to  have  discovered  a  manuscript  of  his  works.  san  Ibn  Dsholdschholl. 

Byzantine  Period. — ^In  Byzantine  times  medicine        Of  the  surgical  authors,  Abu4-Kasim  Chalaf  ben 

shows  but  little  originality,  and  is  of  small  importance  AbbAs  el-Zahrewi  of  el-Zahra  near  Cordova  (Abul- 

in  the  history  of  medical  development.    The  works  kasem,  about  912-1013)  alone  deserves  mention,  and 

handed  down  to  us  are  all  compilations,  but  as  ^ey  he  depends  absolutely  on  Paulus  ^gineta.    Whue  he 

frequently  contain  excerpts  from  lost  works,  thev  are  received  scant  attention  at  home,  since  suijgery  was 

of  some  historical  value.    The  notable  writers  of  this  little  cultivated  by  the  Arabs,  his  work,  written  in  a 

period  are:  Oreibasios  (325-403),  physician  in  ordi-  clear  and  perspicuous  style,  became  known  in  the 

nary  to  Julian  the  Apostate;  and  Actius  of  Amida,  West  through  the  Latin  translation  l^  Gerardus  of 

a  Christian  physician  under  Justinian  (527-66).    A  Cremona  (1187),  and  was  extensively  used  even  in 

little  more  originality  than  these  men  exhibited  was  later  days.    Arabian  medicine  reached  its  oulmina- 

shown  by  Alexander  of  Tralles  (525-605),  and  Paulus  tion  with  the  Persian  Abu  Ali  el-Hosein  ben  Abdallah 

^gineta  of  the  first  half  of  the  seventh  century,  of  Ibn  Sina(Avicenna,  980-1037),  who  based  his  system 

whose  seven  books,  the  sixth,  dealing  with  surgery,  entirely  upon  the  teaching  of  Galen  and  tried  in  vari- 

was  greatly  valued  in  Arabian  medicine.    Paulus  ous  ways  to  supplement  the  latter.    His  chief  wofk, 


budecini 


125 


usDiciin 


"El-KanAn"  (Cahoq  Hedkins),  written  in  k  brilliant  BasiliuB  In  CfU&iea  (370),  tlime  ot  tl>e  Roman  Lad; 
stjie  and  treating  kU  blanches  of  medical  science,  soon  Fabiola  in  Rome  and  Oetia  (400),  that  of  St.  Samson 
nipplaated  in  the  West  the  workB  of  the  GreelcB  and,  adjoining  the  church  of  St.  Sofia  In  Constantinople  in 
untu  the  time  of  the  Humanists,  served  as  the  most  the  sixth  century,  the  foundling  asylum  of  Archbishop 
important  t«ztbook  for  physicians;  but  in  Arabian  Datheua  of  Milan  in  TtJ7,  and  many  others.  In  11£^ 
Spain  his  fame  was  small.  One  of  his  chief  rivals  was  Pope  Innocent  III  rebuilt  the  pilgnms'  shelter,  which 
Abu-Merwan  Abd  el-Malik  ben  Abul-Ala  Zohr  ben  had  been  foimded  in  726  by  a  British  king,  but  had 
Abd  el-Halik  Ibn  Zohr  (Avenioar,  1113-62)  from  the  been  repeat«dly  destroyed  bv  fire.  He  turned  it  into 
neighbourhood  of  Seville.  His  friend,  the  pnilosopher  a  refuge  for  travellers  and  a  noepital,  and  entrusted  it 
and  phTsician  Abul-Weltd  Muhammed  ben  Ahined  to  the  Brotheia  of  the  Holy  Ghoet  eetablisbed  by  Guy 
Iba  Rouui  el-Hidilci  (Aveiroes,  n26-!l8),  of  Cordova,  de  Montpellier.  Mention  must  also  be  made  here  of 
is  regarded  as  the  complemeot  of  Avicenna.  His  thereligiousordersof  knightaand  thehousesforlepen 
book  was  also  popular  in  the  West  and  bears  the  title  of  later  times.  The  great  hospitals  of  the  Arahe  in 
"KttAbel-K(di])at"  (Colliget).  With  the  d  eel  me  of  Ara-  Dschondisapor  and  Bagdad  were  built  after  Christian 
bianraleb^antheaecayof  medicine.  In  the  Orient  models.  Tne  eelebrat^  ecclesiastical  writer  Tertul- 
this  dwlina  be^n  aft«r  the  fall  of  Bagdad  in  1256,  lion  (bom  a.  d.  160)  possessed  a  wide  knowledge  of 
and  in  Spain  after  the  capture  of  Cordova  in  1236,  the  medicine,  which,  following  the  custom  of  his  time,  he 
decay  becoming  complete  after  the  loss  of  Granada  in  calls  a  "sister  of  philosophy".  Clement  of  Alexan- 
U92.  The  prMominance  of  Arabian  medicine,  which  dria,  about  the  middle  of  the  century,  lays  down  valu- 
lastcd  aeareely  three  centuries,  seriously  delayed  the  able  hygienic  laws  in  his  "  F^dagogus  ".  Lactantiua 
development  of  our  science.  A  brief  survey  of  this  in  the  fourth  oentury  speaks  in  his  work  "  De  Opificio 
— ---■  -' -->--■  ■>■-  •— u-i — '1-  Dei "  about  the  structure  of  the  hu- 

man body.  One  of  the  moet  learned 
E tests  (»  his  time,  St.  Isidoie  of 
ville  (d,  630),  treats  of  medicine 
in  the  fourth  book  of  his  "  Originea 
8.  Etymologiffi".  St.  Benedict  of 
Nuieia  (480)  made  it  a  duty  for  the 
brothers  of  his  order  to  study  the 


of  Aristotle  and  Galen  without  ex- 
amining tbem  critically.  No  other 
Greek  physician  obtained  such  ft 
hold  on  the  Arabe  as  Galen,  whose 
system,  perfect  in  form,  pleased  them 
just  as  tnat  of  Aristotle  pleased  them 
m  philosophy.  Nowhere  did  dia- 
lectjcs  play  a  greater  part  in  medi- 
cine  tbifin  i*Tinjiifig  the  Arabe  and  ^eir 
later  foUoiwera  m  the  Wcat.  Inde- 
pendent inveBtigation  in  the  fields 
of  ezaet  aeieDoe,  anatomy,  and  phyv- 
iologT  was  forbidden  by  the  laws 
of  tne  Koran.  SymptomatoloKy 
(Bemiotics)  at  the  bedside,  especially 
prognosia  baaed  on  the  pulse  and 
the  state  of  the  urine,  were  devel- 
oped by  them  with  an  equally  ex- 

Mgerated    and    fruitless    subtleW,  Wnu*-  H»n« 

Much,  and  perhaps  the  only  credit  (15TS-I467) 

due  to  them  is  in  the  field  of  phar> 

We  are  indebted  to  them  for  a  whole    the  three  kingdi 


as  aids  to  the  exercise  of  boepitality. 
Cassiodorus  gave  hia  monks  direct 
instructions  in  the  study  of  medicine. 
Bertharius,  Abbot  of  Monte  Cas- 
eino  in  the  ninth  century,  was  fa. 
mous  as  a  physician.  Walafrid 
Strabo  (d.  849) ,  Abbot  of  Eeichenau, 
the  oldest  medical  writer  on  German 
soil,  describes  in  a  poem  (Hortulus) 
the  value  of  native  medicinal  plants, 
and  also  the  method  of  teaching 
medicine  in  monasteries.  We  must 
mention,  furthermore,  the  "Phy- 
eica",  a  description  of  drugs  from 

„  Dms  of  nature,  written  by  St.  Hil- 

<^  simple  and  ccsnpound  drugs  of  oriental  and     d^arde   (1099-1179),   abbess   of   a  monastery  near 

Indian  origin,  previously  unknown,  and  also  for  the  Biugen-on-the-Rhine.  Thecurativepropertiesofmin- 
polyphannaey  of  later  times.  Until  the  discovery  ends  are  described  by  Marbodus  oi  Angers,  Bishop 
'  'meriea  the  V       '       '       "     ' "'       '  ""     "     "    '     "    " '      ' '     ■     " 


B  (d.  1123),  in  his  "Lapidarius". 
How  diligentlv  medicine  was  studied  in  the  monas- 
teries is  shown  by  the  numerous  manuscripts  (many 
still  unedited)  in  the  old  cathedral  libraries,  and  by 
those  which  were  taken  from  the  suppressed  monas- 
teries and  are  now  to  be  found  in  the  national  libraries 
IS  countries.    Priests  who  possessed  a  knowl- 


ed^  of  medicine  served  as  phyaicianB-in-ordinary 
princes  as  late  as  the  fifteenth  century,  although  tfa 


century,  although  thev 


al  America  tne  Venetian  drug-trade  was  controlled 
by  Arabian  dealers. 

CHRmumrr'a  Shark  in  tbk  Dbvblopuent  or 
Uedicai,  Bcixncz.— As  long  as  the  cruel  persecution 
of  ths  Chureh  lasted  thrxnwiout  the  Roman  Empire, 
it  was  impossible  for  Chrisuans  to  take  direct  part  in 
the  development  of  medical  science.  But  provision 
had  been  made  for  medical  aid  within  the  community, 
because  the  priest,  like  the  rabbi  of  small  Jewish  com- 
munitiss  in  the  late  Middle  Ages,  was  also  a  physician. 

lids  is  elear  from  the  atory  of  the  two  brothers,  Ste.      ,  ... 

Comuw  S»d  Damian,  who  studied  medicine  in  Syria  parish-priest  in  Felling,  who  founded  the  Hospital  of 
and  were  martyred  under  Diocletian.  The  exercise  of  the  Holy  Ghost  at  Vienna  (1211),  was  physician-in- 
praelical  charity  under  the  direction  of  deacons  of  the  ordinary  to  Duke  I«opold  VI  of  Austria,  and  Sigis- 
ehuicbeagftvense  to  systematic  nursins  and  hospitals,  mund  Albicus,  who  afterward  became  Archbishop  of 
In  lecoit  times  it  has,  indeed,  been  alibied  that  the  Prague  (141l),  held  the  same  office  at  the  court  ot 
nistenoe<rfbaspiUdaamongtheBuddhists,eveninthe  King  Weniel  of  Bohemia  (1391-1411).  From  this 
third  centniT  before  Christ,  and  their  existence  hi  tune,  we  constantly  meet  with  prieete  possessing  a 
ancient  Hesico  at  the  tims  of  its  discovery  is  demcKt-  knowledge  of  medicine  and  writmg  on  medical  sub- 
ttiable,  and  that  hospitals  had  their  origin  in  general  jects.  The  popes,  the  most  imporiont  patrons  of  all 
philanthropy;  but  nobody  denies  that  the  nutsing  of     the  sciences,  were  friendly  also  to  the  development  of 


^rbefoi 


— ™  ou  widespread,  so  well  organiied, 
ingasintheeariyChriatianeommimities.  Christiaiuty 
tended  the  sick  aiul  devised  and  executed  exten- 
■tn  sehnuee  for  the  eate  of  deserted  ehildton  (found- 
line^  orphans),  of  the  feeble  and  infirm,  of  those  out  of 


medicine.  That  they  ever  at  any  time  forba. 
practice  of  anatomical  investigation  is  a  fable.  Pope 
Bcxiifaoe  VIII  m  1299-1300  forhade  the  practice  then 
prevalent  of  boiling  the  corpses  of  noble  persona  who 
nad  died  abroad,  m  order  tnat  their  bones  might  be 
conveniently  transported  to  the  distant  anoe»- 


vock,  nod  of  pil^iins.    The  era  of  persecution  ended,    tral  tomb.    This  prohibitory  rule  bad  reference  only 
mGndla^ealms-liooseeaiKlhospitalslJteUiat  of  St.    to  cases  of  death  m  Christian  countries,  while  ■"  **^ 


MtDxonn  126 


t  ^»)(Hl,l 


Orient  (e.  g.  durmg  the  Crusades)  the  usage  seems  to  pounded  phaimaeeutical  formulsB,  became  a  model  for 

have  bc«n  tacitly  lulowed  to  continue.  later  woncs  of  this  kind,  and  Matthieus  Platearius, 

FiBBT  UNiyEssiTiEs  IN  THE  Webt. — Having  yolim-  who,  towards  the  end  of  the  centunr,  wrote  a  commen- 

tarily  undertaken  the  education  of  the  youn^  in  all  taiy  on  the  above-named  ''Anticfotarium"  (Glossse) 

branches  of  learning,  the  monasteries  were  aided  in  and  a  work  about  simple  drugs  (Circa  instans).    Similar 

their  endeavours  by  both  Church  and  State.    The  productions  appeared  from  the  hand  of  an  otherwise 

foundation  of  state  schools  is  the  work  of  Charlemagne  unknown  M agister  ScUemitanus,    Maurus,  following 

(768-814),  whose  activity,  especially  in  the  Germanic  Arabian   sources,  wrote   on  uroscopy.    Here  must 

countries,  was  stimulated  by  the  decree  of  the  S3mod  be  also  mentioned  Petrus  Musandinus  (De  cibts  et 

of  Aachen  (789),  that  each  monastery  and  each  cathe-  potibus  febricitantiiun),  the  teacher  of  Pierre  Giles  of 

dral  chapter  should  institute  a  school.    According  to  Corbeil  (iEsidius  CorboliensisX  who  later  became  a 

the  Capitidary  of  Charlemagne  at  Diedenhofen  (Thion-  canon  said  the  physician-in-orainary  to  Philip  Augua* 
ville)  " 
schools. 
Gerbert 

1003),  long  active  as  a  teacher  of  medicine.  Simul-  Roger  III  (1193),  when  the  anny  of  King  Henr^  VT 
taneously  with  the  rise  of  the  cities  there  sprang  up  captured  the  city.  The  establishment  of  the  Umver- 
lusher  municipal  schools,  as  for  instance  the  Burger-  sity  of  Naples  by  Frederick  II  in  1224,  the  preponder- 
achule  at  St.  Stephan's  in  Vienna  (about  1237).  Out  ance  of  Arabian  influence,  and  the  rise  of  the  Mont- 
of  the  secular  and  religious  schools,  the  curriculum  of  pellier  school,  all  exerted  so  unfavourable  an  influence 
which  institutions  comprised  the  entire  learning  of  that  by  the  fourteenth  century  Salerno  was  well-nigh 
the  times,  the  first  tmiversities  developed  themselves,  forgotten.  Salerno  is  the  oldest  school  having  a 
partly  uader  imperial  and  partly  tmder  papal  protec-  curriculum  prescribed  by  the  state.  In  1140  lung 
tion,  according  as  they  sprang  from  the  lay  and  the  Roger  II  ordered  a  state  examination  to  test  the  pro- 
cathedral  or  monastic  schools.  ficiency  of  prospective  physicians,  and  Frederick  II  in 

School  of  Salerno. — ^This  is  regarded  as  the  oldest  1240  prescribed  five  years  of  study  besides  a  year  of 
medical  school  of  the  West.  Salerno  on  the  Tyrrhe-  practical  experience.  When  we  consider  the  prox- 
nian  Sea,  originally  probably  a  Doric  colony,  was  from  unity  of  Northern  Africa,  that  the  neighbouring  Sicily 
the  sixth  to  the  eleventh  centiury  imder  the  rule  of  the  had  been  under  Saracenic  rule  from  the  ninth  to  the 
Lombards,  and  from  1075  to  1130  imder  that  of  the  eleventh  centiury,  and  that  the  Norman  kings,  and  to  a 
Normans.  In  1130  it  became  a  part  of  the  Kingdom  far  greater  degree  Frederick  II,  gave  powenul  prpteo- 
of  Naples  and  Sicily.  The  origin  of  the  school  is  ob-  tion  to  Arabian  art  and  science,  it  seems  wonderful 
scure,  but,  contrary  to  former  oelief,  it  was  not  a  re-  that  this  oasis  of  GrsBCO-Roman  culture  endured  so 
ligious  f  oimdation,  though  very  many  priests  were  en-  long.  Down  to  the  twelfth  century  tlus  school  was 
gaged  there  as  teachers  of  medicine.  Women  and  rul^  bv  a  purely  Hippocratic  spirit,  especially  in 
even  Jews  were  admitted  to  these  studies.  Salerno  practical  medicine,  by  its  diagnosis  and  by  the  treat- 
was  destined  to  cultivate  for  a  long  time  Greek  medi-  ment  of  acute  diseases  dieteti^ly.  Arabian  influence 
cal  science  in  imdimmed  purity^  imtil  the  twelfth  cen-  makes  itself  felt  first  of  all  in  therapeutics,  a  fact  which 
tury  saw  the  school  fall  a  victim  to  the  all-powerful  is  easily  explained  by  the  proximity  of  Amalfi,  where 
Arab  influence.  One  of  its  oldest  physicians  was  the  Arabian  drug-deuers  used  to  land.  Local  condi- 
Alpuhans,  later  (1058-85)  Archbishop  of  Salerno,  tions  (resulting  from  the  Crusades)  explain  how  sur- 
With  him  worked  the  Lombard  Gariopontus  (d.  1050),  gery,  especially  the  treatment  of  woimds  received  in 
whose  "Passionarius"  la  based  upon  Hippocrates,  war,  was  diligently  cultivated.  In  Rogerius  we  find  a 
Galen,  and  Gielius  Aurelianus.  Contemporary  with  Salemitan  suigeon  armed  with  independent  experi- 
him  was  the  female  physician  Trotula,  who  worked  ence,  but  showing,  nevertheless,  reminiscences  of 
also  in  the  literary  field,  and  who  is  said  to  have  been  Abulhasem.  His  "  Practica  Chiruigise  "  dates  from 
the  wife  of  the  physician  Joannes  Platearius.  Per-  the  year  1180.  Although  Salerno  finally  succumbed 
haps  the  best  Imown  literary  work  of  this  school  is  the  to  Arabian  influences,  this  school  did  not  hand  down 
anonymous  "Regimen  sanitatis  Salemitanum".  a  to  us  a  knowledge  of  the  best  Arabian  authors, 
didactic  poem  consisting  of  364  stanzas,  which  has  Spain  ab  the  Tbanbmitter  of  Arabian  Medicinb. 
been  translated  into  all  modem  languages.  It  is  said  — Its  focus  was  the  city  of  Toledo,  which  was  taken 
to  have  been  dedicated  to  Prince  RoMrt,  son  of  William  from  the  Moors  in  1085  by  Alfonso  VI  of  Castile  and 
the  Conqueror,  upon  his  departure  from  Salerno  in  Leon.  Here  Archbishop  Raimund  (1130-50)  founded 
1101.  All  important  change  in  the  intellectual  ten-  an  institution  for  translations,  in  which  Jewish  sohol- 
dency  of  the  "Civitas  Hippocratica",  as  this  school  ars  were  the  chief  workers.  Here  lived  Gerard  of 
oaUed  itself,  was  brought  about  by  the  physician  Con-  Cremona  (1114-87,  properlv  Carmona,  near  Sevflle), 
stantine  of  Carthage  ^]!onstantinus  Af  ncanus) ,  a  man  the  translator  of  Rhases  ana  Avicenna.  A  later  trana- 
learned  in  the  Onental  languages  and  a  teacher  of  latorof  Rhases  (about  1279)  was  the  Jew  Faradsch  ben 
medicine  at  Salerno,  who  oied  in  1087  a  monk  of  Salem  (Faragius),  who  was  educated  at  Salerno. 
Monte  Cassino.  While  hitherto  the  best  works  of  The  Scholabtic  Pebiod. — ^When  in  the  twelfth 
Greek  antiquitv  had  been  known  only  in  mediocre  century  all  the  Aristotelean  works  gradually  became 
Latin  translations,  Constantine  in  the  solitude  of  known,  one  of  the  results  was  the  development 
Monte  Cassino  began  to  tnmslate  from  the  Arabic  of  scholasticism,  that  logically  arranged  sjnitematio 
Greek  authors  (e.  g.  the  "Aphorisms"  of  Hippocrates  treatment  and  explanation  of  rational  truths  baaed 
andthe^Arsparva^of  Galen),  as  well  as  sucn  Arabic  upon  the  Aristotelean  speculative  method.  Even 
writers  as  were  accessible  to  him  (Isaak,  Ali  Abbas),  though  this  tendency  led  to  the  growth  of  manv  ex- 
As  he  brought  to  the  Imowledge  of  his  contemporaries  crescences  in  medicme  and  confirmed  the  predomi- 
first  class  Greek  authors,  but  onlv  secondary  Aitib  nance  of  Galen's  system,  also  laigel^^  based  on  specula- 
writers,  the  studv  of  the  former  became  more  pro-  tion,  it  is  wron^  to  hold  Scholasticism  responsible  for 
found,  while  on  tne  other  himd  an  interest  was  awak-  the  mistakes  which  its  disciples  made  in  consequence 
ened  in  the  hitherto  unknown  Arabic  literature.  His  of  their  faulty  apprehension  of  the  sjnitem,  because 
pupils  were  Biurtholomsus,  whose  "Practica"  was  scholasticism,  far  from  excluding  the  observation  of 
translated  into  German  as  earlv  as  the  thirteenth  cen-  nature,  directly  promotes  it.  The  best  proof  of  this  is 
tury,  and  Johannes  Afflacius  (De  febribus  et  urinis).  the  fact  that  the  most  important  scholastic  of  the 
To  the  twelfth  century,  when  Arabian  pol^harmacy  thirteenth  century,  Albertus  Magnus,  was  likewise  the 
was  introduced,  belong  Nicolaus  Pnepositus  (about  most  important  physicist  of  his  time.  He  thus  imi- 
1140),  whose  "Antidotarium",  a  coUectun  of  com-  tated  his  model,  Aristotle,  in  both  directions.    The 


famous  achoUstic  Roeer  Bacon  (1214-94),  AD  English  Lombard  "—an  hoaoiaiy  title  received  during  hb 
PnneisGan,  laya  chierstress  in  his  theory  of  cognition  naidence  at  the  University  of  Paris.  On  aooount  of 
upon  experience  as  far  as  the  natural  sciences  ate  con-  his  too  liber&listic  opinions  and  his  derision  of  Chrio- 
\a^'r.      "        


prithe 


mph« 


Albertut  Magnaa  ([Albert  Count  of  BollstAdt,  1193-  From  this  period  also  date  the  "  Aggi^ator  BrixieD- 

12S0)   was   a   Dominican.     For  medical  science  bis  sis"  of  Gugltelmo  Corvi  (1260-1326),  a  worii  in  even 

worl^  about  animals,  plants,  and  minerals  alone  con-  greater  demand  in  later  times,  and  the  "  Consilia"  of 

cem  us.     Formerly  a  work  called  "De  secretis  muli-  Gentile  da  Foligno  (d.  1348),  who,  in  I341^j>erfonned 

erum"waBWroQgly  attributed tohim.   Albertue'e  moat  the  lirat  anatomical  dissection  in  Padua.     The  fame  (rf 

eminent  service  to  medicine  was  in  pointing  out  the  the  school  of  Padua  was  greatly  advanced  by  the 

way  to  an  independent  observation  of  nature.     The  family    of    physicians,    the    Santa    Sophia,    which 

following  boolts  were  to  a  certain  d^ree  baaed  upon  about    1392    emigrated    from   Constantinople,    and 

the  writmes  of  Albertiis:  the  encyclopedic  works  on  whose  most  famous  members  were  Maisilio  (d.  1405) 

natural    hutoty   of  the   Franciscan   Bartholomceus  and  Galeasso  (d.  1427).    The  latter,  one  of  the  first 

Anglic  us  (about  1260),  of  Thomas  of  Cantimpr^  (1204-  teachera  in  Vienna  (about  1398-1407),  and  later  pro- 

80),  canon  of  Cambrai,  of  Vincent  of  Beauvais  (d.  fesaor  at  Padua,  wrote  in  Vienna  a  pharmaoopcda 

1264),  the  "Book  of  Nature"  by  Kunrad  von  Jlegen-  which  indicates  absolutely  independent  observation  in 

berg  (1307-74),  canon  of  Ratisoon,  and  the  natural  the  Geld  of  botany.     His  antithesis  and  contemporary 

history  of  Meinau  composed  towards  the  end  of  the  was  Giacomo  dolla  Torre  of  Forii  (Jacobus  Forol>' 

thirteenth  century  at  the  Monastery  of  Heinau  on  the  vienais,  d.  1413),  professor  at  Padua,  known  for  his 


Lake  of  Constance.  In  the  medical 
echools  the  influence  of  scholasti- 
cism made  itself  felt,  but  this  in- 
fluence woA  ^ways  favourable.  The 
scholastic  physician,  the  philosopher 
at  the  Ixdaide,  with  hi^  compen- 
dious works  of  needy  contents,  with 
hij  endless  game  of  question  and 
answer,  must  not,  however,  be  mis- 
judged; he  preserved  interest  in  the 
observation  of  nature  and  was,  as  ia 
freely  conceded,  a  skilful  practi- 
tioner, although  he  lai:l  excessive 
stress  upon  formalism,  ami  medicine 
in  his  hands  made  no  special  prog- 


GOmmctntary  on  the  "  Ars  p 
Oalen.  Giacomo  de  Dondi  (1298- 
1369),  author  of  the  "Aggregator 
PaduanuB  de  medicinis  simphcibus  " , 
tried  to  di  engage  a  salt  from  the 
ti>ermal  waters  of  Abano,  near  Pa- 
dua. As  anatomist  and  practitioner 
we  must  mention  Bartholomsus  de 
Hontagnana  (d. 1460), and  the  graod- 
fatherof  the  unfortunate  Savonarola, 
Giovanni  Michele  Savonarola  (1390- 
1462),  author  of  the  "Fiactka 
Major",  who  worked  along  the  same 


MoNTTBLUBR, — The   earliest  in- 
fonnation  about  the  medical  school 
I    of  this  place  dates  from  the  twelfth 
century.     Like  Salerno,  Montpellier 
developed  great  indepe jdence  as  far 
as  the  other  schools  were  concerned, 
and   laid   the   greatest  stress  upon 
'    practical  medicine.    With  the  decay 
^J"""""  of  Salemojfclontpellier  gained  in  im- 

'  portance.  The  chief  representative  of 

thisschool  is  theSponiard,  Arnold  of  Villanova  (1235— 
„         .  -      -.     about  1312).  His  greatest  merit  is  that,  inclining  more 

and  Pietro  Torrigiano  Rustic  belli— later  a  Carthu-  towards  the  Hippocratio  school,  he  did  not  follow  un- 
monk — all  well-known  expounders  of  the  writ-  conditionallytheteachingsof  Galenand  AvicenQa,but 
of   Galen.      Indirect   disciples   were   Pietro  de     relied  upon  his  own  observation  and  experience,  while 


BoLOQNA  was  the  principal  home 
of  scholastic  medicine,  and,  as  early 
as  the  twelfth  century,  a  medical 
school  exl.ted  there.  The  most  fa- 
mous physician  there  was  Thaddeus 
Alderotti(Th,Florentinus,12I5-95J, 
who  even  at  that  time  gave  practi- 
cal clinical  instruction  and  enjoyed 


mgs  ( 


EpoaedtoArabian  tenets, 
jsyalematic  use  ofalcohol  in  certain  diseases.  Avery 
_  ,  miy. — Bologna  has  doubtful  merit  is  his  popularising  of  alcherny,  to  the 
gained  incomparable  glory  from  the  fact  that  Uon-  study  of  which  he  was  very  much  devoted.  Other 
dino  de  Liucci  (about  1275--1326),  the  reviver  of  anat-  Montpellier  representatives  of  purely  practical  medi- 
oniy,  taught  there.  There,  for  the  first  time  since  the  cine  are  Bernard  of  Gordon  (d.  1314;  "Lilium  me- 
Alerandnan  period  (nearly  ISOO^ara),  he  dissected  a  didnEo",  1305)  a  Scotchman  educated  in  Salerno; 
human  corpse,  and  wrote  a  treatise  on  anatomy  based  Gerardusde  Solo  (about  1320;  "Introductoriumjuv&- 
upOD  personal  observation — a  work  which,  tor  nearly  num");  Johannes  deTomamira  (end  of  the  fourteenth 
two  and  a  half  centuries,  remained  the  official  t«xtr  century;  "Clarificatorium  juveuum");  and  the  Por- 
book  of  the  universities.  Although  Mondino's  work,  tuguese  Valescus  de  Taranta  ("Philonium  pharroa- 
which  appeared  in  1316,  contains  many  defects  and  ceutJcumet  chirurgicum",  1418),  The  medical  school 
errora,  it  nevertheless  marked  an  advance  and  incited  of  Paris,  founded  in  IISO,  remained  far  behind  Mont- 
men  to  further  investigation.  pellier  in  regard  to  the  practice  of  medicine. 

Padca,  the  famous  rival  of  Bologna,  received  a  uni-  SoiiaBBT  in  the  Age  of  Scholabticibm. — Surgery ' 

vereitr  in  1222  from  Frederick  II.    Just  as  the  Univer-  exhibited  during  this  period  in  many  respects  a  more 

sity  of  Leipiig  originated  in  consequence  of  the  migra-  independent  development  than  practical  medicine,  es- 

tion  of  students  ond  professors  from  the  University  of  pecially  in  Bolf^na.     The  founder  of  the  school  there 

Prague  in  1409,  so  Padua  came  into  existence  through  was  Hugo  Borgognoni  of  Lucca  (d.  about  1258).     A 

a  seoeesion  from  Bologna.     Bologna  was  soon  sur-  moreimportant figure washissonTeodorico,chaplain, 

passed   by  the   daughter  institution,  and,  from  the  penitentiary,  and  phyaidan-in-ordinary  to  Pope  Inno- 

loundation  of  the  University  of  Vienna  in  1365  until  cent  fV,  later  Bishop  of  Cervia,     In  his  "Surgery", 

the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century,  Padua  remained  completed  in  1266,  he  recommends  the  simplificaUcoi 

a  shining  model  for  the  medical  school  ot  Bologna,  of  tne  treatment  of  wounds,  fractures,  and  disloo»- 

llefintteaeberof  r*putewaaPietrod'Abano(Petrus  tions.    Guilielmo  Saliceto  from  Piacenia  (Guil.  Fl»- 

Aponenais,  1250 — about  1320),  known  aa  the  "great  oentinus),  first  of  Bologtia,  then  at  Venma,  wbare  he 


MEDICINI  128 

oompleted  his  surgery  in  1275,  shows  great  individu-  Signs  of  improvement  are  noticed  first  in  anatomy 

ality  and  a  keen  diagnostic  eye.    Similarly  his  pupil  (Mondino)   and  subsequently  in  surgery,  which  is 

Lanfranchi  strongly  recommended  the  reunion  ot  sur-  based  upon  it. 

gery  and  internal  medicine.  Lanfranchi,  banished  in  The  impulse  to  follow  a  new  path  came,  however, 
1290  from  his  native  dty,  Milan,  transplanted  Italian  from  without,  first  of  all  from  a  studv  of  the  Greek 
surgery  to  Paris.  There  the  surgeons,  like  the  physi-  language,  ana  then  directly  through  the  famous  poet 
dans  of  the  faculty,  had,  since  1260,  been  formed  into  Francesco  Petrarca  (1304-74).  the  zealous  patron  of 
a  corporation,  the  College  de  St.  Cosme  (since  1713  humanistic  studies  and  thus  or  the  Renaissance.  Pe- 
Academic  de  Chirurgie),  to  which  Lanfranchi  was  ad-  trarch's  instructor  in  the  Greek  language  was  the 
niitted.  His  "Chinirgia  magna''  (Ars  completa),  fin-  monk  Barlaam^  who  procured  for  his  pupil,  Leontius 
ished  in  1296,  is  full  of  casuistic  notes  and  shows  us  the  Pilatus,  a  position  as  public  teacher  of  the  language  in 
author  as  an  equally  careful  and  lucky  operator.  The  Florence  in  1350.  In  later  times,  especially  after  the 
first  important  French  surgeon  is  Henri  de  Mondeville  fall  of  Constantinople  in  1453,  numerous  Greek  schol- 
(1260-1320),  originally  a  teacher  of  anatomy  at  Mont-  ars  came  to  Italy.  With  the  spread  of  a  knowledge  of 
pellier.  whose  treatise,  although  for  the  most  part  a  Greek  and  the  enthusiasm  for  the  Hellenic  master- 
compilation,  does  not  lack  originality  and  perspicuity,  pieces  in  art  and  sdence,  there  arose  also  an  interest 
The  culminating  point  in  French  surgery  at  this  period  m  classical  Latin  and  a  diligent  search  for  manu- 
is  marked  by  the  appearance  of  Guy  de  Chauliac  scripts  of  Grseco-Roman  antiquity,  and  efforts  along 
(Chaulhac,  d.  about  1370).  He  completed  his  studies  these  Mes  were,  as  is  well  known,  energetically  sup- 
at  Bologna,  Montpellier,  and  Paris;  later  be  entered  ported  by  the  popes.  The  West  now  became  ao- 
the  ecclesiastical  state  (canon  of  Reims,  1358),  and  quainted  with  the  works  of  the  old  Greek  pre-Aristo- 
was  physician-in-ordinaiy  to  popes  Clement  VI,  Inno-  telean  philosophers  and  physicians  in  their  original 
cent  Vl,  and  Urban  V.  From  him  we  have  a  descrip-  tongue,  a  fact  which  markis  uie  beginning  of  the  fall  of 
tion  of  the  terrible  plague  which  he  witnessed  in  1348  the  Arabian  teaching.  Petrarch  fought  as  champion 
at  Avignon.  His  "  Chirurgia  magna "  treated  the  sub-  along  the  whole  line  of  battle,  especially  against 
ject  with  a  completeness  never  previously  attained,  scholasticism  and  the  medicine  of  that  period.  There 
and  gave  its  author  during  the  following  centuries  the  is  no  doubt  that  his  seal  was  exaggerated  in  many  re- 
rank  of  a  first-class  authority.  Among  contemporary  spects.  He  blames  the  physicians  of  his  time  because 
surgeons  in  other  civilized  countries  we  must  mention  tney  philosophize  and  do  not  cure.  Medidne,  he  says, 
John  Ardem  (d.  about  1399),  an  Englishman,  who  isapracticafartand,  therefore,  may  not  be  treated  ao- 
studied  at  Montpellier  and  lived  subsequently  in  Lon-  ooroing  to  the  same  methods  for  the  investigation  ci 
don,  famous  for  his  skill  in  operating  for  anal  fistulse,  truth  as  philosophy.  The  greatest  misfortune  had 
and  Jehan  Yperman  of  the  Netherlands  (d.  about  been  the  appearance  of  Arabism  with  all  its  supersti- 
1329),  who  studied  in  Paris  under  Lanfranchi.  Be-  tions  f astrology,  alchemy,  uroscopy).  On  the  other 
sides  these  surgeons  who  had  a  fixed  abode,  there  were  hand,  ne  speaks  with  greAt  respect  of  surgery;  the  rea- 
a  number  of  itinerant  practitioners  who  offered  their  son  for  this  is  patent,  since  he  was  a  friend  of  the  most 
services  at  fairs;  as,  spedalizing  usually  in  certain  important  surgeon  of  his  time,  Guy  de  Chauliac. 
operations  (hemio-  and  lithotomy),  the^r  often  pos-  There  is  no  doubt  that  there  were  then  in  Italy  many 
sessed  great  skill,  and  their  advice  and  assistance  were  excellent  physicians  who,  like  Petrarch,  recognized  ttie 
sought  by  people  of  the  upper  classes.  existence  of  a  wrong  tendency  in  meaidne^  but  they 
Signs  of  Improvement:  Humanism. — ^A  short  were  far  too  weak  to  break  the  fetters  of^  Arabism. 
survey  of  the  scholastic  period  gives  us  the  following  The  road  to  improvement  had  already  been  pointed 
picture:  On  the  appearance  of  Arabic  literature  in  out  by  Mondino,  the  anatomist  of  Bologna,  but  a  com- 
Latin  translations,  Hippocratio  medicine  wa^  driven  plete  change  of  view  did  not  occur  until  t^  sixteenth 
from  its  last  stronghold,  Salerno.    Then  came  the  rule  century. 

of  Arabism,  of  the  system  of  Galen  in  Arabic  form  The  Black  Death  of  the  Fourteenth  Century. 

equipped  with  all  sorts  of  sophistic  subtleties.     The  — ^Associated  with  the  name  of  Petrarch  is  the  memoiy 

works  of  Rhazes  and  Avicenna  possessed  the  greatest  of  the  most  terrible  epidemic  of  historic  times.    Tfcfe 

authority.    The  latter's  "Canon",  written  in  clear  Black  Death  (bubonic  plague  with  pulmonary  infeo- 

language  and  covering  the  entire  field  of  medicine,  be-  tion),  ori^nating  in  Eastern  Asia,  passed  through  In- 

came  the  gospel  of  physicians.    The  literature  of  tnese  dia  to  Asia  Minor,  Arabia,  Enrpt.  Northern  Africa, 

times  is  rich  in  writings  but  very  poor  in  thought;  and  directl]^  to  Europe  by  the  Black  Sea.    In  Europe 

for  people  were  content  when  the  long-winded  com-  the  epidemic  began  m  1346,  and  spread  first  of  all  m 

mentanes  gave  them  a  better  understanding  of  the  the  maritime  cities  of  Ita^  (especially  Genoa)  and 

Arabs,  whom  they  deemed  infallible.    A  good  many  Sicily;  in  1347  it  appeared  m  Constantinople,  Cyprus, 

things  were  incomprehensible,  first  of  all  the  names  of  Greece,  Malta,  Sarainia.  and  Corsica,  and,  towards  the 

diseases  and  drugs,  which  translators  rendered  incor-  end  of  the  year,  at  BiarseiUes;   in  1348  in  Spain, 

rectly.    A  comparative  investigation  of  the  Greek  au-  Southern  France  (Avignon).  Paris,  the  Netherlands, 

thors  was  practically  impossible,  as  both  their  works  Italy,  Southern  England  and  London,  Schleswig-Hol- 

and  a  knowledge  of  the  Greek  language  had  dis-  stein,  and  Norway,  and,  in  December,  in  Dalmatia 

appeared  from  among  the  Romance  nations.    Thus  and  Jutland;  in  1349  in  the  Austrian  Alpine  countries, 

it  happened  that  special  books  had  to  be  written  from  Vienna,  and  Poland;  in  1350  in  Russia,  where  in  1353 

whicn  were  leamea  foreign  words  and  their  meanings,  the  last  traces  disappeared  on  the  shores  of  the  Black 

The''S3rnonymaMedicinae"  (Clavissanationis)  bytne  Sea.    The  entire  period  was  preceded  by  peculiar 

physician  Simon  of  Genoa  TJanuensis.  1270-1303)  and  natural  phenomena,  as  floods,  tidal  waves,  and  ab- 

*the  ''Pandectffi  mediciiue''  of  Mattnsus  Sylvaticus  normally  dAmp  weather.    Petrarch,  who  witnessed 

(d.  1342),  both  of  which  were  alphabetically  arranged,  the  plague  at  Florence,  declared  that  posterity  would 

were  much  in  vogue.    Woe  to  the  phvsician  who  regard  the  description  of  all  its  horrors  as  fables.    The 

dared  to  doubt  the  authority  of  the  AraDsI    Only  men  loss  of  human  life  in  Europe,  the  population  of  which 

of  strong  mind  could  successfully  carry  out  such  a  dan-  is  estimated  to  have  been  100  millions,  is  said  to  have 

gerous  undertaking.    The  influence  of  scholasticism  amounted    to    twenty-five    millions.    The    disease 

in  medicine  was  manifold.    It  encouraged  the  obser-  usually  began  suddenly  and  death  occurred  within 

vation  of  nature  at  the  bedside  and  logical  think-  three  days,  and  often  after  a  few  hours.    Physicians 

ing,  but  it  also  stimulated  the  love  of  disputation,  were  quite  powerless  in  face  of  the  enormous  extent  of 

wherein  the  main  object  was  to  force  a  possibly  inde-  the  peistilence.    Great  self-sacrifice  was  shown  bj^  the 

pendent  idea  into  the  strait-jacket  of  tne  ruling  sys-  clergy,  especially  by  the  Franciscans,  who  are  said  to 

t^m,  and  thus  avoid  all  imputation  of  medical  heresy,  have  loot  100,000  (7)  members  throu^  the  epidemic* 


BODicna 


HEDICINI 


Onnwiniipg  thia  terrible  peril  _       .  __ .       .  _ 

the  jmiat  of  I^soenca,  Gabriel  de  Musaia;  from  GUI'    cure;  and 


hftTe  reports  from  how  to  eonatniet  syllo^snu,  but  did  not  know  how  to 

, _.       ,  Uusaia;  from  Can-  cure;  and  now  the  pUce  of  the  philosophiiing  practi- 

taemeitua  and  Nioephorus  about  the  epidemfc  in  Con-  tionen  was  taken  by  the  poet  phyidciana.    A  more 

itantiDople;  from  Boccacdo and  Petrarch  (Florence^,  satiafactoiy  sign  of  the  times  is  the  great  number  of 

from  the  physician  Diot^us  CoUe  of  Belluno  Cftaly),  medical  botaoists,  whose  works  show  more  or  kss  in- 

the  Belgian  Simon  of  Covino  (Montpellierj,  Guy  de  dependent  investigBtion,  and  always  regard  the  needs 

Chaulioc  (Avignon),  and  also  from  some  Spanish  of  the  phydcian  at  the  bedside.  Amcmg  these  we  must 

physidans.    Less   voluminous  accounts  are  to  be  mention  the  town  ^ysidan  of  Dem,  Otto  Bnmfels 

[oand   in  the  chronicles  of  the  difTemnt  countries,  (d.  1534),  Leonard  Fuchs  (1501-66),  profeesor  at  In- 

hasBincebeenrepeatedlyvisitcdt^theplaKue,  eolatadt,  Hieronymus  Tragus  (Jiodn  of  Heiderbach 

L__    1. L j_r__. (1498-1554),andhiapupi! JacobusTbeodorusTftber- 


1  has,  however,  i 


violent  n 


tended  so  widely.    The  last  great  epidemics  oocuned  memontanus  (d.  15Q6).    The  most  important,  how- 

in  Central  Europe  in  1679  and  1713.  ever,  is  the  Zurich  physician  Conr:ui  Geaner  (1516-66; 

HmLuasM  and  Medical  Science   in  tee  Fit-  Tabulte  phytograpnicse),  who  was  the  first  to  experi- 

TUNTB  AND  Sixteenth  Cbnttjmbb.— The  terrors  of  ment   with   tobacco   brought   from  America.     Only 

the  Black  Death,  and  the  conviction  which  it  brought  Andrea  Cesalpini,  professor  at  the  Sapienza  in  Rome, 

of  the  powerleasnees  of  current  medicine,  undoubtedly  can  be  regarded  as  his  equal.    The  mterest  taken  in 

healed  to  effect  a  gradual  change.    The  gt^teet  in-  tlie  study  of  natural  science  in  Germany  by  Hapsburg 

fluenoe,  however,  was  exerted  by  the  humanistic  ten-  emperors,   Ferdinand   I   (1522-64)    and   >I».Tiiiiiirii.n 

deocy  which  iiad  found  many  adherents,  espednlly  (1564-76),  was  of  great  advantage  to  It.    HietJ^si- 

ameog  phYsidans.    The  desire  after  general  oultiva-  cian-in-ordinary  to  tlte  Archduke  Ferdinand  of  Tnol, 

tioo    in    toe  natural  sdenoes  was  Petrus  Andreas  Mathiohis  of  Siena 

(1500-77).  published  a  translation  ol 


in    toe  natural  sdenoes  was 

■ubstandaily  promoted  by  the  great 
voyages  of  discovery  made  towards 
the  ^d  o!  the  fifteenth  century.  It 
is  worthy  of  mention  that,  at  a  time 
when  the  gfted  Christopher  Colum- 
bus was  still  ridiculed  as  a  dreamer 
by  the  learned  the  Florentine  as- 
tronomer and  physician,  ToscanelU, 
and  tbehouse-phydcianof  tbeFrao- 
cisc&n  monastery  of  Santa  Haria  de 
Rabida,  Garcia  Femandes,  both 
heartily  encouraged  him  and  gave 
him  material  aid.  The  sdentifio 
ende&vouta  for  the  reform  of  medi- 
cine are  diaracteriied  by  the  activ- 
ity of  the  translators,  by  the  critical 
tceSktment  and  explanation  of  old 
authors,  and  by  independent  inves- 
tigation especially  in  the  field  of  bot- 
any. Ccaioeraing  translations,  those 
wluchhad  reference  to  the  Hippocra- 
tje  writings  were  of  prime  importance. 


DioBCurioes  with  a  commentai^,  a 
work  which  was  most  highly  valued 
until  recent  times.  The  special  fa- 
vour of  MsKimiliaa  II  was  enjoyed 
by  Rembert  Dodoens  (Dodonieus)  of 
Mechlin  (1517-«5),  and  bv  the 
founder  of  scientific  botany,  Cnarles 
de  I'Ecluse  (Cludus)  of  Antwerp 
(1525-1600).  The  latter  was  ap- 
pointed professor  in  Leyden,  and 
for  a  time  lived  in  Vienna,  where 
he  found  zealous  followers  in  the 
physiciansJohaoQ  Aieholts(d.  1588) 
and  Paul  Fabricus  (d.  1689). 

Pboorebsin  Anatout:  Andkeas 
Vbsaijub. — From  the  time  of  Mon- 
dino  anatomy  had  been  diligently 

'"'    itod  at  the  universities,  espe- 


cially in  Italy.     In  Bologna,  (^o- 
{I74fr-1833)  vanni  de  Concoreggi  (d.    1438) 

„.  ,  .  Amoogthe    issued  a  work  on  anatomy.    As  commentators  n 

tnmslators  and  oommentators  of  these  works  we  find  Mondino  we  must  mention  AleKandio  Achillini 
Nicola  Leonioeno  of  Vicensa  n428-1524),  the  Span-  (1463-1512)  and  Jacopo  Berengerio  da  Carpi  (about 
iard  Fmneiscus  ValemuB  (eno  of  the  sixteenth  cen-  I470-I530).  Anatomy  made  special  progress  because 
tury),  the  Frenidunan  Jacques  HouUier  ^olierius,     of  the  artists.    Thus  Raphael  Sansio  (14SS-1520)  al- 


I4SS-I562),  Jobann  Hagenbut  <rf  Saxony  (Coraarus,  leodv  makes  use  ctf  the  human  skeleton  when  n 

I500-n58),  the  two  Paiis  professois,  Jean  de  Gorris  hissketches.s       

(Gon«!uB,  1505-77),  and  Louis  Duret  (1527-86),  and  We  possess  i 

Anntius  Foedus  Q528-01),  a  phyddan  of  Metz.  _  As  sketches  bf  Leonardo  da  Vinci  (1442-1519)^  which 


investi^tors  d  Pliny   there  ore   Ermolao  Barfaaro  were  intended  partly  for  an  anatomy  plaoneddy  Mar- 

(1454-93),  later  Patriarch  erf  Aquileia,  and  Filippo  cantonio   della   Torre   (Tumanua,    f473-1506),   and 

Beroaldo   (I453-160S).    Students   of   other  authors  partly  for  a  work  of  his  own.     The  great  Michelangelo 

were  Giovanni  Manardo  irfFerrara  (1462-1536;  Galen,  (1475-1564)  left  sketches  of  the  muscles,  and  in  1495, 

Hesue),  the  Paduan  professor  Giovanni  Battista  de  in  the  monastery  of  Santo  Spirito  at  Florence,  made 

Moote  (Montanus,  1498-1652;   Galen^  Rhaie^  Avi-  studies  for  a  picture  of  the  Crucified  with  codaveis  as 

oenna),  and  the  Englishmen  Thomas  Linacre  (1461-  models. — As  an  indicatioD  of  how  much  the  popes 

1524),  and  John  Kaye   (1506-73),   Wilhelm  Copus,  endeavoured  to  advance  the  study  of  anatomy,  we 

town  phyddan  of  Bosle  (1471-1521),  and  Theodore  may  recall  that  the  priest  Gabriel  de  Zerbis  for  a  time 

Zwinger  of  Switzerland   (1533-88),   all  students  of  taught  anatomy  in  Rome  (towards  the  end  of  the 

Galen.     As  may  be  seen,  the  system  of  Gslen  still  fifteenth  century),  that  Paul  III  (1534-^9^  appdnt«d 

formed  ib^  central  point  <rf  medical  studies,  but  it  the  surgeon  Alfonso  Ferri  to  teach  this  subject  at  the 

must  be  regarded  as  an  advance  that  people  now  read  Sapienza  in  1535,  that  the  phyddan-in-ordinary  <k 

bis  works  in  the  original  or  in  accurate  translations,  Julius  III  (1550-55),  Giambattista  Cannani,  crowned 

not  as  before  in  tbdr  Arabic  form,  for  in  this  way  his  anatomical  studies  by  discovering  the  valves  in 

many  changes  and  conflicting  views  introduced  by  the  the  veins;  that  Paul  IV  (1555-9)  called  to  Rome  the 

AralM  were  detected.     But  the  full  beauty  ol  the  famous  Realdo  Colombo,  the  teacher  of  Michelangelo, 

Hippocratie  woiks  could  not  be  appreciated  as  long  as  and  that  Colombo's  sons  dedicated  their  father's  work, 

Gslenreigaed  supreme.  "De  re  anatomica",  t«  Pope  Pius  IV  (1559-1665). 

Ilie  fiiii  fruit  of  Humanism  inroedidne  was  prima-  Foremost  among  the  univerdties  stood  Padua,  the 

rily  of  a  purely  formal  nature,  the  main  stress  being  stronghold  of  medical  science,  whence  was  to  issue  the 

now  laid  upon  philological  subtleties  and  elegant  djo-  light  which  disclosed  the  weaknesses  of  Galen's  sys- 

tjoo.    No  longer  content  with  prose,  authors  often  tern.    In  Padua,   where  Bartolomeo  Montagna  (d. 

reeotded    their   thoughts    in    verse.     Petrarch    had  1460)   performed  no  less  than  fourteen  dissections, 

Uamed  the  pl^ddans  of  bis  time  bxause  they  knew  there  existed  dme  1446  an  anatomical  theatre  whidi 
X.— B 


HEDICINE  130  HEDICINE 

;ta  1490  was  rebuilt  under  Alessandro  Benedetti  (1460-  oources  of  knowledge,  by  the  dissemination  of  educ&r 
1525).  Of  the  anatomists  who  worked  outside  of  tion  through  the  invention  of  printing,  and  by 
Italy  we  may  mention  Guldo  Guidi  (Vidus  Vidius)  of  the  schism  of  the  Church  brought  about  ov  Luther. 
Florence  (d.  1569),  until  1531  professor  at  Paris;  his  Authority,  both  ecclesiastical  and  civil,  had  been  con- 
successor  FranQois  Jacques  Duools  (Sylvius,  d.  1551),  siderably  weakened.  The  investigations  of  Vesalius 
and  GOnther  von  Andemach  (1487-1574),  professor  at  probably  dealt  the  most  serious  blow  to  the  teaching 
Lou  vain.  The  two  latter  were  the  teacners  of  the  of  Galen,  but  it  was  neither  the  first  nor  the  only  one; 
great  reformer  of  anatomjr,  Andreas  Vesalius  (q.  v.).  for  even  before  Vesalius'  critics  had  attacked  the 

Vesalius  (b.  1514),  studied  at  Louvain,  Montpellier,  theories  of  Galen  and  the  Arabs,  although  not  quite  so 
and  Psuis,  and  then  became  imperial  field-surgeon,  energetically  as  the  anatomists  attacked  them.  The 
His  eagerness  to  learn  went  so  far  that  he  stole  corpses  chief  representatives  of  these  times  down  to  the  end  of 
from  the  gallows  to  work  on  at  night  in  his  room.  He  the  sixteenth  century  can  be  classed  respectively  into 
soon  became  convinced  of  the  weakness  and  falsity  of  anti-Galenists  or  anti-Arabists  and  positive  Hippo- 
the  anatomy  of  Galen.  His  anatomical  demonstra-  cratics.  The  climax  of  this  revolution  was  reached 
tions  on  the  cadaver,  which  he  performed  in  several  on  the  appearance  of  Theophrastus  Paracelsus  and  his 
cities  and  which  attracted  attention,  soon  earned  him  adherents,  although  the  Italian  schools  remained  un- 
a  call  to  Padua  where  he  had  recently  graduated  and  influencea  by  this.  The  phvsician  and  philosopher, 
where,  with  some  interruptions,  he  taiight  from  1539  Geronimo  Cardano  of  Milan  (1501-76),  attacked  prin- 
to  1546.  His  chief  work,  De  corporis  humani  fabrica  dpally  Galen's  explanation  of  the  origin  of  catarrns  of 
libri  vii",  \7hich  appeared  at  Basle  in  1543,  brought  the  brain,  and  also  the  validity  of  the  therapeutical 
him  ffesL\,  fame,  but  lil:ewise  aroused  violent  hostility,  principle,  Contraria  corUrariis  curarUur.  Similar  was 
especially  on  the  part  of  his  former  teacher,  Svlvi\:s.  the  tendency  shown  by  Bernardino  Telesio  of  Placenta 
Tne  supreme  service  of  Vesalius  is  that  he  for  tne  first  (1508-88),  Giovanni  Argenterio  of  Piedmont  (1513- 
time,  with  information  derived  from  the  direct  study  72),  and  the  chancellor  of  Montpellier,  Laurent  Jou- 
of  the  dead  body,  attacked  with  keen  criticism  the  bert  (1529-83),  while  Jean  Femel  (1485-1558),  made 
hitherto  unassailaole  Galen,  and  thi:3  brought  a  out  anattemptuo  modernize  the  system  of  Galen  in  accord^ 
his  overthrow,  for  soon  after  this  serious  weaknesses  ance  T/ith  the  results  of  anatomical  investigation, 
in  other  parts  of  Galen's  medical  science  were  also  di»-  A  lively  exchange  of  opinions  was  caused  by  the 
closed,  vesalius  is  the  founder  of  scientific  anatomy  controversy  on  bleeding,  which  was  begun  by  the 
and  of  the  technique  of  modem  dissection.  Unfortu-  Paris  physician  Pierre  Brissot  (1478-1522).  Brissot 
nately,  he  himselt  destroyed  a  part  of  his  manuscripts  assailed  the  Arabian  doctrine  that  inflammatory  dis- 
on  learning  that  his  enemies  intended  to  submit  nis  eases,  especially  pleurisy,  should  be  treated  by  bleed- 
work  to  ecclesiastical  censure.  While  engaged  on  a  ing  on  tne  side  opposite  to  the  seat  of  inflammation, 
pilgrimage,  he  received  word  in  Jerusalem  of  hii;  re-  and  favoured  the  Hippocratic  doctrine  of  bleeding  as 
appointment  as  professor  in  Padua,  but  he  was  ship-  near  as  possible  to  it.  The  controvert  was  decided 
wrecked  in  Zant  and  died  there  in  great  need  on  15  in  favour  of  the  Hippocratics,  who  did  not  discard 
October,  1565.  the  doctrines  of  Galen  as  long  as  they  agreed  with 

The  authority  of  Galen  was,  however,  still  so  deep-  Hippocratic  views,  but  rejected  the  principles  of 
rooted  among  physicians  that  Vesalius  foimd  oppo-  Galen  as  modifiea  by  the  Arabs.  This  is  clearly 
nents  even  among  his  own  more  intimate  pupils.  Never-  shown  by  the  importance  attached  to  the  state  (x 
theless,  the  path  which  he  had  pointed  out  was  further  the  pulse  and  of  the  urine,  upon  which  the  Arabs 
explored  and  anatomy  enriched  by  new  discoveries,  laid  much  more  stress  than  the  Greeks.  Of  the 
His  immediate  successors  as  teacher  in  Padua  were,  great  number  of  positive  Hippocratics  let  us  call 
in  1546,  Realdo  Colombo  (d.  1569),  later  professor  in  attention  to  the  above-mentioned  de  Monte,  who 
Rome,  the  discoverer  of  the  lesser  dreulation  of  the  introduced  clinical  instruction  in  Padua;  to  his  sue- 
blood(pulmonarycirculation),d.  1569;  from  1551  the  cessors  Vellore  Trincavclla  (1496-1568),  Albertino 
versatile  Gabriele  Fallopio  (1523-62),  an  admirer  of  Bottoni  (d.  about  1596),  Marco  deeli  Oddi  (d.  1598, 
Vesalius,  who  among  other  things  described  the  organ  Giovanni  Manardo  (1462-1526),  rrospero  Alpino 
of  hearing;  Girolamo  Fabrizio  of  Acquapendente  (1533-1617);  to  the  Spaniards,  Crist^oal  de  Vega 
(Fabr.  ab  Aquapendente,  1537-1619),  who  worked  in  (1510-about  1580),  and  Luis  Mercado  (1520-1606) ; 
the  field  of  enibryogeny  and  studied  carefully  the  to  the  Frenchman  Guillaume  Baillou  (Ballonius,  1538- 
valves  in  the  veins,  and  finally  Giulio  Casserio  (1561-  1616) ;  to  the  Netherlanders,  Peter  Foreest  (1522-97) 
1619),  who  published  a  series  of  anatomic:!  charts.  A  and  Jan  van  Heume  (1543-1601),  who  will  be  men- 
similar  undertaking  was  planned  by  Bartolommeo  tioned  subsequently;  Franz  Emerich  (1496-1560),  the 
Eustacchi  at  the  Sapienza  in  Rome,  but  he  died  before  organizer  of  clinical  instruction  at  Vienna;  Johann 
the  completion  of  the  work  in  1574.  Pope  Clement  Crato  of  Crafftheim  (1519-85),  and  Johann  Schenck 
XI  (1700-21)  caused  his  physician-in-ordinary,  Gio-  von  Grafenberg  (1530-98).  Epidemiological  works 
vanni  Maria  Landsi,  to  prmt  the  rediscovered  copper-  were  written  by  Antonio  Brassavola  (1500-55)  on 


productions  of  Italy,  the  anatomical  activity  of  Geiv  sweat";  and  the  Viennese  physician,  Thomas  Jor- 
manic  countries  appears  slight.  It  was  considered  danus  (1540-85),  on  purple  or  petechial  fever, 
sufficient  at  the  universities,  if  a  surgeon  now  and  then  Theophrastus  Paracelsus.  His  Adherents  and 
dissected  a  corpse,  while  a  physician  explained  the  Opponents. — Theophrastus  Bombast  of  Hohen- 
f unctions  of  the  different  organs.  The  only  laudable  heim  (Paracelsus),  the  son  of  a  physiciaiip  was  bom 
exceptions  were  two  physicians  who  rendered  services  near  Einsiedeln,  Switzerland,  in  1493.  In  1506  he 
both  to  anatomy^  and  botany — Felix  Platter  (1536-  went  to. the  University  of  Basle;  from  Trithemius  he 
1614).  professor  in  Basle,  and  his  successor,  luispar  learned  chemistry  and  metallurgy  in  the  smeltine 
Bauhmus  (1560-1624),  the  discoverer  of  the  valve  in  houses  at  Schwas  (Tyrol),  and  he  visited  the  principal 
the  cGscum  named  after  him  (Bauhin's  valve).  universities  of  Italy  and  J^rance.  In  1526  he  became 
The  Opponents  op  Galen  and  the  Arabs. — Vio-  town  physician  of  Basle,  and^  could  as  such  give  lec- 
lent  attacks  upon  ancient  traditions  were  not  confined  tures.  nis  first  appearance  is  characteristic  of  hiia 
to  the  domain  of  medicine,  but  also  found  expression  He  publicly  burned  the  works  of  Avicenna  and  Galen 
in  the  general  upheaval  caused  by  Humanists,  by  the  and  showed  respect  only  to  the  "Aphorisms"  of  Hip- 
discovery  of  new  countries,  by  the  opening  up  of  new  pocrates.    He  was  the  nrst  to  give  lectures  in  the  Ger- 


KXDICINK 


131 


HXDICINI 


man  Unguage.     But,  as  early  as  1528,  he  was  com-  Discovebt  op  the  Cibcui^tion  of  trk  Blood: 

MUed,  on  accoumt  of  the  hostility  he  evoked,  to  leave  Wiluau  Harvet  and  his  Tiue. — Galen's  theory,  ao- 

Basie    secretly.     After    this    be    travelled    through  cording  to  which  the  left  heart  and  the  arteries  coO' 

Tarious  countries  working  constantly  at  his  aumerouB  tained  air,  the  blood  being  generated  in  the  liver,  bad 

writings,   until  death  overtook  him  at  Sahsbuig  in  long  been  regarded  as  improbable,  but  in  spite  of  every 

1514.     Faracelaua,  like  a  blazing  meteor,  rose  and  effort  no  one  had  as  yet  discovered  the  truth  about 

disappeared;   he  shared  the  fate  of  those  who  have  a  circulation.     The   solution   of   this   problem,   which 

violent  desire  to  destroy  the  old  without  having  any  brought  about  a  complete  fall  of  Galen's  system  and  a 

substitute   to   offer.     Passing   over   his   philosophic  revolution  in  phyaiology,  came  from  the  English  physi- 

views,  which  were  based  upon  neo-Platonism,  we  find  "--..-         ^                 ,  „  ..    .          , 
practicat  medicine  indebted  to  him  in  various  ways, 
e.  g.  for  the  theory  of  the  causes  of  disease  (ettoloe  ' 
for  the  introductioii  of  chemical  therapeutics,  ana  .  __ 

his  insistence  on  tiie  usefulness  of  mineral  waters  and  return  to  the  heart,  at  first  receive^  scant  notice  and 

Dative  vegetable  drugs.    He  exaggerates  indeed  the  was  even  directly  opposed  by  Galen's  adherents;  but 

value  of  experience.     His  classification  and  diagnosis  further   investigation   soon   made   truth   victorious. 

of  diseases  are  quite  unscientific,  anatomy  and  physi-  Even  as  early  as  1622,  Gaspare  Aselli    (1581-1623) 

oloey  being  wholly  neglected.     He  thought  that  for  found  the  chyle  veaseb,  but  correct  explanation  was 

each  disease  there  should  exist  a  specific  remedy,  and  possible  only  after  the  discovery  of  the  thoracic  duct 

that  to  discover  this  is  the  chief  object  of  medical  art.  [ductvi  thoraeius)  and  its  opcnbg  into  the  circulation 

With  him  diagnosis  hung  upon  the  success  of  this  or  by  Jean  Focquet  (1622-74)  and  Johann  van  Home 

that  remedy,  and  because  oE  this  he  (1621-70),  and  of  the  lymphatic 


jiphyait__,^ „-     .    ,- 

cian  William   Harvey  of  Folkstone   (1678-1657),  a 
pupil  of  Fabricius  ab  Aquapendente.    Harvey's  dis- 


naroed  the  diseases  according  to 
tbeir  specific  remediea.  Directly 
repudiated  by  the  Italian  schools, 
Paracelsus  found  adherents  mainly 
in  Germany,  among  them  being  the 
Wittenberg  professor  Oswald  Croll 
(about  1560-1609).  He  also  found 
numerous  friends  among  the  travel- 
ling physicians  and  quacks.  His 
teachings  met  with  the  most  hostile 
teeeption  from  the  Paris  faculty.  Al- 
though the  further  procress  of  anat- 
omy and  physiology  indicated  clearly 
to  physicians  the  nght  path,  we  meet 
even  in  the  eighteenth  and  nine- 
teenth centuries  with  two  men  who 
start  directly  from  Faraeelsus: 
Samuel  Friedrich  Hahnemann  (1755- 
1843) ,  the  originator  of  homixopathy, 
and  Johann  Gottfried  Rademacher 
(1772-1850),   advocate    of   empiri-   Bahoh  Jbi 


selE  by  Olaus  Rudbeck  (1630-1702) 
and  Thomas  Bartholinus  (1616-80). 
A  new  field  of  investigation  was 
opened  by  the  invention  of  the  micro- 
scope, by  which  Marcello  Malpiehi 
(1628-94)  discovered  the  smaller 
blood-vessels  and  the  blood  corpus- 
cles. From  Harvey's  time  staits  a 
series  of  important  anatomists  and 
physiologists,  among  them  the  Eng- 
lisbmen  Thomas  Wharton  (161*- 
73;  gUnds)  and  Thomas  Willis  (1621 
-75;  brain) ;  the  Netherlanders  Peter 
Paaw  (1564-1617),  his  pupil  Niko- 
las Piet«rz  Tulp  (1593-1678),  both 
teachers  of  anatomy  at  Leyden,  and 
Antony  van  Leeuwenhoek  (1632- 
1723)  and  Johann  Swammerdam 
(1647-80),  microscopists;  Reinier  de 
Graaf  (1641-73;  ovary);  Nikolaua 
jt-NicBoi.AB  ■)■  CoHTiHABT  Stcuo  of  Copenhagen  (1638-86),  and 

(lTift-iB2i)  the  Germans,  Morii  Hofman  (1621 

StTKGERT  IN  THE  Sixteenth  CENTtmr:  Aubiioibe    -98)   and   George  Wirsung,  who   investigated   the 
Par^. — The  first  fruits  of  the  progreaa  in  anatomy    pancreas. 

were  enjoyed  by  surgery,  especially  since  most  Italian  lATBOPHrsiciBTB  and  Iatsochemists. — The  doo- 
anatomists  were  practical  surgeons.  After  the  intro-  trine  of  the  circulation  is  based  to  a  large  extent  upon 
ductioD  of  fire-arms  in  war,  the  treatment  of  gunshot  the  laws  of  physics.  Consequently  among  a  number 
wounds  was  especially  studied.  While  siu^ry  had  of  physicians,  influenced  by  the  works  of  Alfonso 
always  enjoyed  a  high  rank  in  Italy  and  France,  in  Borelli  (1608-78)  on  animal  motion,  there  was  a 
Germany  it  was  in  the  bands  of  barbers  and  surgeons,  marked  effort  to  explain  all  physiological  processes 
Unetmnected  with  the  universities  and  poorly  edu-  according  to  the  laws  of  physics  iiatrophysiciste). 
caled;  hence  it  is  readily  understood  why  the  best  Opposed  to  them  was  a  party,  whicn,  innuenced  by 
wuTgeoaa  lived  in  the  cities  nearest  the  Romance  coun-  the  prepress  in  chemistry,  sought  to  make  use  of  it  for 
tries,  especially  Strasbuig.  With  the  member  of  the  explainmg  medical  (acts  (iatrochemisls).  This  ten- 
Teutonic  Older,  Hcinrich  vonPfolspeundt  ("BOndth-    dencygoes  back  to  Paracelsus  and  hisadhcrent  Johann 

Ertiney",  1460),  the  most  importMit  representatives     " — *"'  "-' ^   '"■">  .->..»      n-. ..    —t-- 

were  tliie  Strasburg  suiveous,  Hieronymus  Brunschwig 
(d.  about  1534),  and  Hans  von  Gersdorff  ("Feldtbuch 
derWundtartaney",  1517).  Their  equal  was  a  some- 
what younger  man,  Felix  WQrtz  of  Basle  (1518-74). 
We  are  indebted  to  the  French  field-surgeon  Am- 
lise  Par£  for  a  marked  change  in  the  treatment  of 
ishot  wounds  and  arterial  hemorrhage.  He  aban- 
__jed  the  Arabic  method  of  work  with  a  red-hot  knife, 
declared  that  supposedly  poisoned  gunshot  wounds 
were  simple  contused  wounds,  and  proceeded  to  ban- 
dage tbem  without  using  hot  oil.  He  was  the  first  to 
employ  the  ligature  in  the  case  of  arterial  hemorrhage. 


Baptist  von  Hehnont  (1578-1644).  Helmont,  who 
was  an  important  chemist  (the  discoverer  of  carbonic 
acid),  reciiniied  the  importance  of  anatomy,  and  de- 
serves credit  for  his  work  in  therapeutics,  alUiough  his 
failure  to  appraise  the  needs  of  his  time  prevented  his 

._   __.   __   .    _._   ..    .    .      _..     .     „  doctrinefrominfluencingthedevelopmentofmedicine. 

broise  Par£  for  a  marked  change  in  the  treatment  of  latrophysics  was  cultivated  mainly  in  Italy  and  £ng- 
Kunshot  wounds  and  arterial  hemorrhage.  He  aban-  land;  iatrocbemistry  in  the  Netneriands  and  Ger- 
dooed  the  Arabic  method  of  work  with  a  red-hot  knife,  many.  The  chief  adherent  of  iatrophysios  in  Italy 
was  Giorgio  Baglivi(d.  1707),  professorat  the  Sapienia 
in  Rome;  in  ptactical  medicine,  however,  he  held 
mainly  to  Hippocratic  principles,  while  the  Bi^iisb- 
Arcbibald  Pitcaim  (1652-1713),  tried  to  follow 


Next  to  him  in  importance  stands  Pierre  Franco  out  latrophysics  to  its  utmost  consequences, 

(about  1580),  known  as  the  perfecter  of  the  operation  Owing  to  the  greater  prtwress  made  in  physios, 

of  lithotomy  and  that  (or  nemia.     Gaspare  Taglia-  iatrocbemistry  found  fewer  foUoweis,  and  that  it  toc^ 

cosii  of  Bologna  (154S-99)  deserves  credit  for  reintro-  root  at  all  is  the  service  of  its  chief    representative 

ducing  and  improving  the aiu;ient  plastic  operations.  In  Frani  de  le  BoS  Sylvius  (1614-72),  who  in  105S  be- 

the  sixteenth  century  the  Cesarean  operation  (Sectio  came  professor  of  practical  medicine  at  I^den.    At 

i,  laparotomy)  was  performed  on  living  persons,  theschoolthere,  founded  in  1&7S,  Jan  van  Heume  had 


132  BSEDXCINS 

already  tried  to  establish  a  clinic  after  the   Paduan  pital,  who  was  celebrated  as  a  practitioner  and  as  the 

model,  but  it  was  not  till  1637  that  his  son  Otto  was  author  of  a  work,  unequalled  until  then  T"  System 

able  to  cany  out  his  scheme.    The  immediate  sue-  einer  yoUst&ndigen  medisinischen  Polizey '',  1779- 

oessors  of  the  latter,  Albert  Kyper  (d.  1658),  and  1819). 

Ewald  Schrevelius  (1576-1646^,  continued  this  insti-        Among   important   practitioners   outside   of  the 

tution  in  the  Hippocratic  spirit.    Before  Sylvius  be-  school  of  Leyden  were:  the  papal  physician-in-onii- 

gan  to  teach  there,  the  Levden  clinic  had  already  nary,  Giovanni  Biaria  Lands!  (1654-1720),  who  estab- 

gained  world-wide  fame.    One  of  the  first  adherents  lished  a  clinic  in  Rome  after  the  model  of  Leyden; 

of  Harvey,  Sylvius,  depending  in  part  on  Paracelsus  Giovanni  Battista  Bonder!  (Burserius  de  Kanilfeld, 

and  Helmont,  sought  to  explain  physiological  pro-  1725-85),  professor  at  Pavia;    James  KeiU  (1673- 

oesses  by  suggesting  fermentation  (molecular  motion  1718);    Kichard   Mead    (1673-1754);    John  fVeind 

of  matter)  and  ''vital  spirits''  as  movii^  forces.  (1675-1728,  smallpox);  John  Pringle  (1707-82)  and 

Through  "effervescence''  acid  and  alkaline  juices  are  John  Huxham  (1694-1768),  investi^tors  in  epidemi- 

formed,  and  through  their  abnormal  mixture  hyper-  ology;  John  Fothergill  (1712-80;  diphtheria  and  in- 

acidit]^  and  hyperalkalinity  (i.  e.  sickness)  originate,  termittent  fever).    Albrecht  von  Haller  developed 

This  simple  doctrine,  supported  by  the  clinical  activ-  an  important  school  in  GOttingen  as  van  Swieten  nad 

ity  of  Sylvius,  foimd  numerous  adherents  especially  done  m  Vienna.    The  first  members  of  the  GOttin^n 

in  Germani^;   but  it  made  just  as  many  opponents  school  were:   Paul  Gottlieb  Werlhof  (1699-1767;  in- 

among  the  iatrophysicists,  wno  were  able  to  refute  in  termittent  fever)  and  Johann  Georg   Zinmiermann 

part  these  imtenable  hvpotheses.    The  two  theories  (1728-95). 

are,  however,  not  absolutely  opposed  to  each  other,  Anatomt  in  thb  Eighteenth  Centubt. — ^During 
for  both  physics  and  chemistry  offer  the  means  neces-  this  period  normal  and  pathological  anatomy  were 
saiy  for  an  explanation  of  physiological  processes,  more  cultivated  than  microscopy.  The  greater  num- 
and  may  form  the  basis  for  the  construction  of  an  ber  of  investigators  that  we  have  to  consider  won  fame 
exact  medical  science.  At  this  time,  however,  physics  in  the  field  of  surgery.  Starting  from  the  school  of 
and  chemistry  (especially  the  latter)  were  still  too  Leyden  the  foUowing  anatomists  deserve  mention: 
little  developed  for  this  purpose,  and  therefore  the  Govert  Bidloo  (1649-1713)  and  Bemhard  Sigmund 
endeavour  to  create  a  system  is  much  more  appar-  Albinus  (1697-1770;  anatomical  charts);  in  Amster- 
ent  among  the  iatrochemists.  Fortunately,  the  two  dam.  Friedrich  Ruysch  (1638-1721),  and  Pieter  Cam- 
parties  found  a  common  point  of  union  in  practical  per  (1722-89),  the  inventor  of  craniometry  and  of  the 
medicine,  where  the  doctrines  of  the  Hippocratic  elastic  truss  for  hernia;  in  Italy,  Antonio  Maria  Val- 
school  were  predominant.  salva  (1666-1723;  eye  and  ear)  and  Giovanni  Do- 
PioNEEBa  IN  Practical  Mbdicinb:  Thoicab  Sti>-  menico  Santorini  (1681-1737);  in  Paris,  the  Dane 
BNHAM  AND  HERMANN  BoERHAVE. — Both  renoimcc  JiU^ob  Bcuignus  WiuslOw  (1669-1760;  topographical 
all  systems,  and  lay  most  stress  upon  the  perfection  d  anatomy) ;  in  England,  James  Douf^  (1675-1742; 
practical  medicine.  Thomas  Sydenham  (1624-89),  peritoneum);  Alexander  Munroe  (1732-1817;  bursa 
physician  at  Westminster  and  known  as  the '' English  mucosa),  and  William  (1718-83)  and  John  Hunter 
Hippocrates",  laid  down  the  principle  that,  just  as  in  (1728-93)  both  known  also  as  surgeons;  finally  in 
the  natural  sciences,  so  in  medicine  the  mductive  Germany^  the  anatomist,  surgeon,  and  botanist, 
method  should  be  authoritative.  The  main  object  of  Lorens  Heister  (1683-1758),  Johann  Friedrich  Meckel 
medicine,  healing,  would  be  possible  only  when  the  (1724-74*  nerves);  Johann  Gottfried  Zinn  (1727-59; 
changes  lying  at  the  root  of  disease  and  the  laws  eye);  Jonann  Nathanael  LieberkQhn  (1711-65;  in- 
governing  its  course  had  been  investigated.  Then  testine);  Heinrich  August  Wrisberg  (1739-1808; 
also  would  the  proper  remedies  be  foimd.  Following  laiynx),  and  Samuel  Thomas  SOmmering  (1755- 
the  idea  of  Hippocrates,  he  seeks  the  cause  of  disease  1830).  Abnormal  anatomical  changes  in  organs 
in  the  change  m  the  fundamental  humours  (humoral  had  been  recorded  since  the  time  of  Vesalius,  but 
pathology).  The  activity  of  the  physician  was  mainly  these  were  for  the  most  part  merely  incidental 
to  assist  **  nature  "•  A  man  of  the  same  intellectual  observations,  and  nobody  had  tried  to  trace  sys- 
build  as  Sydenham  was  Hermann  Boerhave  (1668-  tematically  the  connexion  between  them  and  the 
1738).  the  most  famous  practitioner  of  his  time,  who  in  sjrmptoms  occurring  in  the  living  body.  The  best 
1720  became  clinical  professor  at  Leyden.  Being  an  survey  of  the  achievements  of  the  earlier  centuries  is 
iatrophysicist,  he  regards  Hippocratism  as  able  to  live  offered  in  T^eophil  Bonet's  **  Sepulchretum  anatomi- 
only  if  the  results'  of  investigation  in  anatomy,  physi-  cum"  (1709).  As  the  scientific  rounder  of  pathologi- 
ology,  physics,  and  chemistry  are  properly  utilised,  cal  anatomy  we  must  mention  Giovanni  Battista  Mor- 
He  tries  to  explain  most  physiological  processes  as  gagni  (1682-1771),  professor  at  Padua,  whose  famous 
purely  mechamcal.  In  contradistinction  to  the  two  work.  "De  sedibus  et  causis  morfoorum"  (1761), 
professors  of  Halle,  Friedrich  Hoffmann  (1660-1742)  usually  contains,  besides  the  restdts  of  post-mortem 
and  George  Ernst  Stahl  (1660-1734),  of  whom  the  examinations,  a  corresponding  history  of  the  diseases, 
former  supposed  the  ether  (Leibniz's  doctrine  of  This  field  was  cultivated  in  France  espedallv  by 
monads)  and  the  latter  the  "soul"  to  be  the  moving  Joseph  Lieutaud  (1703-80)  and  Vicq  d'Asyr  (1748- 
power,  Boerhave  did  not  care  at  all  about  anv  moving  94),  and  in  Leyden  by  Eduard  Sandifort  (1742-1814). 
torce  that  might  possibly  be  present.  With  his  death  Germanv  had  an  important  investigator  in  the  days 
Leyden  lost  its  importance  as  a  nursery  of  medicine,  before  Morgagni,  vis.,  Johann  Jakob  Wepfer  in  Schuf- 
His  illustrious  pupil  and  conunentator,  Gerhard  van  hausen  (1620-95).  In  Vienna,  autopsies  on  those  who 
Swieten  ^1700-72),  was  called  as  teacher  to  Vienna  in  died  in  the  clinic  were  first  regularly  made  by  Anton 
1745,  ana  there  laid  the  foundation  of  the  fame  of  the  de  Haen.  For  a  strictly  enirstematic  treatment  of  the 
school  whose  most  important  representatives  are  An-  whole  field  we  are  indebted  to  the  London  physician, 
ton  de  Haen  (1704-76)  and  his  successor  as  teacher,  Biatthew  Baillie  (1761-1823),  who  published  the  first 
Kaximilian  Stoll  (1742-88).  Under  the  e^e  of  van  pictorial  work  on  pathological  anatomy. 
Swieten  and  de  Haen,  but  without  recogmtion  from  Surgery  in  the  Seventeenth  and  Eightbsnih 
them,  a  simple  hospital  physician,  Leopold  Auenbrug-  Centuries. — The  eminent  surgeons  of  the  seven- 
ger  (1722-1809),  published  his  epoch-making  discovery  teenth  oenturv  are:  Cesare  Bfagati  (1579-about  1648), 
that,  by  striking  or  rapping  on  the  chest  (percussion),  professor  in  Ferrara  and  later  a  Capuchin  monk,  who 
disease  of  the  lungs  and  heart  may  be  diagnosed  from  simplified  the  treatment  of  wounas;  Marc'  Aurelio 
the  various  sounds  elicited  by  such  percussion.  An  Severino  (1580-1656;  treatment  of  abscesses,  resecUon 
hnportant  member  of  the  Vienna  school  was  Johann  of  ribs);  the  already  mentioned  anatomist,  Fabrisio 
Feter  Frank  (1745-1821),  director  of  the  general  hoa-  ab  Aquapendente  (re-intioduotioQ  of  traeheotomy. 


HEDICm                                133  IBDICDn 

fanproremeDt  of  benuototOT) ;  AntonJo  (Sued  (about  tific  lud  waa  sadly  lacking.  PbymcAogy  for  the  first 
1650;  re-introduetion  of  litnotripsy);  in  France,  Bai^  time  received  ayatenutic  treatment  at  tne  hands  of  the 
tholomteua  Saviard  (1656-1702;  digital  compresaion  versatile  schdar,  Albrecht  von  Haller  of  Bern  (170S- 
of  arteriea),  Jacques  Beaulieu  (1651-1714),  a  travel-  77),  professor  in  GAttingen  from  1737  to  1753  (Ele- 
liag  surgeon  and  later  a  hermit  (Frfere  Jacques),  who  menta  phyaiologji,  1757-66).  Haller,  a  pupil  of  AI- 
improved  the  method  of  lateral  Uthotomy,  and  buelped  binus  and  Boerhave,  was  the  first  to  recognize  the  im- 
people  for  a  "God-ble«9-you";  in  Amsterdam,  Abra-  portance  of  experiments  on  animals.  We  are  indebted 
nam  Cypri&nus  (about  1695;  lithotomy).  The  most  t«i  him  for  the  best  description  of  the  vascular  system 
important  German  surgeon  is  Wilhelm  Fab^  of  Hil-  and  for  studies  in  luBmodynamics,  in  whi(^  field,  how- 
den  (Fabridus  Hildanus,  1560-1634 ;  simplified  treat-  ever,  the  English  clergyman,  Stephen  Hales  (d.  1761), 
ment  erf  wounds,  amputation);  ne:ct  to  uim  Johann  had  already  broken  the  soil.  He  correctly  recogniiea 
Schultes  (Schult«tus,  1595-1646),  author  of  "Arma  themechanismof  respiratioD  without  being  able  to  in- 
mentarium  chinirgicum ",  and  Uatthlas  Gottfried  vestigate  its  physiological  importance  (exchange  of 
Purmana  (1648-1721;  field  surgery).  Of  English  gases),  since  Joseph  Priestley  did  not  discover  oxygen 
surgeons  Richard  Wiseman,  (about  1652;  amputa-  until  1774.  He  disproved  tue  view  tliat  there  was  air 
tion,  compression  of  aneurisms),  John  Woodall  (about  between  the  lungs  and  the  pleura  by  a  simple  experi- 
1613),  and  Lowdham  (^>out  1679)  are  tlie  most  emi-  ment  on  animals.  HaUcr  became  best  known  throui^ 
nent.  the  discovery  of  irritability  and  sensibility.     When 

In  the  eighteenth  century  Buigeiy  was  essentially  external  stimuli  are  apntiod  to  tissues,  especially  mua- 

stimulated  by  the  numerous  ware;    in  France  also  clee^  the  latter  react  either  by  contracting  and  moving 

through  the  establishment  of  an  academy  in  1731  by  Qmtability),  or  by  experiencing  a  sensation  or  sense  <» 

Georges  Mar^hal(ie5S-1736)  and  pain    (sensibility),   or   at  times  by 

Fran;<Ms  Gigot  de  la  Peyronie  (1678  Doth.     Sensibility  disappears  when 

-1747).      Ol  Frenchmen    we   must  the    coneaponding    nerve    is    cut, 

also  name  Jean  Louis  Petit  (1674-  while  irritability  persists  indepen- 

1750),   the  inventor  of  the    screw  dent  of  the  nerves  and  even  con- 

touraiquet,  Henri  Francois  le  Dran  tdnues  some  time  aft«r  death.    This 

(1685-1770;  Uthotomy,   laceiationa  theory  met   with  great  opposition, 

ot  acalp),    Pierre    Joseph   Boucher  specially  among  the  practical  ph^- 

(1715-93;    amputation);   Toyssaint  (ncians  (Anton  de  Haen),  who  did 

Bordenave  (1728-82;  amputation),  not,  however,  take  the  trouble  to  re- 

Antoine  Louis  (1723-92;  operation  peat  the  experiments  on  animals. 

for  baT«-lip,  bronchotomy,  simpUfi-  Even  though  Haller  knew  neither 

cation  of  instruments),  Pierre  the  central  cauae  of  the  two  phe- 

Joeeph   Deaault   (1744-95,   founder  nomena,  nor  the  correct  structure  of 

of  the  Paris  surgical  clinic,  ligature  the  tissues,  it  nevertheless  stands  to 

of  vessels,   treatment  of  aneurism,  his  eternal  credit  that  he  was  the 

dislocations,   fractures),  Frangoia  first  to  point  out  tlie  facta  and  open 

Cbopart  (1743-95,  methodsofampu-  up  new  roads  for  physiology.      Hal- 

tatjon),  and  finally  the  monk  and  ler's     investigation    was    generally 

lithotomist  Fr^re  CAme  (Jean  de  St.  welcomed,    especially   in    Italy  by 

Conne,  Baseilhac,  1703-81),  the  in-  Abbate  Lazzaro  Spallanzani  (1729- 
ventor  of  the  Iithotome-caeh6.          Babon  QdiumAuiib  Dufuttskn         99),  the  first  scientific  opponent  of 

The   founder    of    modem    English                         (1777-I83S)  spfmtaneous  generation.  Hisexperi- 

surgery   is   William   Cheselden    (1688-1752;     lateral  menta  along  the  lines  of  artificialfertillzation  of  frogs' 

lithotwny,   artificial   pupil).     Samuel   Shaip   (about  eggs,  and  concerning  digestion   are  famous.     Fefiee 

1700-78)  wrote  a  text-book;  William  Bromfield  (1712  Fontana  (1730-1805),  repeating  the  experiments  con- 

-92),  invented  an  artery-retraetor  and  the  double  gop-  coming  irritability,  reached  the  same  results  as  Haller, 

geret;    and  Percival  Pott  (1713-83)  established  the  Wilham  Hewson  (1729-74)  studied  the  qualities  of 

doctrine   of   arthrocace   (malum  potti).      The   most  the  blood  (coagulation).     The  most  important  Gei^ 

eminent  and   versatile  surgeon  is  the  already-men-  man   physiologist  after  Haller  is  Kasper  Friedrich 

tioned  John  Hunter  (treatment  of  aneurisms,  theory  Wolff  (1735-94),  known  for  his  investigations  in  the 

of   inflammation,   gunshot   wounds,   miiulis).     Sur-  field  of  evolution  and  for  pointing  out  the  tact  that 

gery  was  on  a  much  lower  plane  in  the  Germanic  coun-  both  animals  and  plante  are  composed  of  the  same 

tries.     Forthebetter  training  of  the  Prussian  military  elements,  which  he  called  little  "bubbles"  or  "glob- 

Burgeoos   and   on   the   proposal  of  Surgeon-General  uks".    Joseph  Priestley's  discovery  of  "dephlogisti- 

Enut  Konrad  HolttendorR  (16S8-1761),   there  was  cated  ur"  (1774),  as  oxygen  was  then  called,  was  of 

founded  in  Berhn  a  Coliegium  medico-chirurgicum  in  the   highest  importance  in  the  development  of  the 

1714;  later  in  1726  the  Charity  school,  and  in  1795  the  theory  of  respiration,  of  the  process  <^  tissue^eoom- 

PepiniJre   academy.     Surgery   made   great   progress  position,  of  formation  of  the  blood,  and  of  metabolio 

through  Johann   Zacharias  Platner   (1694-1747)   at  phenomena. 

Leipzig;  Johann  Ulrich  Bilguer  (1720-96)  and  Chris-  Medical  Stbtems  in  the  EiOHTBENTHCENmRT. — 
tian  Ludwig  Hursiima  (1744-1833)  at  Berhn;  Karl  The  three  great  discoveries  in  the  second  half  of  the 
Kaaper  Siebold  (1736-1807)  at  Wflrzburg,  and  eape-  century  (oxygen,  ^vanism,  and  irritability),  con- 
dally  through  August  Gottlob  Richter  (1742-1812)  at  trary  to  what  one  might  expect,  led  scientists  astray, 
GOttingen  (sargiiil  library).  A  school  for  miUtary  and  gave  rise  to  systems  whoee  foundations  were  of^a 
eurgeona  was  founded  at  Vieima  in  ]775atthesugge»-  purelyhypotheticalnature.  Especially  interesting  are 
IjoQ  of  Anton  SMJrck  (1731-1803),  ten  years  after  the  neuro-pathological  theories,  connected  to  some 
which  was  established  the  Joaephinum  academy,  extent  with  irritability.  William  Cullen  (1712-90), 
under  the  direction  of  the  army  8urgeon-in-ohief  accepting  irritability  as  his  starting-point,  supposes  a 
Johann  Alexander  von  Brambilla  (1728-1800).  "tonus"  or  fluid  inherent  in  the  nerves  (Newton'a 

Stddt  or  Phtsioloot  :    Albrbcht  von   Hallbk  ether),  whose  stronger  or  weaker  motions    produce 

4in>  Hie  Time. — The  great  discoveries  in  the  field  irf  either  a  spasm  or  atony.     In  addition  "weakness"  of 

growand  minute  (microscopic)  anatomy  naturally  im-  the  brain  and  "vital  power"  played  a  great  part  in  his 

pdled  men  to  investigate  also  the  vital  functions,  but  explanation  of  diseases.     Cullen's  pupil,  John  Brown 

the  reaulta  ol  the  efforts  of  both  latrophydciBta  and  (about  1735-88),  modified  this  doctrine  by  explaining 

latroehemistB  were  far  from  aatisfaotory,  since  sden-  that  all  living  creatures  possess  excitability,  located  in 


MBDICINX 


134 


MBDICINX 


the  nerves  and  muscles,  which  are  excited  to  activity 
by  external  and  internal  influences  {sUmvU).  Dis- 
eases occur  according  to  increase  or  dimunition  of  the 
stimuli  and  excitability,  strong  stimuli  causing  in- 
creased excitability  {sthenia)  and  weak  stimuli  dimin- 
ished excitability  (asthenia).  Death  is  caused  either 
by  an  increase  of  excitability  with  a  lack  of  stimuli,  or 
by  exhaustion  of  excitability  from  too  strong  stimuli. 
Brown's  theory  was  little  noticed  in  England  and 
France,  but  in  Germany  it  was  highly  lauded.  Chris- 
toph  Girtanner  (1760-1800)  and  Joseph  Frank  (1771- 
1^2)  spread  its  fame.  Out  of  this  Brunonianism 
Johann  Andreas  ROschlaub  (1768-1835)  developed 
the  so-called  theory  of  excitability  which  was  so  enei^ 

Sstically  opposed  by  Alexander  von  Humboldt  and 
hristian  Wilhelm  Hufeland  (1762-1836).  Giovanni 
Rasori  (1762-1837),  building  also  on  Brown's  theory, 
developed  his  contra-stimulistic  system,  namely  that 
there  are  influences  which  directly  diminish  excite- 
ment (contra-stimuli)  or  remove  existing  stimuli  (in- 
direct contra-stimuli) ;  he,  therefore,  distinguishes 
two  groups  of  diseases — diathesis  of  the  stimulus  and 
that  of  the  contra-stimulus. 

Another  group  of  systematizers,  the  Vitalists,  bas- 
ing their  views  upon  Stahl's  doctrine  of  the  soul 
(Animism)  and  Haller's  irritability,  consider  vital 
energy  to  be  the  foundation  of  all  organic  processes. 
The  chief  representatives  of  Vitalism,  a  system  de- 
veloped especially  in  France  and  later  predominant  in 
Germany,  are:  Theophile  Bordeu  (1722-76),  Paul 
Joseph  Barthez  (1734-1806),  PhiUppe  Pinel  (1755- 
1826),  Johann  Friedrich  Blumenbach  (1752-1840), 
and  Johann  Christian  Reil  (1759-1813).  But,  while 
these  physicians  adhered  to  Hippocratism  in  practice 
and  (e.  g.  Reil)  were  eminently  active  in  developing 
anatomy  and  physiology,  the  same  may  not  be  said  df 
the  three  Germans,  Mesmer,  Hahnemann,  and  Rade- 
macher,  who  were  the  last  followers  of  Paracelsus. 
The  doctrine  of  animal  magnetism  (Mesmerism),  es- 
tablished by  Friedrich  Anton  Mesmer  (1734-1815),  is 
connected  with  Vitalism  in  so  far  as  Mesmer  presup- 
poses a  magnetic  power  to  exist  in  the  body,  and  ac- 
cordingly tries,  at  first  by  means  of  magnets  and  later 
by  touching  and  stroking  the  body,  to  effect  an  inter- 
change of  forces,  a  transfusion  or  cure.  Mesmer 
through  his  manipulations  very  likely  induced  real 
hypnotic  sleep  in  many  cases.  His  doctrine,  however, 
wluch  at  first  met  with  a  sharp  rebuff  and  was  subse- 
Quently  characterized  in  many  circles  as  a  fraud,  was 
ae^ded  by  his  immediate  followers  to  somnam- 
bulism and  clairvoyance,  and  in  later  times  it  became 
altogether  discredited  from  having  fallen  into  the 
hands  of  quacks.  Nevertheless,  mesmerism  forms  a 
basis  for  hypnotism,  which  in  1841  was  established  by 
James  Braid. 

HomoBopathy,  founded  by  Samuel  Friedrich  Chris- 
tian Hahnemann^  seems  to  have  the  promise  of  a  long 
lease  of  life.  Hahnemann  regards  disease  as  a  dis- 
turbance of  vital  energy.  The  latter  in  itself  has  no 
power  to  heal,  for  a  cure  can  take  place  only  when  a 
similar  severer  disease  simultaneously  occurs.  The 
best  way  to  produce  such  a  disease  is  to  give  highly 
diluted  drugs  which  are  capable  of  producing  a  similar 
set  of  symptoms.  The  rest  of  this  "  drug-disease  "  is 
destroyed  oy  the  vital  energy,  which  is  possible  only 
when  the  doses  are  small.  As  chief  principle,  there- 
fore, Hahnemann  sets  up  the  doctrine  that  like  cures 
like.  Since  he  denies  the  possibility  of  investigating 
the  nature  of  disease,  and  completely  disregaixis  patho- 
logical anatomy,  it  is  necessary  to  know  all  simple 
drugs  which  produce  a  set  of  symptoms  similar  to 
those  of  the  existing  disease.  With  nis  pupils  Hahne- 
mann undertook  the  task  of  testing  the  effects  of  aJl 
simple  drugs,  but  the  result  of  this  gigantic  piece  of 
work  could  not  be  absolutely  objective,  since  it  is 
based  upon  the  purely  subjective  feeling  of  the  experi- 
mentalists.   Never  Before  had  a  ph3r8ieian  bmlt  a 


Sstem  upon  8o  many  purely  arbitrary  hypotb 
Bkhnemann.  Paracelsus  also  had  declared  war  upon 
the  old  medicine,  and  had  attributed  little  value  to 
anatomical  and  physiological  investigation,  which, 
however,  was  still  in  its  initial  period  of  development; 
but,  with  his  reverence  for  Hippocrates,  he  neverthe* 
less  ranks  higher  than  Hahnemann,  who  is  the  repre- 
sentative of  empiricism  and  the  aespiser  of  all  the 
positive  successes  which  medicine  had  previously  at- 
tained. Hahnemann's  more  sensible  pupils  did  not 
follow  their  master  blindly,  but  regaroed  his  method 
as  that  which  under  the  most  favourable  circum- 
stances it  may  be,  viz.,  a  purely  therapeutical  method 
that  does  not  disregard  clinical  science.  To  this  ra- 
tional standpoint,  together  with  eclecticism,  homoe- 
opathy owes  its  long  life  and  wide  dissemination.  One 
service  of  physicians  of  this  school  is  that  they  simpli- 
fied prescriptions,  and  appreciatively  studied  obsolete, 
but  nevertneless  valuable  vegetable  drugs.  Hahne- 
mann's pupil.  Lux,  extended  homoeopathy  to  isother- 
apy,  which  in  modem  times  celebrated  its  renascence 
in  organotherapy.  Widely  removed  from  scientific 
progress  was  tne  ''empincal  medical  doctrine"  of 
Johann  Gottfried  Rademacher  (1772-1850),  which 
is  to-day  completely  discredited.  Starting  from  the 
doctrine  of  nostrums  of  Paracelsus,  he  names  the  dis- 
eases according  to  the  effective  drug  (e.  g.  nux-vomica 
stry china,  liver  disease),  and  classifies  diseases  as 
universal  and  organic  in  accordance  with  universal 
and  organic  drugs.  His  therapeutics  was  a  purely 
empirical  one,  uninfluenced  by  pathology  or  clinical 
diagnosis. 

Some  Special  Branches  of  Medicine  at  the  end 
OP  THE  Eighteenth  Century. — Obstetrics. — ^Down  to 
the  sixteenth  century  obstetrics  was  almost  exclusively 
in  the  hands  of  midwives,  who  were  trained  for  it  as 
for  a  trade.  Only  in  rare  cases  was  a  surgeon  caUed  in. 
All  the  achievements  of  ancient  times  seemed  for- 
gotten, and  it  was  only  after  anatomical  studies  had 
been  resumed  and  surgery  had  made  some  progress 
that  things  began  to  improve.  The  most  important 
accounts  of  the  condition  of  ancient  operative  obstet- 
rics are  found  in  the  Hippocratic  writings  (position  of 
the  child,  version  or  turning,  dismemberment  of  the 
foetus,  parturition  chair  for  facilitating  delivery),  and 
in  later  times  in  the  works  of  Soranus  of  Epnesus 
(second  century  a.  d.;  protection  of  the  perimeum), 
Galen,  Gelsus,  A^tius,  and  in  those  of  the  female  physi- 
cian Trotula  of  Salerno.  The  oldest  book  on  mid- 
wifeiy  in  the  Middle  Ages  (Rosengarten)  was  written 
by  Eucharius  R6slin  (d.  1526),  who,  in  addition  to 
numerous  drugs  assisting  delivery,  mentions  "ver* 
sion".  Version  was  put  into  practice  again  by 
Ambroise  Par6.  In  the  sixteentn  century  attempts 
were  made  to  perform  the  Cesarean  operation  on 
the  living  (Jakob  Nufer,  a  Swiss,  c.  1500):  in  an- 
cient times  it  was  done  only  after  the  death  of  the 
mother.  The  first  work  about  this  operation  was 
published  by  the  Paris  surgeon,  Francois  Rousset 
(1581).  In  the  domain  of  practical  obstetrics,  Giulio 
Casare  Aranzio  (1530-89)  was  the  first  to  point  out 
those  malformations  of  the  pelvis  which  exactly  indi- 
cated the  necessity  for  the  Csesarean  section.  Much 
was  done  to  extend  the  study  of  this  branch  of  medi- 
cine by  the  works  of  Jacques  Guillemeau  (1560-about 
1609),  Scipione  Mereurio  (1595,  German  translation 
by  Gottfried  Welsch,  1653),  Francois  Mauriceau 
(1637-1709).  investigators  on  eclampma,  and  Philippe 
Peu  (1694),  Pierre  Dionis,  and  Guillaume  Manquest  de 
la  Motte  (1655-1737),  pelycologists.  The  oplendid 
development  of  obstetrics  in  France  explains  why  male 
assistance  was  more  and  more  sought  there,  especially 
after  Jules  Clement  had  been  called  in  1673  to  the 
court  of  Louis  XIV.  The  most  important  accoucheur 
in  the  Netherlands  was  Hendrik  van  Deventer  (1651- 
1724;  axis  of  the  pelvis,  placenta  previa,  asphyxia 
neonatorum).    In  Germany  Siegemundin,  the  most 


mDicDn                     135  HzDicim 

funoua  GeTman  midwife,  published  in  1690  a  text-  Concave  glasses  did  not  appear  until  the  sixteeDlfc 

book   based   upon   wide   experienoe   (Chur-Branden-  century. 

buipacbe  HoS-Wehe-M utter).  The  foundations  for  further  progress  in  ophthal- 

In  the  first  half  of  tbe  seventeen  tbcentuiy  Hugh  rhani'  mology  were  laid  by  the  anatomista  and  physiciats  of 
berleu  invented  the  obatetricai  forceps.  selEng  it  to  the  aeventeeiith  century.  In  the  Srst  grou^  let  us 
Dutch  phyacians  about  1688.  Jean  Paltyn  of  Ghent  mention  the  worlcs  ot  Friedrich  Ruysch  (choroid),  van 
(1650-1730)  constructed  independently  a  similar  Leeuwenhoek  (lens),  Heinrich  Meibom  (1678-1740; 
instrument  (Main  de  Paltyn),  which  he  submitted  to  glands  ot  the  eye-iids),  and  Stenon  (lachrymal  appara- 
the  Paris  Academy  about  1723.  After  various  im-  tus).  Investigations  of  physieiats  were  ot  great  im- 
provementa  by  Lorenz  Heister,  Duas^,  and  Gr^goire,  portance,  especially  those  of  the  two  astronomera, 
^le  forceps  passed  into  generaJ  practice.  The  most  JohannKeppler  (1571-1630)  and  the  Jesuit  Christopfa 
important  accoucheursof  the  eighteenth  century  were:  Scheiner  (1575-1659),  concerning  accommodation, 
in  France,  Andi^  Levret  (1703-1780;  inclination  of  refraction  ot  light,  and  the  retinal  image;  Ren6 
the  pelvis,  foroeps,  combined  examination),  Frani;ois  Descartes  (1596-1650;  comparison  of  the  eye  with  the 
Louis  Joeeph  Solayr^  de  Renhac  (1737-72;  mechan-  camera  obscura,  accommoaation) ;  Edmund  Marriott 
ism  <rf  delivery),  Jean  Louis  Baudelocque  (1746-1810;  (d,  1684;  blind  spot,  choroid);  Isaac  Newton  ( 1642- 
pelvimetry),  opponent  of  artificial  premature  delivery  1727;  dispersion  of  light  and  origin  of  colours).  In 
and  symphyseotomy;  in  England,  Fielding  Ould  the  eighteenth  century,  besides  anatomy  and  phyaiol- 
{1710^9;  mechanism  of  deliveiy;,  perforation),  ogy,  the  practical  side  of  ophthalmology  was  also  culti- 
WilliamSmellie  (1 697-1763:  mechanism  of  delivery,  vat«d.  AmonganatomistswereWiiislow,  Petit,  Zinn, 
use  of  forceps,  pelvimetry),  William  Hunter  (1718-93),  Demours  (cornea  and  scierotic) ;  Bu2zi  and  SOmmering 
craponeut  of  the  forceps  and  the  (retina);  La  Hire,  J.  H.  Hoin,  Cam- 
CSeaarean  operation,  Thomas  Den-  per,  and  Reil  (lens).  The  theory  ot 
man  (1733-1815),  the  first  to  recom-  the  aensibiljty  of  the  retjna  to  light, 
mend  artifitdal  premature  delivery,  established  by  Haller,  was  turflier 
and  William  Osbom  (1732-1808)  developedbyPorterfieldandThomaa 
exponent  of  symphyseotomy  and  of  Young  (1773-1829).  The  latter  also 
the  Cesarean  aection.  The  well-  described  astigmatism  and  colour- 
founded  doubts  which  in  preaseptia  blindness,  and  discovered  that  ao- 
times  many  accoucheurs  entertained  commodation  depended  upon  a 
concerning  the  Cesarean  operation,  change  in  the  shape  of  the  lens. 
led  toso-called  fmnphyseotomy  (Jean  Boerhave  was  the  first  to  give  clinical 
Ren4 Siegualt,  1768).  which  by  wid-  lectures  on  ophthalmology.  From 
enlng  the  pelvis  would  permit  deUv-  him  we  have  the  exact  definition  of 
eiy  of  the  fcetua.  This  operation,  myopia  and  presbyopia.  Gray  cata- 
which  from  the  veiy  outaet  met  ract  (caiaracta)  was  first  located  in 
with  vigorous  opposition  in  Eng-  the  lens  by  Francois  Quarr^  and 
land,  is  now  forgotten.  The  in-  Remi  Lasnier,  a  view  which  was  oor- 
btxluction  of  scientific  obstetrics  in  roborated  by  the  anatomist,  Wer- 
Germanic  countries  was  compam-  ner  Rolfink  (1599-1673).  Francois 
lively  late.  Special  schools  tor  mid-  Pourtour  du  Petit  (1644-1741), 
wives  were  instituted,  in  1728  St  Loren*  Heister,  and  others  also 
Strasburg  (Johann  Jakob  Fried,  Bistm  Eabl  voir  RoKnAMur  worked  on  cataract.  Jacques  Da- 
1689-1769),  in  1751  at  Berlin  (180*-I87e)  viel  (1696-1762)  performed  the  first 
/Johann  Friedrich  Meckel,  1724-74)  and  GOttingen  operation  tor  extraction  of  a  cataract  in  1745.  Of 
(Johann  Georg  ROderer,  d.  1763),  and  in  1754  at  other  practitioners  we  must  mention:  Brisseau 
Vienna  (Johann  Nep.  Crants,  1756;  Valentin  von  (theoiv  of  glaucoma),  William  Cheselden  (1668-1752; 
Lebmacher,  1797;  Raphael  Steidele.  1816).  While  artificial  pupil).  Baron  Wenzel  the  elder  (1780;  iri- 
the  Parisian  midwives  belonged  to  the  College  de  S.  dectomy),  Charles  de  St.  Yves  (ablatio  retina,  asthe- 
CAme  as  early  as  1560  and  received  a  methodical  train-  nopia,  staphyloma,  strabismus),  John  Taylor  (1708- 
Ing,  those  in  Germany  could  receive  onlv  private  in-  60;  operation  to  correct  oblique  vision,  ceratoconus), 
ttruction.  Examination  by  physicians  is  mentioned  Dominique  Anel  (cathederism  of  the  lachrymal  fistula, 
at  Ratisbon  since  1555  and  at  Vienna  since  1642.  1713),   G.   E.   Stahl,   Boerhave,   Jonathan  Wathen, 

OphlhalTnaligy  gained  importance  much  later  than  LorenEHeister,JohannZachariasPlatner(1601-1747). 

obstetrics.    In  addition  to  inflammation  of  the  eye  and  AugustGottIobRichter(studieson  the  lachrymu 

and  operations  on  the  eyelid,  the  Hippocratio  writings  fistula) . 

mention  amblyopia,  nyctalopia,  and  glaucoma.    Cel-  PHARMACEtiTica,  Mineral  Watbbs,  Cold  Watbr 

■us  deacribes  an   operation  for  cataract  (aclerotico-  Cubes. — Pharmacy  had  remained  the  most  backward 

nyxis).    Galen  gives  us  the  beginnings  of  physiological  ot  all  the  branches  of  medicine,  tor  it  was  longest  un- 

3)tic9.   The  slight  ophthalmological  knowledge  ofthe  der  the  influence  of  the  Arabs.     A  large  part  of  the 

reeks  was  borrowed  by  the  Arabs,  but  their  lack  drugs  came  from  the  Orient  to  Venice  and  Flemish 

of  anatomical  knowledge  prevented  all  progress.    No  harbours.     Besides  simple  drugs  there  were  also  a 

in^rovement  set  in  tmtii  after  the  rise  of  anatomy  great  many  compound  remedies.     But,  in  the  latter 

under   Vesalius.     Formerly,   this   branch   had   been  class,  there  wn5   great  confusion  resulting  from  the 

almost  completely  in  the  naads  of  travelling  pbysi-  man^  adulterations,  and  from  the  fact  that  not  only 

dans  (cataract  operators),  but  hencetortii  surgeons  did  individual  authors  give  diflcrent  compositions  for 

with  a  fixed  abode  (e.  g.  Ambroise  Par^,  Jacques  the  same  remedy,  but  also  under  the  same  name  an 

Goillenieau)  began  to  turn  their  attention  to  it.     In  entirely   diflerent   preparation   was   understood    bv 

Germany  Gieorg  Bartisch  (about  1535-1606),  "Court  different  authors.     The  most  famous  panacea,  which 

tjv  speraalist"   at  Dresden,  wrote  the  first  mono-  dated  from  Roman  imperial  times  and  was  used  as  late 

graph,  a  work  very  highly  valued  even  in  later  da^.  as  the  eighteenth  century,  was  theriac,  a  mixture  con- 

AmcHig  other  things  he  mentions  spectacles  tor  curing  sisting  of  numerous  ingredients,  among  them  being  the 

squint,   eye-glasses   and,   among   operations,   is  the  flesh   of  vipers.     This   composition   originally   came 

fiirt  to  describe  extirpation  of  the  pupil.     The  in-  from  the  Orient,  but  was  made  later  at  Venice,  Augs- 

vention  of  convex  spectacles  is  by  some  attributed  burg,  and  Vienna.     To  get  some  order  into  the  treas- 

to  the  Dominican  Alexander  da  S^na  (d.  1313),  by  ury  ot  drugs  and  to  enable  apothecaries  to  compound 

atlnn  to  Salvino  de|^  Armati  U  florence  (d.  1317).  their  remedies,  the  college  of  physicians  in  Florecoa 


MEDICINX  136  MBDICINX 

published  a  pharmaropoeia^  (Rioeptario)  in  1498.  Sigismund  Hahn  (1662-1742),  who  in  1737  made«rtep» 
The  oldest  work  of  this  kind  in  Germany  was  written  sive  experiments  during  an  epidemic  of  petechial  fever 
by  Valerius  Cordus,  a  Nuremberg  ph^cian  (Dispen-  in  Breslau,  mav  be  regarded  as  the  founders  of  the  cold 
satorium.  1546) ;  then  followed  the  Dispensatorium  of  water  cure.  The  work  of  John  Sigismund  (Unterricht 
Adolph  Occo  in  1564,  written  at  the  request  of  the  city  von  der  Kiaft  und  Wirkimg  des  kalten  Wassers)  is  the 
of  Augsburg,  the  Dispensatorium  of  Cologne  in  1565,  best  known,  and  laid  the  foundation  of  modem  hy- 
and  finally  in  1572  a  similar  work  in  Vienna,  which,  drotherapeutics.  Towards  the  end  of  the  eighteenth 
however,  was  not  printed.  Not  imtil  1618  did  Vienna  century  Johann  Dietrich  Brandis  obtained  good  re- 
receive  a  dispensatorium  prepared  from  that  of  Aug&-  suits  in  the  treatment  of  febrile  diseases  by  means  of 
biug,  which  had  become  a  model  for  all  Germany.  tepid  lotions.    The  subsequent  development  of  hydro- 

The  Oriental  trade  in  drugs  was  greatly  facihtated  therapeutics  was  lar^l^r  mfluenced  by  the  results  ob- 

bv  the  discovery  of  the  sea  route  to  the  East  Indies,  tainea  by  William  Wright  (1736-1819),  and  James 

Uninfluenced  by  exotic  remedies  of  scholastic  medi-  Currie  (1756-1805)  in  the  epidemics  of  petediial  fever 

dne,  popular  medicine  offered  poor  people,  in  addition  in  the  years  1787-92. 

to  repulsive  and  superstitious  remedies,  a  series  of        Vaccination.    Edwabo   Jenneb. — ^Even  in  the 

valuable  remedies  derived  from  native  plants  and  oldest  times  peoi>le  seem  to  have  possessed  an  eflScient 

minerals.    A  long-known  and  popular  remedy  for  preservative  against  one  of  liie  most  destructive  epi- 

syphilis  was  mercury,  introduced  into  scientific  thera-  demies,  smallpox  (variola).    From  remote  antiquity 

peutics  by  Paracelsus.    To  his  adherents  we  are  in-  the  Brahmins  of  Hindustan  are  said  to  have  trans- 

debted  for  the  use  of  preparations  of  antimony  and  ar-  ferred  the  smallpox  poison  (secretion  of  the  pustules) 

senic,  a  popular  remedy  for  skin  diseases  since  ancient  to  healthy  persons  by  incising  the  skin  witib  tne  object 

times.    The  first-mentioned  preparations  gave  rise  to  of  protecting  them  against  further  infection  by  cau»- 

a  violent  struggle  on  the  part  of  the  Paris  faculty,  ing  a  local  iUness.    In  China  people  stopped  up  their 

which  opposed  every  form  of  progress.    Guaiac  wood,  noses  with  the  incrustations  of  smallpox.    A  peculiar 

regarded  as  a  specific  remedy  for  S3^hilis,  was  brought  transfer  with  a  needle  (inoculation)  was  in  use  among 

from  America  in  the  sixteenth  century.    The  most  the  Circassians  and  Georgians.    This  so-called  Greek 

important  drugs  introduced  in  the  seventeenth  cen-  method  became  generally  known  in  Constantinople  to- 

tury  were  ipecacuanha  and  Peruvian  bark.    The  lat-  wards  the  end  of  the  seventeenth  century,  and  was 

ter,  coming  from  Peru,  became  known  in  Europe  be-  introduced  into  England  by  Lady  Wortley  Montague, 

tween  1630  and  1640.    No  remedy  has  had  such  a  wife  of  the  English  ambassador,  who  had  had  her  own 

beneficial  effect,  but  none  has  met  with  such  opposi-  son  successfully  vaccinated  in  1717.    Despite  the  loud 

Hon  on  the  part  of  manv  physicians  as  this,  because  approval  of  the  court  and  aristocracy^  inoculation  met 

its  effect  (reduction  of  lever  without  subsequent  with  violent  resistance  from  the  physicians  and  clergy, 

intestinal  evacuation)  was  a  direct  contradiction  of  Carelessness,  quackery,  and  its  ill-repute  caused  the 

Galenic  doctrine.    Peruvian   bark  was  introduced  method  to  be  forgotten,  until  in  1746  Bishop  Isaao 

generally  into  therapeutics  only  after  a  long  struggle,  Maddox  of  Worcester,  by  popular  teaching  and  the 

principaUv^  because  important  men  like  Sydenham  establishment  of  institutions  for  inoculation,  once 

advocated  it.    The  latter  as  well  as  the  Leyden  school  more  proclaimed  its  value.     Among  phvsicians  who 

under  Boerhave  discontinued  to  a  large  extent  the  old  favoured  inoculation  were   Richaid   Mead    (1673- 

Arab  drugs,  preferring  in  general  simple  remedies  with  1754),  Robert  and  Daniel  Sutton.  (1760, 1767),  Tho- 

a  corresponding  dietetic  treatment.    Besides  the  im-  mas  Dinsdale  (1767),  Theodore  Tronchin  (1709-1781), 

provement  in  lead  preparations  by  Thomas  Goulard  and  Haller.    In  Austria  it  was  introduced  by  van 

(1750;  aqua  Govlarai),  we  may  mention  the  pharma-  Swieten,  at  whose  suggestion  Maria  Theresa,  in  1768, 

oological  investigations  of  comium,  aconite,  stramo-  called  to  Vienna  the  lamous  naturalist   Jan  Ingen- 

nium,  etc.,  by  Anton  St6rck  (1731-1803),  in  Vienna.  Housz  (1730-99),  in  spite  of  the  opposition  of  the 

Hahnemann's  services  in  investigating  native  medid-  clinical  professor  de  Haen.    In  the  meantime  another 

nalplants  have  been  previously  mentioned.  opponent  of  inoculation  appeared.    In  countries  de- 

Tne  impulse  to  study  mineral  springs  was  in  modem  voted  to  <$attle-raising  it  was  observed  that  those  who 
times  given  by  Paracelsus.  Tne  majority  of  the  came  in  contact  with  cows  suffering  from  smallpox 
modem  European  watering  places  of  world-wide  fame  frequently  fell  sick  and  had  pustules  on  their  fingers, 
were  already  known  to  the  Romans,  but  their  curative  but  such  persons  were  immune  against  the  human 
properties  were  too  little  valued  during  the  Middle  smallpox.  This  incited  the  physician  Edward  Jenner 
Ages.  Pcorus  de  Tussignana  wrote,  about  1336,  con-  (174S^1823)  to  further  experimentation,  which  he 
oeming  the  famous  therms  of  Bormio;  Giacomode  continued  for  twenty  years.  On  14  May,  1796,  he 
Dondi  in  1340  about  Abano;  the  Vienna  physician,  performed  his  fiirst  inoculation  with  the  lymph  of  cow- 
Wolfgang  Windberger  (Anemorinus),  in  1511,  about  pox  (vaccination),  an  experiment  of  world-wide  im- 
the  sulphur  firings  at  Baden  near  Vienna;  Paracelsus  portsmce.  Jenner's  discovery  was  everywhere  received 
about  Pffifers.  St.  Moritz  in  the  Engadine.  Teplitz.  with  enthusiastic  approval.  The  firet  vaccinations 
Karlsbad  in  Bohemia  was  much  frequented  towards  on  the  continent  were  performed  at  Vienna  b;f  Jean  de 
the  dose  of  the  sixteenth  century,  as  were  Vichy  and  Caro  in  1799,  and  bv  his  contemporaries  Alois  Careno 
Plombidres.  Helmont,  who  was  the  fiirst  to  prove  the  (d.  1811)  and  Paschalis  Joseph  von  Ferro  (d.  1809); 
existence  of  carbonic  add  and  of  fixed  alkahes,  wrote  in  Germany,  by  Georg  Friednch  BaUhom  (1772-1805) 
about  Spa.  Highly  meritorious  also  was  the  work  in  and  Christian  Friedrich  Stromeyer  (1761-1824);  in 
this  field  of  Johann  Phillip  Seip  CPyrmont)  and  of  France,  by  Rochefoucauld-Liancourt.  Protective  in- 
Friedrich  Hoffmann,  who  wrote  about  Spa,  Selters,  oculation  with  vaccine  has  been  introduced  into  al- 
Schwalbach.  and  Karlsbad,  and  taught  the  prepara-  most  eveiy  dvilixed  state  in  the  course  of  the  nine- 
tion  of  Seiolitz  salt  (Bitteraalz),  artificial  Karlsbad,  teenth  century,  partly  from  free  choice  and  partly  by 
and  of  artificial  mineral  waters.  laws  enfordng  compulsory  vacdnation. 

Cold-water  cures  were  introduced  in  andent  Rome        Medicine  in  the  Nineteenth  Century. — The 

for  the  first  time  by  Asdepiades.  but  they  were  soon  powerful  political  position  of  France  in  the  first  thirty 

forgotten.   In  sporadic  cases  cold  water  was  employed  years  of  the  nineteenth  century  finds  medicine  in  an 

therapeutically  in  later  times,  e.  g.  by  Rhazes  for  small-  especially  high  state  of  development  in  that  country, 

pox,  by  Edward  Baynard  in  1555  against  the  plague,  After  this  period  followed  the  golden  period  of  the 

by  John  Floyer  (1649-1734)  for  mania,  and  by  sev-  Vienna  school  and,  in  a  wider  sense,  of  (jerman  medi- 

eral  others.    Cold  water  was  not  used  systematically  dne.    The  development  of  modem  medidne  is  the 

until  the  eighteenth  century.    The  brothers  Johann  work  of  all  dvilised  nations;  yet  all  will  regard  Ru- 

Sigismund  and  Johann  Gottfried,  and  their  father  dolf  Virchow  unqualifiedly  as  the  chief  worker.    Not 


137 

to  encroach  vjKn  ihf  donudn  of  the  special  artielea,  Kari  Langer  (1810-87;    mechanism  of  the  joints), 

let  us  summarii«  in  a  few  brief  words  the  moet  im-  Kari  Toldt  (b.  1840;  hiatology,  anthropometryX  iuki 

portant  achievemeata  of  recent  tiinea:  ia   anatomy,  Karl  Wedl  (1816-91;  Donna!  and  pathological  nistol- 

tbeory  of  tissues — Bichat;    in  pathological  anatom^  ogy)  are  otners  of  this  School.     The   profeasors  at 

sod  pathology  cellular,  patholo^ — Virchow:  in  physi-  present  teaching  this  subject  in  the  Austrian  univei^ 

oloRy — Johannes  Mailer;  in  practical  medicine,  aus-  ritiesstillbelongchiefly  to  the  school  of  Hyrtl-Langer. 

cultation — LaCnnec,  Skoda;  in  surBery,  treatment  of  In  North  America  anatomy  was  cultivated  especially 

wounds — Joeeph  Lister;  narcosis — Jackson,  Simpson;  in  Philadelphia,  where,  besides  the  school  founded  in 

obatetrica,  cause  of   puerperal  fever — Semmelweiss;  1754,  there  existed  from  1820  to  1875  a  private  insti- 

in  ophthalmolo)^ — Albrecht  von  Grftfe  and  (speou-  tution  established  by  John  Balentine  O'Brien  Law- 

lum  oculi)  Helmholti;   in  bacteriology  and  serother-  rence  (d.  1823),  "The  Philadelphia  School  of  Anat- 

tpy — Pasteur,  Koch,  and   Behring.     The  subject  of  omy".     In  1776  Japan  became  acquainted  for  the 

i^n  diseaaea  was  most  ingeniously  elaborated  by  fint  time  with  the  anatomical  knowledge  of  Europe 

Ferdinand  Hebra.  through  a  translation  of  a  work  by  the  German  Johann 

Grnertd  Anatorm/. — A  splendid  basis  for  the  further  Adam  Kulmus  which  had  appeared  in  1725.     A  dili- 

devel<q>ment  of  modem  medicine  was  laid  by  Marie  gent  study  of  anatomy  and  of  medicine  in  general  be- 

Fran^ois  Xavier  Bichat  (1771-1803).  through  his  in-  ^n  when  the  University  of  Toldo  was  established  in 

vestisition  of  the  vital  qualities  of  tissues.    What  1871. 

^Uer  had  tried  to  do  for  the  muscles,  Bichat  at-  Pathological  Anatomy  was  placed  upon  a  new  basis 

tempted  to  accomplish  for  all  th^  tissues  of  the  body,  by  Bichat's  theory  of  the  tissues,  and  it  was  later 

Kchat  was  the  first  to  promulgate  the  idea  that  each  greatly  advanced  by  physiology,  physiological  cbemis- 

•'—■">  might  by  itself   oecome  dis-  t^,  and  by  improved  n—- —  "*  ■'"- 


vestigation  (compound  achromatic 
objective  lens  of  the  microscope). 
The  increased  attention,  which  cGni- 
cal  physicians  tiestowed  on  this  sub- 
ject, exercised  no  small  influence  on 
its  progress.  Among  these  must  be 
especially  mentioned  La^nnec,  who 
defined    tuberculosis    and    studied 


,  especially  of  phthii 
merousthoughthe  able  investigators 
were  who  performed  meritorious 
services  in  perfecting  this  blanch, 
the  development  of  modem  patho- 
logical anatomy  will  forever  be  inti- 
mately connected  with  the  names  of 
the  pioneers,  Rokitansk}'  and  Vir- 
chow. The  first  pathological  proseo- 


eased,  and  that  the  ^miptoms  of 
diseased  organs  depend  upon  tissue 
changes.  Gilbert  Breschet  (1784- 
1845)  worked  on  the  lympatWc  ves- 
kIs  and  the  histoiy  of  development, 
and  Isidore  Geoffrey  Saint-Hilaire 
(1772-1884)  on  comparative  anat- 
omy. Of  Italian  and  English  anato- 
mists are  to  be  mentioned;  Paolo 
Uascagni  (1752-1815 ;  lymphatic 
vessels,  comparative  anatomy),  An- 
tonio Scarpa  (1747-1832;  structure 
erf  the  bones,  organs  of  sense) ;  the 
brothers  John  and  Charles  Ball,  the 
latter  (1774-1S42)  known  also  as  a 
physioloeist  (brtun,  nerves);  and 
Robert  Knox  (1793-1862;  compar- 
ative anatomy).  Germany  performed 

the  greatest  services  in  perfecting  torship  at  Vienna  was  held  by  Alois 

anatomv  and  allied  branches.     The  Rudolph  Vetterfrom  1796  to  1803, 

first  to  be  named  in  this  connexion  Josspb  Bntn.  well  known  as  the  author  of  the  first 

is  Tbeodor  Schwann  (1810-82)  the  (18ii-1804)  German  work  on  pathologioal  anat- 

discoverer  of  the  cell  as  the  fundamental  element  omy.  In  1832, afterthedeath  of  Joseph  Wsgner,KarI 
of  the  body  of  plants  and  animals.  Johann  Ev.  Rokitansky  (1804-78;  later Frciherrvon)  becamepro- 
Purimije  (1737-1869)  worked  along  the  same  lines,  sector  and  professor.  He  was  educated  in  the  views 
and  Rudolph  Albert  KoUiker  (b.  1817;  pensioned  of  Johann  Friedrich  Meckel  (1781-1833),  Johann 
1901)  followed  close  in  their  wake.  Wora  in  com-  Georg  Christian  Freidricb  Martin  Lolstein  (1777- 
parative  anatomy  was  done  by  Johann  Friedrich  1835),  but  particularly  of  Gabriel  Andral  of  Paris 
Blumenbach  (1752-1840)  Ignaa  Blumenbach  (1762-  (1797-1876),  a  leading  representative  of  humoral 
1850),  Ignax  DoUinger  (1770-1841),  Karl  Asmund  pathology.  Rokitaosky's  training  was  thus  based 
Rudolphi  (1771-1832),  and  Johann  Friedrich  Meckel  upon  the  French  school,  but  he  subsequently  brought 
(1781-lo33).  Friedrich  Gustav  Jakob  Henle  (1S09~  about  a  still  closer  connexion  between  anatomical  and 
85),  and  Wilhelm  Menke  (1834^96)  were  prominent  physical  diagnostics.  His  endeavour  to  become  ac- 
teachers  of  general  anatomy  and  histology;  Fried-  quainted  with  the  entire  course  of  development  of 
rich  Tiedenumn  (17S1-I861)  was  an  eminent  brain  pathological  changes  was  greatlv  assisted  by  the 
anatomist,  while  Nikolaus  RQdinger  (1832-96;  in-  valuable  material  for  dissecting  wnich  the  metropolis 
jection  of  carbolic  for  the  preservation  of  corpses  affoided.  His  excellence  is  seen  in  his  descriptions  of 
u  the  dissecting  room),  Friedrich  Sigmund  Merkel  pathological  changes;  he  replaced  the  previous  symp- 
fb.  1846;  tap«graphical  anatomy),  and  Wilhelm  His  tematic  pictures  of  disease  by  creating  an  anatomi<^ 
(b.  lS3t ;  history  of  development),  must  also  be  men-  patholo^  and  anatomical  types  of  disease.  He  was 
tioned.  not  so  successful  in  estebliahing  his  doctrine  of  orasis 

Following  the  reform  of  studies  under  van  Swieten     baaed  upon  humoral  pathology,  and  just  here  Vir- 
In  1749,  anatomy  was  cultivated  in  Vienna  more  than    chow's  fruitful  activity  be^ns. 

ever  before.  The  more  important  men  were  Lorenc  Rudolf  Virehow  (1821-1002),  professor  in  Berlin 
(^u»er  (professor  1757-65;  trigeminus),  Joseph  Barth  and  a  pupil  of  Johannes  MUUer  and  Johann  Lucas 
(technique  of  injectJon)  George  Prochaska  (1749-  SchOniein,  eariy  became  accju^nted  with  the  cellular 
1820;  muscle  and  nerves).  Frani  Joseph  Gall  (1758-  doctrine  of  Scbwatm.  Virchow  is  the  creator  of 
1828),  the  well-known  pnrenologist  and  founder  of  cellular  pathology,  which  to-day  ia  univerBally  recog- 
the  theory  of  cerebral  localization,  and  Joseph  Berres  niied,  a  pathology  based  strictly  upon  natural  sdenoe 
(1796-1844;  microscopic  anatomy).  The  founder  of  which  definitive^  extinguished  Hippocratic  specula- 
the  modem  anatomical  school  of  Vienna  was  the  highly  tive  humotsi  pathology.  According  to  Virehow.  there 
pfted  Joseph  Hyrtl  (1811-94;  technique  of  injection     is  life  in  the  smallest  units  of  the  body, 


,   organ   of   hearing,   comparative  and     which  increaae  by  fission  (omnie  crfluiaBceiiuIo).     He 

ti^ragraphical  anatomy),  known  as  a  pie-eminent    applied  his  doctrine  to  the  varivus  tissues,  and  showed 
teacher,  investig&tor,  laid  a  man  of  noble  character,    their  behaviour  under  normal  and  abnormal  condi- 


138 


BSSDXCIN]! 


doos  of  life.  Otaeaaes  tbuF  represent  a  Teaotion  of 
Kite  »van  of  the  oellci  wmcn  form  the  body  against 
barmf  ul  influences,  the  causes  of  diseases.  Vircnow's 
chief  work  "Die  Cellularpathologie "  appeared  in 
1858.  Greater  attention  was  now  paid  not  alone  to 
pathological  anatomy,  but  to  its  sister  sciences,  patho- 
lo^cal  chemistry,  experimental  pathology,  and  bac- 
teriology. The  chief  representatives  of  experimental 
pathology  were:  in  France,  Claude  Bernard  (1813-78). 
Charles  Edouard  Brown-S^quard  (1818-95),  and 
Etienne  Jules  Marey  (b.  1830) ;  in  Germany,  Ludwig 
Traube  (1818-76),  Rudolph  Virchow,  and  Julius 
Cohnheim  (1839-84) ;  in  Vienna,  Salomon  Striker  (d. 
1898)  and  PhiUp  KnoU  (1841-1900).  Experiments 
on  animals  are  extensively  made  to-day  in  this  field  of 
investigation. 

Bacteriolomj,  Theory  of  Immunity,  Serotheraj)y,  Dis- 
infection. — ^The  first  to  suspect  that  living  beings  in- 
vade the  organism  and  exist  in  the  blood  and  pus  was 
the  learned  Jesuit  Athanasius  Klrcher  (1671),  although 
there  is  no  doubt  that  the  " little  worms"  observed  by 
him  were  really  blood-corpuscles.  With  the  help  of 
his  improved  microscope  Leeuwenhoek  discovered  a 
number  of  bacteria.  Tne  idea  that  infectious  diseases 
were  caused  by  a  living  contagion  invading  the  body 
from  without  was  first  expressed  in  1762  by  the 
Vienna  physician  Markus  Antonius  Plenciz  (d.  1786). 
Otto  Friedrich  MUller,  in  1786.  was  the  first  to  doubt 
that  the  microscopical  living  beings,  then  comprised 
under  the  name  of  infusoria,  really  belonged  to  the 
animal  kingdom.  In  1838.  Cnristian  Gottfried  Ehren- 
berg  gave  a  description  ot  the  finer  structure  of  the 
"infusoria''^  but  it  was  Ferdinand  Cohn,  who  in  1854 
first  ascertained  with  certainty  that  bacteria  belonged 
to  the  vegetable  kingdom.  From  the  studies  that 
were  now  made  concerning  the  vital  qualities  of  these 
infinitesimal  living  beings  of  the  vegetable  kingdom, 
Louis  Pasteur  (1822-95)  definitely  settled  the  contro- 
versv  about  spontaneous  generation  (generatio  CBqui^ 
voca).  and  proved  the  materialistic  view  to  be  without 
foundation.  What  Plenciz  had  only  suspected  was 
now  clearly  formulated  by  Henle,  who  defined  the  con- 
ditions under  which  bacteria  are  to  be  regarded  as 
direct  causes  of  disease.  The  untiring  activity  of 
Robert  Koch  (d.  1910)  from  about  1878  succeeded 
in  bringing  bacteriology  to  such  a  state  of  develop- 
ment that  it  could  be  made  of  service  to  practical 
medicine.  Apart  from  ascertaining  the  bacterial 
origin  of  cholera  and  tuberculosis,  Koch's  greatest 
achievements  are  the  improvement  of  the  microscope 
(Abb^,  Zeis),  the  method  of  colouration  and  pure 
cultures. 

Jenner's  success  with  the  Ijrmph  of  cowpox,  a 
weakened  poisotf  as  a  protection  against  a  full  poison, 
as  well  as  the  old  experience  that  those  who  had  once 
recovered  from  an  infectious  disease  usually  became 
immune  from  new  infection,  led  savants  to  look  for 
the  cause  of  the  phenomena.  In  1880  Pasteur,  on  the 
basis  of  his  experiments  concerning  chicken  cholera, 
looked  for  the  cause  in  the  exhaustion  of  the  nutritive 
material  necessary  for  the  bacteria  in  the  body  (theory 
of  exhaustion),  while  Chauveau  believed  in  a  residue 
of  metabolic  products  which  prevented  a  new  settle- 
ment of  bacteria  or  new  infection  (retention  theory). 
The  investigation  of  Metschnikoff,  and  in  1889  of 
Buchner,  advanced  the  idea  that  blood-serum  pos- 
sesses a  certain  hostility  to  bacteria.  In  1890  Von 
Behring  proved  that  the  blood-serum  of  animals 
which  has  been  made  immune  against  diphtheria,  if  in- 
jected into  another  animal,  would  make  the  latter  also 
immune  against  diphtheria.  That  element  in  the 
serum  hostile  to  bacteria  he  called  antitoxin.  The 
introduction  of  antitoxin  into  the  therapeutics  of 
diphtheria  in  1892  was  so  far  the  greatest  practical  suc- 
cess of  bacteriology.  Efforts  were  naturally  made  to 
secure  by  similar  methods  protection  against  other  in- 
Caotious  diseases,  efforts  only  partly  crowned  with 


BuooesB  (tetanus,  plague,  cholera,  snake  poisoo).  Tcfl- 
lowing  Jenner's  method  of  producing  immunity  by 
means  of  living,  weakened  causes  of  infection,  Pasteur 
(1885)  found  a  protection  against  lyssa,  while  Haff- 
kine  made  expenments  in  1895  to  combat  cholera  with 
killed  germs,  and  in  1897  similar  experiments  \inth  the 
plague.  From  1891  dates  Koch's  experimentation 
with  extracts  of  bacteria  against  tuberculosis.  By 
means  of  preparations  of  pure  bacteria-cultures^  made 
according  to  Koch's  method,  it  became  possible  to 
devise  exact  methods  for  destroying  bacteria.  In 
the  field  of  the  modem  theory  of  disinfection,  Koch 
also  worked  as  a  pioneer,  not  only  in  precisely  defining 
the  difference  between  prevention  of  development  and 
the  killing  of  bacteria,  but  also  by  subjecting  physical 
.and  chemical  disinfectants  to  new  tests.  The  modem 
steam  sterilizers  are  based  upon  the  discovezy  of 
Koch  that  steam  under  the  ordinary  pressure  of  the 
atmosphere  is  sufficient  to  kill  even  resistant  lasting 
forms.  He  pointedH)ut  the  ineffectiveness  of  alcohol, 
glycerine,  and  other  substances  upon  the  spores  of  an- 
tm-ax,  and  the  diminished  effect  of  carbolic  add  in  an 
oily  or  alcoholic  solution.  Von  Behring's  experiments 
showed  a  diminution  of  power  of  some  disinfectants  in 
the  presence  of  albumen,  concerning  which  KrOnig 
and  raul  made  a  special  study. 

Physiology  is  indebted  for  its  perfection  to  the  prog- 
ress of  minute  anatomy  (doctrine  of  tissues)  to  the 
improved  means  of  investigation  (microscope,  chemi- 
cal and  physical  apparatus),  but  especially  to  the 
fact  that  experiments  on  animals  (vivisection)  were 
once  more  extensively  made.    The  principal physiolo- 

f'sts  of  the  past  century  were  in  France  and  Uermany. 
rangois  Magendie  (1783-1855),  opposing  Bichat 
(vitalism),  maintained  that  there  is  no  uniform  vital 
energy,  and  that  the  vital  qualities  of  the  different 
organs  are  to  be  explained  upon  a  physical  and  chemi- 
cal basis  and  by  means  of  experiments.  His  investi- 
gations in  hemodynamics  and  the  functions  of  the 
nervous  system  (roots  of  the  n>inal  column),  in  which 
he  supplemented  the  work  ol  Charles  Bell  (Law  of 
Bell-Magendie)  are  very  important.  Marie  Jean 
Pierre  Flourens  (1794-1867)  is  known  by  his  studies  in 
disturbances  of  co-ordination,  nutrition  of  the  bones, 
and  localization  of  the  centre  of  respiration  in  the 
medulla  oblongata,  and  Francois  Achille  Longet 
(1811-71)  by  his  work  on  the  functions  of  the  anterior 
and  posterior  columns  of  the  spinal  cord,  the  innerva- 
tion of  the  larynx,  the  nerves  of  the  brain,  and  the  law 
of  the  contraction  of  the  muscles.  The  most  famous 
French  ph^ologist,  a  pioneer  in  the  field  of  physiolog- 
ical chemistry,  is  Claude  Bernard  (glycogemc  func- 
tion of  the  liver,  the  consumption  of  glycogen  through 
work  of  the  muscles,  the  discovery  of  vascular  nerves, 
the  chemistry  of  tne  bile  and  the  urine,  theory  of 
diabetes  mellitus,  assimiliation  of  sugar,  atrophy  of  the 
pancreas,  the  power  of  the  pancreatic  juice  to  digest 
albumen,  and  the  theory  of  animal  heat).  The  physi- 
ology of  the  circulation  was  elaborated  by  Etienne 
Jules  Marey  (b.  1830;  blood  pressure,  mechanism  of 
the  heart,  and  the  invention  of  the  sphygmograph). 
The  relation  of  muscles  and  nerves  to  electricity  was 
studied  by  Guillaume  Benjamin  Duchenne  (1806-75), 
while  Charles  Edouard  Brown-S4quard  (1818-94),  the 
foimder  of  modem  organo-therapeutics,  investigated 
the  reflex  irritability  of  the  spinal  conl,  the  blood, 
respiration,  and  animal  heat.  In  Great  Britain  were 
Marshall  Hall  (1780-1857;  theory  of  reflex  action). 
William  Bowman  (1816-92;  stmcture  of  the  striated 
muscles,  and  theory  of  the  secretion  ot  urine),  Alfred 
Henry  Garrod  (1846-79;  sphygmography,  physics  of 
the  nerves),  Augustus  Volney  Waller  (181&-70;  dia^ 
pedesis  of  the  red  corpuscles  of  the  blood,  studies 
on  nerve-fibres  and  ganglia.  Waller's  degeneration) 
and  William  Prout  (1785-1869;  discoveiy  of  free 
hydrochloric  add  in  the  gastric  juice). 
The  Bohemian  Johann  Evangelist  Purkjmie  (1787- « 


IS60)  founded  at  Breelau  the  first  Gemuui  pbydo-  of  the  functions  of  tbe  kidney,  endosmads,  dii> 

logicAl  iofltjtute.    Hia  most  importaat  studies  were  covery  of  the  nerves  of  secretion)  and  Ernst  WU- 

euioemed  with  the  physiology  d' the  organs  of  sense,  helm  Ritter  von  BrQcke  (1819-92;  studies  of  the 

espectally  of  sight,  the  physiology  of  the  imiacles  and  ciliary  muscle  as  a  muscle  of  accommodation,  theory 

nerves,  tne  dlilury  movement  of  the  epithelium  of  the  of  colours,  physiology  of  the  voice,  structure  of  toe 

mucous  membrane,  the  structure  of  the  nerve-fibre  muscle-fibres,  biliary   capillaries,   digestion,   absorp- 

(axia-cylinder)  and  of  the  ganglia,  the  glands  secreting  tion).     Karl   von  Vieroixlt    (1818-83)   is   associated 

gastric  juice,  the  sympathetic  nervous  system,  and  the  with  the  chemistry  of  respiration  and  the  counting  of 

Etatory  of  development  (discovery  of  the  germinal  the  blood  corpuscles;    Adolf  Fick  (1829-1901)  with 

spot).     Fundamental  work  in  physiological  physics  physiology  of  the  muscles  and  nerves;   Moriti  Schiff 

was  done  by  the  brothers  Weber.   Ernest  Heinrich  (1823-9G)  with  the  nervous  system,  discovery  of  the 

(1795-1878),  and  Eduard  Friedrich  WilheUn  (1806-  harmful  results  of  the  extirpation  of  the  thyroid  gland, 

71),  both  physiciana,  and  the  physicist  Wilhelm  Edu-  function  of  the  base  of  the  brain  and  the  cerebellum: 

•rd  (ISOl-91);    mechanism  <^  the  human  organs  of  Rudolf  Heidenhain  (1834-97)  with  the  physiology  of 

valkme    (Wilhelm    and    Eduard),    experiments    in  the   glands;    Alexander  Rollett   (b.   1834)  wilii  tbe 

initabuity  by  means  of  induction  currents,  and  the  glands  of   the   stomach,  blood;    Eduard  Friedrich 

irritation    of    the    pneumogastric   and    sympathetio  wilhelm  Pflflger  (b.  1829)  with  the  gases  of  the  biood, 

uervea  and  its  influence  upon  the  heart  (Ernst  and  processes  of  oxidation  in  the  body;  Ewald  Heting  (b. 

Eduard).     Fhysioiogical  chemistry  is  represented  by  1834)  with  the  theory  of  self- regulation  of  the  act  of 

Friedrich   Tiodemann   and   leopold    Gemtin    (178Sf-  breathing,   sensitiveness   of   retina   to   colours,   and 

1853;   digestion,  absorption  and  assimilation,  the  im-  Tbeodor  Wilhelm  Engelmau  (b.  1834),  with  electro- 

rmce  of  the  lymphatic  syst«m  .  physiology,  motion  of  the  ciliary 

absorption),    Friedrich  Wjihler   |  epithelium,  physiology  of  the  heart 

(1800-82;   artificial   preparation  dt   '  and   of   the  organs  of  sense.     The 


ea),  and  Karl  Bo^lav  Reiobert  : 
(1811-83;  ciystalliiatioD  of  blood 
pigment).  We  must  also  mention 
the  nerve  phydolo^ist  Rudolf  Wag. 
ner  (1805-64),  discoverer  of  the 
tactile  coipuscles.  Tbe  greatest 
credit  for  developing  modem  physi- 
dagy  is  due  to  the  school  of  the  ver- 
satile Johannes  MuUer  (1S0I-S8). 
llQUer'a  importance,  comparable  to 
that  of  Albrecht  von  HaUer,  b  due 
e  hand  to  tbe  results  of  his 
I  the 

svinpathetic  nervous  system,  the 
tLeory  of  reflex  action,  the  produo- 
ti<m  of  voice  in  the  larynx,  and  the 
description  of  the  cartiUee-nudeus), 


localization  of  tbe  brain  was  investi- 
gated especially  by  Guatav  Fritsch 
£.  1838),  Eduard  Hitzig  (b.  1838), 
opoid  Golti  (1835-1902),  and 
Sigmund  Exner  (b.  1846).  Of  emi- 
nent physiologists  outside  of  Ger- 
many we  may  mentiqp  the  Dutcb- 
Frani    Cornells     Donders 


Holeschott    (1822-93;    metabollnn 
and  doctrine  of  foods) . 

Owing  to  the  progress  of  the 
theoretical  auxiliary  sciences,  prac- 
tical medicine  reached  a  high  state  of 
development,  especially  in  diagnosis, 
butalso  toa  certain  extent  in  thera- 
peutics. A  general  revolution  was  ef- 
fected by  the  estabhshment  of  physi- 


the  otberhandtonis  activity 
in  all  branches  of  phyaiolo^  and  in  cal  diagnosis.   Auenbrugger's  nioch- 

kdsgran)  of  the  entire  field  of  physio-  (1824-1893)  making  discovery,  percussion  (1761), 


iwledge.     The  most  important  Investigatora    passed  over  in  silence  bv  van  Swieten  and  de  Haen, 
.   ...     ury  in  the  domain  of  histology,  ohysiological    the  leading  spirits  of  the  Vienna  school,  and  men- 
dtemiatry,  and  physics,  were  pupils  of^MOller..   Be-     tioned  only  in   timid   fashion   by  Maximilian  StoU, 


sides  the  above-mentioned   iuvestigatArs,  Schwann,  might  have  been  altogether  forgotten,  if  Jean  Nicolas 

Kslliker,  and  Virchow,  attention  may  be  called  to  Corvisart  de  Marest  (1755-1821),  after  an  objective 

Robert  Remak  (1815-65;  description  of  the  marrow-  examination,  had  not  translated  Auenbrugger  s  "In- 

less  nerve  fibres,  of  the  course  of  the  fibres  in  the  brain  ventum  novum"  into  French,  and  publisned  it  in 

■nd  the  spinal  cord)  and  Heinrich  Friedrich  Bidder  1S08  with  a  commentary.   Rend  Theophile  Hyacinths 

(1810-M;  sympathetic  nerve  system,  nerves  of  the  LaCnnec  (1781-1826)  enriched  the  physical  method  of 

heart,  metabolism).  examination  by  the  invention  of  auscultation  (noting 

The  doctrine  of  metabolism  was  advanced  by  the  the  different  tones  and  noises  In  tbe  chest  by  placing 

famous  chemist,  Justus  Freiherr  von  Liebig  (lS(B-73;  the  ear  against  it).    His  pupil  Pierre  Adolphe  Piony 

exeretiou  of  nitrogen  in  the  form  of  urea,  importance  (1794-1879)  perfected  percussion    (definition  of  the 

cf  uric  acid,  albumen  asBsourceofmuscularstrength),  borders  and  outlines  oithe  organs,  invention  of  the 

llieador   Ludwig  Wilhelm  Bischoff  ('1807-32;   urea)  pleaaimeter,  improvement  of  the  st^oscope).    LaCn- 

aod  Karl  von  Voit  (b.  1831;   metabolism  of  nitrogen  nec's  invention  attracted  attention  but  slowly.     Hia 

and  organio  albumen).     The  latter,  together  with  Max  chief  opponent  was  Francois  Joseph  Victor  Broi 

___.,......,._  „»,„  ,„^,, _  .      , i*r —  ,    .  .    ^     .      ,  ...jjj'pj. ..!._,, no.. 


Pettenkofer  (1818-1901),  made  numerous  experi-  (1772-1838),  but  in  England  John  Forbes  (1787-1861) 

menta  in  the  ebange  of  gases  in  man  during  rest  and  and   William   Stokes    (1804-78),    and   in   Germany, 

wkA.    Georg  Heiaaner  (b.  1829;   origin  of  the  con-  Christian  Friedrich  Nasse  (1778-1851),  Peter  Kruken- 

itituenta^urine,mu8clesugar),  Schwann  (discoverer  berg   (1787-1865),  Johann  Lukas  SchOnlein   (1793- 

o(pepdn),KarlGotthelfLehmann  (1812-65;  pepton).  1864), and othersassumedafriendly attitude.    Auacul- 

Tne  cbemistiy  of  the  blood  vas  investigated  by  Ernst  tation  and  percussion  came  into  general  use  in  the 

Felix  Josef  Hoppe-Seyler  (1825-95;   blood  pigment,  Germanic  countries  much  later  than  in  England  and 

blood   gases,    cnemistry   of   cell  and   tissue),   Julius  France,  but  they  were  then  brought  to  great  perfeo- 

Robeit  Meyer  (1814-78;    mechanism  of  heat).  Her-  tionby  the  Vienna  physician  Joseph  Skoda  (1805-81), 

mann  Ludwig  Ferdinand  von  Helmholtz  (1821-94;  whainl839treatedpHy8icaldiagnosisscientificallyand 

phviiological   optics),   and   Emil   du   Bois-Reymond  fundamentally   (auscultation  and  percussion).    The 

(181S~96;  animal  electrical  phenomena,  physics  of  the  new  methods  made  possible  the  exact  clinical  diagnosis 

muscles  and  nerves).     Just  as  versatile  as  Johannes  of  diseases  of  the  heart  and  the  lungs  to  a  degree  never 

Holler  were  Karl  Friedrich  Wilhelm  Ludwig  (1816-95;  previously   imagined.     Besides   LaCnnec  and  Skoda 

physiology  of  tbe  circulation  and  excretions,  theory  must  be  mentioned  among  the  great  number  of  Id- 


ISEDICINX  140  MEDICINX 

▼estigAtois:  Jean  Baptiste  Bouillaud  (1796-1881)  and  Of  the  latter  we  may  mention  Moris  Heinrioh  Rom- 
James  Johnson  (1777-1845),  who  investigated  a£feo-  berg  (1796-1873),  Wilhelm  Griesinger  (1817-68), 
tions  of  the  heart  and  rheumatism  of  the  joints.  Duchenne,  and  the  universal  Jean  Martin  Cnaroot  (d. 
August  Frangois  Chomel  (1788-1855;  pericarditis  and  1893).  Faradization  (1831),  as  a  therapeutical  means 
rheumatism),  James  Hope  (1801-41;  valvular  insuffi-  especially  against  lameness,  was  introduced  by  Duch- 
ciency),  Hermann  Lebert  (1813-78),  Johann  Oppolzer  enne  in  1847.  Among  special  studies  of  individual  dis- 
(1808-91),  Felix  Niemeyer  (1820-71),  Ludwig  Traube  eases  were:  on  tabes  dorsalls  by  Romberg,  Duchenne, 
(1818-76),  Heimich  von  Bamberger  (1822-88),  and  Armand  Trousseau  (1801-66),  Nikolaus  Friedreich 
Adalbert  Duchek  (1824-82).  (d.  1882),  Leyden  (d.  1910),  Kari  Friedrich  Westphal 

Among  therapeutical  aids  the  introduction  of  digi-  (b.  1833),  Charcot,  and  Alfred  Fourm'er,  who  in  1876 
talis  purpurea  by  Traube  deserves  special  mention,  pointed  out  the  connexion  between  tabes  and  lues;  on 
M.  J.  Oertel  (d.  1897),  tried  to  cure  certain  affections  myelitis  by  Brown^S^uard,  Oppolzer,  Friedreich, 
rfatty  degeneration  of  the  heart,  obesity)  by  means  of  Westphal,  Charcot.  A  peculiar  complex  of  symptoms 
dietetic  mechanical  treatment  (Terrainkur)'  and  the  was  described  for  the  first  time  by  Robert  James 
brothers  August  and  Theodor  Schott  established  the  Graves  (d.  1853),  later  (1840)  by  Karl  von  Basedow 
so-called  Nauheim  method  (carbonic  acid  baths  and  (Basedow's  Disease).  The  picture  of  neurasthenia 
gymnastics).  Great  credit  in  connexion  with  the  was  given  for  the  firet  time  in  detail  in  1869  by  Georg 
diagnosis  of  lung  disease  is  due  to  M.  Anton  Wintrich  Beard;  Weir-Mitchell  together  with  Playfair  proposed 
(1812-82;  pleuritis),  Karl  August  Wunderlich  (1815-  for  it  the  so-called  fattening  cure. 
78;  range  of  temperature  in  pneumonia),  Leon  Jean  As  to  progress  in  psychiatry,  there  is  now  a  more 
Baptiste  Cruveilhier  (1791-1875;  pneumonia  in  chil-  humane  conoeptioft  of  the  care  for  the  insane  com- 
dren),  Theodor  Jiirgensen  (infectious  nature  of  pneu-  pared  with  that  obtaining  in  former  times.  This 
monia),  Robert  Bree  (1807;  bronchial  asthma).  Bier-  movement  originated  principally  in  England  (Thomas 
mer  (1870),  Leyden  (1875;  crystals  of  asthma),  and  Arnold,  d.  1816;  William  Perfect,  b.  1740;  Alexander 
Curschmann  (1883;  spirals).  The  subject  of  pulmo-  Crichton,  1763-1856),  and  France  (Philippe  Pinel, 
nary  tuberculosis  was  profoundly  treated  by  (jfaspard  1755-1826:  Jean  Etienne  Dominique  Esquirol,  1772- 
Laurent  Bayle  (1774-1816;  1810  discoveiy  of  miliary  1840),  and  found  in  Italy  in  Vincenzo  Chiarugi  (d. 
tuberculosis,  tuberculosis  a  general  disease; ;  Virchow  1822)  and  in  Germany  in  Johann  Christian  Reil  (1759- 
defined  the  anatomic  character  of  tuberculosis:  Ville-  1813),  zealous  supporters.  With  this  movement  came 
min  in  1865-8  proved  its  contagiousness,  and  nis  ex-  a  general  and  profoimder  study  of  the  subject 
periments  were  re-examined  and  confirmed  among  stimulated  by  the  results  of  pathological  anatomy, 
others  by  I^bert  (1866)  Klebs  (1868).  Baumgarten  more  judicious  therapeutics  conscious  of  its  aim, 
(1880),  Teppeiner  (1877),  and  Weichselbaum  (1882).  proper  physical  occupation  of  the  insane,  and  the  dis- 
With  the  (uscovery  of  the  tubercle  bacillus  by  R.  continuance  of  the  isolation  system.  Special  atten- 
Koch  in  1882,  the  path  to  the  suppression  of  tubercu-  tion  is  paid  to  the  etiology  and  thera]>eutics  of  dis- 
losis  was  indicated.  Comet  in  1888  showed  the  dan-  eases  occurring  most  frequently,  cretinism,  hysteria, 
ger  of  the  sputum,  which  resulted  in  prohibition  of  progressive  paraly^,  as  well  as  to  psychosis  of  in- 
spitting  and  the  placing  of  cuspidors  with  disinfecting  toxication,  alcoholism,  morphinism,  etc.  Hydro- 
solutions.  In  1890  Koch  appeared  with  his  remedy  therapeutics,  which  is  especially  effective  in  the  case 
tuberculin^  which  he  improved  in  1897  and  1901.  In  of  neurosis  and  psychosis,  was  much  cultivated  by 
1902  Behrmg  began  his  experiments  on  cows  to  secure  Anton  FrOhlich  (1760-1846)  and  the  two  laymen, 
immunity.  Of  late  the  treatment  of  tuberculosis  is  Eucharius  Ferdinand  Oertel  and  the  Silesian,  Vincenz 
chiefly  dietetic.  Diagnosis  and  Uierapeutics  of  the  Priessnitz  (1790-1851).  It  was  treated  scientifically 
diseases  of  the  larynx  were  greatly  advanced  by  the  by  Wilhelm  Wintemitz,  who  wisely  reduced  within 
invention  of  the  laryngoscope  in  1860  (Ludwig  Tarck  due  boimds  a  great  deal  of  the  harshness  in  the  lay- 
1810-68.  Vienna;   and  Johann  Nepomuk  Czermak,  men's  hydrotherapy. 

1828-73).    The  taking  of  tempersilure,  which  was        Modem  Dermatology  begins  with  the  endeavours  of 

diligently  cultivated  by  de  Haen  and  later  by  James  Johann  Jakob  Plenk  (1738--1807)  at  Vienna  to  estab- 

Currie  (1733-1819),  was  systematically  done  for  the  lish  a  classification  of  skin  diseases  on  a  basis  of  exter- 

first  time  by  Friedrich  Wilhelm  Fehx  von  B^lren-  nal  clinical  appearance.    Work  of  a  similar  nature 

sprung  (1822-64),  Traube,  and  Wimderlich.    In  the  was  done  by  Anne  Charles  Lorry  (1777),  Robert  Wil- 

ti^eatment  of  metabolic  diseases  we  must  mention  the  Ian  (1798),  Thomas  Bateman  (1815),  all  of  whom 

noteworthy  zeal  of  Friedrich  Theodor  von  Frerichs  introduced  simplifications  into  Plenk's  system,  Lau- 

(1819-85).  rent  Beilt  (1781-1840),  and  CamiUe  Melchior  Gibert 

Diagnosis  and  therapeutics  of  diseases  of  the  stomach  (1797-1866).  Jean  Louis  Alibert  (1766-1837)  made 
were  advanced  by  the  introduction  of  the  stomach  a  classification  according  to  pathological  principles, 
pump  invented  by  the  English  surgeon  Bush  in  1822,  an  while  Pierre  Frangois  Oliver  Riayer  used  anatomy  and 
instrument  recommended  and  used  since  1869  by  Adolf  physiology  as  a  basis.  The  pathological-anatomical 
Kussmaul  (d.  1902),  in  enlargement  of  the  stomach,  method,  introduced  by  Julius  Rosenbaum  (1807-74), 
and  for  the  examination  of  the  stomach  with  a  specu-  was  established  by  Ferdinand  Hebra  in  Vienna  (1816h 
lum.  Faradization  was  employed  by  Karl  Friedrich  80).  Its  chief  merits  consist  in  creating  a  classifica- 
Canstatt  in  1846,  Duchenne,  and  later  by  Kussmaul  tion  of  twelve  groups,  valid  in  its  substantial  form 
(1877),  the  stomach  catheter  was  used  for  diagnos-  even  to-day.  in  a  dennltion  of  the  general  course  of  the 
tic  pujnposes  by  Wilhelm  Leube  in  1871.  Hie  subject  disease,  ana  in  simplifying  therapeutics.  His  chief 
of  typhlitis  and  perityphlitis  was  investigated  among  special  studies  are  concerned  with  itch,  lepra,  and 
others  by  Puchelt  (1829),  Bume.  Smith,  Bamberger,  eczema.  With  him  we  must  mention  Friedrich  Wil- 
and  Oppolzer;  diseases  of  the  kidneys  by  Richard  helm  Felix  von  B&rensprung  T 1822-64;  eczema  mar- 
Bright  (1827),  Pierre  Francois  Oliver  Rayer  (1793-  ginatum,  erythrasma  caused  oy  fimgus.  and  herpes 
1867),  Johnson  (1852),  Julius  Vogel  (1814-80),  and  zoster)  and  his  successor,  Georg  Lewm  (1820-96; 
Hermann  Senator  (1896);  diseases  of  the  bladder  by  scleroderma).  Pierre  Antoine  Ernest  Nazin  (1807- 
Joeef  GrQnfeld  (1872),  Trouv6  (1878),  Max  Nitze  78)  worked  along  the  same  lines  as  Hebra  (parasitical 
fl879;  endoscopy),  Rovsing  (1890,  1898),  Krogius  and  constitutional  skin-diseases,  erythema  indura- 
[l890,  1894),  Guyon,  Leube,  and  Robert  Ultzmann  tum).  Hebra's  most  important  pupib  are  Heinrich 
[inflammation  of  the  bladder^  formation  of  stone).  Auspitz  (1835-86;  venous  stagnation,  soap  thera- 
The  development  of  modem  diagnosis  and  the  thera-  peutics),  Moriz  Kaposi  (1837-19C&;  pigment  sarcoma, 
pontics  of  nervous  diseases  are  connected  with  the  sarcoid  swellings),  and  Ernst  Luawig  Schwimmer 
oames  of  eminent  physiologLsts  and  clinical  physicians.  (1837-98;    neuropathic  dermatosis).    For  a  number 


MEDICINS  141  MEDICINX 

of  VBhiable  medal  investigations  we  are  indebted  der  Paeenstecher  (1827-79;  operation  for  cataract), 

lo   TQboiy    Fox    (1836-79;    impetigo    contagiosa,  Eduard  J&ger  von  Jaxthal  (1818-^4;  letter  chart), 

dennatitls  herpeUfonnis),  and  on  lepra  to  D.   G.  Karl  Stellwag  von  Carion  (1823-1904:    defects  of 

DaDjelksen  (181&->94)  andlCarl  Wilhebn  Boeck  (180S-  accommodation,  innervation  of  the  iris).  Julius  Jacob- 

75).    In  recent  times  we  notice  an  endeavour  to  son  (1828-89;  aiphtheritis  conjunctivae).  Otto  Becker 

define  more  doeely  the  course  of  the  disease,  a  move-  (1828-90;  pathological  topography  of  the  eye,  lens), 

ment  started  by  Paul  Gerson  Unna  in  Hamburg'  Josef  Ritter  von  Hasner  (1819-92;  forensic  mjury  of 

(b.  1850;   histodermatology,  histotherapy.  bacterid-  the  eye),  Ludwig  Mauthner  (1840-94;  optical  defects 

olojsy  of  aene.  eciema,  impetigo,  and  favus).  of  the  eye,  elaucoma),  Albrecht  N^l   (1833-95; 

Ophihalmdogy,  as  an  independent  branch,  was  strychnia  in  the  case  of  amblyopia),  Rudolf  Berlin 
eatablisbed  in  Germany  firat  at  Vienna  and  Gdttmgen.  (1833-97;  word-blindness),  Richard  Forster  (1825- 
In  Vienna  the  anatomist  Joeef  Barth  (1755-1818)  1902;  perimeter,  glaucoma,  general  diseases  and 
gave  ophthalmological  lectures  as  early  as  1774,  but  maladies  of  the  eye),  William  Bowman  (1816-92; 
two  of  D18  pupils,  Johann  Adam  Schmidt  (1759-1809:  diseases  of  the  lachrymal  sac),  George  Critchett  (1817- 
stodies  on  intis  xerophthalmus  and  the  lachrymal  82;  iridodesis),  Cornelius  Agnew,  New  York  (1830-88; 
organs)  and  Georg  Josef  Beer  (1763-1821;  method  of  strabismus,  paracentesis  of  the  cornea,  canthoplas- 
eztraction  of  cataract,  staphyloma,  pannus),  were  the  tics),  the  Russian  Alexander  Ivanoff  (1836-80; 
first  to  recdve  special  professorships,  the  former  in  inflammation  of  the  retina  and  the  optic  nerves,  glass 
1795  at  the  militarv  academy  and  the  latter  at  the  eve),  and  Victor  Felix  Szokalski  (1811-91;  textbook), 
university.  Of  Beer  s  school  may  be  mentioned  among  The  introduction  of  local  ansesthesis  by  means  of  co- 
others  Konrad  Johann  Martin  Langenbeck  (1776-  caine  in  1884  by  RudolfKoUer  of  Vienna,  greatly  facili- 
1851;  oeratonyxis,  formation  of  the  pupil,*amaurosi8,  tated  operation  on  the  eye. 

entropium),  Karl  Friedrich  von  Gr^e   (1787-1840;        Obstetrica. — One  of  the  most  eminent  obstetricians 

teleangiectasis  in  the  eve),  Friedrich  J&ger  (1784-  was  Lukas  Johann  BoSr  of  Vienna  (1751-1835),  who 

1871;  upper  cutting  of  the  cornea  in  the  operation  for  upon  the  request  of  the  emperor  studied  in  Paris  and 

cataract;,  Johann  ^pomuk  Fischer  (1787-1847;  pys-  Ix>ndon  from  1785  to  1788.     He  represented  the  so- 

mic  inflammation  oi  the  eye),  and  finally  the  most  called  ''waiting  method'',  using  instruments  as  rarely 

eminent  English  ophthaknolo^st  of  his  time,  WiUlam  as  possible,  taught  rational  dietetics  durine  preenancy 

Mackenaie  (1791-1868;  choroiditis,  accommodation,  and  confinement,  and  was  the  first  to  employ  electric- 

asthenopy,  scotoma).    A  contemporary  of  Beer  was  ity  for  reviving  asphyxiated  children.    Work  of  a 

Carl  Hiimy  of  Gottingen  (1772-1837;  introduction  similar  nature  was  done  by  his  contemporary,  Wil- 

of  mydriatics).    Among  his  pupils  were  Friedrich  helm  Josef  Schmitt  (1760-1824*  forceps  operation  in 

August  von  Ammon  (1799-1861;  iritis)  and  Christian  the  lon^tudinal  position,  methods  of  examination, 

Georg  Theodor  Ruete  (1810-^7),  who  deserves  credit  mechanism  of  parturition).    In  contradistinction  to 

ehiefly  for  the  introduction  into  practice  of  the  specu-  Bo^r,    Friedricn    Benjamin    Osiander    (1759-1822) 

tumoculi.    In  Italy  the  progress  of  ophthalmology  be-  represented  the  most  extreme  operative  tendencies, 

ginswith  Antonio  Scarpa  (1747-1832;   staphyloma  of  while  Adam  Elias  von  Siebold  (1775-1828)  took  a 

the  cornea).     We  must  also  mention  Paolo  Assalini  middle  course.    Mechanism  of  parturition  and  pely- 

(1759-1840;  extraction  of  cataract,  artificial  pupil,  cology  was  treated  by  Ferdinand  Franz  August  von 

Egyptian  inflammation  of  the  eye,  1811),  Giovanni  Ritgen  (1787-1867)  and  Franz   Karl    von    Nftgele 

Battlsta  Quadri,  the  first  professor  in  Naples  (1815),  (1778-1851);  physiology  of  pregnancy  by  Franz  ICi- 

and  likewise  the  professors  of  the  clinics  established  at  wisch  von  Rotterau  (1814-52)  and  Johann  Christian 

Padua  and  Pavia  in  1819,  Anton  von  Rosas  ^171^  Gottfried  von  Joxg  (1779-1856).      The  founder  of 

1855),  a  pupil  of  Beer,  and  Frans  Flarer,  (tricniasis,  the  modem  theory  of  labour  pains  is  Justus  Heinrich 

iritis,  1841).    In  England,  besides  Mackenzie,  John  Wi^and  (1769-1817).    A  new  period  of  development 

Cunningham  Saunders  (1773-1810)  of  the  Gierman  begins  in  1847  with  James  Young  Simpson  (1811-70), 

school,  John  Vetch  (E^^tian  inflammation  of  the  the  inventor  of  the  English  f creeps  ana  cranioclast;  he 

eye,  1807),  George  James  Guthrie  (artificial  pupil,  ex-  was  the  first  to  employ  nareosis  (first  with  ether  and  in 

traction  of  cati^act,  1818),  and  William  Lawrence  the  same  year  also  with  chloroform)  for  women  in 

(1785-1867),  author  of  a  textbook,  deserve  mention,  labour,  but  at  present  this  is  done  onl^  in  case  of 

In  North  America  are  George  Frick  of  the  Viennese  operations.     Of  far  greater  importance  is  the  simul- 

school,  author  of  a  textbook  (Baltimore,  1823),  and  taneous  discovery  of  the  cause  of  puerperal  fever 

Isaac  Hays  of  Philadelphia.    More  than  anywhere  (pysemia)  by  Igp&z  Philipp  Semmelweiss  of  Vienna 

else  was  Gemum  influence  felt  in  France,  and  here  we  (1818-65).    He  introducea  the  practice  of  disinfecting 

must  mention  in  the  first  place  the  pupils  of  J&ger:  hands  and  instruments  with  a  solution  of  chloride  en 

Viktor  Stdber  (1803-71),  professor  at  Strasburg,  and  lime,  and  thereby  reduced  the  mortalitv  of  lyin^-in 

JuliusSichel  of  Paris  (1802-58;  choroiditis,  glaucoma,  women  from  9*92  to  1*27  per  cent.    This  most  mi- 

eataract,  staphyloma).    Besides  these  we  have  Garron  portant   discovery   that   external    infection   causes 

du  ViUards,  a  pupil  oi  Scarpa  and  author  of  a  textbook  puerperal  fever  was  utilized  in  general  practice  only  at 

(1838),  and  Desmarres.  a  late  period.    Propositions  similar  to  those  of  Sem- 

Hemiholtz,  Arlt,  and  Gr&fe  are  regarded  as  the  melweiss  had  been  made  as  earlv  as  1843  by  Oliver 

founders  of  modem  ophthalmology.    Hermann  Lud-  Wendell  Holmes  of  Boston,  but  tney  were  not  known 

wig  Ferdinand  von  Helmholtz  (1821-94)  opened  an  in  Europe.    Important  advances  in  modem  times  are 

entirely  new  field  for  diagnosis  by  inventing  tne  specu-  marked  bv  descriptions  of  the  narrow  pelvis  by  Gua- 

lum  oculi  in  1851.    Just  as  important  is  his  theory  of  tav  Adolph  Michielis  (1798-1848)  and  Karl  Konrad 

sceommodation  and  sensation  of  colours.    Ferdinand  Theodor  Litzmann  in  1851,  and  of  the  oblique  oval 

von  Arlt  of  Vienna  (1812-87),  an  eminent  operator  pelvis  by  Litzmann  in  1853 ;  artificial  premature  birth 

(triehiaais  symblephcuron)  and  teacher,   founder  of  mthecaseof  such  a  pelvis  by  Spiegell^xg  in  1870;  the 

ophthalmopathology,  recognized  the  true  cause  of  manual  removal  of  toe  placenta  in  1853,  and  prophv- 

myopia  (dongation  of  the  eye-ball)  and  introduced  a  laxis  against  blemorrhcea  of  the  newly  bom  by  Cfrea^ 

chart  of  letters,  later  improved  by  Snellen.    Albrecht  in  1884 ;  axial  traction  forceps  by  Chassagny  m  1861 ; 

von  Grftfe  (1828-70)  <rf  Berlm,  a  pupil  of  Arlt  but  in  combined  tuming  by  Braxton  Hicks  in  1860-3;  the 

many  respects  outshining  his  master,  is  known  princir  mechanism  of  delivery  by  Leishman  and  Hodge  in 

paUj  through  his  work  on  the  connexion  between  1864;  placenta  prsevia  by  Hofmeier  in  1888;   preg- 

hrun  and  blindness,  on  glaucoma,  iridectomy,  and  nancy  of  the  oviduct  by  Veit  in  1884;  extra-uterine 

linear  extraction  of  the  lens.    Besides  the  above-  pregnancy  by  Werth  in  1887;  asphyxia  of  the  new- 

mentkmed  Dondere  we  must  call  attention  to  Alexan-  bom  by  Schwartz  in  1858  and  by  Scbultze  in  1864- 


MEDICINE 


142 


MEDIcnVB 


The  classical  Caesarean  operation,  as  previously  per- 
fonned,  consisted  in  opening  but  leaving  in  the  uterus, 
whereupon  death  usually  resulted  from  sepsis.  Porro 
of  Pavia  in  1875  performed  it,  therefore,  with  the 
subsequent  removal  of  the  uterus  and  ovaries,  and 
thus  obtained  much  more  favourable  results.  With 
the  perfection  of  antiseptic,  or  rather  aseptic,  treat- 
ment in  modem  times,  the  classical  Cesarean  opera- 
tion is  beins  again  performed.  The  total  removal  of 
the  ovaries  (ovariotomy)  on  account  of  their  degenera- 
tion was  performed  for  the  first  time  in  1809  by 
Ephraun  MacDowell  at  Danville,  Kentucky,  the  tech- 
nique of  the  operation  being  perfected  b^  Hutchinson  in 
1859,  Spencer  Welb  and  Marion  Sims  m  1873,  Freund 
in  1878,  and  Czemy  in  1879.  Total  extirpation  of  the 
uterus  is  performed  especially  in  the  case  of  cancer. 

Surgery, — Of  all  the  branches  of  medicine,  sureery 
made  the  greatest  progress,  first  in  France  and  Eng- 
land, later  also  in  Germany.  Side  by  side  with  the 
renowned  surgeon-in-chief,  of  the  Napoleonic  armies, 
Jean  Dominique  Larry  (1766-1842),  we  have,  as  the 
most  versatile,  Guillaume  Dupuytren  (1777-1835); 
next  to  himPhllibert  Joseph  Roux  (1780-1854;  resec- 
tions). Jacques  Lisfranc  (1790-1847;  exarticulations), 
Alfred  Armand  Louise  Marie  Velpeau  (1795-1868; 
treatment  of  hernia  by  injection  of  iodine),  Jacques 
Mathurin  Delpech  (1777-1832;  studies  about  phage- 
dffinas,  gangrsena  nosocomialis,  tenotomy  of  the  tendo 
Achillis),  Jean  ZuMma  Amussat  (1796-1856;  litho- 
tripsy),  Auguste  Vidal  (1803-56;  varicocele),  Joseph 
Fran9ois  Malgaigne  (1806-65;  fractures  and  disloca- 
tions), Auguste  N^laton  (1807-73 ;  lithotomy) .  Edouard 
Chassaignac  (1805-79;  ^crasement  lin^ire,  arainage), 
and  Charles  Gabriel  Pravaz  (1791-1853;  orthopsedia, 
subcutaneous  injection).  Of  English  surgeons  we 
must  mention  the  brothers  Bell,  John  (collateral  circu- 
lation after  ligation)  and  Charles  (operative  surgery) ; 
John  Abemethy  (1763-1831;  ligation);  James  Syme 
f  1799-1870;  exarticulation  of  the  hip  ioint);  the 
famous  surgeon,  Astley  Patson  Cooper  (1768-1841; 
textbook),  and  William  Lawrence  (1785-1867).  In 
America  we  may  note  the  chief  surgeon  of  the  War  of 
Independence,  John  Collins  Warren  (1753-1815), 
Philipp  Syng  Physick  (1768-1837;  new  formations), 
WiUard  Parker  (1800-84;  cystotomy),  and  Frank 
Hastings  Hamilton  f  1813-86;  fractures  and  disloca- 
tions). Passing  to  tne  German  surgeons  let  us  men- 
tion first  of  all  Vincenz  von  Kern  of  Vienna  (1760- 
1829;  open  treatment  of  wounds),  his  successor. 
Joseph  von  Wattman  (1789-1866;  lithotomy),  and 
Franz  Schuh  (1805-65;  new  formations,  hernia);  in 
Germany  Louis  Strohmayer  (1804-76;  myotomy, 
tenotomy,  resections),  Johann  Friedrich  Dienenbach 
(1794-1847;  plastic  operations),  and  Albert  Theodor 
Middeldorpf  (1824-68;  galvanocautery). 

A  new  epoch  of  progress  begins  in  1846  with  the 
introduction  of  narcosis.  The  discoverer  of  the  nar- 
cotic effect  of  ether  is  the  American  physician  and 
chemist,  Charles  Jackson  Tl 805-80),  who,  together 
with  William  Morton,  maae  experiments  upon  his 
own  person.  The  first  narcosis  was  undertaken  in 
1846  oy  Warren,  and  in  the  same  year  in  London  by 
Robert  Liston.  Simpson  first  employed  ether  in  an 
obstetric  operation  in  1847,  but  soon  afterwards  intro- 
duced into  practice  chloroform.  In  modem  times  a 
mixture  of  ether  and  chloroform  is  generally  used. 
Besides  general  narcosis  we  must  also  mention  local 
anssthesis  (evaporation  of  ether,  injection  of  cocaine, 
bromcethyl).  6f  still  greater  importance  than  narco- 
sis was  the  treatment  of  wounds  with  carbolic  acid  by 
the  Englishman  Joseph  Lister  in  1867  (antiseptic 
treatment  of  wounds).  In  the  course  of  time  carbolic 
acid  was  replaced  by  other  antiseptics,  as  salicylic 
add,  iodoform  etc.,  until  finally  the  antiseptic  method 
had  to  yield  to  the  aseptic  method  (careful  protection 
of  the  field  of  operation  against  infecting  germs). 
A  third  adiievement  of  mcdem  times  is  operatiiig 


with  an  artificial  absence  of  blood  (operations  on  the 
extremities),  mentioned  for  the  first  time  by  Friedrich 
Esmarch  in  1873.  Narcosis  and  antiseptics  now  make 
possible  a  series  of  daring  operations,  before  impossi- 
Die,  with  essentially  better  chances  of  success.  In 
,  the  recent  development  of  German  surgery  Bemhard 
von  Langenbeck  ^1810-87),  known  especially  as  a 
military  surgeon,  holds  a  leading  position.  Of  his 
school  we  have  among  others  Adolf  von  Bardeleben 
a819-95),  author  of  a  textbook,  Kari  Thiersch, 
(1822-95;  transplantation),  Johann  Nepomuk  von 
Nussbaum  (1829^90;  transplantation  of  bones,  ex- 
tension of  nerves),  Theodor  von  Billroth  (18219-94; 
extirpation  of  the  larynx  and  strunfia,  resection  of  the 
pylorus)  and  Richard  von  Volkmann  (1830-89;  sur- 
gery of  the  j  oints) .  A  very  important  means  of  locat- 
ing foreign  bodies  (e.  g.  projectiles),  in  the  human 
body,  and  for  the  examination  of  fractures  is  the  ROnt- 
gen  rays  discovered  by  William  Karl  ROntgen  in  1895 
(R6ntgen  photography). 

General  bibliographical  works:  Index  medioAa  (Boston,  187^ 
1000);  Index  CaiaiMfue  of  the  Library  of  the  Suraeon  GeneraVt 
Office,  U.  S.  A.  (Waahinston,  1800-):  Canbtadt.  Jahreeber. 
uber  die  FortechnUe  der  geeamnUen  Mediein  (Benin,  1842-;. 
Biographical:  Gurlt-Hirsch,  Biogr.  Lex.  der  hervorrqgenden 
Arxte  alter  Zeiten  u.  VdUcer  (6.  vols,  Vienna,  1884-8);  Faqel, 
Biogr.  Lex,  hervorroffender  Ante  dee  19.  Jahrh.  (Berlin  and 
Vienna,  1001).  Historical:  Sprenoel,  Vernteh  einer  pntg- 
nuUiachen  Oeech.  der  Artneikunde  (6  vols.,  Halle,  1821-^),  a 
fundamental  work,  but  written  from  apartisan  and  Protestant 
point  of  view;  Haesbr,  Lehrbuch  der  Creech,  der  Medixin  u.  der 

gyidemischen  Krankheiten  (3  vols.,  Jena,  187&-82) :  Puscriiann, 
McA.  dee  mediein.  UfderrSehtea  (Leipsiff,  1880) ;  Die  Meditin  in 
Wien  wdhrend  der  lelzten  100  Jahre  (Vienna,  1884);  Neubur- 
oer-Paoel,  Uandbuch  der  Geech.  der  Medixin  (Jena,  1002-6), 
with  rich  international  literature  on  all  special  suDJects. 

Leopold  Senfeldeb. 
Medicine,  Pastoral.    See  Pastoral  Medicine. 

Medicine  and  Oanon  Law. — In  the  early  centuries 
the  practice  of  medicine  by  clerics,  whether  secular  or 
regular,  was  not  treated  with  disapproval  bv  the 
Church,  nor  was  it  at  all  uncommon  for  them  to  devote 
a  considerable  part  of  their  time  to  the  medical  avo- 
cation. Abuses,  however,  arose,  and  in  the  twelfth 
century  ecclesiastical  canons  were  framed  which  be- 
came more  and  more  adverse  to  clerics  practising  the 
art  of  medicine.  The  "Corpus  Juris  Canonici''  con- 
tains a  decree  prohibiting  secular  clerics  and  regulars 
from  attending  public  lectures  at  the  universities  in 
medicine  and  taw  (cap.  Nam  magnopere,  3,  Ne  clerici 
aut  monachi).  The  reason  adduced  is,  lest  throiiigh 
such  sciences,  spiritual  men  be  again  plunged  into 
worldly  cares.  They  were  not  hereby  forbidden  to 
make  private  studies  in  medicine  or  to  teach  it 
publicly.  The  Council  of  Tours  (1163),  in  issuing  a 
similar  prohibition,  had  especially  in  view  monks  who 
left  their  cloisters  under  pretext  of  attending  univer- 
sity lectures,  and  in  this  were  imitated  by  secular 
pnests,  who  thus  violated  their  obligation  of  residence. 
This  law  was  extended  by  Honorius  III  to  all  clerics 
having  ecclesiastical  dignities.  It  is  not  binding,  con- 
sequently, on  the  lower  clei^,  or  on  those  clerics  who 
pursue  the  sciences  only  as  private  studies.  The 
penalty  imposed  for  violatign  was  excommunication 
ipsofaclo. 

As  to  the  practice  of  medicine  by  clerics,  the  Fourth 
Council  of  the  Lateran  (1215)  forbiBtde  its  emnloyment 
when  cutting  or  burning  was  involved.  In  tne  decree 
(c.  Sententiam  9,  Ne  cler.  vel  mon.),  it  is  said:  "Let 
no  subdeacon,  deacon  or  priest  exercise  any  art  of 
medicine  which  involves  cutting  or  burning".  This 
was  especially  prohibited  to  regulars  (cap.  tua  nos,  19, 
De  Homicid.),  and  they  are  also  forbidcfen  to  exercise 
the  science  of  medicine  in  any  form  (c.  Ad  aures,  7.  de 
St.  et  q[ual.).  This  general  prohibition  is  extendea  to 
all  clencs,  inasmuch  as  the  art  of  medicine  is  of  its 
nature  secular  and,  moreover,  involves  the  danger  of 
incurring  an  irregularity  (o.  9,  X,  V,  12).  Canonists, 
however,  generally  hold  that  in  case  of  necessity  an< 
where  danger  to  life  is  not  involved,  clerics  can  practieb 


MEDINA                                143  MEDINA 

medicine  through  pity  and  charity  towards  the  poor,  St.  Pius  V  decreed  that  no  physician  should  recefre 

in  default  of  oroinary  practitioners.    The  Sacred  Con-  the  doctorate  unless  he  took  oath  not  to  visit  a  sick 

gregationa  have  on  several  occasions  granted  per-  person  longer  than  three  days  without  calling  a  con* 

misBion  to  priests  to  make  and  distribute  meaical  fessor,  unless  there  was  some  reasonable  excuse.    If 

confections,  and  allowed  priests  who  had  formerly  he  violated  this  oath,  he  fell  xmder  excommimication* 

been  physicians  to  practice  the  art,  but  with  the  clause  Canonists  and  morausts  (among  them  St.  AlphonsuB 

"gratis  and  through  love  of  God  towards  all  and  on  Liguori),  however,  declare  that  this  is  not  binding  in 

account  of  the  aosence  of  other  physicians".    A  places  where  it  never  became  an  established  usage, 

clause  is  likewise  sometimes  added  that  thev  may  ao-  They  also  teach  that  even  where  it  had  been  receiv^, 

oept  recompense  if  spontaneously  offered,  out  never  it  applied  only  to  cases  of  mortal  sickness,  or  where 

from  the  poor.    In  cases  where  a  cleric  had  formerly  there  was  danger  that  it  might  become  mortal,  and  t^t 

been  a  physician,  he  may  not  practise  medicine  ex-  it  si^ced  for  the  physician  to  give  this  warning  by 

eept  through  necessity,  without  obtaining  a  papal  in-  means  of  a  third  party.    The  canons  also  declare  that 

dult,  which  is  eenerally  not  granted  except  for  an  im-  when  a  physician  is  paid  by  the  public  community, 

pelling  cause  (Bened.  XIV,  ''  De  Syn.  Dicec. ",  1.  13,  he  is  bound  to  treat  ecclesiastics  gratis,  tiiough  the 

e.  10).    This  has  been  frequently  msisted  on  in  de-  bishop  may  allow  them  to  make  voluntary  oontribu- 

crees  of  the  Sacred  Congregation  of  the  Council.    The  tions.    Likewise,  the  precept  of  charity  binds  medical 

le^ulationa  of  some  dioceses  (e.  g.  Brixen,  1857)  ex-  practitioners  to  give  their  services  to  the  poor  free  of 

phcitly  mention  that  homceopathy  likewise  falls  \mder  charge.    Physicians  who  prescribe  remedies  involving 

the  prohibition  of  exercising  the  medical  art.    Priests  infractions  of  the  Decalogue,  are  themselves  guilty  of 

are  reminded  that  it  is  preferable  to  study  theology  and  grave  sin.    This  is  also  the  case  if  they  experiment 

become  expert  physicians  of  souls  rather  than  to  cure  on  a  sick  person  with  unknown  medicines,  unless  idl 

bodies,  which  is  a  secular  profession.  The  main  reason  hope  has  been  given  up  and  t^ere  is  at  least  a  possi- 

why  clerics  should  not  practice  medicine  arises  from  bihty  of  doing  them  good.    Physicians  are  to  be  re« 

the  danger  of  incurring  tne  irregularity  which  is  caused  minded  that  they  have  no  dispensing  power  concerning 

by  accidental  homicide  or  mutilation.    Even  acci-  the  fast  and  abstinence  prescribed  by  the  Churoh. 

dental  homicide  induces  irregularity  if  the  perpetrator  They  may  however  give  their  prudent  judgment  as  to 

be  at  fault.    The  decretals  give  certain  rules  to  deter-  whether  a  sick  person,  owing  to  grave  danger  or  in- 

mine  whether  such  action  is  culpable.    Thus,  if  a  per-  convenience  to  his  health,  is  obliged  by  the  ecdesiasti- 

8on  in  the  performance  of  a  licit  act  does  not  employ  cal  precept.    They  are  warned  that,  if  they  declare 

proper  diligence  and  as  a  consequence  the  deatn  or  unnecessarily  that  a  person  is  not  obliged  to  fast,  they 

mutilation  of  the  patient  ensues,  he  becomes  irregular  themselves  commit  grave  sin.    They  also  sin  mortally 

if  he  could  have  foreseen  the  gravity  of  his  act  and  if  if  they  attempt,  without  being  forced  by  necessity, 

his  want  of  diligence  was  ^velv  culpable.    Again,  if  to  cure  a  serious  illness,  when  they  are  aware  that 

a  person  performs  an  illicit  act  from  which  the  death  through  their  own  culpable  ignorance  or  inexperience, 

of  another  follows,  he  becomes  irregular  even  thoueh  they  may  be  the  cause  of  grave  harm  to  the  patient, 

he  employed  all  diligence  in  avertm^  a  fatal  result.  Physicians  who  are  assigned  to  the  care  of  convents  of 

provioed  there  was  a  natural  connection  between  the  nuns  should  be  not  less  than  fiftv  yeats  of  age,  and 

illicit  act  and  the  danger  of  death,  so  that  the  act  was  yoimger  practitioners  are  not  to  be  emploved  unless 

both  illicit  and  imputable.    It  is  to  be  noted  that,  ao-  those  of  tne  prescribed  age  are  not  obtainable.    When 

cording  to  this  first  rule,  all  physicians  and  surgeons  they  have  the  ordinary  care  of  nuns,  they  are  to  have 

contract  irregularity  for  possible  future  sacred  orders  general  license  to  enter  the  cloister,  even  at  night  in 

if  any  of  their  patients  die  through  want  of  proper  cases  of  great  urgency.    They  are  not,  however,  to  be 

diligence  or  of  due  study  of  the  art  of  medicine  on  the  alone  with  the  patient.    Physicians  who  are  not  or- 

part  of  the  physician.    Hence,  Benedict  XIV  (De  dinary  require  special  faculties  to  enter  the  cloister. 

Svn.  Dicec.,  1. 13,  o.  10)  declares  that  in  general  when  Regulars  living  in  missionary  coimtries  have  the 

pbysicians  wish  to  enter  the  clerical  state,  a  dispensa-  privilege^  especially  by  ^  the  Bull^  of  Clement  XII, 

tion  should  be  obtained  od  cauteZam,  as  they  can  never  Cum  Sicut  ,  of  practising  medicine.    To  make  use 

Ci^rtainly  know  that  the^  have  always  used  all  the  of  this  privilege,  however,  they  must  be  skilled  in  the 

means  prescribed  by  medical  science  in  beludf  of  those  art  of  medicine  and  prescribe  their  remedies  gratui- 

pitients  who  died  under  their  treatment.     Accord-  tously.    They  must  also  abstain  from  cutting  and 

mg  to  the  second  decretal  rule,  all  are  irregular  who  burning  (ct^ra  secHonem  et  adustionem),^  It  is  re- 

prsctise  medicine  or  surgery  rashly,  through  want  c^  quired,  however,  that  regular  missionaries  abstain 

proper  knowledge  and  experience,  if  they  thus  cause  from  medical  practice  where  there  is  a  sufficient  num- 

the  death  of  another.    Particularly  as  regards  clerics,  ber  of  proper  physicians.    Regulars  who  according  to 

this  irregularitjr  is  declared  to  be  incurred  by  r^ulars  their  institute  have  care  of  hospitals  may  not  exercise 

who  have  received  tonsure  and  by  seculars  in  sacred  the  art  of  medicine  outside  of  their  own  institutions, 

orders  who  practise  medicine  in  a  forbidden  manner,  Indults  for  clerics  to  engage  in  medical  practice  are 

with  burning  and  cutting,  and  thereby  bring  about  a  not  ordinarily  conceded  until  the  bishop's  testimony 

fatal  result.    Irregularity  is  also  contracted  bymutOa-  concerning  the  medical  skill  of  the  applicant  and  the 

tion,  which  consists  in  the  severing  of  any  principal  want  of  lay  practitioners  has  been  considered.    The 

member  of  the  body,  that  is,  one  having  a  aistinct  and  religious  superior  of  the  regular  in  question  must  also 

pecidiar  function.    Even  those  who  mutilate  them-  add  his  testimonial  concerning  the  moral  qualities  of 

selves,  even  if  it  be  done  through  indiscreet  seal,  incur  the  candidate.    An  indult  to  practice  surgerjr  is  mudi 

canonical  irregularity.    As  regards  physicians  and  sur-  more  difficult  to  obtain  than  one  for  practismg  medi- 

geons  who  aro  not  clerics,  they  incur  no  irregularity  cine,  and  it  is  granted  only  when  there  is  no  other 

for  counselling  or  performing  mutilation,  because  the  local  surgeon. 

canonical  "defect  of  mildness"  (see  Irkeoularitt)  ^  Axchnbr.  CW«mftum  Juru  EceU*iatiinmnxea,im); 

does  not  apply  to  them.    Should  they  afterwanis  wish  ]^^Sii.f  *'•''***"  Canantca  (Rome,  1880),  a.  v.  CUncu, 

to  receive  sacred  orders,  they  should  be  dispensed  ad  William  H.  W.  Fanning. 
ecnUdam. 


The  ecclesiastical  canons  contain  many  and  various  Medina,  Babtholomew.  Dominican  theolo^n,  b. 
prescriptions  concerning  lay  physicians,  which  are  at  Medina,  1527;  d.  at  Salamanca,  1581.  With  Do- 
enumerated  at  length  by  Ferraris  (op.  cit.  infra),    minico  Soto,  Melchior  Canus,  and  Dominico  Bafiez  he 


Thus  physicians  are  warned  that  they  must  endeavour  studied  theology  at  the  University  of  Salamanca  under 
to  {Krsuade  their  patients  to  make  sacramental  con-  the  celebrated  professor  Francis  Vittoria.  His  life  was 
M — .•      ^  their  sins  (cap.  Cum  Infirmitas,  13,  de  poenit.).    devoted  almost  entirely  to  teaching  theology  at  Salar 


MEDINA  144  MBDITATION 

manca,  first  in  the  chair  of  Durandus.  afterwards  as    Medina  sasrs  "that  absolution  given  by  an  exeom> 
principal  professor.    He  was  appointea  to  the  "  cathe-    municated  priest  is  invalid  " ;  and  again,  "  at  a  time  of 


loved  theology  more,  and  all  his  writingti  preserved  are  tion,  and  on  the  "  Copia  confessariorum  **  seem  opposed 

theologicaL  being  principally  commentaries  on  the  to  the  teaching  of  the  council  on  these  points.  Alvares 

Summa  oi  St.  Thomas.    He  is  usually  called  the  Gomes  and  Andrea  Schott  state  that  Medina  was 

Father  of  Probabilism.   Writers  are  divided  as  to  his  buried  in  the  church  of  St.  Ildefonsus.    The  first  lineB 

teaching  on  this  important  question  of  moral  theologv.  of  the  epitaph  on  his  tomb  are :  ^ 

Some  hold  that  he  did  not  introduce,  but  merely  Gomplutense  decus  jaoet  hie,  attende  viator, 

formulated,  Probabilism  when  he  wrote:  "  It  seems  to  Ter  tmnulum  lustra,  ter  pia  thura  crema 

me  that  if  an  opinion  is  probable,  it  may  be  followed.  Hoc  moriente  silet  vox,  qua  non  darior  unquam 

even  thou^  the  opposite  opinion  be  more  probable'  Compluti  fulsit,  nee  fuit  iUa. 

(I-II,  q.  XIX,  a.  6).   Others  say  he  proposed  that  prin-  Many  editions  of  Medina's  works  were  printed  in  the 

ciple  in  the  abstract  (specumtive;,  restricting  it  in  fifteenth  and  sixteenth  centuries.    His  brother  John 

practice  so  that  there  was  no  departure  from  rules  of  de  Medina  brought  out  the  theological  books  at  AleaU 

conduct  formerlv  followed.   Others  still,  e.  g.  Echard,  in  1544  and  sqa.;  Salamanca,  1555;  Ingoldstadt,  1681; 

followed  bv  Billuart,  maintain  that  the  ir^stem  pro-  Brescia,^!  59(>-l606;  Cologne,  1607  etc. 

posed  by  Medina  differed  greatly  from  Prooabilism  as  ^        '       '"  "*"  *' "*'          ^           "^^ 

it  has  been  explained  by  its  later  defenders,  and  the^ 

cite  its  definition:  "that  opinion  is  probable  which  IS 

held  by  wise  men  and  is  supported  by  first-class  argu-  Gbegort  Clbabt. 

ments'*.    Hurter  (Nomencl.)  writes:  "He  seems  to 


with  the  declaration:  St.  Thomas  is  our  Master,  others  Angelis  at  Honiachuelos,  m  the  Sierra  Morena.   After 

only  in  so  far  as  they  follow  his  teachmg.    Probabil-  J^  profusion  he  went  to  the  college  of  8S.  Peter  and 

ioriste  are  unwilling  to  admit  that  Medina  is  against  "^  **  AlcauL   He  received  the  doctor's  degree  from 

them;  probabilists  are  loath  to  admit  that  he  pro-  the  citv  of  Toledo;  and  in  1660  he  was  unanimously 

posed  a  new  doctrine,  or  do  not  wish  to  give  to  him  all  elected  to  the  chair  of  Holy  Scripture  m  the  Umversity 


his  most  important  worics:  "Commentariainprimam  ^f*^®^5P  ii.  i    ,  .    « 

secundfiB  "  (Salamanca,  1577) ;  "  Commentaria  in  ter-  of  John  Ferus  were  pubhshed  m  Rome  after  a  strict 

tiam  partem,  a  Q.  1  ad  60"  (Salamanca,  1584);  examination.    Dominicus  a  Soto  pubhshed  at  Salar 

"  Breve  instruction  de  comme  se  ha  administrar  el  panca  a  work  censurmg  Ferus  s  commentaries,  select- 

sacramento  de  la  penitencia"  (Salamanca,  1580).  mg  sixty-seven  passages  as  deserving  censure,  and 

Quimr-EcBxm>,SS.OTd,Prued.Al,256\Boni>noii,ThSor%ea  dedicated  them  to  Yald^,  Arehbishop  of  Seville. 

gt  tytihnet  dea  pnbabiliUa  en  tMolooie  morale  (Fribourg,  1894),  0.  Medina  took  up  the  defence  of  Ferus,  which  was  pub- 

D.  J.  Kbnnbdy.  lished  at  Alcali  (1667, 1678),  and  Mainz  (1672).   TOs 

literary  controvert— -for  no  doubts  were  entertained 

Medina,  Juan  de,  theologian:  b.  1490;  d.  1547;  he  o^  tlje  orthodoxy  of  Medma— aritated  the  Spanish 
occupied  the  first  rank  among  the  theologians  of  the  People.  A  process  was  institut^  agamst  Medina  m 
sixteenth  century.  He  was  bom  at  Medina  de  Pomar  the  tribunal  of  the  Inquisition  at  Toledo.  He  was  cast 
in  the  Province  of  Burgos,  and  not  at  AlcalA  as  ^^,  pnspn,  where  for  more  than  five  years  he  was 
some  writers  state.  Very  Uttle  has  been  written  Bubjwtai  to  great  suffering  and  pnvatjona.  BbBtem- 
about  his  life  though  he  is  repeatedly  quoted  and  Vor^X  afflictions  and  the  ngour  of  his  hfe  brc  dght  on  a 
praised  by  several  theologians  of  his  time.  He  en-  eevere  illness,  and  the  mquisitor^eneral  gave  orders 
tered  the  College  of  St.  Ildefonsus  at  AlcaW,  20  May,  ^  Medina  iras  to  be  conveyed  to  the  Convent  of  St. 
1516,  took  doctor's  degrees  in  philosophy  and  theol-  l^^  s  of  the  Kmgs,  where  eveijrthing  possible  was  to 
ogy,  and  soon  after  was  made  canon  and  master  of  *»  done  to  preserve  his  hfe.  Before  the  Blessed  Sacra- 
theology  at  the  university.     He  was  selected  as  ™o^t>  ^  ™*<*?  °^  profession  of  faith,  calhng  God  to 


twenty  years,  Medina  filled  his  position  with  the  great-  Inquisition  issued  a  dcCTee  declarmg  that  the  accusa- 

est  distinction.    Alvares  Gomez  says  that  Medina  had  ^fo^  fe>^^^  against  Medina  were  without  founda- 

a  wonderful  power  of  presenting  the  most  intricate  *}<>»•  ^HispnncipaJ^worksM^:   'ChristianjepawBnesis 

questions  in  a  simple  and  clear  style  so  that  his  pupils  f^,,^®. ,^S?**  1*^..^^  A<^®  T^  septem"  (Vemce, 

had  no  difficulty  m  understanding  him—"  nihil  esset  }^^)  J  .  Disputationes  de  mdulgentiis  adversus  nostP 

tom  perplexum  aut  obscurum  quod  vel  tardissimus  temporis  hiereticofl  ad  PP.  s.  Concihi  Tndent."  (Ven- 

non  assequeretur".    His  love  of  study  impaired  his  »ce.  1664);  "I^  sacrorum  hominum  contmentia  hbn 

health  and  he  died  at  the  age  of  fifty-seven  years.  V^  CVenice,  1669),  V^^ten  a^nst  thosewho  advo- 
Medina'  ^  ^  ^  *     '^^'      "  "" 

ethics. 

Se  "  Dicci^^rio  £ncTcl^7Hislir^i^^\^no '' wys  ^^  y  cristiafm  humilid^ ''  (Toledo,  1559). 

thathw treatise "dePcBmt^^^^^  on  the  Index  u^^^fff^:  f,-'  g5a'?^'4.'Xi?SSiS;^5^^X;.t^?: 

published  m  1707;  the  edition  of  the  Index  prmted  m  FraneUoana  (Madrid.  1732):  de  Cabtbo:  Schott,  Hinatvim 

1711  does  not  give  Medina's  work,  nor  does  any  of  the  g*w*^«»  ^*^J^°'V.^^^5  NioolXb  Antokio.  BibbMrn^ 

subsequent  editions.    The  Counal  of  Trent  declares  gjSiS?P  ^•^^^  ^^"^^^ •^''^^hf S^ 

thatat  the  hour  of  death  there  is  no  "  reservatio"  and  ^""^  ^^^^'  GRboobt  Clbabt. 

that  ail  priests  can  absolve  "in  articulo  mortis '\       liaditatioii.    See  Exumt. 


MEDEANO 


145 


n  -i: 


HadnuiOy  Francisco,  Spanish  lyric  poet,  b.  in 
Seville,  not  to  be  confounded  with  Sebasti^  Francisco 
de  Medrano  who  was  also  a  poet  and  lived  at  about  the 
same  time.  The  dates  of  his  birth  and  death  are  un- 
known, but  he  lived  durine  the  latter  part  of  the  six- 
teenth and  the  beginning  of  the  seventeenth  centuries. 
Little  is  known  of  nis  life  except  that  he  visited  Rome. 
His  works  were  published  at  Palermo  (1617)  as  an  ap- 
pendix to  the  imitation  of  Ovid's  *'  De  Kemedio  Amo- 
ris"  by  Pedro  Venegas,  a  poet  of  Seville.  According 
to  the  Spanish  critic  Adolfo  de  Castro,  Medrano  is  the 
best  of  the  Spanish  imitators  of  Horace,  comparing 
favourably  in  that  respect  with  Fray  Luis  de  Le6n. 
Endowed  with  literary  taste,  he  writes  in  good  Span- 
ish, and  his  style  is  free  from  the  gongorism  of  his  tmie. 
Among  the  odes  of  Medrano,  his  *'La  profecfa  del 
Tajo"  is  verv  similar  to  one  of  Fray  Luis  de  Le6n  of 
the  same  title.  Although  both  are  based  upon  Hor- 
ace's ode  to  Mark  Antony  in  which  he  would  separate 
him  and  Cleopatra,  there  is  a  great  difference  between 
them.  Le6n's  ode  departs  from  the  original  of  Horace, 
while  Medrano's  is  an  imitation  of  the  latter  so 
close  as  to  amount  almost  to  a  translation.  The 
poems  of  Medrano  are  reprinted  in  *'  La  Blblioteca  de 

Autores  Espafloles". 

BMioUea  de  AidonM  EepoAoUa.  Vols.  XXXII.  XXXV.  and 
XUl  (fiCadrid,  1848-86). 

Ventuka  Fuknteb. 

Medlilidi  Akdbeas,  Croatian  painter  and  engraver, 
called  by  Italian  authors  Medola,  Medula,  Schiavone, 
Sehiaon,  etc.,  b.  at  Sibenik,  Dalmatia,  1522;  d.  at 
Venice,  1582.  The  son  of  poor  parents.  Andreas  was 
accustomed,  while  still  a  ooy,  to  study  closely  the 
pictures  and  woodwork  on  the  walls  of  the  churches 
and  public  buildings  of  his  native  town,  and,  on  his 
return  home,  to  sketch  on  paper  all  that  he  had  seen. 
So  tireless  was  his  devotion  to  his  drawing  that  his 
father  took  him  to  Venice,  and  there  entrusted  him 
to  his  godfather,  Rocco,  a  painter  of  very  little  merit. 
Under  Rocco  Medulid,  first  as  apprentice  and  then  as 
salaried  assistant,  compelled  to  work  from  early 
morning  till  evening  to  procure  bare  nourishment  and 
clothing,  strove  to  peilect  himself  in  his  art.  He 
be^Eui  by  studying  and  copying  the  works  of  the  then 
renowned  painter,  Francesco  Mazzuola  (known  as 
Parmigiaiio),  and  the  painting  of  Titian.  From 
thc»e  celebrated  painters  Medulid  learned  that  grace 
and  delicate  lightness  of  touch,  that  animation  of  col- 
oar,  which  constitute  the  pre-eminent  characteristics 
of  nis  own  pictures.  While  still  ^oung  in  years, 
chance  procured  for  him  the  acouamtance  of  Pietro 
Aietino,  commonly  known  as  ''tne  Divine"  and  the 
"scoursee  of  princes"  (Flagellum  principum),  from 
whom  Meduh^  received  always  a  most  friendly  re- 
ception and  much  valuable  instruction.  About 
this  time  Medulid  began  to  copy  the  engravings  of 
Parmigiano,  the  first  to  execute  pictures  on  copper 
with  nitric  acid.  J.  Paolo  Lomazzo,  contemporary 
painter  and  writer,  states  that  Parmieiano  was 
MeduluS's  instructor  in  this  branch.  Medulid,  how- 
ever, was  no  mere  imitator;  the  individual  character 
of  his  painting  flSive  rise  to  a  special  school  in  Venice, 
the  " Scttoladi  Schiavone ". 

Tintoretto  was  not  ashamed  to  work  with  the  needy 
youth,  to  assist  him,  and  even  to  study  his  beautiful 
style  of  colouring,  recommendix^  in  writing  all  paint- 
en  to  study  colour  from  MeduB^'s  pictures,  adding 
that  "every  painter  is  blameworthy,  who  does  not 
possess  at  least  one  picture  of  Meduli<5's  in  his  studio." 
Among  those  who  occasionally  purchased  his  pictures 
and  greatly  prized  them,  was  Titian  himself  who 
when  commissioned  by  the  Venetian  Government  to 
choose  the  best  painters  in  Venice  to  decorate  with 
muial  paintings  the  public  library  of  St.  Mark,  in- 
eluded  Medulid's  name  with  those  of  Tintoretto,  Paul 
Veronese,  Battista  Zelotti,  Giuseppe  Salviati,  and 
Bi^ista  Franco.  M(^uli<S  retained  throughout  life 
X.— 10 


great  veneration  for  Titian  and  is  indeed  proclaimed 
by  many  authors  (Filibeau,  Rahmdor,  Nagler)  his 
most  celebrated  imitator.  For  the  Ruzzini  family  in 
Venice,  Medulid  painted  the  "Baptism  of  Jesus", 
but  the  subdued  colouring  cannot  bear  comparison 
with  his  other  artistic  achievements.  For  the  Pelle- 
grini he  painted:  "Jesus  at  Emmaus  with  Luke  and 
Cleophas^',  for  colour  one  of  the  greatest  masterpieces 
of  the  Venetian  school ;  "  Pilate  Washing  his  Himds", 
an  equally  typical  example  of  Medulid's  style;  "Ma- 
donna with  Cnild  in  the  Desert,  with  St.  Joseph  and 
St.  John  the  Baptist".  For  the  Gussoni  he  painted 
"St.  Cecilia  Playing  the  Omn"  (half  length),  with 
two  attendant  angels,  and  "Madonna  Presenting  her 
Son  to  Holy  Simeon  .  In  the  house  of  the  Priuli  in 
the  Via  San  Salvadore,  Medulid  painted  in  fresco  some 
scenes  from  the  life  of  St.  John;  for  the  Foscarini  the 
"Descent  of  the  Holy  Ghost".  A  great  number  of 
works,  now  scattered  throughout  the  worid,  were 
painted  for  the  churches  of  Venice  and  other  cities  and 
for  individual  collectors.  On  22  May,  1 563,  the  judges 
from  among  the  celebrated  painters  of 


enice  to  decide  the  process  of  the  brothers  Zuccati 
were  Titian,  Jacob  of  Pistoia,  Andreas  Medulid,  Paul 
Veronese,  and  Tintoretto.  Medulid  also  worked  with 
nitric  acid  on  copper,  and,  according  to  some  author- 
ities, was  the  first  to  engrave  with  a  dry  needle.  His 
etchings  are  highly  praised  for  their  special  elegance, 
beauty,  and  vigour;  among  his  best  works  of  this  class 
may  oe  mentioned,  "Moses  Saved  by  Pharaoh's 
Daughter",  "Abduction  of  the  Trojan  Helen",  "Sts. 
Peter  and  Paul",  "Curing  of  the  Lame  Man"  (after 
Raphael).  Medulid  died  m  poverty,  leaving  scarcely 
sumcient  to  pay  for  his  interment  in  the  cnurch  of 
St.  Luke  at  Venice.    The  following  works  must  be 

g laced  in  the  same  rank  as  the  pictures  of  Titian 
imself:  "The  Last  Supper"  in  the  Borghese  Palace, 
Rome;  "Madoima  ana  Child,  with  Sts.  Francis  and 
Jerome"  in  the  Royal  Academy  of  Arts,  Venice; 
"Jesus  Bound  Between  a  Malefactor  and  Two  Sol- 
diers" at  Paris;  "Pilate  Washing  his  Hands"  in  the 
Ro^al  Academy,  Venice. 

Cxotinr,  Description  of  the  Pidurea  at  the  Earl  of  Pembroke* a 
Houae  at  Wilton  (London,  1751);  Pilkinoton.  The  OentUman^a 
and  Connoieaeur  a  Dictumary  of  Painlera  (London,  1798); 
FoRBL.  Etchinqa  after  Drateinga  and  Enqravinga  by  Parmegianino 
and  MeldoUa  (London,  1822) :  Basan,  Dictionnatre  dea  graveura 
aneiena  et  modemee  (Paris,  1767);  Brulliot,  Dietionnaire  de 
Monogrammea,  etc.  (Munich,  1S32);  HiKBcmsat  Nachrichten  von 
aehenewiirdigen  OemUldcn  undKupferaticfiaammlunifen  in  DeiUach' 
land  (Erlangen.  1786);  Naqler.  Neuea  allgemetnea  KUnatler' 
lexikon  (Munich,  1835-62);  Kukuljevi<5,  Andreaa  MeduliS 
Schiavone  (Zagreb,  1863):  Pbzzoli,  Elogio  di  Andrea  Schiavone 
(Venice,  IMoT 

Anthony-Lawrence  GancevkS. 

Meehan,  Charles  Patrick,  Irish  historical  writer 
and  translator,  b.  in  Dublin,  12  July,  1812;  d.  there  14 
March,  1890.  His  parents,  natives  of  Ball3anahon, 
Co.  Longford,  where  his  ancestors  for  thirteen  centu- 
ries were  custodians  of  the  Shrine  of  St.  Molaise,  now 
one  of  the  most  famous  relics  in  the  Royal  Irish  Acad- 
emy, Dublin,  sent  him  to  the  Irish  College,  Rome,  to 
study  for  the  priesthood.  Ordained  priest  in  1834,  he 
returned  to  Ireland,  then  in  enjcmnent  of  five  years  of 
Catholic  Emancipation.  His  first  mission  was  the 
rural  parish  of  Rathdrum  in  Wicklow,  from  which  he 
was  soon  transferred  to  the  metropolitan  parish  of  Sts. 
Michael  and  John,  where  he  remained  until  his  death. 
While  working  zealously  in  the  ministry,  he  was  un- 
tiring in  historical  research.  From  materials  gathered 
while  in  Wicklow,  he  compiled  a  "History  of  the 
O'Tooles,  Lords  Powerscourt'',  published  without  his 
name  and  long  out  of  print.  His  other  works,  with 
date  of  publication  are :  **  History  of  the  Confederation 
of  Kilkenny"  (1846);  "The  Geraldines,  their  Rise, 
Increase  and  Ruin"  (1847);  translation  of  Man- 
zoni's  "La  Monaca  di  Monza"  (1848),  out  of  print; 
"  Portrait  of  a  Christian  Bishop,  Life  and  Death  of  the 
Most  Rev.  Francis  Kirwan,  Bishop  of  Killala,  trana- 


146 


lated  from  the  Latin  of  Archdeacon  John  L3mch" 
(1848);  "Lives  of  the  most  eminent  Painters,  Sculp- 
tors, and  Architects,  of  the  Order  of  St.  Domimc. 
translated  from  the  Italian  of  Vincenso  Marchese' 
(1852),  out  of  print;  "  Fate  and  Fortunes  of  the  Earls 
of  TVrone  and  Tyrconnell "  (1868) ;  "  Rise  and  Fall  of 
the  Irish  Franciscan  Monasteries  and  Memoirs  of  the 
Irish  Hierarchy  in  the  Seventeenth  Century"  (1870). 
These  works,  all  published  in  Dublin,  have  earned 
renown,  and,  except  those  marked  out  of  print,  have 

Sme  through  numerous  revised  editions.  Father 
eehan  wrote  "  Tales  for  the  Young  ",  and  translated 
others  which  he  named  "Flowers  from  Foreign 
Fields".  He  edited  Davis's  "Essays"  (1883),  Man- 
gan's  "Essays  and  Poems"  (1884),  and  Madden's 
^'Literaiy  Remains  of  the  United  Irishmen"  (1887). 
He  also  wrote  some  graceful  verse,  which  is  to  be 
found  in  various  anthologies. 
SiLLARD  in  CathoUc  World  (Sept.,  1800). 

Peteb  a.  Sillabd. 

Meenichaert,  Theofhile.    See  Oklahoma.. 

Megara,  a  titular  see,  suffragan  to  Corinth^  in 
Achaia.  The  city,  which  was  built  on  an  arid  stnp  of 
land  between  two  rocks,  had  two  ports,  on  the  Sa- 
vonic  Gulf  and  the  Gulf  of  Corinth  respectively.  In 
the  eighth  and  seventh  centuries  b.  c,  Me^ra  became 
the  metropolis  of  flourishing  colonies,  tne  chief  of 
which  were  Megara  Hyblsea,  and  Selinus,  in  Sicily, 
Selymbria,  Chalcedon,  Astakos,  Byzantium,  and  the 
Pontic  Heraclea.  The  exclusion  of  Megara  from  the 
Attic  market  byPeiioles,  in  432,  was  one  cause  of  the 
Peloponnesian  War.  The  Megarian  territory,  already 
very  poor,  was  then  ravaged  year  after  year,  and  in 
427  Nicias  even  established  a  permanent  post  on  the 
island  of  Minoa  over  against  Nissea.  Shortly  before 
this  Megara  had  become  the  birthplace  of  the  Sophist, 
Eucleides,  a  disciple  of  Socrates,  who,  about  the  year 
400  B.  c,  founded  the  philosopnic  school  of  Megara, 
chiefly  famous  for  the  cultivation  of  dialectic.  It 
subsequently  shared  the  political  vicissitudes  of  the 
other  Greek  cities.  About  the  end  of  the  flfth  century 
after  Christ,  \mder  the  Emperor  Anastasius  I,  its  for- 
tifications were  restored.  The  names  of  some  early 
Greek  bishops  of  Megara  are  given  in  Le  Quien, 
"Oriens  Christianus",  II,  205.  In  the  "Notitia 
episcoi)atuum"  of  Leo  the  Wise  (e.  900),  the  earliest 
authority  of  the  kind  for  this  region,  the  name  of 
Megara  does  not  appear.  Numerous  Latin  bishops 
in  the  Middle  Ages  are  mentioned  in  Eubel,  ''Hi&- 
rarchia  catholica  medii  sevi ".  1, 348 ;  II,  208.  Megara 
is  now  a  town  of  6500  inhabitants,  tne  capital  of  a 
deme  of  the  same  name.  On  Easter  Sunday  the 
women  there  perform  an  antique  dance  which  people 
come  from  Atnens  to  see.  Not  a  vestige  remains  of 
the  temples  which  Pausanias  described.  Efforts  are 
made  to  locate  the  acropoles  of  Minoa  and  Nissea  on 

various  little  eminences  along  the  coast. 

Rexnoanum. I>a«aZto If e^am (Benin,  1825) ;  liKAXx.NortKtm 
Oruee,  II,  388;  Smitr,  Did.  Oreek  and  Roman  Oeog.,  II.  310-17. 

S.  Vailh^. 

MegarianB. — ^The  Megarian  School  is  one  of  the 
imperfectly  Socratic  Schools,  so  called  because  they 
developed  in  a  one-sided  way  the  doctrines  of  Socrates. 
The  Megarians,  of  whom  the  chief  representatives  were 
Euclid,  the  founder  of  the  school,  and  Stilpo,  flour- 
ished at  Athens,  during  the  first  half  of  the  fouilh  cen- 
tury B.  c.  Borrowing  from  the  Eleatics,  especially 
from  Parmenides,  the  doctrine  that  there  is  no  change 
or  multiplicity  in  the  world,  they  combined  this  prin- 
ciple with  the  Socratic  teaching  that  knowledge  bv 
means  of  concepts  is  the  only  true  knowledge,  it  fol- 
lows from  this  that  the  only  realitv  is  the  unchange- 
able essential  nature,  that  the  world  of  our  sense  expe- 
rience is  an  illusion,  and  that  there  is  nothinji;  possible 
except  what  actually  exists.  The  afl&rmation  of  the 
exiBtence  of  "bodiless  forms "» which  seems  to  have 


been  the  Megarian  designation  for  the  imchanjseable 
essential  natures  of  things,  is  the  school's  most  impor- 
tant contribution  to  speculative  thought.  Its  anafoey 
with  the  Platonic  doctrine  of  ideas  is  evident.  In  the 
practical  portion  of  their  teaching  the  Mesarians  em- 
phasised the  supremacy  of  the  notion  of  goodness. 
Knowledge,  Socrates  taught,  is  the  onlv  virtue;  it  is 
identical  with  moral  excellence.  The  highest  object 
of  knowledge  is  the  hi^est  good.  But,  as  the  Ele&tics 
taught,  the  highest  object  of  knowledge  is  the  highest 
reauty,  being.  Therefore,  the  Megarians  conclude,  Uie 
highest  good  and  the  highest  reality  are  one  and  the 
same.  Whatever  Parmenides  pr^cated  of  being, 
namely  oneness,  immutability,  etc.,  may  be  predicate 
of  the  good  also.  The  good  is  insight,  reason,  God;  it 
alone  exists.  In  order  to  defend  these  tenets,  wludi 
to  the  popular  mind  seemed  not  onl^  imtrue  out  ab- 
surd, the  Megarians  developed  to  a  high  degree  the  art 
of  disputation.  This  art  (the  eristic  method,  or 
method  of  strife,  as  it  was  called  in  contradistinction 
to  the  heuristic  method,  or  method  of  finding,  advo- 
cated by  Socrates),  was  introduced  into  i>hilosophy  by 
the  Eleatic,  Zeno,  sumamed  the  Dialectican.  It  was 
adopted  in  the  Megarian  School,  and  carried  by  the 
followers  of  EucUd  to  a  point  where  it  ceased  to  serve 
any  useful  or  even  serious  purpose.  To  Euclid  himself 
we  owe  the  use  of  the  method  of  aivumentation  known 
as  the  reductio  ad  absurdum,  which  consists  in  attack- 
ing, not  the  premises,  but  the  conclusion,  of  the  oppo- 
nent's aigument  and  showing  the  absurd  consequences 
which  follow  if  his  contention  is  admitted.  This 
method,  however,  was  germinally  contained  in  Zeno's 
procedure  by  which,  in  a  series  of  specious  fallacies  he 
had  striven  to  show  that  motion,  change,  and  multi- 
plicity are  illusions. 

Plato,  Dialoguea,  especially  8opkuU9^  242  B;  Schubixii- 
MACHKR,  PUUorCa  Werke,  II  (Berlin,  1804-10),  2;  Prantl, 
Oeaeh.  der  Logik  %m  Abendlandet  I  (Leipaig,  1855,  sqq.),  33; 
ZsLLBR,  Socratet  and  the  Socratic  Schools,  tr.  Rkxchbl.  (London. 
1886),  250 sqq.;  Turner,  Hit,  ofPhilo*.  (Boston,  1903),  SSsqq, 

William  Turneb. 

Mdge,  Antoine-Joseph,  a  Maurist  Benedictine,  b. 
in  1625  at  Clermont;  d.  15  April,  1691,  at  the  monas- 
tery of  St.-Germain-des-Pr^  near  Paris.  On  17  Biarch, 
1643,  he  became  a  Benedictine  at  the  monastery  of 
Venddme.  In  1659  he  taught  theology  at  the  Abbey 
of  St.  Denis  and  afterwards  devoted  himself  to  preach- 
ing. In  1681  he  was  made  prior  of  the  monastery  at 
Rethel  in  Champagne.  Towards  the  end  of  his  life  he 
withdrew  to  St.-C^rmain-des-Pr^,  where  he  divided 
his  time  between  prd^er  and  study.  His  most  impor- 
tant Uterarv  production  is  "Commentaire  sur  la  re^le 
de  S.  Benoit  and  a  MS.  history  of  the  congregaticm 
of  St.  Maur  from  1610  till  1653  (Paris,  1687).  This 
commentary  is  an  attack  upon  the  rigoristic  interpre- 
tation of  the  rule  by  Abbot  Ranc^  of  La  Trappe,  and 
was  forbidden  in  1689  by  a  chapter  of  the  Maurist 
superiors  at  the  instance  of  Bossuet.  His  other  works 
are  a  translation  of  St.  Ambrose's  treatise  "On  Vir- 
ginitv"  (Paris,  1655),  "La Morale  chr^tienne"  (Paris, 
1661),  a  few  ascetical  writings  and  translations. 

Tabsin,  HiMoire  liMirairc  de  la  eonoriooHon  de  SL-Maur 
(Brussels,  1770),  s.  v.;  Lb  Cbrf,  BiMiotMiue  hietorique  el  eri- 
time  dee  auteura  de  la  con^riootion  de  St.  Maur  (La  Haye,  1726), 
34&-d55;  Db  Lama,  BibltotMoue  dee  icrivaine  ae  la  congrioaiion 
de  Saint-Maw  (Munich  and  Paris,  1882),  «MS0. 

MiCHAXL  OlT. 

Hegiddo.    See  Mageddo. 

BSehrerau,  formerly  a  Benedictine,  now  a  Cister- 
cian Abbey,  is  situated  on  Lake  Constance,  west  of 
Bre^nz,  in  the  district  of  Vorarlbeig,  Austria.  The 
origmal  monastery  was  founded  by  St.  Columbanus 
who,  driven  from  Luxeuil,  settled  about  611  at  this 
spot  and  built  a  monastery  after  the  model  of  Luxeuil. 
A  convent  for  women  soon  arose  near  the  monastery 
for  men.  Little  has  been  preserved  of  the  eariy  hift- 
tory  of  either  foundation  up  to  1079.  In  this  yeut 
the  monastery  was  reformed  by  the  monk  (jottfried. 


MBIONAN                                147  MBILLEUB 

•ent  by  Abbot  William  of  Hirsau,  and  the  Benedictine  at  Chauvign^,  France,  12  April,  1817;  d.  at  Tours,  20 
rule  was  introduced.  It  is  probable  that  when  the  January,  1896.  Having  ascertained  his  vocation  to 
reform  was  effected  the  convent  for  women  was  sup-  the  priesthood,  on  the  completion  of  his  academic 
pressed.  In  1097-98  the  abbey  was  rebuilt  by  Count  studies  at  the  Angers  lycie  and  at  Ch&teau-Gontier,  he 
Ulrich  of  Bregenz,  its  secular  administrator  and  pro-  studied  philosophy  in  the  seminary  of  Le  Mans,  where 
tector.  During  the  twelfth  and  thirteenth  centuries  he  received  the  subdiaconate  in  1839.  From  this  in- 
the  abbey  acquired  much  landed  property;  up  to  the  stltution  he  passed  to  the  CoUdge  de  Tess^,  which  be- 
middle  of  the  sixteenth  century  it  had  the  right  of  longed  to  the  Diocese  of  Le  Mans,  where,  while  teach- 
patronage  for  sixty-five  parishes.  In  the  era  of  the  ing  in  one  of  the  middle  grades,  he  continued  his  own 
Keformation  the  abbey  was  a  strong  support  of  the  old  ecclesiastical  studies.  All  through  his  career  he  seems 
Faith  in  Vorariberg.  In  particular  Ulrich  Motz,  to  have  been  blessed  with  the  friendship  and  sympa- 
afterwards  abbot,  exerted  much  influence  in  Bregen-  thetic  coimsel  of  the  most  eminent  men  among  the 
zerwald  (a  mountainous  district  of  northern  Vorarl-  Catholics  of  his  time  and  country.  The  Abb^  Bercy, 
berg)  by  preaching  with  great  energy  against  the  an  Orientalist  of  some  distinction,  whose  notice  he  at- 
spread  of  religious  innovations  while  he  was  provost  tracted  at  Le  Mans  and  later  at  Tess^,  advised  him  to 
of  Lin0enau(  1515-33).  During  the  Thirty  Years  War  make  Scriptural  exegesis  his  special  study.  Mgr 
the  abbey  suffered  from  the  devastation  wrought  by  Bouvier  ordained  him  priest  (14  June.  1840)  and  sent 
the  Swecies,  from  the  quartering  upon  it  of  soldiers,  him  to  Paris  for  a  furtner  course  in  pnilosophy  under 
and  from  forced  contributions;  it  was  also  robbed  oi  Victor  Cousin.  Meignan  made  the  acquaintance  of 
neariy  all  its  revenues.  Nevertheless,  it  often  offered  Ozanam^  Montalembert,  and  others  like  them,  who 
a  free  refuge  to  religious  expelled  from  Germany  and  urged  him  to  prepare  for  the  special  controversial 
Switzeriand.  At  a  later  date  it  was  once  more  in  a  needs  of  the  day  by  continuing  his  studies  in  Germany. 
very  flourishing  condition;  in  1738  the  church  was  FoUowing  this  advice,  he  became  the  pupil  at  Munich 
completely  rebuilt,  and  in  1774-81  the  monastic  build-  of  such  teachers  as  GOrres  (q.  v.j),  DOllinger,  and 
inra  were  also  entirely  reconstructed.  The  existence  Windschmann;  and  when  his  earher  attraction  for 
of  Mehrerau  was  threatened,  as  was  that  of  other  re-  Scriptural  studies  was  thoroughly  reawakened  imder 
ligious  foundations,  by  the  attacks  upon  monasteries  in  the  stimulus  of  the  then  fresh  Tubingen  discussions,  he 
therei^  of  the  Emperor  Joseph  II.  However,  Abbot  repaired  to  Berlin  where  he  attended  the  lectures  of 
Benedict  was  able  to  obtain  the  withdrawal  of  the  Neander,  Hengstenberg,  and  Schelling.  In,  or  soon 
decree  of  suppression,  although  it  had  already  been  after  May,  1843,  Meignan  returned  to  Paris  to  be  num- 
signed.  The  Peace  of  Presbui^g  (1805)  gave  Vorarl-  bered  among  the  clergy  of  the  archdiocese,  but  was 
berg,  and  with  it  the  abbey,  to  Bavaria,  which  in  April,  soon  (1845)  obliged  to  visit  Rome  for  the  good  of  his 
1806,  took  an  inventory  of  the  abbey.  In  reply  to  the  health,  which  had  become  impaired.  He  seemed  to 
last  attempt  to  save  the  abbey,  namely  the  offer  to  recover  immediately,  and  was  able  to  prosecute  his 
turn  it  into  a  training-school  for  male  teachers,  the  sacred  studies  so  successfully  that  he  won  a  Doctorate 
State  declared  in  August,  1806,  that  on  1  September  of  Theology  at  the  Sapienza  (March,  1846).  Here 
the  monastic  oi'ganization  would  be  dissolved  and  the  a^n  he  was  helped  by  the  friendly  interest  and  ad- 
monks  would  have  to  leave  the  abbey.  The  valuable  vice  of  many  eminent  men,  of  Perrone  and  Gerbet,  as 
library  was  scattered,  part  of  it  was  burnt.  The  well  as  by  the  teaching  of  Passaglia,  Patrizzi,  and 
forest  and  agricultural  lands  belonging  to  the  monaa-  Theiner.  Between  this  period  and  1861,  when  he  be- 
tery  were  taken  by  the  State;  in  February,  1807,  the  came  professor  of  Sacred  Scripture  at  the  Sorbonne, 
church  was  closed,  and  the  other  buildines  were  sold  at  he  filled  various  academical  positions  in  the  Arch- 
auction.  In  1808-09  the  church  was  taKcn  down  and  diocese  of  Paris,  of  which  Mgr  Darboy  made  him 
the  material  used  to  build  the  harbour  of  Landau,  vicar-general  in  1863.  In  1864  he  was  elevated  to 
When  the  district  came  again  under  the  rule  of  Aus-  the  Bishopric  of  Ch&lons,  in  1882  transferred  to 
tria,  the  monastic  buildings  were  used  for  various  pur-  the  See  of  Arras,  and  in  1884  to  the  Archbishopric  of 
poses.    In  1853  they  were  bought  from  the  last  owner,  Tours. 

alone  with  some  pieces  of  land  connected  with  them,  By  the  logic  of  circumstances  he  was  one  of  the 

by  the  abbot  of  the  Cistercian  Abbey  of  Wettingen  in  chief  antagonists  of  Ernest  Renan.    In  his  work  he 

Switzerland  (see  Wettingen).    This  monastery  had  aimed  to  enlighten  the  lay  mind  on  current  topics  of 

been  forcibly  suppressed  by  ihe  Canton  of  Aargau  in  controversy  and,  while  giving  a  knowledge  of  the 

1841,  and  for  thirteen  years  the  abbot  had  been  seeking  assured  results  of  criticism,  to  supply  his  raiders  with 

a  new  home;  on  18  October,  1854,  the  Cistercian  Abbey  the  Christian  point  of  view.    His  aggressive  and  tri- 

of  Wettingen-Mehrerau  was  formally  opened.    In  the  umphant  career  as  an  apologist  began  as  early  as  1856 

same  year  a  monasteiy  school  was  started.    In  1859  witn  the  publication  of  ''  Les  proph^ties  messianiques. 

a  new  Romanesque  church  was  built;  its  greatest  oma-  Le  Pentateuque"  (Paris).    In  1860  appeared  "M. 

ment  is  the  monument  to  Cardinal  Hergenrdther  (d,  Renan  et  le  Cantique  des  Canticiues "  (Paris) ;  in  1863 

1890),  who  is  buried  there.    About  the  middle  of  tne  "M.  Renan  refute  par  les  rationalistes  allemands" 

last  century,  during  the  fifties  and  sixties,  the  build-  (Paris)  and  "  Les  Evangiles  et  la  critique  au  XIXe 

ings  were  gradually  enlarged.    In  1910  besides  the  si^le'' (Paris);  in  1886  " De I'irr^ligion syst^matique, 

al»>ot  (from  1902  Kugene  Notz)  the  abbey  had  32  see  influences actuelles''  (Paris);  in  1890  ''Salomon, 

priests;  including  those  that  had  been  connected  with  son  rdgne,  ses Merits"  (Paris);  in  1892  " Les  prophdtes 

the  abbey  but  were  at  that  date  engaged  in  work  out-  d'lsra^l  et  le  Messie,  depuis  Daniel  jusqu'&  Jean-Bap- 

side,  64  priests ;  in  addition  there  were  5  clerics,  30  lay  tiste' '  (Paris) .   He  wrote  many  other  works  on  kindred 

broUiers,  and  4  novices.    The  monasteiy  has  a  house  topics.    His  treatment  of  Messianic  prophecy  ex- 

of  studies,  and  a  coll^,  in  which  some  200  pupils  tends  far  beyond  mere  verbal  exegesis,  and  includes 

are  taught  by  the  monks  of  the  abbey.    The  period!-  a  critical  examination  of  historical  events  and  oondi- 

^  "Cistercienserchronik",  edited  by  Father  Gregor  tions.    Like  other  great  Catholic  controversialists  of 

Mailer,  has  been  issued  since  1889.  his  time,  he  had  to  suffer  adverse  criticism;  these  crit- 

BBRotfANTr,  NekroUMiwn  AuQUB  majoria  Bngantina  Ord.  S.  idsms  were  finally  answered  by  the  action  of  Leo 

fff^rTi^ l^\\.lrETdiS:^^  Xm, who rai«d  Wmto the  caidmalate J15 Dec,  1892. 

bttii.  1880. 453-4?,  pvei  an  aciount  of  Wettmgen-Mehrerau;  Boibbonnot.  Le  cardinal  Metonan  (Pan..  1809). 

Citterdenserehronik  (1904),  289-313;  Lindner,  Album  Augia  E.  MacPHEBSON. 
Brigamtinm  (1904) ;  Sehematumus  von  Brixen  (1910). 

JosKPH  LiNs.  Mellteur,  Jban-Baptistb.  a  French  Canadian  phy- 

IMgnan,  GinLLAUME-REN£,  Cardinal  Archbishop  sician  and  educator,  b.  at  St.  Laurent,  P.  Q.,  9  May, 

of  Tours,  French  apologist  and  Scriptural  exegete,  b.  1796;  d.  7  Dec,  1878.   He  studied  the  classics  at  the 


MBIMRAD 


148 


Bulpician  college  of  Montreal,  philosophy  at  Middle- 
buiy,  N.  H.,  and  medicine  at  Castletown.  Vt.  He  was 
one  of  the  founders  of  the  flourishing  college  of  L'As- 
somption,  P.  Q.  In  1834  he  edited  "  L'Echo  du  pays  " 
and  was  returned  the  same  year  to  the  Lower  Cana- 
dian Parliament.  He  was  the  first  superintendent  of 
education  for  that  province,  an  office  which  he  held 
from  1842  to  1855.  He  assumed  the  arduous  tadc  of 
enforcing  the  educational  law  framed  by  the  Act  of 
Union  of  the  two  Canadas  (1841),  a  law  which,  owing 
to  prejudice  and  to  undue  political  influence,  was 
hignly  unpopular.  Meilleur  thoroughly  organized  the 
Department  of  Education,  and  witnessed,  before  retii^ 
ing  from  office,  the  remarkable  progress  achieved  by 
education,  botn  primary  and  classical,  thanks,  in  a 
^"eat  measure,  to  the  generous  and  devoted  co-opera- 
tion of  the  clergy.  Besides  contributing  to  different 
periodicals,  articles  on  education,  agriculture,  botany, 
and  geology,  and  on  medicine  to  the  "Journal  de 
m^ecine'',  he  wrote  textbooks  on  French  and  Eng- 
lish grammar  and  correspondence,  and  on  chemistry. 
His  chief  work  is  "  Memorial  de  TEducation  "  (1860),  a 
historjr  of  education  in  Canada.  He  died  the  verjr  day 
on  which  he  was  publicly  to  receive  the  insignia  of 
Officer  of  Public  Instruction  of  France. 

Morgan,  Bibliotfieca  canadenna  (Ottawa,  1867);  Chaxtyeau, 
L*  Inatrudion  publique  au  Canada  (Quebec,  1876);  Le  Cour- 
tier du  Canada  (Quebec,  1878). 

Lionel  Lindsay. 
Meimmdy  Saint.    See  Einsiedeln,  Abbbt  of. 

Meinwerk,  Blessed,  tenth  Bishop  of  Paderbom.  d. 
1036.  Meinwerk  (Meginwerk)  was  oom  of  the  noble 
family  of  the  Immedinger  and  related  to  the  royal  house 
of  Saxony.  His  father  was  Imad  (Immeth),  Coimt  of 
Teisterbantand  Radichen.and  his  mother's  name  was 
Adela  (Adala,  Athela).  In  early  vouth  he  was  dedi- 
cated by  his  parents  to  serve  Qoci  in  the  priesthood. 
He  began  his  secular  and  ecclesiastical  studies  at  the 
church  of  St.  Stephen  in  Halberstadt  and  finished 
them  at  the  catheoral  school  of  Hildesheim,  where  he 
had  as  schoolmate  St.  Bemward  of  Hildesheim  and 
probably  the  later  Emperor  Heni^  II.  After  his  or- 
dination he  became  a  canon  at  Halberstadt,  then  chap- 
lain at  the  Court  of  Otto  III.  Henry  II,  who  greatly 
esteemed  him,  named  him  Bishop  of  Paderbom,  for 
the  express  purpose  of  raising  the  financial  condition 
of  the  impoverished  church.  He  was  consecrated  at 
Goslar,  13  March,  1009,  by  Archbishop  Willigis  of 
Mainz.  For  twentv-seven  years  he  laboured  with 
restless  energy  and  zeal,  and  deserves  the  title  of 
second  founder  of  the  diocese.  His  cathedral  and  a 
large  portion  of  Paderbom  had  been  destroyed  by  a 
conflagration  in  1000;  he  rebuilt  the  cathedral  on  a 
much  grander  scale  and  consecrated  it  on  15  Sept., 
1015.  He  employed  Greek  workmen  to  build  the 
chapel  of  St.  Bartholomew,  which  was  considered 
a  work  of  art.  In  1031  he  founded  the  Abbey  of  Ab- 
dinghof,  for  which  he  obtained  thirteen  Benedictine 
monks  from  the  Abbev  of  Cluny.  Between  the  years 
1033-36,  he  established  the  collegiate  church  for 
canons-regular  at  Bussdoif .  He  built  an  episcopal 
palace  and  new  walls  for  the  city.  He  divided  nis 
diocese  into  parishes,  caused  the  erection  of  many 
churches  and  chapels,  held  frequent  visitations,  in- 
sisted on  a  clerical  life  among  his  priests,  observance  of 
rules  in  the  monasteries,  and  was  much  interested,  not 
only  in  the  spiritual  welifare  of  his  subjects,  but  also  in 
their  temporal  well-being,  for  which  he  introduced  im- 
proved methods  in  agricuiture,  etc.  Accordmg  to  his 
biography  his  own  education  was  not  of  a  high  grade, 
but  he  did  much  for  the  spread  of  knowledge;  he 
called  in  noted  teachers  of  mathematics,  astronomy, 
and  of  other  sciences  and  put  his  cathedral  school  into 
a  flourishing  condition,  which  it  retained  for  many 
years  after  his  death,  many  prominent  men  receiving 
their  education  in  it,  among  others,  Altmann  of  Pas- 
«au,  Anno  of  Cologne,  Frederic  of  MUnster,  and  others. 


To  defray  the  expenses  of  his  buildinffB  and  charitable 
works,  he  made  use  of  church  festivals,  social  gather- 
ings, and  other  occasions  to  call  upon  the  generosity  of 
kinss  and  princes,  of  the  rich  ana  noble,  of  the  clei^gy 
ana  of  the  laity,  frequently  importuned  the  emperor 
himself,  relying  upon  his  friendship  and  often  appeal- 
ing to  his  own  labours  for  the  state;  but  he  also  very 
liberally  used  his  personal  means  for  the  benefit  of  the 
Church.  Towarois  his  subjects  Meinwerk  was  fre- 
quently harsh,  but  kind  at  neart,  and,  if  anv  serious 
offence  had  been  ^ven,  he  would  conciliate  the  party 
by  presents.  Twice  he  made  a  journey  to  Rome,  the 
first  time  in  1014,  to  assist  at  the  coronation  of  Heni^ 
II,  then,  in  1026,  as  companion  of  Otto  III.  On  this 
trip  he  received  from  Wolfgang,  Patriarch  of  Aquileia, 
the  body  of  St.  Felix  for  Abdinghof .  Similarly  ne  ob- 
tained for  his  diocese,  entirely  or  in  part,  the  relics  of 
Sts.  Valerian,  Minias,  Philip,  Juvenal,  and  of  the  great 
martyr-bishop  Blasius.  His  body  was  buried,  ac- 
cording to  his  wish,  in  the  crypt  of  the  church  of 
Abdinghof.  Abbot  Conrad  von  AUenhause  raised  the 
relics  and  25  April,  1376,  placed  them  in  a  beautiful 
monument  in  the  sanctuary.  This  has  been  con- 
sidered equal  to  a  canonization,  but  his  feast  is  not 
in  the  Proprium  of  Paderbom  of  1884,  nor  does  the 
schema  of  the  diocese  for  1909  show  any  church, 
chapel,  or  altar  dedicated  to  his  name.  On  the  secular- 
ization of  Abdinghof,  1803,  the  remains  were  brought 
to  the  church  of  Bussdorf .  The  *'  Vita ''  (Mon.  Germ. 
SS.,  XI,  104),  written  anonymously  by  a  monk  of  Ab- 
dinghof, soon  after  1150,  is  a  history,  not  a  legend, 
though  somewhat  ornamented  by  legendary  additions. 
(Giesebrecht,  **  Deutsche  Kaiserzeit   ,  II,  578.) 

Acta  SS.t  June,  1. 500;  Stadlbr,  Heiligenlex^  Wattekbacr, 
Deutsche  Oeechichtequdien.  II,  27,  30;  Ebblino,  Die  deutachen 
Bieehdfe,  H  (Leipuc,  18^),  346. 

Francis  Mershman. 

Meiflsen,  a  fomier  see  of  north-east  Germany.  The 
present  city  of  Meissen,  situated  in  the  Kin^om  of 
Saxony  on  ooth  banks  of  the  Elbe,  owes  its  ongin  to  a 
castle  built  by  King  Henry  I  about  928  to  protect  Ger- 
man colonists  among  the  Wends.  To  insure  the  suc- 
cess of  the  Christian  missions.  Otto  I  suggested  at  the 
Roman  Synod  of  962  the  creation  of  an  archiepiscopal 
see  at  Magdeburg.  To  this  proposal  John  XII  con- 
sented, and,  shortly  before  the  execution  of  the  plan 
in  968,  it  was  decided  at  the  Synod  of  Ravenna  (967) 
to  create  three  other  sees — namel  v  MeissexiJlf  ersbui^, 
and  Zeitz — as  suffragans  of  Magaeburg.  The  year  m 
which  the  Diocese  of  Meissen  was  established  is  not 
known,  the  oldest  extant  records  being  forgeries ;  how- 
ever, the  record  of  endowment  by  Otto  I  in  971  is  gen- 
uine. The  first  bishop,  Burchard  (d .  969),  established 
a  foundation  (monasteriwn)  which  in  the  course  of  the 
eleventh  century  developed  a  chapter  of  canons.  In 
1346  the  diocese  stretched  from  the  Erzgebiive  in  the 
south  to  the  mouth  of  the  Neisse  and  to  the  Quels,  on 
the  east  to  tiie  Oder,  on  the  north  to  the  middle  course 
of  the  Spree.  It  embrac^sd  the  five  provostries  of 
Meissen,  Riesa,  Wurzen.  Grossenhain,  and  Bautzen, 
the  four  archdeaneries  of  Nisani  (Meissen),  Chemnitz, 
Zschillen  (Wechselburg),  and  Niederlausitz,  and  the 
two  deaneries  of  Meissen  and  Bautzen.  Poorly  en- 
dowed in  the  b^inning,  it  appears  to  have  acquired 
later  larae  estates  under  Otto  III  and  Heniy  II. 

The  chief  task  of  the  bishops  of  the  new  see  was  the 
conversion  of  the  Wends,  to  which  Bishops  Volkold 
(d.  992)  and  Eido  (d.  1015)  devoted  themselves  with 
great  zeal ;  but  the  work  of  evangelization  was  slow, 
and  was  yet  incomplete  when  the  investiture  conflict 
threatened  to  arrest  it  effectively.  St.  Benno  (1066- 
1106),  bishop  at  the  time  when  these  troubles  were 
most  serious,  was  appointed  by  Heniy  IV  and  ap- 
pears to  have  been  m  complete  accord  with  the  em- 
peror until  1076;  in  that  year,  however,  although  he 
nad  taken  no  part  in  the  Sisixon  revolt,  he  was  impris- 
oned by  Henry  for  nine  months.    Escaping,  he  joined 


muutoNiis 


149 


I  ^KK(• 


the  Saxon  prinoes,  espoused  the  cause  of  Gregory  VII, 
and  in  IO80  took  part  in  the  Gregorian  Synodof  Qued- 
linburg,  for  which  he  was  deprived  of  his  office  by  the 
empeior,  a  more  imperiallv  aisposed  bishop  being  ap- 
pointed in  his  place.  On  the  death  of  Gregory,  Binno 
made  peace  with  Henry,  and,  being  reappointed  to  his 
former  see  in  1086,  devoted  himself  entirely  to  mission- 
aiv  work  amon^  the  Slavs .  Among  his  successors,  Her- 
wig  (d.  1119)  Bided  with  the  pope,  Godebold  with  the 
emperor.  In  the  thirteenth  centui^y  the  pagan  Wends 
were  finally  converted  to  Christianity,  chiefly  throudi 
the  efforts  of  the  great  Cistercian  monasteries,  me 
most  important  of  which  were  Dobrilugk  and  Neu- 
selle.  .^on^  the  convents  of  nuns  Heifigenkreuz  at 
Meissen,  Manental  near  Zittau,  Marienstem  on  the 
White  Elster,  and  Mtlhlberg  deserve  mention .  Among 
the  later  bishops,  who  were  after  the  thirteenth  cen- 
tury princes  of  the  empire,  the  most  notable  are  Wit- 
tiflo  I  (1266-93)  and  John  I  of  Eisenbei^  (1340-71). 
The  former  began  the  ma^ificent  Gothic  cathedral, 
in  which  are  buried  nine  princes  of  the  House  of  Wet- 
tin;  the  latter^  as  notary  and  intimate  friend  of  the 
Margrave  of  M!eissen,  afterwards  the  Emperor  C]!harles 
IV,  protected  the  interests  of  his  church  and  increased 
the  revenues  of  the  diocese.  During  the  latter's  ad- 
ministration, in  1344,  Prague  was  made  an  archiepis- 
oopal  see. 

In  1365  Ujban  V  appointed  the  Archbishop  of 
Prague  legatus  natus^  or  perpetual  representative  ot  the 
Holy  See,  for  the  Dioceses  of  Meissen,  Bamberg,  and 
Regensburg  (Ratisbon) ;  the  opposition  of  Ma^eburg 
maae  it  impossible  to  exercise  m  Meissen  the  privileges 
of  this  office,  and  Meissen  remained,  though  imder 
protest,  subject  to  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Metropolitan 
of  Sfagdeburg.  John's  successor,  John  II  of  Jenstein 
(1376-9),  who  resigned  Meissen  on  his  election  to  the 
See  of  Prague,  Nicholas  I  (1379-92),  John  III  (1393-8), 
and  Thimo  of  Colditz  (1399-1410)  were  appointed  di- 
rectly from  Rome,  which  set  aside  the  elective  rights 
of  the  cathedral  chapter.  Thimo,  a  Bohemian  by 
birUi,  neglected  the  diocese  and  ruined  it  financially. 
Mar^g^ve  William  I  of  Saxony  prevailed  on  Boniface 
IX  in  1405  to  free  Meissen  from  the  authoritv  of  the 
metropolitan  and  to  place  it  directlv  under  the  Holy 
See.  The  illustrious  Bishop  Rudolf  von  der  Planitz 
(1411-27),  through  wise  regulations  and  personal  sac- 
rifices, brought  order  out  of  chaos.  The  Hussite 
ware  caused  great  damage  to  the  diocese,  then  ruled 
over  by  John  IV  Hofmann  (1427-51) ;  imder  the  gov- 
ernment of  ^e  able  brothers  Caspar  (1451-63)  and 
Dietrich  of  Sch6nberc  (1461-76),  it  soon  recovered. 
and  on  Dietrich's  death  there  was  a  fund  of  8800  gold 
florins  in  the  episcopal  treasury.  John  V  of  Weissen- 
badi  (1476-87)  throu^  his  mania  for  building  and  his 
traveLs  soon  spent  this  money,  and  left  a  heavy  bur- 
den of  debt  on  the  diocese.  John  VI  of  Salhausen 
(1488-1518)  further  impoverished  the  diocese  through 
his  obstinate  attempt  to  obtain  full  sovereignty  over 
his  see,  which  brought  him  into  constant  conflict  with 
Duke  George  of  Saxony;  his  spiritual  administration 
was  also  open  to  censure.  John  VII  of  Schleinitz 
(1518-37)  was  a  resolute  opponent  of  Luther,  whose 
revolt  b^gan  in  the  neighbouring  Wittenberg,  and, 
conjointly  with  George  of  Saxony,  endeavoured  to 
cru^  the  iimovations.  The  canonization  of  Bexmo 
(15^),  urged  by  him,  was  intended  to  offset  the  prog- 
ress of  the  Lutheran  teaching.  John  VIII  of  Maltitz 
(1537-49)  and  Nicholas  II  of  Cariowitz  (1549-56)  were 
unable  to  withstand  the  ever-spreading  Reformation, 
which,  after  the  death  of  Duke  George  (1539),  tri- 
umphed in  Saxony  and  gained  groimd  even  among 
the  canons  of  the  cathedral,  so  that  the  diocese  was  on 
the  verge  of  dissolution.  The  last  bishop,  John  of 
Haugwitz  (1555-81),  placed  his  resignation  in  the 
han£  of  the  cathedral  chapter,  in  virtue  of  an  agree- 
ment with  Elector  Augustus  of  Saxony,  went  over  to 
Protestantism,  married,  and  retired  to  the  castle  of 


Ruhetal  near  MOgehi.  The  electors  of  Saxony  took 
over  the  administration  of  the  temporalities  of  the 
diocese  which  in  1666  were  finally  adjudged  to  them. 
The  canons  turned  Protestant,  and  such  monasteries 
as  still  existed  were  secularized,  their  revenues  and 
buildings  being  devoted  principally  to  educational 
works.  (For  the  present  Prefecture  Apostolic  of  Lait- 
sitz-Meissen  see  saxont.) 

Urkundbuch  des  HochttifU  Meiaaen,  ed.  Gersdorf  (3  vols., 
I^pzig,  1864-67),  in  the  Codex  DipUmaticu*  SqxpniiB  Reoice; 


Machatbchek,  Qaach.  der  Biachdfe  dea  Hochttifta  Meiawn  (] 
den,  1884);  von  Brun  (von  Kauffunoen),  Daa  DomkapiUi  von 
M.  im  MitUlaiter  (Meiasen,  1902) ;  MUtea.  dea  Vtreina  fUr  Oeoeh. 
der  Stadt  M.  (8  vols..  Meiasen.  1882-1910);  Neuee  Anhiv  far 
a&chaiaehe  Geach,  (Dresden,  1880—). 

Joseph  Linb. 

MeisBonier,  Ernest,  French  painter,  b.  at  Lyons 
21  February,  1815;  d.  at  Paris,  31  Januarjr,  1891.  If 
the  Lyonnese  genius  in  painting  is  found  in  such  ar- 
tists as  Chenavard,  Flanarin,  Puvis  de  Cbavannes,  and 
in  such  landscape  painters  as  Ravier,  Meissonier  does 
not  belong  to  this  family.  At  an  early  age  his  parents 
took  him  to  Paris  where  they  set  up  chemical  works 
in  the  Marais.  A  family  friend  introduced  him  to  the 
much  frequented  studio  of  L^on  Gogniet  (1794-1880). 
His  first  efforts  date  from  1831.  These  are  portraits, 
generally  busts,  of  the  bourgeois  of  the  neighoourhood 
(there  is  one  at  the  Louvre),  life-size,  and  somewhat 
commonplace  in  execution.  At  the  Salon  of  1834  there 
appearea  a  more  significant  picture,  the  "  Visit  to  the 
Burgomaster's",  three  miadle-class  Hollanders  in 
eighteenth-century  costume,  seated  at  a  table  and 
smoking.  Herein  the  painter  for  the  first  time  at- 
tempted those  small  genre  subjects  in  costumes  of  the 
past  whose  pleasing  picturesqueness  was  to  contribute 
so  much  to  his  fame.^  But  fame  was  to  be  delayed; 
for  ten  years  Meissonier  had  to  earn  his  living  by  il- 
lustration; and  so  he  made  vignettes  for  a  number  of 
works,  to-day  much  sought  after  as  ''  romantic  edi- 
tions'\  "Paul  et  Virginie",  Lamartine's  "Chiite  d'un 
Ange"  (1839),  •'Le  Vicaire  de  Wakefield"  and  "Les 
Fran9ais  peints  pareux-mtoes"  (1840-42).  By  de- 
grees, however,  the  young  artist  attracted  attention. 
Between  the  *'  classicists",  or  partisans  of  Ingres  and 
the  "romanticists"  ardent  followers  of  Delacroix,  he 
found  favour  with  a  public  rather  indifferent  to  the 
quarrels  of  the  schools  and  veiy  willing  to  become 
acquainted  with  a  style  of  art  which  did  not  require  so 
much  thought.  In  fact  Meissonier  seems  to  have  quite 
ignored  these  great  movements.  A  contemporanr  of 
manv  artistic  controversies,  e.  g.,  the  renovation  01  art 
by  the  school  of  Barbizon  and  the  wonderful  natural- 
istic revolution  inaugurated  by  Paul  Huet,  Corot,  and 
Rousseau,  he  seems  a  stranger  to  all  these  interests 
and  passions. 

There  was  on  the  other  hand  a  small  genre  school, 
to-day  somewhat  forgotten,  that  of  Eugene  Isabey, 
Eugene  Lami,  C^lestin  Nanteuil.  and  the  brothers 
Johannot,  which  was  occupied  with  representing  small 
scenes  of  manners  in  the  quaint  every-day  costume 
of  the  Middle  Ages  or  the  Renaissance.  They  were 
pleasing  extemporizers,  skillful  and  brilliant  story- 
tellers who  put  on  canvas,  often  with  spirit,  the  his- 
toric bric-a-orac  popularized  by  Walter  Scott.  To 
this  important  school  Meissomer  attached  himself. 
But  he  did  so  in  a  very  original  manner,  bringing  with 
him  individual  methods,  aims,  and  talents,  which 
marked  him  out  among  his  contemporaries.  He  was 
obviously  inspired  by  the  Dutch,  and  he  set  himself  to 
paint  with  tne  same  composure,  conscientiousness, 
and  perfection  as  Terborch,  Mi^ris,  or  Gerard  Dow.  It 
was  a  stroke  of  genius  to  choose  as  models  these  men 
who  are  among  the  best  masters  of  painting,  and  this 
at  a  time  when  Romanticism  had  begun  to  overload  its 
canvases  with  violence  and  excesses.  Besides,  these 
artists  had  been  for  a  lon^  time  greatlv  esteemed  by 
collectors,  and  by  sug^estmg  relationship  with  them 
Meissonier  increased  his  chances  of  success  with  am- 


UIISSOXIXR                              150  HKISSOiniB 

ftteuTB.    Moreover  no  other  manner  suited  so  well  the  scenes  of  the  imperi&]  tpopH.    In  1864  be  submitted 

special  faculties  of  HeisBonier,  bia  extraordinary  gift  of  his  "1814"  (Louvre);    in  1867  his  "E>esaix  to  the 

observation  and  his  almost  absolute  lack  of  imagina-  Annjr  of  the  Rhine";    next  came  "1805",  "1807" 

tioc.     But  he  was  clever    enough   to  restore  genre  (Metropolitan  Muaeuni,  New  York),  and  a  large  num- 

painting  and  to  btcnd  imitation  with  invention;  thus,  ber   of   other   militaiT  pictures.     This   style,   which 

lor  Dutch  subjects  he  substituted  those  of  the  Regency  answered  the  public  demand  after  the  events  of  1870, 

or  of  the  sixteenth  century.     Above  all  he  excelled  in  brought   the    artist   increased    popularity.     For  his 

microscopic  canvases,  wherein  the  wonderful  repro-  "1814"  Chaucbard  paid  a  million  of  francs.    It  is  true 

ductioD  of  the  minutest  details  is  a  perpetual  source  that  in  these  new  subjects  the  artist  di^layed  the 

of  astonishment.     In  painting,  the  "finished"  pro-  same  scrupulous  conscientiousneBS  of  which  he  had 

duct  is  always  sure  to  appeal  to  the  philistine,  and  given  proof  in  his  earlier  manner.    He  painted  from 

when  found  together  with  smallness,  and  when  to  the  nature,  even  to  the  very  sods  of  earth.     To  convey  the 

pleasure  of  accuracy  is  joined  that  of  a  feat  of  skill,  impression  of  a  broken  rood,  he  selected  a  comer  of  his 

admiration  knows  no  boundB.     No  more  is  needed  to  i^raen,  had  it  trampled  by  men  and  horses,  had 

explain  the  incredible  success  of  Meissonier.  trucks  and  cartsdrawnoverit.aDdsprinkledtbewhole 

In  1S42  began  that  aeries  of  small  thumb-QEul  pic-  with  flour  to  imitate  melting  snow.  To  paint  Naoo- 
tures,  the  reputation  of  which  so  lone  outshone  that  of  Icon,  be  made  use  of  the  grey  cloak  and  the  very  oat 
his  larger  works.  First  came  "The  Young  Man  play-  the  emperor  wore.  But  in  spite  of  it  all  he  falls  short 
ing  the  Bass-viol",  thea  the  of  the  lithogTa;>hs  of  Raffet 
"Painter  in  his  studio  "(1843),  with  their  prodigious  mystery 
the  "Guard -room",  the  and  their  breath  of  the  bermc. 
"Readers",  the  "Smokers",  What  will  last  of  these  curi- 
the  "Biavi"  (1847),  the  ous  pictures  is  the  fabu- 
"  Reading  at  the  House  tA  lous  amount  of  studies  and 
Diderot",  the  "Bowling-  sketches  accumulated  by  the 
party"  Lo  Rixe"  or  "T^  painter  in  preparation  for  his 
Quarrel"  (1855).  This  year,  pictures.  One  is  filled  with 
which  marked  the  first  Uni-  respect  before,  the  mass  of 
veraal  Exhibition,  marked  observations;  there  are  draw- 
also  the  apogee  of  Meissonier's  ings,  studies  of  soldiers,  of 
triumphs.  He  was  already  equipments,  of  horses,  which 
the  favourite  punter  of  his  are  priceless  documente.  It 
time;  he  now  became  the  is  remarkable  that  nothing  is 
raaeX  illustrious.  He  was  more  rare  than  an  ensemble 
compared  with  the  classia  study,  there  is  never  more 
artists  and  the  masters  of  than  a  detail,  a  gesture,  a 
genre;  ttiis  was  an  exagger-  movement,  a  muscle,  caught 
atton,  and  to-day  we  find  and  repiroduoed  with  unheard- 
much  to  critidxe  in  him.  His  of  precision  and  strength,  as 
art  dealt  only  with  what  had  by  the  surest  and  most  in- 
been  already  observed.  Itia  fallible  instrumente.  Tlkere 
regrettable  that  he  did  not  Is  no  other  example— even 
make  better  use  of  lus  own  if  we  count  Henzel  nimself — 
gifts  of  olMervation;  thathe  of  a  similar  power  of  analyds 
did  not  take  lus  subjects  di-  applied  to  the  realm  of  facts. 
rwrtly  from  life,  as  did  Dau-  "^"^^f^  '^°  unravel  a  detail  from  the 
mier,  instead  of  treating  By  bmiMU  confusion  of  nature  Meisso- 
scenesof  mere  curiosity;  that  he  did  not  create  some-  nier  was  without  an  equal.  He  had  an  eye  constructed 
thing  "new"  instead  of  f^ving  us  a  modernised  an-  like  the  lens  of  a  magnifying  glass,  or  like  the  eye  of  a 
tiqueand  giving  his  pictures  the  false  appearance  of  a  primitive  man  capable  of  registering  thousands  of  sen- 
lahUau  de  muste.  This  criticism  is  perhaps  unjust;  sations  which  our  civilised  retina  no  longer  perceives, 
nxteenth-century  scenes  have  nothing  better  to  show  For  example,  be  was  successful  in  catching  the  move- 
than  "La  Rixe"  and  "The  Bravi";  and  neither  ment  (rf a  running  horse,  which  qo  one  has  been  able  to 
Stendhal  nor  M£rim£e  is  reproached  for  his  Renais-  do  since  the  caveman,  and  later  the  cinematograph 
sance  style  of  novels.  Nevertheless  it  is  true  that  confirmed  the  marvellous  truth  of  his  observations. 
des_pite  superficial  resemblances  Meissonier  is  far  in-  Only  everything  remained  for  him  in  a  fragmentary 
fenor  to  the  Duteh  masters.  To  compare  him  with  state.  His  was  the  eye  of  a  myopic,  the  eye  of  a  fly, 
Terborch  is  to  pay  him  too  great  an  honour.  His  cut  Uke  a  crystal  into  millions  of  faeets,  the  most 
sharp  facetted  drawing,  engraved  with  painful  pre-  astoundinginstrumeot  knownfordecomposin^  every- 
cision  (cf.  Fromentin,  "  Les  Mattres  d'autrefois  ",  1876,  thing  into  its  elemente,  for  seeing  distinctly  into  the 
228),  his  barren,  diy  painting,  swarming  with  trifles,  world  of  the  infinitesimal,  but  this  prodigious  power  of 
without  aim  or  restraint,  his  indefinite  analysis  of  a  decomposition  left  him  incapable  ol  putting  anything 
host  of  insignificant  objects,  all  grouped  in  the  com-  together  again. 

pass  of  an  amazingly  small  space,  go  to  m^ie  up  a  Itisnot  astonishing  that  his  "1807"  cost  him  four- 
series  of  quaint  harsh  works,  unattractive  and  useless,  teen  years  of  labour;  be  was  no  longer  able  to  weld  to- 
like  those  pieces  of  embroidery  which  distress  us  when  gether  liis  scraps,  his  extract«  from  nature.  He  scru- 
we  realise  the  immense  waste  of  labour  they  ^ve  proof  tiniied,  rummaged,  ransacked  to  infinity,  and  found 
of.  What  is  wanting  in  these  pictures  is  that  which  himself  powerless  to  ^ve  life  to  anything.  He  spoke 
constitutes  the  value  of  art,  emotion  and  life.  truly  when  he  wished  to  do  nothing  but  demgn  and 

In  1859Meissonierwascharged  to  paint  the  "Battle  when  he  dreamed  of  a  picture  which  should  be  no 

of  Solferino"  (Louvre).     This  was  the  beginning  of  a  more  than  a  collection  of  sketches,  of  fragmente  and 

new  series  of  works,  which  date  from  the  Second  Em-  disconnected  events,  like  the  "  Pensfes"  of  Pascal,  yet 

pire,  and  in  which  the  artist  undertook  to  celebrate  giving  at  the  same  time  the  shock  and  the  sensation  of 

the  gioriesof  the  First  Empire.     Renouncing  hia  small  life.     The  difference  was,  however,  that  the  "Pensfes" 

interiore  and  subjecte  of  fantasy  he  attempted  tustori-  were  to  become  a  book.     Meissonier,  overwhelmed  by 

cal  and  open  air  subjects,  movements  of  crowds  and  his  materitjs,  never  succeeded  in  producing  a  great 

armiea,  and  set  himself  the  task  of  punting  the  great  work,  and  not  even  in  giving  the  impression  that  be 


MBLANCBTHON          151  MBLANCBTHON 

bad  cteftriy  ooaoeived  one.    So  this  man  loaded  with  time^  of  Georg  Simler.  who  was  then  teaohins  humanS- 

honouiB,  wealth  and  ^ory,  was  perpetually  unhappy  ties  in  TObingen,  ana  was  later  professor  of  juiispni- 

and  discontented.    His  pride  ana  his  suspicious  sensi-  dence.    He  studied  astronomy  and  astrology  under 

tiveness  were  proverbicu.    This  sickly  self-love  was  Johann    StOffler.    With    Franciscus    Stadianus    he 

the  chief  cause  of  the  division  among  the  French  art-  planned  an  edition  of  the  genuine  Greek  text  of  Aris- 

ists  in  1889  when  to  the  traditional  Salon  Meissonier  totle,  but  nothing  ever  came  of  this.    His  thirst  for 

opposed  the  Salon  of  the  " Champ -de-Biars"  or  of  the  knowledge  led  him  into  jurisprudence,  mathematics, 

Soci^t^  Nationale.    This  unreasonable  schism  had  and  even  medicine. 

regrettable  consequences  and  introduced  into  the  In  1614  he  won  the  master's  degree  as  first  among 

school  the  anarchical  system  which  for  twenty  years  eleven  candidates,  and  was  made  an  instructor  in  the 

has  gone  on  developing.  university.    His  subjects  were  Vergil  and  Terence : 

Such  was  this  emment  and  most  unfinished  of  later  he  was  assigned  the  lectureship  on  eloquence  ana 

artists^  assuredly  little  deserving  of  the  mark  of  hon-  expounded  Cicero  and  Livy.    He  also  became  (1514) 

our  paid  him  by  erecting  his  statue  in  the  Garden  of  the  press-corrector  in  the  printing  office  of  Thomas  An- 

Louvre,  but  still  less  deserving  of  the  im^ust  criticisms  shelm,  pursued  his  private  studies,  and  at  last  turned 

he  has  since  had  to  bear  in  expiation  of  his  great  glory,  to  theology.  For  the  antiquated  scholastic  methods  of 

He  was  in  reality  the  victim  no  less  than  the  product  this  science  as  taught  at  Tobingen,  and  for  Dr.  Jacob 

of  a  vahiable  uusulty  carried  to  hypertrophia  and  Lemp,  who,  as  Melanchthon  said,  had  attempted  to 

monstrosity.    He  may  perhaps  be  more  equitably  picture  Transubstantiation  on  the  blackboard,  he  had, 

judged  by  the  less  known  portions  of  his  work,  in  lateron,  only  words  of  derision.   He  studiedpatristics 

which  his  faculties  for  analysis  and  observation  found  on  his  own  account  and  took  up  the  New  Testament 

their  true  use,  as  in  the  small  portraits  such  as  that  of  in  the  original  text,  but  did  not  at  this  time  reach  any 

"The  Younger  Dumas"  (Louvre),  those  of  "Stan-  definite  tneological  point  of  view;  in  this  brancn 

ford "  or ''Vanderbilt",  or  again  his  small  studies  from  of  knowled^,  as  he  himself  afterwards   repeatedly 

natureasinhis"yiew8of  Venice  "at  the  Louvre,  and  declared,   his  intellectual  father  was   Luther.    He 

especially  his  peerless  collection  of  drawings  at  the  naturally  took  Reuchlin's  part  in  the  latter's  contro- 

Luxembourg.    If  these  are  not  a  great  work,  or  their  versy  with  the  Cologne  professors  (see  Humanism), 

author  a  great  artist,  they  are  at  least  the  materials,  and  wrote  in  1614  a  preface  to  the  "  Epistolse  clarorum 

the  remains  or  the  fragments  thereof.    On  13  October,  virorum" ;    but  he  did  not  come  prominently  to  the 

1838,  he  married  Jexmy  Steinheil.  who  died  in  June,  fore.    His  own  earliest  publications  were  an  edi- 

1888;  in  August,  1890,  he  married  Mile  Bezancon;  he  tion   of  Terence    (1616),    and    a    Greek   grammar 

died  31  January,  1891,  and  after  a  Requiem  Mass  at  (1518).    In  1518  he  was  offered,  on  Reuchlin^s  recom- 


Qb£axd, 
Bvrape, 

}iica*uNSiM9w7uH'modtr^  man."    The  first  impression  made  by  the  simple, 

<hinMe:Ai.mxAitpBx,lMPeifUuremaita^  bashful  and  frail-looking  youth  was  not  favourable. 

*toi/a*Mufui«r<)hin*5mc*4rAfafar«(i90l).  g^^  j^  opening  address:    "De  corrigendis  adoles- 

Lrouis  uiLLET.  ^^^^  studiisM29  Aug.,  1518),  eUcited  enthusiastic 

Melanchthon,  Philxpp,  collaborator  and  friend  of  applause.    He  extolled  the  return  to  the  authentic 

Luther,  b.  at  Bretten  (in  Unterpfab,  now  Baden),  16  sources  of  genuine  science  as  a  signal  merit  of  the  new 

February,  1497;  d.  at  Wittenberg,  19  April,  1560.  humanistic  and  scientific  spirit,  and  he  promised  to 

(1)  His  Rearing  and  Education. — Melanchthon  apply  this  method  to  the  study  of  theology, 
was  of  respectable  and  well-to-do  parentage.    His        (2)  Melanchthon  and  the  Gerbian  Reforma- 

father.  Georg  Schwarzerd  (Schwarsert)  was  a  cele-  tion. — Luther  was  a  strong  believer  in  making  human- 

brstea  armourer,  while  his  pious  and  intelligent  ism  serve  the  cause  of  the  "  Gospel ",  and  it  was  not 

mother  was  the  daughter  of  Reuter,  the  burgomaster  long  before  the  still  plastic  Melanchthon  fell  under  the 

of  Bretten.    He  received  his  first  instruction  at  home  swajr  of  Luther's  powerful  personality.    He  accom- 

from  a  private  tutor,  and  in  1507  he  went  to  Pfors-  pamed   the   latter  to   his    Leipzig   disputation   in 

heim,  wneie  he  lived  with  his  grandmother  Elizabeth,  1519:  though  he  did  not  participate  in  the  discussion 

sister  of  the  great  humanist,  Johann  Reuchlin.    Here  itself,   he  seconded  witn   his   knowled^   Luther's 

the  Rector,  Georg  Simler,  inade  him  acquainted  with  preparatory  labours.    After  the  disputation  he  com- 

the  Greek  and  Latin  poets,  and  with  the  philosophy  <^  posed,  witn  the  co-operation  of  (Ecolampadius,  a 

Aristotle.    But  of  greater  influence  still  was  his  inter-  report  which  was  the  occasion  of  an  attack  upon  him 

course  with  Reuchlin,  his  grand-uncle,  who    gave  a  by  Eck  to  whom  he  replied  with  his  "  Defensio  Phil, 

strong  impetus  to  his  studies.    It  was  ReuchUn  also  Melanchthonis  contra  Joh.   Eckium  professorem". 

who  persuaded  him  to  translate  his  name  Schwarzerd  He  was  now  persuaded  by  Luther  to  take  up  theologi- 

ioto  the  Greek  Melanchthon,  (written  Melanthon  after  cal   lectures,  and  became  in   1519  a  Bachelor  of 

1531).    In  1509  Melanchthon,  not  yet  13  years  of  age,  Theology,  then  a  professor  of  the  same  science.    For 

entered  the  University  of  Heidelberg.    This  institu-  42  years  ne  laboured  at  Wittenberg  in  the  very  front 

tion  had  already  passed  its  humanistic  prime  under  rank  of  university  professors.    His  theological  courses 

Dalberg  and  Agncola  (see  Huilanibm).     It  is  true  were  followed  by  500  or  600,  later  by  as  many  as  1500 

that  Pallas  Spangel,  Melanchthon's  eminent  teacher,  students,  whereas  his  philological  lectures  were  often 

was  also  familiar  with  humanists  and  humanism,  but  but  poorly  attended.    Yet  he  persistently  refused  the 

he  was  none  the  less  an  able  scholastic  and  adherent  of  title  of  Doctor  of  Divinity,  and  never  accepted  ordina- 

Thomism.    Melanchthon  studied  rhetoric  under  Peter  tion;  nor  was  he  ever  Imown  to  preach.    His  desire 

GOnther,  and  astronomy  imder  Gonrad  Helvetius,  a  was  to  remain  a  humanist,  and  to  the  end  of  his  life 

pupil  of  Cflesarius.    Meanwhile  he  continued  eagerly  he  continued  his  work  on  tne  classics,  along  with  his 

ms  private  studies,  the  reading  of  ancient  poets  and  ex^;etical  studies.    And  yet  he  became  the  father  of 

historians  as  well  as  of  the  neo-Latins,  grammar,  rhet-  evangelical  theology.  He  composed  the  first  treatise  on 

one,  and  dialectics.    He  obtained  the  baccalaureate  "evangelical"  doctrine  (Loci  commimes  rerum  theo- 

in  1511,  but  his  application  for  the  master's  degree  in  logicarum,  1521).    It  deals  principally  with  practical 

1512  was  rejected  because  of  his  youth.    He  there-  leugious  questions,  sin  ana  grace,  law  and  gospel, 

fore  went  to  Tubingen,  where  the  scientific  spirit  was  justification  and  regeneration.    This  work  ran  through 

in  foil  vigour,  and  he  became  there  a  pupU  of  the  cele-  more  thim  100  editions  before  his  death.    He  was  a 

brated  Latinist  Heinrich  Rebel,  and,  for  a  second  friend  and  supporter  of  Luther  the  Reformer,  and  de- 


KKLiNCHTHON  1G2  BOLANCHTHOir 

fended  him,  e.  g.  a^inst  the  Italian  Dominican,  tnug  Confeaaion  (confeasio  Angostau)  in  whioh  he 

Thomaa  Radinua  of  Piaoenza,  and  the  Sorbonne  in  aimed  to  prove  that  the  Protestants,  in  spite  of  tlie 

Paris  (1521).  innovatioQB,  still  beloc^ed  to  the  Catholic  Church  and 

But  he  was  not  qualified  to  play  the  part  of  a  leader  bad  ar^ht  to  remain  within  her  fold.    To  this  end  he 

amid   the  tunnoil  of  a  troublous  period.     The  life  allegedmdefenceofProtestantdoctrine theScriptures 

which  he  was  fitt«d  for  was  the  quiet  existence  of  the  and  atatements  of  recognized   Catholic  authorities. 

Bcholar.     He  was  always  of  a  retiring  and  timid  dispo-  The   innovations   in   question   were   represented    as 

sition,  temperate,  prudent  and  peace-loving,  with  a  merely  a  reformation  of  abuses  which  had  crept  into 

'     s  turn  of  mind  and  a  deepiv  religious  training,  the  Church.     The  tenor  of  the  Confession  in  general 

lever  completely  lost  his  attacnment  for  the  Catho-  and  its  woiding  in  particular,  were  the  work  of  Me- 


lic  Church  and  for  many  of  her  ceremonies.     His  lanchthon.     Luthersawitsoutline  audgaveithisaf*- 

iimitations    first    became    apparent    when,    during  proval.     It  received  numerous  additions  and  changes 

Lutber'sstayontheWartburg,  152I,hefoundhimselfin  at  Augsburg,  and  its  final  form  was  determined  "by 

Wittenberg  confronted  with  the  task  of  maintaining  common  twreement  of  theologians  from  all  the  evan- 

order  against  the  Zwickau  fanatics,  with  their  wild  gelical  bodies. 

notions  as  to  the  establishment  of  Christ's  Kingdom  Helanchthon's  desire  for  peace  appears  even  in  this 

■    1,  and  so  forth.     What  Luther  basic  document  of  Protestantism,  and  he  has  often 

n  his  return  hod  proved  been  reproached  with  laolcof  vigour  in  his  opposition  to 

^^ ._    .   ._.  the  Catholic  Church,     Luther 

On  the  other  hand  he  showed  himself  explained  (only,  it  is 
his  ability  as  an  organizer  true,  after  the  hopes  of  ob- 
when  he  undertook  the  reor-  taining  for  the  Confession  the 
ganisationof  Church  affairs  in  earof  theemperorandof  Cath- 
Saxony  which  then  appeared  olics  proved  vain),  that  he  had 
to  be  in  a  very  bad  state.  no  intention  of  Bhowins  "ser- 
For  the  visitations  ordered  by  vile  submission  ",  and  triat  he 
theElectar,Melanchthondrew  regretted  the  omission  of  an 
up  the  "  Instructions  for  Visit-  attack  on  Purgatory,  the  ven- 
ors  of  the  partjchial  cleivy"  eration  of  the  Saints  and  the 
(printed,  152H),  which  work  is  Papacy.  The  formal  merits 
remarkable  for  its  practical  of  the  Confession,  its  simple, 
sense  and  sinrplicity.  Here  clear,  calm,  and  t«tae  st«t»- 
also  appears  the  difference  be-  men'  of  doctrine  won  the 
tween  Luther  and  Melanch-  unanimouspraiseofthe  Evan- 
tfaon,  for  Melanch tb on  warns  gelical  party.  His  "masterful 
pastors  against  reviling  pope  clearness  and  vigorous  doc- 
or  bishop;  whereas  Luther  trine"  were  also  admired  in 
remarks:  "You  must  de-  the  "Apology"  for  the  Augs- 
nounce  vehemently  the  Papacy  bui^  Confession,  which  is  more 
and  its  followers,  for  it  ta  al-  decided  in  tone  because  writ- 
ready  doomed  by  God  even  ten  at  a  later  date  (when 
asthedevilandbiskingdom."  Helanchthon  himself  had  de- 
Helanchthon,   it    is    true,  termined    "to   throw    aside 

{'reached    the   doctrine  that  moderaticm")    and     directed 

aith  alone  justifies  and  that  against  the  Catholic  "Confu- 

"God  will  forgive  sins  for  the                          Ptaurr  Hu.utcnTBMi  tatio".     On  the   other  hand, 

sake  of  Christ,   and  without              LasuCruiub,  Royal  QBlIeiy,Dnadai  Melanehthon  was  sharply  criti- 

works  on  our  part";    but  he  added:  "We  must  died  for  his  personal  conduct  in  the  Reichstag,  lor  his 

nevertheless  do   good  works,  which  God  has  com-  apprehenBionandcoDcern,bisfatluretotakeafiiinand 

manded."    Later  also  he  invariably  sought  to  pre-  dunified  attitude  against  the  Catholic  party.  Hehim- 

serve  peace  as  Ions  as  might  be  possible,  and  no  one  seIfoncedeclared,injustificationofhiscouiBe:"Ilmow 

took  BO  much  to  fieart  as  he  the  break  between  the  that  the  people  decry  our  moderation ;  but  it  doee  not 

churches.  become  us  to  heed  the  clamour  of  the  multitude.    We 

While  Luther,  in  the  Smalkaldic  Articles  (1537),  must  labour  for  peace  and  for  the  future.    It  will 

described  the  pope  as  Antichrist  and  other  theolc^ians  prove  a  great  blessing  for  us  all  if  unity  be  restoi«d  in 

subscribed  to  this  declaration,  Melanehthon  wrote:  Germany."     He  feared  the  overthrow  of  all  order. 

""    ■'      —"^             ■   ■' '           '           'e  decided  concessions  to  the  Catholics 


bishops,  which  he  enjoys  by  human  consent  (not  by  He  seems  to  have  been  lured  by  some  dream  of  an 

Divine  ordinance)  should  also  be  acknowledged  by  us  Evangelical-Catholic  Church.     He  thought  it  possible 

for  the  sake  of  peace  and  of  the  unity  of  those  Chris-  to  remab  within  the  Catholic  Church,  even  with  the 

tians  who  are  now,  and  io  the  future  may  be,  subject  new  theology.    But  he  was  never  a  Cryptocatholic, 

to  him. "     He  had  to  make  a  diplomatic  plea  for  the  as  has  been  laid  to  hia  charge,  and  while  evincing  in 

Reformation  at  the  Reichstag  in  Speyer  (1529),    He  everyotherway  a  spirit  of  conciliation,  he  held  fast  to 

h(q>ed  that  it  would  be  recognized  without  difficulty  the  "purified  doctrine",  and  repeatedly  Qualified  sa 

by  the  emperor  and  the  Catholic  party,  but  instead  of  blasphemy  the  lending  of  a  hand,  even  in  tne  cause  of 

this,  a  resolution  was  adopted  to  carry  out  vigorously  peace,  to  any  suppression  of  the  truth. 

the  Edict  of  Worms  (1521)  which  prohibited  all  inno-  The  story  that  when  his  mother  asked  which  was 

vationa.     TbeevanKelical  element,  "asmallbandful,"  the  better  of  the  two  religions,  he  replied  that  the 

protested  against  tnLi  (whence  the  name,   "Protes-  modified  one  was  the  more  plausible,  while  the  old  one 

tants  "),  and  Melanehthon  felt  grave  concern  over  this  was  the  surer,  is  nothing  but  a  ridiculous  invention. 

"terrible  state  of  things".     At  a  religious  conference  Hisattempttobringaboutareconciiiationbetweentfae 

with  the  Zwinglians  in  Marburg  (autumn  of  1529),  he  two  brought  him,  instead  of  thanks,  only  mortifica- 

ioined  hands  with  Luther  in  opposing  a  union  with  tion  and  abuse.     From  the  age  of  3D  to  that  of  50, 

Zwingli.     The  latter's  views  on  toe  Eucharist  seemed  Melanehthon  was  at  the  height  of  his  career  as  spokes- 

to  him  an  "  impious  doctrine  ",     Melanehthon  com-  man  and  advocate  of  the  Reformation,  which,  as  had 

posed  for  the  Reichstag  of  Augiburg  (1530)  the  Auga-  formerly  been  the  case  in  Hesse  and  Prussia,  was  in- 


MBLANCHTHON 


153 


IflELANCHTHON 


troduoed  under  his  guidance  into  WQrtembeig.  Bran- 
denbuig,  and  Saxony.  He  never  absented  nimself 
from  a  convention  of  theologians  or  statesmen,  but 
found  himself  differing  from  Luther  on  many  points, 
for  as  time  went  on  Melanchthon  emancipated  him- 
self more  and  more  from  Luther's  teachmg.  More 
eventful  still  and  more  painful  was  the  last  portion  of 
his  life,  following  the  death  of  Luther  (1546).  He 
rejected  the  Augsbuig  Interim  (1548)  which  was  to 
n^al&tQ  Church  affairs  until  they  should  be  defini- 
Uvelv  settled  by  the  Council,  on  the  ^und  that  it  did 
not  hitfmonize  with  Evangelical  prmciples.  On  the 
other  hand  he  was  prevailed  upon  to  take  part  in  a 
conference  for  a  modified  interim,  the  so-called  Leip- 
zig Interim,  and  he  addressed  on  this  occasion  a  letter 
(S  April,  1548)  to  Minister  Carlowitz,  •  of  Saxony, 
which  once  more  provoked  bitter  criticism.  He  la- 
mented therein  the  thraldom  in  which  he  had  been 
held  by  the  violence  of  Luther,  and  again  showed  him- 
self favourable  to  the  Catholic  system  of  church  organ- 
isation and  was  even  ready  to  accept  Catholic  practices, 
though  he  desired  to  hold  fast  to  the  "evangelical'' 
doctrmes. 

A  result  of  this  was  the  Adiaphora  controversy,  in 
which  Melanchthon  declared  Catholic  practices  adi- 
aphorous (indifferent  things,  neither  good  nor  bad), 
hence  permissible  provided  that  the  proper  doctrine 
were  maintained  and  its  iniport  made  clear  to  the 
people.  Matthias  Fladus  IllVricus  and  other  zealots 
objected  that  these  practices  had  heretofore  been  the 
centres  of  impiety  and  superstition,  and  Melanchthon 
was  attacked  and  reviled  by  Fladus,  Amsdorf,  and 
the  other  "  Gnesiolutherans  ",  as  a  renegade  and  a  here- 
tic. The  Lutheran  theologians  met  at  Weimar  in 
1556,  and  declared  their  adhesion  to  Luther's  teaching 
as  to  good  works  and  the  Last  Supper.  Melanchthon 
partidpated  in  the  religious  discussion  which  took 
place  at  Worms,  in  1557,  between  Catholic  and  Prot- 
estant theologians.  His  Lutheran  opponents'  be- 
haviour toward  him  here  proved  grossly  insulting. 
The  last  ten  years  of  his  me  (1550-60)  were  almost 
completely  taken  up  with  theological  wrangles  (adi- 
aphoristic,  osiandric,  stankaristic,  majoristic,  Calvin- 
istic  and  cryptocalvinistic)  and  with  attempts  to  com- 
pose these  various  differences.  He  continued  in  spite 
<rf  all  to  labour  for  his  Church  and  for  her  peace.  But 
one  readily  understands  why,  a  few  days  before  he 
died,  he  gave  as  a  reason  for  not  fearing  death:  "thou 
shalt  be  freed  from  the  theologians'  fury  (a  rahie 
Uteohgorum) ".  His  last  wish  was  that  the  Churches 
mi^t  become  reunited  in  Christ.  He  died  praying, 
quietly  and  peacefully,  without  apparent  struggle. 

(3)  Melanchthon  as  a  Theologian. — Melanch- 
thon considered  it  his  mission  to  bring  together  the 
religious  thoughts  of  the  Reformation,  to  co-ordinate 
them  and  ^ve  them  a  clear  and  intelligible  form.  He 
did  not  feel  himself  called  upon  to  seek  out  their 
original  premises  or  to  speculate  on  their  logical  results. 
His  theology  bears  the  substantial  impress  of  his 
humanistic  thought,  for  he  saw  in  ancient  philosophy 
a  precursor  of  Christianity  and  sought  to  recondle  it 
with  Christian  Revelation.  Even  in  dogma  he  took 
up  whatever  adapted  itself  most  easily  to  the  general 
trend  of  humanistic  religious  thought,  and  his  dogma- 
tic departures  from  Luther  were  a  softening  of  doc- 
trine. His  theological  system  is  contained  in  the 
"  Lod  Communes  ",  as  revised  by  him;  in  substance  it 
was  brought  to  completion  by  the  edition  of  1535. 
As  late  as  1521  he  had  upheld  the  harsh  tenets  of  fatal- 
ism with  regard  to  all  events  and  of  determinism 
with  regard  to  the  human  will.  He  subsequently 
gave  "Synergism"  his  support,  as  against  the  deter- 
ministic tendency  of  the  Kef  ormation.  That  God  is 
not  the  cause  of  sin,  and  that  man  is  responsible  for  his 
sets,  must  be  firmly  maintained.  Man's  salvation 
can  only  be  wrought  out  with  the  co-operation  of  his 
own  will,  although  there  can  be  no  question  of  merit 


on  his  part.    Likewise  he  emphasized  the  necessit;^  of 

food  works  from  the  practical,  ethical  standpomt. 
[e  went  so  far  as  to  say,  in  the  Loci  of  1535,  that  good 
works  are  neoessarv  for  eternal  life,  inasmuch  as  the^ 
must  necessarily  follow  recondliation  with  God.  This 
was  again  attenuated  later  on:  what  is  necessary,  he 
said,  is  a  new  spiritual  life  or  sense  of  duty,^  i.  e.  a 
righteous  consdence. 

As  years  went  by  he  even  abandoned  Luther's 
doctrine  as  to  the  Last  Supper,  and  looked  on  Christ's 
spiritual  communication  of  Himself  to  the  faithful 
and  their  internal  union  with  Him  as  the  essential  fea- 
ture of  the  Sacrament;  1.  e.  he  inclined  towards  Cal- 
vin's theory.  In  1560  his  teachings  were  introduced 
into  all  the  churches  of  Saxonv,  through  the  "Corpus 
Philippicum"  (a  collection  of  Melanchthonian  doctrinal 
writings).  But  there  came  a  change  fourteen  ^ears 
after  Us  death.  The  Philippists  or  Crypto-Calvinists 
were  thrown  into  prison  and  sent  into  exile.  Thev 
subsequently  identified  themselves  more  and  more  witn 
Calvimsm,  even  on  the  question  of  predestination. 
Lutheranism,  narrow  and  harsh,  won  tne  day  with  its 
Formula  of  Concord  (1580).  So  strong  indeed  was 
this  opposition  that  the  saying  ran:  better  a  Catholic 
than  a  Calvinist.  From  that  time  on  imtil  well  into 
the  eighteenth  century,  Melanchthon's  memory  was 
assailed  and  reviled,  even  in  Wittenberg.  It  is  said 
that  Leonard  Hutter,  the  leading  theologian  there  at 
the  beginning  of  the  seventeenth  century,  was  so  en- 
raged by  an  appeal  to  Melanchthon  as  an  authority, 
made  in  the  course  of  a  public  disputation,  that  he  had 
the  latter's  portrait  torn  down  from  tne  wail  and 
trampled  under  foot  before  the  eyes  of  all.  It  was  not 
until  the  period  of  the  Enlightenment  that  Melanch- 
thon was  again  appredated  and  recognized  as  the  real 
founder  of  a  German-Evangelical  theology.  Indeed, 
he  carried  his  labours  into  all  the  other  theological 
fields,  in  some  of  which  he  worked  as  a  pioneer,  while  in 
all  he  toiled  at  least  as  a  contributor.  He  promoted 
the  study  of  the  Scriptures  not  only  by  his  own 
active  work  thereon  from  first  to  last,  but  also  by  his 
teachings,  and  by  his  exhortations  to  the  clergy.  Like 
Luther,  he  laid  particular  stress  on  the  necessity  of  a 
thorough  philological  training,  as  well  as  of  a  Imowl- 
edge  of  history  and  archseology,  for  the  proper  in- 
terpretation of  the  Bible.  He  assisted  Luther  con- 
stantly in  his  German  translation  of  the  Bible,  and 
also,  it  is  said,  in  the  production  of  the  Latin  transla- 
tion which  appeared  at  Wittenberg,  in  1529.  In 
exegesis  he  stood  out  vigorously  for  one  sense,  and 
that  the  literal,  {aensus  literalis)^  as  against  the  four 
senses  "  of  the  scholastics.  Beyond  this,  he  held,  there 
was  nothing  to  be  sought  in  the  words  of  the  Bible 
save  the  dogmatic  and  practical  application  and  de- 
velopment.^ His  commentaries  on  the  Old  Testament 
are  not  as  important  as  those  which  he  wrote  on  the 
New.  The  most  noteworthy  are  those  on  the  Epistles 
to  the  Romans  and  the  Colossians,  which  have  been 
published  repeatedly.  These  are  largely  given  to  the 
discussion  of  facts  and  of  dogmatic  and  i)olemical 
matters,  and  they  have  exerted  considerable  influence 
on  the  history  of  Protestant  doctrines.  The  impulse 
also  which  he  gave  to  the  study  of  theology  by  histori- 
cal methods,  was  felt  for  a  long  time.  Inhishandling 
of  the  Chronicle  of  Cario  he  treated  of  the  history  of 
the  Church  jointly  with  that  of  the  state,  and  thereby 
set  an  example  which  found  many  imitators.  He  was 
also  the  first  to  attempt  a  history  of  do^ma,  and  led 
the  way  in  Christian  biography.  In  homiletics  he  was 
early  recognized  as  the  originator  of  a  more  methodi- 
cal form  of  pulpit  oratory,  as  contrasted  with  the 
"heroic"  sermons  of  Luther.  He  did  not  himself 
appear  as  a  preacher,  but  was  content  with  expound- 
ing selections  from  tne  Gospel  on  Sundays  ana  Feast 
days,  in  his  house  or  in  a  lecture-hall,  using  for  this 
purpose  the  Latin  tongue  for  the  benefit  of  the  Hun- 
garian students  who  did  not  understand  the  German 


HELANIA  154  BBLAMIA 


of  theological  study.  for  whom  he  obtained  professorships,  taught  in  ac- 

(4)  Melanchthon  as  Propessor  and  Pedagogue,    cordance  with  his  ideals  and  his  method.    The  new 


(4)  Melanchthon  as  Professor  and  Pedagogue. 

— ^Melanchthon  was  the  embodiment  of  the  entire  in-  universities  of  Marburg  (1527),  KOnigsberg  (1644)^ 

tellectual  culture  of  his  time.    His  learning  covered  and  Jena   (1548),  which  were  founded  under  th« 

all  the  branches  of  knowledge  as  it  then  existed,  and  Reformation,  also  foimd  in  Melanchthon  a  guide 

what  is  mort  remarkable,  he  possessed  the  gift  of  im-  and  a  counsellor.    Hence  his  title,  ''Prseceptor  Ger- 

parting  his  knowledge  always  in  the  simplest,  clearest  maniae  ". 

and  most  practical  form.     On  this  account  the  numer-  Works  of  Melanchthon,  edited  by  Brbtschneider  and  BiND- 

ntja  mamiola  ftnH  mnAg^a  i^  f  h«  TjitiTi  AnH  Oraplc  irra.m.  ■wi'  "*  Corpus  Refimnatorum,  I-XXVIII  (Leipng,  1834-60); 

ous  majiuals  and  gmdes  to  tne  iMin  ana  ureeK  gram-  gc^MiDT,  Phtlipp  Melanchthon  (Elberfeld.  1861);  K^xmu>KR, 

mars,  to  dialectics,  rhetoric,  ethics,  phvsiCS,  politics,  MetanchUumaUPraeevUn-GermaniaiBetM,  1880):  Elunobr. 

and  nistory,  which  he  produced  in  addition  to  his  PA.  MelanehUum  (Berlin,  1902);  MOllbr,  Lehrbueh  der  Kirch- 

many  editions  of   and  commentaries  on    cla^ical  ^'S^t^J^'Ji'J^SJL  ^Sl^'^^)^^]'^'^ 
authors,  were  quickly  adopted,  and  were  retained  for  j^^  <,/<*«  German  People  (London,  1908-09).  passim, 
more  than  a  century.    The  exposition  shows  Uie  ut-  Klemens  LOffleb. 
most  care;  the  style  is  natural  and  clear.    In  his  aca- 
demic teaching  also,  he  disdained  all  rhetorical  devices.  Melania,  »Saint  (the  Younger),   b.  at  Rome, 
His  power  lav  not  in  brilliant  oratory,  but  in  clearness  about  383;  d.  in  Jerusalem,  31  December,  439.    She 
and  in  the  choice  of  the  most  appropriate  expresmon  was  a  member  of  the  famous  family  of  Valerii.    Her 
(promietas  sermonis).  ^  He  did  not  look  upon  learning  parents  were   Publicola   and    Albma,  her  paternal 
and  literature  as  ends  in  themselves,  but  as  means  for  grandmother  of  the  same  name  is  known  as  Melania, 
inculcating  morality  and   religion.    The   union   of  Senior.    Little  is  known  of  the  saint's  childhood,  but 
knowledge  with  the  spirit  of  religion,  of  humanism  after  the  time  of  her  marriage,  which  occurred  in  her 
with  the  "Gospel",  was  ever  the  keynote  of  his  public  thirteenth  year,  we  have  more  definite  information, 
activity,  and  through  him  it  became  for  centimes  the  Through  obedience  to  her  parents  she  married  one  of 
educational  ideal  of  "Evangelical"  (jSermany,  even,  her  relatives,  Piuianus  a  patrician.    During  her  mar- 
in  a  certain  sense,  of  Germany  as  a  whole.    It  is  not  ried  life  of  seven  years  she  had  two  children  who  died 
easy  therefore  to  overrate  Melanchthon's  importance  young.    After  their  death  Melania's  inclination  to- 
in  this  field.    By  this  many-sided  practical  activity  ward  a  celibate  life  reasserting  itself,  she  secured  her 
and  his  work  as  an  organiser  he  became  the  founder  husband's  consent  and  enteredupon  the  path  of  evan- 
of  higher  education  in  "Evangelical"  Germany;  the  gelic  perfection,  parting  little  by  little  with  all  her 
elementary  school  lay  outside  his  sphere.  ^  Numerous  wealth.    Pinianus,  who  now  assumed  a  brotherly 
Latin  schools  and  universities  owed  to^  him  their  es-  position  toward  her,  was  her  companion  in  all  her 
tablishment  or  reorganixation;   and  in  numberless  efforts  toward  sanctity.    Because  or  the  Visigothic  in- 
cases he  was  written  to  for  advice,  or  was  called  on  to  vasions  of  Italy,  she  left  Rome  in  408,  ana  for  two 
recommend  competent  instructors,  to  settle  contro-  years  lived  near  Messina  in  Sicily.    Here,  their  life  of 
versieSy  or  to  give  his  opinion  on  the  advantage  or  a  monastic  character  was  shared   by  some  former 
necessity  of  courses  of  study.    His  ideas  on  teaching  slaves.    In  410  she  went  to  Africa  where  she  and 
in  the  three-class  Latin  schools  are  more  fully  set  forth  Pinianus  lived  with  her  mother  for  seven  years,  during 
in  the  "  Unterricht  der  Visitatoren  "  (1528)  already  re-  which  time  she  grew  well  acquaiated  witn  St.  Augus- 
ferred  to.  and  the  "  Wittenberger  Kirchen-imd  Schul-  tine  and  his  friend  Alypius.    She  devoted  herself  to 
ordnung''  (1533).     Their  novelty  lies  partly  in  the  works  of  charity  and  piety,  especially,  in  her  zeal  for 
selection  of  subjects,  but  chiefly  in  the  method.   Latin  souls,  to  the  foundation  of  a  nunnery  of  which  she  be- 
naturally  holds  the  place  of  honour.          ^  came  superior,  and  of  a  cloister  of  which  Pinianus  took 
Melanchthon  put  an  end  to  grammatical  torture  charge.    In  417,  Melania,  her  mother,  and  Pinianus 
and  the  "  Doctrinale  "  of  Alexander  de  Villa  Dei ;  gram-  went  to  Palestine  by  way  of  Alexandria.    For  a  year 
mar  exercises  were  appended  to  the  texts.  ^  He  him-  they  lived  in  a  hospice  for  pilgrims  in  Jerusalem, 
self  had  a  Latin  school,  the  Schola  Privata,  in  his  own  where  she  met  St.  Jerome.    She  again  made  generous 
house  for  ten  years,  in  which  he  prepared  a  few  boys  donations,  upon  the  receipt  of  money  from  the  sale  of 
for  the  university.    In  1526,  he  founded  a  second  her  estates  in  Spain.    About  this  time  she  travelled  in 
fnde  of  the  more  advanced  school,  the  Obere  Schule,  Egypt,  where  ^e  visited  the  principal  places  of  mo- 
rn Nuremberg  near  St.  ^gidien.    He  looked  on  this  nastic  and  eremetical  life,  and  upon  her  return  to  Jeru- 
as  a  connecting  link  between  the  Latin  school  and  salem  she  lived  for  twelve  years,  in  a  hermitage  near 
the  university.    It  comprised  dialectics  and  rhetoric,  the  Moimt  of  Olives.    Before  the  death  of  her  mother 
readings  from  the  poets,  mathematics,  and  Greek.  (431),  a  new  series  of  monastic  foundations  had  begim. 
This  type  of  school,  however,  did  not  meet  with  any  She  started  with  a  convent  for  women  on  the  Mount  of 
great  success.    The  reorganization  of  universities,  as  Olives,  of  which  she  assumed  the  maintenance  while 
advocated  by  Melanchthon.  affected  chiefly  the  arts  refusing  to  be  made  its  superior.    After  her  husband's 
and  theological  courses.    Tne  faculty  of  Aits  became  deathsne  built  a  cloister  for  men,  then  a  chapel,  and 
wholly  humanistic.   Logic,  till  then  dominant  in  edu-  later,  a  more  pretentious  church.    During  this  last 
cation,  gave  way  to  the  languages,  and  Greek  and  period  (Nov.,  436),  she  went  to  Constantinople  where 
Hebrew  assumed,  more  prommence.    As  sources  of  she  aided  iq  the  conversion  of  her  pagan  imcle,  Volu- 
philolo^  the  classic  authors  replaced  the  writers  of  sian,  ambassador  at  the  Court  of  Theodosius  II,  and 
the  Midcile  Ages.    For  the  scholastic  study  of  the  in  the  conflict  with  Nestorianism.    An  interesting 
liberal  arts  a  more  simple  and  practical  course  in  dia-  episode  in  her  later  life  is  the  journey  of  the  Empress 
lectics  and  rhetoric  was  substituted.    Likewise  in  £udocia,  wife  of  Theodosius,  to  Jerusalem  in  438. 
theolo^,  Scriptural  interpretation  was  brom^ht  to  the  Soon  after  the  empress's  return  Melania  died, 
fore.    Dogmatic  principles  were  developed  by  exe-  The  Greek  Chureh  began  to  venerate  her  shortly 
gesis;  to  tnese  then  were  gradually  added  special  lee-  after  her  death,  but  she  was  almost  unknown  in  the 
tures  on  dc^^na.    The  essential  fact  was  a  decided  re-  Western  Churen  for  many  years.    She  has  received 
turn  to  onginal  sources.    This  transformation  was  creater  attention  since  the  publication  of  her  life  by 
wroiiphtnotonlyintheUniversityof  Wittenberg,  but  Cardinal  RampoUa  (Rome,  1905).    In  1908,  Pius  X 
also  in  that  of  TQbingen,  where  Melanchthon  himself  granted  her  office  to  the  congregation  of  clergy  at 
took  part  in  the  work  of  reform,  in  those  of  Frankfort,  Somascha.    This  may  be  considered  as  the  beginning 
Leipzig,  Rostock,  and  Heidelbeig,  where  in  1557  he  of  a  zealous  ecclesiastical  cult,  to  which  the  saint's 


MELBOUBNI  155  MELBOUBNX 

fife  and  works  have  entitled  her.    Melania's  life  has  Archbishop  Goold  died,  11  June,  1886,  there  were 

been  shrouded  in  obscurity  nearlv  up  to  the  present  11,661  children  receiving  Catholic  education  without 

time;   nuiny  people  having  wholly  or  partially  con-  costixig  apennv  to  the  state,  while  their  parents  were 

founded  her  with  her  grandmother  Antonia  Melania.  contributmg  their  share  as  taxpayers  to  the  state 

The  accurate  knowledge  of  her  life  we  owe  to  the  dis-  system. 

eovery  of  two  MSS. ;  the  first,  in  Latin,  was  found  bv        (2)  Most  Rby.  Thomas  Joseph  Carb,  on  the  solid 

Cardinal  Rampolla  in  the  Esoorial  in  1884,  the  second,  foundation  laid  by  his  predecessor,  the  first  Bishop 

a  Greek  biography,  is  in  the  Barberini  library.    Car-  of  Melbourne,  has  raised  a  stately  and  imposing  edi- 


raphy  (1908)  by  Georges  Goyau  IS  worthy  ^         ,    , 

Anaiecfa  Sancta  Sedia  (1908);  Bcclenadical  Review  (July,  1887.    Three  years  after  his  amval  he  undertook  the 

1908);  Goyau.  Sainte  M&anis  in  the  coUection  Us  Saxnu  great  task  of  Completing  St.  Patrick's  cathedraL    For 

(Paris.  1908).                                   Charles  Schlttz.  °^®''  ^^^7  years  tiie  bmlding  of  this  magnificent  tem- 
ple absorbed  every  thought  of  the  first  Vicar-General. 

nelbonme,  Archdiocese  of  (Melburnbn.),  in  the  Right  Rev.  John  Fitzpatrick,  D.D.    Yet  a  sum  or 

the  State  of  Victoria,  Southeastern  Australia.    Its  one  hundred  thousand  pounds  was  required  to  carrv 

history  is  closely  interwoven  with  the  rise  and  progress  out  the  orinnal  design,  exclusive  of  the  towers  which 

of  the  State  of  Victoria.     When  the  first  Catholic  are  still  unfinished.    On  the  death  of  Dr.  Fitzpatrick 

Bishop  of  Melbourne  was  consecrated  in  1848,  the  pres-  in  1889,  the  archbishop  enlisted  the  practical  83rm- 

ent  metropolis,  from  which  the  see  takes  its  name,  was  pathy  and  hearty  co-operation  of  the  clerf^y  and  laity 

known  as  the  Port  Philip  Settlement,  and  was  part  of  of  the  archdiocese  in  this  large  undertakmff.    On  31 

the  ecclesiastical  province  of  Svdney.    Dr.  Folding,  October,  1897,  the  cathedral  was  consecrated,  entirely 

the  newly  consecrated  bishop  of  that  see,  placed  t&  free  from  debt.    The  total  cost  from  the  dav  the  foun- 

Rev.  Patrick  Bona  venture  Geoehegan  in  charge  of  dation  stone  was  laid  in  April,  1850,  to  the  day  of  dedi- 

Port  Philip  in  1 839 ;  and  the  first  Mass  was  celebrated  in  cation  was  two  hundred  and  thirty  thousand  pounds. 

Melbourne  on  Pentecost  Sunday,  15  May,  of  that  year.  No  modem  cathedral  in  Ireland  approaches  the  Mel- 

The  entire  population  of  Port  Philip  in  1841  was  11,-  bourne  fane,  and  even  the  two  ancient  cathedrals, 

738,  and  the  Catholics  numbered  2411.  Christ's  Church,  and  St.  Patrick's,  Dublin,  fall  far 

ri)  Most  Rev.  James  Altpius  Goold,  the  first  short  in  seating  accommodation  and  massive  beauty, 

bishop,  an  Irishman,  journeyed  overland  from  Sydney  The  episcopal  silver  jubilee  of  the  archbishop  was 

after  h^a  consecration,  arriving  in  Melbourne,  4  October,  celebrated  26  August,  1907,  with  unbounded  enthusi- 

1848.     In  April,  1850,  he  laid  the  foundation  of  St.  asm,  when  over  10,000  found  standings  sitting  room 

Patrick's  cathedral,  and  this  event  was  followed  in  a  witnin  the  walls  of  the  cathedral.    The  clergy  and 

few  months  by  a  declaration  from  the  imperial  au-  laity  took  occasion  of  this  celebration  to  mark  their  ap- 

thorities  which  changed  the  Settlement  of  Port  Philip  preciation  of  Archbishop  Carr's  great  services  to  the 

into  the  independent  Colonv  of  Victoria.    The  disco  v-  Church  in  Australia  during  the  twent^r  years  of  his  rule, 

ery  of  the  goidfields  of  Ballarat,  Bendigo,  and  Castle-  Because  of  his  deeply  rooted  objection  to  a  personal 

maine  at  this  period  was  responsible  for  a  lar^  increase  testimonial,  a  debt  of  eight  thousand  pounds  was 

in  the  population.    Ireland  found  in  Victona  a  refine  cleared  off  the  cathedral  hall  and  a  thousand  pounds 

and  a  home  for  many  of  her  exiled  children.    Tne  over-subscribed  handed  him  for  educational  purposes. 

Catholic  population,  in  1851  only  18,000,  had  by  1857  In  connexion  with  that  event  a  review  was  made,  and 

grown  to  88,000.  official  statistics  compiled,  of  the  growth  and  progress 

During  the  next  decade  and  a  half  large  centres  of  of  the  Church  diuing  that  period.    The  niunber  of 

population  had  sprung  up  in  places  so  remote  from  clezvy  had  increased  from  66  to  142,  30  new  churches 

Melbourne  that  it  was  utterly  impossible  for  Bishop  had  oeen  built,  old  churches  had  been  replaced  by  sub- 

Goold  to  attend  to  the  wants  of  his  widely  scattered  stantial  and  stately  edifices,  and  the  existing  ones  im* 

flock.   When  at  Rome  in  1874  he  placed  his  difficulties  proved  in  ornamentation  and  equipment,  and  the 

before  the  Holy  See,  and  had  the  northern  and  western  number  of  parishes  had  risen  from  26  to  56.    The  total 

portions  of  Victoria  cut  off  from  Melbourne  and  formed  cost  in  the  erection  of  churches,  schools,  presbyteries, 

mto  the  dioceses  of  Sandhurst  and  Ballarat,  and  re-  halls,  educational  and  charitable  institutions  amounted 

oeived  the  pallium  as  first  Archbishop  of  Melbourne  to  the  enormous  sum  (considering  the  population)  of 

and  Metropolitan  of  Victoria.    The  strain  in  getting  £L272,874. 

through  ecclesiastical  work  in  the  pioneer  days  of  Aus-  The  development  of  Catholic  education  and  the  in- 

tralia  demanded  a  physical  strength  and  a  mental  crease  in  the  number  of  schools  not  only  kept  pace 

firmness  of  no  ordinary  capacity.    The  work  accom-  with  the  general  growth,  but  led  the  van  of  progress, 

pliahed  by  Archbishop  Goold  from  1848  to  1886  proves  The  archbishop  adhered  religiously  to  the  principle  of 

nim  a  man  of  wondeitul  endurance  and  great  oiganis-  his  predecessor  in  his  endeavour  to  provide  as  far  as 

ing  ability.    He  made  five  voyages  to  Kome,  and  in-  possible,  Catholic  education  for  every  Catholic  child, 

troduoed  several  religious  orders  devoted  to  educa-  To  make  effectual  and  permanent  provision  in  the  de- 

Hon  and  works  of  charity,  the  Jesuit  Fathers,  the  partmentof  education,  new  teaching  orders  were  intro- 

Christian  Brothers,  Sisters  of  Mercy.  Good  Shepherd  duoed.    In  addition  to  those  already  fighting  the  edu* 

Nuns,  Presentation  Order.  Faithful  Companions  of  cational  battle  the  archbishop,  within  a  few  years, 

Jesus,  and  Little  Sisters  ot  the  Poor.    The  most  im-  had  the  Marist  Brothers,  the  Sisters  of  Charity,  the 

portant  action  of  Dr.  Goold  and  most  far-reaching  in  Sacred  Heart  Sisters,  the  Sisters  of  Loretto,  the  SisterB 

its  consequences,  was  the  determined  and  consistent  of  St.  Joseph,  and  liie  Sisters  of  the  Good  Samaritan. 

Gght  he  made  a^inst  the  state  system  of  purely  secu-  £500,679  was  expended  during  these  twenty  years  on 

far  educate' on.    The  zeal  he  displayed  in  the  erection  school  buildings  and  residences  for  religious  engaged 

of  Catholic  schools,  and  the  sacrifice  he  demanded  of  in  Catholic  education.    In  1887  the  number  of  pupils 

bis  people  in  maintaining  them,  show  how  fully  con-  attending  the  Catholic  schools  of  the  archdiocese  was 

vinced  ne  was  that  religious  instruction  can  never  be  11,661  as  compared  with  25,369  at  the  close  of  1908. 

separated  from  genuine  education.    When  the  denom-  This  building  and  maintainins  of  a  separate  school  sjrs- 

mational  system  ih  1872  gave  way  to  a  svstem  from  tem  means  a  double  tax  on  uie  Catholic  community 

which  the  name  of  God  was  banished,  the  bishop  pro-  as  rate  payers  they  contribute  their  share  of  State  edu- 

claimed  that  no  matter  what  the  cost,  or  what  the  cation,  and  as  Catholics  they  pay  for  their  own;  and 

sacrifice  involved,  the  Catholic  children  of  Victoria  count  the  cost  as  noUiing  compared  with  the  eternal  in- 

flhould  be  provided  with  a  Catholic  education.   When  terests  at  stake.    When  the  purely  secular  i^stem  of 


156  BBLCmSEDECH 

education  was  introduced   into  Victoria  in   1872,  Council.    On  his  return  to  Ck>lo2ne  he  proclaimed  in 

some  anti-CathoIic8  leagued  together,  and  declared  an  eloquent  address  (24  July)  the  dogma  defined  18 

that  the  new  svstem   would   *'rend   the   Catholic  July.    Asameansof  ensuring  obedience  to  the  Coun- 

Church  asunder' .    The  opposite  has  been  the  result,  cil,  the  bishops  assembled  b^  nim  at  Fulda,  published 

The  very  sufferings  and  diaaioilities  associated  with  the  (1  Sept.)  a  joint  letter  which  produced  a  deep  and 

maintenance  of  their  own  schools  have  united  solidly  salutary  impression,  and  for  which  Pius  IX  expressed 

the  Catholic  body;  while  the  absence  of  religion  from  (20  Oct.)  his  gratitude  to  Archbishop  Melchers.    To 

^e  State  schools  nas  "rent  asunder"  I^testantism  in  eliminate  the  opposition  at  Bonn,  the  archbishop  (20 

producing  a  generation  of  non-believers.    No  review  Sept.  and  8  Oct.)  called  on  Professors  Diennger, 

of  the  Archmocese  of  Melbourne  would  be  complete  Beusch,  L&ageD.  and  Knoodt  to  sign  a  declaration  ao- 

without  reference  to  the  growth  of  Catholic  literature,  oepting  the  Vatican  decrees  and  pledging  conformitv 

particularly  during  recent  years.    To  stem  the  tide  of  thereto  in  their  teaching.    Dieringer  alone  compliecf ; 

irreligious  reading,  splendid  efforts  have  been  made  in  the  others  were  suspended  and  eventually  (12  March, 

Melbourne  to  provide  Catholic  homes  with  Catholic  1872)  excommunicated. 

literature.  When  the  archbishop  came  to  Melbourne  The  encroachments  and  repressive  measures  of  the 
(1887)  there  was  only  one  Cathohc  paper,  the  *'  Advo-  Kulturkampf  (q.  v.)  were  nimly  resisted  by  Arch- 
cate"  in  Victoria.  Since  then  a  monthly  magazme,  bishop  Melchers.  In  June.  1873.  he  excommunicated 
the  ''Austral  Light,"  under  his  direction  (1892),  a  two  priests  who  had  joined  the  Old  Catholics;  for  this 
penny  weekly  paper,  the  "Tribune"  (1900),  and  the  and  for  other  administrative  acts  he  was  fined  and 
Australian  Catholic  TruUi  Society  (1904),  have  come  imprisoned  six  months  (12  March — 9  Oct.,  1874).  On 
into  existence,  and  are  doing  great  apostolic  work  in  2  Dec.,  J1875,  the  president  of  the  Rhine  Province  de- 
the  diffusion  of  Catholic  truui.  The  Catholics  of  the  manded  his  resignation  on  pain  of  deposition ;  he  re- 
archdiocese  are  almost  entirelv  Irish  or  of  Irish  origin,  fused,  but  learning  that  preparations  were  being  made 
The  priesthood  was  exclusive^  Irish  till  recent  years,  to  deport  him  to  KOstrin,  he  escaped  (13  Dec.)  to 
when  vocations  amonf;  the  native  bom  are  rapidly  on  Maestricht  and  took  refuge  with  the  Franciscans, 
the  increase.  The  rehgious,  teaching  in  the  schools  or  From  their  monastery  he  administered  his  diocese 
conducting  the  charitable  institutions,  were  in  the  during  ten  years.  Knowing,  however,  the  temper  of 
early  days  Irish,  but  axe  now  largely  Australian.  the  German  government  and  fearing  that  his  absence 

SuMMABT  OF  THE  Abchdiocese  OF  Meiaoubne. —  from  his  see  would  prove  injurious  to  relieion,  he  on 

Districts,  57;  Churches,  168;  Secular  Clergy,  113;  Reg-  different  occasions  informed  Leo  XIII  of  nis  willing- 

ular  Clergy,  38;  ReUnous  Brothers,  54;  Nuns,  851 ;  Su-  ness  to  resign  for  the  jgeneral  good.    The  pope  at  last 

perior  Schools,  for  Bovs,  8;  for  Girls,  28;  number  of  reluctantly  consented)  but  called  him  to  Rome  and 

pupils,  3443;  Parochial  Primaiy  Schools,  107;  number  created  him  cardinal  (27  July,  1885).    In  1892  dur- 

of  pupils,  21,926;  Total  number  of  pupils  in  Parochial  ing  a  serious  illness,  he  was  received  into  the  Society 

and  High  Schools,  25,369:  Orphanages,  4;  Industrial  of  Jesus  and  lived  as  a  Jesuit  imtil  his  death  three 

Schools,  for  Boys.  1,  for  Girls,  1;  ReformatorySchool  years  later.    He  was  laid  to  rest  in  the  cathedral  of 

for  Girls,  1 ;  Maffoalen  Aiprlums  for  Penitent  Women,  Cologne  amid  obsequies  that  attested  the  people's  ad- 

2;  Home  for  Neglected  Child^n,l;  Home  for  the  Poor,  miration  and  love.    St.  Paul's  church  in  tne  same 

1;  Home  for  Women  and  Girls  out  of  employment,  1;  city,   completed   in   1908,   fittingly  commemorates 

Foundling  Hospital,  1;  Receiving  Home  m  connexion  Meicher^s  heroic  struggle  for  the  libertv  of  the  Church, 

with  Foimdling  Hospital,  1;  Catholic  population  of  the  His  principal  publications  are:  "  ffrinnerungen  an 

archdiocese  according  to  (Government  census  returns  die  Feier  des  50  j&hrigen  Bischofsjubilftums  des  h. 

of  1901, 145,333.  Vaters  Pius  IX"  (Colome,  1876);  "Eine  Unterwei- 

Patrick  Phelan.  sung  Qber  das  Gebet"  (Cologne,  1876):  "Bine  TJnter- 

weisung  Qber  das  heilige  Messopfer  "  (Colofine,  1879) ; 

Melchera,  Paul,  Cardinal.  Amhbishop  of  Cologne,  ''Das  Sendschreiben  des  heiligen  Vaters  Papst  Leo 

b.  6  Jan.,  1813,  at  MOnster,  Westphalia;  d.  14  Dec.,  XIII  Qber  den  Socialismus"  (Cologne,  1880);  "Die 

1895,  at  Rome.    He  studied  law  at  Bonn  (1830-33),  katholische  Lehre  von  der  Kirche''  (Cologne,  1881); 

and  after  a  few  years  practice  at  MOnsten  took  up  *'Das  eine  Nothwendi^"  (Cologne,  1882);  "De  cano- 

theology  at  Munich  under  Klee,  GOrres,  Windisch-  nica  dicecesium  visitatione''  (Rome,  1892). 

nriRTin  and  D6llinger.     Ordained  in  1841,  he  was  as-  Lvdwiqs,  Kardinal  Bnbithof  Dr.  Pavitu  Mdehen  vnd  <2m 

Bigned  to  duty  in  the  village,  of  Haltien.,   In  1844  he  ^^^t£&  Z  f.&lSS^^oJ2S^  V.  "inF^i^. 

became  vice-rector  of  the  diocesan  seminary,  rector  burg.  (1903-1906):  Grandbrath.  Acta  h  Deertta  S.  S,  eon- 

1861),  canon  of  the  cathedral  (1852),  vicar-general  caiorwn  ncentiorvm^  torn.  VII  (Freiburg,  1800). 

1854).    Pius  IX  appointed  him  Bishop  of  OsnabrQck  J-  Forget. 

'1867)  and  Archbishop  of  Cologne  (1866).  Here  he  Melchiades.    See  Miltiadbs,  Saint,  Pope. 
laboured  zealously  and .  moreover,  inaugurated  (1867) 

at  Fulda.  those  annual  reunions  of  the  German  bish-  Melchisedeeli    [Gr.  MeXxctf'ed^jr     Heb.    pn^^yOt 

one  whicn  have  since  produced  such  excellent  results.  "  King  cS  righteousness  "  (Gesenius)]  was  King  of  Salem 

Though  he  had  alwa^^s  accepted  and  taught  the  doo-  (Gen.  xiv.  18-20)  who,  on  Abraham's  return  with  the 

trine  of  papal  infallibility,  he  regarded  its  formal  defi-  booty  taKen  from  the  four  kings,  "bringing  forth 

nition  as  untimely,  a  conviction  which  he,  with  thir-  bread  and  wine,  for  he  was  the  priest  of  the  most  high 

teen  other  bishops,  expressed  in  a  letter  to  the  pope,  4  God.  blessed  him  ",  and  received  from  him  "  the  tithes 

Sept.,  1869.    At  the  same  time,  however,  the  bishops,  of  aU"  (v.  20).    Josephus,  with  many  others,  identi- 

in  a  pastoral  letter  which  they  signed  without  excep-  fies  Salem  with  Jerusalem,  and  adds  that  Melchisedech 

tion,  warned  the  faithful  against  reports  unfavour-  "supplied  Abram's  army  in  a  hospitable  manner,  and 

able  to  the  future  (Vatican)  Coimcu  and  exhorted  gave  them  provisions  in  abundance  .  .  .  and  when 

them  to  await  calmly  its  decisions.    In  the  Council  Abram  gave  him  the  tenth  part  of  his  prey,  he  ao- 

itself  Archbishop  Melchers  took  a  prominent  part,  oepted  of  thegift"  (Ant.,  I.  x,  2).    Che3mesa^s  "itis 

At  the  session  of  13  Jul^,  1870,  he  voted  negatively  on  a-plausible  conjecture  that  ne  is  a  purely  fictitious  per- 

the  question  of  papal  infallibility;  but  he  refused  to  sonage"  (Ency.  Bib.,  s.  v.),  which  "plausible  conject- 

sign  an  address  in  which  fifty-five  other  members  of  ure"  Kaufmann,  however,  rightly  condemns  (Jew. 

the  minority  notified  the  popne  of  their  immediate  de-  Ency^  s.  v.).    The  Rabbins  identified  Melchisedech 

parture  and  reiterated  their  non  placet.    He  left  with  Sem,  son  of  Noe,  rather  for  polemic  than  historic 

Home  before  the  fourth  solemn  session,  ^ving  as  his  reasons,  since  they  wished  to  set  themselves  against 

reason  the  outbreak  of  the  Franco-Prussian  war,  and  what  is  said  of  him  as  a  type  of  Christ "  without  father^ 

declaring  his  readiness  to  abide  by  the  decisions  of  the  without  mother,  without  genealogy  "  (Heb.,  vii,  3), 


MXLCHI8EDEGHIANS 


167 


MELCHITBS 


In  the  Epifltle  to  the  Hebrews  the  typical  character 
of  Melchieedeeh  and  its  Messianic  import  are  fully  ex- 
plained. Christ  is  "a  pnest  forever  according  to  the 
order  of  Melchisedech'^  (Heb.,  vii,  6;  Ps.,  cix,  4);  "a 
hi^  priest  forever",  etc.  (Heb.,  vi,  20),  ^ni3*I-7y,  i-  e. 
order  or  manner  (Gesenius),  not  after  the  manner  of 
Aaron.  The  Apostle  develops  his  teaching  in  Heb.,  vii : 
Melehisedech  was  a  type  by  reason  (a)  of  his  twofold 
dif^ty  as  priest  and  king,  (b)  by  reason  of  his  name, 
"long  of  justice  ",  (c)  by  reason  of  the  city  over  which 
he  TvSed,  ^*  King  of  Salem,  that  is.  king  of  peace  "  (v.  2), 
and  also  (d)  becaiise  he  "  without  father,  without 
mother,  without  genealogy,  having  neither  beginning 
of  days  nor  end  of  life,  but  likened  unto  the  Son  of 
God,  continueth  a  priest  forever"  (v.  3).  The  silence 
of  Scripture  about  the  facts  of  Melchisedech's  birth 
and  death  was  a  part  of  the  divine  plan  to  make  him 
prefigure  more  strikingly  the  mystenes  of  Christ's  gen- 
eration, the  eternity  of  His  priesthood.  Abraham, 
patriarch  and  father  of  nations,  paid  tithes  to  Melehise- 
dech and  received  his  blessing.  This  was  all  the  more 
remarkable  since  the  priest-king  was  a  stranger,  to 
wh<»n  be  was  not  bound  to  pay  tithes,  as  were  tlMS  chil- 
dren of  Israel  to  the  priests  of  the  Aaronio  line.  Abra^ 
ham,  therefore,  and  Levi  "in  the  loins  of  his  father" 
(Heb.  vii,  9),  bv  acknowledging  his  superiority  as  a 
tjrpe  of  Christ  (for  personally  he  was  not  greater  than 
Abraham),  therebv  confessed  the  excellence  of  Christ's 
priesthood.  Neither  can  it  be  fairly  objected  that 
Christ  was  in  the  loins  of  Abraham  as  Levi  was,  and 
paid  tithes  to  Melehisedech;  for,  though  descended 
utim  Abraluon,  he  had  no  human  father,  but  was  con- 
ceived of  the  Holy  Ghost.  In  the  history  of  Melehise- 
dech St.  Paul  says  nothing  about  the  bread  and  wine 
which  the  ''priest  oi  the  most  High"  offered,  and  on 
account  of  which  his  name  is  placed  in  the  Canon  of 
the  Mass.  The  scope  of  the  Apostle  accounts  for  this ; 
for  he  wishes  to  show  that  the  priesthood  of  Christ  was 
in  dignity  and  duration  superior  to  that  of  Aaron,  and 
therefore,  since  it  is  not  what  Melehisedech  offered,  but 
rather  the  other  circumstances  of  his  priesthood  which 
belonged  to  the  theme,  they  alone  are  mentioned. 

UdBrnxr,  An  Exjm,  ojtthe  £^a.  of^^'  P^^  (Heb.,  vii);  Px- 
ooMio,  Triplex  Bxpontio  (Heb.,  vii);  Boon  acker,  Le  Sacerdoce 
lAiMquM  0899),  281-287;  Hastingb,  DiU,  of  the  Bible,  a.  v.; 
Bj^iaie  Toferenoes  in  Jew,  Eney.,  a.  v.;  St.  Thomaa.  Ill,  Q. 
xzii,  ».  e;  HoioixXi.  The  Ancient  aeb,  TradiHon  (ir.  from  the 
Ger.,  1807),  146.  JOHN  J.  TiEHNBY. 

MelchiaedechlauB ,  a  branch  of  the  Monarchians, 
founded  by  Theodotus  the  banker.  (See  Monabch- 
lANS.)  Another  quite  distinct  sect  or  party  is  refuted 
bv  Marcus  Eremita,  who  seems  to  have  been  a  disciple 
of  St.  John  Chrysostom.  His  book  EZi  r6v  Me\xure84K, 
or  according  to  Photius  "Against  the  Melchisedek- 
ites"  (P.  G.,  Ixv,  1117),  speaks  of  these  new  teachers 
as  making  Melehisedech  an  incarnation  of  the  Logos. 
They  were  anathematised  by  the  bishops,  but  would 
not  cease  to  preach.  They  seem  to  have  been  other- 
wise ortiiodox.  St.  Jerome  (Ep.  73)  refutes  an  anony- 
mous work  which  identified  Melehisedech  with  the 
Holy  Ghost.  About  a.  n.  600,  Timotheus,  Presbyter 
of  Constantinople,  in  his  book ' '  De  receptione  Hctretico' 
rum"  (CoteUer,  "Monumenta  eccles.  Grseca",  III, 
392;  P.  G.,  LXXXVI,  34),  adds  at  the  end  of  his  list 
of  heretics  who  need  rebaptism  the  Melchisedechians, 
"now  called  Athin^ani"  (Intangibles).  They  live  in 
Phiygia,  and  are  neither  Hebrews  nor  Gentiles.  They 
keep  the  Sabbath,  but  are  not  cireumcised.  They 
will  not  touch  any  man.  If  food  is  offered  to  them, 
they  ask  for  it  to  be  placed  on  the  ground;  then  they 
come  and  take  it.  They  give  to  others  with  the  same 
IvecautionB.    Nothing  more  is  known  of  this  curious 

secw. 

For  the  HonarehiBn  MelcUsedechians  the  andent  authorities 
u*  Psbudo-Tkrtuluan,  PnMcnpt.,  liii;  Pbilabtrius,  Hcar.t 
Ei;  EpiPBAinus,  ffor.,  Iv;  AuonanNB,  Hon:,  zxxiv:  Prjedb»- 
TDTATUS,  Hmr.,  xxxiv;  Tbbodorbt,  Hot.  Fab.^  II,  vi.  Alsoaee 
KxmtKTMttrcuaBremUa  (LeipBig,  1896);  Idem  in  Realencyd^t  a.  v. 
(SeeMoNARCBiAifs.)  JoHN  Chapman. 


MdchitaB  (Mblkites).  I.  ORiam  and  Nams.— 
Melchites  are  the  people  in  Syria,  Palestine,  and  Elgypt 
who  remained  faithful  to  the  Council  of  Chalcedon 
(451)  when  the  greater  part  turned  Monophysite. 
The  original  meanm^  of  the  name  therefore  is  an  oppo- 
sition U>  Monophysism.  The  Nestorians  had  their 
communities  in  eastern  Syria  till  the  Emperor  Zeno 
(474-491)  closed  their  school  at  Eklessa  in  489,  and 
arove  them  over  the  frontier  into  Persia.  The  people 
of  western  Syria,  Palestine,  and  Egypt  were  either 
Melchites  who  accepted  Chalcedon,  or  Monophysites 
(called  also  Jacobites  in  Svria  and  Palestine,  Copts  in 
Egypt)  who  rejected  it,  till  the  Monothelete  heresy  in 
the  seventh  century  further  complicated  the  situation. 
But  Melchite  remained  the  name  for  those  who  were 
faithful  to  the  great  Church,  Catholic  and  Orthodox, 
till  the  Schism  of  Photius  (867)  and  Cerularius  (1054) 
again  divided  them.  From  that  time  there  have 
been  two  kinds  of  Melchites  in  these  countries,  the 
Catholic  Melchites  who  kept  the  communion  of  Rome, 
and  schismatical  ("Orthodox'')  Melchites  who  fol- 
lowed Constantinople  and  the  great  mass  of  eastern 
Christians  into  schism.  Although  the  name  has  been 
and  still  is  occasionally  used  for  TOth  these  groups,  it  is 
now  conmionly  applied  only  to  the  Catholic  Uniates. 
For  the  sake  of  clearness  it  is  better  to  keep  to  this  use ; 
the  name  ''Orthodox"  is  sufficient  for  the  others, 
whereas  among  the  many  groups  of  Catholics,  Liatin 
and  Uniate,  of  various  rites,  we  need  a  special  name  for 
this  group.  It  would  be,  indeed,  still  more  convenient 
if  we  could  call  all  Uniates  of  the  Byzantine  rite  Mel- 
chites. But  such  a  -use  of  the  word  has  never  ob- 
tained. One  could  not  with  any  propriety  call  Ru- 
thenians,  the  Uniates  of  southern  Italy  or  Rumania, 
Melchites.  One  must  therefore  keep  the  name  for 
those  of  Syria,  Palestine,  and  £!gypt,  all  of  whom 
speak  Arabic. 

We  define  a  Melchite  then  as  any  Christian  of  these 
lands  in  communion  with  Rome,  Constantinople,  and 
the  great  Church  of  the  Empire  before  the  Photian 
schism,  or  as  a  Christian  of  the  Byzantine  Rite  in 
conmiunion  with  Rome  since.  As  the  word  implied 
opposition  to  the  Monophysites  originally,  so  it  now 
marks  the  distinction  between  these  people  and  all 
schismatics  on  the  one  hand,  between  them  and  Latins 
or  Uniates  of  other  rites  (Maronites,  Armenians,  Sy- 
rians, etc.)  on  the  other.  The  name  is  easily  ex- 
plained pnilolQsically.  It  is  a  Semitic  (presumably 
oyriac)  root  with  a  Greek  ending,  meaning  imperialist. 
MeUc  is  Syriac  for  king  (Heb.  melek,  Arab,  malik). 
The  word  is  used  in  all  the  Semitic  languafi»s  for  the 
Roman  Emperor,  like  the  Greek  /3a<riXct^.  JBy  adding 
the  Greek  ending-^ri^  we  have  the  form  fukKlTys. 
equal  to  fiaffOuKSs.  It  should  be  noted  that  the  thirci 
radical  of  the  Semitic  root  is  kaf:  there  is  no  guttural. 
Therefore  the  correct  form  of  the  word  is  Melkite, 
rather  than  the  usual  form  Melchite.  The  pure  Syriac 
word  is  malkoyo  (Arab.  mcUakiyyu;  vulgar,  milkiyyu), 

II.  History  before  the  Schism.— ^he  decrees  of 
the  Fourth  General  Council  (Chalcedon,  451)  were 
unpopular  in  Syria  and  still  more  in  Egypt.    Mono- 

ghysism  began  as  an  exaggeration  of  the  teaching  of 
t.  Cyril  of  Alexandria  (d.  444"),  the  Egyptian  national 
hero,  against  Nestorius.  In  tne  Council  of  Chalcedon 
the  Egyptians  and  their  friends  in  Sjrria  saw  a  betrayal 
of  Cynl,  a  concession  to  Nestoiianism.  Still  more  did 
national,  anti-imperial  feeling  cause  opposition  to  it. 
The  Emperor  Marcian  (450-457)  made  the  Faith  of 
Chalcedon  the  law  of  the  empire.  Laws  passed  on  27 
February  and  again  on  13  March,  452,  enforced  the 
decrees  of  the  council  and  threatened  heavy  penalties 
against  dissenters.  From  that  time  Dyophysism  was 
the  religion  of  the  court,  identified  with  loyalty  to  the 
emperor.  In  spite  of  the  compromising  concessions  of 
later  emperors,  the  Faith  of  Chalce^^n  was  always 
looked  upon  as  the  religion  of  the  state,  demanded  and 
enforced  on  all  subjects  of  Ceesar.    So  the  long-smoul- 


aBLCHITIS  158 

dering  disloyaltv  of  these  two  provinces  broke  out  in  sent  out  ham  Constantinople  who  spoke  Greeks    For 

the  fonn  of  rebellion  against  Chaloedon.    For  cen*  a  long  time  the  history  of  these  countries  is  that  of  a 

turies  (till  the  Arab  conquest)  Monophysism  was  the  continual  feud  between  Melchites  and  Monophvsites; 

symbol  of  national  Egyptian  and  Syrian  patriotism,  sometimes  the  government  vs  strong,  the  heretics  are 

The  root  of  the  matter  was  always  political.    The  persecuted,  the  patriarchate  is  occupied  by  a  Melchite; 

people  of  Egypt  and  Syria,  keeping  their  own  Ian-  then  again  the  people  get  the  upper  hand,  drive  out 

guages  and  tbeu*  consciousness  of  bein^  separate  races,  the  Melchite  bishops,  set  up  Monopojrsites  in  their  place 

had  never  been  really  amalgamated  with  the  Empire,  and  murder  the  Greeks.    By  tne  time  of  the  Arab 

orisinally  LAtin,  now  fast  becoming  Greek.    They  conquest  the  two  Churches  exist  as  rivab  with  rival 

had  no  chance  of  political  independence,  their  hatred  lines  of  bishops.     But  the  Monophysites  are  much 

of  Rome  found  a  vent  in  this  theological  question,  the  larger  party,  especially  in  Egypt,  and  form  the 

The  cry  of  the  faith  of  Cyril,  "  one  nature  in  Christ, "  nationsQ  religion  of  the  country.    The  difference  by 

no  betrayal  of  Ephesus,  meant  really  no  submission  to  now  expresses  itself  to  a  great  extent  in  lituigiciu 

the  foreign  tyrant  on  the  Bosphorus.    So  the  great  kmguage.     Both  parties  used  the  same  lituigies  (St. 

majority  of  the  population  in  these  lands  turned  Mark  in  E^rpt,  St.  James  in  Syria  and  Palestme),  but 

Monophysite,  rose  in  continual  rebellion  against  the  while  the  xdonoph^rsites  made  a  point  of  using  the 

creed  of  the  Empire,  committed  sava^  atrocities  national  language  m  church  (Coptic  and  Syriac),  the 

against  the  Chalcedonian  bishops  and  omciaLs,  and  in  Melchites  generally  used  Greek.    It  seems,  however, 

return  were  fiercely  persecuted.  that  this  was  less  the  case  than  has  been  thought;  the 

The  beginning  of  these  troubles  in  Egypt  was  the  Melchites,  too.  used  the  vulgar  tongue  to  a  consider- 

deposition  of  the  Monophysite  Patriarch  Dioscur,  and  able  extent  (Charon,  **  Le  Rite  byzantin",  26-29). 

the  election  by  the  government  party  of  Proterius  as  When  the  Arabs  came  in  the  seventh  century,  the 

his  successor,  immediately  after  the  coimcil.    The  Monophysites,    true   to   their  anti-imperial   policy, 

people,  especially  the  lower  classes  and  the  great  rather  helped  than  hindered  the  invaders.    But  they 

crowd  of  Egyptian  monks,  refused  to  acknowledge  gained  little  by  their  treason :  both  churches  received 

Proterius,  and  began  to  make  tumults  and  riots  that  the  usual  terms  granted  to  Christians;  they  became 

2000  soldiers  sent  from  Constantinople  could  hardly  two  sects  of  Rayas  under  the  Moslem  Khalifa,  both 

put  down.    When  Dioscur  died  in  454  a  certain  were  equally  persecuted  durins  the  repeated  outbursts 

Timothy,  called  the  Cat  or  Weasel  (of Xovpot),  was  or-  of  Moslem  fanaticism,  of  which  the  reign  of  Al-H&kim 

dained  by  the  Monophysites  as  his  successor.    In  457  in  Egypt  (996-1021)  is  the  best  known  instance.    In 

Proterius  was  murdered;  Timothy  drove  out  the  the  tenth  century  part  of  Syria  was  conquered  back  by 

Chalcedonian  cleigy  and  so  beean  tne  oiganized  Cop-  the  empire  (Antioch  reconquered  in  968-969,  lost  again 

tic  (Monophysite)  Church  of  Egypt.    In  Syria  and  to  the  Seljuk  Turks  in  1078-1081).    This  caused  for  a 

Palestine  there  was  the  same  opposition  to  the  council  time  a  revival  of  the  Melchites  and  an  increase  of 

and  the  government.    The  people  and  monks  drove  enthusiasm  for  Constantinople  and  everything  Greek 

out  the  Orthodox  Patriarch  of  Antioch,  Martyrius,  among  them.    Under  the  Moslems  the  characteristic 

and  set  up  one  Peter  the  Dyer  {ypo^edt,  ftUlo),  a  Mono-  notes  of  both  churches  became,  if  possible,  stron^r. 

physite,  as  his  successor.    Juvenal  of  Jerusalem,  once  The  Monophysites  (Copts  and  Jacobites)  sank  mto 

a  friend  of  Dioscur,  gave  up  his  heresy  at  Chalcedon.  isolated  local  sects.    On  the  other  hand,  the  Melchite 

When  he  came  back  to  his  new  patriarchate  he  found  minorities  clun^  all  the  more  to  their  imion  with  the 

the  whole  country  in  rebellion  ajgainst  him.    He  too  great  church  that  reigned  free  and  dominant  in  the 

was  driven  out  and  a  Monophysite  monk  Theodosius  empire.    This  expressed  itself  chiefly  in  loyalty  to 

was  set  up  in  his  place.    So  be^an  the  Monophysite  Constantinople.    Home  and  the  West  were  far  off;  the 

national  churches  of  these  provmces.    Their  opposi-  immediate  object  of  their  devotion  was  the  emperor's 

tion  to  the  court  and  rebellion  lasted  two  centuries,  till  court  and  the  emperor's  patriarch.    The  Melchite 

the  Arab  conquest  (Syria,  637:  Egypt,  641).    During  patriarchs  under  Moslem  rule  became  insignificant 

this  time  the  government,  realizing  the  danger  of  the  people,  while  the  power  of  the  Patriarch  of  Constanti- 

disaffection  of  the  frontier  provinces,  alternated  fierce  nople  ^rew  steadily.    So,  looking  always  to  the  capital 

persecution  of  the  heretics  with  vain  attempts  to  con-  for  guidance,  thev  gradually  accepted  the  position  of 

ciliate  them  by  compromises  (Zeno's  Henotikon  in  being  his  dependents,  almost  sunrasans.    When  the 

482,  the  Acacian  Schism,  484-519,  etc.).    It  should  be  Bishop  of  Constantinople  assumed  the  title  of  **  (Ecu- 

raized  that  Egypt  was  much  more  consistently  menical  Patriarch"  it  was  not  his  Melchite  brothers 

Monophysite  than  Syria  or  Palestine.    Egypt  was  who  protested.    This  attitude  explains  their  share  in 

much  closer  knit  as  one  land  than  the  other  provinces,  his  schism.    The  quarrels  between  Photius  and  P(>pe 

and  so  stood  more  imiformly  on  the  side  of  the  na-  Nicholas  I,  between  Michael  Cerularius  and  Leo  iX 

tional  party.     (For  all  this  see  Monophtbibm.)  were  not  their  affair;  they  hardly  imderstood  what 

Meanwhile  against  the  nationidist  party  stood  the  was  happening.     But  naturally,  almost  inevitably, 

minority  on  the  side  of  the  government  and  the  coim-  when  the  schism  broke  out,  in  spite  of  some  protests 

cil.    These  are  the  Melchites.    Why  they  were  so-  [Peter  III  of  Antioch  (1053-1076?)  protested  vehe- 

called  is  obvious:  they  were  the  loyal  Imperialists,  the  mently  against  Cerularius's  schism;    see  Fortescue, 

emperor's  party.   The  name  occurs  first  in  a  pure  "Orthodox.  Extern  Church",  189-192],  the  Melchites 

Greek  form  as  ficffiXucSs.    Evagrius  says  of  Timothy  followed  their  leader,  and  when  orders  came  from 

Sakophakiolos  (the  Orthodox  Patriarch  of  Alexandria  Constantinople  to  strike  the  pope's  name  from  theix 

set  up  by  the  government  when  Timothy  the  Cat  was  diptychs  they  quietly  obeyed, 

driven  out  in  460)  that "  some  called  him  the  Imperial-  III.  From  the  Schism  to  the  Beginning  of  tob 

1st  (Sp  oI  m^p  iKd\ovp  fiaei)uK6p) "  (H.  E.,  II,  11).    These  Union.— So  all  the  Melchites  in  Syria,  Palestine,  and 

Melchites  were  naturally  for  the  most  part  the  govern-  I^gypt  broke  with  Rome  and  went  into  schisia  at  the 

ment  officials,  in  Egypt  ahnost  entirely  so,  while  in  command  of  Constantinople.    Here,  too,  they  justified 

Syria  and  Palestine  a  certain  part  of  the  native  popu-  their  name  of  Imperialist.    From  this  time  to  almost 

lation  was  Melchite  too.    Small  in  numbers,  they  were  our  own  day  there  is  little  to  chronicle  of  their  history, 

until  the  Arab  conouest  strong  through  the  support  of  They  existed  as  a  "  nation  "  (millet)  under  the  Khalifa; 

the  government  ana  the  army.    The  contrast  between  when  the  Turks  took  Constantinople  (1453)  they  made 

Monophysites  and  Melchites  (Nationalists  and  Im-  the  patriarch  of  that  citv  head  of  tills  "  nation"  (Rum 

perialists)   was  expressed   in  their  language.    The  ntt/Zef,  i.  e.,  the  Orthodox  Church)  for  civil  affairs. 

Monophysites  spoke  the  national  language  of  the  Other  bishops,  or  even  patriarchs,  oould  only  approach 

country  (Coptic  in  Egypt,  Syriac  in  Syria  and  Pales-  the  government  through  him.    This  further  increased 

tiae),  Melchites  for  tne  most  part  were  foreignere  hia  authority  and  influence  over  all  the  Orthodox  id 


BBLCHZTBS  159  MSLCHITB8 

the  Turkish  Empire.    During  the  dark  ages  that  fol-  they  have  now  succeeded  in  the  recognition  of  their 

low,  the  (Ecumenical  Patriarch  continually  strove  native  Patriarch,  Gregoiy  IV  (Hadad)  after  a  schism 

(and  generally  managed)  to  assert  ecclesiastical  juris-  with  Constantinople.    The  troubles  caused  by  th< 

diction  over  the  MeTchites  (Orth.  Eastern  Ch.,  240,  same  movement  at  Jerusalem  are  still  fresh  in  every- 

285-289,  310,  etc.).    Bieanwhile  the  three  patriarchs  one's  mind.    It  is  certain  that  as  soon  as  the  present 

(of  Alexandria,  Antioch,  and  Jerusalem),  finding  little  Greek  patriarchs  of  Jerusalem  (Damianos  V)  and 

to  do  among  their  diminished  flocks,  for  long  periods  Alexanoria  (Photios)  die,  there  "mil  be  a  determined 

came  to  live  at  (Constantinople,  idle  ornaments  of  the  effort  to  appoint  natives  as  their  successors.     But 

Phanar.   The  lists  of  these  patriarchs  will  be  found  in  these  quarrels  affect  the  modem  Orthodox  of  these 

Le  Quien  (loc.  cit.  below).   Gradually  all  the  people  of  lands  who  do  not  come  within  the  limit  of  this  article, 

lEgyjpt,  Syria,  and  Palestine  since  the  Arab  conquest  inasmuch  as  they  are  no  longer  Melchites. 
forgot  their  original  lansua^es  and  spoke  only  Arabic,        IV.  Uniatbs. — ^We  have  said  that  in  modem  times 

as  they  do  still.    This  mrther  affected  their  lituigies.  since  the  foimdation  of  Unlate  Byzantine  churches  in 

little  by  little  Arabic  began  to  be  used  in  church.  Ssrria,  Palestine,  and  Eg^t,  only  these  Uniates  should 

Since  the  seventeenth  century  at  the  latest,  the  native  be  called  Melchites.    Why  the  old  name  is  now  re* 

Orthodox  of  Uiese  countries  use  Arabic  for  all  services,  served  for  them  it  is  impossible  to  say.  It  is,  however, 

thougji  the  great  number  of  Greeks  among  them  keep  a  fact  that  it  is  so.    One  still  occasionally  in  a  western 

their  own  language.  book  finds  all  CJhristians  of  the  Byzantine  Rite  in  these 

But  already  a  much  more  important  change  in  the  countries  called  Melchites,  with  a  further  distinction  be- 

lituigy  of  the  Melchites  had  taken  place.    We  have  tween  (Catholic  and  Orthodox  Melchites;  but  the  present 

seen  that  the  most  characteristic  note  of  these  com-  writer's  experience  is  that  this  is  never  the  case  among 

munities  was  their  dependence  on  Constantinople,  themselves.   The  man  in  union  with  the  great  Ekistem 

That  was  the  difference  between  them  and  their  old  (}hurch  in  those  narts  never  now  calls  hinauKlf  or  aUows 

rivals  the  Monophjrsites,  long  after  the  quarrel  about  himself  to  be  called  a  Melchite.   He  is  simply  **  Ortho- 

the  nature  of  CJnnst  had  practically  been  forgotten,  dox"  in  Greek  or  any  Western  language,  Ruml  in 

Tlie  Idbnophvsites.  isolated  from,  the  rest  of  C3iristen-  Arabic.    Everyone  there  imderstands  by  Melchite  a 

dom,  kept  the  ola  rites  of  Alexandria  and  Antioch-  Uniate.    It  is  true  that  even  for  them  the  word  is  not 

Jerusalem  pure.    Thev  still  use  these  rites  in  the  old  very  commonly  used.    Thev  are  more  likely  to  speak 

languages  $[}optic  and.  Syriac).   The  Melchites  on  the  of  themselves  as  rOml  kUtkuWcl  or  in  French  Grec8 

other  hand  suomitted  to  Byzantine  influence  in  their  catholiquea;   but  the  name  Melchite,  if  used  at  all, 

fiturgies.    Tlie  Byzantine  litanies  {Sf^naptai),  the  ser-  always  means  to  Eastern  people  these  Unlates.    It  is 

vice  of  the  Ptoskomide  and  other  elements  were  intro-  convenient  for  us  too  to  have  a  definite  name  for  them 

duoed  into  the  Greek  Alexandrine  Rite  before  the  less  entirely  wrong  than  "Greek  Catholic" — ^f or  they 

twelfth  or  thirteenth  centuries;  so  also  in  Syria  and  are  Greeks  in  no  sense 'at  all.    A  question  that  has 

Palestine  the  Melchites  admitted  a  niunber  of  Byzan-  often  been  raised  is  whether  there  is  any  continidl^  of 

tine  elements  into  their  services  (Charon,  op.  cit.,  9-25) .  these  Byzantine  Uniates  since  before  the  great  schism, 

Then  in  the  thirteenth  century  came  the  final  whether  there  are  any  communities  that  have  never 

change.    The  Melchites  gave  up  their  old  rites  alto-  Idst  communion  with  Rome.    There  are  such  com- 

gether  and  adopted  that  of  (Constantinople.   Theodore  munities  certainly  in  the  south  of  Italy,  Sicily,  and 

iV  (Balsamon)  of  Antioch  (1185-1214?)  marks  the  Corsica.    In  the  case  of  the  Melchite  lands  there  are 

date  of  this  change.   The  crusaders  held  Antioch  in  his  none.    It  is  true  that  there  have  been  approaches  to 

time,  so  he  retired  to  Constantinople  and  lived  there  reunion  continually  since  the  eleventh  century,  indi- 

under  the  shadow  of  the  (Ecumenical  Patriarch,  vidual  bishops  have  made  their  submission  at  various 

Wliiie  he  was  there  he  adopted  the  Byzantine  Rite,  times,  the  uiort-lived  unions  of  Lyons  (1274)  and 

In  1203  Mark  II  of  Alexandria  (1195-c.  1210)  wrote  to  Florence  (1439)  included  the  Orthodox  of  these  coun- 

Theodore  asking  various  cjuestions  about  the  liturgy,  tries  too.    But  there  is  no  continuous  line;  when  the 

Tlieodore  in  his  answer  insists  on  the  use  of  Constanti-  union  of  Florence  was  broken  all  the  Byzantine  C]!hris- 

nople  as  the  only  right  one  for  all  the  Orthodox,  and  tians  in  the  Eaist  fell  away.    The  present  Melchite 

Msrk  undertook  to  adopt  it  (P.  G.,  CXXXYIII,  953  Church  dates  from  the  eighteenth  century, 
sq.).    When  Theodosius  IV  of  Antioch  (1269-1276)        Already  in  the  seventeenth  century  tentative  efforts 

was  able  to  set  up  his  throne  again  in  his  own  city  he  at  reunion  were  made  by  some  of  the  Orthodox  bish- 

imposed  the  Byzantine  Rite  on  all  his  clergy.   At  Jem-  ops  of  S3aia.    A  certain  Euthymius,  Metn^litan  of 

galem  the  old  liturry  disappeared  at  about  the  same  lyre  and  Sidon,  then  the  Antiochene  Patriarchs 

time  (Charon,  op.  St.,  11-12,  21,  23).  Athanasius  IV  (1700-1728)  and  the  famous  Cyril  of 

We  have  then  for  the  liturgies  of  the  Melchites  these  Berrhoea  (d.  1724,  the  rival  of  Cyril  Lukaris  of  Con- 
periods:  first  the  old  national  rites  in  Greek,  but  also  stantinople,  who  for  a  time  was  rival  Patriarch  of 
in  the  languages  of  the  country,  especially  in  Syna  and  Antioch;  approached  the  Holy  See  and  hoped  to  re- 
Palestine,  jnradually  Byzantinized  till  the  thirteenth  ceive  the  pNEtUium.  But  the  professions  of  faith  which 
century.  Tben  the  Byzantine  Rite  alone  in  Greek  in  they  submitted  were  considered  insufficient  at  Rome. 
E^pt,  in  Greek  and  Syriac  in  S3rria  and  Palestine,  The  latinizing  tendency  in  Syria  was  so  well  known 
with  fladually  increasing  use  of  Arabic  to  the  six-  that  in  1722  a  synod  was  held  at  Constantinople  which 
teenth  or  seventeenth  century.  Lastly  the  same  rite  drew  up  and  sent  to  the  Antiochene  bishops  a  warning 
in  Arabic  only  by  the  natives,  in  GreeK  by  the  foreign  letter  with  a  list  of  Latin  heresies  (in  Assemani,  **  Bibl. 
(Greek)  patriarcns  and  bishops.  Orient.",  Ill,  639).  However,  in  1724  Seraphim  Tanas, 

The  uat  development  we  notice  is  the  steady  in-  who  had  studied  at  the  Roman  Propaganda,  was 

crease  of  this  foreign  (Greek)  element  in  all  the  higher  elected  Patriarch  of  Antioch  by  the  latinizine  party, 

places  of  the  clergy.    As  the  Phanar  at  Constantinople  He  at  once  made  his  submission  to  Rome  and  sent  a 

ffrew  more  and  more  powerful  over  the  Melchites,  so  Catholic  profession  of  faith.    He  took  the  name  Cyril 

did  it  more  and  more,  m  ruthless  defiance  of  the  feeling  (Cyril  VI,  1724-1759) ;  with  him  begins  the  line  of 

of  the  people,  send  them  Greek  patriarchs,  metropoli-  Melchite  patriarchs  in  the  new  sense  (Uniates).    In 

tans,  and  arohimandrites  from  its  own  body.    For  1728  the  schismatics  elected  Sylvester,  a  Greek  monk 

centuries  the  lower  married  clerey  and  simple  monks  from  Athos.    He  was  recognized  by  the  Phanar  and 

have  been  natives,  speaking  Arabic  and  using  Arabic  the  other  Orthodox  churches :  through  him  the  Ortho- 

In  the  liturgy,  while  all  the  prelates  have  been  Greeks,  dox  line  continues.    C^jrril  VI  suffered  considerable 

who  often  do  not  even  Imow  the  language  of  the  coun-  persecution  from  the  Orthodox^  and  for  a  time  had  to 

try.    At  last,  in  our  own  time,  the  native  Orthodox  flee  to  the  Lebanon.    He  received  the  pallium  from 

have  rebelled  against  this  state  of  things.   AtAntioch  fieBadict  XIV  in  1744.   In  1760,  weariea  by  the  oon* 


BBLCHITE8  160  1BLCHITE8 

tinual  struggle  against  the  Orthodox  majority,  he  were  gradually  composed  and  the  old  patriarch  died  in 

e resided  his  office.    Ignatius  Jauhar  was  appointed  by  peace  in  1855.    He  is  the  most  famous  of  the  line  of 

Cym  to  succeed  him,  but  the  appointment  was  re-  Melchite  patriarchs.    He  was  succeeded  by  Clement  I 

bed  at  Rome  and  Clement  XIII  appointed  Maximus  (Bahus,  1856-1864),  Gregory  II  (Yussef,  1865-1897), 

kim.  Metropolitan  of  Baalbek,  as  patriarch  (Maxi-  Peter  IV  (Jeraljiri,  1897-1902),  and  Cyril  VIII  (Jeha, 

mus  II,  1760-1761).     Athanasius  Dahan  of  Beirut  the   reigning  patriarch,  who  was  elected  27  June, 

succeeded  bv  regular  election  and  confirmation  after  1903,  confirmed  at  once  by  tel^;ram  from  Rome,  en- 

Maximus's  death  and  became  Theodosius  VI  ^1761-  throned  in  the  patriarchal  church  at  Damascus,  8 

1788).    But  in  1764  Ignatius  Jauhar  succeeded  in  August,  1903). 

beinff  re-elected  patriarch.    The  pope  excommuni-        V.  Constitution  or  the  Melchite  Chubch. — ^The 

catea  him,  and  persuaded  the  Turkisn  authorities  to  head  of  the  Melchite  Churcii,  under  the  supreme  au- 

drive  him  out.    In  1773  Clement  XIV  imited  the  few  thorit;^  of  the  pope,  is  the  patriarch.    His  title   is 

scattered  Melchites  of  Alexandria  and  Jerusalem  to  ^'PatriarchofAntioch,  Alexandria,  Jerusalem,  and  all 

the  jurisdiction  of  the  Melchite  patriarch  of  Antioch.  the  East ".   **  Antioch  and  all  the  East "  is  the  old  title 

When  Theodosius  VI  died,  Ignatius  Jauhar  was  again  used  by  all  patriarchs  of  Antioch.    It  is  less  arrogant 

elected,  this  time  lawfully,  and  took  the  name  Atha-  than  it  sounds ;  the  "  East  '*  means  the  ori|glnal  Roman 

nasius  V  (1788-1794).  Prefecture  of  the  East  (PrcBfectura  OrierUis)  which  cor- 

Then  followed  Cyril  VII  (Siage,  1794-1796),  Aga-  responded  exactly  to  tne  patriarchate  before  the  rise 

gius  III  (Matar,  formerly  Metropolitan  of  T^re  and  of  Constantinople  (Fortescue,''Orth.  Eastern  Church  ", 

idon,  patriarch  1796-1812).    During  his  time  there  21).    Alexandria  and  Jerusalem  were  added  to  the 

was  a  movement  of  Josephinism  and  Jansenism  in  the  titie  under  Maximus  III.    It  should  be  noted  that 

sense  of  the  synod  of  Pistoia  (1786)  among  the  Mel-  these  come  after  Antioch,  although  normally  Alexan- 

chites,  led  by  Uermanus  Adam,  Metropolitan  of  Baal-  dria  has  precedence  over  it.   This  is  because  the  patri- 

bek.    This  movement  for  a  time  invaded  nearly  all  arch  is  fundamentally  of  Antioch  only;  he  traces  his 

the  Melchite  Church.     In  1806  they  held  a  s}rndd  at  succession  through  Cyril  VI  to  the  old  line  of  Antioch. 

^rqafe  which  approved  many  of  the  Pistoian  de-  He  is  in  some  sort  only  the  administrator  of  Alex- 

crees.    The  acts  of  the  synod  were  published  without  andria  and  Jerusalem  until  the  number  of  Melchites  in 

authority  from  Rome  in  Arabic  in  1810:  in  1835  they  Egypt  and  Palestine  shall  justify  the  erection   of 

were  censured  at  Rome.    Pius  VII  had  already  con-  separate  patriarchates  for  them.    Meanwhile  he  rules 

demned  a  catechism  and  other  works  written  by  equally  over  his  nation  in  the  three  provinces.   There 

Germanus  of  Baalbek.    Amon^  his  errors  was  the  is  also  a  grander  title  used  in  Polychronia  and  for 

Orthodox  theory  that  consecration  is  not  effected  by  specially  solemn  occasions  in  which  he  is  acclaimed  as 

the  words  of  institution  in  the  lituigy.    Eventually  "Father  of  Fathers,  Shepherd  of  Shepherds.  High 

the  patriarch  (Agapius)  and  the  other  Melchite  bish-  Priest  of  Hi^h  Priests  and  Thirteenth  Apostle  . 
ops  were  persuaoea  to  renounce  these  ideas.    In  1812        The  patriarch  is  elected  by  the  bisnops,  and  is 

another  svnod  established  a  seminary  at ' Ain-Traz  for  nearly  aJways  chosen  from  their  number.  Tne  election 

the  Melcnite  "nation''.    The  next  patriarchs  were  is  submitted  to  the  Conurbation  for  Eastern  Rites 

Ignatius  FV  (Sarruf,  Feb.-Nov.,   1812,  murdered),  joined  to  Propaganda;  if  it  is  canonical  the  patriarch- 

Athanasius  VI  (Matar,  1813),  Macarius  FV  (TawU,  elect  sends  a  profession  of  faith  and  a  petition  for  con- 

1813-1815),  Ignatius  V  (Qattan,  1816-1833).    He  fijmaation  ana  for  the  pallium  to  the  pope.    He  must 

was  followed  by  the  famous  Maximus  III  (Mazlum.  also  take  an  oath  of  obedience  to  the  pope.    If  the 

1833-1855).    His  former  name  was  Michael.    He  had  election  is  invalid,  nomination  devolves  on  the  pope, 

been  infected  with  the  ideas  of  Gennanus  of  Baalbek,  The  patriarch  may  not  resi^  without  the  pope's  con- 

and  had  been  elected  Metropolitan  of  Aleppo,  but  his  sent.   He  must  make  his  visit  ad  liminat  personally  or 

election  had  not  been  confirmed  at  Rome.    Then  he  by  deputy,  every  ten  years.    The  patriarch  has  ordi- 

renounced  these  ideas  and  became  titular  MetropoU-  nary  jurisaiction  over  all  his  church.    He  confirms  the 

tan  of  Myra,  and  procurator  of  his  patriarch  at  Rome,  election  of  and  consecrates  all  bishops ;  he  can  translate 

Durine  this  time  he  founded  the  Melchite  church  at  or  depose  them,  according  to  the  canons.    He  founds 

Marseules  (St.  Nicholas),  and  took  steps  at  the  courts  parisnes  and  (with  consent  of  Rome)  dioceses,  and  has 

of  Vienna  and  Paris  to  protect  the  Melcnites  from  their  considerable  rights  of  the  nature  of  dispensation  from 

Orthodox  rivals.  fasting  and  so  on.    The  patriarch  resides  at  the  house 

Hitherto  the  Turkish  government  had  not  recog-  next  to  the  patriarchal  cnurch  at  Damascus  (near  the 

nized  the  Uniates  as  a  separate  millet;  so  all  their  Eastern  Gate).    He  has  also  residences  at  Alexandria 

communications  with  the  State,  the  herat  given  to  and  Jerusalem,  where  he  spends  at  least  some  weeks 

their  bishops  and  so  on,  had  to  be  made  through  the  each  year;  he  is  often  at  the  seminary  at  'Ain-Tras, 

Orthodox.   They  were  still  officially,  in  the  eyes  of  the  not  far  from  Beirut,  in  the  Lebanon, 
law,  membersof  the  rum  mt^et,  that  is  of  the  Orthodox        The  bishops  are  chosen  according  to  the  bull 

community  under  the  Patriarch  of  Constantinople.  ''Reversurus  ,  12  July,  1867.    All  the  other  bishops 

This  naturalljr  gave  the  Orthodox  endless  opportuni-  in  synod  with  the  patriarch  choose  three  names,  of 

ties  of  annoying  them,  which  were  not  lost.    In  1831  which  the  pope  selects  one.    All  bishops  must  be  celi- 

Mazlum  went  L^k  to  Syria,  in  1833  after  the  death  of  bate,  but  they  are  by  no  means  necessarily  monks. 

Ignatius  V  he  was  elected  patriarch,  and  was  con-  Priests  who  are  not  monks  may  keep  wives  married 

firmed  at  Rome  after  many  difficulties  in  1836.    His  before  ordination,  but  as  in  all  uniate  churches  celi- 

reign  was  full  of  disputes.    In  1835  he  held  a  national  bacy  is  very  common,  and  the  married  cleig^  are 

synod  at  *  Ain-Traz,  which  laid  down  twenty-five  looked  upon  rather  askance.    There  are  seminaries  at 

canons  for  the  regulation  of  the  affairs  of  the  Melchite  'Ain-Traz,  Jerusalem  (the  College  of  St.  Ann  under 

Church;  the  synod  was  approved  at  Rome  and  is  pub-  Cardinal   Lavigerie's  White  Fathers),   Beirut,   etc. 

lished  in  the  Collectio  Lacensis  (II,  579-592).   During  Many  students  go  to  the  Jesuits  at  Beirut,  the  Greek 

his  reign  at  last  the  Melchites  obtained  recognition  as  College  at  Rome,  or  St.  Sulpice  at  Paris.   The  monks 

a  separate  millet  from  the  Porte.    Maximus  III  ob-  follow  the  Rule  of  St.  Basil.    They  are  divided  into 

tained  from  Rome  for  himself  and  his  successors  the  two  great  congregations,  that  of  St.  John  the  Baptist 

additional  titles  of  Alexandria  and  Jerusalem,  which  at  Shuweir  in  the  Lebanon  and  that  of  St.  Saviour, 

sees  his  predecessors  had  administered  since  Theodo-  near  Sidon.     Both  have  numerous  daughter-houses, 

sius  VI.    In  1S49  he  held  a  synod  at  Jerusalem  in  The  Shuweirites  have  a  further  distinction^  i.  e.  be- 

which  he  renewed  many  of  the  errors  of  Germanus  tween  those  of  Aleppo  and  the  Baladites.    There  are 

Adam.    Thus  he  got  into  new  difficulties  with  Rome  also  convents  of  Basilian  nuns, 
as  well  as  with  his  own  people.    But  these  difficulties        Practically  all  Melchites  are  natives  of  the  country, 


MELCmZEDECX 


161 


MELETIUS 


Arabs  in  tongue.  Their  rite  is  that  of  Constantinople, 
ahnost  alwavs  celebrated  in  Arabic  with,  a  few  versi- 
cles  and  exclamations  {rpd^x^M''^  awpUi  dpOol^  etc.)  in 
Greek.  But  on  certain  solemn  occasions  the  liturgy  is 
celebrated  entirely  ia  Greek*. 

The  sees  of  the  |>atriarchate  are:  the  patriarchate 
itself,  to  which  is  joined  Damascus,  administered  by  a 
vicar;  then  two  metropolitan  dioceses,  Tyre  and 
Aleppo;  two  archdioceses,  Bosra  with  Hauran,  and 
Horns  with  Hama;  seven  bishoprics,  Sidon,  Beirut 
(with  Jebail),  Tripolis,  Acre,  Furzul  (with  Zahle),  and 
the  Beqaa,  Paneas,  and  Baalbek.  The  patriarchates 
6i  JeruaEdem  and  Alexandria  are  administered  for  the 
patriarch  by  vicars.  The  total  niunber  of  Melchites  is 
estimated  at  130,000  (Silbemagl)  or  114,080  (Wer- 
ner). 

For  the  origin  and  history  see  any  history  of  the  Monophsrsite 
hexesy.  Nbaub,  Hiatory  of  the  Holy  Ecutem  Church  (London, 
1847-1850),  IV  and  V:  The  PatnarOtate  o/ Alexandria— supple- 
mentaiy  Tolume:  The  Patriarchate  of  Aniiocht  ed.  Williams 
(Loodoa,  1873);  Cbabon,  Hietoire  dee  Patriarcate  MeUcitee 
(Rome,  m  couxse  of  publication),  a  most  valuable  work;  Rab- 
BATB,  DoeumetUe  inUdUe  pour  eervir  h  I  *h%atoire  du  Chrietumieme 
m  Orient  (3  vols.,  Paris,  1907):  Lb  Quibn,  Oriens  Chrietianua 
(Paris,  1740).  II.  385-512  (Alezandrine  Patriarchs),  699-730 
(Antioeh),  III,  137-^27  (Jerusalem). 

For  the  present  constitution:  Silbbrnagl,  Verfaeeuna  u. 
gefftnwarliffer  Bealand  e&mtlicher  Kirchen  dee  Oriente  (Ratisbon, 
1004),  334-341 ;  Wbrnbr,  Orbie  Terrarum  Caiholicue  (Freiburg, 
ISOO),  151-155;  Bchoe  d* Orient  (Paris,  since  1897),  articles  by 
Cbabon  and  others;  KAhlbr,  Die  K.atholiachen  Kirehen  dee 
Margtnkmdee  (Darmstadt,  1896),  124-128;  Charon,  Le  Rite 
"%  done  lee  Patriarcate  MelkUee  iextrait  dee  Chryeoetomika) 

^»M^  1908) ;  Rbbouhs,  TraitS  de  PeaUigue,  ThSorie  et  Pratique 

Ckemt  done  VBgliee  Grecque  (Paris,  1906). 

A.  Fortebcue. 

Malcliiiedeck.    See  Melghisedech. 

MalAndM  Vald68.  Juan,  Spanish  i>oet  and  politi- 
cian, b.  at  Ribera  del  Fresno  (Badajoz)  11  March, 
1754;  d.  in  exile  at  Montpellier,  France,  24  May,  1817. 
He  studied  law  at  Salamanca  and  while  there,  began 
his  poetical  career.  In  1780,  with  his  "Batilo",  he 
won  a  prise  offered  by  the  Spanish  Academy  for  the 
best  eclogue  on  the  pleasiues  of  life  in  the  country.  In 
1781  he  went  to  Madrid  where  he  made  the  acquaint- 
ance of  the  minister  and  auUior,  Jovellanos,  whose  fa- 
vour he  enjoyed,  and  who  had  him  appointed  to  a 
chair  in  the  University  ot  Salamanca.  In  1784  MeMn- 
dea  was  one  of  over  mty  competitors  for  a  prise  offered 
bry  the  city  of  Bladrid  for  the  best  dramatic  composi- 
tion* His  comedy.  "Las  bodas  de  Camacho  el  nco" 
founded  on  the  famous  story  of  Cervantes,  was 
awarded  the  prise  and  presented,  but,  as  a  stage  pro- 
duction, it  was  not  successfuL  This  failure  gave  his 
detractors  opportunity  for  much  unfavourable  criti- 
cism. Mel^ndes  answered  by  publishing  in  1785  the 
finBt  volume  of  his  poems  which  met  with  such  success 
that  it  Quickly  ran  through  several  editions  and  firmly 
establisned  his  literary  reputation.  He  now  entered 
upon  a  political  career  wnich  was  to  prove  his  ruin. 
Tnrough  the  favour  of  his  friend  Jovellanos,  he  ob- 
tained the  posts  successively  of  judge  of  the  court  of 
Saragoflsa  in  1789,  judicial  chancellor  at  Valladolid  in 
1791,  and  fiscal  ot  the  supreme  court  in  Madrid  in 
1797.  On  the  fall  of  Jovellanos,  Mel^ndes  was  or- 
dered to  leave  lAadrid,  and  after  brief  stays  in  Medina 
del  Campo  and  Zamora,  he  finally  established  his  resi- 
dence at  Salamanca.  After  the  revolution  of  1808, 
Mel^ndes  accepted  from  the  government  of  Joseph 
Bonapwrte  the  post  of  councillor  of  state,  and  late 
tiiat  of  minister  of  public  instruction.  This  lack  of 
patriotism  naturally  involved  him  in  trouble  with  his 
countrymen,  so  that  when  the  Spaniards  returned  to 

e)wer  in  1813,  he  was  compelled  to  flee  to  France, 
ere  he  paned  four  years  amid  misery  and  misfor- 
tune^  ana  died  at  Montpellier  poor  and  neglected  in 
his  SDcty^ourth  year. 

Iliougfa  Mel^ndes  cannot  be  considered  a  great  poet, 
he  was  not  lacking  in  talent.  His  poems  are  charac- 
terised by  delicacy  of  expression  and  grace,  rather 
than  by  vigour  and  great  flights  of  fancy.    He  shows  to 

X.— 11 


best  advantage  in  his  eclogues  and  romances,  which  art 
distinguisheafor  their  easy  flow  and  facility.  In  spite 
of  the  fact  that  he  is  but  little  read  to-day,  he  undenia* 
bly  exercised  some  influence  in  the  llteraiy  restoration 
diuing  the  reign  of  Charles  III,  and  has  sometimes 
been  called  by  admiring  Spaniards  "  Hestaurador 
del  Pamaso"  (Restorer  of  Parnassus).  Besides  the 
works  already  mentioned,  Mel^ndez  wrote  a  lyric 
poem  on  the  creation,  an  epic  entitled  "La  Caida  de 
Luzbel'',  an  ode  to  Winter,  and  a  translation  of  the 
^neid.  Complete  editions  of  the  poems  of  Mel^n- 
dez,  with  a  life  of  the  author  by  Quintana,  were  pub- 
lished in  Madrid  in  1820  (4  volumes),  and  in  Barce- 
lona in  1838.  "  La  Biblioteca  de  Autores  Espanoles  " 
(LXIII)  reproduces  the  poems. 

Quintana,  Notice  eur  la  vie  de  MiUndes  VaUUe  (prefixed  to 
the  edition  of  the  poet's  works  published  at  Madrid«  1820); 
PoSMiae  iniditae  in  Revue  hiepanique  (Paris,  1894-07). 

Ventuaa  Fuentbs. 

Metotian  Schism.  See  Meletius  of  Antioch; 
Melbtius  op  Lycopous. 

MeletioB  of  Antioch,  Bishop,  b.  in  Melitene,  Les- 
ser Armenia;  d.  at  Antioch,  38l.  Before  occupjring 
the  see  of  Antioch  he  had  been  Bishop  of  Sebaste,  capi- 
tal of  Armenia  Prima.  Socrates  supposes  a  transfer 
from  Sebaste  to  Benea  and  thence  to  Antioch;  his  ele- 
vation to  Sebaste  ma]^  date  from  the  year  358  or  359. 
His  sojourn  in  that  city  was  short  and  not  free  from 
vexations  owing  to  popular  attachment  to  his  prede- 
cessor Eustathius.  Asia  Minor  and  Syria  were  troub- 
led at  the  time  by  theological  disputes  of  an  Arian,  or 
semi-Arian  character.  Under  Eustathius  (324-^0) 
Antioch  had  been  one  of  the  centres  of  Nicene  ortho- 
doxy. This  great  man  was  set  aside,  and  his  flrat  suc- 
cessors, Paulinus  and  Eulalius  held  tne  see  but  a  short 
time  (330-332).  Others  followed,  most  of  them  un- 
equal to  their  task,  and  the  Church  of  Antioch  was 
rent  in  twain  by  scnism.  The  Eustathians  remained 
an  ardent  and  imgovemable  minority  in  the  orthodox 
camp,  but  details  of  this  division  escape  us  \mtil  the 
election  of  Leontius  (344-358).  His  sympathy  for 
the  Arian  heresy  was  open,  and  his  disciple  ^tius 
preached  pure  Arianism  which  did  not  hinder  his  being 
ordained  deacon.  This  was  too  much  for  the  patience 
*of  the  orthodox  imder  the  leadership  of  Flavins  and 
Diodorus.  ^tius  had  to  be  removed.  On  the  death 
of  Leontius.  Eudoxius  of  Germanicia,  one  of  the  most 
influential  Arians,  speedily  repaired  to  Antioch,  and  by 
intri^e  secured  his  appointment  to  the  vacant  see.  He 
held  it  only  a  short  time,  was  banished  to  Armenia,  and 
in  359  the  Council  of  Seleucia  appointed  a  successor 
named  Annanius,  who  was  scarcely  installed  when  he 
was  exiled.  Eudoxius  was  restored  to  favour  in  360, 
and  made  Bishop  of  Constantiaople,  whereby  the  An- 
tiochene  episcopal  succession  was  re-opened.  From 
all  sides  bishops  assembled  for  the  election.  The  Aca- 
cians  were  the  dominant  party.  Nevertheless  the 
choice  seems  to  have  been  a  compromise.  Meletius, 
who  had  resigned  his  see  of  Sebaste  and  who  was  a  per- 
sonal friend  of  Acacius.  was  elected.  The  choice  was 
generally  satisfactory,  for  Meletius  had  made  promises 
to  both  parties  so  that  orthodox  and  Arians  thought 
him  to  TO  on  their  side. 

Meletius  doubtless  believed  that  truth  lav  in  deli- 
cate distinctions,  but  his  formula  was  so  indefinite  thai 
even  to-day,  it  is  difl&cult  to  seize  it  with  precision.  He 
was  neither  a  thorou^  Nicene  nor  a  decided  Arian. 
Meanwhile  he  passed  alternately  for  an  Anomean,  an 
Homoiousian,  an  Homoian,  or  a  Neo-Nicene,  seeking 
always  to  remain  outside  any  inflexible  classification. 
It  is  possible  that  he  was  yet  uncertain  and  that  he  ex- 
pected from  the  contemporary  theological  ferment 
some  new  and  ingenious  ooctrinal  combination,  satis- 
factory to  himself,  but  above  all  non-committal.  For- 
tune had  favoured  him  thus  far;  he  was  absent  from 
Antioch  when  elected,  and  had  not  been  even  sounded 
concerning  his  doctrinal  leanings.    Men  were  weary  of 


MELETius                    162  msuTins 

Interminable  discussion,  and  the  kindly,  gentle  temper  measures  oi  his  successor  Julian  was  to  revoke  his  pred- 

of  Meletius  seemed  to  promise  the  much-desired  peace,  eoessor's  decrees  of  banishment.    Meletius  quite  prob- 

He  was  no  Athanasius,  nor  did  unheroio  Antiocn  wish  ably  returned  at  once  to  Antioch,  but  his  position  was 

for  a  man  of  that  stamp.    The  qualities  of  Meletius  a  difficult  one  in  presence  of  the  Eustathians.    The 

were  genuine;  a  simple  fife,  pure  morals,  sincere  piety  Council  of  Alexandria  (362)  tried  to  re-establish  har- 

and  affable  manners.    He  had  no  transcendent  merit,  mon^  and  put  an  end  to  the  schism,  but  failed.  Both 

unless  the  even  harmonious  balance  of  his  Christian  parties  were  steadfast  in  their  claims,  while  the  vehe- 

virtues  might  appear  transcendent.    The  new  bishop  mence  and  injudiciousness  of  the  orthodox  mediator 

held  the  affection  of  the  large  and  turbulent  popuk^  increased  the  dissension,  and  ruined  all  prospects  of 

tion  he  governed,  and  was  esteemed  by  such  men  as  St.  peace.    Though  the  election  of  Meletius  was  beyond 

John  Chrysostom,  St.  Gregory  Nazianzen,  St.  Gregory  contestation,  the  hot-headed  Lucifer  CagUari  ^Ided 

of  Nyssa,  St.  Basil,  and  even  his  adversary  St.  Epi-  to  the  solicitations  of  the  opposing  faction,  and  mstead 

phamus.    St.  Gregory  Nazianzen  tells  us  that  he  was  of  temporizing  and  awaitmg  Meletius's  approaching 

a  very  pious  man,  simple  and  without  guile,  full  of  return  from  exile,  assisted  by  two  confessors  he  has- 

godliness;  peace  shone  on  his  countenance,  and  those  tily  consecrated  as  Bishop  of  Antioch  the  Eustathian 

who  saw  nim  trusted  and  respected  him.     He  was  leader,  Paulinus.    This  unwise  measure  was  a  great 

what  he  was  called,  and  his  Greek  name  revealed  it,  calamity,  for  it  definitively  establifJied  the  schism.  Me- 

f  or  there  was  honey  in  his  disposition  as  well  as  his  letius  and  his  adherents  were  not  responsible,  and  it  is 

name.    On  his  arrival  at  Antioch  he  was  greeted  by  an  a  peculiar  injustice  of  history  that  this  division  should 

immense  concourse  of  Christians  and  Jews;  every  one  be  known  as  the  Meletian  schism  when  the  Eustathians 

wondered  for  which  faction  he  would  proclaim  him-  or  Paulinians  were  alone  answerable  for  it.   Meletius's 

self.  Slid  already  the  report  was  spread  abroad,  that  he  return  soon  followed,  also  the  arrival  of  Eusebius  of 

was  simply  a  partisan  of  the  Nicene  Creed.    Meletius  Vercelli,  but  he  could  accomplish  nothing  imder  the 

took  his  own  time.    He  began  by  reforming  certain  circumstances.    The  persecution  of  Emperor  Julian, 

notorious  abuses  and  instructing  his  people,  m  which  whose  chief  residence  was  Antioch,  brought  new  vez- 

latter  work  he  might  have  aroused  enmity  had  he  not  ations.    Both  factions  of  the  orthodox  party  were 

avoided  all  questions  in  dispute.    Emperor  Constans,  equally  harassed  and  tormented,  and  both  bore  bravely 

a  militant  Arian,  called  a  conference  calculated  to  their  &als. 

force  from  Meletius  his  inmost  thought.    The  em-  An  unexpected  incident  made  the  Meletians  promi- 

peror  invited  several  bishops  then  at  Antioch  to  speak  nent.    An  anti-Christian  writing  of  Julian  was  an- 

upon  the  chief  text  in  the  Arian  controversy.     'The  swered  by  the  aforesaid  MeletianDiodorus,  whom  the 

Lord  possessed  me  in  the  beginning  of  His  way"  emperor  had  coarsely  reviled.    ''For  many  years", 

(Prov. .  viii,  22) .  ^  said  ihe  imperial  apologist  of  Hellenism, ' '  his  chest  has 

In  the  beginning  Meletius  was  somewhat  long  and  been  sunken,  his  limbs  withered,  his  cheeks  flabby,  his 
tedious,  but  exhibited  a  great  Scriptural  knowledge,  countenance  livid".  So  intent  was  Julian  upon  de- 
He  cautiously  declared  that  Scripture  does  not  contra-  scribing  t^e  morbid  symptoms  of  Diodorus  that  he 
diet  itself,  that  all  language  is  adequate  when  it  is  a  seemed  to  forget  Bishop  Meletius.  The  latter  doubt- 
question  of  explaining  the  nature  of  God's  onl^  begot-  less  had  no  desire  to  draw  attention  and  persecution 
ten  Son.  One  does  not  get  beyond  an  approximation  upon  himself,  aware  that  his  flock  was  more  likely  to 
which  permits  us  to  understand  to  a  certain  extent,  lose  than  to  gain  by  it.  He  and  two  of  his  cfujrepia^ 
and  which  brings  us  gently  and  progressively  from  copi,  we  are  told,  accompanied  to  the  place  of  martyr- 
visible  things  to  hidden  ones.  Now,  to  beheve  in  dom  two  officers,  Bonosus  and  Ms^milian.  Meletius 
Christ  is  to  believe  that  the  Son  is  like  imto  the  Fa-  also  is  said  to  have  sent  a  convert  from  Antioch  to 
ther.  His  image.  Who  is  in  everything,  creator  of  all;  Jerusalem.  This,  and  a  mention  of  the  flight  of  all 
and  not  an  imperfect  but  an  adequate  image,  even  as'  Antiochene  ecclesiastics,  led  to  the  arbitrary  supposi- 
the  effect  corresponds  to  the  cause.  The  generation  tion  that  the  second  banishment  of  Meletius  came  dur- 
of  the  only  begotten  Son,  anterior  to  all  Ume,  carries  ing  Julian's  reign.  Be  that  as  it  may,  the  sudden  end 
with  it  the  concepts  of  subsistence,  stability,  and  ex-  of  the  persecuting  emperor  and  jfovian's  accession 
clusivism.  Meletius  then  turned  to  moral  considera-  must  have  greatly  shortened  the  exile  of  Meletius. 
tions,  but  he  had  satisfied  his  hearers,  chiefly  by  re-  Jovian  met  Meletius  at  Antioch  and  showed  him  great 
{raining  from  technical  language  and  vain  discussion,  respect.  Just  then  St.  Athanasius  came  to  Antiocn  b^ 
Tlie  orthodoxy  of  the  bishop  was  fully  established,  and  order  of  the  emperor,  and  expressed  to  Meletius  his 
his  profession  of  faith  was  a  severe  blow  for  the  Arian  wish  of  entering  into  commumon  with  him.  Meletius, 
party.  St.  Basil  wrote  the  hesitating  St.  Epiphanius  ill-advised,  delayed  answering  him,  and  St.  Athana- 
that  "  Meletius  was  the  first  to  speak  freely  in  favour  sius  went  away  leaving  with  Paulinus,  whom  he  had 
of  the  truth  and  to  fi^t  the  good  fight  in  the  reign  of  not  yet  recognized  as  bishop,  the  declaration  that  he 
Constans".  As  Meletius  ended  his  discourse  his  audi-  admitted  him  to  his  communion.  Such  blundering 
ence  asked  him  for  a  summary  of  his  teaching.  He  resulted  in  sad  consequences  for  the  Meletian  cause, 
extended  three  fingers  towards  the  people,  then  closed  The  moderation  constantly  shown  by  Athanasius,  who 
two  and  said,  "  Three  Persons  are  conceived  in  the  thoroiighly  believed  in  Meletius's  orthodoxy,  was  not 
mind  but  it  as  though  we  addressed  one  onlv  ".  This  found  in  bos  successor,  Peter  of  Alexandria,  who  did  not 
gesture  remained  famous  and  became  a  rallying  sign,  conceal  his  belief  that  Meletius  was  an  heretic.  For  a 
The  Arians  were  not  slow  to  avenge  themselves.  On  long  time  the  position  of  Meletius  was  contested  by  the 
va^e  pretexts  the  emperor  banished  Meletius  to  his  very  ones  who,  it  seemed,  should  have  established  it 
native  Armenia.  He  had  occupied  his  see  less  than  a  more  firmly.  A  coimcil  of  26  bishops  at  Antioch  pre^ 
month.  sided  over  by  Meletius  was  of  more  consequence,  out 

This  exile  was  the  immediate  cause  of  a  long  and  a  pamphlet  ascribed  to  Paulinus  aeain  raised  doubts 

deplorable  schism  between  the  Catholics  of  Antioch,  as  to  tne  orthodoxy  of  Meletius.    Moreover,  new  and 

henceforth  divided  into  Meletians  and  Eustathians.  unsuspected  difficulties  soon  arose. 

The  churches  remaining  in  the  hands  of  the  Arians,  Jovian's  death  made  Arianism  again  triumphant 

Paulinus  governed  the  Eustathians,  while  Flavins  and  a  violent  persecution  broke  out  under  Emperor 

and  Diodorus  were  the  chiefs  of  the  Meletian  flock.   In  Valens.    At  the  same  time  the  quiet  but  persistent 

every  family  one  child  bore  the  name  of  Meletius,  rivalry  between  Alexandria  and  Antioch  helped  the 

whose  portrait  was  engraved  on  rings,  reliefs,  cups,  cause  of  Meletius.    However  illustrious  an  Egvptian 

and  the  walls  of  apartments.    Meletius  went  into  enle  patriarch  might  be,  the  Christian  episcopate  of  Syria 

in  the  early  part  of  the  year  361.    A  few  months  later  and  Asia  Minor  was  too  national  or  racial,  too  self- 

fimperor  Constans  died  suddenly,  and  one  of  the  fixst  centred,  to  seek  or  accept  his  leadership.    Athanasiufl^ 


iminUB                               163  MELETXUS 

indeed.  lemained  an  authoritative  power  in  the  East,  were  needed  and  deputies  of  more  heroic  character: 

bat  only  a  bishop  of  Antioch  could  unite  all  those  who  but  the  difficulties  were  great  and  the  "statu  quo'* 

were  now  ready  to  frankly  accept  the  Nicene  Creed,  remained. 

In  this  way  the  rdle  of  Meletius  became  daily  more  After  many  disheartening  failures,  there  was  finally 

prominent.    While  in  his  own  city  a  minority  con-  a  glimpse  of  1101)0%    Two  legates  sent  to  Rome,  Doro* 

tested  his  right  to  the  see  and  questioned  his  ortho-  theus  and  Sanctissimus,  returned  in  the  sprint  of  377, 

doxy,  his  influence  was  spreading  in  the  East,  and  bringing  with  them  cordial  decUurations  wnidi  St. 

from  various  parts  of  the  empire  bishops  accepted  his  Basu  instantly  proceeded  to  publish  eveiywhere. 

leadership.    Chaloedon,  An<^rra,  Melitene,  Pergama.  These  declarations  pronounced  anathemas  against 

Ctesarea  of  Cappadocia,  Bostra,  parts  of  Sj^ria  ana  Anus  and  the  heresy  of  Apollinaris  then  spreading  at 

Palestine,  looked  to  him  for  direction,  and  this  move-  Antioch,  condemnations  all  the  more  timely,  as  theo- 

ment  grew  rapidly.   In  363  Meletius  could  count  on  26  logical  excitement  was  then  at  its  highest  in  Antioch, 

bishops,  in  379  more  than  150  rallied  around  him.  and  was  gradually  reaching  Palest 'ne.   St.  Jerome  en* 

Theoloipcal  unitv  was  at  least  restored  in  Syria  and  tered  into  the  conflict,  pernai)s  without  having  a  thor- 

Aoa  Hmor.    Meletius  and  his  disciples,  however,  had  ough  knowledge  of  the  situation.    Rejecting  Meletius, 

not  been  spared  by  the  Arians.    While  Paulinus  and  Vitalian,  and  Paulinus,  he  made  a  direct  ai)peal  to  Pope 

his  parl^  were  seemingly  neglected  b^  them,  Meletius  Damasus  in  a  letter  still  famous,  but  which  the  pope 


lagam  exiled  (May,  365)  to  Armenia.  His  followers  did  not  answer.  Discontented,  Jerome  returned  to 
expelfed  from  the  churches,  sou^t  meeting  places  for  Antioch,  let  himself  be  ordained  presbyter  by  Pau- 
WOTship  wherever  they  coidd.  This  new  exile,  owing  linus,  and  became  the  echo  of  Paulinist  imputations 
to  a  luU  in  the  persecution,  was  of  short  duration,  and  against  Meletius  and  his  following.  In  378  Doro« 
probably  in  367  Meletius  took  up  again  the  govern-  theus  and  Sanctissimus  returned  from  Rome,  bearers 
ment  of  his  see.  It  was  then  thiat  John,  the  future  of  a  formal  condemnation  of  the  errotL  ^  >inted  out  by 
Ctayaoebom,  entered  the  ranks  of  the  clergy.  The  lull  the  Orientals :  this  decree  definitively  united  the  two 
was  soon  over.  In  371  persecution  raged  anew  in  halves  of  the  Christian  world.  It  seemed  as  though  St. 
Antioch,  where  Valens  resided  almost  to  the  time  of  his  Basil  was  but  waiting  for  this  object  of  all  his  efforts, 
death.  At  this  time  St.  Basil  occupied  the  see  of  for  he  died  1  Jan.,  3/9.  The  cause  he  had  served  so 
Ctesarea  (370)  and  was  a  strong  supporter  of  Meletius.  well  seemed  won,  and  Emperor  Valens's  death  five 
With  rare  insight  Basil  thoroughly  understood  the  months  earlier  warranted  a  hopeful  outlook.  One  of 
situation,  which  made  impossibfe  the  restoration  of  the  first  measures  of  tJie  new  emperor,  Gratian,  was 
religious  peace  in  the  East.  It  was  clear  that  the  the  restoration  of  peace  in  the  Church  and  the  reciEdl  of 
antagonism  between  Athanasius  and  Meletius  pro-  the  banished  bishops.  Meletius  therefore  was  rein- 
tracted  endlessly  the  conflict.  Meletius,  the  only  stated  (end  of  378),  and  his  flock  probably  met  for 
legitimate  Bishop  of  Antioch,  was  the  only  acceptable  worship  in  the  "  Palaia  "  or  old  church.  It  was  a  heavy 
one  for  the  East;  unfortunately  he  was  going  into  task  for  the  aged  bishop  to  re-establish  the  shattered 
exile  for  the  third  time.  In  these  circumstances  Basil  fortunes  of  the  orthodox  party.  The  most  ureent  step 
began  negotiations  with  Meletius  and  Athanasius  for  was  the  ordination  of  bishops  for  the  sees  which  had 
the  iMusification  of  the  £k»t.  become  vacant  during  the  persecution.  In  379  Mele- 
Aside  from  the  inherent  difficulties  of  the  situation,  tins  held  a  council  of  150  bishops  in  order  to  assure  the 
the  slowness  of  communication  was  an  added  hin-  triumph  of  orthodoxy  in  the  East,  and  published  a 
dbranoe.  Not  only  did  Basil's  representative  have  to  profession  of  faith  which  was  to  meet  the  approval  of 
travel  from  CsBsarea  to  Armenia,  and  from  Annenia  to  the  Council  of  Constantinople  (382).  The  end  of  the 
Alexandria,  he  also  had  to  go  to  Rome  to  obtain  the  schism  was  near  at  hand.  Since  the  two  factions 
sanction  of  Pope  Damasus  and  the  acquiescence  of  the  which  divided  the  Antiochene  Church  were  orthodox 
West.  Notwithstanding  the  blimder  committed  at  there  remained  but  to  unite  them  actuallv,  a  difficult 
Antioch  in  363,  the  generous  spirit  of  Athanasius  gave  move,  but  easy  when  the  death  of  either  bishop  made 
hope  of  success,  his  sudden  death,  however  (May,  373),  it  possible  for  the  survivor  to  exercise  full  authority 
caused  all  efforts  to  be  abimdoned.  Even  at  Rome  without  hurting  pride  or  discipline.  This  solution 
and  in  the  West,  Basil  and  Meletius  were  to  meet  with  Meletius  recosnised  as  early  as  381,  but  his  friendly 
diauppointment.  While  they  wrought  persistently  to  and  peace-making  proposals  were  rejected  by  Paulinus 
restore  peace,  a  new  Antiochene  commimity,  declaring  who  refused  to  come  to  any  agreement  or  settlement. 
itself  connected  with  Rome  and  Athanasius,  increased  Meanwhile,  a  great  council  of  Kastem  bishops  was  con- 
the  number  of  dissidents,  aggravated  the  rivalry,  and  voked  at  (x)nstantinople  to  appoint  a  bishop  for  the 
renewed  the  disputes.  There  were  now  three  Antio-  imperial  city  and  to  settle  other  ecclesiastical  affairs. 
ehene  churches  that  formaUy  adopted  the  Nicene  IntheabsenceoftheBishopof  Alexandria,  the  pres- 
Creed.  The  generous  scheme  of  Basil  for  appeasement  idency  rightfully  fell  to  the  Bieuiop  of  Antioch,  whom  the 
and  union  had  ended  unfortunately,  and  to  make  mat-  Emperor  Theodoeius  received  with  marked  deference, 
ters  wone,  Evagrius,  the  chief  promoter  of  the  at-  nor  was  the  imperial  favour  improfitable  to  Meletius 
tempted  reconciuation,  once  more  joined  the  party  of  in  his  quality  of  president  of  the  assembly.  It  began 
Pau&nus.  This  important  conversion  won  over  to  the  by  electing  Gregory  of  Naziansus  Bishop  of  Constanti- 
intraders  St.  Jerome  and  Pope  Damasus;  the  very  nople,  and  to  the  great  satisfaction  of  tne  orthodox  it 
next  year,  and  witbout  any  declaration  concerning  the  was  Meletius  who  enthroned  him.  The  Coimcil  im- 
sefaiam,  the  pope  showed  a  decided  preference  for  mediatelv  proceeded  to  confirm  the  Nicene  faith,  but 
Paulinus,  recognised  him  as  bishop,  greeted  him  as  during  this  important  session  Meletius  died  almost 
brother,  and  considered  him  papal  le^te  in  the  East,  suddenly.  Feeling  his  end  was  near,  he  croent  his 
Great  was  the  consternation  of  Meletius  and  his  com-  remaining  days  re-emphasising  his  eagerness  for  unity 
munit^,  which  in  the  absence  of  tiie  natural  leader  and  peace.  The  death  of  one  whose  firmness  and  gen- 
was  still  governed  by  Flavins  and  Dodorus,  encouraged  tleness  had  kindled  great  expectations  caused  uni ver- 


ennreiy  give  up  nope  01  oriTiging  \ao  TYesi*,  tsspeciauy  Apueuee.     xuie  iuiien»i  unuMs^niso  wens  jajuvixiu^  ana 

the  pope,  to  a  fuller  understandingof  the  situation  of  magnificent.   His  death  olasted  many  hopes  and  justi- 

the  Antiochene  Church.    But  the  west  did  not  grasp  fied  grave  forebodings.    The  body  was  transferred 

the  complex  interests  and  personal  issues,  nor  appre-  from  Constantinople  to  Antioch,  where,  after  a  second 

date  the  violence  of  the  persecution  aeainst  whicn  the  and  solemn  funeral  service,  the  body  of  the  aged  bishop 

orthodox  parties  were  struggling.    In  order  to  en-  was  laid  beside  his  predecessor  St.  Babylas.    But  his 

"  ' '       these  well-intentioxi^  men,  closer  relations  name  was  to  live  after  him,  and  long  remained  for  the 


iBUBnvs  164  ittuenns 

Eastern  faithful  a  rallying  sign  and  a  synonym  of  hiding.  It  was  not  only  against  Peter,  but  also  against 

orthodoxy.  his  immediate  suooessors.  Achillas  and  Alexander,  that 

Allakd,  Julim  VApotUU  (Paris,  1903) ;  Hbrli,  Hitloin  det  Meletius  maintained  his  false  position.    This  we  Imow 

S?(SiMk?;Sn^:;C^^^  fromSt  Athanasius,anauthoritati^^  Com- 

IV  HV  aiieU  (Paris,  1906).  H.  Leclercq.  pa™«  the  mformation  given  us  by  St.  Athanasius 

with  that  furnished  by  the  documents  above,  the  date 

Meletius  of  LycopoliSi  Bishop  of  Lycopolis  in  of  the  beginning  of  the  Meletian  schism  may  be  deter- 
Egypt,  gave  his  name  to  a  schism  of  short  duration,  mined  with  fair  accuracy.  It  was  evidently  during 
There  is  uncertainty  as  to  the  dates  of  his  birth,  his  the  episcopate  of  Peter,  who  occupied  the  See  of  Alex- 
death,  and  his  episcopate.  It  is  Imown,  however,  that  andna  from  300  to  311.  Now  St.  Athanasius  in  his 
he  was  bishop  of  the  above-mentioned  citv  as  early  as  ''Epistola'ad  episcopos"  states  positively  that  ''the 
303,  since  in  a  council  held  about  306  at  Alexandria  by  Mefetians  were  aedared  schismatics  over  fifty-five  years 
Peter,  archbishop  of  that  city,  Meletius  was  deposed  ago".  Unfortunately  the  date  of  this  letter  is  con- 
for  several  reasons,  among  others  for  sacrificing  to  tested:  the  choice  lies  between  356  or  361.  However, 
idols.  Meagre  references  by  St.  Athanasius  were  our  St.  Athanasius  adds:  "The  Anans  were  declared  her- 
only  source  of  information  until  important  documents  etical  thirtv-six  years  ago",  i.  e.  at  the  Council  of 
were  discovered  in  the  eighteenth  centiiry  by  Sdpio  Nicsea  (325).  Apparently,  therefore.  Athanasius  was 
Maffei  at  Verona  in  a  manuscript  dealing  with  the  writing  in  361.  Ii  now  we  deduct  £ity-five  years,  we 
Meletian  schism  in  Egypt.  The  three  documents  pre-  have  the  year  306  for  the  condemnation  of  the  Mele- 
served  in  Latin  are  undoubtedly  authentic.  There  is  tian  schism ;  and  as  the  persecution  of  Diocletian  raged 
first,  a  letter  of  protest  by  four  Egyptian  bishops,  bitterly  between  303  and  305,  the  beginnings  of  the 
Hes^chius,  Pachomius,  Theodore,  and  Phileas,  datmg  schism  seem  to  belong  to  the  ^rear  304,  or  305.  St. 
at  the  latest  from  307,  from  the  very  beginning  of  the  Epiphanius.  Bishop  of  SaJamis  in  Cyprus  gives  a  dr- 
schism  of  Meletius,  and  before  the  excommunication  cumstantial  account  (Haer.  hrviii)  m  contradicUon 
of  the  latter  who  was  termed  by  the  bishops,  dilectua  with  the  foregoing  narrative.  According  to  him,  the 
comminister  in  Domino  (beloved  fellow  minister  in  the  schism  arose  from  a  disagreement  between  Meletius 
Lord).  "We  have  heard",  said  the  bishops,  "griev-  and  Peter  regarding  the  reception  of  certain  of  the 
ous  reports  regarding  Meletius  who  is  accused  of  faithfiil,  particularly  of  ecclesiastics^ho  had  abjured 
troubling  the  divine  law  and  ecclesiastical  rules.  Quite  the  Faith  during  the  persecution.  This  account,  pre* 
recently,  a  number  of  witnesses  having  confirmed  the  ferred  by  some  historians  to  the  statement  of  St.  Atha- 
reports,  we  feel  compelled  to  write  this  letter.  Mele-  nasius,  is  no  longer  credible  since  the  discovery  of  the 
tins  is  undoubtedlv  aware  of  the  very  ancient  law  aforesaid  dociiments  by  Maffei  at  Verona.  How,  then, 
which  forbids  a  bishop  to  ordain  outside  his  own  dio-  explain  the  origin  of  the  account  given  by  Epiphanius? 
oese.  Nevertheless,  without  regard  for  this  law,  and  It  seems  to  us  it  arose  in  this  manner:  after  Peter's 
without  consideration  for  the  great  bif^op  and  father,  death  Meletius  was  arrested  and  sent  to  the  mines;  on 
Peter  of  Alexandria,  and  the  incarcerated  bishops,  he  his  wav  he  stopped  at  EleutheropoUs.  and  there 
has  created  general  confusion.  To  vindicate  hunself  founded  a  church  of  his  sect;  EleutheropoUs  being  the 
he  will  perhaps  declare  that  he  was  compelled  to  act  native  town  of  Eoiphanius,  the  latter  naturally  came 
thus,  as  the  congregations  were  without  pastors.  Such  in  contact  with  Meletians  in  his  early  days.  They 
a  defence  however,  is  worthless,  as  a  number  of  visitors  would  of  course  represent  in  a  most  favourable  h^t  the 
(circumeuniea)  had  been  appointed.  Were  they  neg-  origin  of  their  sect;  and  thus  their  partial  and  mislead- 
lectful  of  their  duties,  their  case  should  have  been  pre-  ing  narrative  was  afterwards  inserted  by  Epiphanius 
sented  before  the  incarcerated  bishops.  If  the  latter  in  nis  great  work  on  heresies.  Finally,  the  references 
had  been  martyred,  he  could  have  appealed  to  Peter  to  the  Meletian  schism  b^^  Sozomen  and  Theodoret 
of  Alexandria,  and  thus  have  obtained  the  authority  quite  accord  with  the  original  documents  discovered 
to  ordain  ".  Second,  an  anonymous  note  added  to  the  at  Verona,  and  more  or  less  with  what  St.  Athanasius 
foregoing  letter  and  worded  thus:  "Meletius  having  has  upon  the  same  subiect.  As  to  St.  Augustine,  he 
received  the  letter  and  read  it.  paid  no  attention  to  the  merely  mentions  the  scnism  in  passing  and  very  likely 
protest  and  presented  himself  neither  before  the  incar-  follows  St.  Epiphanius. 

oerated  bishops,  nor  Peter  of  Alexandria.  After  all  The  suppression  of  the  Meletian  schism  was  one  of 
these  bi^ops,  priests,  and  deacons  had  died  in  their  the  three  important  matters  that  came  before  the 
dungeons  at  Aiexandria,  he  immediately  repaired  to  Council  of  Niceea.  Its  decree  has  been  preserved  in 
that  city.  Among  other  intriguers  there  were  two.  a  the  synodical  epistle  addressed  to  the  E^ptian  bish- 
oertain  Isidore  and  one  Arius,  seeminglv  honourable,  ops.  Meletius,  it  was  decided,  should  remain  in  his 
both  of  them  desirous  of  being  admitted  to  the  priest-  own  dtv  of  Lycopolis,  but  without  exercising  author- 
hood.  Aware  of  the  ambition  of  Meletius  and  what  he  ity  or  the  power  of  ordaining;  moreover  he  was  for- 
sought,  they  hastened  to  him,  and  gave  him  the  names  bidden  to  go  into  the  environs  of  the  town  or  to  enter 
of  the  vistors  {circumeuntea)  appointed  by  Peter.  Mele-  another  diocese  for  the  purpose  of  ordaining  its  sub- 
tius  excommunicated  them  and  ordained  two  others,  jects.  He  retained  his  episcopal  title,  but  the  ecdesias- 
one  of  them  detained  in  prison,  the  other  in  the  tics  ordained  by  him  were  to  receive  again  the  imposi- 
mines. "  On  learning  this.  Peter  wrote  to  his  Alexan-  tion  of  hands,  the  ordinations  performed  by  Meletius 
drian  flock.  Here  comes  tne  third  document,  in  which  being  therefore  regarded  as  invalid.  Throughout  the 
occurs  the  phrase  interpreted  as  follows:  "Having  diocese  where  they  were  found,  those  ordained  by  him 
heard'',  saidPeter, "  that  Meletius,  without  considering  were  always  to  yield  precedence  to  those  ordained  by 


vou  to  avoid  all  communion  with  him  until  I  can  bring  cant  preferment  might  be  given  to  a  Meletian,  pro- 

him  before  me  face  to  face  in  the  presence  of  prudent  vided  he  were  worthy  and  the  popular  election  were 

men,  and  investigate  this  affair".  ratified  bv  Alexander.    As  to  Mefetius  himself,  epi»- 

The  conduct  en  Meletius  was  aU  the  more  reprehen-  copal  rights  and  prerogatives  were  taken  from  mm 

Bible  in  as  much  as  his  insubordination  was  that  of  one  owing  to  his  incorrigible  habit  of  everywhere  exciting 

in  very  high  office.    St.  Epiphanius  and  Theodoret  confusion.    These  mild  measures,  however,  were  in 

tell  us  that  Meletius  stood  next  in  rank  to  Peter  of  vain;  the  Meletians  joined  the  Arians  and  did  more 

Alexandria,  of  whom  he  was  jealous  and  whom  he  was  harm  than  ever,  being  among^  the  worst  enemies  of  St. 

basely  endeavouring  to  supplant  at  the  moment,  when  Athanasius.    Referring  to  this  attempt  at  reunion  the 

Pteter  was  forced  to  flee  from  persecution  and  live  in  latter  said:  "Would  to  God  it  had  never  happened." 


165 


MSLI88U8 


^i 


About  325  the  Ifetetians  counted  in  Egypt  twenty- 
nine  bishops,  Meletius  included,  and  in  Alexandria 
itadf,  four  priests,  three  deacons,  and  one  army  chap- 
lain. Coniormably  to  the  Nicene  decree,  Meletius 
hved  first  at  Lyoopolis  in  the  Thebaid,  but  after 
Bishop  Alexander's  death  he  took  a  i)ersonal  part  in 
the  negotiations  which  united  his  party  to  the  Arians. 
The  date  of  his  death  is  not  known.  He  nominated 
his  friend,  John,  as  his  successor.  Theodoret  men- 
tions verv  superstitious  Meletian  monks  who  practised 
Jewish  ablutions.  The  Meletians  died  out  after  the 
middle  of  the  fifth  centunr. 
Cmi.ij^h,  Hittoire  OiniraU  det  atUeun  eocUtioMiigueB,  III 
'aris,  1732).  67»-81.  II  (1765).  615-16:  Hbfble.  MeUliua  in 
inhmUx.,  ed.  Kaulkn,  Yin  (1803),  1221  sq.;  Acbeus,  Md^ 
ti%u  wn  Lukopolia  in  BeaieneydopAdie,  ed.  Hauck.  XII  (1003), 
568^-62;  Hxfblb,  Hiakrin  det  ConeOeM^  ed.  Lbclkroq.  I  (1007), 
211-12.  488-«)3.  H.  LSCLBBCQ. 

Melfl  and  BapoUa,  Diocesb  of  (Melphienbis  et 
Rafollbnsis),  in  the  province  of  Potenza,  in  Basili- 
cata,  southern  Italy.  Melfi  is  situated  on  a  pleasant 
hill,  on  the  slopes  of  Mt.  Volture.  The  oriipn  of  the 
city  ia  not  well  known;  but  the  town  became  famous  in 
10i3,  when  it  was  chosen  capital  of  tiie  new  military 
state  created  in  southern  Italy  by  the  twelve  Norman 
counts,  founders  of  the  Kingoom  of  Naples.  Nicholas 
II  made  it  a  diocese  immediately  dependent  on  the 
Holy  See;  its  first  bishop  was  Baldwin.  Its  beautiful 
sathediral,  a  work  of  Bishop  Roger,  son  of  Robert 
Guiscard  (1155),  was  destroyed  by  the  earthquake  of 
1851.  Among  its  other  bishops,  mention  should  be 
made  of  Fra  /Qessandro  da  San  Elpidio.  a  former  gen- 
eral of  the  Augustiniaus  (1328),  and  a  learned  theolo- 
gian. In  1528,  Clement  VII,  in  view  of  the  scarcity  of 
its  revenues,  united  the  Diocese  of  RapoUa  to  that 
of  Melfi,  "eque  principaliter".  Rapolla  is  a  cit^ 
founded  by  the  Lombards,  on  the  bimks  of  the  Oh- 
vento  River.  The  Normans  took  it  from  the  Greeks 
in  1042,  and  fortified  it  with  works  still  to  be  seen. 
The  town,  which  has  a  beautiful  cathedral,  was  an 
episcopal  see,  suffrasan  of  Siponto,  in  the  time  of  Greg- 
ory VII.  Other  biuiops  were  Cardinal  Giovanni  Vin- 
cenio  Acouaviva  (1537),  who  gave  a  noble  organ  to 
the  catheoral,  and  Lauro  Caramni  (1622).  foimder  of 
the  seminary.  Several  coimcils  were  held  at  Melfi: 
one  in  1048;  another  1059.  imder  Nicholas  II,  impor- 
tant on  account  of  the  prohibition  of  the  mairiage  of 
priests,  the  deposition  of  the  Bishop  of  Trani,  promo- 
ter of  the  sdusm  of  Cerularius,  and  the  investiture  of 
Robcart  Guiscard  of  the  Duchy  of  Apulia  and  CSalabria; 
the  council  of  1067;  the  one  of  lOoO,  asainst  simony 
and  the  concubinage  of  priests,  and  for  the  freedom  of 
the  Church;  lastly,  the  coimcil  of  1100.  The  imited 
sees  have  14  parishes,  with  40,000  inhabitants.  66 
priests,  5  religious  houses  of  women,  and  1  school  for 

boys  and  1  for  girls.  

GATPBULBm:  Le  Chiete  d^JtaUa,  XXI  (Venice.  1857). 

U.  Benigni. 


li  Giovanni,  Sicilian  poet,  b.  at  Palermo,  4 
March,  1740;  d.  20  Dec.,  1815.  He  was  the  son  of  a 
goldsmith  of  Spanish  origin,  and  received  his  first  edu- 
cation from  the  Jesuits.  He  afterwards  studied  nat- 
ural science  and  medicine,  and  practised  as  a  physi- 
cian in  the  hamlet  of  Cinisi  and  later  at  Palermo  itself, 
where  for  nineteen  years  he  held  the  chair  of  chemistrv 
at  the  university.  Towards  the  end  of  his  life  he  took 
minor  orders.  In  childhood  he  had  been  led  to  poetry 
by  reading  ^osto,  and  in  poetical  composition  foimd 
relief  from  domestic  unhappiness.  His  poems  are 
written  in  the  Sicilian  dialect,  and  as  a  vernacular  poet 
of  this  kind  he  has  no  rival  in  Italian  literature.  His 
kmger  works,  "La  Fata  Galanti",  "Don  Chisciotti  e 
Sandu  Pansa  ",  **  L'ori^ni  di  lu  Mimnu",  are  fantastic 
poems  in  ottooa  rima  in  imitation  of  Bemi.  The''Buc- 
coiica",  eclogues  and  idylls  of  the  four  seasons  of  the 
year,  is  full  of  Sicilian  colour,  and  has  won  him  the 
title  of  "  the  modem  Theocritus".  Meli  was  a  staimch 


supporter  of  the  Bourbon  regime,  and  among  his  lyncB 

"  Anacreontiche"  and  "Odi",  is  an  ode  in  honour  of 

Nelson,  which  however,  he  is  said  to  have  suppressed 

after  tiie  latter's  execution  of  the  Neapolitan  patriots. 

His  last  work,  the  "Favuli  morali",  is  a  collection  of 

Esopian  fables  in  verse  with  an  imderl3ring  allegorical 

or  satirical  meaning. 

Opere  di  Qiotanni  Mbli  (Palermo,  1857);  La  Buecoliee^  la 
JAnca,  le  Satire,  e  FEUgie  di  Giovanni  Meu  ridotte  dot  eieiliano 
in  itaiiano  da  Aoostino  Gallo  (Palenno,  1858);  Navantabi, 
Studio  critioo  »u  Oiavanni  Meii  (Palenno,  1904). 

Edmund  G.  Gardneb. 

Metia,  Pius,  Italian  theologian,  b.  at  Rome,  12 
Jan.,  1800 ;  d.  in  London,  June,  1883.  He  entered  the 
Society  of  Jesus  on  14  Aug.,  1815,  taught  literature 
at  Reggio,  and  afterwards  was  en^iged  in  preaching. 
He  left  the  Society  in  1853.  He  wrote  two  books: 
"Alcime  ragioni  del  P.  Pio  Melia  della  G.  di  G." 
(Lucca,  1847),  a  defence  of  the  Society  of  Jesus^  and 
''Alcune  affiimasioni  del  Sig.  Antonio  Rosmim-Ser- 
bati"  (Pisa,  s.  d.),  an  attack  upon  Rosmini  (q.  v.). 
In  his  "Life  of  Rosmini",  Father  Lockhart  merely 
declares  that  ^e  latter  work  was  written  by  cer* 
tain  Italian  Jesuits;  Father  de  Backer,  in  his  ''Die- 
tionnaire  des  Antonymes",  attributed  it  to  Passaglia, 
but  his  ''  Bibliothdque  de  la  Compagnie  de  J^us",  re- 
edited  by  Sommervogel,  follows  Beorchia,  who  attrib- 
utes it  to  Melia.  Melia,  who  attacked  especially 
Rosmini 's  doctrine  on  original  sin,  was  answered  by 
Rosmini  (Milan,  1841)  and  Psfani  (Milan,  1842) ;  then 
b^zan  a  bitter  controversy  which  had  to  be  ended  by 

a  direct  command  of  Pius  IX. 

SomaRVOGBL,  Bibl.  de  la  C.  de  J.,  V  (BnisMls  and  Paria, 
1804);  Lockhart,  Life  of  Rotmini  (London,  1886). 

Wm.  T.  Tallon. 

MeliBfUB  of  Samos,  a  Greek  philosopher,  of  the 
Eleatic  School,  b.  at  Stunos  about  470  B.  c.  It  is 
probable  that  he  was  a  disciple  of  Parmenides,  and 
that  he  is  identical  wit^  the  Melissus  who,  according 
to  Plutarch  (Pericles,  26),  commanded  the  Samian 
fleet  which  defeated  the  Athenians  off  the  coast  of 
Samos  in  442.  He  wrote  a  work  which  is  variouslv 
entitled  rcpl  rod  tfrrot,  repl  ^tm.  etc.,  and  of  which 
only  a  few  fragments  have  come  clown  to  us.  In  at- 
tempting to  combine  the  doctrines  of  Parmenidep  with 
those  of  the  earliest  philosophers  of  Greece  (see  lomAN 
School  of  Philosopht),  Melissus,  though  he  fell  into 
many  contradictions,  forestalled,  in  a  sense,  Aristotle's 
more  successful  effort  to  define  the  infinite  and  the 
incorporeal.  Like  Parmenides,  he  depreciated  sense- 
knowledge,  and  held  that  change,  motion,  and  multi- 
plicity are  illusions.  At  the  same  time^e  was  influ- 
enced by  the  lonians,  especiall^r  by  Heraclitus,  to 
attach  value  to  tiie  question  of  origins.  He  definitely 
predicates  infinity  of  beins,  and  asserts  that  reality 
^*  has  no  body  *\  By  the  innnite  he  imderstands  * '  that 
which  has  neither  beginning  nor  end",  and  in  his  con- 
ception of  "tiiat  which  has  no  body",  he  does  not,  as 
Aristotle  points  out  (Metaph.  I,  5,  986  b.)  attain  a 
correct  imderstanding  of  the  immaterial.  The  physi- 
cal doctrines  ascribeid  to  Melissus  by  Philoponus, 
Stobceus,  Epiphanius,  and  others  do  not  seem  to  have 
been  held  bv  him.  There  is,  however,  a  possibility 
that,  as  Diogenes  Lafirtius  informs  us,  Melissus 
avoided  all  mention  of  the  gods  because  we  can  know 
nothing  about  tiiem.  Like l^lato,  Aristotle,  and  some 
of  the  other  Greek  philosophers,  he  probably  thought 
it  wisest  to  take  refuge  in  a  profession  of  ignorance 
regarding  the  gods,  so  as  to  avoid  the  imputation  of 
hostility  to  the  popular  mythology. 

Fairbanks.  FirH  PhUoeovhere  of  Oreeee  (New  York,  1808). 
120  sq.,  gives  fracments  of  Meliaaua^a  work,  with  traoBlationa  of 
references  to  him  in  Aristotle.  Epiphanius,  etoj  Pabbt,  De 
Meliaei  froffmentie  (Bonn,  1880);  KaiiN.  Zw  W^ioung  dee 
Maiaaue  (Stettin,  1880);  Zbllbr,  Pre-Soeratie  Phxlomph^,  tr. 
Allbtnb.  I  (Lond..  1881),  827  sq.;  Tankbrt,  Pour  FkiaUnre  de 
la  aeience  hdUne  (Paris.  1887),  262  sq.;    Tukmbr.  HiMory  oj 

PhUoeophy  (Boston,  1903),  61  sq.        . 

WiLUAM  TxmNSB. 


MEZJTXin 


166 


muTo 


Melitene,  residence  of  an  Armenian  Catholic  see, 
also  a  titulary  aichbishopric.  According  to  PUny 
(Nat.  Hist.  VI.  3^,  the  city  was  founded  by  Queen 
Semiiamis  at  a  little  distance  from  the  Euphrates ;  the 
earliest  mention  of  it  is  found  in  Tacitus  (Annal.,  XV, 
26) .  A  Roman  camp  was  there  under  Nero,  and  Trajan 
made  it  the  principal  stronghold  of  this  frontier,  lis 
name  is  probably  derived  from  the  river  Melas  which 
empties  mto  the  Euphrates.  Under  Marcus  Aui«ilius 
the.  Legio  XII  fulrmnata  was  stationed  there  (Euse- 
bius,  H.  £.  V.  V,  4) ;  to  this  legion  belonged  the  forty 
martyrs  of  Seoaste.  Ptolemy  (V,  vi,  21)  and  Strabo 
(XII  i,  2, 4;  see  also  XI,  xii,  2;  XI,  xiv,  2)  make  it  one 
of  the  ten  provinces  of  Cappadocia.  Justinian  forti- 
fied it  and  nlled  it  with  magnificent  monuments  (Pro- 
copius,  De  JBdificiis,  III,  4),  which  have  all  disap- 
peared. In  577  the  Romans  gained  a  spreat  victory 
over  the  Persians  in  the  vicinity  of  MeUtene;  two 
years  before  the  city  had  been  burned  by  the  Shah 
Chosroes.  Towards  the  middle  of  the  seventh  cen- 
tury Melitene  again  became  Byzantine;  it  was  after- 
wards taken  by  the  Arabs  and  later  recaptured  by 
Emperor  Gonstantine  Gopronyir  is  in  751.  The  lat- 
ter transported  the  Christian  p  /pulation  to  Thrace, 
dispersed  the  Mussulmans  of  tne  province,  destroyea 
the  city  and  razed  the  walls.  In  760  Caliph  Al-li&n- 
zur  took  possession  of  it  and  restored  to  it  something 
of  its  former  importance.  In  the  tenth  centuiy  the 
Byzantines  re-established  their  domination  and  in  065 
the  Emperor  Nicephorus  Phocas  successfuUy  under- 
took to  colonize  the  reeion.  The  Greek  Government 
had  faithfully  promised  not  to  molest  the  Monophy- 
sites,  whether  Armenian  or  Syrian ;  but  it  did  not  keep 
its  promise.  In  the  eleventh  centuiy  the  city  counted 
no  less  than  fifty-six  churches,  and  was  able  to  furnish 
60,000  armed  men  from  among  its  own  citizens  and 
its  environs,  an  index  of  its  great  prosperity.  The 
number  of  suffragan  sees  increased  at  this  time  and 
was  suddenly  changed  from  three  to  nine  (Gelzer, 
''Ungedruckte  .  .  .  Texte  der  Notitis  episcopa- 
tuum",  570).  The  Monophvsites  had  at  that  time 
seven  sees  in  the  vicinity  of  Melitene  (BarhebrsBUS, 
H.  E.  II,  460).    The  city  fell  afterwards  into  the 

E>wer  of  the  Seljuk  Turks  of  Iconium;  then  of  the 
ongols  in  1235;  of  the  Osmanlis  in  1396;  of  Timur  in 
1401 ;  then  of  different  Turkish  princes.  Finally,  at  the 
beginning  of  the  sixteenth  century  it  was  annexed  to 
the  Ottoman  Empire,  of  which  it  is  still  a  part. 

Christianity  seems  to  have  reached  Melitene  very 
early.  The  Roman  soldier,  St.  Polyeuctus,  immor- 
talized by  Comeille,  was  mart3rred  there  in  254  or  259. 
Another  third  century  martyr  is  known,  St.  Eudoxius, 
whose  relics  were  found  in  966,  as  indicated  by  an 
inscription  carved  on  the  door  of  a  church.  St.  Mele- 
tius^  the  celebrated  Bishop  of  Antioch,  was  a  native  of 
Mehtene,  as  was  also  Saint  Euthymius,  to  whom 
was  chiefly  due  the  organization  of  monastic  life  in 
Palestine  during  the,  fifth  century.  A  council  against 
the  Arians  was  held  there  in  363.  Le  Quien  (Oriens 
Christianus,  I,  439-46)  gives  a  long  list  of  its  Greek 
bishops,  the  last  of  whom  belongs  to  the  year  1193. 
Among  them  are  St.  Acadus,  who  died  about  438; 
and  Saint  Domitian,  first  cousin  to  the  Emperor 
Maurice,  who  played  a  most  important  r61e  in  the  re- 
ligious and  political  life  of  the  second  half  of  the  sixth 
century.  For  its  Jacobite  bishops  see  Le  Quien  (II, 
1451-58)  and  "  Revue  de  I'Orient  chr^tien"  (VI.  201). 
To-day  the  dty  of  Malatia  forms  a  sanjak  of  the  vil- 
Ayet  of  Mamouret-ul-Aziz ;  it  numbers  about  30,000 
inhabitants  of  whom  16,000  are  Turks;  4500  Kurds; 
6500  Kizil  Bach  (a  Mussulman  sect) ;  and  about  3000 
Armenians.  Among  the  last  mentioned  are  800 
Catholics.  The  Capuchins  have  established  there  a 
mission  with  a  church  built  in  1884  and  an  orphan 
asylum.  The  city,  which  was  disturbed  by  an  earth- 
quake in  1893,  was  still  more  sorely  troubled  by  the 
massacres  of  1895,  during  which  500  houses  were 


burned  and  1000  Christians  massacred.  About  five 
miles  from  Malatia  is  the  village  of  EeM-Malatia  on  the 
site  ot  the  ancient  Melitene;  a  j>art  of  the  walls  is  still 
preserved.  The  whole  region  is  like  an  immense  fruit 
garden  in  a  delightful  climate  and  a  'vi^eU-watered  land. 
The  Catholic  l^jrmenian  diocese  numbers  5100  souls, 
9  priests,  10  churches  and  chapels,  7  stations,  9  pri- 
marv  schools,  and  an  establishment  of  Armenian  Sisters 
of  tne  Immaculate  Conception.  The  schismatic  Ar- 
nienian  diocese  is  under  tne  Catholicos  of  Sis.  There 
is  also  established  there  a  Protestant  mission. 

Texibr,  L*Aaie  Mineure  (Paris.  1862).  587-690;  Cuxnit,  La 
Turquie  drAaiSt  II,  369-375;  Piolst.  Le«  mtMaions  eaiholiauca 
Franeaiaea  au  XIX*  aiieU,  I  (Paris,  285-287);  Miasionea  etUho- 
Zu»  (Rome,  1907).  757. 

S.  Vailh£. 

BSdito,  Saint,  Bishop  of  Sardis.  prominent  ec- 
clesiastical writer  in  the  latter  half  of  tne  second  cen- 
tury. Few  details  of  his  life  are  known.  A  letter  of 
Polycrates  of  Ephesus  to  Pope  Victor  about  194 
(Eusebius,  "  Hist.  Eccl. ",  V,  xxiv)  states  that  "  Melito 
the  eunuch  [this  is  interpreted ''  the  virgin  "  by  Rufinus 
in  his  translation  of  Eusebius],  whose  whole  walk  was 
in  the  Holv  Spirit",  was  interred  at  Sardis,  and  had 
been  one  or  the jzreat  authorities  in  the  Church  of  Asia 
who  held  the  Quartodeciman  theory.  His  name  is 
cited  also  in  the  **  Labyrinth  "  of  Hippolytus  as  one  of 
the  second-century  writers  who  tau^nt  the  duality  of 
natures  in  Jesus.  St.  Jerome,  speaking  of  the  canon 
of  Melito,  quotes  Tertullian's  statement  Uiat  he  was 
esteemed  a  prophet  by  many  of  the  faithful. 

Of  Melito^s  numerous  works  almost  all  have  per- 
ished ;  fortunately,  Eusebius  has  preserved  the  names 
of  the  majority  and  given  a  few  extracts  (Hist.  Ekscl., 
IV,  xiii,  XX vi).  They  are  (1)  "An  Apology  for  the 
Christian  Faith  **,  appealing  to  Marcus  Aurelius  to  ex- 
amine into  the  accusations  against  the  Christians  and 
to  end  the  persecution  (written  apparently  about  172, 
or  before  177).  This  is  a  different  work  from  the 
Syriac  apology  attributed  to  Melito,  published  in 
Svriac  and  English  by  Cureton  from  a  British  Museum 
MS.  The  latter,  a  vigorous  confutation  of  idolatry 
and  polytheism  addressed  to  Antoninus  Csesar,  seem  i 
from  internal  evidence  to  be  of  Syrian  ormn,  thougii 
some  authorities  have  identified  it  with  Melito's  n^2 
dXridtlas,  (2)  Utpl  toG  irdurxf^t  on  Easter,  written  prob- 
ably in  167-8.  A  fragment  cited  by  Eusebius  refeia 
to  a  dispute  that  bt>i  broken  out  in  Laodicea  re- 
garding Easter,  bu*.  does  not  mention  the  precise 
matter  in  controversy.  (3)  'EKSoyal,  nix  books  of 
extracts  from  the  Law  and  the  Prophets  concerning 
Christ  and  the  Faith,  the  passage  cited  by  Eusebius 
contains  a  canon  of  the  Old  Testament.  (4)  *H  jcXe/t, 
for  a  long  time  considered  to  be  preserved  in  the 
''Melitonis  clavis  sanctce  scriptures  ,  which  is  now 
known  to  be  an  original  Latin  compilation  of  the 
Middle  Ages.  (5)  Utpl  ipaufidrov  $eoO,  on  the  cor- 
poreity of  God,  of  which  some  Syriac  fragments  have 
oeen  preserved.  It  is  referred  to  by  Origen  (In  Gen., 
i,  26),  as  showing  Melito  to  have  been  an  Anthropc 
morphite,  the  Syriac  fragments,  however,  prove  tnat 
the  author  held  the  opposite  doctrine. 

Fourteen  additional  works  are  cited  by  Eusebius. 
Anastasius  Sinaita  in  his  '0Sriy6s  (P.  G.,  LXXXIX) 

? notes  from  two  other  writings:  E^t  rb  rdBot  (on  the 
assion),  and  II<^2  tf-opjcfdo^cwt  Xpiarov  (on  the  Incarna* 
tion),  a  work  in  three  books,  probably  written  a^inst 
the  Marcionites.  Routh  (see  below)  has  published 
four  scholia  in  Greek  from  a  Catena  on  the  Sacrifice 
of  Isaac  as  typifying  the  Sacrifice  of  the  Cross,  prob- 
ably taken  from  a  corrupt  version  of  the  'ZtcScytU, 
Four  Svriac  fragments  from  works  on  the  Body  and 
Soul,  the  Cross,  and  Faith,  are  apparentlv  composi" 
tions  of  Melito,  though  often  referred  to  Alexander  of 
Alexandria.  Many  spurious  writings  have  been  at' 
tributed  to  Melito  m  addition  to  the  "  Melitonis  clavis 
sanctce  scripturs"  already  mentioned — e.  g.,  a  "Let- 


167 


MXILERAT 


ler  to  EatrepioB",  "Gfttena  in  Apoealypsin",  a  znani- 
fert  foigery  compiled  after  a.  d.  1200;  "De  passione 
3.  Joannis  Evangelists"  (probably  not  earlier  than 
the  seventh  century),  ''De  transitu  Beats  Maris  Vir- 
giois"  (see  Apocrypha  in  I,  607).  MeUto's  feast  is 
observed  on  1  April. 

Babdbxbkwbb,  PatroioQUt  tr.  Sbaban  CSt.  Louis,  1908),  62-3, 
MDUins  a  btbliography  of  the  printed  frasmento;  Salmon  in 
DieL  Ckrut.  Biog.,  a.  v.;  Hbfbub.  Hist,  of  the  Christ,  Council;  tr. 
Cluuc  I  (Edinburgh.  1894),  310-12;  Curxton.  Spicilegium 
Syriaemm  (London,  18&5):  Rodtk,  Rdiq^xa  Sacra,  I  (Oxford, 
1834).  110:  PiTBA,  Spicilepium  SoUamcnte,  II  (Paris.  1854), 
nxvu.  Ixt:  Tiixbiiomt,  MSmoirM,  II  (Paris.  1694),  407.  663; 
Ada  S&,  April,  I,  10-12;  Mdito  of  Sardis  and  hia  Remaim  in 
KxRo.  Jmrnai  <tf  Saend  LiL  (1856HS),  XV.  121;  XVI,  434; 
Zyil.121. 

A.  A.  MacErlban. 

IMk  (MoLCKy  Melucuh),  Abbey  and  Congrega- 
noN  op.--Situated  on  an  isolated  rock  commanding  the 
Danabe,  Melk  has  been  a  noted  place  since  the  days  of 
the  Romans.  A  Slav  settlement,  Magalicha,  replaced 
the  Roman  fort,  and  in  its  turn  was  destroyed  by  a 
Magyar  invasion  about  955,  when  it  received  the  name 
Gisenburg.  The  Magyars,  however,  were  driven  out 
by  Luitpold  the  Illustrious,  first  Margrave  of  Austria, 
who  here  fixed  his  capital  and  foimded  a  church  for 
seeubir  canons.  These  having  become  lax,  were  re- 
placed bv  twelve  monks  of  Subiaco,  whom  Luitpold 
II  brought  from  Lambach  with  Sijibold  as  their  abbot 
in  1089.  Melk  was  much  favoured  by  St.  Luitpold 
III,  and  the  new  foundation  rapidly  grew  and  flour- 
ished, its  com  tithes  beine  so  abundant  that  the  folk- 
name  for  Melk  was  ''at  tne  full  bushel".  It  became 
a  place  oi  pilgrimage  to  the  shrine  of  St.  Coloman,  and 
was  famed  for  its  great  relic  of  the  Holy  Cross.  Bv 
the  fifteenth  century  monastic  observance  at  Melk 
bad  become  relaxed,  but  in  1418,  at  the  request  of 
Albert  V.  Archduke  of  Austria,  Martin  V  sent  the 
Ven.  Nicholas  of  Magen  with  five  other  monks  of 
Subiaco  from  the  Council  of  Constance  to  begin  a  re- 
form of  the  monasteries  of  Lower  Austria.  The  Ab- 
bot of  Melk,  John  of  Fjemming,  voluntarily  resigned, 
and  Nich(das,  elected  in  his  stead,  soon  so  reformed 
the  observance  in  accordance  with  the  constitutions  of 
Subiaco  that  the  abbey  became  a  model  for  other 
houses  in  Austria.  Several  monasteries  followed  its 
example,  amon^  them  ObenbuiKi  Salzburg,  Mariazell, 
the  Scottish  aboey  at  Vienna,  Kremsmunster,  Ratis- 
bon,  and  Tegemsee.  All  these  houses  followed  the 
same  observance  and  styled  themselves  the  Congrega- 
tion of  Melk.  They  in  no  way  depended,  however,  on 
Melk,  nor  had  thev  any  general  superior,  soliciting 
visitors  when  needful  from  the  pope.  The  Abbey  of 
Melk  continued  in  its  first  fervour  of  reform,  and 
several  attempts  were  made  from  1460  onwaids  to 
effect  a  more  formal  imion.  In  1470  seventeen  ab- 
bots of  various  neighbouring  dioceses  met  at  Erfurt 
and  decided  to  establish  in  their  monasteries  the  com- 
mon observance  and  ceremonial  of  Melk.  Nothing 
more  definite  occurred  imtil  Caspar,  Abbot  of  Melk,  in 
1618  invited  the  abbots  of  Austria  to  meet  at  Melk  and 
form  a  congregation.  The  negotiations  continued  un- 
til 1623,  wnen  the  Abbots  of  Melk,  Kremsmunster, 
Garsten,  the  Scots'  Abbey  of  Vienna,  Altenburg, 
Qdttweich  and  Mariazell  signed  the  constitutions 
agreed  upon  for  the  new  ccmgr^ation.  These  were 
confirmed  by  Urban  VIII  in  1625.  In  addition  the 
congregation  included  the  houses  of  Lambach,  Monsee, 
Leittemitaden  and  IGeinck.  It  was  governed  bv  a 
superior  general,  elected  ever^  two  years,  who  acted  as 
visitor  <x  all  tne  monasteries  of  the  congregation. 
Each  province  also  had  its  own  visitor.  In  1630 
there  was  an  attempt  to  form  a  imited  congregatipn  of 
all  the  monasteries  of  the  empire,  but  the  Swedish  in- 
vasion frustrated  this  project,  though  many  of  the 
Gennan  monasteries  thenceforth  otServed  the  con- 
stitutions of  Melk.  In  the  fourteenth  century  Melk, 
bypermiaeion  of  Duke  Frederic  I,  had  been  fortified. 
Alia  was  thus  able  to  resist  successive  sieges  by  Matthias 


Corvinus,  by  the  revolted  peasantry,  bv  the  Protes* 
tant  States  of  Austria  and  by  the  Turks,  thoi^h  on 
each  occasion  the  property  of  the  abbey  sunered. 
Great  losses,  too,  were  sustained  at  the  h^^ds  of  Na- 
poleon's troops.  In  1889  the  Abbey  of  Melk  was  in- 
cluded by  Leo  XIII  in  the  Austrian  Congregation  of 
the  Inunaculate  Conception.  In  1905  the  congr^n^ 
tion  numbered  85,  of  whom  75  were  priests.  Tne 
present  abbot,  Joseph  Charles  (b.  1824,  appointed 
1875),  exercises  jurisdiction  over  29  parishes,  with 

45,145  souls. 

Annalea  MeUieefuetj  ed.  Wattbnbach.  in  Psitn,  Mon, 
Germ.  Hist.  Script.,  IX  (Hanover,  1851),  480-535;  BBBUkRB. 
La  riforme  de  Melk  au  XV*  Siide  in  Revue  Bin/dictine,  XII 
(1805),  204>13,  289-309:  Heimbucher,  Die  Orden  ttnd  Kon- 
gregaiionen  dcr  Katholiechen  Kirche,  I  (Pa.derix>m,  1907),  286- 
95,344;  HtLTOT,  I>ic£ionna»r0ciM  .  .  .  ordresrelti^eua;,  II  (Paris* 
1863),  1033-39;  Katscbthalbr,  Meik  (Vienna,  1905);  Keib- 
hiNaKn,Oe»chiehte dee Benediktinerstifta Melk  (Vienna,  1851-69); 
Kropf,  Bibliotheca  MeUicenaia  (Vienna,  1747) ;  Mabxllon,  An- 
nalee  O.  S.  B.^V  (Lucca,  1740),  248-9;  Pes,  Ephemeridee  rerum 
in  Monaateno  MeUicenei  .  .  .  oestarum  .  .  .  1741-46,  ed. 
Staufer  in  Studien  O.  8.  B.,  VIII-X  (1886-9);  Schramb, 
Chronieon  Af«l/tcen«e  (Vienna,  1702):  WolfborCbkrano  HCbl* 
AUeien  unde  KloaUr  m  CSaterreich  (Vienna,  n.  d.). 

Leslie  A.  St.  L.  Toke. 

MeUeray  (Melleabium),  situated  in  Brittany 
(Loire-Inf^rieure),  Diocese  of  Nantes,  in  the  vicinity 
of  Chateaubriand,  was  founded  about  the  year  1134. 
Foulques,  Abbot  of  Pontron,  in  Anjou,  founded  from 
Loroux  (a  daughter  of  Ctteaux),  sent  monks  for  the 
foundation  of  a  monastery  in  Brittany.  They  were 
delighted  with  the  solitude  of  a  place  near  Old  MeUe- 
ray, shown  them  by  Rivallon,  pastor  of  Auvem4, 
which  Alain  de  Moisdon,  proprietor  of  the  place,  do- 
nated to  them.  Guitem,  the  first  abbot,  erectea  tiie 
original  monastery  in  1145,  but  the  church  was  not 
completed  until  1183,  under  Geffroy,  the  fourth 
abbot.  MeUeray,  a  smaU  monastery  buUt  for  about 
twelve  religious,  remained  regular  imtil  during  the 
sixteenth  and  seventeenth  centuries,  when  relaxa- 
tion prevailed  as  a  result  of  the  acquisition  of  great 
wealth  and  the  introduction  of  the  S3rstem  of  com- 
mendatory abbots.  Etienne  de  Brea6  (1544)  was 
the  first  commendatory  abbot,  and  from  his  time 
both  spiritual  and  temporal  welfare  decUned,  until 
toward  the  end  of  the  seventeenth  century  when, 
through  the  efforts  of  Dom  Jouard,  vicar-general  of 
the  order,  the  rule  of  St.  Bernard  was  re-introduced, 
and  the  monastic  buildings  restored.  In  1791  it  was 
suppressed,  and  the  few  reUgious  were  dispersed. 
This,  however,  was  not  the  end  of  MeUeray.  Tlie 
Trappists,  expeUed  from  France,  took  refuge  at  Val 
Sainte,  Switzerland;  from  there,  urged  by  their  rapid 
increase,  and  for  fear  of  the  spread  of  the  revolution, 
Dom  Augustine  de  Lestrange  established  them  in 
various  parts  of  the  world.  Tnrough  the  generosity  of 
Sir  Thomas  Weld,  a  wealthy  English  (^thoUc,  the 
father  of  Cardinal  Weld,  they  settled  (1795)  at  Lul- 
worth,  Dorsetshire,  England.  Their  monastery  was 
soon  created  an  abbey,  and  Dom  Antoine  was  elected 
the  first  abbot  (1813).  In  1817,  with  changed  condi- 
tions and  the  restoration  of  the  Bourbons,  Sie  monks 
of  Lulworth  returned  ^o  MeUeray.  The  restored  ab- 
bey flourished,  increasing  from  fiftynseven  to  one 
hundred  and  ninety-two  members  in  twelve  years. 
During  the  Revolution  of  1830  they  were  again  perse- 
cuted, especially  those  of  foreign  birth,  of  whom  they 
had  a  great  number.  To  ma&  homes  for  these  they 
founded  Mount  MeUeray  (1833)  in  Ireland  and  Mount 
Saint  Bernard  (1835)  in  England.  Dom  Antoine  (d. 
1839)  was  succeeded  first  by  Dom  Maxime,  then  bv  a 
second  Dom  Antoine,  and  finallv  by  Dom  Eugene 
Vachette,  the  present  abbot.  Under  Dom  Antoine  IT 
several  monasteries  were  established,  among  them 
Gethsemani,  in  the  United  States.  Dom  Eugdne. 
elected  in  1875,  was  for  many  years  the  vicar-general 
of  the  Congregation  of  La  Grande  Trappe,  and  was 
instrumental  in  effecting  the  reunion  of  the  three  con- 
gregations into  one  order  (1892).    Sinoe  then  he  has 


MTSTJiTiRAY  168-  BOLLITUS 

been  vicar  to  the  Most  Reverend  General  of  the  Re-  MoUifont,  Abbbt  of,  three  miles  from  Droghed% 

formed  Cistercians.    Recently  he  has  established  an  Co.  Louth,  Diocese  of  Armagh,  was  the  first  CisterdaD 

annex  to  his  monasteiy  in  Woodbarton,  Diocese  of  monastery  established  in  Ireland.    In  the  year  1140, 

Plymouth,  England.  St.  Malacny,  en  route  for  Rome,  visited  St.  Beraard  at 


Melusbat,  Moxtnt. — Situated  on  the  slopes  of  the  Clairvaux,  imd  was  so  edified  that  he  resolved  to 
Knockmealdown  Mountains,  near  Cappoquin,  Diocese  tablish  a  similar  monastery  in  his  own  diocese  of  Ar- 
of  Waterford,  Ireland,  was  founded  m  1833.  Father  magh.  He  therefore  left  several  of  his  companions 
Vincent  Ryan  was  chosen  leader  of  the  relif^ious  sent  at  Clairvaux,  to  make  their  novitiate  under  the  direc- 
by  Dom  Antoine,  Abbot  of  Melleray,  for  this  founda-  tion  of  St.  Bernard.  In  1142  they  retiuned  to  found 
tion.  After  max^  efforts  to  locate  lus  community  he  Mellifont  under  Christian  O'Conarchy,  who  had  been 
accepted  the  offer  of  Sir  Richard  Keane,  of  Cappoquin,  Archdeacon  of  Down,  and  who  became  the  first  abbot, 
to  rent  a  tract  of  barren  mountain  waste,  some  five  A  French  monk.  Father  Robert,  an  able  architect,  di- 
himdred  acres,  subsequentl^r  increased  to  seven  him-  lected  the  construction  of  the  monastic  buildings  ao- 
dred.  In  the  work  of  reclaiming  the  soil,  they  were  cording  to  the  plans  of  the  Abbey  of  Clairvaux.  The 
assisted  by  the  country  folk;  entire  parishes,  led  bv  consecration  of  the  churoh  in  1157  was  the  occasion  of 
their  pastors,  came,  each  in  turn,  to  give  free  a  full  great  religious  celebrations.  So  numerous  were  the 
day's  work.  In  1833  the  comer-stone  was  laid  by  Sir  postulants  that  six  important  monasteries  were  founded 
Richard  Keane,  in  the  presence  of  the  bishop  and  a  during  the  first  ten  years:  Bective  (1 146)  ;Bovle  (1148); 
large  concourse  of  clergy  and  people.  In  1835  the  Monastemenagh  (H^S)*  Baltinglas  (1148};  Schrule 
monastery  was  created  an  abbey,  and  Father.Vincent,  (1150);  Newry  (1153).  ^  In  1150  the  venerable  Ab- 
unanimously  elected,  received  the  abbatial  blessing  bot  Christian  was  appointed  Bishop  of  Lismore,  and 
from  Dr.  Abraham,  bishop  of  the  diocese,  this  being  Pope  Eugene  III.  who  had  been  his  fellow-novice  at 
iiiB  first  abbatial  blessing  m  Lneland  since  the  Refor-  Clairvaux,  namea  him  legate  for  Ireland.  Soon  after 
mation.  Abbot  Vincent  vigorously  imdertook  the  his  death  (1186)  his  name  was  inscribed  in  the  calen- 
work  of  completing  the  abbey,  but  died  9  Dec,  1845.  dar  of  the  saints,  and  he  has  long  been  venerated  as 
Under  the  short  rule  of  his  successor,  Dom  M.  Joseph  one  of  the  most  powerful  protectors  of  his  country. 
Ryan,  but  little  was  accomplished,  as  he  resigned  after  His  brother  Malchus.  equally  illustrious  for  his  science 
only  two  years.  To  Dom  Bruno  Fitspatrick,  who  sue-  and  sanctity,  succeeaednim.  For  sixty  years  Mellif <nit 
ceeded  as  abbot  in  September,  1848,  it  remained  to  rejoiced  in  great  prosperity,  and  when  the  Knglish  in- 
consolidate  and  perfect  the  work  so  well  beRun.  He  vaded  Ireland  there  were  already  twenty-five  great 
also  founded,  in  1849,  the  monastery  of  New  Melleray,  Cistercian  abbeys.  During  the  thirteentn  and  four- 
near  Dubuque,  Iowa,  U.  S.  A.,  and,  in  1878,  Mount  teenth  centuries  the  rivalries  between  the  Knglish  and 
Saint  Joseph,  Roscrea,  Co.  Tipperaiy,  Ireland.  But  Irish  exerted  a  baneful  influence,  peace  gave  way  to 
the  most  conspicuous  of  Abbot  Bruno's  works  was  the  discord,  and  in  more  than  one  case  the  general  chap- 
founding  of  the  Ecclesiastical  Seminary  of  Mount  ter,  and  even  the  sovereisn  pontiff,  were  forced  to  in- 
MeUeray.  Originating  in  a  small  school  formed  by  tervene.  Not  until  the  fifteenth  century  did  MeUifont 
Abbot  Vincent  in  1843,  it  was  developed  by  Abbot  regain  its  ancient  prestige,  which  was  maintained  until 
Bruno  and  his  successors,  imtil  it  attained  its  present  its  suppression  by  Henry  VlII  on  23  July,  1539,  when 
nmk.  Abbot  Bruno  died  4  Dec,  1893,  and  was  sue-  one  hundred  and.  fifty  monks  were  compelled  to  leave 
ceeded  by  Dom  Carthage  Delaney,  who  was  blessed  15  with  Richard  Contour,  the  last  Abbot  of  MeUifont. 
Jan.,  1894,  and  i)resided  over  Moimt  Melleray  for  The  king  seized  the  treasures 'of  the  abbey,  and  the 
thirteen  years;  his  successor,  Dom  Maurus  Phelan,  annals  were  either  lost  or  destroyed,  and  with  them 
solemnly  blessed  by  Dr.  Sheahan,  Bishop  of  Water-  the  names  of  many  remarkable  men.  Several  relig- 
ford,  15  Aug.,  1908,  is  ^e  present  abbot.  The  com-  ious  continued  to  hve  in  the  environs,  which  explains 
munity  numbers  thirty-eight  choir  religious  (oi  whom  why,  in  1623.  the  title  of  Abbot  of  ^  Mellifont  was 
twenty-nine  are  priests)  and  twenty-nine  lay  brothers,  granted^  by  Apostolic  Brief,  to  Patrick  Bamewall, 

Mellerat,  New. — ^Moimt  Melleray  having  become  and  agam  m  1648  to  John  Devreux  when  the  title  di»- 

crowded,  it  was  decided  to  attempt  a  new  foundation,  appears.    In  1566  the  abbey,  with  its  dependencies. 

While  plans  were  being  discussed.  Bishop  Lorans,  of  was  given  to  Edward  Moore,  chief  of  the  family  Dro- 

Dubuoue,  Iowa,  visited  the  abbey  (1849).    He  ex-  gheda,  and  passed,  in  1727,  to  Balfour  of  Townley 

pressea  a  strong  desire  to  have  a  colony  of  Trappists  Hall,  during  whose  term  of  ownership  all  fell  to  the 

in  his  diocese,  and  offered  a  tract  of  land  about  twelve  speedy  decay  and  desolate  ruin  of  the  present  day. 

miles  from  Dubuque.    Abbot  Bruno  immediately  Hennbssbt.  MeUxforu  Abbey,  lu  Ruvm  and  AsaoeiatumM 

Bent  two  of  his  «li«ou8  to  inspect  the  Und  and  re-  J^l^lT^^C^SS.  ^ jrkSr^BnfiSJJ^ 

Ceivin^  a  favoiuable  report,  he  accepted  the  offer.  Ci«im:tamH»6«rnorumVm«7Ht««tri5ii«  (Dublin.  1895);  JoNOB- 

Later  m  the  same  year  he  laid  the  foundation  of  New  linus,  Notitim  AbbaHarum  O.  Ciai.  (Coloime.  1840);  Jamau- 

Melleray  Abbey    appointmg    as  its  fi«t  ^^nois  ^^^S^JS^L^ttJ^^ 

Father  James   O'(iorman    (later  consecrated   first  «iu»num.  VI.  part  2i(Loiicion,  iteo);  Abchdall,  MomuUeum 

Bishop    of    Omaha,    Nebraska).    Father    Clement  Hibemicum  (London,  178S). 

Smyth,  the  third  superior,  was  also  elected  bishop,  Edmond  M.  Obbbcht, 
being  placed  in  charge  of  the  Diocese  of  Dubuque.   In 

1859  the  monastery  was  made  an  abbey,  and  Father  Mellitus,  Saint,  Bishop   of  London  and  third 

Ephraim  McDonald   elected   its  first  abbot.    The  Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  d.  24  April,  624.    He  was 

second  abbot,  still  in  office,  is  Dom  Alberic  Dunlea,  the  leader  of  the  second  band  of  missionaries  whom  St. 

whose  community  now  numbers  thirty-six  members.  Gregory  sent  from  Rome  to  join  St.  Augustine  at  Can- 

Manbiqub,  AnnflfoaC»«<«r»«Me«(l>on8. 1642);  Jahauschbk,  terbury  in  601.    Venerable  Bede  (Hist.  Eod.,  II.  vu) 

Onoinum  CiaUrcimium  (Vienna,  1877):  Hauh£au.  GoUuxCArw-  describes  Hirn  as  of  noble  birth,  and  as  he  is  Styled  ab- 

fe?^5iS^>fi'^?i^J3S^V"iSrr8^)fS2^:  ^  by  the  poi«  (Epp^  Gregorii   «   M,  W),  it  is 

BOW.  UAJbbaue  de  MdUrayavasU  la  Rivolutum  (St.  Brieuc.  thought  he  may  have  been  Abbot  of  the  M<mM(tery  of 


Omndmaimm  y  Bruno  (Paria.  1852);  Arehtve9  of  MowU  Melle-  tory  epistles  of  the  pope  recommencUng  MellltUS  and 

rtn/:  Rtan,  Hxti.  o/  the  Foundation  and  First  Sue  Yeart  of  Mt.  }ug  companions  to  various  Gallic  bishops  have  been 

Chrwdogioa  MonaM,S.  Crucia,  ed.  Murpht  (Dublin.  1801);  also  "all  thmgs  needed  for  divme  worship  and  the 

RpBBRT.ConciMHMf.  ofth^Cuiercian  Order  (London,  1852).  Church's  service^  viz.  sacred  vessels  and  altar  cloths, 

^pMQ^rn  M.  Ob^c^.  veiitments  for  pnest?  ^d  derios,  an^  alsQ  r^ll^s  qf  ^ 


160  IBLOZZO 

h^  apostles  and  martyrs,  with  many  books"  (Bede,  most  of  the  inhabitants,  a  lai^  and  the  most  impoiv 

"  Hist.  Ecd/'y  I,  29).  tant  element  of  whom  are  Brazilians,  being  engaged  in 

The  consecration  of  Mellitus  as  bishop  by  Augustine  cattle  breeding.    The  town  of  Melo,  founded  m  1796, 

took  place  soon  after  his  arrival  in  England,  and  his  is  the  capital  of  Cerro  Largo  and  contains  about  7000 

first  missionary  efforts  were  among  the  East  Saxons,  persons.    It  is  situated  near  the  Tacumari  River  about 

Their  king  was  Sabert,  neohew  to  Ethelbert,  King  of  315  miles  north  of  Montevideo.    It  has  a  fine  church 

Kent,  and  by  his  support  Mellitus  was  able  to  estab-  and  also  a  pretty  chapel  of  our  Lady  of  Mt.  Carmel. 

lish  his  see  m  London,  the  East  Saxon  capital,  and  Artigas  (2500  inhabitants)  lies  60  miles  north  of  Melo, 

build  there  the  church  of  St.  Paul.    On  the  death  of  on  the  Brazilian  frontier.    San  Fructuoso,  the  capi- 

Sabert  his  sons,  who  had  refused  Christianity,  gave  tal  of  Tacuaremb6,  has  about  3000  inhabitants.    Tne 

Gtrmission  to  their  people  to  worship  idols  once  more,  other  centres  of  population  are  little  more  than  hamlets. 
Oreover,  on  seeing  Mellitus  celebrating  Mass  one  day.         Handbook  of  Urrtouay.    But.  of  Ota  Amer.  Rep.  (Waahioffton, 

the  young  princes  3emanded  that  he  should  jpve  them  '^•J'S'^'^  ^^^^VS  "SSS^i^  'aSSST'oSSSS 

also  the  white  bread  which  he  had  been  wont  to  give  MuiaxLL,  Handbook  ofUu  River  Plate  Republiee  (London.  1805). 

their  father.    When  the  saint  answered  them  that  A.  A.  MacErlean. 

this  was  impossible  until  they  had  received  Christian 

baptism,  he  was  banished  from  the  kingdom.    Melli-        Meloa,  a  titular  see,  suffragan  of  Naxos  in  the  Cy- 

tus  went  to  Kent,  where  similar  difficulties  had  ensued  clades.    The  name  seems  to  have  been  derived  from  a 

upon  the  death  of  Ethelbert,  and  thence  retu«d  to  Phcenician  navigator,  M^Xot,  though  others  ascribe  it 

Gaul  about  the  year  616.  to  its  rounded  or  apple  shape,  M^Xoy.   The  island  has 

After  an  absence  of  about  a  year,  Mellitus  was  re-  bad  different  names:  Zephyria,  Memblis,  Mimallis,  Si- 
called  to  Kent  by  Laurentius,  Augustine's  successor  in  phis,  Acyton,  BybUs,  etc.  The  Phoenicians  seem  to 
the  See  of  Canterbury.  Matters  had  improved  in  that  Have  been  the  first  to  colonize  the  island;  then  came 
kingdom  owing  to  the  conversion  of  the  new  king  Ead-  the  Dorians  from  Laconia  in  the  twelfth  century  b.  c. 
baM,  but  Mellitus  was  never  able  to  regain  possession  This  Dorian  colony  lasted  for  seven  hundred  years, 
of  his  own  See  of  London.  In  619  Laurentius  died,  and  when  the  Athenians,  jealous  of  their  fidelity  to  the 
Mellitus  was  chosen  archbishop  in  his  stead.  He  ap-  Spartans,  took  possession  of  the  island  in  416  B.  c.  All 
pears  never  to  have  received  the  pallium,  though  he  r^  the  men  were  massacred  and  replaced  by  five  hundred 
tained  the  see  for  five  years — a  fact  which  may  ao-  Athenian  colonists ;  the  women  and  children  were  car- 
count  for  his  not  consecrating  any  bishops.  During  ried  captive  to  Attica.  Later  on,  when  these  children 
this  time  he  suffered  constantly  from  ill-health.  He  were  grown,  they  returned  to  occupy  the  island.  Melos 
consecrated  a  chmtsh  to  the  Blessed  Mother  of  God  in  then  passed  under  the  domination  of  the  Macedonians, 
the  monastery  of  SS.  Peter  and  Paul  at  Canterbury,  then  under  that  of  the  Romans,  and  finally  imder  that 
and  legend  attributes  to  him  the  foundation  of  the  Ab-  of  the  Byzantines,  who  retained  possession  of  it  until 
bey  of  St.  Peter  at  Westminster,  but  this  is  almost  cer-  1207,  when  Marco  Sanudo  annexed  it  to  the  Italian 
tamly  incorrect.  Among  the  many  miracles  recorded  Duchy  of  Naxos.  In  1537  it  was  taken  by  the  corsair 
of  Hitn  is  the  quelling  of  a  great  fire  at  Canterbury  Barbarossa  and  joined  to  the  Ottoman  Empire.  The 
which  threatened  to  destroy  the  entire  city.  The  island  continued  to  prosper,  serving  as  a  market  and 
sainty  although  too  ill  to  move,  had  himself  carried  to  even  as  a  refuge  to  the  corsairs  of  the  West,  especially 
the  spot  where  the  fire  was  raging  and,  in  answer  to  the  French;  it  was  so  until  the  eighteenth  century, 
his  prayer,  a  strong  wind  arose  which  bore  the  flames  when  it  began  to  decline  because  of  a  volcano  which 
souUiwaids  away  from  the  city.  Mellitus  was  buried  arose  in  the  vicinity.  From  20,000  inhabitants  the 
in  the  monastexy  of  SS.  Peter  and  Paul,  afterwards  population  decreased  to  about  2000;  united  to  Greece 
St.  Augustine's,  Canterbury.  Some  relics  of  the  saint  m  1827  the  island  now  contains  5000  souls.  The  chief 
were  preserved  in  London  m  1298.  The  most  reliable  town,  called  Plaka,  possesses  a  very  fine  harbour; 
account  of  his  life  is  that  avea  by  Bede  in  "  Hist,  nearby  are  the  ruins  of  ancient  Melos,  with  a  ceme- 
EocL",  I,  29,  30;  II,  3-7.  K|VnhftTn  in  his  "Historia  tery,  two  citadels,  a  temple  of  Dionysius,  a  necrop- 
Mooasterii  S.  Augustini  Cantuar.",  edited  by  Hard-  ohs,  and  a  theatre.  Near  the  theatre  was  foimd  m 
wide,  gives  many  additi(Mial  details,  but  the  authen-  1820  the  celebrated  Venus  of  Melos,  now  at  the  Mu- 
tidty  of  these  is  more  than  questionable.  His  feast  seum  of  the  Louvre  at  Paris,  the  work  of  a  sculptor  of 
is  observed  on  April  24.  Antioch  on  the  Meander,  in  the  second  century  b.  c. 

BsDB.  HUL  Bed.,  I.  xnx.  xxx;  II.  iu-vii.  in  P.  L.,  XCViAda  The  earliest  known  Bishop  of  Melos,  Eutychius,  as- 

S8.,  April.  III.  280;  Baronius.  Ann.  Bed.  (Rome.  1599).  ad  Bisted  at  the  Sixth  CEcumemcal  Council  m  681.    Le 

ui.  (124;  Caporatb.  Nova  Ugenda  Aneiia  (London.  1616)., 228;  Quien  (Oriens  Christianus,  I,  945)  mentions  a  number 

Greai  Briiam.lU  (Oxfoitl.  1871),  62-71;  Hardy,  DeacnpStw  ofGreektltulars,^peciallyatthe  beginning  of  the  SIX- 
^  fc,««     ...     .    .,    'ieuny  of  Great  Britain  and  teenth  Century,  after  the  expulsion  of  the  Venetians. 


t^B^,A*wiuu,  xow.  1.  *xir^x«ji  oLAtuiAMK,  ij^Q  urccK  aiocese  was  a  sunragan  oi  itnoaes.    a  very 

.  .,  -.^iSld^:;  (ffloi''  liwTiTS^^SSS:  long  li?t  of  the  Latin  reeidentlkror  titular  biahope  & 

unrn,  Bnfannta  Auida,  I  (London.  1745),  255-258.  found  m  Le  Qmen,  op.  cit..  Ill,  1055-58,  and  m  Eubel, 

G.  RoGEB  HuDLSBTON.  "Hierarchia  Cathohca  medii  »vi",  Munich,  I,  355; 

II,  21 1 .     Melos  had  Latin  bishops  until  1700,  in  which 

MUo,  DiociBS  OF,  in  Uruguay.    It  was  decided  in  year  Jobn  Anthony  de  Camillis  died.    The  see  was 

1897  to  erect  two  sees  suffragan  to  Montevideo,  one  Iben  joined  to  that  of  Naxos  until  1830,  when  the 

of  whkh  was  to  be  Melo,  but,  owing  to  political  causes,  island  was  made  a  part  of  the  Diocese  of  Santorin. 

no  i^pointments  have  been   made  as  yet.    How-  The  Bishop  of  Santorin  now  ministers  to  the  few 

ever,  negotiations  for  a  renewal  of  diplomatic  re-  Catholics  who  live  there.      _       .,  _     , 

lation.  betweea  the  RepubUc  and  the  fiolv  See  an,  d^^^'^tlt^^^lSH^^^^^' "^^'''''■'- 

now  m  promss,  and  as  the  recognition  of  the  new  S.  Vailh^. 
dioceses  hy  tne  State  is  a  condition  of  their  resumption, 

this  probably  will  be  shortly  accorded.    The  Diocese  Meleuo  da  Forli,  an  Italian  painter  of  the  Um- 

of  Melo  is  to  embrace  the  north-eastern  part  of  Uru-  brian  School,  b.  at  Forll,  1438;  d.  there  1494.    Laiud's 

guay  and  so  will  include,  in  piut  or  in  whole,  the  De-  suggestion  that  Melozzo  studied  imder  Ansuino  da 

partaents  of  Cerro  Largo,  Riviera,  Tacuaremb6,  and  Fonl  appears  to  rest  on  no  foundation.     Little  is 

Tremta  y  Tres.    This  r^on  has  an  area  of  about  known  of  this  Ansuino,  save  the  slight  part  he  took  in 

19,600  square  miles;  the  population,  practically  all  the  frescoes  of  the  Eremitani  Chapel  at  Padua,  which 

Catholie,  barely  numbers  145,000  a906).    The  dis-  were  finished  prior  to  1400.    He  would  thus  have 

triet  18  veiy  fertile,  but  there  is  little  agriculture,  brought  to  his  pupfl  the  teachings  of  Mantegna,  but  it 


KKL&OSI  1' 

b  more  probable  that  Uelouo  fell  under  no  influence 
other  than  that  of  Piero  delk  Franceses.    Piero  was  al- 
ways engrossed  with  perepective,  and  has  even  left  us  a 
treatise  on  it ;  therefore  it  is  to  him  that  Meloiio  owes 
his  mastery  of  the  subject,  as  well  as  his  love  for  large 
tableaux  and  the  heroic  character  of  his  work.    Me- 
loEio  was  one  of  the  artiste  summoned  to  the  Court  of 
Urbino  by  the  magnificent  Signor  Federigo  da  Monte- 
feltro,  to  whom  perhaps  he  was  introduced  by  Gio- 
vanni Sauti,  the  father  of  Raphael.     None  of  the 
worit  he  did  there   has  reached  us.     However,   the 
Barfoerini  Palace  (Rome)  contains  a  part  of  the  Vt- 
bino  series,  and  among  them  a  few  pictures  that 
adorned   the  duke's   study  and  which,  like  the  in- 
crustations,   date   from    1476.    The    "  Federigo    in 
armour,  with  his  Son  Guidobaldo"  is  attributed  to 
UeloHo.     A  charming   bust   "  Guidobaldo,   when   a 
child",  in  the  Coloona  Palace,  is  attributed  by  some 
to  Giovanni  Santi,  but  Berenaon  thinks  it  a  MpIozeo. 
The  famous  allegories  of  the  "Arts"  and  "Sciences" 
(two   paintings   in    Berlin    and 
two  in  London)  and  the  busts 
of  the  "Philosophers"   (in  the 
Louvre  and   in   the   Barberini), 
formerly  in  Federigo's  palace,  are 
probably  not  by  Meloiiobut  by 
the  Fleminff,   Justus  of   Ghent. 
It  was  doubtless  through  Fede- 
rigo that  the  artist  was  recom- 
mended to  Sixtus  IV.    The  im- 
portance of  this  pope's  part  in 
the  histoiy  of  art  is  well  known, 
for  be  was  the  first  of  the  Reoais- 
aance  popes,  the  herald  of  Julius 
II  and  Leo  X,  and  the  founder 
of  the  Sixtine  Chapel  and  the 
Vatican  Library.    Meloiio  be- 
came  more   or  less   his   official 
painter.    With  him  he  opened 
the  Academy  of  St.  Luke, 

The  Sixtine  chapel  was  alreadv 
decorated  when  HetoiBO  arrived, 
but  the  pope  associated  him  with 
two  other  great  undertAkings.  In 
1477  he  ordered  him  to  paint  a 
picture  commemorating  the  in- 
auguration of  the  Vatican.     This 
fresco,  now  in  the  Pinacoteca  of 
the  Vatican,  shows  the  juriscon- 
sult Platina  kneeling  before  the  ^ 
popeaiuireceiying  from  him  the         Mel«»d.FoHi,   "" 
keys  of  the   library.     Grouped 
around  are  the  pope's  four  nephews,  amon|{  whom 
are  the  prothonotary,  Giulio  Riario,  ina  monk's  robe, 
and  Cardinal  Giuliano  dclla  Rovere,  the  future  Julius 
II.    The  scene  is  set  in  a  hall  of  marvellous  Renaia- 
aance  style.     The   beauty  of  the  architecture,  the 
splendour  of  the  decoration,  the  vigour  of  the  por- 
traits, the  calm  and  dignity  of  the  composition,  and 
the  importance  of  the  penons  it  deeds  with,  make 
this  magnificent  work  an  mcomparable  paee  of  history. 
Art  has  no  creation  of  mora  unconstrained  majesty,  so 


the  pontiff,  who  was  the  first  to  make  Rome  the  capital 
of  the  arts,  and  the  intellectual  metropolis  of  the  world, 
to  crown  it  with  the  sciences  and  the  masterpieces  of 
art  and  to  invent  nepotism.  Sixtus  IV  also  com- 
manded Uelosio  to  paint  an  "Ascension"  for  the 
choir  of  the  church  of  the  Apostles.  It  was  a  re- 
markable painting  and  Vaaan  speaks  admiringly  of 
it.  but  unfortunately  it  was  destroyed  in  17II  when 
Clement  IX  enlarged  the  choir.  He  was  unwilling, 
however,  that  such  a  work  of  art  should  be  completely 
lost,  so  a  few  detached  figures  from  the  group  were 
saved,  of  which  that  of  "  Christ  Triumphant "  may  be 
seen  on  the  Quirinal  staiicaae.    It  ia  one  of  the  eariiest 


O  HKLROn 

known  examples  of  perspective  applied  to  the  human 
figure  on  roof  or  oeiling  decoration ;  that  is  to  say,  a 
figure  viewed  from  below.  This  Foteshort«ned  method, 
a  great  novelty  at  that  time,  has  been  sutpassed  a 
hundredfold,  and  by  third-rat«  paintere,  since  the  day 
of  Corrcggio, 

Meloiio's  chief  merit  is  that  he  created  a  type  of 
supple  and  nobly  sensuous  juvenile  beauty,  and  gave 
expreasioD  to  it  with  inspired  ease  and  lyric  swing. 
This  quality  stan<ls  out  more  prominently  in  other 
fragments  of  the  same  fresco,  preeerved  in  the  large? 
sacristy  at  St.  Peter's,  especially  in  the  choral  an^eU, 
whose  faces  are  irresistible.  No  artist  of  that  period, 
and  very  few  since,  would  have  been  able  to  conceive 
these  poetical  and  vigorous  forms,  in  which  womanly 
charm  blends  with  v^e  strength,  which  are  so  full  oif 
health,  joy  of  life,  movement,  and  passion.  This  won- 
derful work  was  executed  in  1482.  A  less  important 
one  (1478),  of  "Christ  as  Judge  of  the  World",  can  be 
seen  in  the  Minerva.  This  power  of  giving  pleasing 
expression  to  a  life  full  of  rich- 
nPss  and  harmony,   this  incom- 

Not 


parable  gift  of  plasticity, 

*--  "-'o«ao  a  place  apart. 

t  and,  especially,  i 


for  MeloKio  a  pi 
so  great  and,  especially,  not  M 
profound  as  Hantegna  or  Sig- 
norelli,  he  has    nevertheleas  a 


truly  Italian  charm  all  bis  own, 
In  which  the  other  two  maateia 
are  lacking.  This  cbatm  be 
knew  how  to  utDiie  even  in  de- 
picting the  everyday  occurrences 
of  life.  To  illustrate  this,  Vasari 
cites  in  the  treaco  work  of  the 
church  of  the  Apostles  a  frieie  of 
vine^atherers  which  resembles 
the  genre  painting  of  Benouo 
GosEOti  (see  bis  fresco  in  the 
CampoSantoatPisa),  but  which 
is  treated  with  quite  a  new  power 
and  with  all  the  grace  and  tech- 
nique of  a  painter  of  geniua. 
This  frieie  has  been  lost,  but  wft 
can  imagine  what  it  was  like  from 
a  little  picture  in  the  CoUt^  of 
Forll  which  showsadrumBt'Bap- 
prentice  ( "  Pesta,  Pepc^  pound- 
mg  sugar  in  a  mortar,  Neverwas 
the  joy  of  living  expresaed  in  ao 
bewitching  a  manner.  The  paint- 
ings in  tw  Treasury  Chapel  at 
Loretto  were  merely  outlined 
and  begun  by  Meloaio ;   their  execution  is  almost  en- 


N&lioDaJ  Gallery.  LondoD 


Vasari.  ad.  MiLAin 


I  (Fkonon.  1878):    Crowb   i 


Le  Cii^rmt.  Ft.  U.  (Pui..  1W2): 
Ht-HKiRiow,  MOamaar'orH  (Bcrliii,  1886);  SramttMti.  Bom 
in  dfr  Renaitmna:  (Leip»«,  1899):  Berenhh,  T**  Carinl 
Italian  pantrri  of  tilt  Rrruuttanee  (3nl  ed,.  undoD  and  N«w 
York.  1900);  Rica,  ifiioBodaforll  CRone.  in  pn-). 

LODIS  GlLLBT. 

Hslioao,  Abbet  or,  in  Roxburghshire,  founded  io 
1136  by  King  David  I,  was  the  earliest  Cistercian  mon- 
astery estabbshed  in  Scotland.  Its  first  community 
came  from  Rielvaux,  the  Yorkshire  house  colotiizec' 
from  Ctteaux.  In  less  than  ten  years  St.  Mary's  Ab- 
bey, Melrose,  had  been  completely  built.  It  stood  in  a 
broad  gleo  south  of  the  Tweed,  two  miles  distant  from 
the  Celtic  monastery  of  Old  Melrose,  where  St  Cuth- 
bert  had  lived  five  centuries  before.  Melrose  Abbey 
suffered  greatly  from  hostile  incursions  of  more  than 
one  English  monareh;  the  soldiers  of  Edward  II  dese- 
crated, pillaged,  and  burned  the  church;  Richard  II  in 
1385  laid  waste  the  surrounding  country  and  set  fire  to 
the  abbey.  Mainly  through  the  generosity  of  Robert 
the  Bruce,  a  more  stately  church  was  begun  in  1326, 
and  scarcely  completed  by  the  sixteenth  centuir 


171 

Cnieif(»m  in  BlU|pe,  built  in  F-"e''°^  Feipendicular.  ia  founded  solely  upon  the  Cottonian  Hanuscript, 
Decorated,  and  flamboyant  styles,  two  hundred  and  FauitinA  B.  ix,  in  the  British  Museum,  the  (mly 
fifty  feet  iu  length,  Helroae  was  distinauished  for  the  ancient  copy  pieserved.  All  others  ate  tnnscripta 
fai^-like  lightness  of  its  carvings  and  window-trac-  from  this  one  original.  The  names  of  its  authors  an 
ery,  finished  with  exquisite  caie.  Not  only  the  royal  unknown,  but  Home*expressions  used  by  them  prove 
founder,  but  sucoeeding  sovereigns,  ana  countless  this  chronicle  to  have  been  written  in  the  abbey, 
benefactors,  nobles  and  commonera,  so  richly  en-  whilst  evidence  from  writing  shows  It  to  have  be^ 
dcFwed  Helroae  with  lands  and  poasesaions  that  its  an-  the  work  of  monks  who  were  inmates  of  Melroee  in 
oual  revenue  is  computed  at  one  hundred  thousand  successive  periods.  The  first  portion,  namely  from 
pounds  of  present  money  value.  One  example  of  the  the  commencement  to  about  the  yeiir  1140,  is  a  corn- 
application  <rf  such  revenues  is  told  in  twelfth  century  pilation  from  the  An^lo-Saxon  Qironicle  and  other  ex- 
records.  During  a  time  of  famine  four  thousand  lating  histories  by  Simeon  of  Durham  and  Hoveden. 
starving  people  were  fed  by  the  monastery  for  three  This  portion  should,  therefore,  he  used  with  caution, 
months.  Many  of  the  abbots  were  men  of  aistinction:  The  second  portion,  namely  from  about  the  year  1140 
Abbot  Waltbeof  (1148),  stepson  of  David  I,  and  hon-  to  the  abrupt  termination  of  the  Chronicle  m  1270,  is 
owed  as  a  saint;  Abbot  Joscelia,  afterwards  Bishop  of  considered  by  historians  to  he  poeseased  of  the  highest 

m<ia«#HW   /ll^Ct      +nnlF   B   mv^*nindn4    nAi.4-   :*i   4-ltA  evantlnn  nwb-l  iKi  [i^y_         TfaS     iofOrmatiOQ      iS     th*"      '-..J*-     ^x-.™!-.*! 

e  numerous  and  progressive 


b«dy  of  St.  Mungo;  Abbot  Robert  (1268)  had  been  handwriting  show  that  it  is  generally,  if  not  always, 

formerly    Chancellor    of    Scotland;    Abbot    Andrew  eontemporoneous.     The    Manuscript,    now    in    the 

(1449)  became  Lord  High  Treasurer^  many  others  were  British  Museum,  was  probably  carried  off  from  Melrose 

raised  to  the  episcopate.    The  English  troops  of  Heniy  at  the  time  of  the  Reformation.    It  was  edited  in 

VIII  burned  Helroae  in  1544.    Although  the  monks  1835  by  J.  Stevenson,  S.J.,  for  the  Bannatyne  Club, 

once  numbered  two  hundred,  and  there  were  one  The  Oxford  edition  issued  in  1684  by  Fulmon  is  by  no 

hundred  and  thirty  as  late  as  twenty  years  before  the  means  satisfactory,  as  the  editor  had  no  opportunitv 

Ref<mn»tion,  eleven  only  received  pensions  at  the  dis-  of  collating  the  Oxford  transcript  with  the  origin&l. 

•Nation,  BO  quickly  must  they  have  been  dispersed.  Besides    its    chronicle,    Melrose   has    handed   down 

After  many  vicissitudes,  the  possessions  of  the  abbey  hundreds  of  charters  and  royal  writs,  dating  from  the 

came  finally  to  the  Buccleuch  family.    The  ruins  were  reign  of  David  I  to  that  of  Bruce,  and  forming  a  most 

further  devastated  by  a  fanatical  mob  in  1569,  when  valuable  collection,  rich  in  illustrations  of  the  social 

itAtuBs  and  carvings  were  ruthlessly  destroyed;  but  life  and  economy  of  the  period.    They  were  edited 

more  wanton  still  was  the  subsequent  carting  away  of  by  Cosmo  Innes. 

the  HlCied  stones  in  great  numbers  to  serve  as  building  BrtyEnaoH,  Chnmica  dt  Maiiroi  (Edinburiih,  1835) ;  Ihkis, 

materials.  Theresuftiaseeninthecarvedreligiousem-  f^^fj^^i^t"'^' ^^^^'"'- ^^"^^         '^ 


blenu  still  appearing  upon  surrounding  bouses.    The  W.  Fobbsb-Leith. 

*  '^  once  nobb  abbey  form  a  strikingly  beau- 
I  North  British  Railway,  about 

th  of  EdinbuTfrh.  »^^  ,.„  „  .„_, ,^ g^. 

Leonardo  da  Vinci,  and  Vasari  tells  us  that  he 


tiful  picture  from  the  North  British  Railway,  about 

.i..-^ :i .^jjjj  jjf  pj;_i. 1 

StSfeSc^^'^"^"*^^^*^     Miik'^Voble^^nrMex^din"^7hin^mT 


Milanese  nobleman,  on  exceedingly  handsome  young 
man,  and  that  he  possessed  the  principal  part  m 
the  anatomical  drawings  of  Leonardo.     lie  inherited 


e,CHBONicLK  OF  (Chxonica  de  Mahsob). —    Leonardo's   manuscri^,    instruments,   books,   and 

It  opens  with  the  year  735,  ends  abruptly  in  1270,  and    drawings;  he  fumished  both  Vasari  and  Lomaiio  with 


i h/jO  ^: 


;TON  172  ISEBSLma 


notes  on  the  master's  life,  and  to  him  we  are  indebted  dignity  for  his  position  as  commander.  God  ha- 
for  the  preservation  of  the  wonderful  collection  of  the  pressed  upon  his  soul  a  greater  idea  of  Christianity 
artist's  writings.  Whether  he  was  a  painter,  how-  than  he  has  been  able  to  form  from  hearing  about  it, 
ever,  we  are  imable  to  state.  There  is  not  an  actual  and  he  has  often  said^  to  me  in  his  savage  tongue, 
authentic  work  by  him  that  can  h%  mentioned;  Vasari  'Learn  our  language  quickly,  for  as  soon  as  thou  know- 
does  not  say  a  word  about  his  artistic  talent.  Lo-  est  it  and  hast  taught  me  well  I  wish  to  become  a 
niAzso  compliments  Melzi  in  extra va^nt  language,  as  preacher  like  thee'.  Even  before  his  conversion  he 
a  wonderfiu  miniature  painter,  and  it  was  suggested  never  cared  to  have  more  than  one  living  wife. "  In 
in  1523,  in  a  letter  from  Bendedei,  the  ambassador  at  accordance  with  a  universal  Indian  dislike  to  name  the 
Milan,  to  his  master  Alfonso,  Duke  of  Ferrara,  that  dead,  his  people  referred  to  him  after  his  death  simply 
Melzi  was  a  skilful  painter;  but  the  letter  only  implies  as  the  "  Great  Chief".  At  the  Micmac  mission  town 
that  he  painted  as  an  amateur  or  as  a  dilettante.  He  of  Sainte-Anne  de  Ristigouche,  Quebec,  a  monument 
has,  however,  by  some  writers  been  exalted  into  the  was  unveiled  on  the  third  centenary  of  nis  baptism  to 
position  of  being  Leonardo's  favourite  and  best  pupil,  commemorate  the  beginning  of  the  Micmac  mission, 
most  eminent  and  most  skilful,  and  a  picture  of  Ver-  J^nUt  fietofww,  ed.  Thwattm,  I,  n.  in  (Biaxd.  Lbscarbot. 
tumnus  and  Pomona  in  the  BerKn  GaUery,  a  Madonna  "^^  (Cleveland,  189S-1897).  Father  Pacifiqub. 
at  Ber^mo,  another  Madonna  at  Vaprio,  and  two  por-  Membre,  Zbnobiub,  b.  1645  at  Bapaume,  Depart- 
traits  at  Iso^  Bella  have  been  attributed  to. him,  but  ^.^nt  of  Pas^e^lais,  France,  was  a  member  ofthe 
all  of  them  without  defimte  authority.  He  is  spoken  Franciscan  province  of  St.  Antony.  He  arrived  in 
of  as  II  Conte,  and  is  mentioned  more  than  once  m  let-  Canada  in  1675,  and  in  1679  he  accompanied  Robert 
ters  written  m  France,  deabng  with  Leonardo  as  the  ^e  la  Salle  to  the  country  of  the  Illinoisrof  which  he 
"^urf"  u  '  *^^  ^^^  "  ^  miniatunst,  but  m  all  ^^^  a  description.  Though  Membre  laboured  seal- 
probabihty  he  was  merely  a  skilful  amateur,  devoted  ^^31  ^^  the  conversion  of^e  natives,  owing  to  their 
to  Leonardo,  and  perhaps  a  clever  draughtsman,  who  ^oral  degradation  the  success  was  small.  In  1681  he 
practised  painting  occasionally  as  an  amusement.  HpsAPTirlpd  thp  Mimifviinni  wifh  Ta  ^IIp  tn  thp  Otilf  of 

LoMAMO>nittatolk«'  ArU ddla iPiUura  (Milan.  1684):  Idem.  Sf^^  ^I^rf    f5^-5?5CL^!5r^?vi®  ^^^;^^1!  ?1 

Orotuaehi  (kilan.  1687);  Dolcb,  Dialoao  deUa  Piuura  (Venice.  Mexico,  returned  With  the  leader  of  the  expedition  to 

1667^  Florence.  1736):  Amorbtii.  Memorie  d%  Leonardo  da  Europe  by  way  of  Canada,  and  became  superior  of 

Vwic*  (Milan.  1804):  IfoRULu.  Italian  MtuUrt  in  Oemum  Oal-  ^^^  Franciscan  monastery  in  his  native  city.   In  1684 

Une9  (London,  1883);  Burckhardt.  The  Cicerone.  ww  x  t««*.iov«*x  ***v*j«ovc*jr  ***  ^^.o  "**y*;^     *'J      ,    .    *~* 

Gbobob  Charles  Williamson.  fT^'^A  T^o  n"^?  Fronciscans  and  three  Sulpiciana 

followed  La  Salle  mto  Texas.  The  commander  erected 

-- , .  •    •     1    I.'  f    rxL    »#•  T  J-  Fort  St.  Louis  at  Espiritu  Santo  Bay  in  1685,  but 

Memlwrton,  pnnapal  cl"f{  of  the  Miwnac  Indians  Membre  endeavoured  to  establish  a  mission  among  the 

of  Nova  Scotia  at  the  bmey  the  estebhshnaentoHh^  Cenis  Indians.  Ir  this  he  failed.  After  about  two 
ri;^?^*^  oolony  under  De  Monts  and  Poutnncourt  m      ^^  ^^  ^oil  he  was  killed  by  the  savages,  along  with 

^^b  and  noted  m  mission  annab  as  the  first  Christian  ^  Maximus  Le  Cerq,  Rev.  ChefdevilSTand  the  smaU 

m  the  tnbe.    The  French  f onn  Memberton  is  a  di^ec-  garrison  which  La  SaUe  had  left  at  the  settlement, 
tic  corruption  of  the  Micmac  name  Blaopeltu,  which        Barcia,  Eneayo  Cronoldgico  (Madrid.  1723);    HxNNEpnf. 

is  itself  a  contracted  form  for  Maoi-NapeltU,  "chief  Description  de  la  Louiaiane  CPam,  1683);   Tbwattks.  a  New 

of  all ",  i.  e.  "  principal  chief  ",  from  tnaai  (aU)  and  Pw^'f^V  ?/ «  ^°^if ^" v?i  iiS??vJ^^ir!S5^^v^^ 

^^^^Um.    /-.u:^*     ^«    T«>«j««\        n«    C4-     T^u«»o    "rk««  in  CoUmuU  Daye  {New  York,  1886);  Cath.M%aevme{Nem  York, 

napettu    (chief,    or   leader).      On  St.  Johns   Day,  i864);  WaujiW /tt»noi« end /x>umdna  (C&cinnati.  1893). 

24  June,  1610,  he  was  baptized  with  twenty  others  Z.  Engelhardt. 

5LS^^S^.^^P^  1^:  Sri^AS^J^LX"  „ «£«^t«.    see  CAKOK  of  the  M^,  «.b-title  HI; 

Scotia,   Poutrincourt  ana  his  son  acting  as  spon-  i-'iPrrcn. 

sors  for  the  King  and  Dauphin  of  France.  He  was  BSemling,  Hans,  Flemish  painter,  b.  about  1430-35; 
given  the  name  of  Hennr,  after  Henry  IV,  his  d.  at  Bruges  11  August,  1494.  This  date  was  disoov- 
wife  was  named  Marie  after  the  queen  regent,  while  his  ered  in  1889  by  P^re  Henri  Dusart  in  a  MS.  chronicle 
children  and  other  relatives  were  called  after  mem-  of  the  library  of  St.  Omer,  which  adds  that  this 
bers  of  the  royal  family.  Then  very  old,  although  painter,  ''the  best  in  Christendom",  was  bom  at 
vigorous  mentally  and  physically,  he  claimed  to  re-  Mainz  {oriundus  MogunHaco),  and  that  he  was  buried 
member  the  first  visit  of  Cartier  to  the  Saint  Lawrence  in  the  church  of  St.  Gilles.  This  valuable  text  de- 
in  1534.  Formanyyears  the  acknowledged  chief  and  stroys  the  celebrated  legend  of  Memling,  which  re- 
war  captain,  medicine  man  and  priest  of  tribal  cere-  lates  that  this  great  painter,  a  soldier  of  Charles  the 
monies,  in  the  midst  of  paganism  he  led  a  temperate  Bold,  was  wounded  at  the  battle  of  Granson,  and  was 
and  moral  life,  even  before  baptism  limiting  himself  caiea  for  at  Bruges  by  the  Hospitallers  of  St.  John, 
to  one  wife,  where  poly^my  was  the  rule  among  the  Through  gratitude  the  injured  soldier  painted  the 
great  men,  one  chief  havmg  as  many  as  ei^t.  On  ac-  marvellous  pictures  still  to  be  seen  there.  Here  in 
count  of  their  good  offices  in  the  serious  illness  of  his  an  "  Adoration  of  the  Magi "  is  seen  his  own  portrait, 
son,  he  became  strongly  attached  to  the  Jesuit  mis-  wan  and  bearded,  wearing  an  invalid's  cap.  It  was 
sionaries  Biard  and  Maffl^,  who  arrived  in  June,  1611,  said  at  Bruges  that  he  desired  to  be  buried  m  the  con- 
and  proved  an  earnest,  practical  Christian,  frequently  vent  which  held  so  many  of  his  masterpieces,  but 
expressing  a  fervent  hope  for  the  conversion  of  bas  another  tradition  relates  that  he  died  in  Spain  at 
whole  tribe.  ^  Towards  the  end  of  August.  1611,  the  Carthusian  monastery  of  Miraflores  near  Burgos,, 
seized  with  his  last  illness,  he  was  brought  at  his  own  where  a  picture  ascribed  to  him  is  found.  These  two 
request  to  Father  Biard 's  house,  where  he  died  a  week  accounts  of  a  pleasing  hagiographical  tint  are  there- 
later,  after  having  received  every  attention,  and,  hav-  fore  mere  fables,  evident! v  the  tales  of  sacristans, 
ing  given  consent  to  be  buried  m  the  Christian  ceme-  inspired  bv  the  pictures  wnich  they  endeavoured  to 
tery  as  an  example  to  his  people,  whom  he  repeatedly  explain.  They  did  not  arise  until  the  middle  of  the 
exhorted  to  maintain  friendship  with  the  French,  he  eighteenth  ceuiury  (cf.  Descamps,  "  Vies  des  pein- 
was  buried  with  full  ecclesiastical  solemnity  as  be-  tres  flamands",  1753, 1,  12).  On  the  other  hand,  the 
fitted  his  rank  and  character.  Father  Biara  says  of  researches  of  Mr.  James  Weale  show  Memling  xmder 
him,  "This  was  the  greatest,  most  renowned,  and  most  quite  a  different  aspect.  The  wretehed  and  pitiable 
formidable  savage  within  the  memory  of  man;  of  soldier  of  Charles  the  Bold  received  by  charity  into  a 
splendid  physique,  taller  and  longer-limbed  than  is  hospital  of  Bruges  becomes  in  reality  an  important 
usual  among  them;  bearded  like  a  Frenchman,  al-  burgher  of  that  prosperous  dty.  If  he  had  no  official 
though  scarcely  any  of  the  others  have  hair  upon  the  station  at  the  court,  it  was  because  droumstanoes  no 
chin;  grave  and  reserved;  feeling  a  proper  sense  of  longer  permitted;  he  had  nevertheless  property  of  his 


om,  being  in  1480  the  owner  of  three  houses,  one  of  oonnot  be  entered  into  bere,  but  even  if  Blemllnf  mm 
tbem  "a  large  atoae  houae"  (,tiomua  magna  lapidea),    the  tiuthorof  only  the  t«w  pictures  in  the  hospital  of 

and  figuring  on  the  fiscal  registers  amonp  the  two  Bruges,  none  the  less  is  he  one  of  the  most  delightful 
hundred  and  fort^-aevea  highest  taxed  citizens.  At  geniuses  of  painting,  and  the  keeoest  poet  of  the  vhok 
this  time  he  marned  Anne  de  Valkemere  (d.  1487^,  by    Flemish  school. 

whom  he  bad  three  sons,  Jean,  Cornelius,  and  Nicho-  Though  be  accomplished  nothing  companble 
las-  With  a  studio  filled  nith  pupih.  he  receiv»l  to  Van  Eyck's  great  painting,  the  retable  of  the 
eommisMons  from  the  chief  citiiens  of  tne  town,  such  "Mystic  Lamb";  there  is  in  Ws  worit  a  rarer,  nobler, 
as  Horeel  and  Floreins,  and  his  fame  reached  beyond  and  more  touchmg  quality.  The  general  character- 
Planders.  The  "  Anonyme  "  of  Morelli.  who  wrote  in  istics  of  Flemish  painting  st«  an  unsurpassed  technical 
1621,  seems  to  know  but  two  Flemish  painters;  every  perfection,  a  realism,  a  rigour  in  the  study  andimita- 
pictuie  of  this  school'  at  Bergamo,  Venice,  Padua,  tion  of  facts,  such  as  render  it  impossible  to  aay 
which  he  does  not  attribute  to  Jan  van  Eyck  be  at-  whether  this  perfection  is  more  the  condition  or 
tributes  to  Memling.  the  effect.     As  a  crarteinan  Mcmling  is  inferiw  to 

The  remainder  erf  Memling's  history  is  that  of  his     none  of  his  Flemish  predecessors  or   imitatore;!  he 
wo^s.    The  first  certain  date  is  1467.    In  tbat  year    paints  fabrics,  velvets,  flesh  tints  like  Jan  van  Eyck 
'    '    "  bimseif.     In  sentiment  be 

is  far  superior,  or  rather 
dwells  in  a  finer  atmos- 
phere, for  ttie  price  of  the 
uncompromising  realism  ct 
the  Flemish  is  often  ugli- 
ness and  vulgarity.  In  some 
worlu!  of  Jan  van  ^ck^  as 
the  "  van  der  Pfele  Virgin  " 
at  the  Academy  of  Bruges, 
the  mediocrity  of  the  types, 
the  absence  of  imaginatioD 
and  taste,  in  a  word  the 
flatJiess,  reach  a  painful  de- 
gree. The  same  is  true  of 
the  subsequent  work^ 
such  as  the  celebrated 
"  Nativity  "  of  van  der  Goes 
in  the  Umsi  of  Florenoe,  in 
which  the  power  of  the 
"  study  "  is  only  equalled  by 
the    inmgnifiea —      "  '""* 


of  the  italian  medallist 
Nicolo  Spinelli,  then  in  tbe 
servioe  oE  the  Duke  of  Bur- 

ridy.  The  following  year 
executed  the  triptych  of 
the  Donne  family,  now  at 
Chatsworth  in  the  collection 
of  the  Duke  of  Devonsbim. 
In  fact  Sir  John  must  have 
formed  part  of  the  escort 
which  accompanied  Mar- 
garet of  Yoric  at  the  time 
of  her  marriage  with  Charles 
Uk  Bold.  The  following 
chronological  list  constitutes 
almost  all  our  information: 
1478  retable  executed  for 
tbe  illuminator  Guillaume 
Vrelant,  now  at  tbe  Acad- 
emy of  Turin;  1479,  trip- 
tvdi  of  the  "Adoration  (rf 
the  Magi"2  executed  for 
Jean-  Floreins;  triptych  of 
the  "Mvstical  Mamsge  of 
St.  Catherine",  with  the 
"life"  of  tlie  two  Sunt 
Jobns,  both  in  tbe  hospital 
of  St.  John  at  Bruges ;  1480, 
tetable  for  Peter  Bultino, 
now  at  the  old  Pinacathek 
of  Hunich;  triptych  of  the 
Grooer'a  Guild,  a  lost  pic- 
ture; Dortraits  of  Guillaume 
Hweeland  his  wife  (Museum 
of  Brussels),  and  of  their 
daughter  HarieMoreeI(tbe 
Sibyl  Sambetb)  in  the  hos- 


from  Petrus  Christus  and 
the  Master  of  Fl^malle  to 
the  pretentious  Thierry 
Bouts  and  the  early  works 
of  Gerard  David.  All  these 
works  are  strtoig  in  execu- 
tion but  weak  in  feeling. 
It  is  true  that  Roger  Van 
der  Weyden  attempted  to 
introduce  passiui  into  this 
"  m,  but  his  punful  in- 

uitair"' ' — "" 


Bruges;  1484,  triptych  of  the  Moreel  fanuly,  at  tbe 

Academy  of  Bruges;   1487,  diptych  of  Martin   vsn     ^ - 

Nieuenhove,  at  the  hospital  of  St.  John  at  Bruges;    astonishes  by  its  subtle  grace  and  refinement 


ive,  dii 
_  _ . ,     aRect«d     style. 

Emotionalism  runs  riot  with 
him,  producing  tbe  effect 

,_ ,_  disease.    In  the  midst  of  this 

powerful  but  inartistic  school  the  work  of  Memling 


In 


portrait  of  a  man  in  the  Uffizi  Museum,  Florence;  execution  equal  to  anyone  of  his  contemporaries, 
I4S9,  recovery  of  tbe  shrine  of  St.  Ursula,  and  placing  he  transfigured  all  that  he  touched.  Through  all 
(rfielicsin  this  shrine;  1491,  polyptycbof  the  "Cathe-  bis  portraits  shines  the  radiance  of  the  soul  within. 
dral  of  Lubeck".  By  adding  to  these  works  several  Compare,  for  example,  the  St.  William  of  tbe  Moreel 
other  pictures  (tbe  Louvre  possesses  tbe  greatest  num-  triptydi,  in  bis  black  armour,  that  wonderful  type 
faer)  we  have  a  total  of  twenty  exquisite  paintings  of  Cnristian  knight  and  soldier  monk,  with  the  awk- 
coostituting  the  whole  of  Memlmg's  authentic  work,  ward  St.  GeorRe  of  IJw  "van  der  PmIc  Virgin", 
Some  erities,  like  Kammerer  (Memling,  1899)  Iwve  that  scddier  soiUat  easeinhisrAkof  saint.andmeas- 
sought,  without  good  reason,  to  augment  tliis  eata-  ure  tbe  difference  between  the  crudenesa  ol  Van  Eydc 
logue  by  adding  to  it  other  works  by  analogy.  An-  and  the  p^idiolopcal  insight  of  Memling.  This  pft 
atfaeraehoot,  that  of  Warsbach,  refuses  to  admit  that  has  made  Memling  tbe  cs^Flenush  punter  who  knew 
an  tba  w<Hrlu  dted  above  are  tbe  works  of  a  single  how  to  depict  woman.  He  bestowed  on  her  the  same 
author.  They  withdraw  from  Memling,  tbe  pictures  external  luxury  of  draperies  and  attire,  the  same 
of  Munich  and  Turin;  the  "Reliquary  of  St.  Ursula";  mantles,  the  same  furs,  the  same  wide  skirts  in  majes* 
tbe  polyptycbs  of  Lubeck  and  Dantzie,  allowing  bim  tic  folds,  with  which  the  Flemish  school  in  general 
afanoot  notning  except  theportraits  and  pictures  of  the  loves  to  adorn  her;  but  beneath  this  beautiful  attire 
boqiita]  of  St.  John,  the  Triptych  of  Cbatswortb,  and  the  Virgins  of  Van  Eyck  remain  bourgeoiaef  while 
two  or  time  others  closely  related.    Such  a  discussion  those  of  Memling  are  young  queens.    His  saints  an 


BUSBKBU 


174 


MIMOBT 


prinoesBes.  He  endows  them  with  slender  figures, 
white  and  giaoeful  necks,  sweet  and  long  profiles, 
long  drooping  eyelashes,  pure  brows  and  clear  tern- 
pleSj  with  that  immaterial  something  which  tolerates 
m  its  vicinitjr  only  virginal  dreams  and  chaste 
thoue^ts.  Whatsoever  is  too  worldly  in  their  grace 
he  corrects  by  an  ideal  but  natural  atmosphere,  bv 
the  familiar  and  serene  charm  of  his  landscapes.  A 
delicate  symmetry  lends  a  mvsterious  rhvthm  to  these 
peaceful  compositions  and  dominate  tnem  with  the 
mumony  of  imheard  music.  Angel  lute  players  with 
blue  and  rose-coloured  wings  seem  the  expression  of 
this  unuttered  song,  the  personified  voice  of  the 
choir.  Grace  of  figures,  nobility  and  richness  of  deco- 
ration, serenity  of  landscapes,  balancing  of  groups, 
melody  of  colours,  lines,  and  sentiment  all  unite  to 
produce  a  masterpiece  of  mystical  poetry,  pious 
romance,  and  supernatural  beautv. 

But  all  these  things,  it  must  be  repeated,  are  al- 
most inexplicable  in  the  Flemish  school,  at  once  the 
most  natural  and  the  most  commonplace.  These 
chuacteristics  have  their  origin  elsewnere,  and  the 
very  legend  concerning  Memling,  the  story  of  a  man 
coming  as  a  stranger  to  art  by  a  special  vocation,  is 
an  unhistorical  attempt  to  account  for  this  singular- 
itv.  Mr.  James  Weale  had  already  conjectured  that 
Memling's  name  contained  the  kejr  to  the  enigma 
and  concealed  the  clew  to  the  pamter's  origin;  he 
tibought  that  it  was  according  to  a  frequent  custom 
of  the  Middle  Ages,  the  name  of  a  country.  As  a  mat- 
ter of  fact  there  was  a  borough  called  Memelynck  near 
Alkmaar  in  Holland,  and  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
Aschaffenburg  in  Germany  there  was  another  called 
Mumling  or  Momling.  For  a  time,  it  was  difficult  to 
decide  which  of  these  two  was  the  painter's  birthplace, 
but  PSre  Dusart's  discovery  has  definitely  cut  short 
all  uncertainty.  The  solution  of  the  problem  is  that 
Memling  was  a  German  from  Mainz,  as  is  shown  by  his 
exclusively  German  Christian  name,  Hans.  Before  tak- 
ing up  his  residence  at  Bruges  he  studied  art  at  Cologne, 
for  northern  Europe  the  home  and  fatherland  of 
Christian  art.  Vasari  and  Guicciardini  relate  that 
Memling  was  the  pupil  of  Roger  Van  dor  Weyden, 
but  the  only  work  of  Memling  s  with  a  trace  of  Roger's 
influence  is  after  a  PietiH  in  a  church  of  Colosne.  His 
"  ReUquarjr  of  St.  Ursula  "  a^in  proves  that  he  lived  a 
long  time  m  that  city;  the  views  of  Basle  and  Rome 
are  fancifully  depicted,  whereas  in  those  of  Cologne 
the  slightest  details  of  the  cathedral  then  in  course  of 
construction,  the  steeples  of  the  churehes  of  St.  Martin 
and  St.  Pantaleon  are  reproduced  with  a  fidelity 
which  shows  that  the  author  had  grown  up  in  the 
familiar  shadow  of  these  monimients.  Memling's 
whole  work  breathes  a  spirit  of  poetry  rarely  found  in 
the  fifteenth  century  save  in  a  few  painters  of  Cologne 
and  Sienna.  His  favourite  themes  are  the  devotions 
honoured  in  Cologne^  the  cityof  the  Magi  and  of  the 
Eleven  Thousand  Virgins.  The  mystical  peace  and 
beautv  which  surrounds  his  figures,  those  calm  brows 
and  clear  temples  are  not  met  with  prior  to  him  save 
in  certain  works  of  the  Rhenish  school  such  as  the 
"  Adoration  of  the  Magi "  of  the  great  Stephen  Lochner 
or  in  his  "Virgin  of  the  rosebush".  This  alliance  of 
German  spirituality  with  Flemish  technic,  this^  in- 
fusion of  soul,  of  tne  spiritual,  the  immaterial,  into 
the  school  best  able  to  paint  the  reaL  constituted  the 

finius  and  the  r61e  of  Memling.  Tlirough  him  the 
lemish  school  was  rescued  from  the  shallow  natural- 
ism where  for  fifty  years  it  had  grown  barren.  Mem- 
ling's  influence  was  as  great  as  it  was  beneficial. 
When  we  compare  the  early  works  of  Gerard  David, 
so  harsh  and  brutal,  such  as  the  "  Justice  of  Otto  "  and 
the  "Marriage  of  Cana"  of  the  Louvre,  with  those 
which  were  later  executed  under  Memling's  influence, 
we  can  estimate  the  service  which  the  stranger,  the 
^duitscher  Hans"^  rendered  to  the  country  of  his 
adoption.    There  is  no  doubt  that  he  owes  to  it  a 


practical  skill  which  he  would  not  otherwise  have  had. 
out  in  return  he  brought  it  the  spirit  which  revivified 
it.  The  worics  of  the  next  generation  show  this  more 
clearly;  the  "Mystical  Biarriage"  of  the  Museum  ol 
Brussels  and  the  "  Deposition  "  of  Antwerp  by  Quentin 
Metsys.  And  when  we  remember  that  of  all  the 
masters  of  his  country  it  was  Metzvs  whom  Rubena 
esteemed  most,  we  can  understand  the  importance 
of  the  r61e  played  in  the  destinies  of  the  Flemish  school 
by  the  young  painter  from  Aschaffenburg  who  tau^t 
it  Doetry  and  idealism. 

Carel  vam  Man  )BRt  Livn  de»  PeirUres  (1004),  ed.  Htmans 
(Paris,  1884);  Dbacamps,  Vies  dea  peintreM  flanuuuU  (1763); 
Crowb  and  (7avalca8elub,  Lea  anciena  peintres  ftamanda,  wiUi 
notes  and  additions  by  Rublens  and  Pinchart  (1863);  Vxtbt, 
Etudea  dTAH,  III  (1864):  Weals,  Hana  Memling  (1805);  Fbo- 
BiENTiMT.  Lea  Maitrea  ^attirefoia  (1876);  Kuolbr,  HatuBfook 
ofPainHnp,  ed.  Crowe  (1870):  &>nway.  Early  Flemiah  ArtiaU 
(1887):  KXmmxrbr,  Memling  (Bielefeld,  1890)  |  Jambs  Wbaxjb, 
Hana  Memline  (London,  1001);  Wtbewa,  Pmnfres  de  jadiaei 
d^au^ourd^hui  (1903). 

Louis  Gillbt. 
BSemmi,  Simoxb.    See  Mabtini,  Simons. 

Memory  (Lat.,  memoria),  is  the  capability  of  the 
mind,  to  store  up  conscious  processes,  and  reproduce 
them  later  with  some  desree  of  fidelity.  Strictly 
speaking,  however,  a  revived  conscious  process  is  not 
remembered,  unless  it  is,  at  the  same  time,  recognised 
as  something  which  occurred  before.  Memory,  there- 
fore, involves  a  process  of  recopiition.  Voluntary 
reproduction  of  mental  processes  u  frequently  spoken 
of  as  recollection,  and  involuntarv,  as  recall. 

Divisions  of  Memory. — St.  Thomas  distinguishes 
two  kinds  of  memory,  sensory  and  intellectttM,  He 
excludes,  however,  from  the  former  the  function  of 
merely  storing  up  the  mental  image ;  this  he  assigns  to 
imagination.  Sensory  memor^r  preserves  that  which 
can  not  be  received  by  the  special  senses  and  yet  is  in- 
dividual, and  therefore  does  not  belong  to  the  intellec- 
tual memory,  which  takes  cognisance  of  nothing  but 
the  universal.  For  instance,  the  utility  of  an  object 
and  its  setting  in  past  time ;  by  the  utility  of  an  object 
must  not  be  uncferstood  any  abstract  concept  of  its 
purpose,  but  only  the  sensory  experience  wnich  all 
animals  acquire,  that  certain  things  are  beneficial  or 
harmful.  Sensory  memory  is  located  by  St.  Thomas 
in  the  bodily  organism  (I,  Ixxviii,  a.  4).  The  intel- 
lectual memory  receives  and  stores  up  the  abstract 
and  universal.  Its  seat  is  the  passive  intellect,  a 
division,  or  perhaos  only  an  aspect  of  the  faculty  of 
understanding.  The  complement  of  the  passive  in- 
tellect is  the  inteUedua  aaena,  which  is  conceived  of  as 
activelv  working  over  the  data  of  sense,  abstractii^ 
from  tnem  the  universal  (species  irUelltgibilis)  which 
they  contain  and  impressing  it  on  the  passive  intel- 
lect. St.  Thomas  aigues  tmit  there  must  be  an  in- 
tellectual memory,  because  that  which  is  acted  upon 
must  retain  the  effect  of  the  agent  all  the  more  per- 
fectly in  proportion  to  its  own  stability.  Since  the 
impressions  of  sense  leave  lasting  traces  on  the  bodily 
organism,  which  is  subject  to  decay, — a  fortiori  the 
universal  must,  in  some  way,  be  stored  up  in  the 
passive  intellect,  which  is  a  spiritual  faculty,  perma- 
nent as  the  soul  itself  (I,  Q.,  Ixxix,  a,  6-7). 

This  argument  assumes  that  there  are  cognitive 
processes  specifically  different  from  those  of  sensation, 
a  doctrine  which  nas  received  scant  recomjtion  in 
modem  psychology  imtil  quite  recently.  The  tacit 
or  expressed  assumption  of  many  experimental  psy- 
chologists has  been  the  very  opi>06ite,  vis.:  that  all 
our  cognitive  processes  are  sensations  or  sensory  com- 
plexes. Recently,  however,  the  attempt  has  been 
made  to  demonstrate  experimentally  the  existence  of 
abstract  thought,  totally  distinct  m>m  mental  ima- 
gery (phantasms).  Along  with  this  admission  of  a 
difference  between  sensation  and  thought,  experi- 
mental psychology  is  beginning  to  emphasise  the  dis- 
tinction between  sensory  and  intellectual  memory. 


MSMOBY  175 

Senaory  memory  has  long  been  subdivided  by  psyohol-  practical  value.  It  is  now  possible  to  ^ve  sugges- 
ogists  into  several  **  types ",  chief  among  whidi  are  tions  for  the  practical  work  of  memorizmg  that  are 
the  auditor>[,  visual,  and  motor.  Anyone  may  re-  based  upon  very  definite  data.  These  suggestions 
member  at  times  by  visual,  auditory  or  other  sensoiy  refer  pnmarily  to  the  mechanical  part  of  memory, 
images;  but  the  prevailing  character  of  his  imagery  Practical  experience  tells  us  that  if  we  want  to  mem- 
determines  his  memory  type.  To  some  extent  the  orixe  any  kind  of  connected  narrative,  we  are  greatly 
tvpe  depends  on  trainii^;  out  there  ia  evidence  to  helped  if  we  first  analyse  its  lo^cal  sequence  of  thought, 
show  that  it  is  in  part  determined  by  anatomical  or  Memory  systems  for  translatmg  dates  into  words  and 
physiological  conditions  of  the  brain.  This,  however,  memoruing  the  words  which  can  be  re-translated  into 
does  not  exclude  the  modification  of  images  by  any  dates,  are  so  cumbersome  that  their  value  is  doubtful. 
exereise  of  memory  in  which  they  function;  for  the  The  results  of  experimental  work  aid  us  chiefly  in  the 
type  is  quite  elastic  (Watt,  *'  Experimentelle  Beitrftge  drudgery  of  memorizing — just  where  coxiiecture  about 
lu  einer  Theorie  des  Denkens  "  in  "  Archiv  f  Or  die  G^.  the  Mst  method  is  most  likely  to  fail.  In  learning  a 
Psychol. ",  1905,  IV,  367-^8).  a  poem  bv  heart,  the  usual  method  would  be  to  read 

besides  sensory  and  intellectual  memory,  a  third  the  first  rew  lines  several  times,  then  read  from  the 
division,  affective  memory,  is  often  mectionea.  Meu-  beginning  on  down  a  few  lines  further  and  so,  little  by 
mann  (Vorlesungen  zur  Einfttrhimg  in  die  expNeri-  little,  commit  the  whole  to  memory.  Another  method 
mentelle  P&dagogik.  I,  174)  recognizes  it  as  a  distinct  would  be  to  read  it  each  time,  from  beginning  to 
form,  because  in  cnildren  under  thirteen,  it  is  but  end,  until  it  was  perfectly  memorized.  Although 
little  developed;  whereas  other  forms  of  memory  are  there  is  a  prejudice  m  favour  of  the  first  method,  it  is 
already  far  advanced.  Meumann's  view  is  based  on  the  one  that  consumes  the  greatest  amount  of  time. 
the  experiments  of  Netschajeff  and  Lobsien.  Ribot,  Several  pieces  of  experimental  work  have  shown 
who  was  the  first  to  make  a  special  study  of  affective  that  memorizing  by  reading  from  beginning  to  end,  is 
memory,  maintained  that  to  tne  visual,  auditory,  and  the  quicker  ana  more  pernument  method.  The  rea- 
motor  types,  we  must  add  another,  which  is  iust  as  well  son  is  to  be  sought  in  the  mechanics  of  association, 
defined,  l  e.  the  affective  tvjpe  (La  Psycnologie  des  by  which  one  part  of  the  piece  memorized  is  bound  to 
sentiments,  166).  Titchener  (^'Affective Memory"  in  the  othuBr.  When  a  series  of  words  is  memorized,  it 
"Philos.  Review",  IV,  1895),  objected  to  the  type  mav  be  shown  that  a  word  is  not  merely  associated 
theory  of  affective  memory,  on  the  ground  that  affec-  witn  the  one  that  precedes  and  the  one  that  follows  it, 
tions,  unlike  mental  images,  are  recalled  in  company  but  also  with  every  other  word  of  the  series.  Conse- 
with  ideational  mental  processes.  They  are  not  in-  quently  the  "total"  method,  avoids  the  trouble  of 
dependent  but  dependent  mental  processes,  and  can  connecting  the  separate  sections  of  the  partial  method, 
only  be  attended  to,  or  recalled  in  company  with  the  makes  the  bonds  between  the  divisions  more  secure, 
representative  prolbesses,  of  which  they  are  but  Qualities  and  sives  to  all  the  parts  a  certain  equalitjr  of  vidue 
or  tones.  Conclusive  evidence  is  atpresent  lacking,  to  by  wnich  the  whole  is  better  united.  (Steffens,  "  Ex- 
decide  whether  or  not  feelings  are  oependent  or  inde-  perimentelle  Beitr£Lge,  etc."  Ch.  iii.)  One  will,  of 
pendent  processes.  But  the  settlement  of  this  problem  course,  combine  at  times  the  two  methods.  When 
IS  not  necessary  for  the  recognition  of  an  affective  certain  portions  of  a  piece  present  special  difficulties, 
memory  of  some  kind.  The  expression  "affective  these  parts  will  be  more  deeply  impressed  by  a  few 
memory"  is  justified  because  affective  processes  are  special  readings.  It  has  also  been  found  that,  in 
distinct  from  sensory  and  intellectual.  memorizing,  it  is  better  to  read  half  aloud  than  en- 

Thb  Development  of  Memory. — The  eiowth  of  tirely  to  oneself.  In  memorizing  poetry,  it  should  be 
memorv  from  childhood  to  maturity  is  aeijendent  read  with  the  rh^hmic  swing  of  the  metre.  As  to  the 
upon  tne  development  of  manv  mental  faculties,  and  rate  of  reading,  it  has  been  found  that,  if  one  wants 
is  therefore  a  very  complex  affair.  It  is  a  growth  of  to  learn  a  piece  so  as  to  be  able  to  repeat  it,  as  soon  as 
many  memories,  rather  than  of  a  single  facmty.  For  he  has  memorized  it,  he  will  save  time  by  reading 
purposes  of  experiment,  the  following  forms  of  mem-  rapidlv.  But  he  will  foiget  it  more  quickly  than  if  he 
cry  have  been  distinguished:  (1)  memory  for  special  reads  leisurelv.  Since  one  generally  wants  to  remem- 
sensations,  (2)  for  impressions  of  space  and  time,  (3)  ber  what  he  has  learned  for  some  hours  at  least,  it  is 
for  things  and  events  of  the  outside  world,  (4)  for  better  to  read  through  the  material  at  a  leisurely  rate, 
numbers  and  abstract  concepts,  (5)  for  emotional  Meumann  recommends  that  in  the  first  part  of  the 
states  of  mind.  Each  shows  a  period  of  mpid  growth,  memorizing,  one  should  read  slowly,  and  more  rapidly 
followed  by  a  standstill  or  even  a  retardation.  The  later  on,  as  the  material  becomes  familiar, 
fourteenth  and  fifteenth  vear  of  childhood  is  especially  Theory  of  Memory. — As  a  psychological  process, 
unfavourable  for  the  oevelopment  of  all  kmds  of  memory  includes  three  elements:  (1)  retention,  (2) 
memory.  The  order  in  which  these  forms  of  memory  reproduction,  (3)  recognition.  The  process  of  rec^- 
undergo  their  period  of  rapid  development,  is,  for  nition  is  usually  treated  more  or  less  as  a  separate 
boys:  (1)  external  objects,  (2)  words  of  visual  con-  problem,  so  that  the  discussion  of  the  theory  of  mem- 
tent,  (3)  words  of  auditory  content,  (4)  tones,  (5)  ory  has  centred  around  the  Question,  how  it  is  possible 
touch  and  sensations  of  movement,  (6)  numbers  and  for  ideas  to  be  retained  ana  reproduced.  Wnat  be- 
abstract  ideas,  ^7)  emotions  (cf .  Meumaim,  "  Vorle-  comes  of  the  idea  after  it  leaves  the  present  state  of 
sunsen  zur  EinlQhrung  in  die  experimentelle  P&da-  consciousness?  Does  it  continue  to  exist,  preserving 
go^",  I,  178).  It  is  not  true  that  the  memory  of  its  own  peculiar  being,  somewhere  in  the  depths  of  the 
children  is  better  than  that  of  adulta^  Elxcept  for  a  mind,  and  reappear  when  the  occasion  is  propitious? 
retiurdation  at  the  ages  of  fourteen  and  fifteen,  mem-  Sudi  was  the  opinion  of  the  German  philosopner  and 
ory  grows  continuously,  reaching  a  maximum  between  pedagogue  Herbart  (1776-184 1) .  This  would  onlv  be 
twenty  and  twenty-nve.  After  that,  for  those  in  possible,  if  the  idea  were  a  substantial  being,  wnich 
learned  pursuits,  it  declines  very  slowly,  until  about  rose  up  from  the  depths  of  consciousness  whenever 
the  fiftieth  vear,  when  it  commences  to  fall  off  more  the  mind  became  aware  of  it,  disappearing  when  it  was 
rapidly.  Ebbinghaus,  who  made  continual  tests  of  forgotten — a  theory  more  picturesque  than  true.  If 
his  powere  of  retention,  could  say  at  the  age  of  fifty-  the  idea  is  not  a  substantial  entity,  it  must  be  a  kind 
two,  that  for  twenty  years  his  memory  remained  al-  of  accident — a  transient  something  that  continues  to 
most  constant.  By  analogy  with  the  general  biologi-  exist  only  in  the  traces  that  it  leaves  in  passing.  This 
cal  law  of  exereise,  Meumann  concludes  that  memory  is  the  common  theory  of  memory,  which  takes  on 
fafls  more  slowly  the  more  frequently  it  is  used.  many  forms,  according  as  the  ''  trace  "  is  located  and 

The  Method  of  Memorizing. — The  experimental  explained.    Descartes  located  the  trace  primarily  in 

study  of  memory  has  not  been  barren  in  results  of  the  bodily  oiganism.    In  remembering;,  the  soul  has 


n'i:i:iK 


176 


^o  drive  the  "animal  spirits"  hither  and  thither  in  The  function  of  memoir  is  further  significant  as 
the  brain,  till  they  encoimter  the  trace  of  the  idea  it  evidence  for  the  substantial  nature  of  the  soul.  Since 
wishes  to  recall.  But,  besides  the  cerebral  traces,  ideas  are  transient  processes,  there  must  be  a  penna- 
there  are  also,  according  to  Descartes,  vestiges  left  in  nent  something  in  tne  mind  to  account  for  their  reten- 
thought  itself.  Leibnits  located  the  trace  in  the  tion  and  reappearance;  and  since  they  are  recognized 
monad  of  the  soul  and  conceived  of  it  as  becoming  as  ideas  that  were  formerly  in  consciousness  there 
vanishingly  small,  but  never  equal  to  sero.  For  others  must  be  something  that  identifies  them  and  that 
again,  the  trace  is  entirely  material.  Some  even  go  so  consequently  persists  during  their  absence  from  con- 
far  as  to  locate  each  image  in  a  special  ganglion  cell  of  sciousness  (see  So0l).  The  attempt  to  expliun  te- 
the  cortex.  On  account  of  its  definite  character  tention  by  means  of  psychical  dispositions  distinct 
and  picturesquenesS,  this  theory  has  found  many  pop-  from  cerebral  traces,  is  obviously  futile  unless  it 
ular  expositions.  But  there  are  facts  that  seem  to  postulates  a  substance  of  mind  in  which  such  disposi- 
make  it  untenable.  For  instance,  disturbances  of  vis-  tions  are  preserved, 
ion  caused  by  unilateral  lesion  in  one  visual  area  of  the  St.,  Thoicab  Aquhvas,  I.  Q.  Inviii,  a.  4;  .Izxiz, «,  ^-vfi;  Ex- 

nnrt^-r  nf  a  rtocj  wAA.r  nff  Aftpr  fl.hnnt  an  wAf^lrfl      This  Ppaitto  tn  Itbrum  AnMotel%8    De    Memona  et  Remtntfcenha; 

cortex  Ol  a  aog,  wear  on  aiier  apoui  six  weeKS.      l  nis  B^bray,  The  Theory  ofPayehiad  Dwpoeiiume,  Diae.  (Waahinc- 

was  explained  by  supposing  that  new  memory  images  ton.  1905);   Lobbibn,  BxperimentelU  UrUereuehungen  aberdie 


are  deposited  in  the  surrounding  area.    But  it  was  S«**J^*!»ff5fF*£*^V5ii  ^  j5**V**'*<^  ^    ^««^"/^  f^ 

shown  by  Loeb.  that  when  dogs  are  kept  in  complete  5«J?|^^'^lS^'iifc??k.^£^S^ 

darkness  after  the  operation  (so  that  the  acquisition  of  nknmg  in  d*e  experimauau  Padaoooik  (2  vols.,  Letpnc.  1907); 

new  visual  images  would  be  impossible),  on  being  re-  NirrecHAJwrr.  ExperimmtdU  Unterauehwigen  aber  die  Oedaeh^ 

leased  after  a  period  of  s«  weeCTthey  are,  neverthe-  7{S^:^r:',2r-^it!'1^jjrp^S!^^'JrsJS^ 

less,  entirely  normal  (Loeb,  op.  Clt.  infra,  xvu).  (3itl  ed..  Paris,  1899),  cb.  xi;  Robertson.  8w  la  dfnam^que 

More  recently,  it  ^iw  been  maintained  (Robertson,  ehimique  du  euet^me  nerveux  central  in  Arch,  intemationalee  da 

"  Sur  la  dynamique  du  Systeme  nerve^  etc. ".  438),  t'PSJSS^J^^^k'SxJ^^ 

that  the  trace  is  a  chemical  condition  left  m  the  bram  XIX.  367-386:    &rmwwmss,  BxperimentOU  Beiirlkge  xur  Lehrm 

by  the  passing  activity  of  the  original  impression.  J»»»  Okonomiachm  Lernm.  Diea.  (Gattincen,   I^paif,   l9(m; 

•Ais  contention  is  noJt.pure.spwulaSon.  but  is  based  S^r^^tr^'^^^^SSSK  ^J^'J^  iS  2; 

upon  expenments  which  ann  to  show  that  sensory  Denkmu'm  Areh%v.f1ir  die  Oe9.Petfch^,  {1905),  TV,  2S&-436, 

processes  are  connected  with  the  liberation  of  acids  in  Thoicab  V.  Moobb. 

the  cerebral  tissues.    This  leads  to  the  assumption 

that  **  the  extent  of  the  memory-trace  is  proportional  Memphis,  ancient  capital  of  I^ypt;  diocese  of  the 
to  the  amount  of  material  transfonned  in  a  self-  province  of  Arcadia  or  Heptanomos,  suffragan  of 
catalysed  chemical  reaction,  that  the  number  of  syl-  Oxyrynchus.  Memphis  was  called  in  E^gyptian  Men- 
lables  memorized  must  be  connected  with  the  number  nophir,  "the  good  place".  This*  name,  at  first  ro- 
of repetitions  (or  time  of  learning)  according  to  the  fol-  served  to  the  pyramid  of  Pharaoh  Pepi  I  (sixth  dy- 
lowins  function:  Log.  n=Kr+b;  where  n  is  the  num-  nasty)  afterwara  passed  to  the  surroimding  quarter, 
ber  ofsyllables  memorised,  r  is  the  number  of  repeti-  then  to  the  whole  city.  The  E^ptian  inscnptions 
tions,  and  A;  and  I 
when  n  and  r  vary) 
quantity  n  also  coi 

transformed  in  the  chemical  reaction,  and  r  to  the  time  "the  white  wall ",  an  appellation  properly  signifying 
during  which  it  goes  on.  Calculations  based  on  this  the  citadel  (Herodotus,  III.  91);  ua-ka^Pts^,  "the 
equation,  compared  with  observed  results,  gave  very  dwelling  of  the  person  of  Ptah",  an  expression  &8t  ap- 
small  percentages  of  error:  0*46  per  cent,  to  2*5  per  plied  to  the  temple  of  Ptah,  then  to  the  city  and  which 
cent.  Such  results  seem  to  inoicate  that  the  term  according  to  certain  authors  became  in  the  Greek 
''sensory  trace"  will  eventually  receive  a  definite  ex-  tongue  AiTvrrof,  £2gypt;  Kha-nofer,  "the  ^ood 
planation,  but  they  are  far  from  affording  us  the  crown":  Khu-to-ui,  the  "light  of  the  two  countries", 
basis  of  a  complete  explanation  of  memory.  The  in-  i.  e.  of  Upper  and  Lower  £!^pt:  Ha-ka^knum-nuteru, 
sufficiencv  lies  in  the  fundamental  defect  of  all  mate-  "the  house  of  the  worship  of  the  divine  architects"; 
rialistic  theories.  They  fall  short  of  that  which  they  Ma^kha-to-ui,  "the  balance  of  the  two  countries ",  i.  e. 
start  out  to  explain:  the  coruciotu  processes  of  the  dividing  point  between  Upper  and  Lower  Skypt. 
memory.  It  is  not  sufficient  to  show  that  there  Memphis  is  considered  to  hiave  been  founded  ^ 
are  cerebral  traces.  This  has  lonff  been  a  priori  Menes,  a  native  of  Thini  (Herodotus^  11,99;  Diod.Sic, 
evident,  and  it  is  to  be  supposed  that  such  traces  I,  50,  51,  67).  It  was  the  capital  ot  several  dynasties 
will  obey  a  definite  law.  Over  and  above  this,  (third,  fourth,  sixth,  eighth,  twenty-fourth).  It  was 
a  complete  theory  of  memory  must  show  how  these  after  Thebes,  says  Brugsch,  the  city  conceming[  which 
cerebral  traces  recall  definite  conscious  processes,  the  epigraphical  monuments  and  the  pap3m  have 
This  problem  remains  unsolved.  In  our  haste  to  find  most  to  teach  us".  Memphis  is  often  mentioned  in 
some  solution  we  must  neither  deny,  with  the  mate-  the  Bible  under  the  name  of  M6f  or  N6f  fOsee,  ix,  6; 
rialist,  the  first  facts  known  to  us,  our  conscious  pro-  Is.,  xix,  13;  Jer.,  ii,  16;  xlvi,  14,  19;  Esecn.,  xxx,  13, 
cesses,  nor  with  the  idealist  refuse  to  allow  one  of  the  16).  The  Prophets  predicted  in  strong  terms  the  de- 
primar;]^  deductions  from  these  facts,  an  external  struction  of  this  city,  and  the  prophecies  were  so  well 
sometmng  that  gives  rise  to  our  sensations.  Scholaa-  fulfilled  that  the  scholars  of  the  French  expedition 
tic  philosophy  nas  always  recognised  the  fact  of  could  scarcely  ^discover  the  true  site  of  Mem^iiB. 
man's  dual  nature — a  fact  which  must  be  taken  ao-  Memphis  has  often,  but  incorrectly,  been  identified 
count  of  in  any  theory  of  memory.  St.  Thomas  pos-  with  the  ancient  Cairo,  the  Babylon  of  Eg3rpt.  It  is 
tulated  the  existence  of  physiological  traces  in  the  now  certain  that  Memphis  extended  into  the  plain 
oiganism.  But  he  iJso  pointed  out  that  there  must  where  stand  the  villages  of  Bedrashen  and  Mit-ltahi- 
be  some  kind  of  residue  cl  the  ideas  left  in  the  soul  net,  on  the  west  bank  of  the  Nile,  about  twelve  and  a 
itself.  Since  the  ideas  are  but  acts  of  intelligence,  and  half  miles  from  Cairo.  Its  sise  must  have  been  con- 
not  intelligent  substances — transient  activities  of  the  siderable.  In  this  plain  are  sometimes  eidiumed 
soul  itself — and  not  complete  beings  on  which  the  colossal  statues  like  that  of  Rameses  II;  but  there  re- 
mind turns  its  gaze,  they  can  only  live  on,  as  dynamic  mains  none  of  the  monuments  of  Memphis  unless  we 
traces  in  the  passive  intellect,  awaiting  the  time  when  except  the  neighbouring  tombs  of  Saq^arah,  where  its 
they  will  exert  their  influence  on  some  future  process  inhabitants  were  formerly  buried.  Linant  Pacha  re- 
ef thought — apparently  rising  from  the  depths  of  covered  the  great  dike  built  by  the  founder  Menes  to 
oonsciousness,  m  the  act  of  memory.  turn  aside  the  course  of  the  Nile;  this  must  be  the 


177 


MSNAION 


gmt  dfloB  of  Cocheiche  at  present  utilized.  Aocord- 
log  to  ReviUout  in  "Le  NU^'  (1880),  19,  25.  *' terrible 
modB  must  have  buried  the  great  cities  of  Thebes  and 
Memphis  under  enormous  masses  of  clay".  The 
neat  Eiprptologist  Mariette  sees  in  this  destruction  of 
Memphis  the  verification  of  the  prophetic  predictions. 
"Thoe  is  no  city",  he  writes,  ''whose  ena  was  so  la- 
mentable as  that  of  Memphis.  It  was  formerly  the 
chief  of  cities,  the  pride  of  Rgypt.  It  astonished 
the  world  by  the  number  and  the  magnificence  of  its 
buildings.  To-dav  it  is  not  even  a  ruin.  Thus  is 
fulfilled  the  word,  of  the  prophet  (Jer.,  xlvi,  19): 
"Furnish  thyself  to  go  into  captivity,  thou  daughter 
inhabitant  of  Egvpi,  for  Memphis  shall  be  made 
desolate  and  shall  be  forsaken  and  uninhabited" 
(Mariette,  "Voyage  en  Haute-Egypte",  1878,  I, 
31). 

See  in  Le  Quien,  II,  585-88  (Gams,  461)  the  list  of 
the  known  bishops  of  Memphis.  John,  the  first  on 
this  list,  was  one  of  the  opponents  of  St.  Athanasius 
(Athan.,  "Apol.  de  fu^  sua";  "Apol.  contra  Ari- 
anos";  "Epist.  ad  sohtarios";  Sozomen,  II,  xxxi). 
Antiochus  of  Memj^is  took  part  in  the  Council  of 
Nicsa.  Palladius  (Hist,  laus.,  LXXVI)  and  Rufinus 
(Vlt.  Patrum,  II,  v)  state  that  they  saw  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood of  Memphis  and  Babylon  innumerable  mul- 
titudes of  monks.  Some  Synaxaria  mention  for  5  Oct., 
the  holy  virgin  St.  Hierals  of  Memphis  (Delehaye. 
"Qynaxarium  Eccles.  Constantinop.,  Propykea  ad 
ActaSanctor."  112.8). 

PCTBH,  MaSTTR  of  ANQB 

Lb  Mabcubb.  DeacripHon 


MaUUt  (Paris,  1735).  261  aq.;  jBgyvti  hutorim  etmpendium 
(Oxford,  1780),  199  aq.:  Deacription  de  VBfnrpte^  expedition  de 
Varmie  francatm,  V;   Ard-Allatxp,  Relatton  de  VBffupte  (tr. 


I  anUe  francatee,  V;  Ard-Allatxp,  Relaiton  de  VEguple 
Puk.  1810).  184-04;  Bruoscb,  Diti.  oioff.  de  VEaupU  (Ldpiis. 
1871hS0):  loBM.  Bgupt  under  the  Pharaohe  (1881).  I,  60;  db 
RoDoi,  vAm.  aneienne  de  la  Baea^Egypte  (1891).  1-7;  Annalea 
in  muaie  iQuptien  (Cairo.  1899),  I.  149.  230.  280;  II.  97.  240. 
344.  285;  III.  1.  169.  132;  IV,  76.  etc.;  Mabpero,  Miaeian 
onkM.  tnetUut  fna/Koi^  II.  ii.  133;  Db  Vxt.  Toiiue  latinHaiie 
momoitieoH,  Iv  (1887).  citeB  all  the  passaces  from  ancient 
BttthofB.  Oraek  and -Latin,  where  mention  a  made  of  Memphis; 
Larbttab  in  Vio.,  Diet,  de  la  Bible,  s.  v.  Memphie:  Lb  Quien, 
Oriem  ekriet.  (Paris.  1740),  U,  585-88;  Smith.  DteL  of  Greece 
md  Boman  Oeogr^^  ■>  ▼• 

S.  Salavillb. 

MeoAy  Juan  de,  Spanish  poet^  b.  1411  at  Cordova: 
d.  1456  at  Torrelaguna.  Prominent  at  the  court  of 
Juan  II  of  Castile,  Mena  was  for  a  while  the  monarch's 
McreCorio  de  eartaa  laHnaa  and  then  the  roval  histo- 
riographer. In  his  work  as  a  poet  he  manifests  little 
originality,  and  shows  to  a  considerable  degree  the 
influence  of  Italian  and  clasmc  Latin  models,  for  the 
impress  of  the  Renaissanoe  is  already  dear  in  him. 
The  Dtentesaue  allegory^  gave  form  to  his  poem  "  La 
Coronaeion  ,  an  allegorical  vision  in  which  ne  makes  a 
iouroey  to  Parnassus  to  witness  the  coronation  of  his 
friend,  the  Marquis  of  Santillana^  as  poet  and  hero. 
Didactic  and  allegorizing  tendencies  are  visible  in  his 
verrified  "  Siete  pecados  mortales  '\  Along  with  a  para- 
mount influence  of  Dante  there  is  noticeable  also  a 
eoofliderable  influence  of  the  Latin  poet  Lucan  in  his 
poetical  masterpiece,  the  "  Laberinto  (also  termed  Las 
Tredentas).  Here  the  poet  pictures  himself  as  wan- 
dering in  a  forest  where  he  is  threatened  by  wild 
beasts.  A  beautiful  woman  (Providence)  appears  and 
offers  to  guide  him  and  explain  the  secrets  of  life.  A 
description  of  the  universe  is  then  given.  It  consists 
of  three  wheels  of  fate  set  within  a  number  of  circles 
or  spheres.  The  wheels  are  those  of  the  past,  present, 
and  future.  That  of  the  present  is  in  motion,  tne  other 
two  are  constantly  movmg.^  In  these  wheels  are  seen 
various  personages^  whom  his  guide  points  out  to  him, 
expatiating  on  their  characteristics.  The  machinery 
is  obyiou^  borrowed  from  the  Divine  Comedy  and 
npeeiaDy  from  the  Paradise.  Certain  passages  are 
genuinely  poetical.  Of  the  prose  works  of  Mena  there 
may  be  menti<Hied  his  "  Iliada  ".an  arid  compendium  of 
the  story  of  Troy,  and  his  peoantio  Commentaiy  on 
X.— 12 


his  own  poem  "La  Coronaeion".    His  minor  lyrio^ 
found  in  the  Cancioneros  are  of  slight  importance, 

O&iKM,  ed.  Sanchbb  (Madrid,  1804);  La6«nnto,  ed.  Foulchb- 
Dklboso  (Maoon,  1904);  Revue  Hiapanique^  IX,  75  sqq.;  MbiI- 
KNDBB  Y  Pblato,  Antologio^  Va  165  sqq. 

J.  D.  M.  FOBD. 

ManachCTy,  Johx.  See  Trichttb,  Vicariati 
Apostolic  of. 

Menahem.    See  Manahem, 

Menaion  (Mn^cbr  from  M^r,  "month")  is  the  name 
of  the  twelve  books,  one  for  every  month,  that  contain 
the  offices  for  immovable  feasts  m  the  Byzantine  rite. 
As  in  the  West,  the  Byzantine  Calendar  consists  of 
two  series  of  offices.  First  there  are  the  movable 
days,  the  days  of  the  ecclesiastical  vear  turning  around 
Easter  {moprium  de  tempore) ;  overljdng  this,  as  it  were, 
are  the  feasts  of  our  Lord,  the  Blessed  Virgm,  and  the 
Saints  that  are  fixed  to  certain  days  of  the  month  of 
the  civil  year.  The  offices  for  these  feasts  are  con- 
tained in  the  menaia,  which  therefore  correspond  to 
theproprttim sanctorum  in  the  Roman  breviary. 

Tike  origin  and  first  compilation  of  the  menaia  is 
obscure.  Apparently  the  various  elements  that  make 
up  the  collection  were  put  together  gradually.  It 
seems  that  the  Synaxarion  (now  an  extract  from  the 
menaia)  was  composed  first.  The  Synaxarion  con- 
tains only  i^ort  accounts  of  the  saints'  lives,  the  hia- 
torv  of  the  feast  and  so  on,  like  the  lessons  of  the  sec- 
ona  noctum  in  the  breviarv.  These  lives  of  saints  are 
attributed  to  Svmeon  Metaphrastes  (q.  v.).  The 
menaia  include  the  Sjoiaxarion  and  supplv  also  all  the 
other  texts  and  poems  (the  Canons  with  their  heirmd, 
troparia,  stichera,  kontakia,  and  so  on)  required  to 
complete  the  office.  A  great  part  of  these  poems  are 
ascribed  to  Romanes,  the  chief  hymn-writer  of  the 
Byzantine  Church  (fifth  century).  The  menaia  do 
not  affect  the  holy  liturgy  (which  is  hardly  influenced 
bv  the  calendar),  Deing  used  only  in  the  Divine  Office. 
The  Bvzantine  ecclesiastical  year  beeins  with  Septem- 
ber. That  month  therefore  forms  the  first  menaion; 
there  is  then  one  for  each  month  to  August.  The 
rules  for  coincidence  of  feasts  and  the  manner  of  sabr- 
ing the  office  on  any  day  must  be  sought  in  the  typi- 
kon;  but  extracts  from  the  typikon  are  printed  in  tne 
menaia.  Each  office  fills  five  or  six  small  folio  pages, 
the  rubrics  being  printed  in  red.  The  ^neral  arrange- 
ment is  this:  firet  come  the  verses  (stichera)  sung  at 
the  Hesperinos.  then  the  Biblical  lessons  with  the 
mokeimena  ana  anv  troparia  that  may  be  wanted. 
The  Canon  sung  at  the  Orthros  follows  with  all  its  odes 
and  their  troparia.  The  S3rnaxarion  of  the  feast  fol- 
lows the  sixtn  ode.  ^  The  psalms  and  other  unchang- 
ing matter  are  not  given.  Thev  are  f  oimd  in  the  other 
b<x>ks  (Triodion,  Parakletike,  Oktoechos).  The 
churches  of  the  Byzantine  rite  tnat  do  not  use  Greek 
Uturgically  have  translations  of  the  menaia  with  ad- 
ditional offices  for  their  special  feasts  and  any  other 
modifications  they  may  have  introduced.  The 
Slavonic  name  for  the  book  is  mineja,  Arabic  minaiun, 
Rumanian  mineiu.  Parts  of  the  menaia  were  trans- 
lated into  S  vriac  by  the  Melchites  during  the  time  that 
they  used  that  language  (a  list  in  Charon:  "Le  Rite 
byzantin  dans  les  Patriarcats  melkites",  Rome,  1908, 
pp.  33-44).  The  whole  has  not  been  translated  into 
•Arabic,  llie  Orthodox  and  Melchites  of  Egypt  and 
Syria  use  instead  a  selection  from  them  called  in 
Greek  "  Aw&o\6ytor'*  (but  "minaiun"  in  Arabic).  The 
"Menology"  (/inroX^ior)  is  either  an  ecclesiastical 
calendar  or  a  kind  of  S3^naxarion.  The  first  printed 
edition  of  the  menaia  was  made  by  Andrew  and 
James  SpineUi  at  Venice  (152S-1596)^  and  reprinted 
(1596-1607).  The  latest  Greek  editions  were  pub- 
lished at  Venice,  in  1873  (Orthodox),  and  at  Rome,  in 

1888  (Uniate). 

Alzjitiub,  De  librie  eedee.  Oraoorum  (Paris,  1645  and  1646): 
Krumbachbh,  Qeedi,  derbuMont.  LiU.  (Munieh,  1897),  658-650; 
NiLLES,  Kalendamun  manvale  (2nd  ed.,  Innsbiuok,  1806) :  MAi/r< 


MENARD                              178  MSNA8 

fSK\.%.?^^*^^%?^<r;iL-  'J?  SA-    ^^^ii^"^  !»»*«  and  fiiBt  Bishop  of  Paris,  written  (at  finfc 

1892);  Nbax^  amC  o/Ma  H6l!ii  Baalem  Church,  III  (London,     STiXr»^r»««,,-Ur\    ..^Cm-^-  t«..,.^,.  :«  j^r 2c  m^nilT 

I860);  Seleotioiis  from  the  Riuuan  m«naU  in  Eogliah  are  pub^  anonymously)   a^Linst  Launoy,  in  defence  of  Bullet 

'liflhed  by  Obuowt,  Ths  General  Menaion  (London,  1899),  and  (Pans.  1643);"S.Bamabfle  Apostoli  (ut  fertur)  Epistola 

Th»  Fenal  Menaion  (Ixmdon,  1900).  CathoJica,  ab  antiquis  oKm  eoclesise  patribus  sub  eju». 

Adrian  Fortbscub.  dem  nomine  laudata  et  usurpata"  (Paris,  1645).   The 

--^ ,  rjL            -xuxm                 ,«OA  Greek  text  had  been  found  by  Sirmond  at  Rome,  and 

i^Jf*5^'i'   .  't^^''t^'«!J*  Twrasccm,  12  Sept.,  Menard  discovered  a  Latin  translation  at  the  Abbey  of 

1706;  d.  m  Pans,  1  Oct.,  1767.    When  he  had  com-  CJorvey. 

pleted  his  humanities  under  the  Jesuits  at  Lyons,  he  JCtnjLJnfariam.  a.  v.;  Tamik.  Conor,  von  St,  Maw  (Prank- 
studied    jurisprudence    at   Toulouse    and    became  fort.  1773).  I,  27:  ThfolpoMehe  QuariaUchHft,  XV.  391,  421; 
counseUor  at  the  Superior  Court  of  Ntmes.    From  Hubotb.  Nomrnid.  (Innsbniok.  iSoT),  m.  ll4a 
1744  he  was  constantly  in  Paris  busied  with  historical  U^RANas  Mershman. 
research.    His  first  work  concerned  the  history  of  his        mjrx-— j    i>».,a   ^:-««  ^^ u     *  »    •     lat^A    j 

native  city  and  its  bishops,  and  was  entitled  -  flistoire  ^>,?^f 'Sf  f  ^""^^^  T^?^'  ^'  ^-  ^''^"^  ^^A^" 

Hfla  l?.vAnf,«i  Ha  vttn*.«'^/9  xr«ia    ThA  Womm   l7a7^  about  10  Aug.,  1661,  in  what  IS  now  Wisconsm.    After 


et  de  Chariclte",  The  Hague,  1740,  Paris,  1753  (also  "^^  .^^J  ^  ^¥  ^^X^^'  ♦^^^/''L  **^fu  ^^  ^^ 

Paris,  1765,  unier  the^le  of  -CallistWe  ou  le  *T^^JS;?fJS^^^ 

module  de  I'kmour  et  de  I'amiti^  ") ; "  Moeurs  et  usages  i^i^!?!'^°^fiJ''S  S  w^nf  f^  T1^  P^^^^ 

b^T^liL^mS^'ofs^  ^10^^^^^^^^^^^ 

&^^™S^LfmV^f^^  He  was  then  fifty-five  years  Of  age.    In  aU  probabiUty 

SfrLSSlJ^,^A^ZS^L,W^^^       fh«^fiS?,r^^  the  post  ^^  endeavouired  to  estabUsh  was  at  Kewe^ 

SSSf^J  P^mlf^m^     ]2^^ft9^hp  M  JS^  nf  aaw,*one  hundred  leagueswest  of  SaultSte.  Marie.  The 

A^on"se^°fShr!;nd'"c^^^^^^^  S^tl!^  ^L^iftSe'^R^^^^^^ 

^t  «^4-:.««. »  \^:^^^^  «/  *i,«4.  *.u,r     Ti«*  ^t*^^  4^«r^  ,»>«•.  patlietic  pages  of  tne    Kelations  .    r  rom  Keweenaw 

S^JJiiS^Si^i^eS^'^yil^^L^^^^  S^i^dkr'M'.^^in''SS?^^^^ 

unfinished.    He  was  a  member  of  the  Academic  dee  h^^IT^^^  M^  nn  ^^^^ 

Inscriptions,  and  several  other  learned  bodies.  F^nwS'^nnf  te^^^^    Kni^' HnnSl  -  w  !^ 

LB^mAV,Blooed€Minard'mMhn.d€rAead.deMln$ertpL,  Frenchman,  not  Gu^nn  the  famous     Donn6    ,  but  an 


armourer  or  blacksmith.    They  became  separated  in 

Patricius  Schlaoer.  the  forests,  and  Menard  was  never  heard  of  again.   He 

.  ^       ,      .            „               .  ,     ^              .        .  was  probably  murdered  at  the  first  rapid  of  the  Menom- 

Menmrdi  Nicglas-Huoubs,  of  the  Congregation  of  inee. 

St.  Maur,  b.  in  Paris,  1585;  d.  21  Jan.,  1644.     His  fa-  M£nard,  JeauU  ReUuiont  (Cleveland):  Shba,  Hidorv  of  the 

ther  was  private  secretary  to  Catherine  de  Medici,  his  Catholic Chwth  in  Hu  United Statet,  I  (New  York^a. d.):  Rocbjb- 

mother  WM  a  native  of  Blois.  After  a  Uberal  educa-  "^Tc^JS^HiSS^of  Am^iS^ 
tion  Menard  entered  the  Order  of  St.  Benedict,  3  T.  J.  Campbell. 
Feb.,  1607,  at  St.  Denis,  and  made  his  reli^ous  pro- 
fession 10  Sept.,  1612.  in  the  next  year  he  loined  the  MenaSi  Saint,  martyr  under  Diocletian,  about  295. 
reform  movement  of  St.  Vannes  in  Verdun  wnich  some  According  to  the  Greek  Acts,  published  with  Latin 
years  later  developed  into  the  (Don^gation  of  St.  translation  in  "Analecta  BoUandiana",  III,  258 
Maur;  and  he  became  one  of  its  mam  helps.  After  (Surius,  XI,  241)^  Menas,  a  Christian,  and  an  Egyptian 
some  time  he  was  called  to  Paris,  where  he  soon  be-  by  birth,  served  m  the  Roman  army  under  the  tnbune 
came  a  favourite  preacher  and  frequently  occupied  the  Firmilian.  When  the  army  came  to  Cotyieus  in  Phiy- 
principal  pulpits.  For  sixteen  years  he  taught  rhet-  gia,  Menas  hearing  of  the  impious  edicts  issued  against 
oric  at  the  College  of  Clugny.  By  word  and  deed  he  the  Christians  by  the  Emperors,  Diocletian  and  Max- 
sought  to  induce  his  fellow  religious  to  unite  an  exem-  imian,  left  the  army,  retired  to  a  solitude  in  the 
plary  life  witJi  love  for  study  especiallv  of  Chureh  his-  moimtains  and  served  God  by  fasting,  vigils,  and 
tory  and  patrolo^.  On  account  of  miling  health  he  prayer.  Duriitg  the  celebration  of  a  great  festival 
was  placed  by  his  superiors  in  the  abbey  of  St.  Ger-  Menas  appeared  in  the  midst  of  the  populace  in  the 
main  des  Prte,  where  he  lived  in  great  seclusion.  In  circus,  ana  fearlessly  professed  his  faith.  He  was  led 
his  small  circle  of  intimate  friends  the  Jesuit  Sirmond  before  the  prefect  Fyrrhus,  cruelly  scourged,  put  to 
stood  foremost.  Menard  is  much  praised  for  his  pro-  torture,  and  finally  beheaded.  His  body  was  brought 
found  learning,  his  great  modesty  and  his  wonderful  to  Egypt  and  the  martyr  was  soon  invoked  in  many 
memorv.  ^  ^  needs  and  afflictions.  The  fame  of  the  miracles 
Works:  "Martyrologium  Sanctorum  ordinis  St.  wrought,  spread  far  and  wide,  and  thousands  of  pil- 
Benedict!",  to  which  he  added  several  biographies  and  grims  came  to  the  grave  in  the  desert  of  Mareotis  De- 
explanatoiy^notes  which  greatly  enhance  the  value  of  tween  Alexandria  and  the  valley  of  Natron.  For 
the  work  (raris,  1629);  "(Doncordia  regularum,  auo-  centuries  Bumma  (Karm-AbuuK-Abu  Mina)  was  a 
tore  St.  BenedictoAniameabbate",  from  a  manuscript  national  sanctuarv  and  grew  into  a  large  city  with 
found  in  the  Abbey  of  Fleury,  which  is  supplemented  costly  temples,  a  holy  well,  and  baths.  A  b^utifu] 
by  a  life  of  St.  Benedict  of  Aniane  (Paris,  1638);  "St.  basihca  was  erected  by  the  Emperor  Arcadius.  The 
Gre^orii  I  Pap»  Liber  Sacramentorum",  from  a  man-  cult  was  spread  into  other  countries,  perhaps  by  trav* 
uscnpt  Missal  of  St.  Eligius  (Paris,  1642).  This  also  elling  merohants  who  honoured  him  as  their  patron, 
appears  in  the  edition  of  the  works  of  St.  Gregory  of  As  a  result  of  various  vicissitudes,  the  doctrinal  dis- 
theyearl7(>5.  The  commentanr  on  the  book  is  highly  putes  and  the  conquest  of  Egypt  by  the  Arabians 
praised  by  Muratori  (Dissert,  de  rebus  liturgicis.  ch.  imder  Omar  in  641,  the  sanctuary  was  neglected  and 
6),  who  states  that  Tomassi  and  Mabillon  would  nave  ultimately  forgotten.    During  1905  Mgr  C.  M.  Kauf- 

*""       "      •    '  "    *»      .  .       .^  _  mann  of  Frankfort  led  an  expwiition  into  Egypt  whidi 

made  excavations  at  Bumma.    He  found  in  a  vast 
field  of  ruins,  the  grave,  the  well  and  therms,  the 

rum  episcopo^ra  defenop  ol  the  identity  of  the  Areo-  basilica,,  the  monastery,  numerous  inscriptions  on  the 


BCBKCIU8                              179  BSENDANA 

vails  imploring  aid  through  the  interoession  of  the  one  of  the  most  noteworthy  attempts  to  teach  moral- 
saint,  and  thousands  of  little  water  pitchers  and  oil  ity  independently  of  religion.  The  Bookof  Mcncius" 
lamps.  The  rich  finds  are  partly  in  the  Museum  of  is  generally  accepted  as  gjenuine,  though  the  evidence  of 
Alexandria  and  Cairo,  and  partW'  in  Frankfort  and  its  Mencian  autnorship  is  of  a  kind  that  would  not  be 
Berlin.  The  monsignor  pubhshed  an  official  report  of  judged  sufficient  if  it  fell  within  the  scope  of  modem 
his  eroedition  in  1908,  "La  d6couverte  des  Sanctu-  nistoric  criticism.  In  a  Chinese  histoiy  dating  from 
aires  de  Menas  dans  le  desert  de  Mareotis ".  His  feast  100  b.  c,  a  short  account  of  Mencius  is  given,  in  which 
is  celebrated  on  11  November.  he  is  declared  to  be  the  author  of  the  work  in  seven 

Several  saints  of  the  name  Menas  were  highl^r  hon-  books  that  bears  his  name.    There  are  extant  portions 

oured  in  the  ancient  Church  about  whose  identity  or  of  literary  works  composed  as  early  as  186-178  b.  c, 

diversity  much  dispute  is  raised.    Delahaye  (Anal,  containing  cjuotations  from  the  "Book  of  Mencius". 

BoU.,  XXIX,  117)  comes  to  the  conclusion  that  Menas  There  remains  still,  somewhat  more  than  a  oentuiy  to 

of  Mareotis,  Menas  of  Cotyseus,  and  Menas  of  Constanti-  bridge  over,  but  the  reputation  for  acciuracv  of  the 

nople,  sumamed  KaUikdados^  are  one  and  the  same  Chinese  annals  is  taken  as  a  warrant  that  the  work 

person^  that  he  was  an  E^rptian  and  suffered  martyr-  goes  back  to  the  days  of  Mencius  and  issued  from  his 

dom  in  his  native  place,  tioat  a  basilica  was  built  over  pen. 

.his  ^rave  which  became  one  of  the  great  sanctuaries  of  ^  A  partial  acquaintance  with  the  teachings  of  Men- 

Christendom,  that  churches  were  Duilt  in  his  honour  cius  was  obtained  by  European  scholars  through  the 

at  Cotyseus  and  Constantinople,  and  gave  rise  to  local  writings  of  the  Jesuit  missionaries  to  China  m  the 

legends.  eighteenth  century.    The  "Book  of  Mencius"  was 

QuKNTw,  Lea  Uartymlpon  hiMorjqu^  (Paris.  1008),  271 ;  translated  into  Latin  by  Stanislaus  Julien  in  the  early 

Rom.  QuartaUchr.,  XX.  188;  P^''''*»^^J^^'J^^^i^^}^X'  *l-  part  of  the  last  century.    English  readers  have  ready 

J?^RANCiB  Mershman.  ^^^^^^  ^  ^^  sayiuM  of  Menciusin  the  admirable  edi- 

tion  and  version  of  the ' '  Chinese  Classics  ",  by  J .  Legge. 

MendnS  (Latinized  form  of  Chinese  Menq-TZE,  i.  e.  Leogb.  The  Works  ofMmeiua^  Chinese  Claerice,  II  (London, 

Meng  the  Sage),  philosopher,  b.  371  or 372  b.  c.  He  IS^Dt  J^""***  ^V^^  (Pans,  1820);  Fabeti,  TheMindoJ 
was  a  disciple  of  tile  grandson  of  Confucius,  and  ranks  gJ^YoikTiMl).  ^'  '  "^  of  Chinese  LOmrf^ 
next  to  the  great  master  as  an  expoimder  of  Confu-  Chablbs  F.  Aikbw. 
dan  wisdom.  His  work^  known  as  the  "  Book  of  Men- 
cius", or  simply,  "Mencius",  is  one  of  the  four  5At/A,  •-  ^  ^  ^  ^p  *  «  .  1. 
or  books,  given  the  place  of  honour  in  Chinese  Utera'  Mendafia  de  Neyra,  Alvabo  de,  a  Spanish  navi- 
ture  after  the  King,  or  classics.  Cf  Mencius'  Ufe  only  g^^or  and  explorer,  b.  m  Sara«ossa,  1541  ;d.  m  Santo 
a  meagre  account  has  been  handed  down,  and  this  9^^»  Solomon  Islands,  18  October,  1596.  Little  » 
is  so  like  the  story  of  Ctonfudus  in  its  main  outUnes,  ^^own  of  his  early  years,  but  about  1558  he  went  to 
that  one  is  tempted  to  question  its  strictly  historical  J^una  upon  mvitation  of  his  uncle,  Lope  Garcfa  de 
character.  He  is  said  to  have  Uved  to  the  advanced  Castro,  who  was  then  Viceroy  of  Peru.  At  that  time 
age  of  eighty-four  years,  being  thus  a  contemporary  *°e  Spaniards  were  weU  aware  that  the  Pacific  offered 
of  the  great  Greek  philosophers,  Plato  and  Aristotle.  «?  extensive  field  for  exploration  and  dwcovery,  and 
His  father  died  when  he  was  very  young.  The  care  Garcfa  de  Castro,  wishing  to  explore  that  vast  region, 
of  his  training  was  thrown  upon  his  mother,  and  so  equipped  an  expedition  of  two  ships  at  the  head  of 
weU  did  she  fulfil  her  task  that  she  has  been  honoured  ^^'^  ^®  P^^  ^^  nephew  Mendafia.  The  expedi- 
ever  since,  among  the  Chinese  of  aU  classes,  as  the  *»o^  set  out  from  Callao  m  November,  1567.  In  the 
pattern  of  the  true  mother.  After  a  thorough  in-  courae  of  about  a  year  they  discovered  several  isUnds 
struction  in  the  doctrine  of  Confucius,  Mendus  was  9f  Oceanica,  and  returned  to  Peru  m  1568.  Men- 
honoured  with  the  position  of  minister  of  state  to  one  of  ^^^  tra,ve\s  did  not  aw^en  much  mterest  at  first, 
the  feudal  princes,  HsOan.  But  after  some  years,  see-  so  he  gave  an  elaborate  and  glowing  descnption  of  the 
ing  that  the  prince  was  not  disposed  to  foUow  his  coun-  arohipelago  to  which  he  gave  the  name  of  Solomon 
set,  he  resigned  his  charge,  and  for  years  went  about  Islands,  as  it  was  supposed  that  here  Kmc  Solomon 


people  throu^  his  wise  measures  of  reform.    After    a  second  expedition  for  the  purpose  of  colonizii^  them. 


paring  with  them  the  book  that  bears  his  name.  eral  groups       ^,      ,      ,.,  ,  -     ,.    v 

The  "Book  of  Mencius"  consists  of  seven  parts  or  ***®  Marquesas  Islands  which  he  so  named  m  honour 

books,  and  treats  of  the  proper  regulation  of  human  o^,  ^^  wife  of  Garcfa  deMendo^,  Marquis  of  Canete, 

conduct  from  the  point  of  view  of  sodety  and  the  state.  ^^^  ^^^  ^^  *^®  *>™®  Viceroy  of  Peru.    The  explorer 

Rehgion  as  a  motive  of  right  conduct  seems  to  have  Cook,  m  1774,  gave  the  name  of  Nukahiva  to  this 

concerned  him  much  less  than  it  did  Conf  udus.    He  group,  that  bemg  the  native  name  of  the  largest  island 

is  interested  in  human  conduct  only  in  so  far  as  it  leads  o^  ^^  arehipelago.    The  expedition  continued  wwtr 

to  the  highest  common  weal.    One  of  his  recorded  ^^^'  visituM;  several  other  groups  of  islands,  but 

sayings  runs:—"  The  people  are  of  the  highest  impor-  Mendafia  diedTbef ore  he  reach^  the  end  of  the  vojji^. 

tanoe;  the  gods  come  second ;  the  sovereign  is  of  lesser  Before  his  death,  he  del^ated  his  powers  to  his  wife  m 

weight."    His  work  abounds  in  sententious  utter^  whom  he  had  great  confidence  anjl  who  was  with  him 

ances.    If  we  may  trust  the  records,  he  knew  how  to  ^^  J*e  voyage.    The  widow,  a  very  resolute  woman, 

speak  plainly  and  strongly.    To  Prince  Hui,  whom  he  ^^^  charge,  and  led  the  expedition  into  Manfla,  where 

found  fiving  in  careless  luxuiy,  while  his  people  were  ^^^7  arrived  safely  m  February,  1596.    Mendafia  left 

perishing  for  lack  of  economic  reforms,  he  said:— "In  ^o*®s  describing  both  of  his  voyages  which  were  col- 

your  kitchen  there  is  fat  meat,  and  in  your  stables  le<5ted  after  his  death  by  the  historian  Pedro  Gu6rico 

there  are  sleek  horses,  while  famine  sits  upon  the  faces  ^e  Victoria  imder  the  title  of  '  Derrotero  de  Mendafia 

of  your  people,  and  men  die  of  hunger  in  the  fields.  <*«  Neyra".    The  manuscnpt  is  now  m  the  National 

This  is  to  be  a  beast  and  prey  on  your  fellow  men."  Library  in  Paris. 

Mendua  was  a  staunch  champion  of  the  Confucian         MendafladeNeipn  in  BvUeHndeUxSocUtideOSoaraphie  (Puis. 

principle  that  hunu»n  nature  tends  to  what  is  monUly  ^ikiSiSSSTi,^  f^^DSS^'"«/;K^±S'^ 

|;ood,  and  only  runs  to  evil  by  reason  of  the  perverse  iaPMieaOona  of  the  Hakluyt  Society  ihtmdon,  1901). 

mfluenoes  of  external  environment.    His  treatise  is  ventura  Fui^ttes. 


IH.II 


180 


Mende,I>iocB8B  of  (Mimatenbis),  includes  thede-  T  had  eauaed  to  be  rebuilt.    The  Diooeee  of  Mende 

partment  of  LozSre,  in  France.    Suffragan  of  Bourges  was  one  of  the  regions  where  the  insurrection  of  the 

under  the  old  regime,  it  was  re-established  by  the  Con-  C^misards  (q.  v.)  oroke  out  at  the  beginning  of  the 

cordat  of  1801  as  a  suffragan  of  Lyons  and  united  with  eighteenth  century.   Cardinal  Dominique  de  la  Rocho- 

the  department  of  Axd^che.    The  See  of  Mende  lost  foucauld,  Archbishop   of  Rouen,  who  presided    in 

this  second  department  in  1822  by  the  creation  of  the  1789  over  the  last  assembly  of  the  clergy  of  France, 

Diocese  of  Viviers  and  became  a  suffraean  of  Albi.-  was  bom  in  1712  at  Saint  Ch6ly  d'Apcher,  in  the  dio- 

According  to  late  legends  belonging  to  the  Limousin  oese.    The  chemist  Chaptal  (1756-1832)  was  one  of 

cvcle  of  legends  relating  to  St.  iZartial,  he  passed  the  last  of  those  who  profited  by  the  scholarships 

through  the  territoiy  of  the  Gabali  (G^vauoan)  of  founded  by  Urban  V  for  twelve  young  students  at 

which  Mende  is  the  capital,  and  appointed  as  its  first  Montpellier.  ^ 

bishop.  St.  Severian  nis  disciple,  about  the  begin-  The  following  saints  are  specially  venerated  in  the 

ning  of  the  firet  centuiy.    (See  Limoges.^    The  first  diocese:   St.   Ilpide,   martyr   (third   century);   the 

bishop  known  to  histoxy  is  Saint  Pnvatus,  who  preacher  St.  Veran,  Bishop  of  Cavaillon,  a  native  of 

according  to  Gregory  of  Tours,  died  in  a  grotto  of  G^yaudan  (sixth  ()entiiry) ;  St.  Lupentius.  abbot  of  the 

Mount  Bummat,  a  victim  of  the  iU  treatment  he  suf-  basiUca  of  St.  Privatus,  beheaded  by  order  of  Bnine- 

fered  at  the  time  of  the  invasion  of  the  Alamanni  under  haut  whom  he  reproached  for  the  irregularities  of  her 

their  King  Chrocus.    Gregory  of  Tours  places  this  life  (sixth  century);  the  nun  St.  Enimie,  daughter  of ' 

event  about  260;  though  Fredegarius  puts  the  inva-  Clotaire  II  and  sister  of  Dagobert  (seventh  centuiy) , 

sion  of  Chrocus  at  407.    Mgr.  Duchesne  places  the  in-  foundress  of  a  monastery  of  Benedictine  nuns  in  the 

vasion  of  Chrocus  and  the  death  of  St.  Privatus  at  the  present  St.  Enimie.    The  principal  pilgrimages  of  the 

beginning  of  the  reign  of  Constantine,  perhaps  before  diocese  are:  at  Mende  itself,  Notre  Dame  de  Mende 

the  Council  of  Aries.    It  is  certain  that  there  was  an  where  the  statue  of  the  Black  Virgin  was  brought,  per- 

organized  church  in  the  country  of  the  GabaH  from  haps  in  1213,  by  the  Crusaders  ol  G^vaudan,  and  the 

about  314.  since  in  that  year  it  was  represented  at  the  hermita^  of  Samt  Privatus;  Notre  Dame  de  la  Caroe, 

Council  01  Aries.    We  do  not  know  tne  exact  date  of  the  origm  of  the  dty  of  Marv^jols;  Notre  Damede 

the  episcopate  of  Saint  Firminus  whom  the  church  of  Qu^sac,  a  pilgrimage  dating  from  1052  and  where 

Mencfe  honours  to-day.    Other  bishops  of  the  Gabali,  Urban  V  founded  a  chapter-house  of  eight  canons,  and 

who  doubtless  resided  at  Javoulx,  near  Mende,were:  Our  Lady  All-powerful,  at  Langogne.    There  were  in 

Saint  Hilary,  present  at  the  Council  of  Auvergne  in  the  diocese,  before  the  application  of  the  law  of  associa- 

535,  and  founoer  of  the  monastery  of  Canourgue,  and  tions  of  1901,  various  teaching  orders  of  brothers 

whose  personality  has  been  wrongly  described  in  cer-  and  several  teaching  orders  of  nuns  of  a  local  origin: 

tain  traditions  concerning  Saint  Illier,  and  St.  Fr§zal  the  Sisters  of  Christian  Unity  (L'Union  chr6tienne). 

of  Canour^e  (ninth  century)  assassinated,  it  is  said,  founded  in  1696  (mother-house  at  Mende) :  the  United 

under  Louis  le  D^bonnaire.  Sisters  of  the  Holy  Family,  founded  at  Palhers  in  1750, 

Towards  the  year  1000  Mende  became  the  seat  of  transferred  to  Mende  in  1824;  the  Sisters  of  Christian 

the  bishopric.     Under  Venerable  Aldebert  III  (1151-  Doctrine  (mother-house  at  Meyrueis)  founded  in  1837. 

86),  Alexander  III  passed  some  days  at  Mende  in  1 162;  The  religious  congregations  in  1900  directed  in  the  dio- 

Aldebert  wrote  two  works,  on  the  passion  and  on  the  oese  fifteen  infant  schools,  one  orphan  asylum  for  boys, 

miracles  of  St.  Privatus,  whose  rehcs  were  discovered  four  orphan  asylums  for  girls,  nine  hospitals  and  alms- 

at  Mende  in  1170.    M.  Leopold  Delisle  has  shown  us  houses,  twelve  relip;iou8  houses  for  the  care  of  those  ill 

the  historical  interest  of  these  two  works  of  this  at  home,  and  one  insane  asylum.    In  1905  at  the  end 

bishop.    Mende  had  later  as  bishops,  Guillaume  Du-  of  the  regime  of  the  Concordat,  the  diocese  had  128,- 

rand  (1285-96),  the  author  of  ''Speculum  juris",  and  866  inhabitants,  26  parishes,  191  succursal  churcheB, 

of  the  "Rationale  divinorum  omdonim' ,  who  was  and  135  vicarages,  supported  by  the  state, 

secretary  of  the  general  council  of  Lyons  in  1270,  and  „o^«%„^"^~»  <*^ova  1716).  1. 83-1  lO.  295-6;  mdrwnaua. 

his  n^w,  Dur^^  le  Jeune  (1296-1328)  wha  b^  the  l^l^lJSlf  ^(?SSSSSrSf;5S^^''J?^ 

act  called  "Panage",  agreed  upon  with  Phiuppe  le  Origins  el  hUlaire  dbrigSe  de  V^liae  de  Mende  (Mende,  1850); 

Bel,  definitively  settled  in  G^vaudan  the  respective  LtopOLD  Dklmlb.  Un  manuacrUdeUi  catMdtiraie  ds  Mende 

riglits  of  king  .f  d  bishop,  and  who  left  a  work  on  the  '^/^S^^rt^'S^^'l^l  SS)?iD'iSir&JSrSS 

general  councils  and  on  the  reform  of  abuses.     Guil-  qtwnree  de  rdigion  en  Oivaudan  aux  ie\  27*  et  J8»  Mteba 

laume  de  Grimoaid,  bom  about  1310  at  the  castle  of  (Tou».  1880);  Cmvalusb.  TopobibL,  1902-3, 

Grisac  near  Mende,  was  sickly  and  deformed,  but  was  Gborqeb  uotau. 

restored  at  the  prayer  of  his  godfather,  St.  EM&t  de 

Sabran,  who  had  come  to  baptise  him.  Mected  pope  in  Mendel,    Mendelism.  —  Giegor  Johann   Mendd 

1362  under  the  name  of  Urban  V,  he  administered  the  (the  first  name  was  taken  on  entrance  to  his  order) , 

Diocese  of  Mende  himself  from  1368  to  70.  as  it  had  b.  22  Jidy,   1822.  at  Heimsendorf  near  Odrau,  in 

been  left  vacant  by  the  removal  of  his  nepnew  to  the  Austrian  ^esia;  d.  6  January,  1884,  at  the  Augustin- 

See  of  Avignon.  ian  Abbey  of  St.  Thomas.  BrUnn.    His  father  was  a 

Among  the  bishops  of  Mende  were:  Guillaume  de  small  peasant-farmer,  and  the  pecuniarv  resources  of 

Chanac,  who  occupied  the  see  but  a  few  months,  when  the  family  were  very  meagre,  as  is  shown  by  the 

he  became  cardinal  in  1371;  Pietro  Riario  (1473-74),  fact  that  a  younger  sister  of  Mendel's  voluntarily 

nephew  of  Sixtus  IV  and  a  cardinal;  Giuliano  della  gave  up  a  lar^  part  of  her  dowry  in  order  that  the 

Rovere  (1478-^)  later  pope  under  the  name  of  Julius  plans  which  his  family  had  formed  for  his  education 

II;  and  nis  nephews^  Cardinal  Clement  della  Rovere  might  be  carried  out.    The  debt  was  afterwards 

(1483-1504)  and  Francesco  della  Rovere  (1504-24);  repaid,  and  more  than  repaid,  by  Mendel.    After  a 

Castellane  (176S-92)  massacred  at  VeFsailles,  9  Sept.,  period  of  study  at  the  school  of  Leipnik,  Mendel  dis- 

1792.  tinguished  himself  so  much  that  his  parents  made  a 

Urban  II  visited  the  Diocese  of  Mende  in  1095  and  great  effort  and  sent  him  to  the  gymnasium  at  Trop- 

had  consecrated  in  his  presence  the  chureh  of  the  moor  pau,  and  subsequently,  for  a  year,  to  OlmQts.    At 

astery  of  Saint  Sauveur  de  Chirac  or  of  Monastier  the  former  place  one  of  his  teachers  was  an  Augu»- 

founded  in  1062  and  dependent  on  the  Abbey  of  Saint  tinian,  and^  whether  post  or  vropter  hoc^  at  the  end 

Victor.    Mende  was  captured  for  the  first  time  bv  the  of  his  period  of  study  at  the  gymnasium  Mendd 

Huguenots  in  1562;  the  celebrated  adventurer  Merle  applied  to  be  admitted  as  a  novice  in  the  Abbey  of 

from  1573-81  led  into  the  region  bands  of  Protestants  St.  Thomas  at  BrOnn,   commonly  known  as   the 

who  were  masters  of  Mende  for  eighteen  months,  "  Kanigskloster".    This  was  in  1843,  and  in  1847 

and  destroyed  a  great  part  of  the  cathedral  that  Urban  he  was  ordained  priest  and  seems  to  have  occupied 


181  MENDEL 

himself  in  teaching  until  1851,  when  he  was  sent,  impossible  that  he  may  have  destroyed  them  himself 

for  a  two  years'  course  of  study  in  mathematics,  in  some  of  the  dark  hours  which  he  wan  called  upon 

jdiysics,  and  the  natural  sciences,  to  the  University  to  endure  during  the  last  years  of  his  life, 
of  Vienna.    When  this  course  terminated,  in  1853.  he        The  Brtlnn   Societv  was  not  a  wholly  unknown 

retumed  to  his  abbey,  and  was  appointed  a  teacner,  organization,  but  its  Journal  was  scarcely  one  which 

pdndpally  of  physics,  in  the  ReEuschule.    He  con-  could  be  expected  to  give  the  widest  publicity  to  a 

tinuea  in  this  position  for  fifteen  years  and  appears  to  new  discovery  or  theory.    It  is  peiliaps  largely  on 

have  been  genuinely  devoted  to  teaching  and  to  have  this  account  that  Mendel's  views  seemed  for  a  third 

gained  ihe  reputation  of  being  extraordinarily  sue-  of  a  century  to  have  been  still-bom.    Bateson,  how- 

oeasful  in  interesting  his  pupils  in  their  work.    In  1868  ever,  thinks  that  this  would  not  so  long  have  delayed 

he  was  obliged  to  relinquiux  his  educational  labours  his  recognition,  but  that  ''  the  cause  is  unquestion- 

on  assuming  the  position  of  abbot  of  his  monastery,  ably  to  be  found  in  that  neglect  of  the  experimental 

to  which  office  he  was  then  elected.  study  of  the  problem  of  Species  which  supervened  . 

When  appointed  to  this  important  post,  Mendel,  al-  on  the  general  acceptance  of  tne  Darwinian  doctrines", 

ready  mucai  engrossed  witii  his  biological  experiments,  and  Bateson 's  opinion,  as  that  of  the  man  who  has 

hoped  that  he  mic^t  have  more  time  for  his  researches  done  more  than  any  other  to  make  Mendel's  views 

than  was  possible  in  the  midst  of  his  labours  at  known,  is  worthy  of  all  consideration.    Whatever 

the  Realschule.    But  this  was  not  to  be.    The  juris-  may  have  "been  the  cause,  the  fact  remains  that 

diction  and  privfleges  of  the  abbey  are  somewhat  Mendel's   work  was   unreco^ized   until,   in    1809, 

extensive,  and  its  abbot  must,  in  orcunarv  times,  find  three  men  of  science — de  Vnes  in  Holland,  Correns 

himself  with  plenty  of  occui>ation.    Menael,  however,  in   Germany,   and   Tschermak  in   Austria-;-almost 

in  addition  to  the  multipUcity  of  his  duties  as  abbot,  simultaneouslv  called  attention  to  his  publications 

became  involved  in  a  lengthy  controversy  with  the  and  started  ihe  interest  in  his  line  of  investigations 

Government  which  absorbed  his  attention  and  em-  which  has  steadily  continued  to  grow  and  increase 

bittered  the  last  ^rears  of  his  life.    The  Government  since  that  date.    Mendel  himself,  though  grievously 

had  imposed  specif  taxes  on  rdigious  houses,  and  disappointed  at  the  neglect  of  ms  views,  never  lost 

these  Mendel  refused  to  pay,  alleging  that,  as  all  connaence  in  them,  ana  was  wont  to  exclaim  to  his 

citizens  were,  or  should  be,  equal  in  the  eye  of  the  friends,  "Meine  Zeit  wird  schon  kommen".    He  was 

bw,  it  was  imjust  to  ask  one  kind  of  institution  to  pay  abundantly  justified  in  his  belief, 
a  tax  from  which  another  kind  was  free.    At  the        It  now  remains  to  give  some  account  of  the  theory 

commencement  of  the  stru^e  several  other  monaster-  put  forward  by  Mendel  and  the  influence  of  his  work 

ies  sided  with  him,  but  one  by  one  they  submitted,  during  the  past  ten  years.    Mendel  himself  confined 

until  at  last  Mendel  was  left  alone  in  his  opposition  his  experiments  to  plants,  and  his  most  important 

to  the  tax.    Great  efforts  were  made  to  induce  him  observations  were  inade  on  the  garden  pea,  Piaum 

to  yield  but  he  refused,  and  even  allowed  the  goods  aativum.    Later  observers  have  dealt,  not  only  with 

of  the  abbey  to  be  distrained  upon  rather  than  sub-  a  number  of  other  members  of  the  vegetable  kingdom, 

mit.    In  the  end — ^though  not  till  after  Mendel's  but  also  with  a  variety  of  animals,  using  that  word 

death — ^the  obnoxious  tax  was  repealed.    The  result  in  the  widest  possible  sense.    With  the  details  of  their 

of  all  this  strain,  as  may  easily  be  understood,  was  publications  it  is  not  possible  here  to  deal,  but  a 

a  complete   cessation  in  Mendel's  scientific  work,  short  account  of  Mendel's  own  work  will  suffice  to 

His  appointment  as  abbot  may  have  been  an  ex-  show  the  lines  of  his  theory.     He  did  not,  as  others  had 

cellent  thing  for  the  monastery,  but  it  cannot  be  done  and  have  since  done,  direct  his  attention  to  the 

denied  that  it  was  a  great  misfortune  for  science,  entire  group  of  characteristics  making  up  the  indi- 

The  latter  years  of  his  life  were  rendered  unhappy,  vidual,  but  concentrated  his  attention   on   certain 

not  only  by  constant  strife  with  the  Government,  ana  pairs  of  opposed  features  observable  in  certain  plants, 

by  the  racial  controversies  which  tore  that  part  of  In  the  case  of  the  pea,  he  observed  that  some  were 

Austria  at  the  time  in  Question,  but  also  by  constant  tall,  some  dwarf  in  habit;  some  had  roimd  seeds, 

iil-hadth  due  to  the  cnronic  nephritis  of  which  he  others  wrinkled;  some  had  green  endosperm,  others 

ultimately  died.    The  result  of  these  various  troubles  yellow.    For  the  purpose  of  nis  own  observations  he 

was  to  change  that  sunny  cheerful  nature,  which  had  selected  seven  such  characters  and  studied  their  be- 

aecured  Mendel  many  friends,  into  a  somewhat  mo-  haviour  under  hybridization.    From  what  occurred 

rose  disposition  and  suspicious  attitude  of  mind.    A  he  was  led  to  believe  that  the  progeny  of  the  various 

public  monument  to  his  memory  was  unveiled  at  crosses  behaved  in  regard  to  these  characters,  not  in 

BrOnn,  2  October,  1910.  a  haphazard  manner,  l>ut  in  one  which  was  reducible 

Mendel's  experiments,  on  which  his  fame  rests,  to  the  terms  of  a  so-called  ''Natural  Law".  One 
were  commenced  while  he  was  still  a  novice,  and  car-  instance  given  by  Bateson  will  explain  what  happens: 
ried  out  in  the  large  ^^irdens  attached  to  his  mon-  there  are  tall  and  short  (or  "Cupid")  sweet  peas, 
astery.  Dissatisfied  with  the  Darwinian  views,  then  and  in  them  we  have  plants  showing  a  pair  of  markecl 
commencing  to  be  known,  he  undertook  a  series  of  and  easily  recognizsu)le  opposite  characters.  The 
experiments  on  peas  which  occupied  his  spare  time  teJl  and  short  forms  are  crossed  with  one  another, 
for  eig^t  years.  The  results  of  these  observations  and  the  seeds  collected  and  sown.  The  resultant 
were  published  in  the  "Transactions"  of  the  BrQnn  plants  will  be  found  to  belong  entirely  to  the  tall 
Natund  History  Society  in  1866,  and  a  further  variety,  which  has  apparently  wiped  out  the  short, 
paper  on  Hieracium  appeared  in  the  same  periodical  If,  however,  this  generation  of  se^  is  sown  and  the 
m  1860.  Two  short  papers  of  less  importance  were  flowers  of  the  resultant  plants  be  self-fertilized  the 
published  during  the  period  of  study  at  Vienna,  result  is  that,  when  their  seeds  are  sown,  and  have 
and  this  seems  to  complete  the  list  of  the  communica-  sprung  up  into  plants,  it  is  found  that  these  are 
tbns  which  he  gave  to  the  world,  with  the  exception  mixeo,  and  mixea  in  definite  proportions,  for,  on  the 
of  his  annual  meteorological  records,  also  published  average,  it  will  be  found  that  there  are  three  tall  forms 
hy  the  same  society.  It  is,  however,  known  that  he  for  eveiy  one  of  the  short.  It  follows  that  the  dwarf- 
devoted  himself  to  various  lines  of  investigation,  ishness  was  not  wiped  out,  but  that  it  was  temporarily 
bestowing  much  labour  on  the  heredity  of  bees,  obscured  in  the  second  generation,  though  present  aU 
He  collected  queen  bees  of  all  attainable  races,  the  time  potentially.  To  t^e  character  which  alone 
European,  Egyptian,  and  American,  and  made  many  appears  in  the  first  cross  is  given  the  name  dominant 
crosses  between  the  various  races.  Unfortunately,  (m  this  instance  tallness  is  dominant),  and  to  ihe 
the  notes  which  he  is  known  to  have  made  on  this  hidden  character  that  of  recessive  (dwarfishness, 
tubjeet  have  completely  disappeared,  and  it  is  not  in  ihe  example).    When  the  tails  and  dwarfs  of  the 


182 


third  generation  are  allowed  to  be  self-fertilized, 
it  is  found  that  all  the  recessives  (dwarfs)  breed 
true  and,  what  is  morej  will  go  on  breeding  true  as 
ionp^  as  uninterfered  with.  Not  so  the  dominants, 
which,  after  self-fertilization,  produce  both  tails 
and  dwarfs.  Some  of  the  tsols  of  this  generation 
will  breed  true  and  continue  to  breed  true;  others 
will  not,  but  will  produce  a  mixed  progeny.  Hence, 
out  of  the  first  plants,  seventy-nve  will  be  tails 
(dominants),  and  twenty-five  dwarfs  (recessives), 
^  these  last  being  pure.  Of  the  seventy-five  tails, 
twenty-five  will  be  pure  and  will  go  on  producing 
tails  J  fiftv  will  be  mixed,  and  their  progeny  wiU 
consist  of  pure  dominants,  mixed  dominants,  and 
recessives,  as  has  been  stated  above. 

Davenport  thus  enunciates  the  laws  underlying 
these  facts:  "Of  the  two  antagonistic  peculianties 
possessed  by  two  races  that  are  crossed,  the  h^rbrid, 
or  mongrel,  exhibits  only  one;  and  it  exhibits  it 
completely,  so  that  the  monerel  is  not  distinguish- 
able as  repards  this  character  mm  one  of  the  parents. 
Intermediate  conditions  do  not  occur.  .  .  .  Second: 
in  the  formation  of  the  pollei),  or  egg-cell,  the  two 
antagonistic  peculiarities  are  segregated;  so  that 
each  ripe  germ-cell  carries  either  one  or  the  other 
of  these  peculiarities,  but  not  both.  It  is  a  result 
of  the  second  law  that  in  the  second  generation  of 
mongrels  each  of  the  two  qualities  of  their  grand- 
parents shall  crop  out  on  distmct  individuals,  and  that 
the  recessive  quality  shall  appear  in  twenty-five  per 
cent  of  the  indiviauals,  the  remaininp^  seventv-nve 
per  cent  having  the  dominant  quahty.  Sucn  re- 
cessive individuals,  crossed  inter  se,  should  never 
produce  anything  but  recessive  offspring." 

Such,  in  brief,  are  the  main  outlmes  of  Mendel's 
theory;  but  in  the  few  years  which  have  elapsed 
skice  it  first  engaged  the  attention  of  the  scientific 
world,  there  has  ^wn  up  an  enormous  literature 
on  the  subject  which  has  much  added  to  the  com- 
plexity of  the  minor  developments  of  the  laws 
above  enunciated,  and  has  still  more  added  to  the 
difficulty  of  the  terminolo^  of  Mendelism.  With 
these  developments  it  is  impossible  to  deal  here: 
they  will  be  found  very  fully  treated  in  Bate- 
son  s  work  (see  below).  It  would,  however,  be 
negligent  to  omit  all  mention  of  the  estimation  in 
which  the  theory  itself  is  held  by  men  of  science 
of  tiie  present  day.  Bateson  claims  that  ''his  ex- 
periments are  worthy  to  rank  with  those  which 
udd  the  foundation  of  the  atomic  laws  of  chemis- 
try''; and  Lock,  that  his  discovery  was  "of  an 
importance  little  inferior  to  those  of  a  Newton  or  a 
Dalton ' '.  Puimett  also  states  that,  owing  to  Mendel's 
labours,  "the  position  of  the  biologist  of  to-day  is 
much  the  same  as  that  of  the  chemist  a  century 
ago,  when  Dalton  enunciated  the  law  of  constant 
proportions.  In  either  case  the  keynote  has  been 
Discontintdty — ^the  discontinuity  of  atom  and  the 
discontinuity  of  the  variations  in  living  forms". 
It  is  a  remarkable  fact  that  Mendel's  writmgs  never 
appear  to  have  come  under  the  notice  of  Charles 
Darwin,  and  many  have  speculated  as  to  the  effects 
which  they  might  probabljr  have  exercised  on  that 
writer  had  he  made  their  acquaintance.  T.  H. 
Morgan  does  not  hesitate  to  say  that  Mendel's  laws 
give  the  final  coup  de  gr&ce  to  the  doctrine  of  Natural 
belection,  and  others  consider  that  his  views,  if 
finally  proved  to  be  correct,  will  at  least  demand 
a  profound  modification  in  the  theories  associated  with 
the  name  of  Darwin. 

It  would  not,  however,  be  by  any  means  correct 
to  suppose  that  Mendel's  views  have  been  received 
with  complete  acceptance  by  the  scientific  world; 
indeed  there  is  a  sharp,  and  at  times  even  embittered, 
controversy  between  the  supporters  of  Mendel  ana 
his  opponents,  amongst  whom  t^e  late  Professor 
Wddon  may  plerhaps  be  considered  to  have  been  one 


of  the  most  important.  The  end  of  the  eontioTerqr 
is  not  yet  in  sight,  nor  is  it  likely  to  be  for  some  time, 
judging  by  the  extraordinarily  varied  results  which 
observers  have  drawn  from  even  identical  series  of 
facts.  For  instance,  from  the  same  materials  afforded 
by  the  colours  of  thoroughbred  horses  given  in  the 
pages  of  Weatherby's  "General  Studbook  of  Horses", 
a  Mendelian  (Mr.  Hurst)  has  deduced  evidence  in 
favour  of  the  view  which  he  upholds,  and  an  anti- 
Mendelian  (the  late  Professor  Weldon)  has  arrived  at 
a  diametric»ally  opposite  conclusion.  TTiis,  at  least, 
may  safely  be  saia :  that  Mendel's  views  have  been 
endorsed  by  a  number — ^it  would  probably  be  safe  to 
say  a  steadily  increasing  number — of  scientific  men : 
that  they  seem  to  be  likely  to  exercise  a  profouna 
influence  on  agriculture  and  on  the  scientific  oreeding 
of  horses  and  stock;  and  that,  with  such  modifications 
as  farther  experience  may  suggest,  the  main  underiy- 
ing  principles  of  the  work  wilTproDably  become  more 
and  more  firmly  established. 

As  above  stated  the  papers  in  which  Mendel's  the- 
ories were  made  public  are  contained  in  the  "Pro- 
ceedings" of  the  Brttnn  Society.  Hiey  have  been 
made  availabi '  for  English  readers  by  the  translation 
which  appears  in  Bateson's  work  (see  bibliograj^y 
below). 

Batbson,  MendtTa  Prineiplea  of  Heredity  (Cambxidse,  1909) 
(this  is  the  most  important  r/otk  in  Enghsh,  and  contains 
a  translation  of  Mendel's  papers  and  a  biogmphy  as  well  as  a 
full  account  of  all  recent  work  on  Mendelian  lines);  PuifirBTT, 
Menddtem  (CambricLse,  1905),  a  good  brief  account  of  Uie  sub- 
ject; Lock.  Recent  Frogreea  in  the  Study  of  Variation,  Heredily 
and  EvoltUum  (London.  1906);  Waubb.  Catholic  Churchmen  in 
Science  (Philadcdphia,  1906).  See  also  Boual  Society  RepotU  on 
Evolution.  In  Batbson's  book,  and  in  J^iAJOOt  Darwiniem 
To-Day  (New  York,  1907),  manv  references  to  foreign  periodi* 
cal  literature  on  Uie  subject  will  be  found. 

B.  C.  A.  WiNDLB. 

Blendefl  de  Silva,  Joao,  better  known  as  Amadeua 
of  Portugal,  b.  1420,  d.  at  Milan,  1482,  began  his  re- 
ligious me  in  the  Hieronymite  monastery  of  Notre- 
Dame  de  Guadalupe  ([Spain),  where  he  spent  about  ten 
years.  Desirous  of  joining  the  Franciscans,  he  went 
to  Italy,  where  after  some  delay  he  was  reoeived 
into  the  order  and,  living  in  various  convents,  chiefly 
at  Milan,  attracted  attention  by  his  virtue  and 
miracles.  Under  the  protection  of  the  Archbishop 
of  Milan,  he  established  the  convent  of  Notre-Dame 
de  la  Paix  (1469)  which  became  the  centre  of  a  Fran- 
ciscan reform.  The  minister  general  of  the  oitler. 
Francesco  della  Rovere,  later  pope  under  the  name  of 
Sixtus  IV,  extended  his  protection  to  him.  Other 
foundations  were  made  in  Italy,  among  them  one  at 
Rome.  Supernatural  favours  obtain^  through  hia 
intercession  aided  in  the  spread  of  his  cult,  and  the 
Bollandists  testify  to  the  authenticity  of  the  title 
"Blessed"  bestowed  on  him.  He  composed  a  yet 
unpublished  treatise  entitled  "De  revelationibus  et 
rophetiis",  two  copies  of  which  are  mentioned  by 
'icnolas  Antonio.  The  work  of  another  Amadeus, 
Homilies  on  the  Blessed  Virgin",  has  been  errone- 
ously attributed  to  him.  The  convents  he  founded 
continued  after  his  death  to  form  a  distinct  branch  of 
the  Franciscans ;  the  friars  were  called  the  Amadeans 
or  Amadists,  and  they  had  twenty-eight  houses  in 
Italy,  the  chief  one,  Saint  Peter  de  Montorio,  in  Rome. 
Innocent  VIII  gave  them  the  convent  of  Saint  Genesto 
near  Cartagena  in  Spain  (1493).  The  successors  of 
Blessed  Jo&o,  Georges  de  Val-Camonique,  Gilles  de 
Montferrat.  Jean  Allemand,  Bonaventura  de  Cremona, 

g reserved  nis  foundation  in  its  original  spirit  until 
sint  Pius  V  suppressed  it  along  with  similar  branches 
of  the  Franciscan  Order  uniting  them  into  one  great 
family  of  Friars  Minor  Observants  (1668). 


Sf 


« 


J.  M.  Bfswr. 


MtNDSZ                              183  MENDICANT 

and  Oaalaqulsay  Vicariate  Apostolic  remained.    Arnold  of  Brescia  (q.  v.)  preached  that 

OF,  established  by  Leo  AlII  on  3  February,  1893,  in  monks  and  clerics  who  possess^  property  could  not 

the  southern  part  of  the  province  of  Oriente,  Ecua-  be  saved.    A  little  later  John  valdes  founded  the 

dor.     It  depends  directly  on  the  Congregation  of  "PoorMenof  Lyons",  soon  followed  by  similar  sects. 

Extraordinary  Ecclesiastical   Affairs.     The   vicar-  The  movement  thus  started  in  France  and  Ital^  had 

Apostolic  is   Mgr  Giacomo  Costamagna,  Salesian,  spread  among  the  poorer  classes  at  the  beginnmg  of 

titular  Bishop  of  Colonia.  elected,  18  March,  1895.  the  thirteenth  century  and  threatened  to  become  dan- 

The  mission  was  entrustea  to  the  Salesians,  who  sent  gerous  to  the  Church.    By  uniting  utter  poverty  to 

thither  three  fathers,  two  scholastics,  and  one  cate-  entire  subjection  towards  the  Church.  St.  Francis  be- 

chist.   Tliey  were  all  expelled  under  the  anti-clerical  came  with  St.  Dominic  the  bulwark  of  orthodoxy 

regime  in  1896.     The  province  of  Oriente  is  popu-  against  the  new  heretics,  and  the  two  orders  of  Friara 

lated  almost  exclusively  by  Indians  of  the  Jibaro  Bfinor  and  Preachers  proved  themselves  a  great  help 

(q.  v.)  stock.    In  the  eighteenth  century  many  of  both  to  the  inner  and  to  the  external  life  of  the  Church. 

the  tribes  had  been  converted  by  the  Jesuits,  but  on  Nor  was  absolute  poverty  the  only  characteristic  of 

the  expulsion  of  the  latter  in  1767  the  missionaries  the  new  orders.    They  did  not  coxmne  themselves  to 

who  replaced  them  failed  in  the  work  of  evangelixa-  the  sanctification  of  their  own  members;  their  maxim 

tion  and  the  natives  relapsed  into  paganism,   (mente  was  rum  sibi  8oli  vivere  sed  ei  aliis  proficere  (not  to  live 

18  estimated  to  contain  150,000  Indians.  for  themselves  only,  but  to  serve  others).    At  once 

Wov.  Oteg.  y  gtologta  dd  Seuador  (Ldpng,  igw).  contemplative  and  activCj  to  the  complete  renunda- 

A.  A.  MacErlban.  tion  of  all  things  they  joined  the  exereise  of  the 

«i  n,    lo^^t  >i  Jt  .,«r  S^o\^^««T^;  1  Qi  o  ^^o  «^  *^6*r  close  contact  with  the  people,  the  convents  of  the 

brntion  of  Pemviaa  independence  he  entered  the  ^^  j^  ^^ch,at  the  begimSig  of  the  thirteenth 

I^^^  JIX5?'hf£^»^^~^Jn'Tf^'  cants,  "it  was  to  this  clitss  of*tlbe  population,  in  the 

!?li^«5!t  iL^^i?  ^.^^I  ?^Jdni!^  fin*  ii«tanoe,  that  the  attention  of  tlte  Fiancisian  was 

BxiS'aSXteTsS   "^S^linr?^  Erected  :> 'these  w«^  locafities  (^.burto  of  the 

w«t.^  r*<!i^;J«  ^J^^rriQi;.^^JnJ^r^^Ji^!^v^^  towns)  his  convent  and  order  were  seated.    A  glance 

jlsobeU  at.vanous  tunes  the.portfohos  of  agncultuie,  ^of  the  mendicants  in  the  pulpit,  in  tfo  confessional, 

foreign  affaM,"  war  and  marme,  eeired  sevend  tenns  ^°  ^     '^       j  ^he  sick  and  tS  s^lly  weak,  in  th^ 

as  a  niember  of  the  Chamber  of  Deputjes  became  fo^i|^n^<^,  had  no  paraUeltothe  Middle  Ages 

gweral-in-chief  of  the  ajw,  vioe-presiaent  of  the  con-  "xiSsame  aportolical  ac&vity  had  two  consequent, 

rtitutent  Assembly^  and  jfielomatic  representative  of  ^ich  form  fSrther  chaiacteristics  of  the^ndicant 

F6ni  m  Great  Britain.  Bohvia.  and  Chile,  m  which  last  "^»-"  •"••"'"•""'"  .''"".•~~'""'~2r  i  i-r       >~v«»«" 

Z^  Zr^  ZlJ^i' Z^lr^'i^hu^Zi^Jl^ ^  fnare,  a  new  orgamaibon  rf  daustml  hfe  and  the 


w"inrU^^hr;.SSpS'tc^vemenT"onh«  reL'Slv'Med'ri^To^^^'*fheir''^nS^ 

who  did  good  service  to  Pew,  and  is  an  historical  the-  !^5^*  ^^:^!W*^„'IS^„«  W^h  ~™^S3 

jauru.  ^Pt  utility  ti>thosi.  engaged  in  the  special  SelTn^^lftiS  ^Sl^'^S'iu  oVl^*^^^^ 

in!Z>!».  ««^  ^J*w^^\  ^JLHi^r^  -t  T  ;^  * w*6»**««=^  WW  fQP  the  most  part  the  supenore  were  not  elected  for  life 

**^*^:^^TiU^:SlS^J^(B.,cd<».,  1892)^  and  were  sub^  to  the  General  Clu^pter;    F«mth«r 

Camuxub  Cbivelli.  apostohcal  ministry  the  mendicants  denved  the  nght 

Of  support  from  all  Christian  people:  dignua  est  opera-' 

Ksildicaiit  Friars  are  membera  of  those  religious  Him  mercede  siui,    (The  labourer  is  worthy  of  his  hire.) 

orders  which,  originally,  by  vow  of  poverty  renounced  It  was  only  just  that  having  left  everything  in  the 

all  proprietorship  not  only  individually  but  also  (and  world  in  obeaience  to  Christ's  counsel  (Matt.,  xix,  21; 

in  tnis  differing  from  the  monks)  in  common,  rel3ring  xvi,  24;  Luke,  ix,  1-6)  in  order  to  devote  themselves 

for  support  on  their  own  woric  and  on  the  charity  of  to  the  well-being  of  the  people,  thev  should  look  to  the 

the  faithful.    Hence  the  name  of  begging  f nars.  people  for  their  support.    Ana  in  fact  those  alms  were 

There  remain  from  the  Bliddle  Ages  four  great  mendi-  regarded  as  the  clue  of  their  apostolic  work.    When 

cant  ordere,  recognised  as  such  ^  the  Second  Coimdl  later  the  Apostolid  (q.  v.)  tried  to  live  in  the  same 

of  ^ons.  1274,Sess.  23  (Mansi,  AXIV,96),the  Order  way^  as  the  mendicants  without  doing  their  work, 

of  Aeacoere,  the  Friara  Minor  the  Carmelites,  and*  Sahmbene  rebuked  them  indignantly:  "They  wish  to 

the  Hermits  of  St.  Augustine.    Successively  other  con-  live  ",  he  writes,  **  on  the  chanty  of  the  Christian  peo- 

mgations  obtained  the  privilege  of  the  mendicants,  pie,  although  they  do  nothing  for  it,  they  hear  no  con- 

The  Council  of  Trent  (Sess.  XXV,  cap.  iii)  granted  to  tessions,  they  do  not  preach,  nor  do  they  give  edifica- 

all  the  mendicant  orders,  except  the  Friara  Minor  and  tion,  as  do  the  Friara  Minor  and  the   Preachera '' 

the  Capuchins,  the  libertv  of  corporate  possession  (see  (Mon.  Ger.  Hist.  Script.  XXXII,  255-57,  259,  264). 

Fbxar).    The  object  of  the  present  article  is  to  outline  But  provision  for  the  necessities  of  life  was  not  left  to 

I.  the  oripn  and  characteristics  of  the  mendicants;  II,  chance.    Each  convent  had  its  limit  or  district  (Ztmes, 

toe  opposition  which  they  encountered.  terminus),  in  which  brothera,  generally  two  and  two, 

I.  Historical  reasons  for  the  origin  of  the  mendicants  made  regular  visits  to  solicit  alms.    This  institution 

are  obvious.    Since  the  struggle  regarding  investi-  still  existe  in  Catholic  countries,  as  in  Italy,  Spain  and 

tares  a  certain  animosity  against  chureh  property  had  some  parts  of  Germany  and  in  the  Tyrol,  while  in 


MENDICANT  184  MENDICANT 

others,  even  Catholic  countries,  it  is  forbidden  by  law,  a  special  vocation,  to  take  the  place  of  the  secular 

as  in  some  parts  of  Austria-Hungary.  clergy  in  the  near  future  (1260) .    The  answer  was  not 

II.  This  new  form  of  conventual  life  was  not  intro-  long  delayed.  William  of  St.  Amour,  the  leader  of  the 
duced  without  strong  opposition.  With  what  feelings  opposition  agpnst  the  mendicants,  publicly  attacked 
the  older  orders  occasionally  regarded  the  rapid  tne  treatise  in  his  sermon  "Qui  amat"  (ed.  Brown, 
spread  of  the  mendicants  may  be  gathered  from  the  "Fasciculus  rerum  expetendarum"  .  .  .  London, 
bitter  words  of  Matthew  of  Paris,  "Chronica  majora,  1690,  II,  51;  Guil.  a  S.  Amore,  "Opera  omnia,"  Con- 
ad  an.  1243",  ed.  Luard,  IV,  London,  1877,  279,  80;  stance.  1632,  491).  It  has  been  made  evident  of  late 
"ad.  an.  1246",  ibid.,  511-17.  Still  it  is  well  known  that  tne  professors  extracted  from  Gerard's  treatise 
that  St.  Francis  was  indebted  to  the  Benedictines  for  and  from  Joachim's  "  Concordia  "  the  thirty-one  prop- 
the"Portiuncula",  the  first  church  of  his  order.  The  ositions,  partly  falsifying  them  (Matt.  JParisienaiSi 
chief  opposition  came  from  elsewhere;  from  the  uni-  first  ed.,  Yl,  London,  1882,  335-39;  "Chartularium 
versities  and  from  the  bishops  and  secular  clergy.  I,  272),  and  denouncing  them  with  the  book  to  Inno- 
The  mendicants  did  not  connne  themselves  to  Se  cent  I V.  William  went  farther  and  wrote  his  famous 
sacred  ministry,  but  had  almost  from  the  beginning  treatise  against  the  mendicants,  "  I>e  periculis  novisai- 
learned  memtiers  who  claimed  equality  with  other  morum  temporum"  ("Opera  om.",  op.  cit.,  17-72; 
doctors  at  the  universities.  The  Dominicans  were  the  Brown,  op.  cit. .  II,  18-4 1^  nere  under  a  fuse  title) .  The 
first  religious  order  to  introduce  the  higher  studies  as  author  starts  rrom  II  Tim.,  iii  sqq.,  and  sees  the  ful- 
a  special  point  in  their  statutes  and  if  they  probably  fillment  of  those  words  in  the  nse  of  tJie  mendicant 
owe  their  mendicancy  to  the  influence  of  St.  Francis  friars,  who  however  are  not  specified^  though  everybody 
over  St.  Dominic,  the  Friars  Minor  are  probably  in-  knew  the  significance.  The  whole  list  of  vices  enumer- 
debted  for  their  higher  studies  to  the  influence  or  at  ated  by  the  apostle  is  applied  to  the  mendicants, 
least  to  the  example  of  the  Preachers.  On  the  other  whom  William  blames  on  all  the  points  which  formed 
hand  the  Church  appreciated  the  work  of  the  new  their  characteristic  note.  The  danger,  he  goes  on,  is  at 
orders  and  exemptea  them  from  the  jurisdiction  of  our  doors,  and  it  is  the  duty  of  the  bishops  to  avert  it. 
the  bishops,  granting  them  extensive  faculties  for  In  order  that  those  impostors  and  pseudo-preachers 
preaching  and  hearing  confessions,  together  with  may  be  the  more  easily  detected,  William  draws  up 
the  right  of  burial  in  their  own  churches,  rights  re-  forty-one  signs,  by  which  they  are  to  be  recognisea. 
served  hitherto  to  the  secular  clergy.  It  should  be  This  treatise  made  an  enormous  impression, 
stated  here  that  this  opposition  was  not  inspired  Alexander  IV.  however,  in  the  Bull  "  Quasi  lignum 
merely  by  envy  or  other  mean  motives,  but  rather  vitae",  14  April,  1256  ("Bull.  Franc."  II;  ''Bull. 
from  economical  reasons.  For  the  parisn  priests  de-  Treed."  I,  276;  "Chartularium"  I,  279),  settled  the 
pended  in  great  part  for  their  income  on  the  offerings  questions  at  issue  between  the  university  and  the 
of  the  faithful,  which  threatened  to  diminish  throujSi  mendicants,  independently  of  the  case  of  Gerard  di 
the  great  popularity  enjoyed  by  the  mendicants.  On  Borgo  S.  Donnino.  The  pope  annulled  the  statutes 
the  whole  it  might  be  said  that  the  Church  protected  of  tne  imiversity  against  the  mendicants,  who  were 
the  regulars  against  unjust  attacks,  while  on  the  other  authorized  to  continue  their  public  schools,  even  with 
hand  she  found  means  to  redress  abuses,  tending  to  the  two  chairs  of  the  Dominicans,  as  a  part  of  the  uni- 
endanger  the  legitimate  interests  of  the  secidar  clergv.  versity.  On  the  other  hand,  the  Master  General  of 
The  opposition  to  the  mendicants  was  particularly  the  Dominicans  wrote  from  Milan,  May,  1255,  to  his 
strong  at  the  University  of  Paris,  and  in  France  brethren  to  be  careful  and  not  to  provoke  the  secular 
generally,  less  violent  at  uie  University  of  Oxford  and  cler^  against  the  order  ("Chartularium"  I,  289; 
m  England.  Isolated  cases  are  to  oe  found  also  in  Reichert,  "Monumenta  Ord.  Frat.  Prsedicatorum",  V, 
other  countries.  As  early  as  1231-32  Gregory  IX  Rome,  1900,21).  At  the  same  time  the  common  in- 
had  to  protect  the  mendicants  against  the  pretensions  terests  of  the  Preachers  and  Friars  Minor  inspired  the 
of  some  prelates,  who  wanted  the  friars  to  be  subject  beautiful  letter  of  John  of  Parma  {q,  v.)  and  Humbert 
to  their  jurisdiction  like  the  ordinary  faithful.  See  of  Romans,  Milan,  May,  1255  (Reichert,  op.  cit.,  V, 
different  forms  of  the  Bull  "Nimis  iniqua"  (BuU.  25; Wadding, "Annals Ord.Min. ",111,380).  Thepio- 
Franc.  I,  74-77),  repeated  by  Innocent  IV,  1245  fessors  and  students  of  Paris  nevertheless  did  not  ao» 
(op.  cit..  368).  Although  this  Bull  speaks  in  a  general  oept  the  Bull  "  Quasi  lignum  vitee  " :  thev  wrote  2  Oct., 
way  and  is  addressed  to  different  countries,  the  abuses  1255,  a  sharp  protest  against  it  (Chartularium  I,  292). 
enumerated  by  it  were  probably  of  local  character.  Alexander  iV,  23  Oct.,  1255,  condemned  the  "  Intro- 

The  first  great  storm  oroke  out  at  Paris,  where  the  ductorius  in  Evangelium  sternum  "  (Denifle,  "  Archiv. 

Dominicans  had  opened  their  schools  (1229-30)  and  f.  Litt.  u  Kirchengesch.",  I,  87  sq^.).    Moreover  5 

erected  two  chairs  of  theology;  the  Friars  Minor  fol-  Oct.,  1256,  he  condemned  the  treatise  "De  Periculis 

lowed  them  (1231).    At  first  (1252)  the  opposition  novissimorum  temporum"  in  the  Bull  "Romanua 

was  directed  against  the  Dominicans,  the  um versity  Pontifex"  (Chartularium  I,  531).    Reluctantly  the 

wishing  to  grant  them  only  one  professorship  [Deniflle,  imiversity  submitted  to  the  orders  of  the  pope.    Wil- 

"  Chartularium "  (see  below)  I,  226].    The  university  liam  alone  resisted  and  having  been  banisned  from 

sought  allies  and  so  drew  the  bishops  and  the  secular  Paris  and  France,  he  wrote  another  attack  against 

clergy  into  the  struggle  (Chartulanum  I,  252),  with  mendicants,  "Liber  de  antichristo  et  eiusdem  minis- 

the  result  that  Innocent  IV,  at  first  favourable  to  the  tris"  (ed.  under  a  false  name  b^  Martdne-Purand, 

mendicants  (Chartularium  I,  247),  took  away  their  "  Vet.  Scriptor.amplissimacollectio",  IX,  Paris,  1733, 

Privileges  with  regard  to  preaching,  confession,  and  1271).  ThU  redoubtable  attack  ai^ainst  the  men  Hi. 
urial  rights  in  the  Bull  ''Etsi  animorum",  21  cants,  conducted  by  the  most  famous  university,  waa 
Nov.,  1254  (Chartularium  I)  1267).  This  sudden  •  met  by  the  ablest  writers  from  among  the  friars.  St. 
change  of  attitude  towards  the  mendicants  in  In-  .Thomas  Aouinas  wrote  "  Contra  impu^antes  Dei  cul- 
nocent  IV  has  not  yet  been  sufficiently  explained,  tum " ;  St.  Bonaventure,  "  Qusstio  disputata  de  pau- 
The  first  step  of  Alexander  FV  was  to  suspend  the  dis-  pertate"  (Opera  omnia,  ed.  Quaracchi,  V,  125), 
positions  of  his  predecessor,  Bull  "Nee  insoUtum",  " Apologia  pauperum "  (VIII,  233),  "De  tribus  qu»»> 
22  Dec,  1254  (Chartularium  I  1276),  in  which  he  tionibus"  (VIII,  331).  Directl;^  agamst  William's 
promised  new  dispositions  and  torbade  meanwhile  to  "De  periculis"  another  Franciscan,  Bertrand  of 
act  against  the  mendicants.  In  these  critic^d  circum-  Bayonne,  or  perhaps  Thomas  of  York,  wrote  the 
stances  it  was  doublv  unfortunate  that  Gerard  di  Bor-  treatise,  "  Manus  au»  contra  omnipotentem  "  (Char- 
go  S.  Donninoshould  publish  his  book  "  Introductorius  tularium  1, 415).  John  of  Peckham,  later  Archbishop 
in  EvangeUum  sternum  "  (1254),  which,  besides  many  of  Canterbury,  took  part  in  the  controversy  with  bis 
other  Joachimite  errors,  attributed  to  the  mendicants  "De  perfectione  evangelica",  partly  ed.  by  Little  in 


BBRDIBTA                              185  BSENDIETA 

'Fniris  Johannis   Pecham  .  .  .  traetatufi  ties  de  stating  that  their  chief  enemy  was  Nicholas  Hereford, 

paupertate'*  (British  Society  of  Franciscan  Studies,  II,  Professor  of  Holy  Scripture,  who  in  a  sermon  an- 

Aberdeen,  1910).    The  seculars  continued  the  fight,  nounced  that  no  relk^ious  should  be  admitted  to  any 

even  with  popular  compositions,  of  which  the  best  degree  at  Oxford.    This  letter  is  inserted  in  Thomas 

known  is  the  ''Roman  de  la  Rose".    At  the  second  Netter's  "Fasciculi  Zizaniorum  magistri  Joh.  Wyclif " 

Council  ci  Lyons  new  attempts  were  made  against  the  (ed.  Waddington,  Rer.  Brit.  Script.,  London,  1858,.292- 

mendieants,  partly  because  of  the  rise  of  other  men-  95).    There  are  in  the  fourteenth  and  fifteenth  cen- 

dksant  bodies,  some  of  which  were  of  objectionable  turies  many  other  instances  of  hostility  with  which 

form,  as  the  "Apostolici"   and  the  "Friars  of  the  the  friars,  especially  the  Minorites,  were  regarded  by 

Sack"  (SaceaH)  (see  Salimjbene,  "Mon.  Germ.  Hist,  the  University  of  Oxford.    Though  the  Black  Death 

Script. ",  XXXII,  245  sqq.^    All  mendicants   were  and  the  Great  Schism  had  evil  effects  on  their  general 

abolished,  but  the  four  greai  orders  were  excepted  on  discipline,  the  mendicants,  thanks  to  the  rise  of  nu- 

aeeount  of  the  manifest  good  they  wrought.    Martin  merous  branches  of  stricter  observance,  on  the  whole 

rV,  "Ad  fructus  uberes",  13  Dec.,  1281,  and  10  Jan.,  flourished  until  the  Reformation.    Notwithstanding 

1282  (BuU.  Franc.,  Ill,  480)  extended  the  privileges  of  the  heavy  losses  sustained  during  that  period,  the  men- 

the  mendicants  with  regard  to  preaching  and  hearing  dicants  have  nevertheless  continued  to  take  their 

eonfessions,  a  measure  which  caused  much  opposition  part,  and  that  a  considerable  one,  in  the  life  of  the 

amons  the  bishops  and  clergy,  especially  in  France.  Church  down  to  the  present  day. 

Only  m  late  years  have  we  come  to  know  of  the  exist-  For  hill  bibliography  see  the    sev^ al  Mendicant  Orders. 

enoe  of  a  neat  transaction  on  this  subject,  at  Paris,  ?VoS^  BugaHum  (Mnis  FF.  Pradieat^m  (8  vob..  Rome, 

1290,   where  Cardmal  Gaetano,   later  on  Boniface  Rome.  1760  sqq.);  DBOTFLB-CHATEija»r.  CAartiitorittm  c/mV«r- 

Vni,    skilfully   defended   the   regulars    (see   bibliog-  nteUia  Parinenna  (Paria,  IS89  aqq.);'WjaoBTt  Political  Poemt 

«phy)      Bonif««  VIII  revised  the  lection  re-  ?^^^^^1^,)'»J^S'^,fiJrJ;;iS?>?:^ 

nrding  the  privileges  of  the  mendicants  m  favour  of  don,  1858).  II  (ed.  Howlbtt,  London,i882);  Litti.b.  Tha  Orey 

UMd  clergy.     His  Bull  "Super  Cathedram",  18  Feb.,  Friars  in  Oxford  (London.  1892):  Brycb.  The  SeoUiah  Qrey 

2,111,  6;  "Bull  Franc*  ,  IV,  498)  is  m substance  even  KirehengeUkichte,  I  (Berlin.  1885).  165-227.  cf.  V  (Freiburft 

now  in  force.  1889).  530-64;  Mortier.  Hiatoire  des  Maitrea  OhUrata  ae 

The  controveniM  between  tf»  mendicante  and  the  '^"„^„^^^S^^::^tl''i'r^-t^^^;2^^^'^. 

secular  priests  m  Eneland  and  Ireland  took  an  acri-  1909);  German  ed..  ibid.:  Koch. Dm  frUheaten  Niederlaaaunom 

monious  form  in  the  lOUrteenth  century.     We  have  a  derMinoriUn  im  Rheinowiete  und  ihre  Wirkungen  aufd.  kireh.  u. 

B?'fS'y,=.'?**Tf«.*°S^e*  of  thk  in  the  case  of  ^^^^/Jjf-lr^'.VJ^lSSS'^J^.SII^/^l^^^ 

Richard  Fltxralph,  Archbishop  of  Armagh   (q.  v.),  RechU  (Eaecn-Ruhr.  1900);  Ott,  Thomaa  von  Aquin  und  dot 

who  preached  seven  or  eight  times  in  London  against  Mendikantentum  (Freiburg*  1908);  Wiebbhopf.  Dm  SUllunp 

the.  mendicants  yd  in  nine  propoeitions  attacked  f^^f^^^l^f^^^Z^^^ff^SI^S^^vll^ 

their  poverty  and  their  privileges  mterfering  with  jggo,  einBeUrao  xur  OeachichU  Bonifax  VIII  und  der  Pariaer 

parochial  rights.     Denounced  at  the  papal  court  of  Univerait&tin RomiacheQuartalachrifttlX (Mome,  1996), 171-82; 

Aiienon.  he  was  dted  by  Innocent  VI  and  defended  ^Sf'  4««  *^  ^«f «»  Bonif<u  Vl/l  ni-Vn  (Monster.  1902). 

AT^wvu,  **«  ww^^iw^v.  »yj  A«i*vrvs.x*w^  T*       11.            .  9-24:  Mattioij.  Aniotogia  Agoattnuma,  7,  Studw  critteo  aopra 

hmiseU  m  a  treatise,  which  he  read  m  a  public  COnsiS-  Effidw  Romano  Colonna  (Rome.  1896),  52-64;  Eubbl.  Zu  den 

tory,  8  Nov.,  1357,  printed  under  the  title  "  DefensO-  Streitigkeiten  beai^lich  deaiua  parockiate  im  MittelaUer  in  Rdm^ 

rinm  Curatorum"  in  Goldast,  "Monarchia  S. Romani  ^  ^"5^i"^i'  ^  i^^'if*  ^^^K^^^^Jiu^^f^dS^ 

n«iiu  vviiavv* uiu     u^N4v«x«cwv,     a«vrM«»v   *«  »^.    vw***«*4j  SUUung  dea  WUrzburger  Pfarrklerua  tu  den  Mendtkantenorden 

Impem  .  .  .    ,  II,  Frankfort,   1614,   1391-1410,  and  uOhrenddeaMitUlaUeraiaPaaaauertheohoiah'praktiaehenMonat- 

in  brown,  "Fasciculus  rerum'',  II,  466-487.     There  Bchrift,h4Sl-94;BK«NOXJiiji.hl>ieKirchengemeindenBaaelavor 

fa  a  con^^dium  of  the  nine  propoeitiom,  in  Old  ^  flJ^TtTii^jCf'i  f^T^,^;  ^Si^tSTSS? 

Inh  m  Ho^ett,  "Monumenta  FranciSCana",  II,  276-  Kampfder  BeOehrden  an  der  Umveraitat  Paria  aeU  der  Mitte  dee 

77.     This  curious  document  might  be  called  a  nega-  iS.  JahrhundeHa,  part  I  in  Kirckengeachichtliche  Abhandlungen, 

tiv©  exposition  of  the  rule  of  the  Friars  Minor.    An  ^V^K^iofef  73^40  **''•  ^^^*  197-244;  part  H,  ibid.,  Yt 

En^^ish  Franciscan,  Richard  Conway,  defended  the  *         *           *                    Ltvamus  Oliger. 
friars  against  Fitsralph;  his  treatise  is  edited  by 

Goldast,  op.  cit.,  II,  1410-44.    Innocent  VI  gave  a  Mendieta,  jER6inM0,  Spanish  missionary;    b.  at 

BuU,  1  Oct.,  1358,  in  which  he  stated  that  a  commis-  Vitoria,  Spain,  1525;  d.  in  the  City  of  Mexico^  9  Mav, 

aion  had  been  named  to  examine  the  differences  be-  1604.     While  still  a  youth  he  took  the  habit  of  St. 

tween  the  Archbishop  of  Armaeh  and  the  mendicants  Francis  at  Bilbao,  and  arrived  in  New  Spain  at  l^e 

and  forbade  meanwmle  the  prelates  of  England  to  hin-  end  of  June,  1554.    Being  desirous  of  helpingj  in  the 

der  the  four  mendicant  orders  from  exercising  their  conversion  of  the  Indians,  he  applied  himself  with  scsal 

rights  (Bull.  Franc.,  VI,  316).    In  the  following  year  to  study  the  Mexican  lan^age,  and  it  is  said  that,  al- 

a  Bull  prescribing  the  observance  of  the  Decretal  though  a  natural  defect  mterfered  with  his  speaking 

''Super  Cathedram"  of  Boniface  VIII  was  directed  Castuian  and  kept  him  from  pr^ching  to  Spaniards, 

to  diflferent  bishops  of  the  continent  and  to  the  Arch-  3ret,  when  he  mounted  the  pulpit  to  address  the  In- 

bislM^  of  York,  26  Nov.,  1359  (Bull.  Franc,  VI,  322).  dians  in  their  language,  he  spoke  clearly  and  without 

Towards  the  end  of  the  fourteenth  century  the  mendi-  stammering.    At  Tlaxcala  he  probably  had  for  his 

cants  in  EneUind  were  attacked  more  fiercely  and  o^  a  father  guardian  F.  Toribio  de  Motolinia,  the  last  sur- 

broader  sciue  by  Uie  Wicliffites.    Wiclif  himself,  at  vivor  of  the  first  band  of  twelve  Franciscans.    He  was 

fiist,  was  not  on  bad  terms  with  the  friars :  his  enmity  so  highly  esteemed  in  his  province  that  the  provincials, 

was  confined  to  the  last  few  years  of  his  life.    While  Diego  de  Olarte  and  Miguel  Navarro,  took  him  with 

Widif  had  only  repeated  the  worn-out  arguments  them  on  their  visitation  of  the  convents  and  the  In- 

against  the  mendicants,  his  disciples  went  much  far-  dians,  while  the  entire  province,  assembled  in  chapter. 

ther  and  accused  them  of  the  lowest  vices.    Nor  did  judged  him  capable  of  selecting  at  his  own  individual 

the^  confine  their  calumnies  to  learned  treatises,  but  discretion  all  tne  provincial  officers,  a  selection  which 

embodied  them  in  popular  poems  and  son^,  mostly  in  the  event  proved  satisfactory  to  all. 

English,  of  which  we  have  many  examples  m  the  two  In  1569  Mendieta  accompanied  Miguel  Navarro 

volumes  published  by  Wright   (see  bibliography),  on  his  way  to  the  general  chapter  in  France,  and 

The  chief  place  of  controversy  was  Oxford,  where  the  while  on  his  journey  he  remained  in  his  native  town, 

friars  were  accused  even  of  sedition.    On  18  Feb.,  Vitoria.    Here  he   put   himself   in   communication 

1382,  tibe  heads  of  the  four  mendicant  orders  wrote  a  with  Juan  de   Ovando,    the   distinguished   magis- 

joint  letter  to  John  of  Gaunt,  Duke  of  Lancaster,  pro-  trate  of  the  Council  of  the  Inquisition,  who  had  been 

testiDg  asainst  i^  yUnrnQJe^  of  the  Wicljffites  $md  pominated  visitor  of  the  Coun^  of  the  Indies  and  ^nui 


MUVDOZA                              188  MINDOZA 

afterwards  its  president.    Ovando  no  doubt  already  execution  of  his  commission.    In  1591  he  was  goaiw 
knew  Mendieta  by  name,  through  his  letters  written  dian  in  Santa  Ana  of  Tlajccala,  and  in  1597  of  Xoehi- 
from  New  Spain  in  1562  and  1565  to  the  commissaiy,  milco.    He  was  buried  in  the  convent  of  Bfexioo. 
Bustamante^  and  to  King  Philip  II.    The  questions  Having  undertaken  to  write  the  history  of  liie  In- 
propounded  to  Mendieta  by  Ovando  concerned  the  dies  on  his  return  f nnn  Spain,  he  was  delayed  in  exe- 
dvu  as  well  as  the  religious  adininistration,  the  two  cuting  the  work  for  twenty-five  years  by  the  large 
being,  in  consequence  of  the  existing  relations  between  number  of  duties  which  he  had  to  dischargee,  and,  in 
Ghurdi  and  Crown,  very  closely  interwovenj    and  addition,  the  consultations  and  negotiations  with 
Mendieta's  replies  reveal,  not  merely  isolated  opmions,  which  he  was  charged  by  the  Government.    It  is 
but  a  fairly  complete  ana  systematic  theory  of  govern-  known,  for  instance,  that,  while  he  was  guardian  at 
ment.    In  his  view  the  authoritv  of  the  Viceroy  of  Tlaxcala,  he  was  busv  with  the  work  oH  removing  four 
New  Spain  should  be  increased;  that  of  the  ilt^fiencia  hundred  families  of  Christian  Indians,  to  coloniae 
diminished,  and  limited  exclusively  to  judicial  matters,  among  the  Chlchimecas.    Mendieta's  principal  work 
In  the  administration  of  justice,  except  in  criminal  is  his  "  Historia  Eclesiastica  Indiana ".    The  general, 
cases,  he  would  desire  separate  tribunals  for  Spaniards  Cristobal  de  Capitef ontium,  gave  him  the  command  to 
and  for  Indians,  particularly  in  suits  concerning  the  write  on  27  June,  1571;  the  work  was  not  completed 
possession  of  land.    As  to  the  question  of  compulsoiy  imtil  1596.    He  sent  it  immediately  to  Spain,  as  he 
Indian  labour,  in  agriculture  and  mining,  he  was  per-  had  been  ordered  to  do,  and  never  had  anynirther 
plexed.    The  difficultv  was  a  serious  one:  if  the  In-  knowledge  of  it.    No  writer  later  than  Torquemada 
dians  were  not  compeued  to  work,  then,  perhaps  con-  ever  q^uoted  it,  until,  through  the  exertions  of  Sefior 
tent  with  their  land  and  what  little  they  ootained  from  Joaaum  Garcia  Icazbaloeta.  the  manuscript,  acquired 
it,  they  would  not  assist  the  Sfianiards,  and  these  lat-  at  Madrid,  was  printed  in  Mexico  in  1870.    It  is  di- 
ter  could  not  by  their  own  unaided  efforts  provide  for  vided  into  five  Dooks.    The  first  book,  consisting  of 
themselves  and  for  the  other  Spaniards  who  inhabited  seventeen  chapters  and  a  prologue,  treats  "  Of  the  in- 
the  cities,  nor  could  they,  without  the  Indians,  derive  troduction  of  the  Gospel  and  the  Christian  religion  in 
from  the  mines  the  profit  which  they  looked  for.  the  islands  of  Espafiola  and  the  neighbouring  re^ons 
Lastly,  however,  Menoieta  pointed  out  that  in  some  which  were  first  discovered  ".  The  second,  ccmtaining 
cases  the  Indians  voluntarily  entered  into  contracts  forty-one  chapters  and  a  prologue,  tells  "  Of  the  rites 
to  work  for  hire,  and  that  this  ought  to  be  wisely  en-  and  customs  of  the  Indians  of  New  Spain  and  their 
couraged  and  facilitated.    His  love  of  the  Indians  im-  infidelity  ".    The  third,  containing  sixty  chapters  and 
pelled  him  to  speak  unfavourably  of  the  Spanish  a  prologue,  treats  "  Of  the  manner  in  which  the  Faith 
colonists.    He  advocated  complete  separation  of  the  ot  Our  Lord  Jesus  Christ  was  introduced  and  planted 
two  races  in  different  towns  and  villages,  sajdng  that  among  the  Indians  of  New  Spain".    The  fourth,  con- 
the  Spaniards  ought  to  have  only  such  settlements  as  taining  forty-six  chapters  and  a  prologue,  treats  "  Of 
might  be  necessary  to  secure  the  coimtrv  against  for-  the  improvement  of  the  Indians  of  New  Spain  and  the 
eign  invasion;    and  he  would  have  these  Spanish  progress  of  their  conversion."    The  fifth  book  is  di- 
settlements  situated  on  the  borders  of  the  Chichimecas  vided  into  two  parts:    the  first  contains  fifty-eidbt 
and  the  savage  tribes,  with  the  sole  object  of  guarding  chapters,  and  "  Tnere  are  related  the  lives  of  the  n<£le 
the  frontier.    The  Indians,  he  said,  ought  all  to  be  men,  apostolic  workers  of  this  new  conversion,  who 
confined  to  certain  towns  chosen  by  themselves,  and  have  ended  in  peace  with  a  natural  death";    the 
some  of  these  towns  ought  to  be  transferred  from  their  second  part,  only  ten  chapters,  treats  ''  Of  the  Friars 
actual  sites  to  others  more  suitable.    To  Ovando's  Minor  who  have  died  for  the  pr^M^ng  of  the  Go^)el  in 
inquiry,  by  what  means  the  friars  and  the  bishops  this  New  Spain".    In  this  work  he  displays,  without 
could  be  made  to  dwell  together  in  peace,  his  answer  fear  or  human  respect,  and  even  exagprates  at  times, 
clearly  betrays  his  fieiy  character  and  the  partiality  the  vices,  disordere,  abuses,  tyranmes,  and  wrongs 
ci  his  views.    He  suggests  the  appointment  of  two  done  by  the  colonists;  he  goes  so  far  as  to  flout  the 
bishops  in  each  diocese,  one  for  the  Spaniards  and  one  Government^  not  excepting  the  sovereign  himself, 
for  the  Indians,  clearly  giving  it  to  be  understood,  at  The  lofty  spirit  of  rectitude  and  justice  'miich  domi- 
the  same  time^  that  the  bishops  ought  all  to  be  chosen  nates  the  work  enhances  the  value  of  its  simple,  terse 
from  the  rehgious  orders.    The  secular  der^  he  narration,  while  the  vigour  and  freedom  with  which  it 
treats  without  either  mercy  or  justice,  although  it  ap-  is  written,  as  well  as  its  clarity  and  propriety  of  Ian* 
pears  from  the  testimony  of  Bishop  Montiif ar  that  at  guage,  render  it  pleasing  to  the  reader, 
that  time  they  were  performing  their  duties  correctly,  _  Mbndwta.  HiMoHa  EcUnM^  ^iana  (Modoo.  1870); 
that  they  la^  thelinguage  of  the  abprigmee,  a^i  ^^l^^^^^^^'^^^H^^^'^U^^n^r^'lS: 
were  on  good  terms  with  the  fnars.      Mendieta  con-  oovnr,  Metu>log%ofrancucano  (Mexico.  1873). 
eluded  by  proposing  that  a  commissary-f;eneral  of  Camillus  Cbivxlu. 
the  Indies  snould  be  appointed,  with  residence  at  Se- 
ville, who  should  arrange  all  tne  affairs  of  lus  order  Moadosa,  Diego  Hubtadb  de,  a  Spanish  diplomat 
with  the  Coimcil  of  the  Indies.    This  last  was  the  only  and  writer,  and  one  of  the  greatest  figures  in  tne  hia- 
one  of  his  suggestions  which  met  with  approval,  the  tory  of  Spanish  politics  ana  lettere;  b.  in  Granada,  of 
first  commissary-general  appointed  being  Francisco  noble  parentage,  about  1503;  d.  in  Madrid,  1575.    He 
de  Guzman,  in  1572,  to  whom  Mendieta  immediately  received  his  early  education  imder  private  tutors  aAd 
wrote  his  congratulations.  later  at  the  University  of  Salamanca.    A  powerful 
On  26  June,  1571,  his  general  ordered  him  back  to  personality,  he  was  a  man  who  carried  to  a  successful 
New  Spain,  acudng  permission,  as  was  usual,  from  the  termination  whatever  he  undertook.    He  was  dea- 
Councu  of  the  Indies.    Jer6nimo  de  Albomoz,  Bishop  tined  originally  for  the  Church,  and  ac<iulred  much 
of  Tucuman,  a  member  of  the  council^  opposed  the  knowledge  suited  to  further  his  ecclesiastical  advance- 
granting  of  the  permission,  but  these  difficulties  were  ment,  both  at  home,  where  he  learned  to  speak  Arabic 
overcome  in  1573,  when  Mendieta  set  out,  taking  with  fluently,  and  at  Salamanca,  where  he  studied  Latin, 
him  several  religious  of  his  order.    In  1575  and  1576  Greek,  philosophy,   civil  and  canon  law.    But  he 
he  was  guardian  of  Xochimilco;   in  1580  he  was  at  preferred  politics  and  literature,  and  attracted  the 
Tlaltelolco,  and  in  1585  was  superior  of  the  convent  of  notice  of  Cnarles  V.  who  sent  him  in  1530  as  ambassi^ 
Tlaxcala.    Soon  after  this  he  accompanied  the  com-  dor  to  the  Republic  of  Venice.     In  1543  the  em- 
missary,  Alonso  Ponce,  on  visitations,  and  by  his  ad-  peror  sent  him  as  one  of  his  representatives  to  the 
mirable  tact  and  prudence  kept  himself  out  of  those  Council  of  Trent,  where  he  successfully  sustained 
troubles  which  arose  within  the  order  from  the  opposi-  the  imperial  interests.    While  at  the  Council  he  was 
tion  of  the  provincial  and  his  partisans  to  Ponce's  appointed  in  1547  speetal  ambastador  to  Rome  and 


MSNDOZA                             187  BCHnVXA 

eaptain-generftl  of  Siena  in  Tuscany,  whence  he  re- 
turned to  Spain  in  1554. 

As  a  poet  Blendoaa  excelled  in  both  the  older  Span-  fluenoe  for  the  good  of  the  Church  and  his  country. 

iah  and  the  new  Italian  measures,  but  his  specimens  being  one  of  the  few  great  men  of  Spain  who  advocated 

of  the  latter  show  more  richness  of  thought,  and  he  the  cause  of  Columbus.    His  great  revenues  were 

probably  exercised  considerable  influence  in  popular-  consiuned  in  the  erection  of  magnificent  churches 

uing  and  securing  the  triumph  of  the  Italian  school  of  and  charitable  institutions;  at  Valladolid  he  erected 

hyric  poetry  in  Spain.    In  his  "  Guerra  de  Granada",  at  his  own  expense  the  College  of  Santa  Crua  for  poor 

published  m  Lisbon  m  1627,  he  shows  himself  a  master  students,  and  at  Toledo  a  hospital  of  the  same  name 

of  prose.    It  was  written  during  his  exile  at  Granada  for  foundlings.    To  the  latter  he  bequeathed  his  en- 

(1568-1571),  whither  he  had  been  sent  by  Philip  II  tire  fortune  of  75,000  ducats.    On  his  death-bed  he 

after  some  trouble  with  a  noble  at  court,  and  is  a  recommended  the  great  Ximenes  as  his  successor. 

mAflf^rlv  niA/vk  nf  flna.nia>i  nroflA  writinir      His  "  La-  Msdina  t  Mendosa.   Vida  del  eardenal  Pedro  OonxaUx  d» 

masterly  piece  of  apanisn  J^'^^"]^*^^  5r-«;^«  Mendota  in  Memorial  hutor.  EapaHoh  VI  (Madrid,  1853).  147- 

aanllo  de  Tormes"  is  a  work  of  gemus.     He  is  said  to  310;  Salazar  db  Mendoia,  Cronioa  de  el  gran  cardmal  de  Ew- 

have  written  it  while  he  was  at  the  university  or  soon  pana,  don  Pedro  GonraUe  de  Mendooa  (Toledo.  1623) ;  Presoott, 

after  leaving  it.     It  is  the  autobiograohy  of  a  boy  bom  But-,  ofthe  Reign  of  Ferdinand  and  IsabeOa,  panim.  especially 

on  the  banks  of  the  Tormes  near  Salamanca,  and  its  ^  '^*     ^^'  "                                        Michael  Oit. 

object  is  to  satirise  all  classes  of  Spanish  society.    It  is  ,        ^             «     ^ 

written  in  rich  idiomatic  Spanish,  and  after  1553,  when  Menendea  de  ATiles,  Pedro.    See  Florida. 

It  &8t  appeared,  it  went  throu^  ma^editioM,  both  Menaees,  Osorio  Francisco,  Spanish  painter,  b.  at 


t**^l\??"^^A''?^^y^i^"^/M®!?-^J^Q^?<  the  brush  of  his  pupil.   We  know  that  he  was  regarded 

La  Bibhoteca  de  Autor^  Espaftoles  (Madrid,  1848-86)  ^^    ^^^11^  ^  ^S  friend,  that  he  was  an  intimate  ao- 

pubbshes  his  "lAaanUo"  m  the  thn^  volume,  his  qiaintance  of  Juan  Garzon,  with  whom  he  worked, 

poems  m  the  thirty-second,  and  selected  works  m  ^^  ^^  ^^  ^^  ^^^  ^in^  secretary,  and  later  on  presi- 

the  twenty-first  and  ^Vt^^^'j^S^'  ,^.    ..  dent  of  the  Academy  of  Seville,  and  that  while  in  that 

MA^SS?&S?3i-i^??^^^                  Y^ll;  iSoS:  city  he  had  a  high  reputation,  not  only  for  his  skill,  but 

Ventura  Fxtentes.  also  for  his  personal  devoutness.    This  reputation,  it 

is  saidj  was  somewhat  discounted  after  his  death,  be- 

Mendoia,   Francisco   Sarmienio    de,   Spanish  cause  it  was  considered  that  some  of  his  copies  of 

canonist  and  bishop;  b.  of  a  noble  family  at  Burgos;  Murillo's  works  were  so  accurate  that  he  should  have 

d.  1595,  at  Jaen.   He  made  such  progress  in  his  studies  signed  the  master's  name.  It  was  in  fact  suggested  that 

at  Salamanca  that  at  the  age  ol  21  years  he  already  two  of  his  copies  had  been  accepted  as  genuine  works 

occupied  a  professorial  chiur  in  canon  law.    After  by  Murillo.    On  the  other  hand,  these  statements  are 

being  auditor  for  six  years  at  Valladolid,  he  was  ap-  declared  by  one  Spanish  author  to  have  been  made 

pointed  auditor  of  the  rota  in  Rome  and  held  this  only  with  a  view  of  discrediting  Meneses.    His  princi- 

offioe  lor  twelve  years.    In  1574  he  became  Bishop  of  P&l  work  was  painted  for  the  church  of  Saint  Martin  at 

Astorga,  whence  he  was  transferred  to  the  more  im-  Madrid,  and  represents  the  Prophet  Elijah.   There  is  a 

portant  See  of  Jaen  in  1580.    He  wasamodel  bishop  ^^e  work  by  him  in  the  museum  at  Cadiz,  and  in  the 

and  eactremely  charitable.    He  wrote  some  works  on  museum  at  Seville,  a  picture  dealing  with  the  Order  of 

canon  law,  the  best  known  of  which  are  "  Selectarum  St.  Francis.   A  work  representing  St.  Catherine,  which 


latter,  which  is  dedicated  to  Pius  V,  ie  argues  against  in  the  church  dedicated  to  that  ^t. 

are  not  bound  m  justice,  but  only  m  chanty,  to  give  (Madrid.  1716);  Maxwbll.  Annai«o/(A«ArtM<»o/5pam  (Lon- 

to  the  poor  that  part  of  their  revenues  which  is  not  aon.  1848);Huard,  Vie  Compute  dee  Peintree  Eapaonole  (Paris, 

necessary  for  their  own  sustenance.    His  complete  l^^)*  ^  ^~_  ^^ 

SSSrSere  published  in  three  volumee  (An Jerp,  ^^^°^  Chabuw  WiLuuMaw. 

1616).        _.,...      „.  /«  J  .J  ,«»  o>  T  AT.         MeiM7l»,  DiocESB  of  (Menevenms). — Menevia  is 

8iS:S^S<foSStekU"ro2«r.25i^  said  to  be  (fenved  ttomMenapiathe  name  of  an  an- 

mken  Recktee  (Stuttgart,  1880),  1, 720.  cient  Roman  settlement  supposed  to  have  existed  m 

Michael  Ott.  Pembrokeshire,  or  Hen  Meneu  {vetu8  rvbua)  where  St. 

David  was  bom.    From  the  time  of  the  establishment 

Mondoia,  Pbdbo  Gonzalez  de,  Cardinal  and  Pri-  of  the  four  vicars  Apostolic  in  England,  in  1688,  Wales 

mate  of  Spain,  b.  at  Guadalajara,  3  May,  1428;  d.  belonged  to  the  Vicariate  of  the  Western  District.    In 

there,  11  January.  1495.    He  came  to  the  court  of  1840  it  was  made  a  separate  vicariate  by  Gre^ry  XVI: 

King  Juan  II  of  Castile  in  1450,  was  made  canon  of  in  1850  the  Catholic  hierarchy  was  re-established,  and 

Toledo  the  same  year,  and  became  Bishop  of  Calahorra  Wales  was  divided  between  the  Dioceses  of  Shrewsbuiy 

on  28  November,  1453,  and  of  Siguenza  on  30  October,  and  Newport.     In  1895  the  principality,  with  the 

1467.    On  7  May,  1473,  he  was  created  cardinal-  exception  of  Gkonorganshire  was  ap^ain  formed  into 

deacon  with  the  titular  chureh  of  S .  Maria  in  Dominica ;  a  separate  vicariate  Apostolic.     Right  He  v.  Francis 

on  9  May,  1474,  he  became  Arehbishop  of  Seville:  on  Joseph  Mostyn,  son  of  Sir  Pyers  Mostyn,  eighth  bar- 

6  July,  1478,  cardinal-priest  with  the  titular  church  of  onet,  of  Talacre  in  North  Wales,  was  appointed  first 

Santa  Crooe  in  Gerusalemme;  and  finallv,  on  13  vicar  Apostolic,  his  titular  see  being  Ascalon.    In 

November,  1482,  Archbishop  of  Toledo  and  Primate  1898  he  was  transferred  to  Menevia  when  the  vicariate 

of  Spain.    From  8  July,  1482,  to  15  January,  1483,  was  made  a  diocese  by  Leo  XIII.    The  Bishop  of 

he  was  also  administrator  of  the  Diocese  of  Osma.    In  Menevia  is  the  only  member  of  the  hierarchy  who  holds 

1473  he  was  appointed  chancellor  of  King  Henry  IV  one  of  the  ancient  titles  of  pre-Reformation  times. 

of  Oastiie  aod,  after  Hennr's  death  in  1474,  grand  The  diocese  is  under  the  patronage  of  Our  Lady  Help 

ehanoellor  of  Ferdinand  and  Isabella.    In  his  younger  of  CSuristianB,  St.  David,  and  St.  Winefride,  patrons  <n 


HENOA&im 


188 


BEENOAfilHI 


Walefl.     It  covers  6500  square  miles  of  countiy,  most  of  GlamorKtUwhire,  in  tii  some  3600   sqUAre  miletf. 

of  which  ia  rugged  and  mountainous;   there  are  no  Though  it  waa  never  an  archbishopric,  it  is  far  from 

large  towns,  m  that  the  Catholic  population  of  some  clear  when  St.   David's  came  deniut«ly  under  the 

8500  souls  is  much  scattered  in  counUy  districts.    To  metropolitanjurisdiction  of  Canterbury.    About  1115, 

meet  the  spiritual  needs  of  this  little  flock  there  are  however,  Henry  I  intruded  a  Norman,  Bernard  (1 115- 

forty-three  public  churchea,  chapels,  and  stations,  be-  1147),  into  the  see.     Bernard's  rule  was  wise  and 

sidee  twelve  ch^idsbeloi^ne  to  religious  communities,  vigorous;    but  on  the  death  of  Henry  he  claimed 

The  number  of  priests  (in  1910)  is  eighty-two,  twenty-  metropohtan  jurisdiction  over  Wales,  and  presented 

eight  seculars  and  fifty-four  regulars;  more  than  half  his  suit  unsuccessfully  before  six  successive  popes, 

this  number  of  regulars  is  accounted  for  by  the  monas-  This  claim  waa  afterwards  revived  in  the  time  of 

tery  of  Breton  Benedictines,  at  Caermana,  near  Car-  Giraldus  Cambrensis  (q.  v.).     Among  the  more  t^- 

digan,  the  convent  of  Franciscan  Capuchins  at  Pant-  mous  bishops  who  held  uie  see  before  ue  Reformatioa 

asaph,  and  St.  Beuno'e  College,  the  theologate  of  the  may  be  mentioned  Pet«rdeLeia  (1176-1203),  who  be- 

Engliah Jesuits.    Thesereli^ous,  aswellasOblatesof  ganthebuildingofthepresentcathedmlof St.  David's; 

Maiy  Immaculate  and  Passioniste,  serve  various mio-  Heniy  Gower(1328-47);and Edward  Vaiwhan(150(^ 

■ions  throughout  the  diocese.    There  are  convente  of  23),  who  made  considerable  additions  to  the  same;  tbtt 

nine  congregations  of  nuns,  the  Sisters  of  the  Holy  leamedJohnThorsby(I347-SO)aft«rwardstTanBferred 

Ghost  (White  Sisters)  having  no  leas  than  seven,  to  the  Archbishopric  <^  York;  Henry  Chicheley  (q.  v.) 

The  church  of  Our  Lady  of  Dolours,  Wrexham,  serru  (1408-14),  afterwards  Archbishop  of  Canterbury;  and 

aa  pro-cathedral;    on  10  August,  1909,  ft  cathedral  thenotoriousWilliamBarlow  (1536-48),  theso-called 

"'"      ■  "       ""    "'"''   "  eonsecrator  of  Arch- 


olic  bishop,  Heniy 
Morgan  (1554-59), 
was,  like  tie  rest  of 
the  Catholic  bishona, 
deprived  of  his  see  oy 
Ehiabeth,  but  was 
saved  by  death  from 
sharing  their  impris> 
onment  for  theFaith. 
The  oldest  por- 
'  tions  of  the  cathedral, 
dating  from  1180. 
belong  to  the  perioa 
of  transition  from 
the  Early  English  to 
the  Decorated  style 
of  architecture;  ths 
additions  of  Bishop 
Gower,  includinc  ths 

..  .    .       J  excellent  exampTe8<rf 

the  £>ecorated  sty  le,  while  to  the  north  of  the  cathedral 


The  diocese  is  rich 
in  relics  of  the  Ages 
of  Faith,  thicklv 
strewn  as  it  is  with 
churches  once  Catb- 
olic,  but  now  used 
for  Protestant  woi^ 
ship,  and  with  ruins 
of  ancient  Catholic 
sanctuaries  and  holy 
wells  named  after  the 
countless  saints  of 
the  British  Church; 
most  famous  of  these 
is  the  holy  well  of  St. 
Winefrirle  (q.  v.)  at 
Holywell,   which    is 

and  always  has  been  Ei«t  CsotM,  Br.  DAvm's  Oatbsdrai. 

in    Catholic    hands.  [forma-ly  Cktholla),  St.  Davld'i.  Wtlm  Uower,  includine  U  _ 

This  miracuJous  well  has  been  a  centre  of  pilgrim-  beautiful  stone  rood  screen,  are  excellent  exampTe8<rf 
age  from  the  eariiest  days  of  authentic  Welsh  his-  theDecoratedstyle.whiletothenorthofthecathecf 
tory,  and  the  saint  still  attracts  her  votaries  to  the  are  the  ruins  of  bis  magnificent  episcopal  palace, 
ehnne,  and  dispenses  ber  miraculous  favours  even  in  1862  a  partial  restoration  of  the  cathedral  was  begun 
this  unbelieving  age.  The  beautiful  building  which  by  Sir  G.  G.  Scott.  The  shrine  of  St.  David  in  the 
stands  over  the  well  was  erected  towards  the  close  of  cathedral  was  a  famous  place  of  pilgrimage-  it  is  said 
the  fifteenth  century.  The  mission  has  been  served  that  by  favour  of  Callistus  II,  wbocanoniiedtheaain^ 
by  the  Society  of  Jeeua  since  about  1600.  St.  Mary's  two  pilgrimages  to  St.  David's  were  to  be  occountso 
Collie  is  a  srnall  episcopal  college  in  the  town,  for  the  equal  to  one  to  Rome: — 
education  of  boys  to  supply  priests  for  the  diocese;  the  Meneviam  pete  bis,  Roman  adiie  si  vis; 


n  the  curricu- 
la the  restoiation  of  the 
ancient  Catholic  Diocese  of  St.  David's,  the  founda- 
tion of  which,  in  the  latter  half  of  the  sixth  century, 
is  traditionally  attributed  to  that  saint.  The  con- 
tention of  recent  historians  that  there  were  no  terri- 
torial bishops  in  Wales  at  so  early  a  date,  but  only 


;  BlVAM,  Dioeuan 


Mercee  squa  tibi  redditur  hie  et  ibi; 

Roma  semel,  quantum  dat  bis  Henevia,  tantum 
(ancient  lines  found  at  the  shrine  by  Archbishop  Peck- 
ham,  1240-92). 

CaiMic  DirwIoTV  (1840-1800:  18S5-1910};   Four.  F 
af EntiMPmiiacr  ^    '     '"  ''—-■—    """^    ■'"  "— 

^Nik 

by  Dr.  Zimmer,  no  partisan  authority.    "Though  imjo,, i™,  ■jiruu.uuo 

monasticism  was  strong  in  it,  it  did  not  impart  to  the  Sccjtna  [Rolls  Seri«: , ,  —.—^.  -r-   -.- 

(Welsh)   Church   either  ite  character  or   its  form''  'S^.'^iA^otTJ^tSi^'^uJ^T/fiii^rci^ 

(Realencyklopfldie,  X,  224).     The  four  mdependent  °— >—  — ~, 

Welsh  sees  were  co-extensive  with  the  four  independ- 
ent principalities  that  had  come  into  being  during 
the  sixth  century;    Menevia  with  Dyfed,  Llandafi        Memgsiinl,  Grsqorio,  pioneer  missionary  of  the 

with  Gwent,  St,  Asaph  with  Powys,  Bangor  with  Flathead  tribe  (q.  v.)  and  philologist  of  their  loni 

Gwynedd.  b.  in  Rome,  21  July,  1811;  d.  at  Santa  Clara,  C„ 

■The  records  of  the  history  of  the  diocese  before  Nor-  nia,  23  September,  1886.     He  entered  the  Jesuit  n< 

man  times  are  very  fragmentary,  consisting  of  a  few  tiate  in  1828,  when  barely  seventeen,  and  later  served 

chance  references  in  old  chronicles,  such  as  "Annates  as  instructor  in  grammar,  for  which  his  philological 

Cambriffi"  and  "Brut  y  Tywysogion"  {Rolls  Series),  bent  particularly  fitted  him,  at  Rome,  Hodena,  and 

Originally  corresponding  with  the  boundaries  of  Dy-  R^gio.     WhQe  studying  at  the  Roman  CoUt^  in 

fed  (Demetia),  St.  David's  eventually  comprised  all  1839,  a  letter  from  Bishop  Rosati  of  St.  Louis,  vowing 

thecountry  south  of  the  River  Dovpy  and  west  of  the  the  appeal  of  the  Flatheads  for  missionary  priests, 

English  border,  with  the  exception  of  the  greater  port  was  read  out  in  the  refectory,  and  Menguini  was  at 


la  a.  J.,  IV  Ctoadtm.  1878^.  £28  <for  Hobr- 
ioMjon  Hutona,  St.  DovuTt  (L^Hidoa,  IBBBJ- 
IHAN,  Hilary  o/  St.  Dmi-fi  (Oxford.  IBSe): 

,-P, i! — D/flrt(U*SotnU,II(Lcodeo, 

»,DeJvntl  Statu  MittiitnaiM 
a  RtaUwakt.  for  prtA.  Tktet. 
1.  .•_  B_-. .'_  „^  httmdi 


Kemelu  Dicbt  Bbbfe. 


MKNOS                              189  UNGS 

onee  moved  to  volunteer  for  the  work.  Ordained  in  Powers's  "Tribes  of  California",  volume  III  of  the 
March,  1840,  he  sailed  with  Father  Cotling.  another  same  series,  published  in  the  same  year.  He  eon- 
volunteer,  fnnn  Leghorn  on  23  July,  ana  after  a  tributed  some  linguistic  notes  in  the  "Journal  of  the 
tedious  nine  weeks'  voyap^e  landed  at  Philadelphia.  Anthropological  Cistitute  of  New  York",  I  (1871-2). 
From  Baltimore  the  missionaries  found  their  way  to  His  interesting  personal  memoir,  "The  Rocl^  Moim- 
the  University  of  Geoigetown,  District  of  Ck)lum-  tains ",  published  in  the  Woodstock  Letters  for  1888, 
bia,  and  a  little  later  to  St.  Louis,  where  it  was  de-  was  dictated  a  few  months  before  his  death. 


yaruj  wu  aouuuub  ui  uj»  vuiuo  euiu  juiuwicugt;  ui  luusic  ed.,  ISruaselfl  and  rans,  1WI4;:  iaLLiNO,  Bxbliography  oj  the 

— possessions   of   no   little  value   in   Indian  mission  S^iahan  Lanquaqes  in  Bur,   Amer.    Ethnology  (Washington, 

work.    On  24  April,  1841,  Fathers  DeSmet,Mengarini.  *®®^^' ®"=^' ^'''*^  ^•''^^  ^^^'^  ^""j^/iS^^ 

and  Point,  with  the  lay  brothers  Specht,  Huett,  and  jameb  mooNET. 

Classens,  and  nine  other  compcmions,  b^an  the  long  Mengs,  Anthon  Rapael,  Bohemian  painter,  usu- 

loumey  by  river  and  overland  trail  to  Fort  Hall,  ally  reganled  as  belonging  to  the  Italian  or  Spanish 

Idaho,  then  a  trading  post,  where  they  arrived  on  the  school,  d.  at  Aussig  in  Bohemia,  12  March,  1728;  d.  in 

Feast  of  the  Assumption  (15  August),  and  found  a  Rome,  29  June,  1779.    He  received  his  instruction 

party  of  Flatheads  waiting  to  conduct  them  to  their  from  his  father,  Ismael  Mengs,  who  went  to  Dresden 

final  destination.     It  was  nearly  a  month  later  when  while  his  son  was  quite  young,  and  in  1741  moved  to 

they  arrived  at  the  chosen  site  on  St.  Mary's  river,  Rome,  where  he  copied  in  miniature  some  works  of 

Montana,  in  the  Flathead  country,  and  be^an  the  Raphael  for  the  Elector  of  Saxony,  Which  were  in- 

foundations   of   the   log  mission,   the  missionaries  tended  for  Dresden.    From  his  youth  Mengs  was  an 

themselves  leading  the  work  of  cutting  the  frozen  energetic  and  skilful  artist,  and  he  was  appointed  a 

earth  with  axes.    The  church  and  house  were  of  logs  painter  to  the  Elector  of  Saxony  before  he  was  sixteen 

plastered  between  with  clay,  and  were  thatched  witn  years  old,  his  skill  in  crayon  portraiture  having  at- 

reeds,  the  rooms  being  partitioned  with  curtains  of  tracted  attention  in  Dresden.    He  did  not,  however, 

deerskin  and  thin  scraped  deerskin  being  used  in  feel  disposed  to  accept  ^e  position,  and  declined  it 

lieu  of  glass  for  the  windows.    The  winter  cold  was  so  with  becoming  modesty,  returning  to  Rome,  devoting 

intense  that  the  bu£falo-8kin  robes  in  which  they  himself  to  his  studies,  and  working  with  his  father  for 

wrapped  themselves  at  night  were  frozen  stiff,  and  had  four  years.    In  Rome  he  married  Margarita  Quazzi,  a 

to  be  thawed  out  each  morning.     To  the  native  of  poor  and  virtuous  peasant  girl  who  had  sat  for  him  as 

sunny  Italy  these  early  winters  in  Montana  mountains  a  model.    At  the  same  time  Mengs  became  a  Catholic, 

were  among  the  most  vivid  recollections  of  later  and  the  marriage  took  place  in  the  Catholic  church. 

years.  Shortly  afterwards  he  returned  again  to  Dresden  with 

The  missionaries  at  once  began  the  study  of  the  Ian-  his  father,  but  speedily  had  a  serious  difficulty  with 

euage,  translating  into  it  simple  prayers  and  hymns,  him,  being  turned  with  his  wife  and  daughter  into  the 

Mengarini  composed  a  Salish  grammar  which  is  still  street.    Tne  King  of  Poland,  who  was  then  Elector  of 

the  standard  for  the  connate  dialects.    He  taught  the  Saxony,  promptly  named  him  a  second  time  as  a  painter 

children  to  sing  in  Salish  hymns  of  his  own  compo-  in  ordinary  to  the  Royal  household,  and  employed 

sition,  and  even  trained  an  Indian  band  for  service  him  to  decorate  the  Catholic  church  in  Dresden.    Ow- 

on  feast  days.    The  work  progressed  until   1849,  ing  to  difficulties  in  the  king's  finances,  Mengs  went 

when,  in  consequence  of  the  inroads  of  the  Blackfeet  again  to  Rome  in  1752,  and  was  there  employed  by  the 

and  Uie  defection  and  relapse  of  a  lai^  part  of  the  Duke  of  Northumberland  to  make  copies  of  several 

Flathead  tribe  under  a  rival  claimant  for  the  chief-  important  pictures  by  Raphael  still  in  the  possession 

tainship,  it  was  decided  to  cIobc  the  mission,  and  of  the  present  holder  of  the  title,  and  to  be  seen  at  Al- 

llengarini  was  summoned  to  join  Father  Accoiti,  the  bury  and  Alnwick.     For  many  years  Mengs  supnorted 

superior  of  the  north-western  Jesuit  missions,  in  Ore-  himself  in  Rome  by  various  commissions,  as  aU  his  in- 

gon.     About  a  year  later,  on  request  of  Archbishop  come  from  Dresden  had  been  stopped,  the  Emperor 

Alemany  of  San  Francisco  for  Jesuit  workers,  he  was  Frederick  having  driven  the  King  of  Poland  out  of 

sent  to  aid  in  establishing  at  Santa  Clara  the  Califor-  Saxony.    It  was  at  this  time  that  Mengs  painted  a 

nian  mission  which  was  the  nucletis  of  the  present  superb  fresco  on  the  dome  of  the  church  of  St.  Euse- 

eoUege.    In  the  meantime  the  repentant  Flatheads  bins  in  Rome,  and  another  very  important  work  in  the 

had  sent  to  Oregon  to  ask  for  his  return.    They  were  Villa  Albani.    He  then  went  on  to  Naples,  and  exe- 

told  liiis  was  impossible  as  he  was  then  assigned  to  cuted  various  commiasions,  painting  an  important 

another  station,  out  on  their  urgent  desire  the  Flat-  altar-piece   for  Caserta,   and  some   portraits,    but 

head  mission  was  re-establishea  at  St.  Ignatius  in  auickly  returned  to  Rome  for  a  short  time,  and  was 

1851.    Mengarini  remained  at  Santa  Clara  tor  the  rest  tnen  pressed  to  enter  the  service  of  the  Spanish  King, 

of  his  life,  actmg  for  thirty  years  as  treasurer  or  vice-  Charles  III.    He  arrived  at  Madrid  in  1761.    Here  he 

present,  until  a  stroke  of  apoplexy  and  failing  sight  carried  out  a  very  large  number  of  commissions,  and 

caused  his  retirement  from  active  auties.    The  hard-  was  a  member,  and  eventually  the  director  of  the 

est  trial  came  when  his  eyes  became  too  weak  to  allow  Academy  of  St.  Ferdinand.    Once  more  he  went  back 

him  to  read  Mass.    A  third  stroke  of  apoplexy  ended  to  Rome  for  the  sake  of  his  health,  and  was  employed 

his  life  work  in  his  seventy-sixth  year.  by  Clement  XIV  in  the  Vatican.    He  then  returned  to 

Men^rini's  principal  contribution  to  philology  is  Madrid  in  1773,  and  painted  "the  Apotheosis  of  Tra- 

his  "  Selish  or  Flathead  Grammar ;  Grammatica  lingiue  jan  "  in  the  royal  palaice,  and  several  other  pictures  for 

Seltae" — published   by  the  Cramoisy  Press    (New  Charles  III.    Again  his  health  broke  down,  and  he 

York,  1861)  from  the  tnird  manuscript  copy,  the  first  finally  returned  to  Rome,  where  his  wife  died.     He 

two,  laboriously  written  out  by  him,  naving  been  lost  also  died  there,  and  was  buried  in  the  church  of  San 

by  Indian  carelessness  or  accident.    Originally  in*  Michele,  where  there  is  a  bronze  monument  to  his 

t^ided  solely  for  the  use  of  the  missionaries,  it  was  memory. 

written  in  Latin,  and  he  himself  always  said  that  the  Mengs  was  a  skilful  writer,  as  well  as  a  clever 

first  draft  was  the  most  correct.     He  also  furnished  painter,  but  a  man  of  melancholy  disposition,  and  of 

vonbularies  of  the  cognate  Salishan  languages — of  strange,  stem  habits,  too  sparingin  his  diet,  and  given 

Shwoyelpi  (Colville),  S  chitzui  (Cceur  d'^ene),  and  to  over-exertion.    He  was  an  sinectionate  father  and 

Salish  proper  (Flathead)  in  Powell's  '' Contributions  husband,  but  somewhat  improvident,  and  had  so  little 

to  North    American   Ethnology",    I    (Washington,  faith  in  his  own  profession  that  he  refused  to  allow  his 

1877),  and  of  the  Santa  Clara  malect  of  California  in  children  to  be  educated  for  it.    As  a  copyist,  he  had 


BOSNHAS 


190 


MENOCHIO 


scteBordmai^  merit,  and  his  original  pictures  are  ec- 
lectic in  their  composition  and  techmque,  correct  in 
design,  smooth  in  eicecution,  but  somewhat  too  sweet, 
and  a  trifle  insipid.  As  a  portrait  painter,  he  had 
great  success,  and  his  works  in  pastel  and  crayon  are 
amongst  lus  finest  creations.  There  are  many  of  his 
paintings  in  Dresden  and  Vienna,  and  in  the  former 
city  are  some  excellent  miniature  portraits  and  some 
copies  in  miniature  of  paintings  by  Raphael. 

Ocxujvr,  Did.  dea  Peintrea  BapoffnoU  (Paris,  1816);  Palo- 
mino DS  Cabtro  t  Vkulbco,  Bl  Muteo  Pialortoo  y  Baoala  (Ma- 
drid, 1716);  Stirung-Maxwsll,  AnndU  of  the  Artuts  of  Spain 
(London,  1848);  Huard*  Via  ComplHe  dea  PeitUrta  Bapaanola 
(Paris,  1839). 

Georgb  Charles  Wiluambon. 

Mennas,  Patriarch  of  Constantinople  from  536  to 
552.  Early  in  536  Pope  St.  Agapetus  came  to  Con- 
stantinople on  a  political  mission  forced  on  him  by  the 
Gothic  king,  Theodahad.  Anthimus,  Archbishop  of 
Trebizond,  had  just  been  transferred  to  Constantinople 
through  the  influence  of  the  Empress  Theodora,  with 
whose  Monophysite  leanings  he  was  in  sympathy. 
Agapetus  promptly  deposed  Anthimus  and  he  conse- 
crated Mennas  patriarch.  Anthimus  was  deposed 
partly  because  his  transfer  from  one  see  to  another 
was  uncanonical,  and  partty  on  account  of  his  doubt- 
ful orthodoxy.  The  question  next  arose  whether  he 
should  be  allowed  to  return  to  his  old  see.  Agapetus 
was  preparing  to  deal  with  this  question  when  he  died. 
Mennas  proceeded  with  the  affair  at  a  svnod  held  in 
Constantinople  the  same  year,  536,  presiding  over  it, 
the  place  of  honour  on  his  right  hand  being  assigned  to 
five  Italian  bishops  who  represented  ^e  Apostolic 
See.  The  result  was  that  Anthimus,  who  failed  to  ap- 
pear and  vindicate  his  orthodoxy,  was  excommuni- 
cated together  with  several  of  his  adherents.  In  543 
the  Emperor  Justinian  acting  with  the  approval,  if  not 
under  tne  prompting  of  Mennas  and  thelloman  repre- 
sentative, relagius,  issued  his  celebrated  edict  against 
the  teaching  of  Origen,  at  the  same  time  directing 
Mennas  to  hold  a  local  coimcil  to  consider  the  matter. 
No  record  of  this  synod  has  been  preserved,  but  Hefele 
demonstrates  it  to  be  more  than  probable  that  the 
celebrated  Fifteen  Anathematisms  of  C)rigen,  mistak- 
enly ascribed  to  the  Fifth  (Ecumenical  &imcil,  were 
there  promulgated.  We  now  come  to  the  part  played 
by  Mennas  in  the  initial  stage  of  the  Three  Chapters 
controversy  (see  Constantinople,  CouNciii9  of)  .  The 
first  from  whom  the  emperor  Justinian  demanded  sub- 
scription to  the  edict  anathematising  the  Three  Chap- 
ters was  Mennas.  He  hesitated^  but  eventually  gave 
way  on  the  understanding  that  his  subscription  should 
be  returned  to  him  if  the  pope  disapproved.  Later  on 
he  compelled  his  suffragans  to  subscribe.  Many  of 
them  complained  to  the  papal  legate  Stephen  of  the 
constraint  put  upon  them.  Stemien  broke  off  com- 
munion with  Mennas.  When  Pope  Vigilius  arrived 
at  Constantinople  in  547,  he  cut  Mennas  off  from 
Church  communion  for  four  months.  Mennas  re- 
torted b^  striking  the  pope's  name  off  the  diptychs. 
When  ViRiiius  issued  his  *' Judicatum",  the  two  were 
reconciled.  In  551  Mennas  was  again  excommuni- 
cated. When  Vigilius  and  Justinian  came  to  terms, 
Mennas  once  more  made  his  peace  with  the  former, 
asking  pardon  for  having  commimicated  with  those 
whom  the  pope  had  excommunicated.  He  died  in 
August,  552. 

AU  thikt  is  known  about  Mennas  will  be  found  in  HBnsLB, 
Councila^  IV  (Eng.  tr.).     The  most  important  of  the  orimai 


F.  J.  Bacchub. 


Mamonites,  a  Protestant  denomination  of  Europe 
and  America  which  arose  in  Switzerland  in  the  six- 
teenth century  and  derived  its  name  from  Menno 
Simons,  its  leader  in  Holland.  Menno  Simons  was 
bom  in  1402  at  Witmarsum  in  Friesland.    In  1515  or 


1516  he  was  ordained  to  the  Catholic  priesthood  and 
appointed  assistant  at  Pingjum  not  far  from  Witmar> 
sum.  Later  (1532)  he  was  named  pastor  of  his  native 
place,  but  12  January,  1536,  resigned  his  charge  and 
became  an  Anabaptist  elder.  The  rest  of  bis  life  waa 
devoted  to  the  interests  of  the  new  sect  which  he  had 
joined.  Though  not  an  imposing  personality  he  ex- 
ercised no  smau  influence  as  a  speaker  and  more  par- 
ticularly as  a  writer  among  the  more  moderate  holders 
of  Anabaptist  views.  His  death  occurred  13  January, 
1559,  at  Wustenfelde  in  Holstein.  The  opinions  held 
by  Menno  Simons  and  the  Mennonites  originated  in 
Switzerland.  In  1525  Grebel  and  Manz  founded  an 
Anabaptist  community  at  Zurich.  Persecution  fol- 
lowed upon  the  very  foimdation  of  the  new  sect,  and 
was  exercised  a^inst  its  members  until  1710  in  vari- 
ous parts  of  Switzerland.  It  was  powerless  to  effect 
suppression  and  a  few  communities  exist  even  at  pres- 
ent. About  1620  the  Swiss  Mennonites  split  into 
Amish  or  Upland  Mennonites  and  Lowland  Mennon- 
ites. The  former  differ  from  the  latter  in  the  belief 
that  excommunication  dissolves  marriage,  in  their  re- 

S'  ction  of  buttons  and  of  the  practice  of  shavlnjz. 
uring  Menno's  lifetime  his  followers  in  Holland  di- 
vided (1554)  into  "Flemings"  and  "  Waterlanders", 
on  account  of  their  divergent  views  on  excommunica- 
tion. The  former  subsequently  split  up  into  different 
parties  and  dwindled  into  insif^ficance,  not  more 
than  three  congregations  remaimng  at  present  in  Hol- 
land. Division  also  weakened  the  "  Waterlanders " 
until  in  1811  they  united,  dropped  the  name  of  Mennon- 
ites and  called  themselves  "Doopegezinde"  (Baptist 
persuasion),  their  present  official  designation  in  Hol- 
land. Menno  founded  congregations  exclusively  in 
Holland  and  Northwestern  Germany.  Mennonite 
communities  existed  at  an  early  date,  however,  in 
South  Germany  where  they  were  historically  con- 
nected with  the  Swiss  movement,  and  are  found  at 
mesent  in  other  parts  of  the  empire,  chieflv  in  eastern 
Prussia.  The  oner  of  extensive  land  and  the  assur- 
ance of  religious  liberty  caused  a  few  thousand  Ger- 
man Mennonites  to  emigrate  to  Southern  Russia 
(1788).  This  emi^tion  movement  continued  until 
1824,  and  resulted  m  the  foundation  of  comparatively 
important  Mennonite  colonies.  In  America  the  first 
congregation  was  founded  in  1683  at  Germantown, 
Pennsylvania.  Subsequently  immigration  from  Ger- 
many, Holland,  Switzerland,  and  since  1870  from  Rus- 
sia, considerably  increased  the  nimiber  of  the  sect  in 
North  America.  There  are  twelve  different  branches 
in  the  United  States  in  some  of  which  the  membership 
does  not  reach  1000.  Among  the  peculiar  views  of  the 
Mennonites  are  the  following:  repudiation  of  infant 
baptism,  oaths,  law-suits,  civil  office-holding  and  the 
bearing  of  arms.  Baptism  of  adults  and  the  Lord's 
Supper,  in  which  Jesus  Christ  is  not  really  present,  are 
retamed,  but  not  as  sacraments  properly  so-called. 
Non-resistance  to  violence  is  an  important  tenet  and 
an  extensive  use  is  made  of  excommunication.  AU 
these  views,  however,  are  no  longer  universaUy  held, 
some  Mennonites  now  accepting  secular  offices.  The 
polity  is  congregational,  witn  bishops,  elders,  and  dea- 
cons. The  aggregate  membership  of  the  Mennonites  is 
now  usually  given  as  about  250,000;  of  these  there  are 
some  60,000  in  Holland ;  18.000  in  Germany;  70,000  in 
Russia ;  1500  in  Switzerlana ;  20,000  in  Canada,  and  ac- 
cording to  Dr.  Carroll  (Christian  Advocate,  New  York, 
27  January,  1910),  55.007  in  the  United  States. 

Cramkr.  Bibliotheca  Reformatoria  Neerlandica,  II  and  V  CThe 
Hague,  1003,  sqq.);  Carroll,  Reltm'otia  Forcea  of  the  United 
Statea  (New  York,  1806).  206-220;  Wbdbl.  GeachicfUa  der  Men- 
noniten  (Newton,  Kansas,  1000-04);  Smith,  The  Mennonitea  of 
America  (Goshen,  Indiana,  1000):  Cramer  and  Horbcb  in  New 
Schaff'Henoa  BncifcL  s.  v.  (New  York.  1010). 

N.  A.  Weber. 

Menochio,  Giovanni  Stefano,  Jesuit  Biblical 
scholar,  b.  at  Padua,  1575;  d.  in  Rome,  4  Feb..  1655^ 


Mm  191  MENOLOOIDlf 

Heentexed  the  Society  of  Jesus,  25  May,  15M.  Aftertbe  Bishop  of  Gambrai,  seems  to  have  taken  the  first  steps 

usual  yeara  of  tratning  and  of  teaching  the  classics,  he  towaras  the  suppression  of  the  heresy.    William  of 

became  professor  of  sacred  scripture  and  then  of  moral  Hildermssen  consented  to  a  retractation,  the  sincerity 

theoloey  at  Milan;  thereafter  b^an  his  long  life  of  su-  of  which  appeared  doubtful.    In  1411  a  second  invea- 

periorship.     He  was  successivdy  superior  of  Cremona,  tigation  resulted  in  another  retractation,  but  also  in  a 

Milaa,  and  Genoa,  rector  of  the  Roman  College^  provin-  sentence  compelling  Williai  *.  tp  return  permanently  to 

cial  of  the  provinces  of  Milan  and  Rome,  assistant  of  an  jxtra-dioccsan  Carmelite  monastery  after  three 

Italy,  and  admonitorto  the  Fathers-General  Carafa  and  years'  detention  in  one  of  the  episcopal  castles.    No 

Piceolomini.     The  exej^tical  work  of  Menochio  is  still  information  has  reached  us  respecting  the  result  of  the 

deservedly  famous.   His  first  essay  along  this  line  wr^s  a  inquisitorial  procedure  against  the  other  members  of 


politico-Biblical  study:  "  Hieropoliticon,  sive  Institu-    the  sect. 


tics  was  dedicated  to  Cardinal  Alessandro  Orsini.    A  1888). '  N.  A .  Webeb. 

second  edition  (Cologne,  1626)  was  dedicated  to  Fer- 
dinimd  III.    Tne  Jesuit  poet  Sarbiewski  made  this        Menologinxn. — ^Although  the  word  Menologium  (in 

study  the  subject  of  an  ode  (see  "Lyrica",  II,  n.  English  also  written  Menology  and  Menologe)  has 

18).  be^  in  some  measure,  as  we  shall  see,  adopted  for 

The  next  year  there  appeared  an  economic  study  of  Western  use,  it  is  originally  and  in  strictness  a  name 

the  Bible:  '^Institutiones  CEconomicce  ex  Sacris  Lit-  describing  a  piurticular  service-book  of  the  Greek 

tens  depromptse",  543  pages  (Lyons,  1627).    The  Church.    From  its  derivation  the  term  Menologium 

author  transkted  into  Italmn  these  lessons  on  the  0Ai?i«X67(oy,  from /ui^f'' a  month")  means  "month-set", 

care  of  one's  own  household ;  this  translation  was  in  other  words,  a  book  arranged  according  to  the 

a  posthumous  publication:  "Economia  Christiana",  months.    Like  a  good  many  other  liturgical  terms, 

542  pages  (Venice,  1656).    The  work  by  which  Meno-  e.  g.  lectionary  (g|.  v.),  the  word  has  been  used  in 

ehio  lives  and  will  live  is  his  "  Brevis  Eaqplicatio  Sensus  several  quite  distmct  senses  by  writers  of  authority, 

Litteralis  Sacree  Scripturse  optimis  quibusque  Auo-  and  the  main  puipoee  of  the  present  notice  must  be  to 

toribus  per  Epitomen  CoUecta",  3  vols.,  115  pajses,  try  to  elucidate  this  confusion. 

449,  549 + 29  (Cologne,  1630) .    Many  other  editions        (1)  In  the  first  place  Menoloeium  is  not  unf  requently 

of  this  commentary  have  been  published  in  mamr  used  as  synon^ous  with  Menaion  (jiiipataw).    The 

lands:  Cologne,  1659;  Antwerp,  1679;  Lyons,  1683,  Menaia  usually  in  twelve  volumes,  one  to  each  month, 

1697,  1703;  the  revised  editions  of  Toumemine,  S.J.,  but  sometimes  bound  in  three,  form  an  offioe-book, 

published  at  Paris,  1719,  1721,  1731:  Avi^on,  1768;  which  in  the  Greek  Church,  corresponds,  though  very 

Ghent,  1829;  the  enlarged  and  revised  editions  of  Zac-  roughly,  to  the  Proprium  Sanctorum  of  the  Breviary. 

earia,S.J.,  published  at  Venice,  1743, 1755, 1761.  The  They  mdude  all  the  movable  parts  of  the  services 

tduUa  of  Menochio  are  introduced  into  the  "  Biblia  connected  with  the  commemoration  of  saints  and  in 

Masma"  and  "Biblia  Maxima"  of  de  La  Have;  the  particular  the  canons  sung  in  the  Orthroe,  the  office 

''Biblia  Sacra"  of  Lucas  Brugensis;  the  '^Cursus  which  corr^onds  with  our  Lauds,  induding  the 

Script.  Sacr."  of  Migne;  fourteen  editions  of  the  synaxaries,  i.  e.  the  historical  notices  regarding  the 

"Samte  Bible"  of  Carridre,  S.J.;  and  "La  Sainte  saints  of  the  day,  which  are  always  inserted  between 

Bible  "  of  Drioux  (Paris,  1873) .  the  sixth  and  seventh  odes  of  the  canon.    The  Svnax- 

The  deamess,  brevity,  and  critical  acumen  of  Meno-  aries  are  read  in  this  place  very  much  as  the  Marty- 
ehio  have  won  him  the  praise  of  friend  and  foe.  The  rologium  for  the  day  is  interpolated  in  the  chond 
father  of  modem  criticism,  Simon,  though  not  at  all  recitation  of  Prime  in  the  offices  of  Western  Christen- 
in  sympathy  with  the  orthodoxy  of  the  Jesuit,  says:  dom.  (2)  Secondly  and  more  freouently,  the  term 
"Cest  un  des  plus  judicieux  scoliastes  que  nous  Menolo^um  is  used  to  denote  the  bare  collection  of 
ayons  tant  sur  le  Vieux  que  sur  le  Nouveau  Tes-  those  historical  notices  just  mentioned,  without  the 
tament"  (Hist.  Crit.  du  N.  T.,  idiv).  Reusch  odes  and  the  other  matter  of  the  canons  in  which  they 
(Kirchenlex.)  prefers  the  notes  of  Menochio  to  those  of  are  inserted.  Such  a  collection,  consisting  as  it  does 
Sa  and  Mariana.  Tlie  method  of  this  great  oommen-  purdy  of  historical  matter,  bears  a  considerable  re- 
tator  was  that  of  the  best  Catholic  exegetes  of  to-day :  semblance,  as  wiU  be  readily  imderstood,  to  our 
a  method  which  sought  to  find  the  literal  meaning  ot  Martyrology,  although  the  notices  of  the  saints  are  for 
Holy  Writ  in  the  Bmle  and  the  Fathers.  Menochio  the  most  part  considerably  larRcr  and  fuller  than  those 
studied  the  text  in  its  original,  and  brought  to  bear  found  in  our  Martyrology,  whue  on  the  other  hand  the 
upon  that  study  a  vast  store  of  knowledge  of  Jewish  number  of  entries  is  smaller.  The  "Menology  of 
antiquities.  Basil",  a  work  of  early  date  often  referred  to  in  con- 

SoMMXRYOGKL,  B%l)liolhiq^e  de  la  Compaonie  deJ.,y,lX,  nexion  wi£h  the  history  of  the  Greek  Offices,  is  a  book 

Wai/teb  Drum.  of  this  class.    (3)  Thudly,  it  frequently  happens  that 

the  tables  of  scriptural  lessons,  arranged  according  to 

Men  of  Understanding  (Homines  Intbluqen-  months  and  saints'  days,  which  are  often  founa  at 

TiiB),  name  assumed  by  a  heretical  sect  which  in  141Q-  the  beginning  of  maniiscripts  of  the  ^pels  or  other 

11  was  cited  before  the  Inquisition  at  Brussels.    Its  lectionaries,  are  described  as  menologia.    The  saints' 

leaders  were  E^dius  Cantoris,  an  illiterate  ]a3nnan,  days  are  briefly  named  and  the  readings  indicated 

and  the  Cannehte  William  of  Hildemissen,  near  Ber-  beside  each-  thus  the  document  so  designated  corre- 

gen-op-Zoom.    The  sect  was  doctrinally  related  with  spends  much  more  closely  to  a  calendar  than  anything 

the  earlier  Brethren  of  the  Free  Spirit.    It  tau^t  the  else  of  Western  use  to  wnich  we  can  compare  it.    (4) 

eventual  salvation  of  all  human  beings  and  even  of  the  Lastly  the  word  Menologium  is  very  widely  applied  to 

demons,  maintained  that  the  soul  of  man  cannot  be  the  collections  of  long  lives  of  the  saints  of  the  Greek 

defiled  by  bodily  sin,  and  believed  in  a  m3rBtical  state  of  Church,  whenever  these  lives,  as  commonly  happens, 

illumination  and  union  with  God  so  perfect,  that  it  are  arranged  according  to  months  and  days  of  the 

exempted  from  all  subjection  to  moral  and  ecclesias-  month.    This  arrangement  has  always  been  a  favour- 

tical  Jaws  and  was  an  infallible  pledgee  of  salvation,  ite  one  also  in  the  great  Legendaria  of  the  West,  and  it 

Both  leaders  gloried  in  the  visions  with  which  they  might  be  illustrated  from  the  "Acta  Sanctorum"  or 

claimed  to  have  been  favoured.  Cantoris  in  a  moment  the  well-known  Lives  of  the  Saints  by  Surius.    The 

of  religious  exaltation  went  so  far  as  to  run  nude  Greek  compilers  however  regard  September  as  the  first 

throu^  the  streets  of  Brussels  declaring  himself  the  and  August  as  the  last  month  of  the  eodesiastioal 

saviour   of   mankind.    About  1410  Peter   d'Ailly,  year. 


MENOMINEB  192 

Ab  for  proi>riet^  of  usage  it  must  be  confessed  that  Though  Fathers   Nuremberg  and    Nadad  compiled 

the  question  is  primarily  one  of  convenience ;  but  on  collections  of  a  similar  character,  they  did  not  bear  the 

the  whole  it  seems  desirable  that  the  tennMenologium  name  Menologium.    The  earliest  Jesuit  compilation 

should  be  limited  to  the  fourth  acceptation  among  which  is  so  styled  seems  to  have  been  printea  in  the 

those  just  given.    One  of  the  most  important  collec-  year  1669.    A  more  elaborate  Menologium  was  that 

tions  of  this  kind  is  tiiat  made  by  a  writer  in  the  second  compiled  by  Father  Patrigjiani  in  1730,  and  great 

half  of  the  tenth  century  known  to  us  as  SymeonMeta-  collections  were  made  during  the  last  centuiy  by 

phrastes.    Something  more  than  ten  years  aco  Father  Father  de  Quilhenny  for  the  production  of  a  series  of 

Delehaye  and  Professor  Albert  Ehrhard  working  inde-  such  menologies,  divided  according  to  the  groups  of 

pendently  succeeded  for  the  first  time  in  correctly  provinces  of  the  Society  called  '' Assistencies".    The 

grouping  together  the  works  which  are  reall^r  attribut-  author  did  not  live  to  complete  his  task,  but  the  me- 

able  to  ttaa  author,  but  ereat  uncertainty  still  remains  nolopies  have  been  published  by  other  hands  since  his 

as  to  the  provenance  of  nis  materials,  and  as  to  the  re-  death.    The  term  Menologium  is  also  loosely  used  for 

lation  between  this  collection  and  certain  contracted  any  calendar  divided  into  months,  as,  for  example, 

biographies  many  of  which  exist  among  the  manuscripts  the  "Anglo-Saxon  Menologium"  first  published  by 

of  our  great  libraries.    The  synaxaries,  or  histories  for  Hickes. 

liturgi^  use,  are  nearly  all  extracted  from  the  older  ,   The  whole  aubieet  of  the  Greek  Menok>gia  has  been  treated 

Menologia   but  Fr   Defehaye  who  has  given  special  ti^fz^^.ki^r5^l^,^^^4S^J:^ 

ai  tcntion  to  the  studv  of  this  class  of  documents,  con-  in  the  Synaxariwn  CfonManHnopontanwn  which   forma  the 

sidcrs   that  the  authors  of  these    compendia  have  PropyUoum  of  the  Acta  SS.  for  November.    Conault  aJao 

ad<l«i    though  sparsely,  materi^  of  their  o^.  de-  S'i2Sw?tS^iSSXlT^oS?^iE3l^^ 

rived  from  vanous  sources.     (See  Delehaye  m  his  Heortohov  (Eng.  traoa.,  Londoo,  1908). 
preface  to  the  ^'Synaxarium  Eccles.  Cp.",  published  Hbbbebt  Thubston. 

as  a  Propylseum  to  the  "Acta  SS."  for  November, 

lix-lxvi.)  BCeoiomixiee    Indiaiui,    a   considerable   tribe    of 

Menologies  in  the  West. — The  fact  that  the  word  Algonquian  li^niistic  stock,  formerly  ranging  over 

Mart3rrology  (q.  v.)  was   already  consecrated  to  a  north-eastern  Wisconsin  to  the  west  of  l^ominee 

litui^cal  or  quasi-lituigical  compilation  arranged  ao-  River  and  Qreen  Bay,  and  now  occupjin^  a  reserva- 

cordmjg  to  months  and  days,  and  including  onlv  tion  in  Shawano  and  Oconto  counties  withm  the  same 

canonized  saints  and  festivals  imiversally  received,  territory.    The  name  bv  which  thev  are  commonly 

probably  led  to  the  employment  of  the  term  Menolo-  known  (translated  Follea  Avoines  by  the  French) 

ginm  for  works  of  a  somewnat  analaeous  character,  of  is  taken  from  their  term  for  the  wild  rice,  menomin^ 

private  authority,  not  intended  for  Tituigical  use  and  Lat.  Zizania  aquaHca,  which  grows  abundantly  in  the 

mdudine  the  names  and  dogia  of  persons  in  repute  for  small  lakes,  and  fonns  a  staple  food  of  the  tribes  of 

sanctity  out  not  in  any  sense  canonised  Saints.    In  that  region.     Before  their  first  contact  with  the  whites 

most  01  the  relieious  orders  it  became  the  custom  to  the  Menominee  may  have  numbered  about  3000  souls; 

commemorate  tne  memory  of  their  dead  brethren  in  1909  they  were  officially  reported  at  1487.    The 

specially  renowned  for  holiness  or  learning.    In  more  earliest  known  explorer  amons  the  Menominee  was 

tnan  one  such  order  during  the  seventeenth  and  Champlain's  interpreter,  Jean  Nicolet,  who  visited  the 

eighteenth  centuries,  the  collection  of  these  short  eulo-  tribes  about  Green  Bay  in  1634,  being  probably  the 

ffistic  bi(^raphies  was  printed  under  the  name  of  first  white  man  within  the  present  State  of  Wisconsin. 

Menologium  and  generally  so  arranged  as  to  form  a  In   1640  they  are  mentioned  under  the  name  of 

selection  for  each  day  of  the  year.    Since  they  were  Maroumine  by  the  Jesuit  Le  Jeune,  as  one  of  the 

made  by  private  authority  which  could  not  pronounce  tribes  still  witnout  missionaries.    In  the  **  Relation  " 

judgment  on  the  sanctity  of  those  so  commemorated,  for   1657-8   they   are   spoken   of  as   Malouminek, 

the  Church  prohibited  the  reading  of  these  compila-  allied  with  the  Noukek  and  Winnebap;o  and  "  reap- 

tions  as  part  of  the  Divine  Office;   but  this  did  not  ing  without  sowing"  a  wild  rye  considered  superior 

prevent  tne  formation  of  such  menolo^es  for  private  to  com,  the  first  notice  of  the  now  wdl-known  wild 

use  or  even  the  reading  of  them  aloud  m  the  chapter-  rice. 

house  or  in  the  refectory.    Thus  the  collection  made        In  May,  1670,  the  Jesuit  explorer  Olaude  Alloues 

by  the  Franciscan  Fortunatus  HOber  of  the  abbrevi-  visited  them  near  the  mouth  of  the  Menominee  River. 

ated  lives  of  those  of  the  Friars  Biinor  who  had  died  in  They  were  then  greatly  reduced  by  wars,  probably 

the  odour  of  sanctity,  printed  in  1691  under  the  title  of  with  their  hereditary  enemies,  the  Sioux.    They  lis- 

"Menologium   Franciscanum ",   was   evidently    in-  tened  to  his  teaching  and  asked  him  to  remain.    A 

tended  for  public  recitation.    In  lieu  of  the  concluding  small  mission,  St.  Michel,  was  established,  and  placed 

formula"£talibialiorum"etc.  of  the  Roman  Martyr-  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  central  Potawatomi 

ology,  the  compiler  sug^ts  (364)  as  the  faialis  ter~  mission  of  St.  Francis  Xavier  on  Green  Bay.     In 

minatio  cuiuscumque  diet  the  three  verses  of  the  Apoc-  1673  the  Jesuit  Louis  Andr6  arrived  and  ministered 

alypse  (vii,  9-11)  beginning:  "Post  hsec  vidi  turbam  for  several  years  both  to  the  Menominee  and  to  other 

magnam".    The  earliest  printed  work  of  this  kind  is  tribes,  travelling  in  summer  by  bark  canoe  and  in 

possibly  that  which   bears  the  title    "  Menologium  winter  over  the  ice.    Soon  after  his  arrival  he  found 

Carmelitanum ''compiled  by  the  Carmelite,  Saracenus,  set  up  an  image  of  the  sim,  with  a  number  of  net 

and  printed  at  Bologna  in  1627;  but  this  is  not  ai^  floaters  attached,  as  a  sacrifice  to  the  sim  for  a  prosoer- 

ranged  day  by  day  m  the  order  of  the  ecclesiastical  ous  fishing  season,  their  exertioiis  having  been  thus 

year,  and  it  does  not  include  members  of  the  order  yet  far  disappointing.    After  explaining  that  the  sun  was 

uncanonised.    A  year  or  two  later,  in  1630,  Father  not  a  god,  he  persuaded  them  to  allow  him  to  subeti- 

Henriquez  published  at  Antwerp  his  "Menolo^um  tute  a  crucifix.    The  next  morning  the  fish  entered  the 

Cisterciense''.    That  no  general  custom  then  existed  river  in  such  abundance  that  the  Indians,  firmly  con- 

of  reading  the  Menology  at  table  appears  from  his  re-  vinced  of  the  efficacy  of  his  teaching,  crowded  to  be 

mark:    "It  would  not  appear  unsuitable  if  it  (the  instructed  every  evenins  on  their  return  from  their 

Menologium)  were  read  aloud  in  public  or  in  chapter  fishing.    Following  up  this  victory,  he  induced  them 

or  at  least  in  the  refectory  at  the  Degmning  of  dinner  to  abandon  their  superstitious  dream  ceremonies  on 

or  supper".     Aeain  quite  a  number  of  works  have  setting  out  against  the  Sioux,  althou^  apparently 

been  printed  under  the  name  Menologium  by  Fathers  he  was  unable  to  prevent  the  expedition.    Among 

of  the  Society  of  Jesus,  one  or  other  of  which  it  has  his   converts   was   a   principal   medicine-man,   who 

been  and  still  is  the  custom  of  the  order  to  read  aloud  claimed  the  thunder  spirit  as  his  special  medtctne,  and 

il)  the  refectory  during  part  pf  the  evening  meal,  ww  accu9to^ed  to  invoke  it  with  aongs  and  naked 


MXNOMINEI 


193 


iDtacs  during  storms.  Father  Andr^  was  slow  to  bap- 
tize adults,  however,  and  records  how  one  man  thus 
baptised  on  fervid  assurance  of  change  of  heart  had 
called  in  the  medicine-man  on  his  death-bed. 

In  1673  Father  Marquette  visited  the  Menominee 
on  his  way  to  the  Mississippi,  and  describes  in  detail 
their  manner  of  gathering  ana  preparing  the  wild  rice. 
Three  years  later  Father  Audio's  cabin,  with  all  that 
it  contained,  was  burned  by  an  Indian  whose  two 
small  children,  after  one  had  been  baptized,  had  been 
killed  by  an  enemy,  the  grief-stricken  father,  in  Indian 
fashion,  attributing  his  misfortune  to  the  oeremon^r. 
The  Menominee  mission  ^rew  and  flourished  until 
iie  outbreak  of  the  long  war  inaugurated  by  the  Foxes 
against  the  French  ( 1 712),  which  continued  some  thirty 
yearsy  and  resulted  in  the  almost  complete  destruction 

01  the  Fox  tribe 
and  the  ruin  of  the 
Wisconsin  mish 
slons.  Close  upon 
this  came  the 
seven  years' 
French  and  Indian 
War  (1754-60); 
the  Pontiac  war 
(1763-4);  the 
Revolution  and  its 
Indian  aftermath 
(1775-95) ;  and 
finally  Tippecanoe 
and  the  War  of 
1812  (1811-15). 
In  all  of  these  the 
Menominee,  like 
the  other  tribes 
of  the  central  re- 
gion, had  their 
SAiniXL  Majesughbixi  part,  fighting  on 

the  fVench  side  until  the  fall  of  Queb^  and  afterwards 
supporting  the  English  against  the  United  States. 
In  1817  they  made  their  peace  with  the  United  States, 
and  by  various  subeequent  treaties,  have  disposed  of 
sn  of  their  ancient  territory  excepting  their  present 
nsenration  of  about  360  square  miles. 

In  1762  the  Jesuit  miasions  had  been  suppressed  by 
die  French  Govomment,  and  ''for  thirty  years  there 
was  no  priest  west  of  Detroit  "  (Shea  quoting  McCabe). 
Defirived  of  their  teachers  and  for  sixty  years  oom- 
pelied  to  make  almost  constant  war  against  the  ad- 
vancing whites,  a  large  part  of  the  former  mission 
Indians  in  all  the  tribes  relapsed  into  paganism, 
while  still  cherishing  an  affection  for  their  former 
iiieodfl.  In  1823  the  Ottawa  tribe  of  lower  Michigan 
addressed  to  0>ngress  two  remarkable  petitions  ask- 
ing to  have  Jesuit  missionaries  again  sent  among  them. 
No  response  came,  but  in  1825  Father  J.  V.  Badin 
made  a  tour  of  the  lake  tribes,  in  1827  Father  Dejean 
visited  llie  Ojibwa  at  Mackinaw  and  in  1829  founded 
the  new  Ottawa  mission  at  Arbre  Croche  (Harbor 
Springs,  Michigan),  and  in  1830  Father  Samuel 
Mazzuchelli  established  a  school  and  church  among 
the  Menominee  at  Green  Bay,  for  which  the  Govern- 
ment, in  accordance  with  the  policv  at  that  period, 
made  an  appropriation.  Soon  alterwards  Father 
Mazzuchelli  extended  his  labours  to  the  Winnebago. 
A  church  for  the  few  white  residents  had  already  been 
begun  by  Father  Gabriel  Richard  in  1823.  Father 
Mazzuchelli  was  assisted  in  the  school  by  two  sisters 
and  by  Mrs.  Rosalie  Dousman  (1831),  who  continued 
in  the  work  for  a  number  of  years.  Later  missionaries 
of  the  same  period  were  Fathers  Simon  Sanderl, 
Redemptorist,  and  T.  J.  Van  den  Broeck.  In  1827 
an  Episcopal  mission  was  started,  but  was  discontin- 
ued m  1838  owing  to  non-attendance  of  the  Indians. 
In  1844  Fr.  Van  den  Broeck  established  a  second 
mission,  St.  Francis,  at  Lake  Powahegan  on  the  Wolf 
River,  which  withi|»  »  sbprt  time  had  400  Xndi«m8« 
X.— 13 


In  1847  he  was  succeeded  by  Father  F.  J.  Bonduel, 
who  added  another  school,  and  who  in  turn  was  suc- 
ceeded in  1852  bv  Fr.  Otho  Skolla,  the  first  of  the 
Franciscans,  to  which  order  the  Menominee  work  has 
now  been  confided  for  nearly  two  generations.  The 
present  mission  of  St.  Michael's,  at  Keshena,  Wiscon- 
sin, in  charge  of  Reverend  Blase  Krake,  assisted  by 
two  other  Franciscan  fathers,  counts  upon  its  rolls 
about  two-thirds  of  the  tribe,  being  the  whole  Chris- 
tian body.  The  attached  St.  Joseph's  industrial 
school,  conducted  by  eleven  Sisters  of  St.  Joseph  and 
three  Franciscan  brothers,  is  in  a  prosperous  condition 
The  official  reports  of  Agent  Ellis  (1847)  and  Superin- 
tendent Murray  (1852)  exhibit  the  high  appreciation 
of  the  civil  autnorities. 

Physically  the  Menominee  are  among  the  finest  of 
the  native  tribes  of  America,  being  well  formed, 
straight,  and  of  a  rather  light  complexion,  with  manly, 
intelligent,  and  mild  expression.  In  their  primitive 
condition  they  derivea  their  subsistence  chiefly 
from  the  wild  rice,  fishing  and  hunting,  wild  berries, 
and  the  syrup  and  sugar  prepared  according  to  the 
Indian  method  from  the  maple.  Wild  rice  still  con- 
stitutes an  important  part  of  their  diet,  being  boiled 
with  meat  and  seasoned  with  svrup.  They  do  but 
little  farming,  and  devote  their  chief  energies  to  lum- 
bering. Their  houses  were  formerly  circular  frame- 
works covered  with  bark  or  mats  of  rushes,  but  log 
houses  are  now  the  rule.  The  art  of  makine  pottery 
has  become  extinct  among  the  Menominee,  but  their 
women  still  produce  basketware,  mats  of  rushes  and 
cedar  bark,  and  beautifully  woven  bead  and  porcupine 
quill  work.  The  primitive  weapons  were  the  bow, 
knife,  and  hatchet.  They  had  both  bark  and  dugout 
canoes.  Snowshoes  were  used  for  winter  travel, 
llieir  amusements  included  the  ball  game  (lacrosse), 
dice,  hunt  the  button,  foot  races,  and  several  minor 
dances.  Their  dead  were  usually  buried  in  bark 
coffins,  over  which  was  built  a  roof,  with  an  open- 
ing through  which  food  was  inserted  for  the  spirit. 
The  corpse,  dressed  in  its  best  attire,  was  sometimes 
placed  m  a  sitting  position  facing  tne  west,  over  it 
being  erected  a  bark  shelter  on  which  was  carved  or 
painted  an  inverted  figure  indicating  the  totem,  or 
gens,  to  which  the  deceased  had  belonged. 

Their  mythologv  and  religious  belief  and  ritual 
closely  resembled  tnat  of  their  neighbours,  the  Ojibwa, 
centering  about  Manabush,  the  "  Great  Rabbit ",  or 
dawn  god,  and  the  son^  and  ceremonies  of  the  secret 
society  of  the  Midewiwm  or  **  Grand  Medicine  ",  which 
still  flourishes  among  the  pagan  members  of  the  tribe. 
They  had  the  clan,  or  gentue,  system,  with  (as  now 
existinjg)  twenty-four  ^ntes  grouped  into  three 
phratries,  the  Bear,  Big  Thunder,  and  Wolf.  In 
ancient  times,  it  is  said,  they  had  twenty-two  gentes 
in  five  phratries.  The  members  of  the  same  gens 
were  considered  near  relatives,  and  were  not  allowed 
to  intermarry.  Descent  and  inheritance  were  in  the 
female  line.  The  tribe  council  included  a  principal 
chief,  a  war  chief,  and  a  number  of  subordinate  band 
or  gentile  chiefs,  and  chieftainship  was  usually  heredi- 
tary. Among  distinguished  chiefs  have  been  Thomas 
Carron,  a  French  Canadian  half-breed  (d.  1780),  his 
son  Tomah  (i.  e.  Thomas,  d.  1818) ;  Keshena  (Swift 
Flyer);  Oshkosh  (Claws;  d.  1858);  and  Niopet 
(Four-in-a-den),  his  son  and  successor  elected  in  1875. 

The  literature  of  the  Menominee  language,  which  is 
distinct  from  all  others  of  its  kindred  Algonquian 
stock,  consists  chiefly  of  a  series  of  prayer  hooks  and 
hymn  collections  by  Father  Zephyrin  (Charles  An- 
thony) Enffelhardt,  former  Franciscan  missionary  in 
the  tribe;  %ese  were  issued  between  1881  and  1884, 
the  hymn  book  being  printed  by  the  author  upon  a 
small  hand  press.  Father  Engelhardt  is  also  the 
author  of  a  collection  of  Menominee  translations  of 
the  Gospel,  a  volume  of  sermons  and  instructions,  an 
steaded  vocAbuIftry  and  sev^rftl  ling:uistic  tref^ti9^ 


194 

on  the  language,  all  still  in  manuscript.    His  present  other  than  the  maintenance  of  prelates;  these  propeFi 

successor  at  the  mission,  Father  Blase  Krake  of  the  ties  or  f  oimdations  may  be  real '' opera  pia"  or  piou0 

same  order,  is  also  a  master  of  the  language,  of  which  works  in  the  canonical  sense.    In  tnis  wav  some  epi»- 

he  has  written  a  manuscript  gnunmar  and  dictionary,  copal  mensas  control  property  and  houses  for  the  b^ie- 

A   vocabulary  of  some  thirty  pages  accompanies  fit  of  aged  or  infirm  priests,  also  for  educational  and 

Hoffman's  monograph.  o^her  establishments;  to  some  curial  mensie  schools  or 

Hoffman  in  Fourth  RepoH  of  the  Burmu  of  Btlmotpgu,  I  hospitals  are  attached,  and  for  these  various  good 

&^iffi^  f°jSI!S^°{^^°S£i''6^aS^-ib1r  n  *or1»  «dm?^»<jve  rules  may  be  p«mded  at  the 

(Washington,  1900):  Jesuit  Relatioru,  ed.  Thwaites  (Cleve-  tune  of  theuT  foundation.    But  such  cases  it  IS  easily 

Umd),  especi^  vols,  xyill,  XLIV,  UV,  LV,  LVIII,  ULX,  aeen  are  later  extensions,  foreign  to  the  primary  and 

^To?A^"f^*0?S^£te^^  chief  dm  of  the  men«B.    Even  in  respect  to  ti«« 

Ind.  MUnoM  (New  York.  1864};  IFwowmn  HUt.  Soc.  CoUs.,  properties  the  oW  rule  apphes,  m  the  sense  that  they 

Xiy  (Madison,  1898);  Anon,  Rite  and  ProQrtM  of  the  Province  are  not  common  ecclesiastical  possessions  and  are  not 

of3t.:fom^oftKeCapudanOrder  in  the  ^V^j^^^°'^jj^^^^-  administered  as  such,  but  after  the  manner  of  mensal 

property. 

Mensa,  Mensal  Bavenae  (Lat.  Mensal  table). —  Althou^  appropriated  to  the  maintenance  of  oer- 
The  Latin  word  mensa  has  for  its  primitive  sig^iifica-  tain  defimte  persons,  mensal  property  is  nevertheless 
tion  "a  table  for  meals";  it  designates  by  extension  church  propert}r,  ana  its  administrator  is  bound  to  ob- 
the  expenses,  or  better,  the  necessary  resources  of  sus-  serve  tlw  canonical  rules  concerning  it.  As  to  the  ad- 
tenanoe,  and  generally,  all  the  resources  for  personal  ministration  strictly  speaking,  he  must  keep  the  prop- 
support.  He  who  lives  at  the  expense  of  anotner,  and  erty  in  good  condition  and  execute  all  works  expedient 
at  his  table,  is  his  "commensal".  In  ecclesiastical  to  that  end;  in  short,  he  must  act  like  a  good  head  of  a 
language,  the  mensa  is  that  portion  of  the  property  of  household.  But  he  cannot  do  anything  that  would 
a  church  which  is  appropriated  to  def raym^  the  ex-  infringe  upon  proprietary  rights,  for  he  is  not  the  pro- 
penses  either  of  the  prelate  or  of  the  community  which  prietor:  any  alienation,  or  any  contract  which  the  law 
serves  the  church,  and  is  administered  at  the  will  of  regards  as  similar  to  alienation^  is  forbidden  him,  ex- 
the  one  or  the  other.  Thus,  in  a  cathedral,  to  which  oepting  imder  prescribed  juridical  formalities,  under 
both  the  bishop  and  the  chapter  belong,  the  bishop's  pam  of  excommunication  (Extrav.  Ambitioss  "  De 
mensa  is  distinct  from  that  of  the  chapter,  the  former  reb.  eccL  non  alienandis";  see  also  Benefice;  Prop* 
consisting  of  property  the  revenues  of  which  are  en-  bbtt,  Alienation  of  Church).  The  chief  of  these 
joyed  by  the  prelate,  the  latter  by  the  chapter.  The  prescribed  formalities  is  the  Apostolic  authorisation, 
capitular  mensa  consists  chiefly  of  individual  prop-  given  either  directly  or  by  Indiut,  and  that  only  when 
erty,  for  the  primitive  mensa  of  the  chapter  has  al-  the  alienation  or  similar  contract  is  to  the  advantage 
most  evervwhere  been  divided  among  the  canons,  eadi  of  the  Church.  For  the  alienation  of  mensal  property, 
of  whom  has  his  personal  share  under  the  designation  or  for  making  any  similar  contract,  the  bishop  is,  m 
of  a  "prebend".  Similarly,  in  the  case  of  abbeys  particular,  bound  to  safeguard  himself  with  the  con- 
given  in  commendam  (cf.  c.  Edoceri,  21,  De  rescriptis),  sent  of  the  chapter  (S.  C.  Concilii,  25  July,  1891). 
the  abbatial  mensa,  which  the  abbot  enjoys,  is  distinct  History. — Like  all  ecclesiastical  institutions,  the 
from  the  conventual  mensa,  which  is  applied  to  the  mensa  has  reached  its  present  juridical  status  as  the 
maintenance  of  the  religious  community.  The  curial  result  of  various  modincations.  In  the  first  ages,  aXL 
mensa,  which  is  of  later  origin,  is  of  the  same  nature:  the  church  property  of  a  diocese  formed  but  one  mass 
the  property  reserved  for  the  personal  maintenance  of  connected,  like  eveiything  else,  with  the  principal,  or 
the  parish  priest,  as  distinct  from  that  applied  to  the  cathedral  chureh.  The  administration  of  it  belonged 
expenses  ot  worship  or  to  the  support  of  other  dergy,  to  the  bishop  alone,  who  administered  it  himself  or 
has  been  regarded  as  curial  mensa.  To  constitute  a  through  his  aconomus  or  his  deacons.  The  clergy 
mensa  in  the  canonical  sense,  therefore,  it  is  not  received  a  portion  of  the  revenues  of  this  propertjr, 
enough  that  a  certain  portion  of  chureh  property  be  sometimes  fixed  (one-fourth  in  Italy,  one-third  m 
appropriated  to  the  maintenance  of  the  clergy  (for  in  Spain;  see  the  collected  texts,  c.  23-30,  C,  XII,  q.  ii; 
that  case  every  benefice  would  be  a  mensa,  which  is  c.  1-3,  C,  X,  q.  iii),  sometimes  left  to  tin  equitable  de- 
untrue) ;  it  is  necessary  that  there  be  a  partition  made  cision  of  the  bishop.  Soon  the  churches  outside  of  the 
in  the  property  of  one  particular  church  so  as  to  episcopal  city  had  distinct  administrations  of  their 
appropriate  certain  property  to  the  maintenance  of  own,  and  the  wealth  appropriated  to  religious  worship 
the  prelate  or  rector,  or  of  the  clergy  subject  to  him;  or  to  the  support  of  tne  clergy  was  regarded  as  their 
it  follows,  therefore,  that  the  administration  of  this  property.  After  the  fifth  century  we  find  bishops 
property  oelongs  to  those  who  enioy  it.  granting  to  certain  clerics  church  property,  bv  way  of 

Thus  the  bishop,  the  secular  abbot,  the  chapter,  the  "precarium",  i.  e.  property  revocable  at  will,  whidi 
religious  commumty,  administer,  each  within  appro-  such  derics  used  for  their  own  support.  So  long  as  the 
priate  limits,  the  property  of  their  respective  mensse,  bishop,  the  abbot,  or  the  rector  of  the  chureh  remained 
without  being  liable  to  any  accounting  for  the  employ-  faithfully  in  resiaence  and  discharged  his  ecclesiasti- 
ment  of  its  revenues;  this  is  true  of  the  parish  priest  cal  fimctions.  there  was  no  reason  for  surrendering  to 
who  has  a  curial  mensa.  The  other  resources  of  the  the  inferior  clergy,  or  the  monks,  a  part  of  the  ecdesi- 
cathedral  or  parish  church,  or  monastery,  destined  for  astical  wealth  that  they  might  tnence  draw  their  sup- 
religious  worship,  pious  works,  the  maintenance  of  port.  But  when  the  early  Carlovingians,  espedal^ 
buildings,  etc.,  are  subject  to  the  general  or  special  Charles  Blartel,  habitually  gave  abbe3rs  and  cnurchea 
rules  for  the  administration  of  church  property,  to  their  companions  in  arms,  and  when  bishops  nomi- 
whether  this  be  done  by  church  committees,  trustees,  nated  by  royal  favour  ceased  to  reside  habitually  at 
or  other  administrative  organ,  or  by  the  rector  of  the  their  sees,  there  arose  a  kind  of  division  and  opposition 
ehureh  as  sole  administrator;  in  all  cases  an  accounting  between  the  prelate,  abbot,  or  bishop  and  tne  corn- 
is  due  to  the  bishop  and.  iii  general,  to  the  eodesiasti-  munity  of  monks  or  derics,  who  were  on  more  than 
cal  authorities,  for  the  aaministration  of  such  property  one  occasion  left  in  want  bv  greedy  or  negligent  supe- 
and  for  the  uses  to  which  all  the  revenues  and  re-  riors.  The  remedy  for  this  was  the  institution  of 
sources  accruing  may  have  been  put,  whereas  no  one  is  mensee. 

accountable  for  the  use  of  his  mensal  property.   There  To  secure  what  was  necessary  to  the  community, 

are,  however,  some  exceptions  to  this  pnndple.  Since  the  beneficiary  was  compelled  to  reserve  for  its  use  a 

mensse,  particularly  episcopal  mensse,  are  legal  enti-  suffident  portion  of  the  property  of  the  church  or  mon- 

ties,  property  and  foundations  have  m  the  course  of  astery.    Thus  the  superior  s  administration  was  made 

centuries  often  been  annexed  to  them  for  purposes  lighter  for  him,  while  ne  could  enjoy  in  peace  and  quiii 


MBNSINa                              195  MENTAL 

thebskDoe  of  the  property  reserved  for  his  own  proper  knowledge  and  remarkable  command  of  the  Gennao 
use  (tfiimmmoatum);  on  the  other  hand  the  commu-  language  made  him  one  of  the  foremost  oontroversial- 
nit^  gained,  besides  material  security,  a  renovation  of  ists  of  the  first  half  of  the  sixteenth  century.  A  com- 
religious  life,  since  material  privation  was  inevitably  a  plete  list  of  his  works,  all  of  which  bear  a  polemical 
cause  of  relaxation  of  discipline.  The  Garlovin^ian  tinge,  is  given  by  Streber  in  the  '^  Kirchenlesokon". 
refonns,  notably  those  of  Louis  the  Pious,  were  chiefly  Quferw^ECTARD,  SS.  Ord.  Prod.,  n.  84;  Paulus,  Di^dmd- 
je^Ue  f or  the  e8tabMm|«it  of  mens,  properly  ^^P^^ll^:E.£Sii^l'^i^7^^'^  "^^' 
imposed  and  regulated  m  regard  to  monasteries;  as  to  Joseph  Schboedeb. 
cathedrals  the  mensa  was  more  commonly  a  benevo- 
lent concession  on  the  part  of  the  bishop,  who  in  this  Mental  BeB6rvation»  the  name  applied  to  a  doo- 
way  fostered  commmuty  life  Mta  cananica)  among  trine  which  has  grown  out  of  the  common  Catholic 
his  clergy.  This  oommuni^  life  becoming  more  and  teaching  about  lying  (q.  v.)  and  which  is  its  comple- 
more  rare  after  the  end  <h  the  ninth  century,  each  ment.  According  to  the  common  Catholic  teaching  it 
canon  received  his  own  shue  of  the  mensal  revenues —  is  never  allowable  to  tell  a  lie^  not  even  to  save  human 
his  ''prebend".  Later  on,  indeed,  the  canons  often  life^  A  lie  is  something  intrunically  evil,  and  as  evO 
had  the  separate  administration  of  their  respective  may  not  be  done  that  good  may  come  of  it,  we  are 
properties,  either  as  the  result  of  partition  or,  more  never  allowed  to  tell  a  lie.  However,  we  are  also  imder 
particularly^  in  pursuance  of  provisions  made  in  an  obli^tion  to  keep  secrets  faithfully^  and  sometimes 
the  foundation.  The  mensse,  of  whatever  character,  the  easiest  way  of  fulfilling  that  duty  is  to  sav  what  is 
ivere  fegaQy  capable  of  acquiring  additions.  It  was  false,  or  to  tell  a  lie.  Writers  of  all  creeds  and  of  none, 
through  them  tnat  church  property,  intended,  as  be-  both  ancient  and  modern,  have  frankly  accepted  this 
(ore  the  division,  not  only  for  the  support  of  the  clergy,  position.  They  admit  the  doctrine  of  the  lie  of  neces- 
but  for  all  religious  and  charitable  works,  was  re-  sity,  and  maintain  that  when  there  is  a  conflict  be- 
established.  tween  justice  and  veracity  it  is  justice  that  should 


.WS*Jf^iS"/SJ4SS^(?^!"^,1^  tited  tto  theory  of  inentel  reeervation  as  a  means  l^ 

TBoiKAflaiN,  VHtu  a  nova  diaciplina,  pan.  Ill,  Ub.  u;  SIoicOl-  which  the  clauns  of  both  justice  and  veracity  can  be 

LEH.  Lekri>ueh  dea  kathoL  Kirchmrechu  (Freibure  im  Breisgau.  satisfied.   The  doctrine  was  broached  tentatively  and 

1909).  244.  874;  Taunton.  Lata  of  the  Church  (London,  1906),  -_:j.u  ^^^^f  HiffiHpniw  hv  St   RAvmiinH  nf  Ppnnaforf 

I.  ▼.;  see  Bknbvicb;  Pkopbrty,  EccLiaiAawcAu  Iv^^^   aunaence  py  oz.  naymuna  oi  rennaioix. 

A   BouDmHON  ^^  ^^  wnter  on  casuistry.   In  his ''  Summa "  (1235) 


LEH.  L«4r6ueA  dea  keuhoL  Kirehmrechu  (Freibure  im  Breisgau.  satisfied.   The  doctrine  was  broached  tentatively  and 

1909).  244.  874;  Taunton.  Lav>ofthe  Church  (Condon,  l^).  ^^^  great  diffidence  by  St.  Raymund  of  Pennafort 

the  first  writer  on  casuistry.   In  his ''  Summa  "  (1235] 
St.  Raymtmd  quotes  the  saying  of  St.  Augustine  that 

MmuiDg  (Mbnsingx).  John,  theologian  and  cele-  a  man  must  not  sla^  his  own  soul  bv  lying  in  order  to 

brated  opponent  of  Lutner,  b.  according  to  some  at  preserve  the  life  of  another,  and  that  it  would  be  a 

Zutphen,  Holland,  but  more  probably  at  Magdeburg,  most  perilous  doctrine  to  admit  that  we  may  do  a  less 

Saxony,  date  unknown;  d.  about  1541.    In  1495  he  evil  to  prevent  another  doing  a  greater.    And  most 

entered  the  Dominican  Order  and  made  part  of  his  doctors  teach  this,  he  says,  though  he  allows  that 

theologicail  studies  in  the  studium  of  his  province,  others  teac^  that  a  lie  shoiild  be  told  when  a  man's  life 

Matriculating  at  the  university  of  Wittenberg  in  1515,  is  at  stake.    Then  he  adds:  "  I  believe,  as  at  present 

he  received  there  in  1517  the  licentiate  in  theology,  advised,  that  when  one  is  asked  by  muidererB  bent  on 

and  the  following  year  received  in  Frankfort-on-the-  tsJdng  the  life  of  someone  hiding  m  the  house  whether 

Oder  the  doctorate  in  theologv  from  the  hands  of  the  he  is  in,  no  answer  should  be  given;  and  if  this  betrays 

general  of  his  order.    Accoraing  to  the  Dominican  him.  his  death  "mil  be  imputable  to  the  murderers,  not 

historian,  Qu^tif,  he  taught  theology  in  1514  in  the  to  tne  other's  silence.    Or  he  may  use  an  equivocal 

monastery  at  Ulm,  but  it  is  highly  improbable  that  expression,  and  say '  He  is  not  at  home ',  or  something 

Hensing,  belonging  to  the  province  of  Saxony,  should  like  that.   And  this  can  be  defended  by  a  great  num- 

aet  as  professor  in  another  province  which  had  no  ber  of  instances  fotmd  in  the  Old  Testament.    Or  he 

duditan  qeneraU  of  its  own.    He  lived  at  a  time  when  may  say  simply  that  he  is  not  t^ere,  and  if  his  con- 

eoDtroversy  was  rife,  when  men,  abandoning  beaten  science  tells  nim  that  he  ought  to  say  that,  then  he 

paths^  began  to  set  up  systems  of  their  own.    The  will  not  speak  against  his  conscience,  nor  will  he  sin. 

hereticsd  teachingB  of  the  reformere  spread  rapidly  Nor  is  St.  Augustine  really  opposed  to  any  of  these 

throughout  Germany.    No  province  seemed  exempt  methods."   Such  expressions  as, "  He  is  not  at  home  ", 

from  the  invasions  of  Luther  s  emissaries.  To  prevent  were  called  equivocations,  or  amphibologies,  and  when 

these  doctrinal  innovations  from  gaining  a  foothold  in  there  was  good  reason  for  using  them  their  lawfulness 

his  province,  Mensing  zealously  entered  into  all  the  was  admitted  by  all.    If  the  j)erson  inouired  for  was 

ooQtroversies  with  the  sectaries.    From  1522  to  1524  really  at  home,  but  did  not  wish  to  see  tne  visitor,  the 

he  occupied  the  pulpit  in  the  cathedral  of  Magdeburg,  meaning  of  the  phrase,  "He  is  not  at  home",  was 

where  1^  also  composed  his  first  apologetic  works  on  restricted  by  the  mind  of  the  speaker  to  this  sense, 

the  Sacrifice  of  the  Mass.   Notwithstanding  his  efiforts,  **  He  is  not  at  home  for  you,  or  to  see  you  "•    Hence, 

the  boldness  of  the  enemy  forced  him  to  leave  and  seek  equivocations  and  amphibologies  came  to  be  called 

other  fields  dt  labour.    Upon  the  invitation  of  the  mental  restrictions  or  reservations.^  It  was  commonly 

Princess  Margaretha  von  Anhalt.  who  ruled  during  the  admitted  that  an  equivocal  expression  need  not  neces- 

mmority  of  her  sons,  he  proceeded  to  Dessau  to  sup-  sarily  be  used  when  the  words  of  the  speaker  receive  a 

port  her  in  her  efforts  against  heresy  in  her  territory,  special  meaning  from  the  circumstances  in  which  he  is 

in  1529  he  was  professor  in  the  Umversity  of  Frank-  placed,  or  from  the  position  which  he  holds.   Thus,  if 

fort-on-the-Oder  and  preacher  in  the  cathedral.    The  a  confessor  is  asked  about  sins  made  known  to  him  in 


teetioQ  tot  ^ba  Dominican  Order  in  (jlennany  whic^  know  as  man  ",  or  "  I  have  no  knowledge  of  the  matter 

Charles  IV  had  granted  them  in  1355  and  1359.    In  which  I  can  communicate".  All  Catholic  writen  were, 

1534  he  was  elected  provindal  of  his  own  province,  but  and  are^  agreed  that  when  there  is  good  reason,  such 

before  the  termination  of  his  office  Paul  III  made  him  expressions  as  the  above  may  be  made  use  of,  and  that 

soffraean  Bishop  of  Halberstadt.  In  1540  and  1541  he  they  are  not  lies.   Those  who  hear  them  may  under- 

fttt^ided  the  theological  conferences  of  Worms  and  stand  them  in  a  sense  which  is  not  true,  but  their  self- 

Hatisbon,  where  with  Eck,  the  vice-chancellor  of  the  deception  may  be  permitted  by  the  speaker  for  a  good 

Univeratty  of  Ingolstadt,  and  Pelar^,  he  took  a  lead-  reason.    If  there  is  no  good  reason  to  the  contrary, 

log  part  m  the  deliberations.    His  vast  theological  veracity  requires  ^  to  speak  frankly  uid  openly  m 


lUMTlUN  196  lUMZOn 

such  a  w&v  fts  to  be  understood  by  those  who  are  ad-  goldsmiths*  guilds.  It  was  as  an  illuminator  that  h0 
dressed.  A  sin  is  committed  if  mental  reservations  are  became  connected  with  printing;  and  he  received  his 
used  without  just  cause,  or  in  cases  in  which  the  ques-  printer's  training  at  Mainz;  he  began  printing  at 
tioner  has  a  right  to  the  naked  truth.  In  the  suteenth  otrasburg  before  1460.  ^  His  establishment  at  once  de- 
century  a  further  development  of  this  commonly  re-  veloped  great  activity;  in  a  few  vears  it  produced  quite 
ceived  doctrine  began  to  be  admitted  even  by  some  a  number  of  immense  folio  volumes  with  a  masterly 
theologians  of  note.  We  shall  probably  not  be  far  finish.  He  also  procured  the  sale  of  his  prints  by 
wrong  if  we  attribute  the  change  to  the  very  difficult  means  of  printed  catalogues.  These  "publisher's 
political  circumstances  of  the  time  due  to  the  wars  of  catalogues  have  proved  a  very  valuable  means  of 
religion.  Martin  Aspilcueta.  the  "Doctor  Navarrus",  identifying  and  ascertaining  facts  about  Mentelin's 
as  he  was  called,  was  one  of  tne  first  to  develop  the  new  prints,  because  he  usually  appended  neither  name, 
doctrine.  He  was  nearing  the  end  of  a  long  life,  and  place  nor  date  to  his  works.  His  type  is  nearly  always 
was  regarded  as  the  foremost  authority  then  living  on  conspicuous  as  being  a  simplified  Gothic  round-hand 
canon  law  and  moral  theology,  when  he  was  consulted  (the  minuscule  used  in  the  books  of  the  period), 
on  a  case  of  conscience  by  the  Fathers  of  the  Jesuit  Though  they  cannot  compare  either  in  design  or  tech- 
college  at  Valladolid.  The  case  sent  to  him  for  solu-  nical  finish  with  those  of  Gutenberg  and  SchOffer,  they 
tion  was  drawn  up  in  these  terms:  "  Titius,  who  pri-  are  not  without  some  original  features  especially  m  the 
vately  said  to  a  woman, '  I  take  thee  for  my  wife ',  capital  letters,  which  occur  both  in  flourishing  Gothic 
without  the  intention  of  marrying  her^  answered  the  and  in  the  simple  Roman  lapidarv  st>rle.  Of  his  larger 
judge  who  asked  him  whether  he  had  said  those  words,  printed  works,  about  30  in  number,  including  at  least 
that  he  did  not  say  them,  understanding  mentally  that  35  large  folio  volumes,  the  following  are  the  most  con- 
he  did  not  say  them  with  the  intention  of  marrying  the  spicuous:  the  Latin  edition  of  the  Bible  of  1460,  and 
woman."  Navamis  was  asked  whether  Titius  told  a  1463;  the  German  Bible,  about  1466;  also  the  first  edi- 
lie,  whether  he  had  committed  perjury,  or  whether  he  tions  of  the  writings  of  St.  Augustine,  St.  Chrysostom. 
committed  any  sin  at  all.  He  drew  up  an  elaborate  St.  Jerome,  Aristotle,  Isidore,  and  the  "Canon"  of 
opinion  on  the  case  and  dedicated  it  to  the  reigning  Avicenna.  The  business  was  carried  on  bv  his  son-in- 
pontiff,  Gregory  XIII.  Navamis  maintained  thatTi-  law  Adolf  Rusch,  and  afterwards  by  Johann  PrOss. 
tins  neither  lied,  nor  committed  perjury,  nor  any  sin  Although  Mentelin  cannot  be  reckoned  the  inventor  of 
whatever,  on  the  supposition  that  he  had  a  good  rea-  the  art  of  printing  books,  as  his  grandson  Johann 
son  for  answering  as  he  did.  This  theory  became  Schott  claimed  in  1521,  he  was  nevertheless  one  of  the 
known  as  the  doctrine  of  strict  mental  reservation,  to  most  skilful  of  the  early  typographers. 

distinguish  it  from  wide  mental  reservation  with  which         ScHiaiyr,  Oeaeh.  der  dUut.  BiMiotheken  und  der  ersUn  Bueh' 

we  have  thus  far  been  occupied.  In  the  strict  mental  d^^fuStroBMbury  (1882);  AUo.  deuueh,  Biog.,  XXI  (Leipsis. 
reservation  the  speaker  mentaUy  adds  some  qualifica-  '  Heinrich  Wum.  Wallau. 

tion  to  the  words  which  he  utters,  and  the  words  to- 
gether with  the  mental  quaJification  make  a  true  asser-        Menrini,  Benbdetto;  priest  and  poet,  b.  at  FIop- 

tion  m  accordance  with  fact.   On  tiie  other  hand,  m  a  ^        ^^^  ^  ^^  i^       7  g^^    17Q4  *-  ^^  j^^^i    ^e- 

wide  mental  reservation,  ^e  qualification  comes  from  ^  ^    ^^  ^^   gave  himsSlf  up  to  teaching,  bebom- 

the  ambigmty  of  the  words  themselves,  or  from  the  ^  Vp^fe8sor  of  beUes-lettres  at  FlorencI  and  at 

curcumstances  of  tune,  place,  or  person,  m  which  ti^ey  ^^^     He  was  aheady  in  Holy  Orders.    In  1681  he 

are  uttered.   The  opimon  of  Navarrus  was  received  as  failed  to  obtam  the  chair  of  rhetoric  in  the  University 

probable  by  such  contemporary  theologians  of  differ-  ^f  Piaa  partly  because  of  the  jealousy  of  other  clerics, 

ent  sdiools  as  Salon,  Savers  Suarez  and  Lessius.  The  ^nd  partly  because  of  the  acnmony  constantly  shown 

Jesuit  theologian  San^z  formulated  it  m  clear  and  by  \5m  in  his  words  and  acta,    hi  1685  he  Vent  to 

distinct  terms,  and  added  the  weight  of  his  authonty  j^nie  and  enjoyed  the  favour  of  Queen  Christina  of 


S^^^  w«w  «vr^w*-*^,  ««  ^*v*  ^^^^,  .^.w.,  «««  *^'^"""'\","  Of  rnetonc  m  one  of  tne  institutions  of  tne  city  of 

1  ^^wu  ?*     u*    -"^y^^  «**^7«  at  conaiderable  j^^^     Following  the  models  provided  by  the  poems 

length  that  such  reservations  are  lies.    For  tl^t  n^n  ^j  chiabrera  and  Testi,  Menzfni  wrote  his  Pindaric 

teUs  a  he  who  makes  use  of  words  which  are  fal^^^  "CanzonieroicheemoraH"  (1674-80).   Theseobserve 

tiiemtentionof  deceivmganother.    Andthisis whatw  ^he  Greek  division-strophe,  antistrophe,  and  epode, 

done  when  a  strict  mental  reservation  is  made  use  of.  „„^  ^«„i  «;+k  «,k;^^o  4.k-*  J,^^  -i„^  JL^I^^^  ♦i^TT*' 
The  words  uttered  do  not  express  the  tn 
to  the  speaker.    They  are  at  variance 

therefore  they  constitute  a  lie.   The  opini  ^  .^nwc^*.  w*  **«  «5.    *«= 

rus  was  freely  debated  m  the  schcx>ls  f or  some  years,  Z^Trhe  p^m'^lTParadiso  terrestre "  is  ahnost  a 

and  It  was  a<rted  upon  by  some  of  the  Cathohc  con-  continuation  of  the  "  Mondo  create  "  of  Tasso,  Men- 

fessors  of  the  Faith  m  England  m  the  difficidt  (arcum-  ^j^i^g  favourite  poet.    In  the  "  Academia  Tusculana  ", 

stances  m  which  th^  were  frequently  pla<»d.   It  was,  j^  mingled  prose  and  verse,  he  introduces  leading 

however   condemned  as  fonn^at«d  by  Sanchez  by  sphite  of  the  time,  who  discuss  subjecte  of  many 

Innocent  XI  on  2  March,  1679  (propomtions  xxvi,  g^^^s.    The  pastoral  note  was  struck  by  him  with  no 

??yu  V  ^™^  *™  ^u^^Tf^^S^'^^u    1  ?S'^  ®®®  °*  little  success  in  his  "Sonetti  pastorali",  and  in  his 

Cathohc  theologian  has  defended  the  lawfuhiess  of  "Canzonette  anacreontiche"  he  produced  a  number 

^S!?*T??3SiSlT^^^i*^*    •,   ^  m        ,Al«^.  A.«,  of  graceful  little  lyrics.    Perhaps  the  most  famous 

cuETA.  Opem  omnia  (Venice.  1618);  Sascb^.  In  Decaiogum  work  of  Menzim  IS  his  satuw,  somc  thirteen  m  num- 

(Antwexp.  1631);  Latmank,  Thwloffia  moralia  (Munich,  1634);  ber,  in  which  he  assails  m  acnd  terms  the  hypocrisy 

6lat.Ii,  iianval  o/Maml  Th^loffu,  I  (New  York.  1908).  prevailing  in  Tuscany  in  the  last  years  of  the  Medici 

1.  SLATER.  j^jg^    Jq  lijj^Q  fashion  he  lashes  in  nis  "Arte  poetica" 

--^ s.^u^  f\r  NT  I.       i^i/xjiA  the  artificiality  and  the  uncouthness  of  the  versifiers 

Mente^  (Mbntbl),  Johannes,  b.  c.  1410;  d.  12  ^f  ^g  time. 

Itec,  1478;  an  enunent  German  typographer  of  the        Op«r«  (4  vols.. Florence.  1731);  5o«ra(Am8terdani.  1728)  and 

fifteenth  century,  and  the  first  pnnter  and  bookseller  Borghini,  III  (i876);  Paolucci.  Vita  di  BenedtUo  Menxini 

at  Strasburg  (Alsace).    He  belonged  to  a  respected  (floMee,  1732);  Mxafma,  S^ioenHnm  Be^^ 

familyat^SchlettBtadt.    After  1447  he  ^  a  fgold-  tei^^'FT?"«^i4LTfe,^o7£SU,{?.S*s3S;? 

Bchreiber"  (illuminator)  at  Strasburg,  where  he  be-  rim^eUUertteelUdi  Benedetto  MefmniiF]oTeace,l87 A), 
came  a  burgess  and  member  of  the  painters'  and  J.  D.  M.  Fobd. 


Mercadtfy  Eustache,  French  dramatic  poet  of  the  tatter's  suppression,  disturbed  the  peace  of  the  ordeK 
fifteenth  century.  The  dates  of  his  birth  and  death  Christopher  Columbus  took  some  members  of  the 
are  not  known.  In  1414  he  was  official  of  the  Abbey  of  Order  of  Mercy  with  him  to  America,  where  they 
Corbie  near  Amiens.  According  to  a  document  that  foimded  a  great  many  convents  in  Latin  America, 
has  been  discovered  quite  recently,  he  was  removed  throughout  Mexico,  Cuba,  Brazil,  Peru,  Chile,  and 
from  his  office  in  1427  but  was  reinstated  in  1437,  in  Ecuador.  These  formed  no  less  than  eight  provincesi 
accordance  with  a  decision  of  the  court  of  the  Ch&telet  whereas  they  onlv  had  three  in  Spain  and  one  in 
which  was  ratified  by  the  Parliament  of  Paris  on  2  France.  Tms  order  took  a  very  active  part  in  the 
May,  1439.  Martin  Franc,  or  "le  Franc",  who  wrote  conversion  of  the  Indians.  At  the  beginning  of  the 
in  the  middle  of  the  fifteenth  century,  mentions  Mer-  seventeenth  century  Father  Gomsales,  who  h^  made 
cad4  as  one  of  the  most  famous  "rhetoricianr."  of  the  his  profession  at  the  convent  of  Olmedo  in  1573,  con- 
time.  In  the ''Mysterv"  that  he  composed,  the  author  oeived  the  idea  of  a  reform,  at  that  time  necessary, 
is  mentioned  on  the  back  of  the  last  but  one  sheet:  The  commander-general,  Alfonso  de  Montoy,  at  first 
Ustasse  Mercade,  Docteur  en  decret,  Bachelier  en  supported  this  scheme,  but  ended  by  opposing  it.  In 
thfologie,  Official  de  Corbie.  The  complete  title  of  the  this  undertaking  Gonzales  was  assisted  by  the  Coun- 
Mystery  to  which  he  has  attached  his  name  is:  ''La  tess  of  Castellan,  who  obtained  for  him  the  necessary 
Vie,  la  Passion  et  la  Vengeance  de  J^sus  Christ."  It  is  authorization  from  Clement  VIII,  and  presented  him 
kept  in  the  Ubranr  of  Arras  under  No.  625;  the  last  with  three  convents  for  his  reformed  monks  (at  Vise, 
part  only,  or  the  Vengeance,  should  be  considered  as  Diocese  of  Seville;  Almoragha,  Diocese  ot  Cadiz: 
the  work  of  Mercade.  It  contains  312  characters,  of  Ribas).  The  reform  was  coimrmed  at  the  provincial 
whom  112  have  a  speaking  part.  chapter  of  Guadalajara  in  1603.    Father  Gonzales 

Petit  db  Jijuxtiuj!.  Lff  ^»«%»„(Pt™4^^^iL5*!?S:  took  the  name  of  John  Baptist  of  the  Blessed  Sacra- 

'J^^I^^'S^PiSJS^  ment,  and  died  at  Madrid  &  1618.    Paul  V  approved 

P.  J.  Marique.  his  reform  in  1606;  in  1621  Gregory  XV  declared  it 

Itector.  M^s.    See  M^s  Mi^ctok.  ^^^^^^^ S^^o'^r^^^i?^^^^ 

Mercedaxians  (Order  op  Our  Lady  op  Mercy),  Madrid,  Salamanca,  Seville,  and  AlcalA,  with  a  few 

a  oongr^ation  of  men   founded   in   1218   by   St.  foundations  in  Sicily. 

Peter  NoIbisco,  b.   1189,  at  Mas-des-Saintes-Puelles,  Fatter  Antoine  Velasco  founded  a  convent  of  nims 

Department  of  Aude,  France.    Joining  Simon  de  of  Our  Lady  of  Mercy  at  Seville  m  1568,  of  which  the 

Montf  ort's  army,  then  attacking  the  Albigenses,  he  was  first  superioress  was  Blessed  Anne  of  the  Cross.    This 

appointed  tutor  to  the  young  kmg,  James  of  Aragon,  f oimdation  had  been  authorized  by  Pius  V.    The  re- 

who  had  succeeded  to  the  throne  after  the  death  of  his  formed  branch  also  established  houses  of  barefooted 


city  had  formed  a  confraternitv  for  the  purpose  of  order  (1265).  Two  widows  of  Barcelona,  Isabd  Bert! 
caring  for  the  sick  in  the  hospitals,  and  also  for  rescu-  and  Eulalie  Peins,  whose  confessor  was  Blessed  Ber- 
ing Christian  captives  from  tne  Moors.  Peter  Nolasco  nard  of  Corbario,  prior  of  the  ry>nvent  there,  were  the 
was  requested  by  the  Blessed  Virgin  in  a  vision  to  foundresses.  They  were  joined  by  several  compan- 
found  a  religious  order  especially  devoted  to  the  ran-  ions,  among  them  St.  Mary  of  Succour  (d.  31  Decemb., 
som  of  captives.  His  confessor,  St.  Raymond  of  1281),  the  first  superior  of  their  community.  Blessed 
Pennafort,  then  canon  of  Barcelona,  encouraged  and  Mary  Anne  of  Jesus  (d.  1624),  founded  another  com- 
assisted  hun  in  this  project;  and  King  James  also  ex-  munity  of  tertiaries,  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  re- 
tended  his  protection.  The  noblemen  already  re-  formed  branch.  TheOrderof  Mercy  of  late  years  has 
ferred  to  were  the  first  monks  of  the  order,  and  their  much  decreased  in  membership.  The  restoration  of  the 
headquarters  was  the  convent  of  St.  Eulalie  of  Bai>  reformed  convent  at  Thoro,  Diocese  of  Zamora,  Spain, 
ceiona,  ere<jted  1232.  They  had  both  religious  in  holy  is  worthjr  of  note  (1888).  At  present  the  order  has 
orders,  and  lajr  monks  or  knights;  the  choir  monlu  one  province  and  one  vice-province  in  Europe,  and 
were  clothed  m  timic,  scapular,  and  cape  of  white,  four  provinces  and  two  vice-provinces  in  America. 
These  religious  followed  the  rule  drawn  up  for  them  with  thirty-seven  convents  and  five  to  six  hundred 
by  St.  Raymond  of  Pennafort.  The  order  was  ap-  members.  The  Meroedarian  convents  are  in  Pa- 
proved,  first  by  Honorius  III  and  then  by  Gregory  IX  lermo;  Spain;  Venezuela  (Caracas,  Maracaibo) ;  Peru 
(1230),  the  latter,  at  the  request  of  St.  Raymond  (Lima);  Chile  (Santiago);  Argentina  (Cordova,  Men- 
Nonnatus  presented  by  St.  Peter  Nolasco,  granted  a  doza) ;  Ecuador  (Quito) ;  and  Uruguay.  The  Meroe- 
Bull  oi  confirmation  and  prescribed  the  Rule  of  St.  darians  of  Cordova  publish  "Revista  Mercedaria". 
Augustine,  the  former  nue  now  forming  the  con-  Besides  the  foimder,  St.  Peter  Nolasco,  the  following 
stitutions  (1235).  St.  Peter  was  the  first  superior,  illustrious  members  of  the  order  may  be  mentioned: 
with  the  title  of  Commander-General;  he  abo  filled  St.  Raymond  Nonnatus  (d.  1240),  the  most  famous  of 
the  office  of  Ransomer,  a  title  given  to  the  monk  sent  the  monks  who  gave  themselves  up  to  the  work  of 
into  the  lands  subject  to  the  Moors  to  arrange  for  the  ransoming  captives;  Blessed  Bernard  of  Corbario,  al- 
ransom  of  prisoners.  The  holy  founder  died  in  1256,  ready  mentioned;  St.  Peter  Paschal,  Bishop  of  Jaen, 
seven  years  after  having  resigned  his  superiorship;  he  who  devoted  all  lus  energies  to  the  ransom  of  captives 
was  succeeded  by  Guillaume  Le  Bas.  and  the  conversion  of  the  Mussulmans,  martyred  in 
The  development  of  the  order  was  immediate  and  1300;  St.  Raymond  was  a  cardinal,  as  also  were  Juan 
widespread  throughout  France,  England.  Germanv,  de  Luto  and  Father  de  Salazar.  It  is  unnecessarjr  to 
Porti^al,  and  Spam.  As  che  Moors  were  driven  back,  enumerate  the  arehbishops  and  bishops.  Writers 
new  convents  of  Merey  were  established.  Houses  were  numerous,  especially  m  Spain  and  Latin  America 
were  founded  at  Montpeluer,  Perpignan,  Toulouse,  and  in  the  seventeenth  century.  To  mention  only  a  few: 
Vich.  This  aeat  number  of  houses,  however,  had  a  Alfonso  Henriquez  de  Aunendaris,  Bishop  of  Cuba, 
weakening  effect  on  the  unif onnitv  of  observance  of  who  had  founded  a  college  for  his  oixier  at  Seville,  ana 
the  rule.  To  correct  this,  Bernard  de  Saint-Romain,  from  whom  Philip  III  received  an  interesting  report  on 
the  third  commander-general  (1271),  codified  the  the  spiritual  and  temporal  condition  of  his  diocese  in 
decisions  of  the  general  chapters.  In  the  fourteenth  1623;  Alfonso  de  Monroy,  who  drew  up  the  constitu- 
oentury,  disputes  arising  from  the  rivalry  between  the  tions  of  the  reform,  and  was  a  bishop  in  America;  Al- 
eonvents  of  Barcelona  and  Puy,  and  from  the  discord  fonso  Ram6n,  theologian,  preacher,  and  annalist  of 
between  the  priests  and  knights,  which  ended  in  the  his  order;  Alfonso  Velisquez  de  Miranda  (1661),  who 


MBBCIEE                            19$  MSftCT 

took  a  ooDflideTable  part  in  political  afifairs;  Feraando  friends  at  Rome  that  he  was  persuaded  to  take  up  his 

de  Orio,  general  of  the  order,  who  translated  and  residence  there.    He  studied  the  old  classic  medical 

learnedly  commented  on  Tertullian's  treatise  "  De  writers  for  some  seven  vears  and  then  wrote  his  **  De 

Pcenitentia";  Fernando  de  Santiago  (1639),  one  of  the  arte  gsrmnastica".  in  which  he  gathered  ail  that  the 

favourite  preachers  of  his  time;  Francisco  Henrfauez;  ancients  had  taugnt  with  regard  to  the  use  of  natural 

Francisco  de  Santa  Maria;  Francisco  Zumel;  Gabriel  methods  for  the  cure  of  disease.    This  gave  him  a 

de  Adarzo  (1674),  theologian,  preacher,  and  states-  great  reputation  throughout  Europe.    Appreciation 

man;  Gabriel  T^llez  (1650),  dramatic  author;  Gaspar  of  it  by  the  Venetian  senators  led  to  his  chU  to  the 

de  T6rrez,  Bishop  of  the  Canary  Islands;  Pedro  de  chair  of  medicine  of  Padua  in  1569.    Here  he  devoted 

Ona,  whom  Phihp  III  sent  on  important  missions  himself  to  the  critical  study  of  the  works  of   Hippo- 

both  in  America  and  in  the  Kingdom  of  Naples.  crates.    His  exhaustive  monograph,  **  Censura  et  ais- 

Rai<6n,  Hiatoriapeneral  de  la  Orden  de  Nuealra  Sefiora  de  la  positio  operum  Hippocratis"  (Venice,  1583),  enhanced 

i!iSrtS<SSi.«^'B^'i^SS'*"J&;^^'K  CTrenutetion  «n|he  began  the  preparation  of  a 

eavtivorum,  2  vols.  (Palenno.  1619)  j  Sinao.  BvUaHum,  caUaiie  cntical  Study  of  Hippocrates  works  m  Greek  and 

ae  reffolia  Ordinia  aeata  Maria  Vxrginie  de  Mercede  (Barce-  Latin,  whlch  was  published  at  Venice,  1588.     In  the 

Ipna.  1696) ;  Pedro  db  Santa  Cmlia.  A«twXe»  <fo  loa  Dffc^  meantime  his  reputation  had  gone  abroad,  and  in  1573 

de  la  Orden  de  Nueatra  Sefiora  de  la  Merced,  2  vols.  (Madnd,  ***««*"""«  "«*>'K"««w*w*M««*svM^«k/*w«^,  *mu.^  ut  xvau 

1699) ;  Gam  t  Siumbll.  Bibliotkeca  mercedaria  TBaroelona,  he  was  called  to  Vienna  for  consultation  durmg  the  lll- 

1876);  ntuTOT,  Hietpire  deaordrea  monaatimtea.  Ill,  266--2m;  ness  of  Emperor  MaYJmilian.    The  emperor  was  so 

CuRBan.  HuL  ofBeltgu^  Ordera  iiiew  York,  iS96),lso-4,  pleased  with  his  service  that  he  made  him  Count 

J,  M.  Besse.  Palatine.    After  the  publication  of  furtiier  works  on 

the  medical  classics,  he  was  called  in  1587  to  the  chair 

Merder,  Louis-Honor^,  a  French  Canadian  states-  of  medicine  in  Bologna.    The  Grand  Duke  of  Tuscany 

man,  b.  15  October,  1840,  at  Iberville,  Quebec,  of  a  was  sparing  no  effort  to  increase  the  prestige  of  the 

family  of  farmers;  d.  30  October,  1894.    He  received  University  of  Pisa,  so  he  tempted  Mercurialis  to  accept 

his  classical  education  at  the  Jesuit  college,  Montreal,  the  chair  of  medicine  there  by  ^e  offer  of  a  salary  proo- 

and  prepared  for  the  Bar  in  the  employ  of  a  prominent  ably  the  largest  ever  paid  to  a  professor  up  to  this 

legal  firm  of  St-Hyacinthe,  acting  meanwhile  (1862),  time,  1800  gold  crowns  to  become  2000  crowns  after 

when  only  22,  as  editor  of  *'  Le  Courrier  de  St-Hya-  the  second  year.   He  remained  at  Pisa  till  his  seventy- 

cinthe".    His  views  were  then  opposed  to  the  confed-  fifth  year  when  he  retired  to  ForU.    His  great  merit  is 

eration  of  the  provinces,  which  ne  considered  as  the  hig  critical  study  of  the  ancient  medical  classics,  espe- 

death-blow  to  French  Canadian  influence.   In  his  later  cially  Hippocrates  and  his  disciples.    He  wrote  many 

years  he  inclined  towards  annexation  to  the  United  other  me<£cal  works  including  text  books  of  the  dis- 

States.    In  1873  Rouville  coimty  elected  him  for  the  eases  of  children,  of  women,  of  the  skin,  and  on  prao- 

Federal  Parliament;  and,  in  1881,  St-Hyacinthe  re-  tical  medicine;  all  of  which  were  widely  read  and  used 

turned  him  to  the  local  House  of  Assembly,  Quebec,  in  many  of  the  medical  schools  of  his  tune. 

The  general  indignation  caused  among  the  Canadians  Dietionnaire  hiaUn-iqtte  da  la  Mideeine  (Mods,  1778);  Bram- 

of  French  origin  by  the  execution  of  the  half-breed  fS^*  Suma  dOU  acoperu  faue  daaH  uomtm  iUiM<r»  Jiaiiani 

leader,  Louis  fiiel,  it  Regimi,  an  act  rightly  attributed  <^^»^'  ^^^^'  ^^^graphte  nUdu:auXFj^m4). 
to  Orange  fanaticism  and  vindictiveness,  orovided 

Mereier  with  the  opportunity  of  founding  the  National  Mercy,  Brothers  of  Our  Lady  op,  founded  at 

party  (1885)  which  comprised  elements  from  the  ranks  Mechlin  in  1839  by  Canon  J.  B.  Cornelius  Scheppera  for 

of  both  Liberals  and  Conservatives.   It  was  during  his  the  instruction  and  care  of  prisoners  and  of  the  sick. 

premiership  (1887  to  1892),  that  was  passed  the  fa-  They  were  invited  to  S.  Balbina  at  Perugia  by  Car- 

mous  Jesuit  Estate  Bill,  partly  indemnifying  the  dinal  Pecci,  afterwaids  Leo  XIII,  who  had  witnessed 

Society  for  the  properties  confiscated  by  the  British  their  work  while  he  was  nuncio  at  Brussels.    It  was 

Crown  after  the  cession  of  Canada.    It  was  Mereier's  at  his  instance  that  Pius  IX  confirmed  the  constitution 

honour  and  merit  to  have  brought  to  a  successful  con-  of  the  Brothers  in  1854.    In  1855  Cardinal  MitntiTwg 

elusion  the  negotiations  to  that  effect  pursued  under  invited  them  to  London,  where  they  have  undertaken 

his  predecessors  in  office — an  event  almost  unparal-  the  care  of  the  prisoners  in  Catholic  reformatories  and 

elled  in  modem  legiskttion,  and  to  which  the  Ottawa  are  also  occupied  with  the  education  of  the  children  of 

Federal  Parliament,  with  its  conservative  majority,  poor.    They  are  imder  simple  vows  and  the  term  of  the 

lent  its  concurrence.   His  devotedness  in  behalf  of  t!;e  novitiate  is  one  year.    They  wear  a  black  habit  and 

interests  of  his  former  teachera  proved  his  fidelity  and  scapular  with  a  brown  cross  on  the  breast, 

attachment  to  his  Alma  Mater.    In  recognition  of  this  AnuBVCBmit,  Die   Orden  und  Kongregationen,   m.   861; 

act  of  justice,  he  was  kniffhted  by  Leo  XIII.    A  vig-  ^»i*»  "uSm"*??*  *^  Religioua  Hauaea  of  Ortat  Brilam 

orous  and  redoubtable  debater  rather  than  an  elo-  C^ondon.  1903;,  6I.                     Blanche  M   Kxllt 
quent  orator,  Mereier  spoke  with  great  clearness  and 

force.  He  possessed  a  remarkable  talent  of  exposition  Mercy»  Corporal  and  Spiritual  Works  of. — 

and  argumentation,  which  gave  him  a  prominent  rank  Merey  as  it  is  here  contemplated  is  said  to  be  a  virtue 

in  the  Canadian  Bar.    Certain  utterances  in  some  of  influencing  one's  will  to  have  compassion  for,  and,  if 

his  published  speeches  imfortunately  betray  the  influ-  possible,  to  alleviate  another's  mitf  ortune.    It  is  ihe 

ence  of  a  reprehensible  school  of  thought  and  too  great  teaching  of  St.  Thomas  Aquinas  that  although  mercy 

intimacy  with  the  literatiu^  of  its  representative  is  as  it  were  the  spontaneous  product  of  charity,  yet  it 

minds.   The  Legislature  of  Quebec  has  voted  (1910)  a  is  to  be  reckoned  a  special  virtue  adequately  cGstin- 

monument  to  his  memory.  guishable  from  this  latter.    In  fact  the  Scholastics  in 

B^:S^^iSSA^^^S^i;^^^S^k^c'JSdJ[^  catalopiing  it  oa.^  itto  be  referable  to  the  «i«ality 

beo,  1894).  of  justice  mainly  because,  like  justice,  it  controls  rela- 

LiONEii  Lindsay.  tions  between  distinct  persons.    It  is  as  they  say  ad 

aUerum,   Its  motive  is  the  misery  which  one  discerns 

MercuxiaU,  Geronimo»  better  known  by  his  Latin  in  another,  particularly  in  so  far  as  this  condition  is 

name  Mereunalis,  famous  philologist  and,  physician,  deemed  to  be,  in  some  sense  at  least,  involuntary, 

b.  at  Forli,  30  September,  1530;  d.  there,  13  Novem-  Obviously  the  necessity  which  is  to  be  sucooured 

ber,  1606.    His  preliminary  studies  and  some  of  his  can  be  either  of  body  or  soul.    Hence  it  is  cua- 

medical  courses  were  taken  at  Bologna,  but  he  re-  tomary  to  enumerate   both   corporal  and  spiritual 

ceived  his  degree  at  Padua  and  then  settled  down  to  works  of  mercy.    The  traditional  enumeration   of 

practice  in  ForU.     He  was  sent  by  his  townfolk  on  a  the  corporal  works  of  mercy  is  as  follows:  (1)  To  feed 

political  mission  to  Paul  IV  and  made  such  good  the  hungry;  (2)  To  give  drink  to  the  thirsty;  (3)  To 


igg 

dotbe  fbe  naked;   (4)  To  harbour  the  harbourless;  Pennafort  established  the  Order  of  Our  Ladv  of  Ran- 

i5)  To  visit  the  flidc;   (6)  To  ransom  the  captive:  som.    Both  df  these  oommunities  had  as  their  chief 

7)  To  bury  the  dead.     The  spiritual  works   of  scope  the  recovery  of  Christians  who  were  held  captive 

merpy  are:   (1)  To  instruct  the  ignorant;   (2)  To  by  the  infidels.   In  the  religious  body  which  owes 

eoonael  the  doubtful;  (3)  To  admonish  sinners;  (4)  its  origin  to  St.  Peter  Nolasco,  the  members  todc  a 

To  bear  wron^B  patiently;  (6)  To  forgive  offences  will-  fourth  vow  to  surrender  their  own  persons  in  place  of 

ini^y;  (6)  To  comfort  the  afflicted;  (7)  To  pray  for  the  those  whom  they  were  not  otherwise  able  to  redeem 

living  flmd  the  dead.    It  will  be  seen  from  these  divi-  from  slaveiy. 

sioos  that  the  works  of  mercy  practically  coincide  with  Spiraoo.    The   Catechitm   Explained   (New   Totk.    ISOOl; 

the  various  forms  of  ahnsgivmg.    It  is  thus  that  St.  Y^^^*  '^^  %*'*f«^  ft«^  ^IS^^iH""^  ?SS7.'^^  ^^^^• 

Thomas  regards  them.   The  word  alms  of  course  is  a  SwnnM  SatuU  ThSna  CPam);  A.  Tro^Sb  Ai^xnkAB,  Summi 

oomiption  of  the  Greek  iknifwa^  (mercy).   The  do-  Theologica  (Tuzin,  1885). 

ingot  works  of  mercy  is  not  nierely  a  matter  of  exalted  Joseph  F,  Delant. 

ooonael;  there  is  as  well  a  strict  precept  imposed  both 

by  the  natural  and  the  positive  X)ivine  law  enjoining  Mercy.  Sistehs  of,  a  con^^regation  of  women 

their  performance.     That  the  natural  law  enjoins  founded  In  Dublin,  Ireland, 


in  1827,  by  Catherine 
works  of  mercy  is  based  upon  the  principle  that  we  are  Elisabeth  McAuley,  b.  29  September,  1787,  at  Stor- 
to  do  to  others  as  we  would  have  them  do  to  us.  manstown  House,  Countv  Dublin.    Descended  from 
Tbe  Divine  command  is  set  forth  in  the  most  strin-  an  ancient  and  distinguished  Catholic  family,  she  was 
^nt  terms  bv  Christ,  and  the  failure  to  comply  with  it  the  eldest  of  three  children.    At  a  time  when  Catholi- 
IS  visited  witQ  the  supreme  penalty  of  eternal  damna-  cism  was  crushed,  Mr.  McAuley  strove  as  much  as 
tioQ  (Biatt..  XXV,  41) :  "  Then  he  shall  say  to  them  also  was  possible  to  keep  the  faith  alive  in  those  who  had 
that  shall  be  on  his  left  hand:  Depart  from  me,  you  so  many  inducements  to  relinquish  it,  and  encased  in 
eursed,  into  everlasting  fire  which  was  prepared  for  the  many  charitable  works.    In  these  he  was  httle  as- 
devil  and  his  angels.  For  I  was  hungry,  aiid  you  gave  sisted  by  Mrs.  McAuley,  whose  charm  and  accomplish- 
me  not  to  eat:  I  was  thirsty,  and  you  gave  me  not  to  ments  made  her  a  favourite  in  society.    After  Mr. 
drink.    I  was  a  stranger,  and  you  took  me  not  in:  McAuley's  death  (1794)  the  pecimiary  affairs  of  the 
naked,  and  you  covered  me  not:  sick  and  in  prison,  family  became  so  mvolved  that  the  widow  sold  Stor- 
and  you  did  not  visit  me",  etc.   Here  it  is  true  there  manstown  House  and  removed  to  Dublin.    Here  ibe 
ismentiondirectlyandexplicitly  of  onl^r  the  corporal  family  came  so  completely  under  the  influence  of 
works  of  mercy.    As^  however,  the  spiritual  woncs  of  Protestant  fashionable  society  that  all,  with  the  ex- 
merey  deal  with  a  distre«  whose  relief  is  even  more  ception  of  Catherine,  became  Protestants.    She  re- 
imperative  as  well  as  more  effective  for  the  grand  pur-  vered  the  memory  of  her  father  too  greatly  to  em- 
pose  of  man's  creation,  the  injimction  must  be  sup-  brace  a  religion  he  abhorred.    Mrs.  McAulev  did  not 
posed  to  extend  to  them  also.    Besides  there  are  toe  long  survive  her  husband,  and  after  her  death  the 
plain  references  of  Christ  to  such  works  as  fraternal  orphans  passed  into  the  family  of  a  relative  who  in- 
eorrection  (Matt.,  xviii,  15)  as  well  as  the  forgiveness  vested  their  patrimony  for  their  benefit.    From  one 
of  injuries  (Matt.,  vi,  14).    It  has  to  be  remembered  relative  to  another  the  orphans  passed,  each  guardian 
however  that  the  precept  is  an  affirmative  one,  that  doing  all  in  his  power  to  strengthen  the  children  in  the 
is,  it  is  of  the  sort  which  is  always  binding  but  not  Protestant  religion.    Catherme,  however,  could  not 
always  operative,  for  lack  of  matter  or  occasion  or  be  induced  by  threats  or  promises  to  join  in  Protestant 
fitting  circumstances.    It  obliges,  as  the  theologians  worship,  for  she  clung  with  strange  pertinacity  to  the 
say,  semper  ted  non  pro  semper.  Thus  in  general  it  may  very  name  Catholic ;  out  having  no  one  to  consult  in 
be  said  that  the  determination  of  its  actual  obUgatoiy  her  doubts,  she  finally  became  unsettled  in  her  religious 
force  in  a  given  case  depends  largely  on  the  degtee  of  ideas.    Precocious  and  serious  beyond  her  years^  she 
distress  to  be  aided,  and  the  capacity  or  condition  of  grew  daily  more  alive  to  the  insecurity  of  her  spiritual 
tiie  one  whose  duty  m  the  matter  is  in  (question.  There  position,  and  finally  acceded  to  the  desires  of  her 
are  easily  recognisable  limitations  which  the  precept  friends  to  examine^  the  religion  she  saw  practised 
undergoes  in  practice  so  far  as  the  performance  of  tne  among  her  trulv  virtuous  relatives.    The  more  she 
eorpond  works  of  mercy  are  concerned.    These  are  read,  the  more  she  thought  and  studied,  the  stronger 
treated  in  the  article  on  Alms  and  Almsgiving  (q.  v.}.  her  doubts  in  regard  to  Protestantism  became.    Its 
Likewise  the  law  imoosing  spiritual  works  of  mercy  is  difisensions  and  contradictions,  the  coldness  and  the 
subject  in  individual  instances  to  important  reserva-  barrenness  of  its  spiritual  life,  repelled  her  and  all 
tioDs.  For  example,  it  may  easily  happen  that  an  alto-  thought  of  becoming  a  Protestant  died  away.    Cath- 
getherqiecial  measure  of  tact  and  prudence^  or,  at  any  erine  is  described  as  being  beautiful,  her  complexion 
rate,  some  definite  superiority  is  required  tor  the  di»-  was  very  fair,  her  eyes  blue,  and  her  hair  golden;  her 
dttjfge  of  the  oftentimes  difficult  task  of  fraternal  nature  was  singularly  unselfish,  amiable,  and  affec- 
oorrection.  Similarly  to  instruct  the  ignorant,  ooun-  tionate.    Though  several  advantageous  alliances  were 
ad  the  doubtful,  and  console  the  sorrowing  is  not  proposed,  nothing  could  induce  her  to  many. 
always  within  the  competency  of  every  one.   To  bear  llore  and  more  attracted  to  the  faith  of  her  father, 
wronn  patiently,  to  forgive  offences  willin^y,  and  to  Catherine  became  acquainted  with  Dean  Lub6  of  St. 
pray  for  the  living  and  the  dead  are  thin^  from  which  James'  Church.  Dublin,  and  Dr.  Betagh,  whose  friend- 
on  due  occasion  no  one  may  dispense  himself  on  the  ship  greatly  aided  her.   About  this  time  a  distant  rela- 
pk»  that  he  has  not  some  special  array  of  ^ts  re-  tive  oif  her  mother's,  returning  from  India,  purchased 
quired  for  their  observance.     Thev  are  evidently  Coolock  House,  a  few  miles  from  Dublin,  and  being 
within  the  reach  of  all.   It  must  not  oe  forgotten  that  attracted  by  Catherine's  appearance,  desired  to  adopt 
the  works  of  merpy  demand  more  than  a  humanitarian  her;  consequently,  in  the  year  1803  Catherine  removed 
basb  if  they  are  to  serve^  as  instruments  in  bringing  to  her  new  and  beautiful  home.     Catherine's  interior 
about  our  eternal  salvation.    The  proper  motive  is  disquietude  now  became  such  that  she  determined  to 
tndiiqiensable  and  this  must  be  one  drawn  from  the  follow  the  dictates  of  her  conscience.     She  sought  an 
supernatural  order.    Finally  it  is  interesting  to  note  interview  with  Rev.  Dr.  Murray,  afterwards  Arch- 
that  for  the  exercise  of  the  sixth  among  the  corporal  bishop  of  Dublin^and  shortly  after  was  received  into  the 
works  of  merpy  two  religious  orders  have  at  different  Church.    Her  kmd  guardians  allowed  her  to  practise 
times  in  the  history  of  the  Church  been  instituted.   In  the  charitable  worlm  to  which  she  felt  inclined  and 
the  year  1198  the  Trinitarians  were  founded  by  St.  even  provided  her  with  the  necessary  means;  but  they 
John  of  Matha  and  St.  Fehx  of  Valois,  andjust  twenty  were  so  opposed  to  everything  having  an  appearance 
jeua  lat^r  St.  F9t§r  NoJa^pQ  b^  9tt  iCaymond  o{  qC  Q^tt^oliQi^o  that  they  would  not  allow  a  crucifix. 


BBBCY                               200  MSBCT 

religious  pictiire,  or  any  pious  article  in  the  housei  nor  of  the  contemplative  and  the  active  life  neceesaiy  foi 

did  they  make  any  provision  for  fast  days.    Her  the  duties  of  the  congregation  called  forth  so  much 

sacrifices  and  prayers  were  rewarded  by  the  conver-  opposition  that  it  seemed  as  thoush  the  community, 

sion  of  Mrs.  Callahan,  on  her  death  bed;  and  in  1822  now  nimibering  twelve,  must  disband :    but  it  was 

Mr.  Callahan  also,  when  during,  was  duly  reconciled,  settled  that  several  of  the  sisters  should  make  their 

To  Catherine  he  left  his  entire  tortime.    She  inmiedi-  novitiates  in  some  approved  reli^ous  house  and  after 

ately  devised  a  system  of  distributing  food  and  cloth-  their  profession  return  to  the  msUtute  to  train  the 

ing  to  the  poor  who  flocked  to  CooIock  House,  and  her  others  to  religious  life.    In  June,  1830,  the  institute 

time  was  fuUy  devoted  to  these  works  of  charity,  to  received  from  Fope  Pius  VIII  a  Rescript  of  Indulgences 

visiting  the  sick  and  to  instructing  the  poor.    When  dated  23  May,  1830.    The  Presentation  Order,  whose 

Catherine  came  into  full  possession  of  ner  property,  rules  are  based  upon  those  of  St.  Austin,  seemed  the 

she  felt  that  God  requirea  her  to  do  something  per-  one  best  adapted  for  the  training  of  the  fint  novices  of 

manent  for  the  poor,  and  she  was  now  able  to  carry  the  new  coiupesation  and  Miss  Catherine  Mc Auley, 

out  her  early  visions  of  foimdinf  an  institution  in  Miss  Elisabetn  Barley,  and  Miss  Anna  Maria  Doyle  be- 

wbich  women  might,  when  out  of  work,  find  a  tern-  gan  their  novitiate  at  Ueorge's  Hill,  Dublin,  on  8*Sept.9 

porary  home.    In  this  imdertakin^  Rev.  Dr.  Blake  1830.    Ontheseconddayof  the  Octave  of  the  Immao- 

and  Kev.  Dr.  Armstrong  were  her  acTvisors.  ulate  Conception  1830  the  three  postulants  received 

After  some  deliberation,  these  clergymen  selected  the  habit  and  on  12  December,  1831,  Uiey  pronounced 
a  site  for  the  new  building  at  the  junction  of  lower  the  usual  three  vows  to  which  they  added  a  fourth, 
Baggot  and  Herbert  Streets,  Dublm,  and  in  June,  that  of  persevering  in  the  oonmgation  until  death. 
1824,  the  comer-stone  was  laid  by  the  Rev.  Dr.  Miss  McAuley.  now  known  as  Sister  Mary  Catherine, 
Blake.  As  Dr.  Blake  was  called  to  Rome  soon  after,  was  appointed  first  superior  of  the  congregation,  an 
the  Rev.  Edward  Armstrong  undertook  to  assist  her,  office  which  she  held  for  the  remainder  of  ner  life.  The 
but  died  before  the  work  was  completed.  On  the  office  of  superior  of  each  mother-house  of  the  con- 
feast  of  Our  Lady  of  Mercy,  24  September,  1827,  the  gregation  is  neld  for  three  years  except  in  the  case  of  a 
new  institution  for  destitute  women,  orphans,  and  foundress  when  it  may  be  held  for  six  years, 
poor  schools  was  opened  and  Catherine,  with  two  com-  The  costume  adoi)ted  b^  the  sisters  consists  of  a 
panions,  undertook  its  manaj^ment.  There  was  no  habit  of  black  material  falling  in  folds  from  the  throat 
idea  then  of  founding  a  religious  institution;  on  the  to  the  feet  and  lengthened  into  a  train  behind,  which  is 
contrary,  the  foundress's  plan  was  to  establish  a  worn  looped  up  except  in  the  chapel^  the  communitv- 
society  of  secular  ladies  who  would  spend  a  few  hours  room,  and  the  parlour.  The  habit  is  confined  to  the 
daily  m  instructing  the  poor.  Gradually  the  interior  waist  by  a  leather  girdle,  or  cincture,  from  which  de- 
life  of  these  associates  and  their  external  occupations  pends  a  black  rosary  with  the  ebony  cross  of  the  con- 
and  relations  became  too  much  like  the  monastic  life  gre^tion.  The  sleeves  are  long  and  wide  wit^  close- 
to  be  allowed  to  remain  under  secular  rule.  The  nttmg  imdersleeves  of  the  same  material  as  the  habit, 
ladies  had  already  assumed  a  sombre  dress  and  play-  The  veil  is  black,  long,  and  flowinfl^.  The  novices  wear 
fully  called  each  other  ''Sister";  moreover,  they  shorter  veils  of  white  cambric,  otnerwise  their  dress  is 
occasionally  took  a  meal  on  the  premises  and  even  at  the  same  as  that  of  the  professed  sisters.  Qiurch 
times  remained  over  night.  In  1828  the  archbishop  cloaks  of  white  woollen  material  are  worn  on  great 
permitted  the  stafiF  of  the  institute  to  assume  a  di&-  feasts  in  the  chapel  and  for  certain  ceremonies.  The 
tinctive  dress  and  to  publicly  visit  the  sick.  The  gimp  is  a  white  unen  collar,  very  deep  in  front.  The 
uniform  adopted  was  a  black  dress  and  cape  of  the  coif  is  of  white  linen.  The  rule  and  constitutions  of 
same  material  reaching  to  the  belt,  a  white  collar  and  a  the  congregation  were  not  completed  until  1834,  nor 
lace  cap  and  veil — such  a  costume  as  is  now  worn  by  approved  imtil  1835,  yet  they  contained  in  substance 
the  postulants  of  the  congregation.  In  the  same  year  only  that  which  had  been  observed  from  the  year 
the  archbishop  desired  Miss  McAuley  to  choose  some  1827.  The  basis  of  the  rule  was  that  of  St.  Austin  al- 
name  by  whicn  the  little  communltv  might  be  known,  thou{;h  circumstances  required  many  alterations  be- 
and  she  chose  that  of  **  Sisters  of  Mercy  ",  havuig  the  fore  its  appro vaL  Kingstown  was  the  first  place  out- 
design  of  making  the  works  of  mercy  the  distinctive  side  the  capital  in  which  a  house  of  the  oonsregation 
feature  of  the  institute.  She  was,  moreover,  desirous  was  opened,  and  outside  of  the  archdiocese  'niUamore 
that  'the  members  should  combine  with  the  silence  was  the  first  town  to  welcome  the  sisters.  In  1838, 
and  praver  of  the  Cannelite,  the  active  labours  of  a  at  the  sug^stion  of  Rev.  Peter  Butler  of  Bermondsey, 
Sister  of  Charity.  The  position  of  the  institute  was  some  English  ladies  came  to  Ireland  to  serve  a  novitiate 
anomalous,  its  members  were  not  bound  by  vows  nor  for  the  purpose  of  introducing  the  concretion  into 
were  they  restrained  by  rules  and  Dr.  Blake  held  a  England.  Upon  their  return,  Mother  M.  Oare  Moore 
consultation  with  the  archbishop  in  which  it  was  de-  was  appointed  the  superior  of  the  Bermondsey  Con- 
cided  that  the  Sisters  of  Mercy  must  declare  their  in-  vent.  Lady  Barbara  fhrro.  daughter  of  the  Catholic 
tentions  as  to  the  future  of  their  institute,  whether  it  Earl  of  Newbui^h,  was  the  nrst  one  to  be  received  into 
was  to  be  classed  as  a  religious  congregation  or  to  be-  the  new  congre^tion.  As  Sister  Mary  de  Sales,  she 
come  secularized.  The  associates  unanimously  de-  made  her  vows  m  1841  and  after  a  very  edifying  life 
cided  to  become  religious.    It  was  deemed  better  to  died  in  1849. 

have  this  congregation  unconnected  with  any  already  From  England  the  congregation  rapidly  spread, 

existing  community.  beginningwith  Guernsey,  one  of  the  Channel  Islands 

The  Sisters  of  Mercy  were  now  bound  to  the  labori-  (1868).    Throu|^  the  efforts  of  Bishop  Murdock,  the 

ous  duties  of  instructing[  the  ignorant,  visiting  the  sick  sisters  from  Limerick  opened  a  house  in  Glaseow 

and  imprisoned,  managing  hospitals,  orphanages,  and  (1849).    Under  the  patronage  of  Dr.  Brady.  Bishop 

homes  tor  distressed  women;  in  fact  to  every  work  of  of  Perth,  the  sisters  were  introduced  into  Australia 

mercy.    They  were  to  make  perpetual  vows,  observe  (1846).    Three  vears  later.  Bishop  Pompallier,  of  New 

choir,  and  spend  some  six  or  seven  hours  daily  in  Zealand,  brought  a  band  from  Carlow,  Ireland.    In 

spiritual  exercises  and  about  three  weeks  altogether  in  May,  1842,  at  the  request  of  Bishop  Flemminf,  a  small 

strict  retreat;  the  midsummer  retreat  proper  covering  colonv  of  Sisters  of  Mercy  crossed  the  AUantic  to 

eight  full  da}rs,  a  triduum  occupying  the  last  three  foimo.  the  congregation  at  St.  John's,  New  Foundland. 

days  of  each  year,  and  the  first  Sunday  of  every  month  In  September,  1843,  Bishop  O'Connor,  of  Pittsburg, 

except  two  beine  devoted  in  silence  to  a  preparation  Pennsylvania,  U.  S.  A.,  applied  to  Carlow  for  a  colony 

for  (^th.    On  Uie  Octave  of  the  Ascension  1829  the  of  Sisters  of  Mercy  for  his  diocese.    Seven  religious 

archbishop  blessed  tiie  chapel  of  the  institution  and  were  appointed  for  this  mission  of  whom  Mother 

<}edicatedittpOur]jadyof  Aierc^.    This  combination  Fn^Qcis  Wfuxi^  (se^  Wawe),  was  the  fint  superior- 


201 


MSBEDITfl 


On  the  22  December,  1843,  the  sisters  opened  the  first 
houae  of  the  congregation  in  the  United  States.  In 
1844  they  opened  the  parochial  school  attached  to  the 
cathedral.  In  1845  St.  Xavier's  Academy  and  Board- 
ing-school was  begun.  In  1846  the  sisters  took 
charge  of  the  orphans,  and  on  the  first  day  of  the  year 
1847  the  first  hospital  in  Western  Pennyslvania  was 
opened  mider  their  management.  In  1846  PittS" 
buiK  sent  out  its  first  foimdation  to  Chicago  under 
Mouier  M.  A^tha  O'Brien.  This  was  in  rcSdity  the 
second  house  of  the  congregation  asked  for  in  the 
United  States,  althou^  it  could  not  be  opened  until 
sevexal  months  after  the  New  York  conununl^  had 
croraed  the  ocean.  In  1850  at  the  request  of  Bishop 
O'Reilly  of  Pittsburg,  the  sisterr  opened  a  school  in 
Providence,  Rhode  Island.  This  state  was  considered 
the  most  bitter  opponent  of  Catholicism  in  the  Union, 
and  the  most  bitter  people  in  the  state  wero  thousht 
to  be  concentrated  m  its  capital;  accordingly  uiis 
foundation  called  for  heroic  souls,  and  one  of  me  fore- 
most of  these  was  Rev.  Mother  Warde,  who  had  just 
resigned  the  office  of  superior  in  the  Pittsburff  com- 
munity. In  1855  PittsDurg  sent  out  its  third  foim- 
dation to  Baltimore  at  the  solicitation  of  the  Rev. 
Edward  McColgan.  Towards  the  close  of  1845  Bbhop 
Hushes  of  New  York  applied  to  Baggot  Street,  the 
mother-house  of  the  entire  congregation,  for  sisters 
for  his  diocese.  This  was  a  difficult  request  to  grant, 
aa  that  house  had  been  greatly  diminished  bv  the 
maxiv  calls  made  upon  it.  The  bishop  was  re^rred 
to  Idfother  M.  Agnes  O'Connor,  who  had  gone  to  Eng- 
land for  the  purpose  of  opening  a  new  convent  there 
and  then  returning  to  Dublin.  Upon  her  consent  to 
return  with  the  bishop,  five  sisters,  a  novice,  and 
a  postulant  from  different  houses  formed  her  band. 
Airiving  in  New  York  Cit^,  14  May,  1846,  the  sisters 
found  a  temporary  home  in  Washington  Place;  but 
two  years  later  secured  a  larger  house  at  the  comer  of 
Houston  and  Mulberry  Streets.  In  1869  St.  Joseph's 
Industrial  Home  for  girls  was  opened  on  Madison 
Avenue,  comer  of  Eighty-first  Street.  They  have 
also  opened  a  Home  for  Boys  in  Tarrytown-on-the- 
Hudson  and  a  Home  for  Business  Women  in  West 
One  Hundred  and  Sixth  Street,  New  York  City.  Later 
the  community  moved  to  a  new  building  adjoining 
their  Industrial  Home  for  Girls  on  Madison  Avenue. 
From  New  York,  houses  have  been  established  in  St. 
Louis,  Brooklyn,  Worcester,  Greenbush  (now  Rensse- 
laer), and  in  Eureka,  California.  The  first  American 
postulant  to  enter  the  New  York  house  was  Josephine, 
second  daughter  of  Mother  Seton,  f oimdress  of  the  Sis- 
ters of  Charity  of  Emmitsburg,  Maryland.  In  1854 
the  Rev.  Hugh  Galladber  visited  Kinsale  Convent,  Ire- 
land, on  the  part  of  pishop  Allemany  to  procure  the 
Sisters  of  Mercy  for  his  diocese  of  San  Francisco,  Cali- 
fornia. Among  those  selected  for  this  mission  was 
Sister  Mary  Biaptist  Russell,  a  sister  of  Lord  Chief 
Justice  Russell  of  Killowen.  From  these  beginnings, 
the  Sisters  of  Mercy  have  spread  throughout  the  world. 
In  Irelimd,  England,  the  United  States,  in  Australia, 
New  Zealand,  Newfoimdland,  South  America,  Mexico, 
and  the  West  Indies  their  name  is  well  known. 

StaHstics, — Number  of  Sisters  of  Mercy  in  the 
United  Statec  of  America,  4732;  pupils  in  parochial 
6cho<^,  104,726;  o  phans  and  children  in  institutions, 
3834;  pupils  in  academies  and  high  schools,  9967; 
hospitals  conducted  by  Sisters  of  Mercy,  53;  orphan- 
ages, 67. 

AnnaU  of  tke  Sisten  of  Mercy;  Murpht,  Sketches  of  Irieh 
Nuftneriee  (London.  1866) ;  Carroll.  Life  of  Catherine  McA  tdey 
(London,  s.  d.);  Mbmbxr  of  thb  Order  of  Merct,  Life  of 
Catherine  MeAuley.  Mary  StanIBLAS  AUSTIN. 

Mercy,  Sisters  of,  of  St.  Borromeo,  originally  a 
pknis  association  of  ladies  formed  in  1626  for  the  care 
of  the  sick  in  the  hospital  of  St.  Charles  at  Nancy,  but 
eonstituted  a  religious  community  in  1652  after  being 
generously  endowied  by  the  father  of  Emmanuel  Chau- 


venel,  a  young  advocate  who  had  given  his  life  in  the 
service  of  the  sick.  The  members  placed  themselves 
under  the  patronage  of  St.  Charles  Borromeo,  the 
Apostle  of  Charity,  and  adapted  the  rules  and  consti- 
tutions drawn  up  by  P6re  ffpiphane  Louys,  Abbot  of 
Estival  and  Vicar-General  of  the  Reformed  Premon- 
stratensians.  By  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century 
the  congregation  was  in  charge  of  numerous  hospitals, 
and  shortly  afterwards  took  up  as  an  additional  task 
the  Christian  education  of  children.  During  the  Revo- 
lutionary period  the  members,  although  dispersed 
and  deprived  of  their  garb,  continued  their  work 
so  heroically  as  to  win  the  encomiums  of  their 
persecutors.  On  22  July,  1804,  they  reassumed  their 
religious  habit,  obtained  the  approval  of  Napoleon, 
and  were  soon  in  a  flourishing  condition.  Their  rule, 
based  on  that  of  St.  Augustine,  received  papal  appro- 
bation in  1859,  and  additional  constitutions  were  con- 
firmed by  Leo  XlII  in  1892.  Their  work  includes  the 
direction  of  all  manner  of  charitable  institutions,  such 
as  domestic  and  trade  schools,  homes  for  first  com- 
municants, protectories,  poor-houses,  homes  for  de- 
fectiveSj  ana  female  reformatories,  as  well  as  the  care 
of  the  sick  in  their  homes.  They  also  have  charge  of 
schools,  including  a  number  of  normal  institutes  in 
Austria.  Candidates  must  spend  one  year  as  postu- 
lants and  from  three  to  four  and  a  half  years  as  nov- 
ices before  being  admitted  to  the  congregation.  The 
auxiliary  sisters  for  the  care  of  the  sick  renew  their 
vows  annually. 

There  are  several  entirely  independent  branches  of 
Borromean  Sisters.  In  1838  one  was  established  by 
Aloysius  Joseph  Freiherr  von  Schrenk,  Prince-Bishop 
of  Prague  (d.  1849),  which  was  confirmed  as  a  separate 
congregation  in  1841,  and  now  numbers  900  members 
in  102  houses,  chiefly  in  Bohemia,  Moravia,  and 
Upper  and  Lower  Austria.  In  1848  Melchior  Freiherr 
von  Diepenbrock,  Prince-Bishop  of  Breslau,  invited  the 
Prague  Borromeans  to  found  a  nouse  at  Neisse,  which, 
in  1857,  was  raised  to  the  rank  of  the  mother-house  of 
a  separate  congregation.  Later  the  mother-house 
was  transferred  to  Trebnitz,  and  temporarily,  during 
the  Kulturkampf ,  to  Teschen,  where  a  provincial  house 
for  Austria  was  later  established  (1889).  A  house  of 
this  congregation  founded  at  Alexandria  in  1884  was, 
in  1894,  made  a  provincial  mother-house  and  a  noviti- 
ate for  the  Orient,  with  the  direction  of  schools,  an 
asylum  for  the  aged,  and  a  hospice  for  German  pil- 
gnms.  Affiliated  foundations  have  been  made  at 
Jerusalem  0,^86),  Haifa  (1888).  Cairo  (1904),  and 
Emmaus.  The  members  of  the  Trebnitz  congregation 
number  1900,  in  211  houses.  In  1811  a  foundation 
was  made  from  Nancy  at  Trier,  whence  the  congrega- 
tion spread  to  other  cities  of  Western  Germany.  In 
1849  a  provincial  house  was  erected  at  Trier,  which, 
by  decree  of  Pius  IX  (18  September,  1872),  was  made 
the  mother-house  of  an  independent  congregation.  A 
famous  Borromean  institution  is  St.  Hedwlg's  Hos- 
pital at  Berlin,  founded  in  1846  by  Angelika  Esch- 
weiler.  The  Trier  branch  comprises  over  1200  sisters 
in  70  houses.  A  foundation  was  also  made  at  Maas- 
tricht in  1837  by  Peter  Anton  van  Baer. 

Hist,  de  la  cong.  dee  eamra  de  St.  Charles  (Nancy,  1898); 
HoHN,  Die  Nancy-Trierer  Borrom'irinnen  (1890);  Idem,  Barm- 
lyertige  Schwestem  von  hi.  Karl  Borrom&us  1652-1900  (1900); 
Heimbuchkr,  Orden  u.  Kongregattonen  (2  vols.,  1896). 

Florence  Rudqe  McGahan. 

Meredith,  Edward,  English  Catholic  controver- 
sialist, b.  in  1648,  was  a  son  of  the  rector  of  Landulph, 
Cornwall.  He  studied  with  distinction  at  Westmin- 
ster School  and  in  1665  was  elected  to  c,  scholarship  at 
Christ  Church,  Oxford.  In  1668  he  went  to  Spain  as 
secretary  of  the  ambassador.  Sir  William  (3odolphin, 
and  while  residing  there  embraced  the  Catholic  faith. 
He  returned  to  England  after  three  years  and  engaged 
in  a  religious  controversy  with  Stillingfleet  (8  August, 
1671) .    In  this  discussion,  an  account  of  which  he  pub* 


202 

fiBhed  in  1684,  he  was  aided  by  Edmund  Coleman,  Merit. — ^By  merit  (mentutn)  in  general  is  under- 
who  was  executed  seven  yeais  later  for  alleffed  com-  stood  that  property  of  a  good  work  which  entitles  the 
plicity  in  the  Titus  Oates  plot.  In  1682  Meredith  doer  to  receive  a  reward  Jjjrcgmium,  merces)  from  him 
wrote  a  reply  to  one  Samuel  Johnson,  who  had  libelled  in  whose  service  the  work  is  done.  By  antonomasia, 
the  Duke  of  York  in  a  work  entitled  "Julian  the  the  word  has  come  to  designate  also  the  good  work  it- 
Apostle".  On  7  September,  1684,  he  entered  the  self,  in  so  far  as  it  deserves  a  reward  from  the  person 
Jesuit  novitiate  at  Watten.  Flanders,  under  the  name  in  whose  service  it  was  performed.  In  tiie  theological 
of  Langford  (or  Langsfora).  He  evidently  returned  sense,  a  supernatural  merit  can  only  be  a  salutary  act 
in  a  few  years  to  Engiand|  where  he  published  several  (adua  sahUaria),  to  which  God  in  consequence  of  his 
controversial  pamphlets.  On  the  tall  of  James  11,  infallible  promise  owes  a  supernatural  reward,  con- 
he  withdrew  to  Saint-Germain.  He  was  resident  in  sisting  ultmiatdy  in  eternal  ufe,  which  is  the  beatific 
Rome  during  the  years  1700  and  1701 ;  the  year  of  his  vision  in  heaven.  As  the  main  purpose  of  this  article 
death  is  uncertain,  but  his  will,  dated  1 71 5,  is  said  to  be  is  to  vindicate  the  Calholic  doctnne  of  the  meritorious- 
preserved  in  the  archives  of  the  English  College,  ness  of  good  works,  the  subject  is  treated  under  the 
Rome.  He  translated  from  the  Latin  a  devotional  four  following  heads:  I.  Nature  of  Merit;  II.  Existence 
work  under  the  title  "A  Journal  of  Meditations  for  of  Merit;  III.  Conditions  of  Merit,  and  IV.  Objects  of 
every  day  of  the  year"  (London,  1687).  Merit. 
Foijrr,CoiBecten«o]B»v.iY(w.i8./.,partl(l^doa^i882).502.        I.  Naturb  OF  Mertt. — (a)  If  we  analjrse  the  defi- 

A.  A.  MacErleam.  nition  eiven  above,  it  becomes  evident  that  the  prop- 

Mfiricif  Angela.    See  Angela  Merici,  Saint.  ert^r  of  merit  can  be  found  only  in  works  that  are 

MMda  (Emerftensis  in  Indus),  Diocese  of,  a  positively  good,  whilst  bad  works,  whether  they  bene- 

suffragan  see  of  Santiago  of  Venesuela  or  Caracas,  nt  or  injure  a  third  party,  contain  nothing  but  demerit 

oompnses  the  State  ofLos  Andes,  and  part  of  Zulia  (d^mentum)  and  consequently  deserve  punishment- 

and  Zamora.    It  lies  in  the  north-western  portion  of  Thus  the  good  workman  certamly  deserves  the  reward 

the  republic,  to  the  south  of  Lake  Maracaibo.    Until  o^  ^  labour,  and  the  thief  deserves  the  pimishment  of 

17  Jan.,  1905,  it  included  the  territory  of  the  Goajira.  his  crime.    Prom  this  it  naturally  follows  that  merit 

M^rida  was  first  erected  into  a  bishopric  on  17  Feb.,  and  reward,  dement  and  punishment,  bear  to  each 

1777.    Its  firet  bishop,  Juan  Ramos  de  Loia,  a  Fran-  other  the  relation  of  deed  and  return ;  they  are  correla- 

ciscan,  b.  at  Palacioe  y  Villafranca,  Diocese  of  Seville,  ti^  t««nfl  of  which  one  postulates  the  other.    Reward 

in  1722,  was  nominated  in  the  consistory  of  23  Sept.,  ^  due  to  merit,  and  the  reward  is  in  proportion  to  the 

1782,  and  was  a  suffragan  of  Santa  Fe  de  Bomt&.  merit.    This  leads  to  -the  third  condition,  vis.,  that 

His  immediate  successors  were  Emanuelo  Candiao  de  merit  supposes  two  distinct  persons,  the  one  who  ao- 

Terrissoe  in  1791 ;  and  in  1795  Antonio  Espinosa,  of  guires  the  merit  and  the  other  who  rewards  it;  for  the 

Corvera  in  the  Diocese  of  Saragossa.    In  1801  Pius  ideaofself-rewardisjustascontradictoryasthatofself- 

VII  appointed  Jaime  HemAndes  Milanes  of  Niesa,  in  punishment.    Lastly,  the  relation  between  merit  and 

the  Diocese  of  Salamanca.    By  a  Bull  of  the  same  reward  furnishes  the  intrinsic  reason  why  in  the  matter 

Smtifif,  "In  Universalis  Ecclesia",  24  Oct.,  1803,  of  serWceaiid  its  rmuiieration  the  guiding  norm  cjm  be 
6rida  became  suffragan  to  Caracas,  which  had  just  only  the  virtue  of  justice,  and  not  dismterested  kind- 
been  raised  to  the  arohiepiscopal  rank.  In  1816  ness  or  pure  mercy;  for  it  would  destroy  the  very  notion 
Rafael  Laso  de  La  Vega  was  elected  bishop.  Owing  o^^^a^  *«  conceive  of  it  as  a  free  gift  of  bounty 
to  the  troubles  consequent  on  the  rebellion  against  (?•  Rom.,  n,  6).  If,  however,  salutary  acts  can  m 
Spain,  Leo  XII  nominated  Bonaventura  Arias  m  the  virtue  of  the  Divme  justice  give  the  rirfit  to  an  eternal 
consistory  of  2  Oct.,  1826,  as  auxiliary  bishop.  When  reward,  this  is  jiossible  only  because  they  themselves 
Bishop  Laso  was  transferred  to  Quito,  15  Dec.,  1828,  have  their  root  m  gratuitous  crace,  and  consequently 
Mer  Arias  continued  to  govern  the  diocese  till  Gi^ory  "«  of  their  very  nature  dependent  ultmiatdy  on  mo^, 
XVI  declared  hun  a  vicEr  Apostolic.  His  successor,  as  the  Couiicd  of  Trent  emphatic^ly  dedares  (Sew. 
Jos^  Vicente  Unda  of  Guanara,  was  nominated  in  the  VI,  cap.  xvi,  m  Dennnger,  10th  ed.,  Freiburg,  1908. 
consistory  of  11  July,  1836,  and  on  his  death,  27  Jan.,  n.  810):  "the  If  rd  .  .  .whose  bounty  towards  all 
1842,  Juan  Ilario  Boset,  of  Puerto  de  Gueya,  was  elected,  gf^^  ^  «>  ^t,  that  He  wiU  ha  ve  the  things,  which  are 
The  present  occupant  of  the  see  is  Mgr  Antonio  ^'g,own  gilts,  be  their  ments. 


riates,  108  parishes,  150  churches  and  chapels,  100  w  uic  wum  vwerwum  w^u^i^^ww  «w  uc  wmc*«#7H/y,  »u« 
priests,  and  a  population  of  about  450,000,  aU  Cath-  (?)  «)ngruous  or  ouasi^ment  (mentum  tnadaquatum 
olics  except  about  20,000  pagans,  Timotes  and  Mucu-  nve  de  cangnw).  Condign  merit  supposes  an  equahty 
chic  Indians,  and  300  Protestants  and  Jews.  There  between  servioe  and  return;  it  is  mwsured  by  corn- 
are  only  two  religious  congregations  m  the  diocese  mutative  justice  (jusMia  commttto/itw),  and  thus  givea 
at  the  present  tune  (1910):  (1)  the  Sistera  of  a  real  claim  to  a  rewaM.  Conaiious  ment,  owing  to 
Saint  Rosa  of  Lima,  at  M^rida,  San  Crist6bal,  and  jta  inadequacy  and  the  lack  of  mtrmsic  proportion 
Rubio,  a  diocesan  order  devoted  to  hospital  and  between  the  service  and  the  recompwise,  dauns  a 
orphanage  work ;  (2)  the  Servants  of  the  Holy  FamUy,  reward  only  on  the  ground  of  equity.  This  »riy-scho- 
with  houTOs  at  La  Grita,  San  Crist6bal,  and  Tdriba.  ^^^  distinction  and  teimmdogy.  which  is  alrwdy 
The  fine  cathedral  is  dedicated  to  the  Immaculate  ^,&^  ^  .<»?^pt  ^^  substance  by  the  Fathera 
Conception  of  Our  Lady.  The  city  of  M^rida  stands  of  Uie  Church  m  theu"  controversies  with  the  Pdagiana 
at  an  elevation  of  5500  feet  on  the  right  bank  of  the  and  Semipelagians,  were  agam  onphasised  by  Johann 
Rio  Chamo  in  a  valley  of  the  Sierra  Nevada,  which  ^ck,  the  fainoiw  adversary  of  Martm  Luti^cr  (cf. 
here  rises  to  about  15,000  feet.  It  is  about  60  miles  Grej^fc  "fob.  Eck  sis  junger  GelArter,"  Mtoster, 
from  Lake  Maracaibo  and  300  from  Caracas.  The  city  1906,  pp.  153  sqo.).  The  essential  diCFerence  betwe^ 
was  founded  by  Juan  Rodrfgues  SuAres  in  1658  under  merUum  de  candtgno  and  merUum  de  conaruo  is  based 
the  name  of  Santiago  de  los  Caballeros.  It  suffered  on  the  fact  that,  besides  those  works  w^ch  daim  a 
severely  from  earthquakes,  notably  in  1644,  1812,  and  remimerataon  under  pam  of  violatmg  strict  justice 
1894,  notwithstandkig  which  it  is  a  thriving  business  (aa  m  contracts  betwewi  employer  and  mployee  in 
town  with  12,000  inhabitants.  The  old  seminary  was  buymg  and  selling,  etc.),  J^iere  are  atoo  other  mento- 
changed  into  a  univeraity  in  1810,  and  still  flourishes,  "ous  works  which  at  most  are  entiUed  to  reward  or 
besid^  that  of  Caracas:  ^onour  for  re^ons  of  eqmty  (j^«5[««^)  J^',  «>«[« 
BoUifn  dt  Bttadutiea  dt  tot  Bttadot  UiMob  dt  Vmuuda  tCm-  distributive  justice  (ex  tustUta  dteHbuhva),  as  m  the 
OM,  1005),  234-27.                         A.  A.  MacErlbam.  GBse  of  gratuities  and  military  deoorataons*    From 


MBBIT                                 203  BBBIT 

an  ethical  point  of  view  the  difference  practically  Now,  if  the  concept  of  satisfaction  in  its  twofold 
amounts  to  this  that,  if  the  reward  due  to  condign  meaning  be  compared  with  that  of  merit  as  developed 
merit  be  withheld,  there  is  a  violation  of  ri^t  and  above,  the  first  general  conclusion  will  be  that  merit 
justice  and  the  consequent  obligation  in  conscience  to  constitutes  a  debtor  who  owes  a  reward,  whilst  satis- 
make  restitution,  while,  in  the  case  of  congruous  merit,  faction  supposes  a  creditor  whose  demands  must  be 
to  withhold  the  reward  involves  no  violation  of  right  met.  In  ChriBt's  work  of  redemption  merit  and  satis* 
and  no  obligation  to  restore,  it  being  merely  an  offence  faction  materially  coincide  almost  to  their  full  ex 
against  what  is  fitting  or  a  matter  of  personal  dis-  tent,  since  as  a  matter  of  fact  the  merits  of  Christ  are 
crimination  {aeceptio  versonairum).  Hence  the  reward  also  works  of  satisfaction  for  man.  But,  since  by 
of  conzruous  merit  always  depends  in  great  measure  His  Passion  and  Death  He  truly  merited,  not  only 
on  the  Kindness  and  liberality  of  the  giver,  though  not  sotices  for  us.  but  also  external  glory  for  His  own 
purely  and  simply  on  his  good  will.  Person  (His  glorious  Resurrection  and  Ascension,  His 
^  In  applying  these  notions  of  merit  to  man's  rela-  sitting  at  the  riciht  hand  of  the  Father,  the  dorification 
tion  to  God  it  is  especially  necessary  to  keep  in  mind  of  His  name  of  Jesus,  etc.),  it  follows  tnat  His  personal 
the  fundamental  truth  that  the  virtue  of  justice  cannot  merit  extends  further  than  His  satisfaction,  as  He  had 
be  brought  forward  as  the  basis  of  a  real  title  for  a  no  need  of  satisfying  for  Himself.  The  substantial 
Divine  reward  either  in  the  natural  or  in  the  super-  and  conceptual  distinction  between  merit  and  satis- 
natural  order.  The  simple  reason  is  that  God,  being  faction  holds  good  when  applied  to  the  justified  Chris- 
aelf-existent,  absolutely  independent,  and  sovereign,  tdan^  for  every  meritorious  act  has  for  its  main  object 
can  be  in  no  respect  bound  in  justice  with  regard  to  nis  the  mcrease  of  grace  and  of  eternal  Rlory,  while  satis- 
creatures.  Properiv  speaking,  man  possesses  nothing  factory  works  have  for  their  object  tne  removal  of  the 
of  his  own;  all  that  ne  has  and  all  that  he  does  is  a  gift  temporal  punishment  still  due  to  sin.  In  practice 
of  God,  and,  since  God  is  infinitely  self Hsufiicient,  there  and  genenJly  speaking,  however,  merit  and  satis- 
18  no  advantage  or  benefit  which  man  can  by  his  ser-  faction  are  found  in  every  salutary  act,  so  that  every 
vices  confer  upon  Him.  Hence  on  the  part  of  God  meritorious  work  is  also  satisfactory  and  vice  versa. 
there  can  only  be  question  of  a  gratuitous  promise  of  It  is  indeed  also  essential  to  the  concept  of  a  satis- 
reward  for  certain  good  works.  For  such  works  He  factory  work  of  penance  that  it  be  penal  and  difficult. 
owes  the  promised  reward,  not  in  justice  or  equity,  which  qualities  are  not  connoted  oy  the  concept  of 
but  soldy  because  He  has  freely  bound  himself,  i.e.,  merit;  but  since,  in  tbe  present  state  of  fallen  nature, 
because  of  His  own  attributes  of  veracity  and  fidelity,  t^ere  neither  is  nor  can  be  a  meritorious  work  which 
It  is  on  this  ground  alone  that  we  can  speak  of  Divine  in  one  way  or  another  has  not  connected  with  it 
justiceatall,  and  apply  the  principle:  Do  u<<2e8(cf.  St.  difficulties  and  hardships,  theologians  unanimously 
Aiunistine,  Serm.  dviii,  c  ii,  in  P.  L.,  XXXVIII,  863).  teach  that  all  our  meritorious  works  without  exception 
(d)  There  remains  the  distinction  between  merit  bear  a  penal  character  and  thereby  may  become  auto- 
and  satisfaction  j  for  a  meritorious  work  is  not  identi-  maticaUy  works  of  satisfaction.  Against  how  many 
cal,  either  in  concept  or  in  fact,  with  a  satisfactory  difficulties  and  distractions  have  we  not  to  contend 
work.  In  the  language  of  theology,  satisfaction  even  during  our  prayers,  which  by  right  should  be  the 
means:  (1)  atoning  oy  some  suitable  service  for  an  easiest  of  aU  good  worksl  Thus,  prayer  also  becomes 
injury  done  to  another's  honour  or  for  any  other  a  penance,  and  hence  confessors  may  in  most  cases 
offence,  in  somewhat  the  same  fashion  as  in  modem  content  themselves  with  imposing  prayer  as  a  penance. 
duelling  outraged  honour  is  satisfied  by  recourse  to  (Of.  De  Lugo,  "De  poenitentia,'' disp.  xxiv,  sect.  3.) 
swords  or  pistols;  (2)  paying  off  the  temporal  punish-  (c)  Owing  to  the  peculiar  relation  between  and 
ment  due  to  sin  by  salutary  penitential  works  volun-  material  identity  of  merit  and  satisfaction  in  the 
tarily  undertaken  after  one's  sins  have  been  forgiven,  present  economy  of  salvation,  a  twofold  value  must 
Sin,  as  an  offence  against  God,  demands  satisfaction  m  general  be  distinguished  in  every  eood  work:  the 
in  the  first  sense;  the  temporal  punishment  due  to  sin  meritorious  and  the  sati^actory  value.  But  each 
calls  for  satisfaction  in  tne  second  sense  (see  Pen-  preserves  its  distinctive  character,  theoretically  by  the 
ance).  Christian  faith  teaches  us  that  the  Incarnate  difference  in  concepts,  and  practically  in  this,  that  the 
Son  of  God  bv  His  death  on  the  cross  has  in  our  stead  value  of  merit  as  such,  consisting  in  the  increase  of 
fully  satisfied  God's  anger  at  our  sins,  and  thereby  grace  and  of  heavenly  glory,  is  purely  personal  and  is 
effected  a  reconciliation  between  the  world  and  its  not  applicable  to  others,  while  the  satisfactory  value 
Creator.  Not,  however,  as  though  nothing  were  now  may  be  detached  from  the  meriting  agent  and  applied 
left  to  be  done  by  man,  or  as  though  he  were  now  re-  to  others.  The  possibility  of  this  transfer  rests  on 
stored  to  the  state  of  original  innocence,  whether  he  the  fact  that  the  residual  punishments  for  sin  are  in 
wills  it  or  not:  on  the  contrary,  God  and  Christ  de-  the  nature  of  a  debt,  which  may  be  legitimately  paid 
mand  of  him  that  he  make  the  fruits  of  the  Sacrifice  of  to  the  creditor  and  tiiereby  cancelled  not  only  by  the 
the  Cross  his  own  by  personal  exertion  and  co-opera-  debtor  himself  but  also  by  a  friend  of  the  debtor, 
tion  with  grace,  by  justifying  faith  and  the  reception  This  consideration  is  important  for  the  proper  under- 
of  baptism.  It  is  a  denned  article  of  the  Catholic  standing  of  the  usefulness  of  suffrages  for  tne  souls  in 
Faith  that  man  before,  in,  and  after  justification  de-  purgatory  (cf .  Council  of  Trent,  Sess.  XXV,  Decret. 
rives  his  whole  capability  of  meriting  and  satisfying,  de  purgat.,  in  Denzinger,  n.  983).  When  one  wishes 
as  well  as  his  actual  merits  and  satisfactions,  solefy  to  aid  the  suffering  souls,  one  cannot  apply  to  them 
from  the  infinite  treasure  of  merits  which  Christ  the  purely  meritorious  quality  of  his  work,  because 
flained  for  us  on  the  Cross  (cf .  Councfl  of  Trent,  Sess.  the  mcrease  of  grace  and  glory  accrues  only  to  the 
Vl,  cap.  xvi;  Sess.  XIV,  cap.  viii).  agent  who  merits.  But  it  has  pleased  the  Divine 
the  second  kind  of  satisfaction,  that  namely  by  wisdom  and  mercy  to  accept  the  satisfactory  quality 
idiich  temporal  punishment  is  removed,  consists  in  of  one's  work  under  certain  circumstances  as  an 
this,  that  the  pemtent  after  his  justffication  gradually  equivalent  of  the  temporal  punishment  still  to  be 
cancels  the  temporal  punishments  due  to^is  sins,  endured  by  the  faithful  departed,  just  as  if  the  latter 
either  ex  opere  operato,  oy  conscientiously  performing  had  themselves  performed  the  work.  This  is  one  of 
the  penance  imposed  on  him  by  his  confessor,  or  ex  the  most  beautiful  and  consoling  aspects  of  that  ^rand 
opere  operantis,  by  self-imposed  penances  (such  as  social  organization  which  we  call  the  "Communion  of 
prayer,  fasting,  almsgiving,  etc.)  and  by  bearing  Saints"  (q.  v.),  and  moreover  affords  us  an  insight 
patiently  the  siifferings  and  trials  sent  by  God;  if  he  into  the  nature  of  the  "heroic  act  of  charity"  ap- 
Degjects  this,  he  will  have  to  give  full  satisfaction  (<a-  proved  by  Pius  IX,  whereby  the  faithful  on  earth,  out 
Heptuteio)  in  the  pains  of  purgatory  (cf.  Council  of  of  heroic  charity  for  the  souls  in  Puipitory,  voluntarily 
Trent,  Sees.  XIV»  can.  ziu,  in  Denainger,  o.  923).  renounce  in  their  favour  the  8atiQtp,QtQry  fruita  of  aU 


MEBIT                               204  MBBIT 

their  good  works,  even  all  the  suffrages  which  shall  and  Tradition.    The  Old  Testament  already  dedaret 

be  offered  for  them  after  their  death,  in  order  that  the  meritoriousness  of  good  works  before  God.    ''But 

they  may  thus  benefit  and  assist  the  souls  in  purgatory  the  just  shall  live  for  evermore:  and  their  reward  is 

more  quickly  and  mbre  efficaciously.  with  the  Lord"  (Wis.,  v,  16).    ''Be  not  siraid  to  be 

The  efficacy  of  the  praver  of  the  just,  be  it  for  the  justified  even  to  death:  for  the  reward  of  God  oon- 

living  or  for  the  dead,  calls  for  special  consideration,  tinueth  for  ever"  (Ecclus.,  xviii,  22).    Christ  Himself 

In  the  first  place  it  is  evident  that  prayer  as  a  pre-  adds  a  special  reward  to  each  of  the  Eight  Beatitudes, 

eminently  good  work  has  in  common  with  other  and  he  ends  with  this  fundamental  Uiought:  "Be  ^aa 

similar  goodworks,  such  as  fastine  and  almsgiving,  the  and  rejoice,  for  your  reward  is  very  gresit  in  heaven  " 

twofold  value  of  merit  and  satisfaction.    Because  of  (Matt.^,  12).    In  His  description  oi  the  Last  Judg- 

its  satisfactory  character,  prayer  will  also  obtain  for  ment.  He  makes  the  possession  of  eternal  bliss  depend 

the  souls  in  purgatory  by  way  of  suffrage  (per  modum  on  the  practice  of  the  corporal  works  of  mercy  (Matt., 

miffragii)  either  a  diminution  or  a  total  cancelling  of  zxv,  34  sqq.)*    Althou^  St.  Paul  insists  on  nothine 

the  penalty  that  remains  to  be  paid.  Prayer  has,  more-  more  strongly  than  the  absolute  gratuitousness  ox 

over,  the  characteristic  effect  of  impetration  (effectua  Christian  grace,  still  he  acknowledges  merits  founded 

impetratoriua),  for  he  who  prays  appeals  solelv  to  the  on  sraoe  and  also  the  reward  due  to  them  on  the  part 

goodness,  love,  and  liberality  of  God  for  the  fulfilment  of  God,  which  he  variouslv  calls  "  prize  "  (Phil.,  iii,  14 ; 

of  his  desires,  without  throwing  the  weight  of  his  own  I  Cor.,  ix.  24),  "reward"  (Col.,  iii,  24: 1  Cor.,  iii,  8), 

merits  into  the  scale.    He  who  prays  fervently  and  "crown  of  justice"  (II  Tim.,^  iv,  7  sq. ;  ci.  James,  i,  12). 

unceasingly  gains  a  hearing  with  Uod  because  he  It  is  worthy  of  note  that,  in  these  and  many  others. 

5 rays,  even  should  he  pray  with  empty  hands  (cf.  fpod  works  are  not  represented  as  mere  adjuncts  oz 

ohn,  xiv,  13  so.;  xvi,  23).    Thus  the  special  efficacy  justifying  faith,  but  as  real  fruits  of  justification  and 

of  pra3rer  for  tne  dead  is  easily  explamed,  since  it  part  causes  of  our  eternal  happiness.    And  the  sreater 

combines  efficacy  of  satisfaction  and  mipetration,  and  the  merit,  the  greater  wiU  oe  the  reward  in  heaven 

this  twofold  efficacy  is  enhanced  by  the  personal  (cf.  Matt.,  xvi,  27:1  Cor.,  iii,  8;  II  Cor.,  ix.  6).    Thus 

worthiness  of  the  one  who.  as  a  friena  of  God,  offers  the  Bible  itself  refutes  the  assertion  that  "the  idea  of 

the  prayer.     (See  Dead,  r raters  for  the.)    Since  merit  is  originally  foreign  to  the  Gospel "  (**  Realen- 

the  meritoriousness  of  good  works  supposes  the  state  cyklopftdie  fOr  protest.    Theolo^e,"  XX,  3rd  ed. 

of  justification,  or,  what  amounts  to  the  same,  the  Leipzig.  1908,  p.  501).    That  Christian  grace  can  be 

possession  of  sanctifying  grace,  supernatural  merit  is  merited  either  oy  the  observance  of  the  Jewish  law 

only  an  effect  or  fruit  of  the  state  of  grace  (cf .  Council  or  by  mere  natural  works  (see  Grace),  this  alone  is 

of  Trent,  Sess.  VI,  cap.  xvi).    Hence,  it  is  plain  that  foreign  to  the  Bible.    On  the  other  hand,  eternal 

this  whole  article  is  really  only  a  continuation  and  a  reward  is  promised  in  the  Bible  to  those  supernatural 

completion  of  the  doctrine  of  sanctifying  grace  (see  works  which  are  performed  in  the  state  of  grace, 

Grace).  and  that  because  ihey  are  meritorious  (cf.  Matt., 

II.  The  Existence  of  Merit. — (a)  According  to  xxv,  34  sqq.;  Rom.,  ii,  6  sqq.;  II  Cor.,  v,  10). 
Luther  justification  consists  essentially  in  the  mere  Even  In^otestants  ooncede  that,  in  the  oldest  liter- 
covering  of  man's  sins,  which  remain  in  the  soul,  and  ature  of  the  Apostolic  Fathers  and^  Christian  Apolo- 
in  the  external  imputation  of  Christ's  justice;  hence  gists,  "the  idea  of  merit  was  read  into  the  Gospel," 
his  assertion  that  even  "the  iust  sin  m  every  good  and  that  Tertullian  by  defending  "merit  in  the  strict 
work"  (see  Denzinger,  n.  771).  as  also  that  "every  sense  gave  the  key-note  to  Western  Catholicism" 
work  of  the  just  is  worthy  of  aamnation  [damnabde]  (Realencykl.,  pp.  501,  602).  He  was  followed  by  St. 
and  a  mortal  sin  [peccatum  mortaleL  if  it  be  considered  Cyprian  with  the  declaration :  "  You  can  attain  to  the 
as  it  really  is  in  the  judgment  of  God  "  (see  Mdhler,  vision  of  God,  if  you  deserve  it  by  your  life  and  works  " 
"Symbolik",  22).    According  to  the  doctrine  of  Cal-  ("De  op.  et  elemos.",  xiv,  ed.  Hartel,  I,  384).    With 

St.  Amorose  (De  ofific,  I,  xv,  67)  and  St.  Augustine 


(De  morib.  ecd.,  I,  xxv).  the  other  Fathers  of  the 
Church  took  the  Catholic  doctrine  on  merit  as  a  guide 
merits  of  Christ,  and  imputes  them  to  the  predestined  in  their  teaching,  especially  in  their  homilies  to  the 
as  good  works  in  order  that  He  may  requite  them  faithful,  so  that  uninterrupted  agreement  is  secured 
not  with  life  eternal,  but  at  most  with  a  temporal  re-  between  Bible  and  Tradition,  between  patristic  and 
ward.  In  consequence  of  Luther's  proclamation  of  scholastic  teaching,  between  the  past  and  the  present, 
"evangelical  liberty",  John  Agricola  (d.  1666)  as-  If  therefore  "the  reformation  was  mainly  a  struggle 
serted  that  in  the  New  Testament  it  was  not  allowed  against  the  doctrine  of  merit''  (Realencyklop&die, 
to  preach  the  "  Law",  and  Nicholas  Amsdorf  (d.  1665)  loc.  cit.,  p.  606)  this  only  proves  that  the  Council  of 
maintained  that  good  works  were  positively  harmful.  Trent  defended  against  im justified  innovations  the  old 
Such  exaggerations  gave  rise  in  1627  to  the  fierce  doctrineof  the  meritoriousness  of  good  works,  founded 
Antinomian  controversy,  which,  after  various  efforts  alike  on  Scripture  and  Tradition, 
on  Luther's  part,  was  finally  settled  in  1640  by  the  (b)  This  doctrine  of  the  Church,  moreover,  fully 
recantation  loroed  from  Agricola  by  Joachim  II  of  accords  with  natural  ethics.^  Divine  Providence^  as 
Brandenburg.  Althou^  me  doctrine  of  modem  the  supreme  lawgiver,  owes  it  to  itself  to  give  eflsc^ 
Protestantism  continues  obscure  and  indefinite,  it  dous  sanction  to  both  the  natural  and  the  super- 
teaches  generally  speaking  that  ^ood  works  are  a  natural  law  with  their  many  commandments  and  pro- 
spontaneous  consequence  of  justifying  faith,  without  hibitions,  and  to  secure  their  observance  by  holding 
being  of  any  avail  for  life  eternal.  Apart  from  out  rewards  and  punishments.  Even  human  laws  are 
eariier  docmatic  declarations  given  in  tne  Second  provided  with  sanctions,  which  are  often  very  severe. 
Synod  of  Orange  of  629  and  in  the  Fourth  I^teran  Me  who  denies  the  meritoriousness  of  gocxi  works 
Ooundl  of  1216  (see  Denzin^r,  191,  430),  the  Coimdl  performed  by  the  just  must  necessarily  also  deny  the 
cf  TVent  upheld  the  traditional  doctrine  of  merit  culpability  and  demerit  of  the  siimer's  misdeeds;  must 
by  insisting  that  life  everlasting  is  both  a  grace  and  a  hold  that  sins  remain  without  punishment,  and  that 
reward  (Sess.  VI,  cap.  xvi,  in  Denzin^r,  n.  809).  It  the  fear  of  hell  is  both  groundless  and  useless.  If 
condemned  as  heretical  Luther's  doctrme  of  the  sinful-  there  be  no  eternal  reward  for  an  upri^t  life  and  no 
Xiess  of  tpod  works  (Sess.  VI,  can.  xxv),  and  declared  eternal  chastisement  for  sin,  it  wHl  matter  little  to  the 
8«  a  dogma  that  the  just,  in  return  for  their  good  works  majority  of  people  whether  they  lead  a  good  or  a  bad 
done  in  God  throu^  the  merits  of  Jesus  Christ,  should  life.  It  is  true  that,  even  if  there  were  neither  reward 
ezpecf'  an  eternal  reward  Qoc.  cit.,  can.  xxvi).  nor  punishment,  it  would  be  contrary  to  rational 
Tiiis  doctrine  of  the  Church  simply  echoes  Scripture  nature  to  lead  an  immoral  life ;  for  the  moral  obligatioii 


MERIT 


205 


MERIT 


to  do  always  what  is  rig^t,  does  not  of  itself  depend 
on  retribution.  But  Kant  undoubtedly  went  too  far 
when  he  repudiated  as  immoral  those  actions  whidi 
are  performed  with  a  view  to  our  personal  happiness 
or  to  that  of  others,  and  proclaim^  the  "  cate^rical 
imperative,"  i.  e.,  frigid  duty  clearly  perceived,  as 
the  only  motive  of  moral  conduct.  For,  though  this 
8D-cs^ied  "autonomy  of  the  moral  wiir'  may  at  first 
sig^t  appear  hiehly  ideal,  still  it  is  imnatuial  and 
cannot  tie  carried  out  in  practical  life,  because  virtue 
and  happiness,  duty  ana  merit  (with  the  claim  to 
reward),  are  not  mutually  exclusive,  but,  as  correla- 
tives, they  rather  condition  and  complete  each  other. 
The  peace  of  a  good  conscience  that  follows  the  fail^- 
ful  performance  of  duty  is  an  unsought-for  reward  of 
our  action  and  an  interior  happiness  of  which  no 
calamity  can  deprive  us,  so  that,  as  a  matter  of  fact, 
duty  and  happiness  are  alwavs  linked  together, 
(c)  But  is  not  this  continual  actine  "witn  one 
eye  on  heaven",  with  which  Professor  Jodl  reproaches 
Catholic  moral  teaching,  the  meanest  "mercenary 
spirit"  and  ereed  which  necessarily  vitiates  to  the 
core  all  moral  action?  Can  thete  be  any  question  of 
morality,  if  it  is  only  the  desire  for  eternal  bliss  or 
simply  the  fear  of  hell  that  determines  one  to  do  good 
and  avoid  evil?  Such  a  disposition  is  certainly  far 
from  being  the  ideal  of  Catholic  morality.  On  the 
contrary,  the  Church  proclaims  to  all  her  children 
that  pure  love  of  God  is  the  first  and  supreme  com- 
mandment (cf.  Mark,  xii,  30).  It  is  our  hi^est  ideal 
to  act  out  of  love.  For  he  who  truly  loves  Uod  would 
keep  His  commandments,  even  thoueh  there  were  no 
eternal  reward  in  the  next  life.  Nevertheless,  the 
desire  for  heaven  is  a  necessary  and  natural  conse- 

Suence  of  the  perfect  love  of  God ;  for  heaven  is  only 
le  perfect  possession  of  God  by  love.  As  a  true 
friend  desires  to  see  his  friend  without  therebv  sinking 
into  egotism  so  does  the  loving  soul  ardently  aesire  the 
Beatific  Vision,  not  from  a  craving  for  reward,  but  out 
of  pure  love.  It  is  unfortunately  too  true  tnat  only 
the  best  type  of  Christians,  and  especially  the  great 
saints  of  tne  Church,  reach  this  nigh  standard  of 
morality  in  everyday  life.  The  great  majority  of  or- 
dinary Christians  must  be  deterred  from  sin  princi- 
pally by  the  fear  of  hell  and  spurred  on  to  good 
works  by  the  thought  of  an  eternal  reward,  before 
they  attain  perfect  love.  But,  even  for  those  souls 
iidio  love  God,  there  are  times  of  arave  temptation 
wiien  only  the  thought  of  heaven  and  hell  keeps  them 
from  faUing.  Such  a  disposition,  be  it  habitual  or 
oidy  transitory,  is  morally  lessperfect,  but  it  is  not 
immoial.  As,  according  to  Cnrist's  doctrine  and 
that  of  St.  Paul  (see  above),  it  is  legitimate  to  hope 
for  a  heavenly  reward,  so,  according  to  the  same 
doctrine  of  Christ  (cf.  Matt.,  x,  28),  the  fear  of  hell 
is  a  motive  of  moral  action,  a  "  grace  of  God  and  an 
ioipulse  of  the  Holy  Ghost  ^'  (Council  of  Trent,  Sess. 
XrV,  cap.  iv,  in  Denzinger,  n.  898).  Only  that  desire 
for  remuneration  (amor  mercenariua)  is  reprehensible 
which  wodd  content  itself  with  an  eternal  happiness 
without  Godj  and  that  "doubly  servile  fear  (Hmor 
terviliier  servtlis)  is  alone  immoral  which  proceeds  from 
a  mere  dread  of  punishment  without  at  the  same 
time  fearing  God.  But  the  dogmatic  as  well  as  the 
moral  teaching  of  the  Church  avoids  both  of  these 
extremes  (see  AiTRmoN). 

Besides  blaming  the  Church  for  fostering  a  "  craving 
for  reward^"  Protestants  also  accuse  her  of  teaching 
"  justification  by  works ' '.  External  works  alone,  they 
allege,  sudi  as  fasting,  almsgiving,  pilgrimages,  the 
recitation  of  the  rosary  etc.,  make  the  Catholic  good 
and  holy,  the  interior  mtention  and  disposition  being 
held  to  no  account.  ''The  whole  doctrine  of  merit, 
especially  as  explained  by  Catholics  is  based  on  the 
erroneous  view  which  places  the  essence  of  morality 
in  the  individual  action  without  any  regard  for  the 
interior  disposition  as  the  habitual  direction  of  the 


personal  will"  (Kealencyklop&die,  loc.  cit.,  p.  508). 
Only  the  grossest  ignorance  of  Catholic  doctrine  can 
prompt  such  remarks.  In  accord  with  the  Bible  the 
Church  teaches  that  the  external  work  has  a  moral 
value  only  when  and  in  so  far  as  it  proceeds  from 
a  rig^t  interior  disposition  and  intention  (cf.  Matt., 
vi,  1  saq.;  Mark,  xii,  41  sqq.;  I  Cor.,  x,  31,  etc.)-  As 
the  boay  receives  its  life  from  the  soul,  so  must  exter- 
nal actions  be  penetrated  and  vivified  by  holiness  of 
intention.  In  a  beautiful  play  on  words  St.  Augus- 
tine says  (Serm.  iii,  n.  xi) :  Bonos  mores  faciutU  boni 
amores.  Hence  the  CJhurch  ur^  her  children  to 
forming  each  morning  the  "  good  mtention",  that  they 
may  thereby  sanctify  the  whole  day  and  make  even 
the  indifferent  actions  of  their  exterior  life  serve  for 
the  glory  of  God;  "all  for  the  greater  glory  of  CSod", 
is  the  constant  prayer  of  the  laithful  Catholic.  Not 
only  does  the  moral  teaching  of  the  Catholic  Church 
attribute  no  moral  value  whatever  to  the  mere  exter- 
nal performance  of  good  works  without  a  correspond- 
ing good  intention,  but  it  detests  such  performance 
as  hyprocrisy  and  pretence.  On  the  other  hand,  our 
good,  intention,  provided  it  be  genuine  and  deep- 
rooted,  naturally  spurs  us  on  to  external  works,  and 
without  these  works  it  would  be  reduced  to  a  mere 
semblance  of  life. 

A  third  charge  against  the  Catholic  doctrine  on 
merit  is  summed  up  m  the  word  "self-righteousness", 
as  if  the  just  man  utterly  disregarded  the  merits  of 
Christ  and  arrogated  to  himself  the  whole  credit  of  his 
good  works.  If  any  Catholic  has  ever  been  so  Phari- 
saical as  to  hold  and  practise  this  doctrine,  he  has 
certainly  set  himself  in  direct  opposition  to  what  the 
Church  teaches.  The  Church  has  always  proclaimed 
what  St.  Augustine  expresses  in  the  words:  "Non 
Deus  ooronat  merita  tua  tanquam  merita  tua,  sed 
tanquam dona  sua"  (De  grat.  et  lib.  arbitrio,  xv),  i.  e., 
God  crowns  thy  merits,  not  as  thine  earnings,  but  as 
His  gifts.  Notning  was  more  stronglv  and  trequently 
inculcated  by  the  Council  of  Trent  than  the  proposi- 
tion that  the  faithful  owe  their  entire  capability  of 
meriting  and  all  their  good  works  solely  to  the  infinite 
merits  of  the  Redeemer  Jesus  (Jhrist.  It  is  indeed 
clear  that  meritorious  works,  as  "fruits  of  the  justifi- 
cation", cannot  be  anything  but  merits  due  to  gi'^ce, 
and  not  merits  due  to  nature  (cf .  Council  of  Trent, 
Sess.  VI,  cap.  xvi).  The  Catholic  certainly  must  rely 
on  the  merits  of  Christ,  and,  far  from  boasting  of  his 
own  self-righteousness,  he  must  acknowledge  in  all 
humility  that  even  his  merits,  acquired  with  the  help 
of  grace,  are  full  of  imperfections,  and  that  his  justifi- 
cation is  uncertain  (see  Grace).  Of  the  satisfactory 
works  of  penance  the  Council  of  Trent  makes  this  ex- 
plicit declaration:  "Thus,  man  has  not  wherein  to 
glory,  but  all  our  glorying  is  in  Christ,  in  whom  we 
live,  move,  and  make  satisfaction,  bringing  forth  fruits 
worthy  oi  penance,  which  from  Him  have  their 
efficacy,  are  by  Him  offered  to  the  Father,  and  through 
Him  nnd  with  the  Father  acceptance"  (Sess.  XI V, 
cap.  viii,  in  Denzinger,  n.  904).  Does  this  read  like 
self-righteousness  ? 

III.  CoKDinoKS  OF  Merit. — For  all  true  merit 
(vere  meren;  Council  of  Trent,  Sess.  VI,  can.  xxxii), 
by  which  is  to  be  understood  only  meritum  de  condigno 
(see  Pallavicini,  "Hist.  Concil.  Trident.",  VIII,  iv), 
theologians  have  set  down  seven  conditions,  of  which 
four  regard  the  meritorious  work,  two  the  agent  who 
merits,  and  one  God  who  rewards. 

(a)  In  order  to  be  meritorious  a  work  must  be 
morally  good,  morally  free,  done  with  the  assistance 
of  actual  grace,  and  inspired  by  a  supernatural  mo- 
tive. As  every  evil  deed  implies  demerit  and  deserves 
punishment,  so  the  very  notion  of  merit  supposes  a 
morally  good  work.  St.  Paul  teaches  that  "  whatso- 
ever good  thing  \honum\  any  man  shall  do,  the  same 
shall  he  receive  from  the  Lord,  whether  he  be  bond,  or 
free"  (Eph.  vi,  8).    Not  only  are  more  perfect  works 


206 


of  supererogation,  such  as  the  vow  of  perpetual 
chastity,  go<>d  and  meritorious,  but  also  works 
of  obligation,  such  as  the  faithful  observance  of  the 
commandments.  Christ  Himself  actually  made  the 
attainment  of  Heaven  depend  on  the  mere  observance 
of  the  ten  commandments  when  he  answered  the 
youth  who  was  anxious  about  his  salvation:  "  If  thou 
wilt  enter  into  life,  keep  the  commandments"  (Matt., 
xix,  17).  Accoroing  to  the  authentic  declaration 
of  the  Foiurth  Lateran  Council  (1215),  the  married 
state  is  also  meritorious  for  heaven:  "Not  only  those 
who  live  in  virginity  and  continence,  but  also  those 
who  are  married,  please  God  by  their  faith  and  ^ood 
works  and  merit  eternal  happiness"  (cap.  Firmiter, 
in  Denzinger,  n.  430).  As  to  morally  indifferent 
actions  (e.  g.,  exerdse  and  play,  recreation  derived 
from  reading  and  music),  some  moralists  hold  with 
the  Scotists  that  such  works  may  be  indifferent  not 
only  in  the  abstract,  but  also  practically :  this  opinion, 
however,  is  rejectea  by  the  majority  oi  theologians. 
Those  wno  hold  ^his  view  must  hold  that  such  moredly 
indifferent  actions  are  neither  meritorious  nor  de- 
meritorious, but  become  meritorious  in  proportion  as 
they  are  made  morally  good  by  means  of  the  "good 
intention".  Although  the  volimtary  omission  of  a 
work  of  obligation,  such  as  the  hearing  of  Mass  on 
Sundays,  is  sinful  and  thereby  demeritorious,  still, 
according  to  the  opinion  of  Suarez  (De  gratia,  X,  ii,  5 
sqq.),  it  is  more  than  doubtful  whether  conversely 
the  mere  omission  of  a  bad  action  is  in  itself  men- 
torious.  But  the  overcoming  of  a  temptation  would 
be  meritorious,  since  this  struggle  is  a  positive  act 
and  not  a  mere  omission.  Since  the  external  work 
as  such  derives  its  entire  moral  value  from  the  interior 
disposition,  it  adds  no  increase  of  merit  except  in  so 
far  as  it  reacts  on  the  will  and  has  the  effect  of  inten- 
sifying and  sustaining  its  action  (cf.  De  Lugo,  "De 
poenit.",  disp.  xxiv,  sect.  6). 

As  to  the  second  requisite,  i.  e.,  moral  liberty,  it  is 
dear  from  ethics  that  actions,  due  to  external  force  or 
internal  compulsion,  can  deserve  neither  reward  nor 

Sunishment.  It  is  an  axiom  of  criminal  jurisprudence 
lat  no  one  shall  be  punished  for  a  misdeed  done 
without  free  will ;  similarly^  a  good  work  can  onl^  then 
be  meritorious  and  deservmg  of  reward  when  it  pro- 
ceeds from  a  free  determination  of  the  will.  This  is 
the  teaching  of  Christ  (Matt.,  xix,  21):  "If  thou 
wilt  be  perfect,  go  sell  what  thou  hast,  and  give  it  to 
thepoor,  and  thou  shalt  have  treasure  in  heaven." 

The  necessity  of  the  third  condition,  i.e.,  of  the 
influence  of  actual  grace,  is  clear  from  the  fact  that 
every  act  meriting  heaven  must  evidently  be  super- 
natiiral  just  as  heaven  itself  is  supernatural,  and 
that  consequently  it  cannot  be  performed  without  the 
help  of  prevenient  and  assisting  grace,  which  is  neces- 
sary even  for  the  just.  The  strictly  supernatural 
destiny  of  the  Beatific  Vision,  for  whicn  the  Christian 
must  strive,  necessitates  ways  and. means  which  lie 
alto^ther  beyond  what  is  purely  natural  (see  Grace). 

Finally,  a  supernatural  motive  is  required  because 
eood  works  must  be  supernatural,  not  only  as  regards 
uieir  object  and  circumstances,  but  also  as  regards 
the  end  for  which  they  are  performed  {ex  fine).  But, 
in  assigning  the  necessary  qualities  of  this  motive,  the- 
ologians mffer  widely.  While  some  require  the 
motive  of  faith  {motivum  ftdei)  in  order  to  have  merit, 
others  demand  in  addition  the  motive  of  charity 
(motivuin  cantaHs),  and  thus,  by  rendering  the  con- 
ditions more  difficult,  considerably  restrict  the  extent 
of  meritorious  works  (as  distinguished  from  merely 
good  works).  Others  again  set  down  as  the  only 
condition  of  merit  that  the  ^ood  work  of  the  just  man, 
who  already  has  habitual  faith  and  charity,  be  in  con- 
formity with  the  Divine  law,  and  reauire  no  other 
special  motive.  This  last  opinion,  which  is  in  ac- 
cordance with  the  practice  of  the  majority  of  the 
faithful,  is  tenable,  provided  faith  and  chanty  exert 


at  least  an  habitual  (not  necessarily  virtual  or  actual) 
influence  upon  the  ^xxl  work,  'vduch  influence  essen- 
tially consists  in  this,  that  man  at  the  time  of  hia 
conversion  makes  an  act  of  faith  and  of  love  of  God, 
thereby  knowingly  and  willingly  beginning  his  supNer- 
natural  journey  towards  God  in  neaven;  this  intention 
habitually  retains  its  influence  as  long  as  it  has  not 
been  revoked  by  mortal  sin.  And,  since  there  is  a  grave 
obligation  to  make  acts  of  faith,  hope,  and  charily 
from  time  to  time,  these  two  motives  will  thereby  be  oo- 
casionally  renewed  and  revived.  For  the  controversy 
regarding  the  motive  of  faith  see  Chr.  Pesch,  ''Preelect. 
dogmat.'^,  V,  3rd  ed.  (1908),  225  sqq.;  on  the  motive 
of  charity,  see  Pohle,  ^'Dogmatik"  II  4th  ed.  (1909), 
565  soq. 

(b)  The  a^ent  who  merits  must  fulfil  two  conditions : 
he  must  be  m  the  state  of  pilgrimage  (status  viob)  ami 
in  the  state  of  grace  (status  gratia).  By  the  state  of 
pilgrimage  is  to  be  imaerstood  our  earthly  Itfe;  death, 
as  a  natural  (although  not  an  essentially  neoessaxy) 
limit,  closes  the  time  of  meriting.  The  time  of  sowing 
is  confined  to  this  life;  the  reaping  is  reserved  for  the 
next,  when  no  man  will  be  able  to  sow  either  wheat 
or  cockle.  Comparing  the  earthly  life  with  day  and 
the  time  after  oeath  with  night,  (^rist  says:  ''The 
night  Cometh,  when  no  man  can  work  foneroril" 
(John,  ix,  4;  cf.  EccL,  xi,  3;  Ecclus.,  xiv,-!?).  The 
opinion  proposed  by  a  few  theologians  (Hirscher, 
Schell),  that  for  certain  classes  of  men  there  may 
still  be  a  possibility  of  conversion  after  death,  is 
contrary  to  the  revealed  truth  that  the  particular 
judgment  (judicium  particulare)  determines  instantly 
and  definitively  whether  the  future  is  to  be  one  of 
eternal  happiness  or  of  eternal  misery  (cf .  Kleutgen, 
"Theologie  der  Voraeit",  II,  2nd  ed.,  MQnster,  1872, 
pp.  427  sqq.).  Baptised  children,  who  die  before 
attaining  the  age  of  reason,  are  admitted  to  heaven 
without  merits  on  the  sole  utle  of  inheritance  (tUulus 
hcereditatis);  in  the  case  of  adults,  however,  there  is 
the  additional  title  of  reward  (tittdus  mercedis),  and 
for  that  reason  they  will  enjoy  a  greater  measure  of 
eternal  happiness. 

In  addition  to  the  state  of  pilgrimage^  the  state  of 
grace  (i.e.,  the  possession  of  sancti^inp  grace)  is 
required  for  meriting  because  only  the  just  can  be 
"sons  of  God"  and  'Haeirs  of  heaven"  (cf.  Rom.,  vm^ 
17).  In  the  parable  of  the  vine  Christ  expressly 
declares  the  "abiding  in  him"  a  necessary  condition 
for  "  bearing  fruit":  "  He  that  abideth  in  me,  and  I  in 
him,  the  same  beareth  much  fruit"  (John,  xv,  5) ;  and 
this  constant  union  with  Christ  is  efiPected  oidy  by 
sanctifying  grace.  In  opposition  to  Vasquex^  most 
theologians  are  of  opinion  that  one  who  is  noher  will 
gain  greater  merit  for  a  given  work  than  one  who  is 
less  holy,  although  the  latter  perform  the  same  work 
under  exactly  the  same  circumstances  and  in  the  same 
way.  The  reason  is  that  a  higher  degree  of  grace 
enhances  the  godlike  dignity  oi  the  agent,  and  this 
dignity  increases  the  value  of  the  merit.  Ihis  ex- 
plains why  God,  in  consideration  of  the  ereater  holi- 
ness of  some  saints  specially  dear  to  Him,  nas  deigned 
to  grant  favours  which  otherwise  He  would  have 
refiised  (Job,  xlii,  8 ;  Dan.,  iii,  35). 

(c)  Merit  requires  on  the  part  of  God  that  He  accept 
(in  actu  secundo)  the  good  work  as  meritorious,  even 
though  the  work  in  itself  (in  actu  primo)  ana  pre- 
vious to  its  acceptance  by  God,  be  already  truly 
meritorious.  Theologians,  however,  are  not  agreed 
as  to  the  necessity  of  this  condition.  The  Sootists 
hold  that  the  entire  condignity  of  the  good  work  rests 
exclusively  on  the  gratuitous  promise  of  God  and  Hia 
free  acceptance,  without  which  even  the  most  heroic 
act  is  devoid  of  merit,  and  with  which  even  mere 
naturally  good  works  may  become  meritorious. 
Other  theologians  with  Suarez  (De  ^tia,  XIII,  30) 
maintain  that,  before  and  without  Divine  acceptance, 
the  strict  equality  that  exists  between  meat  and  r»* 


lOftlT  207 


ward  founds  a  claim  of  justice  to  have  the  good  works  fluous  because,  notwithstanding  the  right  to  eternal 

rewarded  in  heaven.    Both  these  views  are  extreme,  glory,  the  actual  possession  of  it  must  necessarily  be 

The  Scotists  almost  completely  lose  sight  of  the  godlike  put  off  until  death,  and  even  then  depends  upon  the 

dignity  which  belongs  to  the  j  ust  as  "  adopted  children  condition : "  si  tamen  in  ^tia  decessent ' '  (provided  he 

of  God",   and  which  naturally  impresses  on  their  depart    in    grace).    With    this    last    condition    the 

supernatural  actions  the  character  otmeritoriousness;  council  wished  also  to  inculcate  the  salutary  truth  that 

Suares,  on  the  other  hand,  unnecessarily  exaggerates  sanctifying  grace  may  be  lost  by  mortal  sm,  and  that 

the  notion  of  Divine  justice  and  the  condignity  of  the  loss  of  the  state  of  erace  ipso  facto  entails  the 

merit,  for  the  abyss  that  lies  between  human  service  forfeiture  of  all  merits  however  great.    Even  the 

and  Divine  remuneration  is  ever  so  wide  that  there  greatest  saint,  should  he  die  in  the  state  of  mortal  sin, 

oould  be  no  obligation  of  bridging  it  over  by  a  gratui-  arrives  in  eternity  as  an  enemv  of  God  with  empty 

tous  promise  of  reward  and  the  subsequent  ac^ptance  hands,  j  ust  as  if  during  life  he  haa  never  done  anything, 

on  the  part  of  God  who  has  bound  himself  by  His  own  meritorious.    All  his  former  rights  to  grace  and  glory 

fiddity.     Hence  we  prefer  with  Lessius  (ue  perfect,  are  cancelled.    To  make  them  revive  a  new  justin- 

moribusque  div.,  XIU,  ii)  and  De  Lugo  (De  incamat.  cation  is  necessary.    On  this  ''revival  of  merits" 

disp.  3,  sect.  1  sq.)  to  follow  a  middle  course.    We  (reviviacentia  meritorum)  see  Schiffini,   "De  gratia 

therefore  say  that  the  condignity  between  merit  and  divina''  (Freiburg,  1901),  pp.  661  sqq.;  this  Question 

reward  owes  its  origin  to  a  twofold  source:  to  the  in-  is  treated  in  detail  by  Pohle,  "Dogmatik'\  UI  (4tb 

trinsic  value  of  the  good  work  and  to  the  free  accept-  ed..  Paderborm  1910),  pp.  440  sqq. 
ance  anclgratuitous  promise  of  God  (cf .  James,  i.  12).        As  the  third  object  of  merit  the  coimcil  mentions 

See  Schifluiiy  "De  gratia  divina"  (Freiburg,  1901), pp.  the  "increase  of  glory"  {gloruB  cnigmerUum)  which 

416  sqo.  evidently  must  correspond  to  the  increase  of  eraoe.afi 

IV.  The  Objects  of  Merit. — ^Meiit  in  the  strict  this  corresponds  to  the  accumulation  of  good  works, 

sense  (meritum  de  condigno)  ^ves  a  right  to  a  threefold  At  the  Last  Day,  when  Christ  will  come  wiQi  his  angels 

reward:  increase  of  sanctifymg  grace,  heavenly  glory,  to  jud^  the  world,  "He  will  render  to  every  man 

and  the  increase  thereof;  other  graces  can  be  acquired  accordmg  to  his  works  [aecundum  opera  eitiaY'  (Matt., 

onlv  in  virtue  of  coiigruous  merit  (mm^tim  (2e  conyrtio).  xvi,  27;  cf.  Rom.,  ii,  6).    And  St.  Paul  repeats  the 

(a)  In  its  Sixth  Session  (can.  xxxii),  the  Coimcil  same  (I  Cor.,  iii,  8):  "Every  man  shall  receive  his  own 

of  Trent  declared:  "If  any  one  saith  .  .  .  that  the  reward,  according  to  his  own  labour  [secundum  suum 

justified  man  by  good  works  •  .  •  does  not  truly  merit  laborem]".    This  explains  the  inequality  that  exists 

[vere  merert\  increase  of  grace,  eternal  life,  and  the  between  the  glory  of  the  different  saints, 
attainment  of  that  eternal  life — ^if  so  be,  however,        (b)  By  his  good  works  the  just  man  may  merit  fot 

that  he  depart  in  grace — and  also  an  increase  in  glory;  himself  many  graces  and  favours,  not,  however,  by 

let  him  be  anathema."    The  expression  "  vere  meren"  right  and  justice  {de  condigno),  but  only  congruously 

shows  that  the  three  objects  mentioned  above  can  be  (m  congruo).    Most  theologians  incline  to  the  opinion 

merited  in  the  true  and  strict  sense  of  the  word,  viz..  that  the  grace  of  final  perseverance  is  amone  tne  ob- 

de  condiano.    Increase  of  grace  (augmenium  gratuB)  jects  of  congruous  merit,  which  grace,  as  has  becai 

is  named  in  the  first  place  to  exclude  the  first  grace  of  shown  above,  is  not  and  cannot  be  merited  condignlv. 

justification  ooncemmg  which  the  council  had  already  It  is  better,  however,  and  safer  if,  with  a  view  to  oD- 

tauj^t:  **  None  of  those  things,  which  precede  Justin-  tainine  this  great  grace  on  which  our  eternal  happiness 

cation — ^whether  faith  or  works-— merit  the  ^ce  itself  depends,  we  nave  recourse  to  fervent  and  unremitting 

of  justification"  (Sess.  VI.  cap.  viii).    This  impossi-  prayer,  for  Christ  held  out  to  us  that  above  all  our 

bility  of  meriting  the  first  nabitual  grace  is  as  much  a  spiritual  needs  he  would  infallibly  hear  our  prayer  for 

dogma  of  our  faith  as  tiie  absolute  iinpossibilityof  tnis  great  gift  (cf.  Matt.,  xxi,  22;  Mark,  xi,  24;  Luke, 

meriting  the  first  actual  grace  (see   Gtrace).    The  xi,9;  John,xiv,  13,  etc.).    For  further  explanation  see 

growlh  m  sanetifyine  grace,  on  the  other  hand,  is  per-  Bellarmine,   "De  justif.",   V,   xxii;  Tepe,   ''Instit. 

lecUy  evident  from  both  Scripture  and  Tradition  (d,  theol.",  Ill  (Paris,  1896),  258  sqq. 
Eodus.,  xviii,  22;  II  Cor.,  ix,  10;  Apoo.,  xxii,  11  sq.).        It  is  impossible  to  answer  with  equal  certainty  the 

To  the  question  whether  the  right  to  actual  graces  question  whether  the  just  man  is  able  to  merit  in 

needed  by  the  just  be  also  an  object  of  strict  merit,  advance  the  grace  of  conversion,  if  perchance  he 

theologians  commonly  answer  that,  together  with  the  should  happen  to  fall  into  mortal  sin.    St.  Thomas 

increase  of  habitual  flprace,  merely  sumcient  graces  may  denies  this  absolutely:  "Nullus  potest  sibi  mereri 

be  merited  de  conaigno,  but  not  efficacious  graces,  reparationem  post  lapsum  futurum  neoue  merito  con- 

The  reason  is  that  the  right  to  efficacious  graces  dignineque  merito  congrui"  (SummaTheoL,  I-II,Q. 

would  necessarily  include  the  strict  right  to  final  per-  cxiv,  a.  7).   But  because  the  Prophet  Jehu  declared  to 

severance,  which  lies  completely  outside  the  sphere  Josaphat,  the  wicked  King  of  Juda  (cf.  II  Par.,  xix,  2 

of  oondig^  merit  although  it  may  be  obtained  by  sqq.).  that  God  had  regard  forhis  former  merits,  almost 

prayer  (see  Grace).    Not  even  heroic  acts  give  a  all  otner  theologians  consider  it  a  "pious  and  probable 

strict  ri^t  to  graces  which  are  always  efficacious  or  to  opinion '  *  that  God.  in  granting  the  grace  of  conversion, 

final  perseverance,  for  even  the  greatest  saint  is  still  does  not  entirely  disregard  the  merits  lost  by  mortal 

obliged  to  watch,  pray\,  and  tremble  lest  he  fall  from  sin,  especially  if  the  merits  previously  acquired  surpass 

the  state  of  grace.    Tnis  explains  why  the  Coimcil  in  number  and  weight  the  sins,  which,  perhaps,  were 

of  Trent  purposely  omitted  efficacious  grace  and  the  due  to  weakness,  and  if  those  merits  are  not  crushed, 

gift  of  perseverance,  when  it  enumerated  the  objects  as  it  were,  by  a  burden  of  iniquity  (cf.  Suarez,  "De 

of  merit.  ^  ^tia",  XII,  38).    Prayer  for  future  conversion  from 

life  everiasting  {vUa  cstema)  is  the  second  object  sin  is  indeed  morally  good  and  useful  (cf .  Ps.,  Ixz,  9), 

of  merit;  the  dogmatical  proof  for  this  assertion  has  because  the  disposition  by  which  we  sincerely  widi 

been  given  above  in  treating  of  the  existence  of  merit,  to  be  freed  as  soon  as  possible  from  the  state  of  enmity 

It  stDlremains  to  inquire  whether  the  distinction  made  with  God  cannot  but  oe  pleasing  to  Him.    Temporal 

b^  the  Council  of  Trent  between   vUa  CBiema  and  blessings,  such  as  health,  freedom  from  extreme  pov- 

vito  cUenus  conaecuUo  is  meant  to  signify  a  twofold  erty,  success  in  one's  undertakingB,  seem  to  be  objects 

reward:  "life  everiasting"  and  "the  attainment  of  of  congruous  merit  only  in  so  far  as  they  are  con* 

life  everlasting",  and  hence  a  twofold  object  of  merit,  dudve  to  eternal  salvation ;  for  only  on  this  hypoth»- 

But  theologians  rightly  deny  that  the  council  had  this  sis  do  they  assume  the  character  of  actual  graces  (cf 

in  view,  because  it  is  clear  that  the  right  to  a  reward  Matt.,  vi,  33).    But,  for  obtaining  temporal  favours, 

coincides  with  the  rig^t  to  the  payment  of  the  same,  prayer  is  more  effective  than  meritorious  works,  pro- 

Nevertheless,  the  distinction  was  not  useless  or  super-  vided  that  the  granting  of  the  petition  be  not  agamst 


208  MBUttPTAH 

tfae  den^s  of  God  or  the  true  welfare  of  him  who  li^ous  conflict  Leo  XIII  made  the  newly  elected 

praya.     The  juat  man  may  merit  dertmjrwo  for  others  Bishop  of  Lausanne  also  Bishop  of  Geneva,  without, 

\e,  K-,  parents,  relatives,  and   friends)  whatever  he  however,dcprivinK  Mermillodof  hisofEce.     The  Gov- 

is  able  to  merit  for  himself:  the  grace  of  conversion,  emment  did  not,  however,  alter  its  tactics,  and  Mer- 

final  pereeverance,  temporal  blessings,  nay  even  the  millod  could  return  to  Switiorland  only  after  the  death 

very  nrBtprevenient  grace  (gratia  prima  tn-ceveniena),  ofthebishopwhoseHUccesBorhe  became.     Theconflict 

(Bumma'riieol.,1-11,  Q.  cxiv,  a.  6)  which  he  can  in  no  was,however,  byno  meansatanend.for  thecantonof 

wise  merit  for  himself.     St,  Thomas  gives  asreason  QenevaretuBedtorecogniiehimasbiHhop,  and  normal 

for  this  the  intimate  bond  of  friendship  which  sancti-  relations  were  nwumed  onlv  when  HermUlod  became 

lying  grace  establishes  between  the  just  man  and  God,  cardinal  in  1890.     Cardinal  Mermillod  was  one  of  the 

These   effects    are    immeasurably  strengtbeoed    by  great  preachers  of  modem  times.     In  his  far-sifted 

prayer  for  others;  as  it  is  beyond  doubt  that  prayer  policy  he  founded  in  1885  the  "Union  CathoUque 

plays  an  important  part  in  the  present  economy  of  d'itudes  sociales  et  Sconomiques".     His  "Lettrea  4 

salvation.    For  further  explanation  see  Suarei,     De  un  Protestant  sur  I'autorit^  de  ll^glise  et  le  schisms" 

fcratia",  XII,  38.     Contrary  to  the  opinion  of  a  few  (Paris,  I860)  made  a  great  impression.     Another  im- 

theologians  (e.g.,  BiUuart),  we  hold  that  even  a  man  portant  work  was  hie    De  la  vie  Humaturella  dans  lei 

in  mortal  sin,  provided  he  co-operate  with  the  first  tones"   (Lyons,   1865;  Paris,   1881).    His  collected 

grace  of  conversion,  is  able  to  merit  d«  ymgruo  by  hia  workswereeditedbyGroepellier  (Paris,  1893)  in  three 

supernatural  acts  not  only  a  series  of  graces  which  will  volumes. 

lead  to  converaion,  but  finally  justification  itself;  K«tjj™,7hrrtm*Mm«mP'mn.i8M)iBi;u*c.i^« 

at  all  events  it  is  oertam  that  he  mav  obtain  these  *'™'itod.«"^'"'«"™'*"»'"™<°'^f»'nt""«- "« 


HeniBptfth  I  (1234?- 1214  b.  c),  the  fourth  king  of 
the  nineteenth  Ewptian  dynaatv  and  the  supposed 
Pharaoh  of  the  &odus,  was  tne  thirteenth  son  ot 
Rameses  II  whom  he  succeeded  in  or  about  1234  b.  c, 
being  then  long  past  middle  age.  His  rule  lasted 
some  twenty  years,  during  which  he  carried  on  consid- 
erable  buildmg  operations  in  the  Delta,  and  notably  at 
Tanis  (Zoan),  where,  indeed  as  elsewhere,  he  usurped  a 
number  of  some  of  bis  predecessors'  monuments.  Hia 
original  wtffks  are  comparatively  few  and  insignificant- 
His  name  is  constantly  found  on  the  monuments  of  hia 
father;  it  appeara  also  in  Nubia,  and  in  tbe  old  quar- 
ries in  the  einaitic  peninsula.  In  his  third  year,  he 
quelled  a  revolt  to  the  N.  E.,  possibly  ercited  by  tbe 
Hittitea;  and  in  bia  fifth  year,  he  repelled  an  invasioD 
of  Egypt  by  the  Lybians  and  their  allies^  which  victory 
is  boastfully  described  on  a  black  granite  stela  found 
in  1896  in  his  funeral  temple  at  Thebes,  and  bearing 
the  eariiest  known  reference  to  Israel.  He  is  com- 
cKMuuis,  .isiu/-  monly  regarded  as  the  Pharaoh  of  the  Exodus  on  tbe 

J.  PoHLE.  following  grounds.  On  the  one  hand,  recent  Egvp. 
tian  discoveries  have  shown  that  Rameses  II  founded 
Hennillod,  Gaspasd,  Bishop  of  Lausanne  and  car-  the  cities  represented  in  Ex.,  i,  11,  as  built  by  the  op- 
dinal,  b.  at  Carougc,  Switzerland,  22  Sept.,  1824;  d.  in  pressed  Hebrews,  and  therefore  point  to  him  as  tbe 
Rome,  23  Feb.,  1892.  He  studied  at  the  Jesuit  Col-  Pharaoh  ,!  the  oppression.  On  the  other  hand,  Ex 
lege  at  Freiburg,  Switzerland;  became  a  priest  in  1847,  ii,  23;  '.v,  19,  imply  that  the  inmiediate  successor  of 
and  was  soon  after  a  curate  in  Geneva,  where  he  e»-  that  Pharaoh  was  on  the  throne  when  Hoses  returned 
tablished  two  periodicals:  "L'ObBcrvat«UT  Catho-  to  Egypt  where  he  soon  delivered  bis  people.  Whence 
lique"  and  "Les  Aimalcs  Catholiques".  In  1857  he  it  is  not  unnaturally  Liferr«d  that  Uemeptah  I,  Ram- 
b^me  parish  priest  of  Geneva  and  at  the  same  time  esea'  son  and  successor,  is  the  Pharaoh  ot  tbe  Exodus. 
Vicar-General  of  the  Bishop  of  Lausanne  for  the  can-  The  chief  objection  to  Uus  view  is  that  it  seems  to  eon- 
ton  of  Geneva.  The  splendid  edifice  of  Notre-Dame,  tradict  the  final  strophe  of  Memeptah's  "Hymn  of 
still  the  principal  church  of  Geneva,  was  built  by  him  Victory"  over  the  Lybians  inscribed  on  the  granite 
from  1851  to  1859.  The  funds  were  subscribed  from  stela  alrcpdy  referred  to.  After  relating  the  subjeo- 
alt  parts  of  Christendom.  In  1864  he  became  titular  tion  of  C^ansau  and  of  Ascalon  by  the  Egyptians,  this 
Bisnop  of  Hebron, andauxiliary  of  the  Bishop  of  Lau-  inscri[;tion  adds:  "Israel  is  spoiled,  his  seed  is  not; 
sarme  for  the  canton  of  Geneva,  with  residence  at  Palestine  has  become  a  widow  for  E^pt."  How  can 
Geneva.  For  seven  years  he  pursued  without  hin-  Memeptah  I  be  the  Pharaoh  of  the  Exodus  since  ao- 
drance  his  episcopal  functions,  and  was  esDecially  cording  to  the  obvious  meaning  of  this  passage,  the 
active  for  Catholic  education,  founding  with  Marie  de  Israelites  when  defeated  by  him  were  already  settled 
Sales  Chappuis  the  female  Oblates  of  Saint  Francis  of  in  Palestine,  a  settlement  which  as  we  know  from  the 
Sales  at  "ftoyea  for  the  protection  of  poor  working  Bible  was  effected  only  after  a  forty  years'  wandering 
girls.  When  the  Holy  See  made  him  independent  and  therefore  after  Memeptah's  deathT  Tiiis  diffi- 
Administrator  of  Geneva,  the  Radical  Govemment  of  cultv  has  led  many  scholars  to  consider  an  earlier  king 
the  canton  protested,  and  a  long  and  serious  conflict  as  tne  Pharaoh  o!  the  Exodus,  while  others  have  an- 
eneued.  He  was  at  first  forbidden  to  exereise  any  swered  it  in  various  ways.  Tne  following  is  its  most 
episcopal  functions  whatever,  and  later  was  declared  probable  solution,  Scholars  not  expecting  the  exact 
deposed  even  as  regarded  his  functions  as  a  parish-  truth  to  be  told  in  an  Egyptian  inscnption  concerning 
pnest.  When  the  Bishop  ot  Lausanne  renoimced  un-  tbe  Exodus  disaster,  and  noticing  that  in  the  final 
conditionally  the  title  of  tbe  See  of  Geneva,  the  pope  strophe  of  Memeptah's  "  Hymn  of  Victory  "  an  actual 
appointed  Mermillod  to  be  Vicar-Apostolio  of  Geneva,  boastful  misrepresentation  of  his  relation  to  the  Hit- 
Ine  City  Council,  then,  caused  his  expulsion  from  tittes,  precedes  almost  irrmiediately  the  distinct  refep- 
Switxerland,  whereupon  he  repaired  to  Femey,   in     ence  to  Israelas  "spoiled",  will  readily  think  that  tbe 

"        ■■■■  -         _.,..        .  ,,.         .         "lemeptah  over  the  Israelites 

il  mitrepreaeniatiop  cf  wfaM 


mally  happened  to  him  as  the  Pharaoh  of  the  Ezodus.  the  clearing  of  the  approaches  of  Santa  Maria  degB 

Memeptah's  mummy  was  discovered  in  1896  and  iden-  Angeli,  the  opening  of  streets  in  the  new  section  of 

tafied  m  1900.    This  find  does  not  disprove  the  iden-  Rome,  the  sanitation  of  the  old  quarters  by  the  Tiber, 

tity  of  that  monarch  with  the  Pharaoh  of  the  Exodus,  etc.    Mis  impetuous  temperament  and  progressive 

for  nothing  in  the  Sacred  Text  requires  the  admission  views  made  him  enemies  among  the  old  traditional 

that  Pharaoh  pursued  the  Israelites  in  person,  or  was  Roman  element  just  as  the  vehemence  with  which  he 

drowned  as  a  result.  branded   the   French   Emperor's   duplicity   turned 

VioouRoux.  BibU  jA  Dicouvertea  Modemea,  6th  ed.,  11  against  him  the  heads  of  the  French  army  of  oocupa* 

i^  #Sli.  X^^Tdl^'if  te  *^  (f ^  ?oT)l  «?«• .  L«norici6re'8  d«jth  (19  Sept^  1^5)  be«jine 

FuNDBBs  PxTRXB,  HUuny  of  Egypt  (London,  1906);  Breastbd,  the  Signal  of  open  hostility.    Flus  uL  was  forced  to 

/i?***v  SfTSo?^  ^^"'^  (Chicago,  1906);  Hiatorv  of  Effvpt  discharge  his  minister  whose  continuance  in  office,  it 

(New York,  1909}.  r*„.„^«  r?   n^„^^  '^f^  freely  asserted,  meant  the  withdrawal  of  the 

^  «  «     ^        *^ANCiB  E.  OiGOT.  Yreach  troops.    Reduced  to  a  simple  cameriere,  do 

MMiioe,  Saint.    See  Ernan.  M^rode  was  not  forgotten  by  Pius  Dl  on  Hohenlohe's 

MirodSf  Fr£d£rioFran$x>ib-Xavieb  Ghislajn  de,  promotion  to  the  cardinalate,  he  was  given  the  vacant 

a  Belgian  prelate  and  statesman,  b.  at  Brussels,  plaee  of  papal  almoner  and  (22  June,  1866)  conse- 

1820;  d.  at  Rome.  1874.    The  son  oi  F^lix  de  M^rode-  crated  titular  Archbishop  of  Melitene.   His  new  duties 

Westerloo  who  neld  successively  the  portfolios  of  were  to  distribute  the  papal  alms  and  to  confirm 

foreign  affairs,  war,  and  finances  under  King  Leopold,  children  in  danger  of  death,  and  he  acc|[uitted  him- 

and  of  Rosalie  de  Grammont,  he  was  allied  to  the  best  celf  with  a  liberality  and  sseal  that  won  him  the  love 

I  of  France, — Lafayette,  Montmorency,  Clement-  of  the  poor  and  afSicted.    At  the  Vatican  Council, 


Tonnerre,  etc.;  the  M^rode  family  claimed  saints  like  he  showed  the  influence  exercised  over  him  bv  his 
Ehsabeth  of  Himgary,  foimders  like  Werner  who  en-  brother-in-law,  de  Montalembert,  and  sided  with  the 
dowed  the  monastery  of  Schwartzenbroch,  and  a  long  minority  that  deemed  the  definition  of  papal  infalli* 
line  of  captains  from  that  Raymond-B^renger  who  bility  inopportune  and  even  dangerous,  but  submitted 
took  the  cross  at  St.  Bernard's  call,  to  Fr^d^ric,  the  day  tne  dogma  was  defined.  After  the  capture  of 
Xavier's  grandfather,  who  gave  his  life  for  the  au-  Rome  by  the  Piedmontese  (20  Sept.,  1870)  he^  fol- 
tonomy  of  Belf^um.  Bereft  of  his  mother  at  the  a^  lowed  his  master  into  the  retirement  of  the  Vatican, 
of  three,  Xavier  was  brought  up  at  Villersexel,  m  leaving  it  only  to  fight  the  Piedmontese  government's 
Franche-Comt6,  by  his  aimt  Philippine  de  Grammont,  pretensions  on  the  campo  pretoriano  or  to  share  de 
attended  for  a  time  the  Jesuit  College  of  Namur,  then  Rossi's  work  in  the  excavations  of  Tor  Marandno 
entered  the  CoUdge  de  Juilly  presided  over  by  de  which  resulted  in  the  discovery  of  the  Basilica  of  St. 
SaUnis,  whence  he  passed  (1839)  to  the  Militanr  Acad-  Petronilla.  It  is  there  he  welcomed  (14  June,  1874) 
emy  of  Brussels.  Uraduating  with  the  rank  of  second  the  pilgrims  from  the  United  States  and  his  last  public 
lieutenant,  after  a  short  service  at  the  armoury  of  utterances  were  for  them.  Speaking  of  his  kinsman 
Lidge,  he  joined  (1844)  as  foreign  attach^  the  staff  of  Lafayette,  he  regretted  his  detection  from  the  purity 
Marshal  Bugeaud  in  Algeria,  taking  a  brilliant  part  of  the  Catholic  Faith,  but  remarked  that  the  country 
in  the  most  daring  engagements  and  winning  the  which  the  great  general  had  so  loyally  served  was 
cross  of  the  LMon  d'honneur.  In  1847,  he  abruptly  yielding  precious  elements  for  the  upbuilding  of  the 
resigned  the  military  career  and  went  to  studv  for  the  Church;  then,  pointing  to  a  Damasian  inscription  re- 
priesthood  in  Rome,  where  he  was  ordained  (1849).  cently  foimd.  "Credite  per  Damasum  possit  quid 
AiBsigned,  after  his  ordination,  as  chaplain  to  the  ^oria  Christi '',  he  added  with  pathos  that  the  edify- 
French  mrrison  of  Viterbo,  he  was  being  pressed  by  ing  spectacle  of  American  loyalty  to  Pius  IX  justified 
his  family  to  return  to  Belgium  when  Pius  IX,  with  a  him  m  saying,  "Credite  per  Plum  posjsit  quid  gloria 
view  to  attach  him  permanently  to  his  court,  made  Christi".  He  died  of  acute  pneumonia  in  the  arms 
him  eameriere  segreio  (1850),  an  office  which  entailed  of  Pius  DC,  only  a  few  months  oef ore  the  Consistory  in 
the  direction  of  the  Roman  prisons.  The  excellent  which  he  was  to  have  been  made  a  cardinal.  His  re* 
work  done  by  de  M6rode  for  tne  material,  moral,  and  mains  were  laid  to  rest  in  the  Flemish  Cemetery  near 
religious  betterment  of  the  penitentiary  system  in  the  Vatican,  amid  a  vast  concourse  of  people,  the  poor 
Rome  is  described  by  Lefebvre  (Des  ^tabhssements  he  had  so  generously  assisted^  mingling  with  the  pre- 
eharitables  de  Rome,  p.  245.)  and  Maguire  (Rome,  lates,  ambassadors,  and  princes.  De  M^rode,  in 
Its  Ruler  and  Institutions,  p.  238) ;  de  Ravneval,  the  spite  of  his  faults,  will  be  remembered  as  a  model  of 


the  young  eameriere  to  inaugurate  similar  work  in  his  tribute  of  prayers,  the  subscriber's  names  filled  a  large 

metropolis,  and  the  Piedmontese,  despite  their  bias  album  published  at  Turin,  1875. 

against  everything  papal,  found  nothmg  to  change  „Laky,  Monrnnwr  deMindB  (Louvain,  1874);  Bmson.  F. 

S,«i"®    reguiaoons   mtroauoed    py   ae    Meroae.     in  ^^^    ^      ^  ^kSrode  in  Lea  CorUemporatna   (PariB.  s.   d.): 

I860,  when  it  beeame  evident  that  the  insmcere  policy  VEnnxoT*  dWmUa  Catholiquea  Coruemporaina:  Fu>bnot, 

of  Napoleon  III  was  a  poor  safeguard  against  the  Lamorieiira  (puia,  190A),                        t  t?  a 

greed  of  Piedmont,  de  M^rode,  much  agwnst  the  views  •*•  •'^  •  ^ohUXR. 

*'****  ?S^^'l'*^'r^'®*^®^*'y^?^^°^^''^''®^'  MeroTingiana.    See  Franks. 

persuaded  Pius  IX  to  form  a  papal  army  and  sue-  ^ 

eeeded  in  enlisting  the  services  of  Lamorici^re  (g.  v.)  Menenney   Mabin,   French    theologian,  philoso- 

as  commander-in-chief  and  was  himself  appointed  pher,  and  mathematician;  b.  8  September,  1588  near 

minister  of  war.    The  task  assumed  bv  de  M^rode  Oiz6  (now  Department  of  Sarthe);  d.  1  September, 

and  I^unoriddre  was  difficult  and  well-nigh  impossible;  1648..  at  Paris.    He  studied  at  Le  Mans  and  at  the 

yet,  the  disasters  of  Castelfidardo  and  Ancona  were  due,  Jesuit  College  of  La  Fldche,  where  a  lifelong  friendship 

not  to  tl»  incompetence  of  the  chiefs,  nor  solely  to  the  with  Descartes,  his  fellow  student,  ori^ated.    Mer- 

heterogeneous  nature  of  the  recruits  and  the  lack  of  senne  entered  the  novitiate  of  the  Minims  at  Nigeon 

proper  supplies,  but  to  the  treachery  of  the  Piedmont-  near  Paris  (1611),  was  sent  to  Nevers  as  professor  of 

ese  who,  wnile  teigning  to  curb  the  Garibaldian  bands,  philosophy  (1614-1620),  and  returned  to  Paris.    His 

led  them  to  the  assault  of  the  Papal  States.  first   pubucations  were  theological   and   polemical 

Hie  ensuing  years  of  comparative  quiet  de  M6rode  studies  against  Atheism  and  Scepticism,  but  later, 

spent  in  various  public  works;  the  building  at  Us  own  Mersenne  devoted  his  time  almost  exclusively  to 

f]q)en8e  of  the  eampo  preUniano  outside  the  Porta  Pia,  Boienoe,  making  personal  experimental  reBearoheSi  and 

X-— 14 


MISA                                 210  MISOPOTAMXA 

imblishing  a  ntimber  of  works  on   mathematical  The  Moabite  Stone,  perhaps  the  greatest  Biblical 

sciences.    His  chief  merit,  however,  is  rather  the  en-  discovery  of  modem  times,  throws  some  light  on  the 

oouragement  which  he  gave  to  scientists  of  his  time,  period  referred  to.    Through  the  learning  and  enter- 

the  interest  he  took  in  their  work,  and  the  stimulating  prise  of  M.  Clermont-Ganneau,  the  inscription  on  the 

influence  of  his  suggestions  and  questions.    Gassendi  stone  was  published,  and  the  stone  itself  is  now  one  of 

and  Galileo  were  among  his  friends;   but,  above  all.  the  treasures  of  the  Louvre,  Paris.    The  monument, 

Mersenne  is  known  to-day  as  Descs^tes's  friend  ana  discovered  in  1868  at  Dhlb&n  (Dibon)  in  the  land  of 

adviser.    In  fact,  when  Descartes  began  to  lead  a  free  Moab,  is  of  basalt,  about  three  feet  eight  indies  by  two 

and  dissipated  life,  it  was  Mersenne  who  brought  him  feet  three  inches  and  fourteen  inches  thick.    It  lesem- 

back  to  more  serious  pursuits  and  directed  him  toward  bles  a  head-stone,  and  is  inscribed  with  thirty-four 

philosophy.   In  Paris,  Mersenne  was  Descartes's  assid-  lines  of  writing^  which  Mesa  gives  us  the  chief  events 

uous  correspondent,  auxiliary,  and  representative,  as  of  his  reign.    The  stone  was  unfortunately  broken  by 

well  as  his  constant  defender.   The  numerous  and  ve-  the  Arabs  as  soon  as  they  saw  Europeans  taking  an  in- 

hement  attacks  against  the  ''Meditations"  seem,  for  a  terest  in  it;  but  s^ueeses  had  been  takenpreviously,  so 

moment,  to  have  aroused  Malebranche's  suspicions:  that  the  inscription  is  almost  intact.    The  fragmoits 

but  Descartes's  answers  to  his  critics  gave  him  full  were  collected,  and  missing  parts  supplied  by  plaster, 

satisfaction  as  to  his  friend's  orthodoxy  and  sincere  the  inscription  on  which  was  written  trom  the  soueeaes. 

Christian  spirit.   Mersenne  asked  that,  after  his  death,  A  writer  m  Smith's  "  Diet,  of  the  Bible  "  (s.  v.  Moab), 

an  autopsy  be  made  on  his  body,  so  as  to  serve  to  the  knowing  nothing  about  the  Moabite  Stone,  says: 

last  the  mterests  of  science.  "From  the  origin  of  the  nation  and  other  considera- 

Mersenne's  works  are:  ''Qusstiones  celeberrims  in  tions,  we  may  perhaps  conjecture  that  their  language 

Genosim"  (Paris,  1623),  ag^ainst  Atheists  and  Deists;  was  more  a  dialect  of  Hebrew  than  a  different  tongjue  • 

a  part  only  has  been  published,  the  rest  being  still  in  This  oonjectiire  the  Moabite  Stone  makes  a  certainty, 

manuscript,  as  also  a    Commentary  on  St.  Matthew's  "The  historical  allusions  and  geographical  names 

Gospel";   ''L'impi^t^  des  ddistes  et  des  plus  subtils  which  we  find  in  this  inscription  (x  Mesha  tally  so  well 

libertins  ddcouverte  ct  r6f  utde  par  raisons  dc  th^logie  with  the  O.  T.  that  a  suspicion  could  be  aroused  as  to 

et  dc  philosophic"   (Paris,  1624);    "La  v^t^  des  the  genuineness  of  the  stone"  (Jour,  of  the  Am.  Or. 

sciences  contre  les  sceptiques  et  les  pyrrhoniens"  Soc.,  XXII,  61).    Suspicions  have  be^i  aroused,  but 

(Paris,  1625);    "Questions  the61o{^ques,  physiques,  scholars  almost  unanimously  set  them  aside  as  ground- 

morales  et  mathdmatiques"  (Pans,  1634) ;    "  Ques-  less.    From  the  evidence  furnished  by  the  stone  wa 

tions  inouTes,  ou  recreations  des  savants"  (Paris,  may  conclude  that  Josaphat,  King  of  Juda,  and  Mesa, 

1634);  "Les  mdcanioues  de  Gallic"  (Paris,  1634),  a  King  of  Moab,  might  have  conversed,  each  in  his  own 

translation  from  the  Italian;  "Harmonic  universeUe.  tongue,  and  imderstood  each  other.    The  old  Phoeni- 

contenant  la  th^rie  et  la  pratique  de  la  musique  dan  character  (found  also  in  the  SDoam  inscription). 

(Paris,  1636-7);  "  NouveUes  d^uvertes  de  Gali£Se",  the  words,  the  grammatical  forms  and  peculianties  ot 

and  "Nouvelles  pensto  de  Gallic  sur  les  m^caniques"  syntax  in  the  two  lanjguages  are  neariy  identical.  The 

(Paris,  1639),  both  translations;  "Co^tata  physico-  omerenoe  of  pronunciation  we  cannot,  of  course.  estH 

mathematica"  (Paris,  1644);  "£uclidis  elementorum  mate  since  the  vowels  were  not  written.    While  the 

libri,  Apollonii  Pergsei  conica,  Sereni  de  sectione  coni,  stone  seems  to  be  somewhat  at  variance  with  Scrip- 

etc."   (Paris,   162^,  selections  and  translations  of  ture,  yet  the  two  substantiaUy  agree:  Mesa  says  "Omii 

ancient  mathematicians,  published  again  later  with  (Anm)  King  of  Israel  oppressed  Moab",  mentions  his 

notes  and  additions  under  the  title,  '^Universee  geo-  own  revolt  and  adds,  '^Ohemosh  (Chamos)  delivered 

metriiB  mixteque  mathematics  synopsis"    (Paris,  me  from  aU  kings".    He  also  descnbes  his  work  of  f or- 

1644).  tifying  Moab.  and  as  this  made  the  north  very  strong, 

,  D;  Com,  Vis  du  R.  P.Meraenne  (Paris,  1649) ;  VortyElope  we  see  why  the  allies  took  the  route  south  of  the  Dead 

feo'f^'Sr^u'^i-ilV'^i*^^^  Sea  to  attadc  him     The  Bible  hinte 

C.  A.  DuBiLLT.  to  "^  mvaders,  who  withdrew  suddenly  on  the  vciy 

point  of  taking  the  city;  while  Mesa,  like  aU  Oriental 
Mesa  (Gr.,  McM'd;  Moabite  Stone,  WO;  Heb.,  }flff^,  monarchs  in  their  recoras,  may  have  magnified  his  vio- 
meaning  ''deliverance"  according  to  Gesenius),  a  tories  and  either  omitted  or  minimised  his  defeats. 
King  of  Moab  in  the  ninth  centur^r  b.  c,  whose  history  The  discrepancies  therefore  are  only  apparent,  and 
is  given  in  IV  Kkigs,  iiL  He  paid  tribute  to  Achab,  chronological  difficulties  would  be  explained  witn  bet- 
King  of  Israel, ''  a  hundred  thousand  lambs  and  a  him-  ter  knowledge  of  the  history  of  the  period, 
dred  thousand  rams  with  their  fleeces"  (verse  4).  (hjfXiiom-G anvwjlv.  La  SUU  de  MIm,  lU^ 
Tk;..  <M^««i<>  4^  ItotrA  Kuan  r\a\A  onniiollv  tLnA  xraa  nnofli.  "*«  ""^  pubUo  noUco  of  the  Btono;  G1N8BUR0,  The  Moobum 
TTus  seems  to  have  beoi paid  MmuaUy,  and  waspossi-  g^^^  (2na«d..  London.  1871);  Bennktt  In  Haotwos.  Did.  o/ 

ble  smce  Moab  was  nch  m  pastures;  accordmgly  Mesa  the  BibU^  a.  v.  Moab,  gives  inscription,  linguisao  featuns,  vaii- 

is  styled  *TDi.  which,  though  left  tmtranslated  in  the  oub  readings,  etc.;  Gbikis,  Howe  toiih  Uie  Bible:  chap.  IV,  Ho- 

G.«Ji.  4.4^«r4    .«t<^a««c  <(cil«AA*CnwnA«>'*  /^A«lan1l1a^      AffAf  hoboam  to  Hezektah:  VioouROUX,  La  Bible  et,  lea  Dfcouverie9 

reek  text,  ineans    sheep-owner    (Uesemus).   After  3fodmu»,3itied..lV,Bookll.ch.iv;8AYc«.TA«HvA«rCriei- 

in  i?fficy« 
referenoeSf 

him.    They~went  by  the  southern  route  passing  *"      '"""*        ,— .  — .              John  J.  TIbrnbt. 

through  an  arid  country,  where  they  would  have  per-  lur-fc-i,-     «««  nr^a* 

ished  of  drought,  had  not  the  prophet  Eliseus  miracu-  **»"•    oe©  ^^^^ 

ously  supplied  them  with  water.    The  ditches  the^  Mesopotamia,  Kurdistan,  ud  Annenia,  Dels- 

tb>rloo  or 
habitually 

mies  had'killed  one  another,  they  rushed  to  the  camp  in  Bagdad.    Resigning  in  1850,  Mgr.  Triocbe  returned 

with  the  cry  ''  Moab  to  the  spoils  "  (verse  23),  only  to  to  France,  retaining  his  title  of  Archbishop  of  Bagdad, 

be  driven  back  with  great  slaughter.    The  allies  f  ol-  but  losing  that  of  Apostolic  dele^te  which  passed  to 

lowed.    Mesa  having  tried,  with  seven  hundred  war-  other  bishops.    These,  while  having  charge  of  the  ad- 

riors,  to  cut  his  way  through  the  besiegers  and  failed,  ministration  of  the  Archdiocese  of  Bagdad,  resided  at 

todc  his  eldest  son,  and  upon  ^  wall  of  the  city,  in  Mosul,  where  they  could  better  discharge  their  duties 

sight  of  aU,  put  him  to  death.    ''There  was  great  in-  as  Apostolic  dele^tes  in  behalf  of  the  Chaldeans,  Sjni- 

dignation  in  Israel",  so  that,  for  reasons  not  given  in  ans,  and  Armenians.    Four  out  of  six,  from  1860  to 

detafl,  "they  departed  from  bun".  1887,  were  Domioioana.    When  Mgr.  Trioehe  died  in 


MISBOB 


211 


MISBOB 


Fnnee  27  Nov.,  1887^  the  delegate  ApostoliCi  Mgr  Alt- 
mayer,  received  the  title  of  Archbishop  of  Babylon  or 
Bagdad,  but  continued  to  reside  at  Mossul.  In  1902  he 
resgned  and  was  replaced  in  the  See  of  Bagdad  by  a 
Gaimelite»  Mgr.  Drure,  who  on  5  March,  1904,  received 
the  title  of  delegate  Apostolic  of  Mesopotamia  and  still 
bean  it.  He  usuallv  resides  at  Mossul.  The  Delega- 
tion Apostolic  of  Mesopotamia  has  almost  the  same 
boundaries  as  the  Archdiocese  of  Bagdad,  but  comprises 
pait  of  the  mission  of  Greater  Armenia  and  the  Nes- 
torians  of  Turkish  Kurdistan,  which  mission  is  confided 

to  the  Dominicans  of  Mossul.   (See  Bagdad;  Mobsul.) 
PloLBT»  Let  Munom,  I  (PariB,  1900),  236-44. 

8.  VAILHt. 

MeBTob,  also  called  Mabhtots,  one  of  the  greatest 
figures  in  Armenian  histoiy,  b.  about  361  at  Hassik  in 
the  Province  of  Taron;  d.  at  Valarsabad,  441.  He 
was  the  son  of  Vartan  of  the  family  of  the  Mamiko- 
nians.  Goriun,  his  pupil  and  bio^pher,  tells  us  that 
Mesrob  received  a  liberal  education,  and  was  versed 
in  the  Greek,  Syriac,  and  Persian  languages.  On  ac- 
eount  of  his  piety  and  learning  Mesrob  was  appointed 
secretary  to  King  Chosroes  III.  His  duty  was  to 
write  in  Greek,  Persian,  and  Syriac  characters  the  de- 
crees and  edicts  of  the  sovereign,  for,  at  this  time, 
there  was  no  national  alphabet.  But  Mesrob  felt 
called  to  a  more  perfect  life.  Leaving  the  court  for 
the  service  of  God,  he  took  Holy  orders,  and  withdrew 
to  a  monastery  with  a  few  chosen  companions.  There, 
says  Goriun,  he  practised  great  austerities,  enduring 
hunger  and  thirst,  cold  and  poverty.  He  lived  on 
vegetables,  wore  a  hair  shirt,  slept  upon  the  ground, 
and  often  spent  whole  nights  in  prayer  and  the  study 
of  the  Holy  Scriptures.  This  life  he  continued  for  a 
few  vears,  preparing  himself  for  the  great  work  to 
which  Providence  was  soon  to  call  him.  Indeed  both 
Chureh  and  State  needed  his  services.  Armenia,  so 
loD^  the  battle-ground  of  Romans  and  Persians,  lost 
its  independence  in  387,  and  was  divided  between  the 
Byzantme  Empire  and  Persia,  about  four-fifths  beins 

given  to  the  latter.  Western  Armenia  was  governed 
7  Greek  generals,  while  an  Armenian  king  ruled, 
but  only  as  feudatory,  over  Persian  Armenia.  The 
Church  was  naturally  influenced  by  these  violent  polit- 
ical changes,  although  the  loss  of  civil  indepenaence 
and  the  partition  of  the  land  could  not  destroy  its 
Ofganixation  or  subdue  its  spirit.  Persecution  only 
quickened  it  into  greater  activity,  and  had  the  effect 
of  bringing  the  clergy,  the  nobles,  and  the  common 
people  closer  together.  The  principal  events  of  this 
period  are  the  invention  of  tne  Armenian  alphabet, 
the  revision  of  the  liturgy,  the  creation  of  an  ecclesias- 
tical and  national  literature,  and  the  readjustment  of 
hierarchical  relations.  Three  men  are  prominently 
associated  with  this  stupendous  work:  Mesrob,  Patn- 
arch  Isaac,  and  King  Vramshapuh,  who  succeeded  his 
brother  Chosroes  III  in  394. 

Mesrob,  as  we  have  noted,  had  spent  some  time  in  a 
monastery  preparing  for  a  missionary  life.  With  the 
sapport  of  Prince  Shampith,  he  preached  the  Gospel 
in  tne  district  df  Golthn  near  the  Araxes,  converting 
many  heretics  and  pa^ns.  However,  he  experi- 
enced {peat  difficulty  m  instructing  the  people,  for  the 
Anneniana  had  no  alphabet  of  their  own,  but  used  the 
Greek,  Persian,  and  Syriac  scripts,  none  of  which  was 
well  suited  for  representing  the  many  complex  sounds 
of  their  native  ton^e.  Again,  the  Holy  Scriptures 
and  the  liturgy,  bemg  written  in  Syriac,  were,  to  a 
large  extent,  unintelligible  to  the  faithful.  Hence  the 
constant  need  of  translators  and  interpreters  to  ex- 
plain the  Word  of  God  to  the  people.  Mesrob,  desir- 
008  to  remedy  this  state  of  things,  resolved  to  invent  a 
national  alphabet,  in  which  imdertaking  Isaac  and 
King  Vramshapuh  promised  to  assist  him.  It  is  hard 
to  determine  exactly  what  part  Mesrob  had  in  the  fix- 
ing of  the  new  alphabet.    According  to  his  Armenian 


biographers,  he  consulted  Daniel,  a  bishop  of  Meso- 
potamia, and  Rufinus,  a  monk  of  Samosata,  on  the 
matter.  With  their  help  and  that  of  Isaac  and  the 
king,  he  was  able  to  give  a  definite  form  to  the  alpha- 
bet, which  he  probably  adapted  from  the  Greek. 
Others,  like  Lenormant,  think  it  derived  from  the 
Zend.  Mesrob's  alphabet  consisted  of  thirty-six  let- 
ters; two  more  (long  O  and  F)  were  added  in  the 
twelfth  century. 

The  invention  of  the  alphabet  (406)  was  the  begin- 
ning of  Armenian  literature,  and  proved  a  powerful 
factor  in  the  upbuilding  of  the  national  spirit.  ''The 
result  of  the  work  of  Isaac  and  Mesroo",  says  St. 
Martin  (Histoire  du  Bas-Empire  de  Lebeau,  V,  320), 
"was  to  separate  for  ever  tne  Armenians  from  the 
other  peoples  of  the  East,  to  make  of  them  a  distinct 
nation,  and  to  strengthen  them  in  the  Christian  Faith 
by  forbidding  or  rendering  profane  all  the  foreign 
alphabetic  scripts  which  were  employed  for  tran- 
scribing the  books  of  the  heathens  and  of  the  followers 
of  Zoroaster.  To  Mesrob  we  owe  the  preservation  of 
the  language  and  literature  of  Armenia;  but  for  his 
work,  tne  people  would  have  been  absorbed  by  the 
Persians  and  Syrians,  and  would  have  disappeared 
like  so  many  nations  of  the  East''.  Anxious  that 
others  should  profit  by  his  discovery,  and  encouraged 
by  the  patriarch  and  the  king,  Mesrob  founded  nu- 
merous schools  in  different  parts  of  the  country,  in 
which  the  youth  were  taught  the  new  alphabet.  But 
his  activity  was  not  confined  to  Eastern  Armenia. 
Provided  with  letters  from  Isaac  he  went  to  Constan- 
tinople and  obtained  from  the  Emperor  Theodosius 
the  Younger  permission  to  preach  and  teach  in  his 
Armenian  posisessions.  He  evangelised  successively 
the  Georgians,  Albanians,  and  Aghouanghks,  adapt- 
ing his  atphabet  to  their  languages,  and,  wherever  he 
preached  the  Gospel,  he  buut  schools  and  appointed 
teachers  and  priests  to  continue  his  work.  Having 
returned  to  Elastem  Armenia  to  report  on  his  missions 
to  the  patriarch,  his  first  thought  was  to  provide 
a  religious  literature  for  his  countrymen.  Having 
gathered  aroimd  him  numerous  disciples,  he  sent 
some  to  Edessa,  Constantinople,  Athens,  Antioch, 
Alexandria,  and  other  centres  of  learning,  to  study 
the  Greek  language  and  bring  back  the  masterpieces 
of  Greek  literature.  The  most  famous  of  hisjbupils 
were  John  of  Egheghlatz,  Joseph  of  Baghin,  Esnik, 
Goriun,  Moses  otChorene,  and  John  Manoakuni. 

The  first  monument  of  this  Armenian  literature  is 
the  version  of  the  Holy  Scriptures.  Isaac,  says 
Moses  of  Chorene,  made  a  translation  of  the  Bible 
from  the  Syriac  text  about  411.  This  work  must 
have  been  considered  imperfect,  for  soon  afterwards 
John  of  Egheghiatz  and  Joseph  of  Baghin  were  sent  to 
Edessa  to  translate  the  Scriptures.  They  journeyed 
as  far  as  Constantinople,  and  brought  back  with  them 
authentic  copies  of  the  Greek  text.  With  the  help  of 
other  copies  obtained  from  Alexandria  the  Bible  was 
translated  again  from  the  Greek  according  to  the  text 
of  the  Septuagint  and  Origen's  Hexapla.  This  ver- 
sion, now  in  use  in  the  Armenian  Chureh,  was  com- 
pleted about  434.  The  decrees  of  the  first  three 
coimcils — Nictea,  Constantinople,  and  Ephesus — and 
the  national  lituigy  (so  far  written  in  Syriac)  wert 
idso  translated  into  Armenian,  the  latter  being  re- 
vised on  the  liturgy  of  St.  Basil,  though  retaining  char- 
acteristics of  its  own.  Many  works  of  the  Greek 
Fathers  also  passed  into  Armenian.  The  loss  of  the 
Greek  originals  has  given  some  of  these  versions  a 
special  Importance;  thus,  the  second  part  of  Euse- 
bius's  "Chronicle",  of  which  only  a  few  fragments 
exist  in  the  Greek,  has  been  preserved  entire  in  Ar- 
menian. In  the  midst  of  his  literary  labours  Mesrob 
did  not  neglect  the  spiritual  needs  of  the  people.  He 
revisited  the  districts  he  had  evangelised  in  his  earlier 
years,  and,  after  the  death  of  Isaac  in  440,  looked 
after  the  spiritual  administration  of  the  patriarchate. 


MIS8ALIANS 


212 


MI8SIAS 


He  survived  his  friend  and  master  only  six  months. 
The  Annenians  read  his  name  in  the  Canon  of  the 
Mass,  and  celebrate  his  memory  on  19  February. 

SiOTB  AND  Wacb,  Dtct.  ChHtt.  BtoQ.,  8.  V.  MesToba;  Lano- 
ix>i8.  Collection  dee  Hietoriene  de  VAmUnie.  II  (Paris,  1869); 
Weber,  Die  kathol.  Kirche  in  Armenien  (1903);  Neumann, 
Vereueh  einer  Oeach.  der  armen.  IMteratur  (Leipzig,  1836); 
Qardthausen,  (7e6«r  den  griech.  Unpruno  der  armen.  Schrift  m 
Zeitechr.  der  deutach.  morgenlAnd,  OeaelUchaft,  XXX  (1876) ;  Le- 
NORMANT,  Esaai  eur  la  propagation  de  ralp?uibet  ph^icien,  I 
(1872).  A.  A.  Vaschalde. 

Messalians  (Prasdnff  folk;  participle  Pa'el  of  vh^, 
Aramaic  for  "to  prajr"),  an  heretical  sect  which  origi- 
nated in  Mesopotamia  about  360  and  survived  in  the 
East  until  the  ninth  century.  They  are  also  called 
Euchites  from  the  Greek  translation  of  their  Oriental 
name  (t^xirai  from  tOxofuu,  to  pray);  Adelphians 
from  their  first  leader;  Lampetians  from  Liampetius, 
their  first  priest  (ordained  about  458);  Enthusiasts 
from  their  peculiar  tenet  of  the  indwelling  of  the  Holy 
Ghost  by  Whom  they  thought  themselves  inspired  or 
possessed  (Ivtfovf).  The  non-Christian  sect  of  the 
£uphemites  were  also  called  Messalians,  and  Epipha- 
nius  (Hser.,  Ixxx),  our  sole  informant  about  these, 
considers  them  the  forerunners  of  the  Christian  Mes- 
salians.  The  non-Christian  Messalians  are  said  to 
have  admitted  a  plurality  of  gods,  but  to  have  wor- 
shipped only  one,  the  Almighty  (TLaproKpdrwp),  They 
were  forcibly  suppressed  by  Cluistian  magistrates  and 
many  of  them  put  to  death.  Hence  they  oecame  self- 
styled  Martyriani.  The  Christian  Messalians  were  a 
kmd  of  Eastern  Circumcellions  or  vagrant  Quietists. 
Sacraments  they  held  to  be  useless,  though  harmless, 
the  only  spiritiml  power  being  prayer,  by  which  one 
drove  out  the  evil  spirit  which  baptism  had  not  ex- 
pelled, received  the  indwelling  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  and 
arrived  at  union  with  God.  becoming  so  perfect  that 
the  passions  ceased  to  trouole.  They  disregarded  dis- 
cipline in  the  matter  of  fasting,  wandered  from  place 
to  place,  and  in  summer  were  accustomed  to  sleep  in 
the  streets.  To  avoid  persecution  they  would  conform 
to  ecclesiastical  usajges,  profess  orthodoxy,  and  deny 
any  heretical  doctrines  ascribed  to  them.  Tliey  en- 
gaged in  no  occunations,  were  solely  occupied  in 
prayer,  as  they  saia,  or  rather  in  sleep,  as  Theodoret 
sarcastically  remarks.  The  intensity  of  their  prayer 
brought  them  into  immediate  communication  with  the 
Godhead.  When  they  had  reached  the  passionless 
state  (dwddwi,  "apathy"),  they  saw  the  TVinity,  the 
three  Divine  Persons  becoming  one  and  dwelling  within 
them.  They  likewise  saw  the  evil  spirits  tnat  go 
through  the  world  for  the  ruin  of  souls,  and  trod  them 
under  foot.  In  fact  every  man  had  within  him  a 
demon,  who  could  only  be  replaced  by  the  Holy 
Ghost.    Even  Christ's  body  was  full  of  demons  once. 

Flavian,  the  Bishop  of  Antioch,  tried  to  suppress 
them  in  hiis  city  about  376.  By  feigning  sympathy  he 
made  Adelphius  disclose  his  real  doctrines;  and  then 
he  banished  him  and  his  followers.  They  then  wan- 
dered to  the  south-east  of  Asia  Minor.  Amphilochius 
of  Iconium  caused  them  to  be  again  condemned  at  the 
Synod  of  Side  (388  or  390).  Letoius,  Bishop  of  Meli- 
tene,  finding  some  monasteries  tainted  with  tins 
Quietism,  burnt  them  and  drove  the  wolves  from  the 
sheepf old.  as  Theodoret  narrates.  The  "Asceticus", 
"that  filthy  book  of  this  heresy'',  as  it  is  called  in  the 
public  acts  of  the  Third  General  Council  (431),  was 
condemned  at  Ephesus,  after  it  had  already  been  con- 
demned by  a  Council  of  Constantinople  in  426  and 
by  the  local  council  at  which  Amphilochius  of  Side 
presided.  Yet  the  sect  continued  to  exist.  At  first  it 
mcluded  only  Ia3rmen.  Lampetius,  one  of  the  leaders 
after  the  middle  of  the  fifth  century  was  a  priest,  hav- 
ing been  ordained  b^  Al3rpius  of  Csesarea.  He  was 
degraded  from  his  priesthood  on  account  of  unpriestly 
conduct.  He  wrote  a  book  called  "The  Testament' . 
Salmon  refers  to  a  fragment  of  an  answer  by  Severus 
9f  Antioch  tc  this  work  of  Lampetius  (Wolf,  "  Aneo- 


dota  Grsca",  III,  182).  In  Armenia  in  the  middle  oi 
the  fifth  century  strict  decrees  were  issued  against 
them,  and  they  were  especially  accused  of  immoralit/y; 
so  that  their  very  name  in  Armenian  became  the 
equivalent  for  "  filthy".  The  Nestorians  in  Sjnria  did 
their  best  to  stamp  out  the  evil  by  legislation;  the 
Messalians  ceased  to  exist  under  that  name,  but  re- 
vived under  that  of  the  Bogomili.  In  the  West  they 
seem  hardly  to  have  been  known;  when  the  Miutnan- 
ists,  who  held  somewhat  the  same  tenets  as  the  Mes- 
salians, were  mentioned  to  Gregory  the  Great,  he 

professed  never  to  have  heard  of  the  Marcian  heresy. 
Epiphaniub,  Hctr.f  Izxz;  Theodoret.  Hiel.  Ec,  IV,  x; 
Idem,  Hwr.  fab.^  IV,  xi;  Ctril  or  Alex.,  De  AdoroL  in  Spvr.  H 
Verit.,  Ill  in  P.  (?..  LXVIII,  282;  Timotheus  in  EccUe.  Orac 
mon..  Ill,  400  sqq. :  Ter-Mkrttbchian,  Die  Paulikianer  im  bym. 
Kaieerreich  (Leipzig,  1803);  Fhotius  in  F.  G.,  GUI,  187  sqq. 

J.  P.  Arendzen. 

BSessene,  a  titular  see,  suffragan  to  Corinth,  in 
Achaia.  Under  this  name  at  least,  the  city  dates  only 
from  the  fourth  century  b.  c.  When  Epaminondas 
had  crushed  the  Spartans  at  Leuctra,  he  recalled  the 
scattered  Messenians  and  caused  them  to  build,  on  the 
slopes  of  Mount  Ithome,  a  new  capital  which  they 
called  Messene  (370  b.  c).  The  fortified  walls  sur- 
rounding this  city  were  over  five  and  a  half  miles  in 
length,  and  were  accounted  the  best  in  Greece.  The 
portion  of  them  which  still  remains  justifies  this  repu- 
tation. Christianity  early  took  root  there,  though 
only  a  few  of  its  bishops  are  known  (Le  Quien,  "  Oriens 
chnstianus",  II,  19^98).  At  the  beginning  of  the 
tenth  century  the  "Notitia  episcopatuum"  of  Leo 
the  Wise  gives  Messene  as  an  mdependent  archbish- 
opric (Gelzer,  *'  Ungedruckte  .  .  .  Texte  der  Notitis 
episcopatuum",  551) ;  and  the  same  is  true  for  the  be- 
^nniog  of  the  fourteenth  century  (op.  cit.,  612).  As 
Uiis  diocese  does  not  figure  in  tne  ^Notitia"  of  the 
fifteenth  century,  it  may  be  assumed  that  it  had  then 
ceased  to  exist.  The  little  village  of  Mavromati,  with 
a  population  of  600.  the  capital  of  the  Deme  of  Ithome, 
now  stands  upon  the  ruins  of  ancient  Messene. 

Leake,  Morea,  I,  336;  Mure,  Tour  in  Oreece,  II,  264;  Cur- 
TiDB,  Peloponneeoa.  II,  138;  Sioth,  Dictionary  of  Oreek  and 
Roman  Geography,  II,  338-340. 

S.  Vailh^. 

BSeflsias. — ^The  name  'Awvlat  is  a  transliteration  of 
the  Hebrew,  rPK^i  "  the  anointed  " .  The  word  appears 
only  twice  of  the  promised  prince  (Dan.,  ix,  26;  Ps. 
ii,  2) ;  yet,  when  a  name  was  wanted  for  me  promised 
one,  who  was  to  be  at  once  King  and  Saviour,  it  was 
natural  to  employ  this  synonym  for  the  royal  title, 
denotiog  at  the  same  tune  the  King's  royal  dignity 
and  His  relation  to  God.  The  full  title  ''Anointed  of 
Jahveh "  occurs  in  several  passages  of  the  Psalms  of 
Solomon  and  the  Apocalypse  of  Baruch,  but  the  ab- 
breviated form,  " Anointea"  or  "the  Anointed  ",  was 
in  common  use.  When  used  without  the  article,  it 
would  seem  to  be  a  proper  name.  The  word  TLpivr^ 
so  occurs  in  several  passages  of  the  Gospels.  This, 
however,  is  no  proof  that  the  word  was  generally  so 
used  at  that  time.  In  the  Palestine  Talmud  the  form 
with  the  article  is  almost  universal,  while  the  common 
use  in  the  Babylonian  Talmud  without  the  article  is 
not  a  sufficient  argument  for  antiouity  to  prove  that 
in  the  time  of  Christ  it  was  regardea  as  a  proper  name. 
It  is  proposed  in  the  present  article:  I,  to  give  an  out- 
line of  tne  prophetic  utterances  concerning  the  Me»- 
sias;  II,  to  show  the  development  of  the  prophetic 
ideas  in  later  Judaism;  and  III,  to  show  how  Christ 
vindicated  His  right  to  this  title. 

I.  The  Messias  op  Prophecy. — ^The  earlier  proph- 
ecies to  Abraham  and  Isaac  (Gen.,  xviii,  17-19;  xxvi, 
4-5)  speak  merely  of  the  salvation  that  shall  come 
througn  their  seed.  Later  the  royal  dignity  of  the 
promSed  deliverer  becomes  the  prominent  feature. 
He  is  described  as  a  king  of  the  line  of  Jacob  (Num., 
xxiv,  19),  of  Juda  (Gen.,  xlix,  10:  "The  sceptre  shall 


MESSIAS  213  MISSIAS 

not  pass  from  Juda  until  he  comes  to  whom  it  be-  before  Christ.  Side  by  side  with  all  these  prophecies 
longs" — ^taking  vh^  as  standing  for  'fp  "Ifi^K),  and  of  speakizis  of  the  establishment  of  a  kingdom  under  the 
David  (II  Kings,  vii,  11-16).    It  is  sufficiently  estab-    sway  ofa  Divinely-appointed  legate,  was  the  series 


shall  serve  Him  (?s,  Ixxi,  11).  In  the  type  of  proph-  ings  to  Sion:  lift  it  up,  fear  not.  Say  to  the  cities  of 
ecy  we  are  considering,  the  emphasis  is  on  His  posi-  Juda:  Behold  your  God.  Behold  the  Lord  your  God 
tion  as  a  national  hero.  It  is  to  Israel  and  Juda  that  himself  shall  come  with  strength  and  his  arm  shall 
He  will  bring  salvation  (Jer.,  xxiii,  6),  triimiphing  rule."  The  reconciliation  of  these  two  series  of  proph- 
over  their  enemies  by  force  of  arms  (cf .  the  warrior-  ecies  was  before  the  Jews  in  the  passages — ^notably 
king  of  Ps.  xlv).  Even  in  the  latter  part  of  Isaias  Ps.  ii  and  Is.,  vii-xi — ^which  clearly  foretold  the 
there  are  passages  (e.  g.  Ixi,  5-8)  in  which  other  na-  Divinity  of  the  promised  leeate.  ''  His  name  shall  be 
tions  are  regarded  as  sharing  in  the  kingdom  rather  as  called  Wonderful,  Counsellor,  God  the  Mi^ty,  the 
servants  than  as  heirs,  while  the  function  of  the  Mes-  Father  of  the  world  to  come,  the  Prince  of  Peace" — 
sias  is  to  lift  up  Jerusalem  to  its  gloiy  and  lay  the  titles  all  used  elsewhere  of  Jahveh  Himself  (cf .  David- 
foundations  of  an  Israelitic  theocracy.  son,  "  O.  T.  Prophecy  ",  p.  367).    But  there  seems  to 

But  in  this  part  of  Isaias  also  occurs  the  splendid  have  been  little  realization  of  the  relation  between 
conception  of  the  Messias  as  the  Servant  of  Jahveh.  these  two  series  of  prophecy  until  the  full  li^ht  of  the' 
He  is  a  chosen  arrow.  His  mouth  like  a  ^aip  sword.  Christian  dispensation  revealed  their  reconciliation  in 
The  Spirit  of  the  Lord  is  poured  out  upon  Him,  and  the  mystery  of  the  Incarnation. 
His  word  is  put  into  His  mouth  (xlii,  1;  xlix,  1  sq.).  II.  Messianic  Doctrine  in  Later  Judaism  (see 
The  instrument  of  His  power  is  the  revelation  of  Jah-  Apocrypha^. — ^Two  quite  distinct  and  parallel  lines 
veh.  The  nations  wait  on  His  teaching:  He  is  the  are  discemiole  in  the  later  development  of  Messianic 
light  of  the  Gentiles  (xlii,  6).  He  establishes  His  doctrine  among  the  Jews,  accoitiing  as  the  writers 
Kingdom  not  by  manifestation  of  material  power,  but  climg  to  a  national  ideal,  based  on  the  literal  interpre- 
by  meekness  and  suffering,  by  obedience  to  the  com-  tation  of  the  earlier  prophecies,  or  an  apocalyptic 
mand  of  God  in  laying  down  His  life  for  the  salvation  ideal,  based  principally  on  Daniel.  The  national 
of  many.  "  If  he  shall  lay  down  his  life  for  sin,  he  ideal  looked  to  the  establishment  on  earth  of  the  King- 
shall  see  a  posterity  and  prolone  his  days  "  (liii,  10 ;  cf .  dom  of  God  under  the  Son  of  David,  the  conquest  and 
Knabenbauer,  in  loc.) ;  "Theretore  will  I  distribute  to  subjugation  of  the  heathen,  the  rebuilding  of  Jerusalem 
him  very  many,  and  he  shall  divide  the  spoils  of  the  and  the  Temple,  and  thegathering  in  of  tne  Dispersed, 
strong,  because  he  hath  delivered  his  soul  unto  death,  The  apocalyptic  ideal  drew  a  sharp  distinction  be- 
and  was  reputed  with  the  wicked"  (liii,  12).  His  tween  afwy  o&rot  and  afw  AiAXwy.  Tne  future  age  was 
Kingdom  shall  consist  of  the  multitude  redeemed  by  to  be  ushered  in  by  the  Divine  judgment  of  mankind 
His  vicarious  satisfaction,  a  satisfaction  confined  to  preceded  by  the  resurrection  of  the  dead.  The  Mes- 
no  race  or  time  but  offered  for  the  redemption  of  all  sias,  existing  from  the  b^^inning  of  the  world,  should 
alike.  (For  the  Messianic  application  of  these  pas-  appear  at  the  consummation,  and  then  should  be  also 
sages,  especially  Is.,  Hi,  13-liii,  cf.  Condamin  or  manifested  the  heavenly  Jerusalem  which  was  to  be 
Knabenbauer,  in  loc.)    In  spite,  however,  of  Justin's  the  abode  of  the  blessed. 

use  of  the  last-mentioned  passage  in  ''  Dial,  cum  Try-  National  Ideal. — ^The  national  ideal  is  that  of  offi- 
phone ",  Ixxxix,  it  would  be  rash  to  affirm  that  its  cial  Pharisaism.  Thus,  the  Talmud  has  no  trace  of 
reference  to  the  Messias  was  at  all  widelv  realized  the  apocalyptic  ideal.  The  scribes  were  mainly 
among  the  Jews.  In  virtue  of  his  prophetic  and  busied  with  the  Law,  but  side  by  side  with  this  was 
priestly  offices  the  title  of  ''the  Anointed''  naturally  the  development  of  the  hope  of  the  ultimate  manifesta- 
oelonged  to  the  promised  one.  The  Messianic  priest  is  tion  of  God's  Kingdom  on  earth.  Pharisaic  influence 
described  by  David  in  Ps.  cix,  with  reference  to  Gen.,  is  clearly  visible  in  w.  673-808  of  Sibyl.  Ill,  describ- 
xiv,  14-20.  That  this  psalm  was  generally  under-  ing  the  national  hopes  of  the  Jews.  A  last  judgment, 
stood  in  a  Messianic  sense  is  not  disputed,  while  the  future  happiness,  or  reward  are  not  mentioned.  Manv 
universal  consent  of  the  Fathers  puts  the  matter  be-  marvels  are  foretold  of  the  Messianic  wars  which 
yond  question  for  Catholics.  As  regards  its  Davidic  bring  in  the  consummation — lighted  torches  falling 
authorship,  the  arguments  impugning  it  afford  no  war-  from  heaven,  the  darkening  of  the  sun,  the  falling  of 
rant  for  an  abandonment  of  the  traditional  view.  That  meteors — ^but  all  have  for  end  a  state  of  earthly  pros- 
bv  the  prophet  described  in  Deut.,  xviii,  15-22,  was  perity.  The  Messias,  coming  from  the  East,  domi- 
also  imaerstood,  at  least  at  the  beginning  of  our  era,  nates  the  whole,  a  triumphant  national  hero.  Similar 
the  Messias  is  clear  from  the  appeal  to  his  gift  of  to  this  is  the  work  called  the  Psakds  of  Solomon,  writ- 
prophecy  made  by  the  pseud o-Messias  Theudas  (cf.  ten  probably  about  40  b.  c.  It  is  really  the  protest  of 
Josephus,  "  Antiq.",  XX,  v,  1)  and  the  use  made  of  Pharisaism  against  its  enemies,  the  later  A&ononeans. 
the  passage  by  St.  Peter  in  Acts,  iii,  22-23.  The  Pharisees  saw  that  the  observance  of  the  law  was 

Special  importance  attaches  to  the  prophetic  de-  not  of  itself  a  sufficient  bulwark  against  the  enemies  of 

scription  of  tne  Messias  contained  in  Daniel,  vii,  the  Israel,  and,  as  their  principles  would  not  allow  them  to 

great  work  of  later  Judaism,  on  account  of  its  para-  recognize  in  the  secularist  hierarchy  the  promised 

moimt  influence  upon  one  line  of  the  later  develop-  issue  of  their  troubles,  they  looked  forwara  to  the 

ment  of  Messianic  doctrine.    In  it  the  Messias  is  de-  miraculous  intervention  of  God  through  the  agency  of 

scribed  as  "  like  to  a  Son  of  Man  ",  appearing  at  the  a  Davidic  Messias.    The  seventeenth  Psalm  descnbes 

right  hand  of  Jahveh  in  the  clouds  of  heaven,  maugu-  his  rule:  He  is  to  conauer  the  heathen,  to  drive  them 

rating  the  new  age,  not  by  a  national  victory  or  oy  from  their  land,  to  allow  no  injustice  in  their  midst; 

vicarious  satisfaction,  but  by  exercising  the  Divine  His  trust  is  not  to  be  in  armies  but  in  God ;  with  the 

right  of  judging  the  whole  world.    Thus,  the  empha-  word  of  his  mouth  he  is  to  slay  the  wicked.    Of  earlier 

sis  is  upon  the  personal  responsibility  of  the  individual,  date  we  have  the  description  of  the  final  glories  of  the 

The  consummation  is  not  an  earth-won  ascendancy  of  holy  city  in  Tobias  (c.  xiv),  where,  as  well  as  in  Eo- 

the  chosen  people,  whether  shared  with  other  nations  desiasticus,  there  is  evidence  of  the  constant  hope  in 

or  not,  but  a  vindication  of  the  holy  by  the  solemn  the  future  gathering  in  of  the  Diaspora.    These  same 

judgment  of  Jahveh  and  his  Anointed  One.    Upon  nationalist  ideas  reappear  along  with  a  highly  devel- 

Ihts  prophecy  nfere  mainly  based  the  various  apoca-  oped  system  of  eschatology  in  the  apocalyptic  works 

^tic  works  which  played  so  prominent  a  part  in  the  written  after  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem,  which  are 

religious  life  of  the  Jews  during  the  last  two  centuries  referred  to  below. 


mSSIAS  214  mSSIAS 

Apoealyjdie  Ideal. — ^The  status  of  the  apocalyptic  deepest  relkious  sentiment  of  the  nation  became  alien- 
writers  as  r^ids  the  religious  life  of  the  Jews  nas  ated  from  the  Machabean  dynasty,  and,  when  the  last 
been  keenly  disputed  (cf.  Sanday,  **  Life  of  Christ  in  of  the  line  fell  in  27  b.  c,  it  was  reklized  that  a  differ- 
ilecent  Research'',  pp.  49  sqq.).  Though  they  had  ent  interpretation  of  the  promises  was  cidled  for.  In 
small  influence  in  Jerusalem,  the  stronghold  of  Rab-  the  new  apocalyptists  the  Messias  was  not  merely  the 
binism,  they  probably  both  influenced  and  reflected  central  figure  of  the  age  to  come:  He  is  already  exist- 
the  relkious  feeling  of  the  rest  of  the  Jewish  world,  ing  in  heaven,  waiting  to  appear  at  the  end  of  this 
Thus,  the  apocalyptic  ideal  of  the  Messias  would  seem  oraer,  attap  o&rot.  The  oppressors  of  Israel  were  now 
not  to  be  the  sentiment  of  a  few  enthusiasts,  but  to  ex-  the  Romans.  The  ultimate  failure  of  the  Macha- 
press  the  true  hopes  of  a  considerable  section  of  the  beans  had  shown  the  uselessness  of  human  efforts  at 
people.  Before  tne  Asmonean  revival  Israel  had  al-  liberation,  and  the  Jews  could  now  only  await  the 
most  ceased  to  be  a  nation,  and  thus  the  hope  of  a  na-  miraculous  intervention  that  should  usher  in  the 
tional  Messias  had  grown  very  dim.  In  tne  earliest  Kingdom.  To  this  era  belongs  the  Assumption  of 
apocalyptic  writings,  consequently,  nothing  is  said  of  Moses.  In  it  there  is  no  marked  opposition  oetween 
the  Messias.  In  the  first  part  of  the  Book  of  Henoch  just  and  unjust.  Israel  is  to  be  saved  by  a  sudden 
(i-zxxvi)  we  have  an  example  of  such  a  work.  Not  and  marvellous  manifestation  of  Divine  power.  There 
the  coming;  of  a  human  prince,  but  the  descent  of  God  is  no  gradual  evolution  of  this  age  Into  the  next:  men 
upon  Sinai  to  judge  the  world  divides  all  time  into  two  will  be  transported  hi  an  instant  to  the  already  exist- 
epochs.  The  just  shall  receive  the  gift  of  wisdom  and  ing  Kingdom  of  Heaven.  Similar  is  the  book  of  the 
become  sinless.  Thev  will  feed  on  the  tree  of  life  and  Similitudes  of  Henoch,  where  the  Messias  is  called  in 
enjoy  a  loz^r  span  than  the  Patriarchs.  the  first  parable  ''  l^e  Elect ",  and  in  the  foUow^ing 
The  Macnabean  victories  roused  both  the  national  ones  sometimes  "the  Elect",  and  sometimes  "the  Son 
and  religious  sentiment.  The  writers  of  the  earlier  of  Man".  Lagrange  considers  the  passages  giving 
Asmonean  times,  seeing  the  ancient  glories  of  their  this  latter  title  interpolations,  whether  the  work  of 
xace  reviving,  could  no  longer  ignore  the  hope  of  a  per-  Christians  or  of  Jews  of  the  Christian  era.  Charles, 
sonal  Messias  to  rule  the  kingdom  of  the  new  age.  however,  considers  them  jgenuine,  believing  Christ's 
The  problem  arose  how  to  connect  their  present  de-  use  of  the  title  occasionea  by  its  anterior  use  as  in- 
liverers.  of  the  tribe  of  Levi,  with  the  Messias  who  stanced  in  this  work.  In  any  case  we  have  the  au- 
should  oe  of  the  tribe  of  Juda.  This  was  met  by  re-  thor's  mind  on  the  Messias  in  the  certainly  authentic 
earding  the  present  age  as  merely  the  besinnin^  of  the  picture  of  **  the  Elect ".  No  longer  the  son  of  David, 
Messianic  age.  Apocalyptic  works  of  this  period  are  ne  presides  over  the  upper  world,  the  abode  of  the 
the  Book  of  Jubilees,  the  Testament  of  the  Twelve  saints,  while  the  earth  is  under  the  domination  of  the 
Patriarchs,  and  the  Vision  of  Weeks  of  Henoch.  In  wicked.  This  order  will  be  terminated  by  the  judg- 
the  Book  of  Jubilees  the  promises  made  to  Levi,  and  ment,  when  the  elect  shall  sit  on  His  throne  in  glory 
fulfilled  in  the  Asmonean  priest-kings,  outshadow  and  judge  the  actions  of  men.  He  does  not  nelp 
those  made  to  Juda.  The  Messias  is  but  a  vague  fig-  towards  salvation,  except  in  so  far  as  men  are  sus- 
ure,  and  little  stress  is  laid  on  the  judgment.  The  talned  during  their  trials  by  the  knowledge  of  His  ex- 
Testament  of  the  Twelve  Patriarchs  is  a  composite  istence.  After  the  judgment  as  before  He  shall  pre- 
work.  The  foundation  portion,  conspicuous  from  its  side  over  the  Kingdom  of  the  holv  ones,  which  snail 
glorification  of  the  priesthood,  dates  from  before  100  now  occupy  not  only  heaven  but  also  the  transfigured 
B.  c. ;  there  are,  however,  later  Jewish  additions,  hos-  earth.  The  whole  concept  bears  the  stamp  of  lofty 
tile  in  tone  to  the  priesthood,  and  numerous  Chris-  spirituality.  The  resurrection  of  good  and  wicked 
tian  interpolations.  Controversy  has  arisen  as  to  the  alike  marks  the  passage  from  the  order  of  sin  to  that 
principal  figure  in  this  work.    According  to  Charles  of  absolute  justice. 

(Testaments  of  the  Twelve  Patriarchs,  p.  xcviii)  there  We  may  regard  this  as  the  culmination  of  the  apoo- 
18  pictured  as  liie  Messias  a  son  of  Levi  who  realises  all  alyptic  ideal.  After  the  fall  of  Jerusalem  the  apoo- 
the  lofty  spiritual  ideals  of  the  Christian  Saviour.  La-  alyptic  writers  returned  to  more  directly  national 
grange  on  the  other  hand  (Le  Messianisme  chez  les  hopes ;  the  Messias  must  play  some  part  in  the  tern- 
Juifs,  pp.  69  sqq[.)  insists  that,  in  so  far  as  this  is  the  poral  salvation  of  Israel.  This  is  inoeed  the  only  as- 
case,  tne  portrait  is  the  result  of  Christian  interpola-  pect  treated  in  the  fifth  Sibylline  Book.  The  Messias 
tions;  these  removed,  there  remains  only  a  laudation  comes  from  Heaven,  and  establishes  the  reign  of  Israel 
of  the  part  played  by  Levi,  in  the  person  of  the  Asmo-  in  peace  and  holiness  at  Jerusalem,  rebuilds  the  holy 
neans,  as  the  instrument  of  national  and  religious  liber-  citv  and  the  Temple.  There  is  no  universal  domination 
ation.  A  conspicuous  instance  in  point  is  Test.  Lev.,  and  the  rest  of  tne  world  is  almost  ignored.  IV  Es- 
Ps.  xviii.  While  Charles  says  this  ascribes  the  Messi-  dras  is  a  work  on  a  much  grander  scale.  The  writer 
anic  characteristics  to  the  Levite,  Lagrange  and  Bous-  combines  a  temporal  Messianism  with  a  most  ad- 
eet  denv  that  it  is  Messianic  at  all.  Apart  from  the  vanced  eschatology.  He  sees  the  whole  world  cor- 
interpolations,  it  is  merely  natural  praise  of  the  new  rupted,  even  the  chosen  seed  of  Abraham,  among 
royal  priesthood.  There  can  be  no  question  indeed  as  whom,  as  amone  the  Gentiles,  many  transgressora 
to  the  pre-eminence  of  Levi ;  he  is  compared  to  the  sun  may  oe  found.  The  name  of  God  has  thus  lost  that 
and  Juda  to  the  moon.  But  there  is  in  fact  a  de-  honour  which  is  due  to  it.  The  world,  therefore,  must 
scription  of  a  Messias  descended  from  Juda  in  Test,  be  destroyed  to  be  replaced  by  a  better  one.  But 
Jud.,  Ps.  xxiv,  the  original  elements  of  which  belong  eood  must  first  triumph  even  in  this  world,  whidi 
to  the  foundation  part  of  the  book.  He  appears  also  omM  witness  the  victory  of  the  Messias  over  the  Ro- 
in  the  Testament  of  Joseph,  though  the  passage  is  man  Empire,  the  rebuilding  of  Jerusalem,  and  the 
couched  in  an  allegorical  form  difficult  to  follow.  The  union  of  all  Israel  in  the  Holy  Land .  The  Messias,  con- 
Vision  of  Weeks  of  Henoch,  dating  probably  from  the  ceived  as  existing  from  the  beginning  of  the  worid, 
same  period,  differs  from  the  last-mentioned  work  comes  in  the  clouds  up  from  the  sea,  not  down  from 
principally  in  its  insistence  on  the  judgment,  or  rather  heaven,  and  by  the  breath  of  His  mouth  destroys  the 
judgments,  to  which  three  of  the  world's  ten  weeks  armies  of  the  worid  arrayed  a^inst  Him.  Then  there 
are  devoted.  Messianic  times  again  open  with  the  appears  the  holy  city,  before  mvisible.  At  the  end  of 
prosperity  of  Asmonean  days,  and  develop  into  the  time,  however,  the  Messias  saves  merely  Israel  upon 
foundation  of  the  Kingdom  of  God.  earth.  He  has  no  concern  with  the  ultimate  salvation 
Thus,  the  Asmonean  triumphs  had  produced  an  of  the  just.  After  accomplishing  His  work  of  national 
eschatology  in  which  a  personal  Messias  figured,  while  restoration  He  disappears,  and  the  final  judgment  is 
the  present  was  glorified  into  a  commencement  of  the  the  work  of  the  Most  High  Himself.  •  It  is  purely  indi- 
days  of  Messianic  blessings.    Gradually,  however,  the  vidual,  not  national.    Thus  this  work  combines  the 


MESSINA  215  tfKSSIMA 

QgUonal  and  apocalyptic  ideals.    The  ApocalyfMse  of  world  (Matt.,  xxv,  31-46;,  which  is  the  most  maiked 

Baiudiy  written  protMibl^^  in  imitation,  contains  a  note  of  Daniel's  Messias.    A  double  reason  would  lead 

similar  picture  of  the  Messias.    This  system  of  escha-  Him  to  assume  this  particular  designation:  that  He 

tology  nnds  reflection  also  in  the  chiliasm  of  certain  might  speak  of  Himself  as  the  Messias  without  making 

early  Christian  writers.    Transferred  to  the  second  His  clami  conspicuous  to  the  ruling  powers  till  the 

coming  of  the  Messias,  we  have  the  reign  of  peace  and  time  came  for  His  open  vindication,  and  that  as  far  as 

holiness  for  a  thousand  years  upon  earth  before  the  possible  He  might  hinder  the  people  from  transferring 

just  are  transported  to  tneir  eternal  home  in  heaven  to  Him  their  own  material  notions  of  Davidic  king- 

(cf.  Papias  in  Eusebius, ''  Hist.  eccl. ",  III,  xxxix).  ship. 

in.  The  Vindication  of  the  Messianic  Dignitt        Nor  did  His  claim  to  the  dignity  merely  concern 

BT  Chbist. — ^This  point  may  be  treated  under  two  the  future.    He  did  not  say/' I  shall  be  the  Messias", 

heads  (a)  Christ's  explicit  claim  to  be  the  Messias,  and  but ''  I  am  the  Messias  "•    Thus,  besides  His  answer 

(b)  the  implicit  claim  shown  in  His  words  and  actions  to  Caiphas  and  His  approval  of  Peter's  affinnation  of 

throughout  His  life.  ^  His  present  Messiahship,  we  have  in  Matt.,  xi,  5,  the 

Under  the  first  of  thesfe  two  headings  we  may  con-  guaraed  but  clear  answer  to  the  question  of  the  Bap- 
sider  the  ooi^ession  of  Peter  in  Matt.,  xvi,  and  the  tist's  disciples:  ''Art  thou  6  ipx^f^i^t't"  In  St.  John 
words  of  Christ  before  his  judges.  These  incidents  the  evidence  is  abundant.  There  is  no  question  of  a 
involve,  of  course,  far  more  than  a  mere  claim  to  the  future  diznity  in  His  woids  to  the  Samaritan  woman 
Messiahship;  taken  in  their  setting,  they  constitute  a  (John,  iv)  or  to  the  man  bom  blind  (ix,  5),  for  He  was 
c'aim  to  the  Divine  Sonship.  The  words  of  Christ  to  already  performing  the  works  foretold  of  the  Messias. 
^t.  Peter  are  too  clear  to  need  any  comment.  The  Though  but  as  a  grain  of  mustard  seed,  the  Kingdom 
silence  of  the  other  Synoptists  as  to  some  details  of  the  of  God  upon  earth  was  already  established ;  He  had  al« 
incident  concern  the  proof  from  this  passage  rather  of  ready  b^un  the  work  of  the  Servant  of  Jahveh,  of 
the  Divinity  than  of  Messianic  claims.  As  regards  preaching,  of  suffering,  of  saving  men.  The  consum- 
Christ's  clium  before  the  Sanhedrin  and  Pilate,  it  mation  of  His  task  and  His  rule  in  glory  over  the  King- 
misht  appear  from  the  narratives  of  Matthew  and  dom  were  indeed  still  in  the  future,  but  these  were  the 
L\j£e  that  He  at  first  refused  a  direct  reply  to  the  high  final  crown,  not  the  sole  constituents,  of  the  Messianic 
priest's  question:  "Art  thou  the  Christ?"  But  ai-  dignity.  For  those  who,  before  the  Christian  dispen- 
though  His  answer  is  given  merely  as  <rd  cTrat  (thou  sation,  sought  to  interpret  the  ancient  prophecies, 
hast  said  it),  yet  that  recorded  by  St.  Mark,  iy(&  elfu  some  single  aspect  of  the  Messias  sufficed  to  fill  the 
(I  am),  shows  clearly  how  this  answer  was  understood  whole  view.  We.  in  the  light  of  the  Christian  reve- 
by  the  Jews.  Dalman  (Words  of  Jesus,  pp.  309  sqa.)  lation,  see  realized  and  harmoniised  in  Our  Lord  all  the 
gives  instances  from  Jewish  literature  m  which  tne  confiictingMessianichopes,allthevisionsof  theproph- 
expression,  "thouhastsaid  it",  isequivalentto"you  ets.  He  is  at  once  the  Suffering  Servant  and  the 
are  right" ;  his  comment  is  that  Jesus  used  the  words.  Davidic  King,  the  Judge  of  mankind  and  its  Saviour, 
as  an  assent  indeed,  but  as  showing  that  He  attached  true  Son  of  Man  and  Goi  with  us.  On  Him  is  laid  the 
comx>aratively  little  importance  to  this  statement,  iniquity  of  us  all,  and  on  Him,  as  God  Incarnate,  rests 
Nor  is  this  unreasonable,  as  the  Messianic  claim  sinks  the  Spirit  of  Jahveh,  the  Spirit  of  Wisdom  and  Under- 
into  insignificance  beside  the  claim  to  Divinity  which  standing,  the  Spirit  of  Counsel  and  Fortitude,  the  Spirit 
immediately  follows,  and  calls  from  the  high  priest  the  of  Knowledge  and  Piety,  and  the  Fear  of  the  Lord, 
horrified  accusation  of  blasphemy.  It  was  this  which  Gloaq,  The  Meananie  Prophecies  CEdinbursh,  1870);  Maas, 
«ve  the  .Sanhedrin  »  pretext,  which  the  Messianic  ^SIk''fZ^''?^^^^\^ii^:i^'^. 
claim  of  Itself  did  not  give,  for  the  death  sentence.  Condaicn.  Le  Livre  (Tlaate  (Paris.  19o5;  Boubsbt.  Die  R^ 
Before  Pilate  on  the  other  hand  it  was  merely  the  as-  ligion  dee  Judentume  (Berlin,  1903);    Laoranob,  Le  Meeaia- 

«^ion  of  His  n^  dignity  which  gave  giomid  for  His  l^^'^^l^'^l^^^^fTJ^^M'^S^'i^ 

eondenmation.  (Leipzig,  1898).  tr.  The  Worda  of  Jeeua  (Edinburgh,  1902); 

But  it  is  rather  in  His  consistent  manner  of  acting  i-kpin,  Jieua  Meeeie  (Paris.  1904),  r   rxr  n 

than  in  any  specific  claim  that  we  see  most  clearly  L-  W.  Geddbb. 

Christ's  vindication  of  His  dignity.    At  the  outset  of 

His  public  life  (Luke,  iv,  18)  He  applies  to  Himself  in        Mewrina,  Axtonello  da,  b.  at  Messina,  about  1430; 

the  synagogue  of  Nazareth  the  words  relating  to  the  d.  1497.    After  studying  for  some  time  in  Sicily  he 

Servant  of  Jahveh  in  Is.,  bd^.    It  is  He  whom  David  crossed  over  to  Naples,  where,  we  are  told,  he  became 

in  spirit  called  ''Lord!"    He  claimed  to  judge  the  the  pupil  of  an  unknown  artist,  Antonio  Colantonio. 

world  and  to  foigive  sins.    He  was  supenor  to  the  It  was  nere,  according  to  Vasari,  that  Messina,  on  see- 

LaWy  the  Lord  of  the  Sabbath,  the  Master  of  the  Tem«  ing  a  painting  of  John  Van  Eyck,  belon^g  to  Alphon« 

pie.    In  His  own  name,  by  the  word  of  His  mouth.  He  bus  of  Ara^on,  determined  to  devote  mmself  to  the 

cleansed  lepers.  He  stilled  the  sea.  He  raised  the  dead,  study  of  the  Flemish  Masters.    It  would  seem  too 

His  disciples  must  r^rd  all  as  well  lost  merely  to  en-  that  he  set  out  for  Bruges  with  this  purpose;  others, 

loy  the  privily  of  following  Him.    The  Jews,  while  however,  maintain  that  he  need  not  have  left  Italy 

fading  to  see  all  that  these  things  implied,  a  dignity  to  ground  himself  in  the  new  technio  as  several  Flem- 

and  power  not  Inferior  to  those  of  Jahven  Himself,  ish  artists  of  renown  had  alreadv,  through  the  patron- 

cotda  not  but  perceive  that  He  who  so  acted  was  at  age  of  the  princes  Ren4  of  Anjou  and  Alphonsua 

least  the  Divinely  accredited  representative  of  Jah-  of  Aragmi,  won  for  their  pictures  no  slight  reputa- 

veh.    In  this  connexion  we  may  consider  the  title  tion.     The  question  will  remain  a  debated  point 

Christ  used  of  Himself,  ''Son  of  Man"     We  have  no  until  the  discovery  of  some  authentic  documenli  shall 

evidence  that  this  was  then  commonly  regarded  as  a  decide  definitively  whether  the  Sicilian  painter  did 

Messianic  title*    Some  doubt  as  to  ibs  meaning  in  the  or  did  not  sail  for  Tlanders.    It  is  certain,  however, 

minds  of  Christ's  hearers  is  possibly  shown  by  John,  that  he  mastered  perfectly  the  methods  followed  by 

xii,  34:  "Who  is  this  Son  i  man?'^  The  Jews,  while  the  disciples  of  Van  Eyclc  in  oil-painting,  methodc 

andoubtedty  seeing  in  Daniel,  .ii,  a  portrait  of  the  that  had  eclipsed  all  the  efforts  made  by  toe  Itcdian 

Messias,  probably  failed  to  recognize  in  these  words  a  school.    On  his  return  to  Messina,  Antonello  evinced 

definite  title  at  all.    This  is  the  more  probable  from  remarkable  skill  in  handling  oils  In  a  triptych,  un- 

the  fact  that,  whde  this  passage  exercised  great  influ-  fortunately  destroyed  in  the  recent  earthquake,  repre- 

enoe  upon  the  apocalyptists,  the  title  "Son  of  Man"  sentin^  the  Blessed  Virgin  with  St.  Gregory  and  St. 

does  not  appear  m  their  writings  except  in  passages  of  Benedict  on  either  side  and  two  angels  holding  a  crown 

doubtful  authenticity.    Now,  Christ  not  merely  uses  over  Our  Lady's  head.    Later,  Messina  went  to  Ven- 

the  nam^  but  claims  for  Himself  the  right  to  judge  the  ice,  where  in  1473  he  executed  ai^  altar  screen,  no 


MESSmA  216  MfiSSIKA 


(Stuttei     . 

technic,    Bingularly   adapted   to    bring    out    brilliant  658  aq.;   L^lfbnbstrb,  La  PeinUa^  tUtiienru  iuaqu^ii  lafindu 

ftolnnr  pfFM*^   and   a^    fhi»   aaniP   fime   Pnqiire   their  ^V*  aUde  (Para,   1886),  283^;   Mi^ntb,   Hxttotre  de  CaH 

colour  enects  ana  ac  tne  same  time  ensure  xneir  p^nAifK  fa  iJanawaancc.  11  (Paris.  1891).  777-79;  BuRotHAiuyT 

permanency,  suited  admirably  the  tastes  of  the  Vene-  and  Bode.  Le  Cicerone,  II.  r  Art  modeme,  French  tr.  GERARD 

tians  "  already  so  richly  endowed  with  a  feeling  for  the  (Paris.  1892).  610;  p'Amco.  AntoneUo  d^ArUonio.Le  me  open 

charm  of  colour"  an/ "was  d^ined  to  inake  Venice  I^I^^TStett'^'^'i^j^^'^S^TIb^JS:!:^'!^ 

the  most  renowned  school  m  Italy  for  the  study  of  kon  der  bOdenden  Karutler  von  der  Antike  trie  gur  QtoenvDoH 

colouring"  (Le  Cicerone,  II,  610).     The  new  style  (Lcdpsig,  1907),  567  eq. 

-         -       -----  .  _     -  Gaston  Sortaib. 


was  eao^rlv  followed  by  Bartholomew  and  Louis 
Vivarim,  John  and  Gentile  Bellini,  Carpaccioand 


Messina,' Archdiocese  OF  (Messinensis),  in  Sicily. 
Cima.  Assailed  by  homesickness,  AntoneUo  returned  The  city  is  situated,  in  the  shape  of  an  amphitheatre, 
to  Messina  to  leave  it  no  more  until  his  death  (cf.  along  the  slope  of  the  Hills  of  Neptune,  on  an  inlet 
Lionello  Venturi,  loc.  cit.  infra).  of  the  sea  at  the  Strait  of  Messina,  which  separates 
Messina  rivals  the  Flemings  in  transparency  of  Sicily  from  the  peninsula.  Its  harbour,  with  its 
colouring,  though  occasionally  he  may  justly  be  cen-  size  and  fine  situation,  is  one  of  the  most  important  in 
sured  for  the  use  of  ''  a  dark  brown  in  his  flesh-tints  "  Italv  after  tJiose  of  Genoa  and  of  Naples.  Nevertheless, 
(MOntz,  II,  778).  If  he  imitates  their  careful  execu-  the  hopes  entertained  for  its  commerce,  in  view  of  the 
tlon  of  details,  he  surpasses  them  by  the  distinction  opening  of  the  Suez  Canal,  were  disappointed,  for,  be- 
and  nobility  of  his  figures,  a  trait  in  which  one  recog-  tween  1887  and  1894,  the  commerce  of  Messina  de- 
nizes the  Italian.  He  excels  only  as  a  portrait  painter,  creased  from  940,000  tons  to  350,000  tons;  still,  in 
and  especially  in  his  portraiture  of  men.  Of  his  work  1908,  it  grewagainto  551,000  tons.  The  neidibouring 
in  this  department  he  has  left  us  some  masterpieces  seas  are  rich  in  coral,  molluscs,  and  fish;  and  from  the 
that  evince  in  a  striking  degree  truth  to  nature  and  mountains  are  obtained  calcic  sulphate,  alabaster, 
strength  of  conception  and  execution:  in  the  Academy  sulphates  of  argentiferous  lead,  antimonv,  iron,  ana 
of  Venice,  a  half-length  portrait  of  a  man;  in  the  Mu-  copper.  Messina  is  said  to  have  been  founded  by 
seum  of  Berlin,  a  head  of  a  young  man ;  in  the  house  of  some  pirates  from  Cums,  a  very  ancient  Greek  colony, 
the  Marquis  Trivulci  at  Milan,  tne  head  of  a  man  in  and  to  have  received  from  its  founders  the  name  of 
the  prime  of  life;  in  the  Civic  Museum  of  Milan,  an  Zancle  (sickle)  on  accoimt  of  the  semicireular  shape  of 
excellent  bust-painting  of  a  poet  with  flowing  hair  the  port.  In  735  a  colony  of  Messenians  was  taken 
crowned  by  a  wreath;  above  all  the  painting  entitled  there  by  Gorges,  a  son  of  Xing  Aristomenes,  the  brave 
"Condottiere"  preserved  in  the  Louvre.  Not  so  but  unfortunate  defender  of  the  Messenians  against 
successful  in  religious  paintings,  at  Venice,  he  repro-  the  Spartans.  Thereafter,  the  population  of  ^e  city 
duced  without  conviction  and  almost  slavishly  Maaon-  was  increased  by  fugitives  from  uhalcis,  Samos,  and 
nas  of  the  type  of  G.  BeUini.  In  the  National  Gallery  Euboea,  who  had  escaped  from  the  Persian  invasion; 
there  is  a  half-length  portrait  of  the  ^rear  1465  repre-  they  became  preponderant  in  the  town  and  made 
senting  Christ  with  His  huid  raised  in  blessing.  In  it  join  the  Ionian  League.  In  493  b.  c.  Anaxilas, 
conclusion  let  us  call  special  attention  to  the  lar^  tyrant  of  Rhegium,  also  a  Messenian  colony,  drove  the 
studies,  entitled  "  St.  Seoastian '',  "  St.  Jerome  in  his  Samians  from  Zancle,  took  the  town,  and  called  it  Mes- 
Study",  "The  Crucifixion".  "St.  Sebastian",  in  the  sana  (the  a  of  the  Doric  dialect,  which  becomes  if  in 
Museum  of  Dresden,  represents  a  beautiful  youne  the  Ionic,  coming  later  to  be  pronoimced  as  Eng- 
man,  almost  life-size,  nalced,  of  striking  figure,  and  lish  e),  in  426  the  city  was  retaken  by  the  lonians 
standing  out  against  a  backgroimd  of  a  ustndscape  under  the  Athenian  Laches,  who,  however,  lost  it  in 
brilliantly  illuminated.  In  accordance  with  the  ve-  415;  an  attempt  of  another  Athenian,  Nicias,  to  re- 
netian  or  Paduan  taste  the  painter  has  added  a  cer-  cover  it  failed.  In  consequence  of  the  rivalry  of  the 
tain  number  of  secondaxy  motives,  the  better  to  set  Athenians  and  the  Carthaginians  for  the  possession  of 
off  the  leading  theme.  This  study  in  the  nude  is  Sicily,  Messina  was  pillaged  and  destroyed  by  the  Car- 
doubly  shockii^,  since  it  is  out  of  place  in  a  devotional  thaginians  in  396,  but  was  rebuilt  by  Dionysius.  In 
picture,  and  is  nothing  but  a  pret^ct  for  displaying  312  the  town  was  taken  by  A^thocles,  and  at  his 
nis  Imowledge  of  anatomy.  "St.  Jerome",  also  pre-  death  the  Campanian  mercenaries  of  his  army,  called 
served  in  the  National  Gallery,  is  a  carefully  executed  Mamertines,  took  possession  of  the  citv,  and  estab- 
picture,  pleasing  to  the  eye;  the  studio  is  vaulted,  the  lished  there  a  military  republic;  having  been  defeated 
window,  set  hish  up  in  the  wall  and  lighting  up  the  by  Hiero  II  near  Myfae  (Milazzo)  in  269,  and  then  be- 
studio,  has  all  the  charm  of  a  chapel  window.  On  the  sieged  in  the  town  itself,  a  part  of  them  soueht  Hie  as- 
side  may  be  seen  the  outlines  ot  a  pleasant  cloister;  sistance  of  the  Carthaginians,  and  a  part  tliat  of  the 
another  opening  discloses  a  vista  of  a  distant  land-  Romans.  The  Carthaginians  under  Hanno  were  liie 
scape.  Tne  learned  Doctor,  seated  in  a  wooden  arm-  first  to  arrive,  but  in  264  the  consul,  Appius  Claudius 
1- !..# —  _t.„i-xi — i-_-_x_j   _._  .!___  t.  J  ._  Caudex,  took  the  city,  repelling  Carthaginians  and 

S3rracusans.    This  brought  about  the  Punic  Wars. 

„         ,                      , Other  events  of  the  pre-Christian  history  of  Messina 

bird.    In  "The  Crucifixion"  of  the  Museum  of  Ant-  are  the  victory  of  Piso  over  the  slaves  in  133;  and  the 

werp,  we  are  struck  by  certain  realistic  touches  which  naval  victory  of  Agrippa  over  Pompev  in  36.    In  the 

AntoneUo  learned  from  the  Flemish  school.    Skulls  GothicwarsMessinahadaconsiderablepart;  while,  in 

are  scattered  along  the  ground;  the  two  thieves,  a.  d.  831,  it  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Arabs.    In  the 

fastened  not  to  crosses  but  to  trees,  are  writhing  in  Norman  conquest  of  Sicily,  Messina  was  naturally  the 

pain.    The  Italian  is  discernible  in  the  nobilitv  with  basis  of  operations.    In  1038  the  Byzalitine  general. 

which  Messina  invests  the  figures  of  Christ,  the  Blessed  George  Maniakes^  assisted  by  the  Normans,  capturea 

Vir^,  and  St.  John.    AntoneUo  has  been  praised  for  the  town,  but  it  was  lost  again,  on  the  recaU  of  that 

"  a  feeling,  sometimes  quite  correct,  for  Isakd  strongly  general.    In  1060  Count  Roger  made  his  first  expedi- 

Ughted  landscapes  ",  and  the  "  Crucifixion  "  witnesses  tlon,  and  in  the  following  year  was  master  of  Messina, 

to  the  truth  of  this  criticism,  for  the  landscape  which  which  from  that  time  followed  the  fortunes  of  the 

forms  the  setting  of  this  pathetic  scene  on  Calvary,  Kingdom  of  Naples.    There  was  a  serious  revolt 

in  spite  of  the  multipUcity  of  details,  preserves  a  against  Frederick  II  in  1232;  and  in  1282  Messina  also 

harmonious  unity.  had  its  "  Vespers",  and  on  that  accoimt  was  besieged 

Vasari.  Le  ViU  de*  M  eceeUetUi  pittari,  ed.  Mii^bm.  H  \  ^f*  ^^^  5'  7^^  ^'  however.  Compelled  to 

(Flonnoe.  1878),  563-89;  Eaatuakk,  Maienaiefor  a  Hiatory  of  retreat,  and  left  SlClly  to  the  King  of  AragOIL     Iq 


MEaSINA  (1907) 

PIAZXA   AND  CATOEDBAL   (Xl   TESTURt) 
BAPTISMAL  FONT   AND   PULPIT,   THE   CATBED&AIi 


MISSIirOHAM                          217  MISSINOHAM 

1676,  the  Measenians  rebelled  against  Spanish  domina-  chapter  elected  the  Basilian  archimandrite,  LeontioSi 

tion,  and  were  assisted  by  a  French  fleet,  sent  by  Louis  and  he  not  being  acceptable  to  the  pope  or  to  the  kin^ 

XIV;  Viscount  Duquesne  obtained  a  naval  victory  the  friar,  Jacob  da  Santa  Lucia,  was  appointed  in  his 

over  the  Spaniards,  but  soon  a  royal  order  obliged  the  stead,  but  was  not  received ;  Cardinal  rietro  Sveglie 

French  to  leave  the  city.    Messina  had  a  part  in  the  (1510),  who  had  served  on  several  occasions  as  pon- 

wars  for  the  union  of  Italy:  it  was  bombarded  in  1848;  tifical  legate;  Cardinal  Innocenzo  Cibo  (1538) ;  Car- 

and  in  1860,  after  a  long  resistance  was  taken  by  Gari-  dinal  Gianandrea  de  Mercurio  (1550),  who  hacl  a  con- 

baldi.  troversy  with  the  Greek  bishop,  Pamphilius,  the  latter 

The  city  has  often  been  a  prey  to  earthquakes,  the  claiming  jurisdiction  over  the  Greek  priests  of  the 

most  disastrous  of  which  were  those  of  1/88  and  of  archdiocese;  Andrea  Mastrilli  (1618),  convoked  many 

1908;  the  latter,  on  28  December  of  that  vear,  de-  synods,  and  rebuilt  the  episcopal  palace  and  the  sem- 

stroved  Messina  almost  entirely.    The  most  oeautiful  inary ;  the  Dominican,  Tommaso  Moncada  (1743),  who 

of  the  palaces  and  of  the  churches  were  overthrown,  at  the  same  time  was  Patriarch  of  Jerusalem.    The 

amon^  them  the  cathedral,  a  structure  of  three  naves,  Archbishop  of  Messina  is  also  Archimandrite  of  San  Sal- 

oontaming  six  great  columns  of  Egyptian  marble  that  vatore;  this  convent  of  Greek  Monks  of  St.  Basil  was 

came  from  itte  ruins  of  Cape  Faro  (the  ancient  Pelo-  founded  by  Coimt  Roger  in  1094,  and  its  archiman- 

rum  I^montorium) ;  the  chief  entrance  of  this  temple  drite  had  j  urisdiction  over  all  the  Basilian  monasteries 

was  a  jewel  of  Roman  art,  rich  in  little  columns,  fret-  of  the  kingdom,  of  which  there  were  forty-four,  as 

work,  spirals,  bas-reliefs,  and  statuettes;  the  marble  well  as  over  many  parishes.    In  1421,  the  archiman- 

pulpit,  a  work  of  Gagini,  was  in  the  shape  of  a  chalice;  dritate  was  secularized  and  was  given  in  commendam 

the  tribune  was  adorned  with  mosaics  of  the  time  of  to  secular  prelates,  of  whom  Be^rion  was  one.     In 

Frederick  II;  and  the  walls  were  decorated  with  fres-  time  the  monastery  fell  into  decadence;  a  fortifica- 

coes  and  oil  paintings  of  great  masters.  The  residence  tion  was  erected  on  its  site  (1538),  and  the  monks 

of  the  canons,  and  the  sacristy  also,  had  paintings  by  moved  to  the  church  of  La  Misericoidia.    Urban  VIII 

such  masters  as  Salvo  d' Antonio,  Quagliata,  Kodri-  made  the  archimandritate  and  its  territory  immedi- 

guez,  Catalano,  Alibrandi,  Fiammingo,  etc.    On  the  ately  subject  to  the  Holy  See,  and  Leo  XIII  in  1883 

cathedral  square,  before  the  facade  of  the  Franciscan  united  it  with  the  Archdiocese  of  Messina.    The  col- 

eonvent,  was  a  monumental  fountain,  the  work  of  legiate  church  of  Santa  Maria  del  Graffeo.  called  the 

Gian  Anseio  da  Montorsoli  (1551).    The  most  beauti-  **  Cattolica",  is  noteworthy  in  Messina :  the  so-called 

ful  church  of  Messina  is  that  of  the  Madonna  of  Mon-  Grsco-Latin  Rite  is  used  there,  its  characteristics  being 

tevergine;  other  interesting  churches  are  those  of  San  a  combination  of  Latin  vestments,  unleavened  breao, 

Francesco  dei  Mercadanti;  the  church  and  monastery  etc.,  with  the  Greek  lai^uage:  on  solemn  occasions, 

of  San  Giorgio  with  pictures  by  Guercino  and  by  other  the  Epistle  and  the  Gospel  are  read,  first  in  Latin  ana 

masters;  Santa  Maria  dell'  Alto  where  is  preserved  the  then  m  Greek.    In  certain  functions,  the  canons  of  the 

only  known  picture  by  Cardillo  (about  1200);  the  cathedral  and  those  of  the'' Graffeo"  officiate  together, 

church  of  San  Francesco  d'Assisi,  built  in  the  Gothic  either  at  the  latter  church  or  at  the  cathedral.    The 

style,  but  disfigured  in  1721;  lastly,  the  churches  of  clergy  of  the  *' Graffeo  "  have  at  their  head  a  protopope 

SanNicoId  and  of  San  Domenico,  the  latter  containing  whois  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  archbishop.    For- 

the  mausoleum  of  the  family  of  Cicala  by  Montorsou  merly,  the  Greek  Rite  was  in  use  in  other  churches  of 

and  a  fine  PietA  in  marble.    The  episcopal  palace,  Messina,  introduced  there  probably  during  the  Byzan- 


seminary  was  uninjured  by 

valuable  library  of  3000  edUwnes  principes,  241  manu-  quake,  and  since  then  the  Jesuits  reopened  a  college, 

scripts,  and  10  parchments  with  miniature  paintings,  a  There  is  a  Catholic  journal  that  appears  three  times 

gallery  of  pictures,  and  a  collection  of  coins,  all  of  each  week.    Within  the  territonr  of  the  archdiocese  is 

which  is  yet  buried  under  the  ruins.    The  hospital  of  the  mcBlatura  nulliua  of  Santa  Lucia  del  Melo,  which 

La  PietA  and  the  fortifications,  constructed  mostly  has  7  parishes,  with  nearly  15,000  inhabitants.    The 

under  Charles  V,  were  ornaments  of  the  city.  suffragan  sees  of  Messina  are  those  of  Lipari,  Nicosia, 

According  to  the  legend,  Christianity  was  brought  and  Patti. 

hither  by  Saints  Peter  and  Paul,  and  there  is  still  pre-  Cappellettc.  Le  Chteae  d: Italia,  XXI  (Ventoe  1870),  558-71; 

served  at  Messina  a  letter  attributed  to  the  Blessed  UpRXsm,  Series  ejntmvmm  meamnennm  (Naples,  1669)  i 

V««»;»  «»u;^K   ;♦  ;<>  a1«:.i»<wI   «,«.  w,,^**^^  k,.  u«-  4.^  *u^  Pirri,  Stctlta  aacra,  I-III  (1633  sqq.);  La  Farina,  Mesatna  e  % 

Virgm,  which,  it  is  claimed,  was  written  by  her  to  the  ,^  i^umumenH  (Messina,  1840). 

Messenians  when  Our  Lady  heard  of  their  conversion  U.  Benigni. 

by  St.  Paul.    St.  Bachirius  or  Bacchilus  is  venerated 

as  the  first  Bishop  of  Messina.    There  is  record  of  MesBlngham,  Thomas,  Irish  hagiologist.  b.  in  the 

several  bishops  of  Messene  in  the  fourth  and  fifth  cen-  Diocese  of  Meath,  and  studied  in  the  Irish  College, 

turies,  but  it  is  not  known  whether  it  be  Messina,  or  Paris,  proceeding  to  the  degree  of  S.T.D.   Among  the 

Messene  in  Greece,  to  which  reference  is  made ;  Eucar-  Franciscan  MSS.  in  Dublin  is  an  interesting  tract  sent 

Da  contemporary  of  Pope  Symmachus  (498),  is  the  by  David  Rothe,  Vice -Primate  of  All  Ireland,  ad- 
Bishop  ot  Messina  of  known  date;  the  oishops  dressed  to  my  "  loving  friend  Mr.  Thomas  Messin^am 
who  are  known  to  have  followed  him  were  Felix  at  his  chambers  in  Paris",  dated  1615.  It  is  evident 
(about  600),  Peregrinus  (649),  Benedict  (682),  Gau-  that  at  this  date  Messingham  was  one  of  the  staff  of 
oiosus  (787),  and  Gr^oiy  (868) ;  the  latter  was  for  the  Irish  College  in  that  city,  and  was  commencing  his 
some  time  a  follower  of  Photius.  Nothing  is  known  of  studies  on  Irish  saints.  In  1620  he  published  Offices 
the  episcopal  see  during  the  time  of  the  Saracen  occu-  of  SS.  Patrick,  Brigid,  Columba,  and  other  Irish 
pation.  In  1090,  Roger  establishcKl  there,  as  bishop,  saints;  and  in  the  following  year  was  appointed  rec- 
nobert,  who  built  the  cathedral.  Under  Bishop  tor  of  the  Irish  College,  Paris,  in  succession  to  his 
Nicholas  (1166)  Messina  was  made  an  archbishopric,  friend  and  diocesan,  Thomas  Dease,  who  was  pro 
Among  other  bishops  of  this  see  may  be  mentioned  moted  to  the  Bishopric  of  Meath,  on  5  May,  1621. 
the  Englishman,  Richard  Palmer  (1182) ;  Archbishop  Messingham  was  honoured  by  the  Holy  See,  and  was 
Lando,  often  an*  intermediary  between  Gregory  IX  raised  to  the  dignity  of  prothonotary  Apostolic,  and 
and  Frederick  11 ;  Francesco  Fontana  (1288) ,  expelled  acted  as  agent  for  many  of  the  Irish  bishops.  Thougl) 
by  Uie  Messenians;  Guidotto  dei Tabiati  (1292),  whose  dilic^nt  in  the  quest  for  materials  with  a  view  to  aq 
mausoleum  was  one  of  the  works  of  art  of  the  cathe-  ecclesiastical  history  of  Ireland.  Messingham  proved 4 

4n4;  Q»rd}D^  AAtQuipC^rd^  (}447);  io  H73  the  m99tftbl^»ndjudipiov9r^(;torortbeIri«bColliPge.§Ri^ 


218 


IBTAL-WOBX 


he  thoroughly  organized  the  course  of  studies  with  a 
view  of  sendmg  forth  capable  missionaries  to  work  in 
their  native  country,  tie  got  the  college  affiliated 
formally  to  the  Universitv  of  Paris,  and.  in  1626,  got 
the  approbation  of  the  Archbishop  of  Paris  for  the 
rulss  ne  had  drawn  up  for  the  government  of  the  Irish 
seminary.^  In  1624  he  published,  at  Paris,  his  famous 
work  onlrish  saints^  ''Fiorilegium  InsulsSiBuictorum'', 
containing  also  an  mteresting  treatise  on  St.  Patrick's 
Purgatory,  in  Lough  Derg.  In  the  same  year  he  was 
appointed  by  the  Holy  See  to  the  Deanery  of  St. 
Patrick's  Cathedral^  Dublin,  in  succession  to  Henry 
Byrne,  but  this  position  was  merely  honorary,  inas- 
much as  all  the  temporalities  were  enjoyed  by  the 
Protestant  dean,  by  patent  from  the  Crown.  Mes- 
singham  had  a  lengtlr^  correspondence  with  Father 
Luke  Wadding,  O.F.M.,  and  was  frequently  consulted 
by  the  Roman  authorities  in  the  matter  of  select- 
ing suitable  ecclesiastics  to  fill  the  vacant  Irish  sees. 
On  15  July,  1630,  he  wrote  to  Wadding  that  he  feared 
it  was  in  vain  to  hope  for  any  indulgences  in  religious 
disabilities  from  King  Charles  I.  Between  the  years 
1632  and  1638  he  laboured  for  the  Irish  Church  in  vari- 
ous capacities,  but  his  name  disappears  after  the  latter 
year,  whence  we  may  conclude  tnat  he  either  resigned 
or  died  in  1638. 

JouRDAZN,  HiMoirt  de  VUnivernU  de  Paris  (Paris,  1866); 
BoTLE,  The  Irish  CoUege  in  Paris  (Londoq.  1901);  RmoH  on 
Franciscan  ManuscripU,  Hist,  MSS.  Com.  (Dublin,  1905). 

W.  H.  Grattan-Flood. 

Messmer,  Sebastian  Gebard.  See  Milwattkee, 
Abchdiocesb  of. 

Bletal-Work  in  tba  Service  of  the  Ohurch. — 

From  the  earliest  days  the  Church  has  employed 
utensils  and  vessels  of  metal  in  its  liturgical  cere- 
monies. This  practice  increased  during  Uie  Middle 
Ages.  The  history  of  the  metal-work  of  the  Church 
in  the  Middle  Ages  is  in  fact  the  history  of  the  art  of 
metal-working  in  general,  and  this  not  only  because 
the  Church  was  the  foremost  patron  of  such  works  and 
because  almost  all  the  works  that  have  been  preserved 
from  the  Middle  Ages  are  ecclesiastical  in  character, 
but  also  because  until  the  twelfth  century  the  works 
of  the  eoldsmith  were  also  almost  exclusively  manu- 
factured by  monks  and  clerics.  But  in  the  period  of 
Renaissance  also  the  manufacture  of  churcn  metal- 
work  formed  a  very  important  branch  of  the  gold- 
smith's art,  and  even  in  our  own  day  these  works  are 
counted  among  those  in  the  production  of  which  that 
art  can  be  most  profitably  developed ;  but  not  only  the 
goldsmith's  art,  that  is  the  artistic  treatment  of  the 
precious  metals,  had  its  growth  and  development  in 
the  service  of  the  Church,  the  base  metals  also,  es- 
pecially iron,  bronze,  and  brass,  have  been  largely 
utOized.  As  we  are  dealing,  however,  with  the  histor- 
ical development  of  the  metal-work  in  the  service 
of  the  Church,  we  shall  confine  ourselves  more  partic- 
ularly to  works  in  the  precious  metals,  without  how- 
ever entirely  excluding  those  in  the  inferior  metals 
from  our  consideration. 

Antiquitt.  —  Beginning  with  antiquity,  we  must 
first  prove  that  the  Church  did  in  fact  make  use  of 
valuable  works  of  metal  in  the  most  ancient  times. 
Honorius  of  Autun  (d.  1145)  makes  the  remark  that 
the  Apostles  and  their  followers  had  employed  wooden 
chalices  in  the  celebration  of  the  holy  Mass,  but  that 
Pope  Zephyrinus  had  ordered  the  use  of  glass  and 
Pope  Urban  I  of  silver  and  gold  vessels  (Gemma 
anim^e,  P.  L.,  CLXXII,  573).  This  opinion  seems  to 
have  been  widely  disseminated  during  the  Middle 
Ages;  it  is  nevertheless  untenable.  Recourse  to  chal- 
ices made  of  wood  or  some  other  cheap  material 
was  undoubtedly  often  made  necessary  in  antiquity 
as  the  result  of  a  lack  of  the  more  valuable  materials 
or  during  the  stormy  times  of  the  persecutions,  but 
this  custom  cannot  have  been  general.    If  the  d^rli^ 


Christians  believed  in  the  real  presence  of  Christ  in  the 
Eucharist,  and  of  this  there  can  be  no  doubt,  they 
assuredly  also  made  offering  of  their  most  precious 
vessels  in  order  that  the  Sacred  Mysteries  might  be 
worthily  celebrated. 

The  earliest  positive  notices  of  the  use  of  metal-woric 
in  the  service  of  the  Church  date  from  the  third  and 
fourth  centuries.  It  is  especially  the  "  Liber  pontifi- 
calis  "t  which  is  now  accessible  in  the  critical  editions 
of  Duchesne  and  Mommsen  (see  Liber  Pontificaus), 
from  which  we  derive  theteost  interesting  information 
concerning  the  subject  under  discussion.  Here  we  first 
meet  with  the  statement  that  Pope  Urban  had  the 
sacred  vessels  made  of  silver,  whicn  does  not  by  any 
means  imply  that  before  that  tune  they  were  all  made 
of  glass.  Of  greater  importance  are  the  accounts  of 
the  magnificent  donations  of  valuable  works  in  metal 
made  by  Emperor  Constantine  to  the  Roman  basili- 
cas. It  would  take  up  too  much  space  to  enumerate 
them  all,  and  we  shall  content  ourselves  with  mention- 
ing a  few  examples.  To  the  Vatican  basilica  he  pre- 
sented seven  laige  chalices  {scypht)  of  the  purest  gold, 
each  of  which  weighed  ten  (Roman)  pounds;  further- 
more forty  smaller  chalices  of  pure  gold,  each  weigh- 
ing one  pound.  The  church  of  St.  Agnes  received  a 
chalice  of  solid  gold  weighing  ten  pounds,  five  silver 
chalices  of  ten  poimds  each,  and  two  silver  patens 
of  thirty  pounds  each.  The  metal  plates  for  the 
Eucharistic  bread  (patens)  are  often  mentioned  in 
connexion  with  the  chalices;  thus  the  Lateran  basil- 
ica received  seven  gold  and  sixteen  silver  patens 
of  thirty  pounds  each.  Though  not  to  the  same  ex- 
tent, the  other  churches  also  were  in  possession  of 
valuable  metal-work  for  the  lituigical  service.  The 
Church  of  Carthaee,  according  to  the  testimony  of 
Optatus,  possessea  so  many  valuables  of  gold  and 
silver,  that  it  was  no  easy  matter  to  remove  or  hide 
them  at  the  time  of  the  persecutions  (Ck)ntra  Parmen., 
I,  xviii).  Ibas,  Bishop  of  Edessa,  was  accused  at  the 
Council  of  Chalcedon  (451)  of  having  purloined  a 
valuable  chalice  set  with  precious  stones,  which  a 
pious  man  had  presented  to  the  church. 

As  to  the  various  kinds  of  metal-work  used  in  the 
Church,  the  "  Liber  pontificalis  "  mentions  the  follow- 
ing in  addition  to  cnalice  and  paten  as  in  use  in  the 
lifetime  of  Pope  Sylvester:  a  silver  bowl  of  ten  pounds, 
which  was  intended  for  the  reception  of  the  chrism  at 
baptisms  and  confirmations,  a  silver  baptismal  vessel 
of  twenty  pounds,  a  goklen  lamb  weighing  thirty 
pounds,  which  was  set  up  in  the  baptistery  beside  the 
Lateran,  seven  silver  stags  that  spouted  water,  each 
of  which  weighed  eighty  pounds,  and  especially  nu- 
merous vessels  for  wine,  e.  g.,  in  the  Vatican  basilica 
two  specimens  of  the  purest  gold,  each  of  a  wei^t  of 
fifty  pounds.  Of  importance  to  us  also  is  the  state- 
ment that  beside  the  golden  lamb  just  mentioned 
there  stood  silver  statues,  five  feet  in  height,  of  the 
Redeemer  and  St.  John,  weighing  180  and  125  pounds 
respectively.  Furthermore  mention  must  be  made 
of  the  metal  caskets,  crosses,  reliquaries,  and  book- 
covers,  which  were  likewise  made  either  entirely  or  in 
part  of  precious  metal.  With  this  enumeration  the 
number  of  metallic  utensils  employed  in  Christian 
antiquity  is  by  no  moans  complete.  The  centre  of 
Christian  worship  is  the  sacrifice  and  the  altar;  for 
this  reason  it  was  early  made  of  valuable  material 
or  at  least  covered  with  it.  Metal  plates  were  further* 
more  used  to  adorn  the  confession  (q.  v.)  and  the  im- 
mediate surroundings  of  the  altar.  Ureat  wealth  of  the 
precious  metals  was  spent  upon  the  superstructure  of 
the  altar,  or  ciborium,  which  was  decorated  with  metal 
statues,  with  chalices  and  votive  crowns.  When  Leo 
III  had  the  ciborium,  presented  by  the  Emperor 
Constantine,  restored,  he  employed  for  that  purpose 
27041  pounds  of  silver.  A  large  amount  of  metal  was 
also  used  for  the  iconostasis,  a  screen  connecting  from 
twQ  Xq  six  oQliimps :  thijis  L^  m  hi|d  the  jconostasis  m 


HBTAL-WORX 


219 


HETAL-WOBX 


tbe  ehurctk  of  St.  Pau]  re-covered  at  an  expenditure  of  nie  were  likewise  employed ;  of  these  a  more  detailed 

1452  pounds  of  silver.  account  will  be  given  later.     Wc  ahall  call  attention 

A  large  amovint  of  Toetal-work  is  also  required  for  here  only  to  the  beal^known  specimen  that  has  l>een 

the  illumiDation  of  the  basilica.     Conatantine  alone  preservcl,  the  pentaptycli  in  ttie  treasury  of  Milan 

presented  to  the   L^teran   church    174    separate  ar-  cathedral;  the  central  division  of  thijj  is  omamenied 

ticles  of  the  greatest   variety  intended  for  this  pur-  by  this  process  with  the  paschal  Iamb  and  the  cross. 

poae.     It  is  sufficient  here  to  make  mention  merely  of  Finally,  as  to  the  woriLshops  from  which  the  Church 

the  chandeliers,  or  lustres  (corotUE),  the  candelabra,  derived  ite  metal-work,  there  can  be  no  doubt  that 

and  lamps;  they  were  made  of  bronze,  silver,  or  gold,  tliey  existed  in  all  the  lai^r  cities  of  the  civiliied 

Tlie  Lateran  church  received  among  the  rest  a  cnan-  countries  nf  ancient  Christendom ;  but  the  cities  of  th« 

delier  with  fifty  lamps  of  the  purest  gold,  weighing  I^astem  Roman  Empire,  and  especially  Byzantium, 

120  pounds,  and  a  candelabrum  of  the  same  material,  seem  to  have  been  pre-erainent.    There  is  a  tendency 

with  eighty  lamps.     Even  the  vessels  for  storing  the  even  at  the  present  day  to  consider  almost  all  of  the 

oil  were  sometimes  made  of  precious  metal.     Tbe  larger  works  that  have  oeen  preserved  as  products  of 

I^teran  basilica  was  the  owner  of  three  such  vessels  Eastern  art.    In  fact  a  large  number  of  worlu  in 

of  silver,  weighii^  900  povmds.     Practically  nothing  metal  were  brought  from  the  Orient  to  the  Western 

however  of  all  these  treasures  has  oome  down  to  us;  countries.    We  mention  here  only  a  reliquary  cross 

only  a  few  small  chandeliers  of  bronze,  dating  from  in  St.  Peter's  at  Rome,  a  present  of  the  Byzantine 

the  fifth  to  the  eighth  centuries,  have  been  found,  moat  emperor  Justin  II  |cf.  Beissel,  "Verwenduiig  edler 

"        ■      "-  Metalfe  z         "  '  "       '        ■■     ■    ' 


of  them  in  Efert.  There  n 
one  more  article  of  metal  that  was 
much  used  in  tbe  service  of  the 
ChuRih  from  the  earliest  centuries, 
tbecenser.  Accordiogto the" Liber 
ptXitiGcalis"  the  baptistery  of  St. 
John  at  the  Lateisn  had  a  censer 
of   gold   weighbg   fifteen  pounds. 


K 


Schmucke  rbmischer 
jm   6-9.  Jahrh."    in 

Zeitschrift   fUr   chriatl.    Kunst", 


begin  the  Middle  Ages  with  the 
Byzantine  metal-work,  in  order  to 
remove  at  the  outset  the  impression 
that  the  term  Byzantine  is  used  to 
express  a  de&nite  period  of  time;  it 
is  used  rather  to  denote  a  def- 
inite geographical  circle  of  art  and 
culture,  tliat  is  to  say,  Byzantium 
with  its  immediate  and  more  dis- 
tant surroundings.  There  were 
two  factors  that  exerted  a  power- 
ful influence  upon  the  Byzantine 
work:  first,  the  almost  boundless. 
extravagance  which  prevailed  at 
the  imperial  Court,  and  which,  as  a 
result  of  the  intimate  relations  ex- 
isting between  State  and  Church, 
made  itself  felt  also  in  the  latter; 
second,  the  close  contact  with  tiie 
art  of  the  inland  provinces,  partic- 
ularly with  Persian  art.  The  Per- 
sian, or,  to  use  a  more  general 
term,  the  Oriental,  influence  gave 
rise  to  an  extravagant  seeking  after 
colour  effects  in  the  art  of  metal- 


precious  stones,  Ifwe  take  account 
then  of  all  these  articles,  the  con- 
elusion  naturally  follows  that  the 
use  of  articles  of  metal  in  the  ser- 
vice of  tbe  Church  had  attained  ex- 
traordinary proportions  in  Chris- 
tian antiquity. 

More  difficult  than  the  enumer- 
atitm  of  tbe  works  in  metal  is  the 
dMcription  of  their  decoration  and 
the  technical  processes  employed 
in  their  manufacture,  'because  on 
this  point  our  literary  sources  are 
almost  wholly  silent,  while  of  the 
old  Christian  works,  which  might 
enlighten  us,  but  very  few  are  ex- 
tant. We  must  therefore,  in  this 
case  also,  confine  ourselves  partic- 
ularly to  the  statements  of  the 
"  Liber  pontificalis  ".    Here  we  find 

numerous     references     to    images  Tbe  Tumn/>  Chaucb 

(imaginea)  of   Christ,    the    Blessed    PreiBntedbyTmiloMidhiBwife 
Virgin,   the  An^U,  and  Apostles;   to^^T.io ->.-".."——"<  k — 
in  most   eases   it   is  impossible  to 
determine  whether  the  works  were  carved  or 
tain  it  is  that  both  methods  were  employed.     The 
■tatuea  of  Christ  and  the  Apostles  on  the  ciborium 

presented  by  Constantino  to  the  Lateran  church  were  .  ,    ,  „  _ 

undoubtedly  carved.  In  some  cases  the  core  of  the  or  cniselling.  In  tbe  former  process  the  metAl  is 
statue  was  of  wood  which  was  overlaid  or  covered  breught  to  a  liquid  state  and  poured  into  a  hollow 
with  silver  or  eold.  Painted  images  also  were  some-  form,  which  has  previously  been  prepared  by  pressing 
times  decorated  with  reliefs  of  silver  or  gold.  Gregory  a  solid  model  into  a  yielding  mass.  Although  casting 
ill.  for  example,  employed  five  pounds  of  pure  gold  must  be  regarded  as  the  original  mode  oT  treating 
ana  precious  stones  in  the  decoration  of  a  statue  ofthe  metals,  nevertheless,  so  far  as  giving  artistic  form  to 
Madonna  in  S.  Maria  Maggiore.  Precious  stones  in  ^ldandsilverisconcemed,hammeringwas  of  greater 
particular  were  a  favourite  form  of  decoration  for  importance.  By  means  of  hammers  the  sheet  of 
articles  made  of  metal ;  golden  statues  were  at  times  metal  is  hollowed  out  and  in  this  way  given  plastic 
completely  covered  with  them.  When  Sixtus  I  pro-  form.  Very  closely  connected  with  hammering  is  the 
vided  the  confession  of  the  Vatican  basilica  with  art  of  er^raving;  this  consists  in  directing  the  blow 
oostlter  furnishings,  Valcntinian  presented  a  tablet  in  of  the  hammer  not  directly  upon  the  metal  but  trans- 
relief  with  the  images  of  Christ  and  the  Apostles,  mitting  it  by  means  of  small  steel  chisels.  It  is  these 
which  was  studded  with  precious  stones.  The  bap-  twolatterprocessestbat  we  have  chiefly  in  mind  when 
Ustery  too  beside  tbe  Lateran  church  possessed  a  we  speak  of  the  goldsmith's  art.  By  means  of  these 
censer  which  was  adomed  with  precious  stones.  Hie  the  ancient  art  of  the  Occident  produced  its  most 
worics  in  bronze  were  often  inlaid  with  silver  decora-  beautiful  works  in  metal.  A  different  state  of  affairs 
tioos.  Thus  tbe  chapels  of  St.  John  received  doors  existed  in  the  Orient,  and  particularly  in  the  home  of 
with  silver  ornamentation.  This  was  probably  a  kind  the  Mesopotamio- Persian  and  S3Tian  art,  where,  so 
Of  nieBo  (cf.  Rosenberg,  "Niello",  Frankfort,  1908).  to  say,  the  hand  hod  less  plastic  training  than  the  eye 
Ta  obtain  colour  effects  enamel  and  verrolerie  eloiion-    a  gift  for  colour.    The  ghttering  gold  nere  received 


rvad  (iM  Vol.  m,  662}    [,  >        .  ,       ,-_.. 

the  production  of  plastic  works. 
To  understand  the  latter  change,  we  must  briefly  ex- 
plain a  few  technical  terms. 

To  give  artistic  form  to  the  shapeless  mass  of  metal 
''  ~  s  employed  are  casting  and  hammering. 


UEtAL-WOftK 


m 


IttTAt-WOftK 


additionAl  decoration  by  means  of  coloured  eoainelB.  of  the  year  1204  (cf.  Kondakoff,  "Geecb.  und  Denlc- 

I'his  preference  for  coloured  representation  iDstead  m&ler  dea  bysant.  Emails",  FmnkTort  oa  the  Uain, 

of  the  plastic  waa  transmitted  to  Byzantium  also.  1SS2), 

But  it  will  always  remain  to  the  credit  of  the  Byian-         B. — Though   the   manufacture   of   artistic   Dietat- 

tine   goldsmith's   art   that   it   produced   macnificent  work  for  the  Church  was  accompanied  by  no  diffi- 

works  in  metal  for  the  service  of  the  Churcn.     The  cutties   in   the   countries   of   the   older   civilization, 

Kiceas  employed  in  the  Orient  and  Byzantium  is  conditions    were   much    more    unfavourable   among 

own  as  cloisonne  enamel  {HnaU  chnsonni);  it  con-  the  barbarian  nations  which  embraced  C'hrifitianity. 

sists  in  soldering  very  thin  stripe  of  gold  on  the  gold  NeveH^eless  we  know  that  among  them  articles  of 

base-plate  bo  as  to  form  cells  into  which  the  coloured  metal  were  much  used  in  tiie  service  of  the  Church 

enamel-past«  is  pressed  and  fused  in  i>lace,  the  enamel  Gregory  of  Tours  in  one  place  speaks  of  sixty  chalices, 

combining  with  the  metal  during  fusion.  fifteen  patens,  twenty  encotpia  of  pure  gold,  which 

In  Byzantium  cloisonne  enamel  forced  the  art  of  King  Childebert  took  as  booty  in  fbe  year  531  in  a 

hanuneringandchieellingintoavcrysubordinateposi-  campaign  against  the  Visigoths   (IliKt.   Francorum, 

tion;  enamel  was  used  to  decorate  secular  articles,  III,  x).     When  St.  Patrick  came  to  Ireland,  he  had 

s  bowls  and  alvonls,  but  especially  the  metal-  in  his  retinue,  amons  others,  three  workers  in  metal. 


work  of  the  Church. 
partly  of  decorative  designs, 
partly  of  ^uratlve  repre- 
sentations. Among  the 
worics  that  have  come  down 
to  us  there  are  many  of  a 
miniature-like  purity,  which 
in  spite  of  their  small  siw 
are  truly  monumental  in 
conception.  Of  the  larger 
works  only  a  very  small 
Qumberhave  been  preserved, 


the    : 
golden 


fai 


I  the 


t  (Palt 
ro)of  St.  Mark's  at  Venice. 
The  remaining  pieces  are  for 
the  most  part  relic-cases 
which  were  suspended  from 
the  neck  or  placed  upon  the 
altar  (examples  at  Velletri 
vid  Coeenca),  crosses  and 
book-covers  (a  magnificent 
specimen  in  the  royal  jewel- 
room  at  Munich).  From  the 
period  in  which  this  art 
reached  its  highest  perfec- 
tion, the  tenth  and  eleventh 
centuries,  we  have  the  so- 
called  ataurotheca  (a  rcli- 
auary  tablet)  in  the  cathe- 
ral  at  Limburg  on  the  Lahn, 
the  reliquary  of  Nicephorus 
Phocas  (963-969)  in  the  con- 
vent of  Lavra  (Athos),  and 
the  lower  band  of  the  so- 
called  crown  of  St.  Stephen 
in  the  crown-treasures  at 
Budapeat    (1076-77). 


consisted  namely  Mac  Cecht,  Laebhan,  and  Forlchem.  There 
are  still  in  existence  fifty- 
three  small  bells,  tubular  and 
box-shaped,  which  belong  to 
this  Irish  art  of  melal-work- 
in^;  among  the  Franks, 
Samt  Eligius  of  Noyon  (588- 
659),  a  goldsmith,  was  even 
consecrated  bishop. 

Here  the  interesting  ques- 
tion arises,  how  these  "  oar- 
I  barians "  succeeded  in  pro- 
I  ducingartiatic  work  in  metal. 
I  The  works  themselves  that 
have  been  preserved  alone 
can  answer  this  question. 
There  are,  it  is  true,  but 
few  of  these;  the  most  im- 
portant to  be  considered  here 
are  a  chalice  and  a  paten, 
which  were  found  near  Gour- 
don  (Burgundy)  and  are  now 
preserved  in  the  National 
I  Library  of  Paris,  a  relic-case, 
I  also  Burgundian,  in  St. 
Maurice  (Switzerland),  the 
famous  votive-crowns  of  the 
Visigothic  kings  from  Guar- 
raiar,  especially  those  of  Uec- 
cevinth  and  Svintila  (631), 
a  Gospel-cover  of  Queen 
Tbeodolinda  in  Monza,  a  rel- 
iquaiy  in  purse  form  fron, 
Hereford  (now  in  Beriin),  a 
Gospel-cover  from  Lindau 
(now  in  the  collection  of  J. 


v™™  C«.w«»  or  8p*™h^)<™<:  K'n«  (VJI  ^-"t.)     pie^pont  Morgan)   and   the 

mUnster  (Austria)  ;theremay 
1304,  dealt  the  death-  furtherbeassignedtothisperiod,becauseoftheirstyle, 
the  St.  Cuthbert  cross  in  the  cathedral  at  Durham, 
Although  the  examples  of  Bysantine  metal-work  the  chalice  of  Aidsigh,  the  shrines  of  several  old  Irish 
decorat«a  with  enamel  are  by  far  the  most  numerous,  bells,  and  a  numMr  of  croRiers  and  crosses  in  the 
specimens  of  hammered  work  are  not  entirely  lacking,  collection  of  the  Roy^  Irish  Academy,  Dublin,  and 
In  the  Grst  place  we  may  mention  two  architectural  in  the  British  Museum,  London.  When  we  consider 
relic-cases  wnich  are  in  the  form  of  a  central  structure  that  these  works  ext«nd  over  a  period  of  more  Uian 
surmounted  by  a  dome  (at  Aachen  and  Venice).  The  four  centuries  and  are  the  products  of  several  races  it 
reliquary  tablets  with  carved  reliefs  are  either  in  the  is  at  once  apparent  that  we  can  give  but  ft  Faint  inti- 
form  of  a  small  folding-altar  or  of  a  cross,  which  often  mation  of  tne  character  and  decoration  of  the  metal- 
bears  the  portraits  of  the  emperor,  Constantine,  and  work  of  the  Church  among  barbarian  nations. 
his  mother  on  the  obverse,  and  on  the  reverse,  the  The  material  used  in  the  manufacture  of  these 
crucifixion.  A  distinct  type  of  the  Greek  goldsmith's  works  is  almost  exclusively  gold,  while  their  artistic 
art  are  the  icons;  one  of  the  moat  valuable  is  in  the  decoration  consists  for  the  most  part  of  the  so-called 
Swenigorodskoi  collection  (St.  Petersburg).  A  rare  verroleris  doitonme,  a  gloss  mosaic.  The  process 
specimen  with  excellent  chasing,  a  gild etf  silver  pyx  employed  in  this  decoration  is  akin  to  that  of  cloi- 
with  the  crucifixion  of  Christ,  is  in  the  cathedral  at  sonn€  enamel;  the  setting  of  the  semi-precious  stones 
HalbcTstadt  (eleventh  century).  At  only  one  place  in  or  paste  gems  is  done  in  one  of  two  ways:  they  are 
the  West  isitpossibleatthepzBsent  day  toget  an  idea  either  bedded  between  thin  bands  of  metal  like 
of  the  magnificence  and  costliness  of  the  Byiantine  cloisonne  enamel,  or  set  in  openings  which  are  CTit  into 
metal-work,  in  th«  treasures  and  library  of  St.  Mark's  the  gold  plate  itself.  At  times  the  goki  plate  is 
Kt  Venice,  wUch  stilt  ponacanes  a  portion  of  the  booty  completelv  covered  with  the  stonea.    Chased  om*- 


METAL-WORK.    XII-XVI  CENTURIES 


BRONZE  DOORR,  RAVELLO  (1170) 

KXECUTED  BY  BAR  IF  A  NO  OF  TRANI 


lUTAL-WOftK                       221  MBTAl-WO&K 

mentation  on  the  other  hand  is  of  rarer  occurrence ;  it  of  Hildesheim,  which  through  the  activity  of  fiishop 

is  found  in  a  crude  fashion  on  the  Hereford  reliquary.  Bemward  became  the  centre  of  the  metal-worker^ 

lliat  nteUo  was  not  unknown  to  the '' barbarian ''  art  in  Northern  Germany;  the  folding-doors  of  the 

nations  is  proved  by  the  chalice  in  KremsmOnster,  a  cathedral  with  crude  reliefs,   a  column,  which   is 

present  of  Tassilo,  Duke  of  Bavaria  (about  780).  patterned  after  Trajan's  Colimon  in  Rome,  and  two 

In  Irish  art  filigree  also  found  a  very  delicate  develop-  candle-sticks    belong    to    this    period.     In    France 

ment;  one  of  the  most  valuable  examples,  one  that  scarcely  a  single  won:  of  any  size  has  been  preserved; 

displays  a  concentration  of  all  the  processes  with  in  Italy  several  bronze  doors,  for  instance,  those  of 

which  the  native  masters  were  conversant,  is  the  the  basilica  of  St.  Paul  at  Rome  (1070)  and  Monte 

chalice  of  Ardagh.  Gargano  (1070),  are  noteworthy,  because  they  were 

C. — ^Tbe  second  period  embraces  the  age  of  the  procured  from  Byzantiimi  and  show  the  influence  of 

Carhvingian  and  Othonian  emperors,  i.  e.,  in  round  the  Byzantine  art. 

numbers  a  period  of  200  years.  While  it  can  hardly  D. — ^The  golden  age  of  the  metal-work  of  the  Church 
be  said  that  this  period  added  anything  essentially  is  the  Romanesque  period  (1050-1250).  We  have  al- 
new  to  the  metal-work  of  the  previous  centuries,  it  is  read^,  it  is  true,  mentioned  above  several  works  be- 
nevertheless  true  that  it  gave  new  forms  and  a  further  longmg  to  this  age,  because  the  various  stvles  of  art 
development  to  many  of  the  articles  already  in  use.  often  overlap,  and  sharp  distinctions  can  be  drawn  only 
We  now  also  more  frequently  meet  with  works  cast  by  force.  Tne  characteristic  which  at  once  distin- 
in  bronze,  whereas  in  the  so-called  ''style  of  the  euishes  the  metal-works  of  the  Romanesque  period 
period  of  migrations"  of  the  preceding  age  it  was  not  from  the  older  works,  is  their  large  size;  this  distinc- 
necessary  even  to  mention  them.  With  the  increase  tion  is  most  noticeable  in  the  reliquaries.  For,  while 
in  the  wealth  of  the  Church,  there  arose  also  the  the  receptacles  for  relics  had  up  to  that  time  been  uni- 
neoessitv  for  an  increased  amount  of  valuable  metal-  formly  of  small  dimensions,  they  grew  in  the  Roman- 
work;  this  was  especially  the  case  in  the  large  mon-  esque  period  into  laige  shrines,  U)r  the  transport  of 
asteries  which  counted  among  their  own  members  which  three  or  four  men  were  necessarv.  Several 
metal-workers  of  great  artistic  skill.  The  manufac-  new  varieties  of  metal-work  also  were  added  to  the 
ture  of  the  metal-work  for  the  Church  during  the  old,  especially  the  aquamanUe^  i.  e.,  a  vessel  in  the 
tenth  and  eleventh  centuries  was  in  fact  so  largely  form  of  an  animal,  used  for  washing  the  hands,  and 
in  the  hands  of  the  monks  that  this  entire  period  nas  the  metal  structures  placed  upon  the  altar;  other 
been  designated  as  the  period  of  monastic  art.  While  articles  assumed  new  forms.  These  changes  are  in 
France  had  led  in  the  development  during  the  ninth  part  due  to  the  evolution  of  the  liturgy.  Almost  to 
century,  from  the  tenth  century  it  gradually  fell  be-  the  close  of  the  tenth  century,  for  instance,  neither 
hind  Germanv.  One  of  the  causes  that  helped  to  cross  nor  candle-stick  was  permitted  upon  the  altar, 
bring  about  tnis  result  was  the  lively  interest  which  only  small  reliquary  caskets  being  tolerated ;  the  altar 
several  of  the  prominent  ecclesiastical  princes  took  itself  up  to  this  time  had  preserved  the  shape  of  a  table 
in  the  art  of  metal-working  as  developed  within  the  or  sarcophagus.  As  soon  as  these  regulations  were 
Church;  the  most  deserving  of  mention  in  this  con-  broken  and  candle-stick, cross,  and  superfrontal  found 
nexioD  is  Archbishop  Egbert  of  Trier  and  after  him  a  place  upon  the  altar,  tnis  change  necessarily  exerted 
Bishops  Meinwerk  of  Paderbom  and  Bemward  of  a  strong  influence  upon  the  manufacture  and  decora- 
Hildesheim.     In   France  the  art  of  metal-working  tion  of  the  articles  mentioned. 

flourish^  especially  in  Reims,  but  also  in  Corbie,  The  material  employed  in  the  manufacture  of  the 

Tours,  and  Metz.    In  Germany  the  centres  of  the  metal-work  of  the  Church  also  experienced  a  change,  as 

goldsznith's  art  of  the  Church  were,  besides  Trier,  coppertookthe  place  of  gold.  Furthermore  the  c/oisonn^ 

especially  the  monasteries  at  Ratisbon,  Reichenau,  enamel  was  supplanted  by  the  c/iamp/evd.  Thechamplev^ 

Essen,  Hilde^eim,  and  Helmershausen.  enamel  differs  from  the  cloisonnd  by  the  small  cells 

The  characteristic  feature  of  the  art  of  the  period  intended  to  receive  the  enamel  not  heiag  made  in  the 
of  migrations,  the  verroterie  cloisonn^e,  gradually  dis-  Byzantine  fashion  by  means  of  strips  of  flat  gold  wire 
appears  and  yields  precedence  to  the  Byzantine  soldered  to  the  gold  plate,  but  by  being  dug  out  of  the 
doiaonni  enamel  whicn  flourished  especially  at  Trier  plate  with  a  burin.  A  peculiarity  of  the  workshops 
and  Reichenau.  The  revival  of  the  plastic  tendency  of  Limoges  (France)  was  the  afHxing  of  the  heads  of 
in  metal-working  was  of  ereater  importance.  We  persons  or  even  of  the  entire  figure  in  high  relief, 
have  from  the  period  under  discussion  even  at  this  day  The  design  in  the  figures  themselves  was  for  the  most 
several  altar-decorations  and  book-covers  with  figural  part  filled  out  with  coloured  enamel.  A  second  dif- 
representations,  which  reveal  a  truly  amazing  skill  in  terence  consists  in  the  more  frequent  occurrence  of 
metal-hammering;  such  is  the  valuable  antipendium  plastic  ornamentations  in  silver.  Of  course  plastic 
of  Henry  II  from  Basle.  The  primitive  method  of  decorations,  as  we  have  alreadv  seen,  were  not  lacking 
covering  a  wooden  core  with  thin  sheets  of  metal  was  in  the  earlier  periods,  but  the  Romanesque  period 
also  stui  practiced.  A  madonna  in  the  collegiate  gave  a  mighty  impulse  to  this  branch  of  the  metal- 
church  at  Essen  (Rheinland)  and  an  image  of  St.  worker's  art  and  can  diow  many  extraordinary  pro- 
Fides  (Foy)  at  Conaues,  France,  are  the  two  best  ductions,  for  instance  on  the  shrine  of  the  Three  Km^ 
known  examples  of  this  art.  In  Italy  the  most  im-  at  Cologne.  Lastly,  a  third  difference  is  apparent  m 
portant  work  of  this  period  is  the  decoration  of  the  the  ornamentation,  in  that  secular  t^pes  of  decoration 
nigh  altar  in  the  church  of  St.  Ambrose  in  Milan,  are  now  more  and  more  used  on  articles  intended  for 
the  work  of  Wolvinus,  executed  under  Archbishop  the  Church.  Oil  a  reliquary  at  Siegbuig  (near  Co- 
Angelbert  II  (824>66).  Prominent  examples  of  the  logne),  for  example,  apes,  deer,  dogs,  and  naked  men 
French  metal  work  are  the  portable  altar,  shaped  like  are  represented;  the  well-known  fabulous  creatures 
a  ciborium,  and  the  binding  of  a  cop^  of  the  Gospels  in  of  the  Romanesque  art  also  win  a  place  for  themselves 
the  royal  jewel-room  at  Munich,  which  were  probably  in  the  art  of  metal-working. 

made  at  Reims  and  were  brought  to  Germany  as  early  The  evolution  in  style  may  be  briefly  characterized 

as  the  reign  of  King  Amulf  (a.  899).     Germany  pos-  as  follows:  the  monastic  art  of  the  previous  period 

,  as  evidence  of  a  more  advanced  art  of  metal-  with  its  Byzantine  tendencies  is  subdued  but  not  en- 


working,  four  crosses  in  the  collegiate  church  at  Essen,  tirely  supplanted  by  the  popular  tendency;  the  two 

which  reveal  iJie  .powerful  influence  of  the  Byzantine  rather  enter  into  a  close  union  which  we  designate  as 

art.    Closely  connected  with  Essen  are  the  school  of  Romanesque  art.    Monuments  of  the  Romanesque 

the  monastery  at  Helmershausen,  where  the  monk  art  in  metals  still  exist  in  large  numbers;  but  these 

Rogenis  wrote  the  first  hand-book  of  the  industrial  are  almost   exclusively  works  of  ecclesiastical  orl- 

arts,  "Soheduladiveisarumartium'^  and  the  school  gin.    This  is  due  not  merely  to  the  fact  that  the 


MBTAlr-WOftS 


222 


METAL- WOKS 


churcbcs,  which  have  been  correctly  called  the  oldest  saints  and  relica  required  an  ineitase  of  reliquaries, 
museums,  have  guarded  their  treasures  more  carefully  One  of  the  results  of  this  was  that  these  wtrc  no 
than  theworldly  owners;  it  is  rather  lobe  ascribed  to  longer  made  as  laiveand  costly  as  ia  the  Romanesque 
the  fact  that  at  that  time  the  metal-work  for  secular  epoch.  Combined  with  this  was  the  striving  for  con- 
purposes  was  a  practically  negligible  factor.  We  must  stantly  new  forms  of  reliquaries,  among  which  busts 
not  infer  from  this,  however,  that  in  the  Romanesque  in  particular  now  became  very  popular.  The  early 
period,  as  in  the  preceding,  it  was  monks  and  clerics  Gothic  altars  with  double  folds  or  wings  became  io 
who  were  the  principal  manufacturers  of  the  metal-  fact  smaU  galleries  of  busts  of  the  saints.  The  num- 
work  for  the  Church.  During  this  period  the  art  of  ber  of  cast  statues  of  the  samts  and  of  the  Bleseed 
metal-working,  as  well  as  the  plastic  arts  in  general,  Virgin  also  increases  very  considerably  from  the  four- 
gradually  passed  into  the  hands  of  the  laity,  Anum-  teenth  century.  The  material  aswell  as  the  technique 
her  of  Benedictine  monasteries,  it  is  true,  still  clung  and  decoration  of  the  works  of  the  eoldsmith  a^in 
to  the  old  traditions  of  the  order,  and  remained  centres  experience  a  chonee.  Copper,  which  has  been  almost 
of  artistic  pursuits.  a  necessity  for  the  bulky  Romanesque  reliquaries. 
By  far  ihe  largest  amount  of  ecclesiastical  metal-  now  gives  wa^  to  silver;  this  is  employed  especially 
work  of  the  Romanesque  period  is  to  be  found  in  Ger-  for  the  figures  m  reliefwhicliwerethen  much  used,  and 
many,  where  the  art  of  metal-  '  '  ' 
woriuug  created  magnificent 
works  in  the  districts  bordering 
on  the  Rhine  and  the   Meuse. 


le  period 


On  the  Rhine  the  Benedictine 
monks  Eilbert  (1130)  and 
Friedericus  (1180)  of  the  Bene- 
dictine monastery  of  St.  Pan- 
taleon  produced  several  reli- 
quaries and  portable  altars, 
which  they  decorated  for  the 
most  part  with  enamel.    They 


than  in  the  Romanesque 
as  statuettes  for  the  deo 
of  shrines. 

Very  intimately  connected 
with  this  change  Of  material 
was  on  alternation  in  the  mode 
of  ornamentation.  He  eham- 
pUvi  enamel  had  lost  it«  power 
of  attraction,  and  indeed  it 
could  not  very  well  he  used 
upon  the  thin  sheets  of  silver; 
translucent  enamel  therefore 
took  its  place ;  this  was  applied 
by  cutting  the  relief-like  repK- 
sentation  in  the  silver  ground 
and  pouring  a  transparent 
enamel  over  the  relief,  so  that 
the  different  parts  according 
as  they  are  higher  or  lower 
produce  the  effect  of  light  and 
shade  in  their  various  grada- 
tions. Siena  has  Icnig  been 
rf^aided  as  the  starting-point 
of  this  new  mode  of  ornamen- 
tation, because  a  chalice  in 
Assisi  made  by  the  Sienese 
Guccio  Manaja  about  1290  is 
the  oldest  example  of  this 
process.    From  Italy  it  eoHj 


men  Godefroi  de  C! 
Nicholas  of  Verdun,  who  com- 
bined plastic  ornamentation 
and  enamelling  with  amaiing 
perfection.  They  are  the  cre- 
ators of  the  two  most  beautiful 
leliquoriea  of  this  whole  period ; 
Godefroi  wrought  the  shrine  of 
St.  Heribert  at  Deuta  (1185), 
and  Nicholas  the  shrine  of  the 
Three  Kings  at  Cologne.  In 
France  likewise  the  art  of 
ertamelling  was  eealousl^  culti- 
vated, especially  in  Lmioges, 
where  sniall  articles  of  metal 
for  church  use  were  manufac- 
tured in  large  quantities'  and 
exported  in  all  directions. 

The  art  of  casting  also  can 
show  several  famous  names 
such  as  Reiner  of  Huy,  who  cost 
the  well-known  baptismal  font 
at  Li^ge,  and  Riquinus  of 
Hf^eburg  in  whose  work- 
shop the  gate  of  the  cathedral  ™u™o,«.«»™..«™.  V  .-  4-  U.  --^" 
at  Novgorod  was  probably  structure  and  construction; 
manufactured  (1150).  All  these  works  are  surpassed  the  same  difference  prevails  as  between  a  RtmLan- 
by  the  beautiful  baptismal  font  at  Hildcsheim,  the  esque  and  a  Gothic  church.  The  ponderous  Ro- 
workofanunknownmaster,  Italy  has  almost  noth-  manesque  style  is  replaced  by  a  pleasing  lightness 
ing  to  show  from  this  period,  except  a  few  bronze  and  mobility  of  form.  However  in  the  art  ofmetal- 
doon,  which  enlighten  us  as  to  the  position  of  cast-  working  as  in  the  other  arts  we  must  carefully  dia- 
ing  in.  bronze;  such  are  the  doors  of  Barifano  of  tingui^  within  this  period  between  the  early  Gothic 
Trani  in  Ravello  (1179)  and  Monreale  (1189)  and  of  woric  and  the  late  Gothic.  Only  the  early  Gothic 
Bonano  at  Pisa  (1180).  (Cf.  Faike  and  Frauberger,  work  may  be  described  as  possessing,  so  to  say,  an 
"Deutsche  Schmeliarbeiten",  Frankfort,  1904;  aristocratic  character,  a  certain  ideal  striving  after 
Neumann,  "Der  Reliquienschati  des  Hauses  Braun-  the  sublime;  like  the  fairest  period  of  chivalry,  how- 
BChweig-LOnebui^",  Vienna,  1891.)                                    ever,  this  striving  lasts  but  a  short  time;  it  soon  gives 

E.— The  Gotku:  epoch  (1250-1500)  brought  numei^  way  to  the  homely  and  real  actuality.  The  lat« 
ous  changes  and  new  requirements,  also  in  church  Gothic  metal-work  throughout  lacks  the  idealism  of 
metal  vessels.  In  this  period  the  feast  of  Corpus  the  early  Gothic.  This  likewise  is  connected  with  the 
Cbristi  was  first  introduced  (1312),  and  thereby  anew  cultural  development.  Theconunon  people,  who  had 
metal  vessel,  the  monstrance  or  ostensory,  mode  grown  in  power,  took  pride,  as  the  nobility  had  done 
necessary.  For  this  purpose  a  vessel  was  employed  before,  in  securing  for  themselves  a  lasting  memorial 
like  those  which  up  to  that  time  had  been  in  general  by  means  of  religious  foundations. and  presents  to 
use  for  exhibiting  relics.  Another  vessel,  which  came  churches.  To  dedicate  magnificent,  artistically  ex- 
into  use  at  this  time  and  upon  whose  manufacture  ecutcd  works,  however,  their  means  were  in  many 
great  stress  was  laid,  is  the  "pax",  or  "  oeculatorium  "  cases  insufficient,  thus  giving  rise  to  monv  woriu  in 
iirulrummtum  pads).    The  growing  veikeration  of    metal  of  poor  worionanship,  especially  cholioefl,  mon- 


%e  features  of  the  religious 
metal-work  of  this  age  that 
more  than  any  other  distin- 
guish it  from  the  earlier 
productions  are  the  super- 


UTAL-WOBK  223  KETAL-WOBK 

rtntaeea,  and  teliqusrieB.    So  far  as  lightnesa  of  the  tions  in  relief  and  archibectural  ornaments,  next  the 

structure  in  particular  is  concerned,  this  peculiarity  is  seven-armed   candelabra,   door-knobs,    water-vessels 

»pm  beat  rect^niied  in  the  relitjutuy  and  also  in  (aqaamanUe),  lecterns,  especially  the  beautiful  eagio- 

tEemooBt  ranee.    Very  frequently  smce  the  fourteenth  Iect«ro8.    In  Germany  tne  names  of  many  of  the 

century  the  form  chosen  is  that  of  two  angels  imeellng  masters  have  been  handed  down;  in  WittffliberK,  Wil- 

i^xn  a  baae-plate  and  supporting  the  reliquary,  some-  kin  (1342),  in  Elbing,  Bemhuser,  and  in  Lubeck  and 

tunee  holding  it  in  a  horiiontal  position  as  a  casket,  Kiel,   Hans  Apengel«r.     Lastly  mention  should   be 

•ometimes  vertically  as  a  tower.     In  Geratany  there  made  of  the  Bells  which  were  also  cast  in  bronse. 

an  two  excellent  examples  of  this  inverted  position.  While  Germany  distinguished  itself  by  its  religious 

two  reliquaries  in  the  cathedral  tteasutes  of  Aachen,  works  cast  in  bronze,  it  was  surpassed  by  France  in 

which  are  conBtructed  in  the  form  of  chapels  with  another  branch  of  the  metal-worker's  art.     Here  in 

toweia  abounding  in  open-work,  and  are  borne  by  the  beginning  of  the  thirteenth  century  the  art  of  the 

saints.     Reliquaries  in  general  assumed  the  form  oJF  smith  psssed  through  its  fir^t  period  of  full  vigour, 

lurches  in  miniature;  gabled  hood-mouldings,  pinna-  At  thatiime,  thanks  to  the  highly  developed  technical 

cles,  fiuials.  crockets,  rampant  arches  and  buttresses,  processes,  France  produced  metal-work  for  the  doors 

in  ^ort  the  whole  architectural  scaffolding  of  the  earlr  of  churches  such  as  has  never  been  produced  since. 

Gothic  cathedral  are  found  in  the  shrines,  of  whicQ  Germany,  England,  and  the  Netherlands  felt  the  fa- 

the  most  important  is  the  reliquary  of  St.  Gertrude  in  vourable  influence  of  the  French  art,  which  produced 

Nivelles,  the  work  of  Nicholas  in  Douai  and  Jacque-  its    magnificent   works 

moo  de  Nivelles  (1295).     The  same  is  true  of  the  on  the  cathedrals  at 

remaining  works  in  metal.  Rouen,     Sens,    Noyon, 

The  architectuial  ornaments  forced  themselves  also  and  especially  on  the 
upon  articles  on  which  we  would  not  expect  them;  cathedra)  atParis.  Here 
thU3  the  knob  (nodus)  of  the  chalice  often  became  a  every  wing  of  the  fold- 
small  chapel  with  many  sharp  comers  and  edges,  ing  doors  has  three  iron 
making  the  handling  of  the  chalice  more  difficult,  bands,  that  serve  also 
Likewise,  the  popular  plastic  figures  were  placed  upon  as  hinges,  divided  into 
articles  of  use  that  require  a  Heavy  formation,  euch  a  thousand  branches 
as  book-covers.  A  beautiful  silver  book-cover  from  anddecorated  with  birds 
the  Benedictine  convent  of  St.  Blasien  in  the  Black  of  every  kind  and  fan- 
Forest  is  studded  in  this  way  with  numerous  figures  tastic  creatures.  In 
of  saints;  they  are  found  even  upon  thesmallerarticles  addition  to  the  metal- 
of  use,  as  upon  a  cloak-clasp  in  the  cathedral  of  work  of  the  doois  the 
Aachen.  The  manufacture  of  the  religious  works  is  blacksmith  furnished 
taken  more  and  more  out  of  the  hands  of  the  monks  the  Church  with  artis- 
aod  clerics,  who  now  furnish  only  the  ideas,  and  tic  chandeliers,  railings, 
gradoally  passes  altogether  into  the  hands  of  the  lay  pedestals  for  the  Easter 
goldsmitns.  By  this  statement  of  course  we  do  not  candle,  tamps,  and  lec- 
wish  to  imply  that  there  were  not  individual  artists  terns.  The  first  place 
still  active  m  the  convents,  for  that  remains  true  even  in  the  manufacture  of 
to  the  present  day,  but  for  the  development  of  an  en-  artistic  railings  un- 
tire  period  they  are  of  no  moment.  doubtedly    belong    to 

Among  the  few  works  of  France,  that  have  been  Italy,  where  the    hich 

preserved,  the  so-called  "golden  horse  of  Altotting"  perfection  attained   by 

attained  great  fame;  it  is  a  half-worldly,  half-religious  the  art   of  the   Italian 

ornament  representing  the  veneration  of  the  Madonna  blacksmiths    may  best 

'      'ting  Charles  VI,  whose  horse  in  the  lower  part  be  seen  in  Florence  (Sa 

epicture  isheldbyasquire  (HM).     InGermanr  Croce),  Verona,  and 

we  can  find  no  evidence  of  such  exactly  defined  schools  Siena. 
of  art  as  in  the  Romanesqueage;  the  works  still  in  ex-         III,  Renaissance. — 

Htenc«  are  exceedingly  numerous,  especially  busts  of  While   '.ho  religious  Reuquabt  or  St.  ELutarra  oi 

saints  and  chalices.     In  contrast  with  the  preceding  metal-work   m   the  Hcnq.hi 

epochs  Italy  now  took  a  pronounced  lead  in  the  execu-  Gothic    style    had    in- 

tion  of  artistic  metal-work  for  the  Church ;  the  Italian  creased    in   quantity 

works  are  compact,  they  favour  a  strong  substructure,  often  at  the  expen  e  of  quality,  a  decided  retn^resaion 

which  permits  the  application  of  the  favourite  translu-  in  respect  to  (quantity  is  noticeable  during  the  Renais- 

eent  enamel ;  there  is  evident  also  a  tendency  to  ex-  sance.     This  is  especially  true  of  Germany.     The  dis- 

cesaive  ornamentation,  whereby  the  fixed  forms  are  tressina  religious  agitations,  the  defection  of  many 

almost  suffocated.     Among  the  schools  of  Italy  Siena  of  the  raithful  from  the  old  religion  and  the  increasing 

was  at  first  pre-eminent;  from  this  city  the  goldsmith  indifference  to  religious  faith  had  the  effect  of  re- 

Boninsegna  was  called  to  Venice  in  1345  to  make  re-  ducingtheproductionof  articles  for  chureh  use  to  very 

pairs  there  to  the  Fala  d'Oro  of  St.  Mark's,     Sienese  -..nail  proportions.     In  Italy,  it  is  true,  we  know  the 

masters  also  began  in   1287  the  silver  altar  in  the  names  of  numerous  anist  goldsmiths — there  are  altout 

cathedral  at  Pistoia,  which  was  finallv  completed  in  1000  of  them — but  there  also  the  number  of  religious 

1390  by  Florentine  goldsmiths  and  is  the  largest  piece  works  of  the  Renaissance  is  very  small.     At  the  nead 

■     ork  of  this  k"    •      -"  -  -     ■- '     —  ■  ■• ™ 


by  King  C 

of  the  picti 


_.  .  ._         .    iskmd.    The  masterpiece  of  the  Floren-  of  the  new  movement  in  metal-work  for  the  Churob 

tine  school,  the  silver  altar  of  the  baptistery,  was  be-  we  find  the  most  diatineuished  sculptors,  in  fact  the 

ffun  in  1366  by  Leonardo  di  Ser  Giovanna  and  Berto  leading  masters  of  the  Renaissance  preferred  to  exe- 

diGeri;  this  too  was  not  completed  until  one  hundred  cute  their  work  in  metal  (bronie);  we  need  mention 

years  later,  when  the  Renaissance  had  already  fully  here  onlv  the  names  of  Ghiberti  and  Donatello,  the 

entered  into  Italian  art.  former  tde  creator  of  the  famous  bronze  doors  of  the 

Bronze  casting  also  continued  to  produce  numerous  baptistery  at  Florence,  the  latter  themaker  of  the  high 

works  for  the  service  of  the  Church.     North  Germany  altar  in  bronze  in  II  Santo  at  Padua;  as  these  worka 

and  the  Netherlands  (Dinant)  were  most  prominently  however  belong  to  the  domain  of  sculpture  we  must 

active  in  this  field.     Here  we  must  mention  firet  of  all  leave  them  out  of  consideration  here. 
the  numerous  baptismal  fonts  of  bronse,  which  are         The  changes  in  style  follow  the  course  of  the  general 

decorated  on  their  outer  sheathing  with  repreoenta-  «V9lu(igD  in  art.    Tlte  vertical  fonns  of  the  Gothic 


IBTAL-WOBX  224  IBTAL-WOBX 

style  give  way  to  the  horizontal  tendency,  the  forms  Renaissance  works  in  Germany,  a  silver  altar  in  tke 
become  more  vigorous  and  compact,  the  vessels  ac-  Reidien  Kapelle  at  Munich ;  here  we  find  nude  putti. 
quire  a  more  flexible  silhouette.  However,  the  early  flowers  growing  out  of  acanthus  calyces,  friezes,  and 
Renaissance  left  the  forms  of  the  commonest  vessels,  panels  which  breathe  wholly  the  spirit  of  the  Italian 
the  chalices  and  crosses,  almost  untouched,  inasmuch  Renaissance.  A  goldsmith  of  Nuremburg,  Melchior 
as  the  tradition  of  a  thousand  years  made  them  appear  Bayo,  in  1538,  by  order  of  King  Sigismund  I  of  Poland, 
sacred ;  we  have  nimierous  chiJices  of  the  Renaissance,  made  an  altar  of  chased  silver  which  is  in  the  chapel 
the  base  of  which  shows  the  Moorish  and  Gothic  foils  of  the  Jagellons  in  the  cathedral  at  Krakow.  Besioes 
and  the  knob,  the  Gothic  rotuli.  Not  until  the  late  these  there  are  no  religious  works  of  any  importance 
Renaissance  were  the  circular  forms  and  volutes  gen-  from  this  period.  As  is  proved  by  the  ''Book  of  Holy 
erally  employed.  In  other  respects  the  customary  Objects  "  of  Cardinal  Albrecht  of  Mayence,  a  few  prel- 
Renaissance  ornaments,  which  are  by  no  means  the  ates  indeed  were  intent  on  increasing  the  treasures  of 
least  charm  of  this  style,  are  employed  in  ecclesias-  their  churches  in  the  new  style,  but  as  a  rule  the  exi* 
tical  and  worldly  articles  indifferently.  Putti,  herms,  gencies  of  the  times  did  not  permit  the  manufacture 
caryatides,  garlands,  grotesques,  acanthus  leaves,  of  larger  works  in  metal.  So  far  as  the  smaller 
furthermore  the  elements  taken  from  architecture,  utensils  are  concerned,  these,  even  as  late  as  the  mid- 
such  as  colimins,  pillars,  capitals,  entablatures,  balus-  die  of  the  sixteenth  century,  still  show  Gothic  forms, 
""ers  form  an  inexhaustible  source  of  constant  change,  as,  for  instance,  a  chalice  of  the  well-known  Gebhara 

Silver  during  the  Renaissance  no  longer  maintains  von  Mansfeld,  Archbishop  of  Cologne,  in  the  "grQnen 
the  position  it  won  for  itself  during  the  Gothic  period.  Gewolbe  "  at  Dresden  (about  1560).  All  the  works  of 
Several  distinguished  religious  works  in  silver  have  this  period  are  surpassed  by  the  productions  which 
been  preserve,  but  thev  are  far  surpassed  both  the  goldsmith  Anton  Eisenhoit  made  about,  the  year 
nimiencally  and  artisticallv  b^  the  works  in  bronze;  1590  for  Theodor  am  Fdrstenbeig,  Prince-Dishop  of 
the  latter  are  often  covered  with  silver  or  gold.  The  Paderbom;  these  are  a  chalice,  crucifix,  book-cover, 
artistic  ornamentation  of  both  ecclesiastical  and  secu-  and  a  vessel  for  holy  water.  The  articles  are  most 
lar  metal-work  consists  especially  of  delicately  exe-  exquisitely  ornamented  with  noble  Renaissance  forms 
cuted  representations  in  relief,  which  at  first  appear  in  done  in  flat  chasing.  The  most  beautiful  works  of  the 
moderation  at  the  more  important  points,  but  later  pre-  Renaissance  in  Southern  Germany,  reliquaries,  chal- 
sumptuously  cover  the  entire  suitace.  At  the  same  ices,  monstrances,  etc.,  are  in  the  Keichen  Kapelle  at 
time  enamel  is  very  frequently  employed,  sometimes  Munich.  France,  like  Italy,  has  a  lai^  amount  of 
the  previously  mentioned  translucent  enamel,  which  documentary  evidence  of  tne  manufacture  of  metal- 
completely  covers  the  portions  in  relief  with  a  coloured  work  for  the  Church,  but  the  endless  wars  of  Louis 
surface,  sometimes  also  the  Venetian  enamel,  which  XIV  and  the  Revolution  consigned  them  almost 
flourished  from  about  1500-1550.  It  was  used  to  without  exception  to  the  melting-pot.  A  chalice  in 
coat  jugs  and  bowls,  candle-sticks,  candelabra,  and  the  church  of  St-Jean  du  Doigt  Xabout  1540),  which 
ciboria.  Another  favourite  form  of  decoration  con-  has  a  stout  knob  transformed  into  a  chapel,  and  the 
sisted  in  the  combination  of  metals  and  crystals;  cup  and  base  beins  covered  with  clumsy  tendrils,  is 
this  type  of  decoration  occurs  during  the  Middle  Ages,  the  onlv  work  which  we  are  able  to  name  here, 
but  was  more  systematically  and  artistically  carried  Besides  the  works  of  the  goldsmith's  art,  the  pro- 
out  in  the  Renaissance,  llie  art  of  gem-engraving  ductions  in  base  metal  must  not  remain  entirely  un- 
likewise  was  again  practiced  after  ancient  models  upon  noticed.  These  came  not  rareljr  from  the  workshops 
cameos  and  gems.  The  ecclesiastical  works  of  the  of  the  goldsmiths.  The  most  important  founderies 
Renaissance  therefore  often  represent  an  enormous  were  in  Florence  and  Padua.  It  is  not  always  easy 
value.  We  need  mention  here  only  the  value  of  a  few  to  distinguish  between  the  works  of  sculpture  and 
papal  tiaras.  A  tiara,  which  Sixtus  IV  had  made  by  those  of  the  industrial  arts.  Certainly  a  laige  number 
the  Venetian  goldsmith  Bartolomeo  di  Tomaso,  was  of  magnificent  bronze  railings  belong  to  the  latter — 
valued  at  110,000  ducats.  Julius  II  confided  to  the  the  most  beautiful  is  in  the  cathedral  at  Prato,  the 
Milanese  jeweller  Caradossa  the  making  of  a  tiara  work  of  Bruno  di  Ser  Lapo  Mazzei  (1444) — as  do  also 
valued  at  200,000  ducats  (nearly  200,000  dollars),  the  candelabra,  which,  because  of  their  elegance  of 
Hardly  any  works  of  really  marked  importance,  if  we  form  and  delicate  ornamentation,  are  very  effective, 
except  the  previously  mentioned  altars  in  Florence  and  The  best  known  specimen  is  the  excessively  oma- 
Pistoia,  the  completion  of  which  falls  in  this  period,  mented  candelabrum  in  II  Santo  at  Padua,  the  master- 
have  been  preserved  from  the  Renaissance.  We  may  piece  of  Riccio  (1516).  From  bronze  there  were  also 
again  mention  a  few  reliquaries  at  Siena,  which  re-  manufactured  for  the  service  of  the  Churth  Sanctus 
veal  a  pronounced  change  compared  with  the  monu-  bells,  candlesticks,  vessels  for  holy  water,  hansing 
mental  shrines  of  the  Romanesque  and  Gothic  periods,  lamps,  about  the  details  of  which  we  need  not  here 
They  are  silver  caskets  with  sides  in  openwork,  per-  concern  ourselves.  We  merely  add  that  the  works 
mitting  a  view  of  the  relics.  The  use  of  crystals  is  ex-  in  iron  are  confined  more  particularly  to  the  railings 
emplified  in  a  beautiful  pax  from  Monte  Cassino  (now  in  the  side-chapels  of  the  laxger  churches;  they  are  of 
n  Berlin).  no  interest,  however,  from  the  standpoint  of  the 

Elsewhere  the  influence  of  the  Renaissance  upon  history  of  art. 
church  metal -work  was  early  apparent.  In  the  The  last  periods  of  church  metal-work  can  be  con- 
beginning  only  the  non-essentials  were  borrowed  cisely  described.  Like  the  whole  of  the  baroque  art, 
from  the  Italian  Renaissance;  it  was  the  ornament  the  metal-work  of  the  Church  of  this  epoch,  when 
that  was  copied;  the  fundamental  forms  long  re-  compared  with  the  delicately  balanced  regularity 
mained  Gothic.  To  the  above-mentioned  types  the  of  the  Renaissance,  also  shows  a  certain  clumsiness 
Gennans  added  especially  the  scroll-work,  which  and  unrest,  which  in  the  rococo  develops  onesidedly 
was  by  preference  combined  with  the  Moresque  and  into  absolute  irregularity,  to  be  changed  in  the  Cla»- 
then  served  as  a  pattern  for  the  surface;  it  is  not  un-  sicism  which  followed,  into  the  exact  opposite,  a 
known  in  Italy,  but  in  Germany  it  held  almost  pedantic,  inflexible  rigiaity.  These  peculianties  of  the 
undisputed  sway  for  about  thirty  or  forty  years.  In  new  styles  do  not,  of  course,  find  expression  in  the 
Germany  during  the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth  cen-  goldsmith's  art  to  the  same  extent  as  in  the  plastic 
turies  the  cities  of  Augsbuig  and  Nuremberg  gained  arts.  Nevertheless  this  evolution  is  not  wholly  lack- 
extraordinary  fame  by  the  manufacture  of  artistic  ing  even  in  the  smaller  church  utensils:  it  may,  for 
metal-work ;  their  products  were  eagerly  sought  after  instance,  be  clearly  olwerved  in  the  chalice,  which 
throughout  the  entire  world.    The  Augsbuig  gold-  in  the  baroque  style  is  overloaded  with  broad,  clumsy 

with,  George  Seld,  m  1492  furnished  qw  q{  Uio  first  onwQ^At^ ;  m  tb?  r9999v  \h^  fQvmQ  became  more  deli- 


MBTAPH&4STE8  225  MBTAPHRASTE8 


produced  logia  of  the  Byzantine  Church.    Through    __ 

ehalioes  of  the  severest  fonns  and  with  straight  lines,  tance  of  this  collection  his  name  has  become  one  of  the 

In  France,  which  during  this  epoch  set  the  fashion  most  famous  among  those  of  medieval  Greek  writers, 

in  Europe,  ^e  Court  and  a  number  of  prominent  in-  The  epithet  Metapmrastes  may  be  rendered  Compiler; 

dividuals  devoted  enormous  sums  to  provide  valuable  it  is  given  to  him  from  the  usual  name  for  sucn  ar- 

church  furniture,  at  times  in  such  a  way  that  true  rangements  of  saints'  lives  (jji£Td<pf>aff is,  compilation), 

art  was  lost  in  splendid  display.    In  a  completely  Little  is  known  for  certain  about  his  life.   His  period  is 

equipped  "chapel",  which  Caixlinal  Richelieu  pre-  the  latter  half  of  the  tenth  century.    In  one  of  his  leg- 

sented  to  the  crown  in  1636,  there  was  a  cross,  or-  ends  (the  Life  of  St.  Samson)  he  tells  of  the  saint's 

namented  with  2516  diamonds  of  various  kinas,  a  miracles  continued  down  to  his  own  time;  that  time  is 

chalice  and  a  paten  with  2113  diamonds,  a  madonna  the  reign  of  Romanos  II  (959-63)  and  of  John  I 

with  1253  diamonds;  alt(«ether  9000  diamonds  and  Tzimiskes  (969-76).    Michael  Psellos  (1018-78),  who 

224  nibi«8  were  employed  in  fiunishing  the  chapel,  wrote  the  life  of  Symeon,  afterwards  added  to  those  of 

The  Sainte-Chapelle  at  Paris  was  presented  by  the  the  other  saints  in  the  collection,  says  he  was  a  Logo- 

"Chambres  de  comptes"  with  a  reliquary  one  metre  thete.    In  this  case  it  means  one  of  the  Secretaries  of 

hi  length,  for  which  they  paid  13,060  livres.    New  State  with  the  title  Magister.    Psellus  also  tells  us  that 

metal-work  was  at  that  time  produced  in  larger  quan-  Symeon  was  a  favoiuite  of  the  emperor,  at  whose  com- 

tities  in  Germany,  which  in  this  art  especially  main-  mand  he  made  his  collection  of  legends.   Ehrhard  sayp 

tained  its  pre-eminence.     Indeed  it  is  the  time  of  that  this  emperor  was  Constantine  VLl  (Porphyrogen- 

the  so-called  Counter-Reformation,  which  in  Southern  netos,  912-59)  who  organized  a  compilation  of  all 

Germany  and  Austria  beheld  the  erection  of  so  many  kinds  of  learning  to  form  a  kind  of  universal  ency- 

magnificent  churches.    The  new  houses  of  God,  how-  clopsedia  by  the  scholars  of  his  Court  (Krumbacher, 

ever,  required  new  metal  furniture.    To  the  present  "Byz.  Lit.",  200).     Ehrhard  Ooc.  cit.)  and  most  au- 

day  the  treasure-rooms  of  many  a  cathedral — and  thorities  now  identify  the  Metaphrast  with  Symeon 

convent — church  are  filled  with  the  crosses,  candle-  Magister  the  Logothete,  who  wrote  a  chronicle  under 

sticks,  and  antipendia  that  were  made  at  that  time;  Nicephorus  Phocas  (963-9).    Besides  the  identity  of 

they  are  remarkable,  however,  for  their  size  rather  name  and  period  there  is  internal  evidence  from  the 

than  their  artistic  qualities;  tne  material  is  mostly  two  works  (Chronicle  and  Legends)  for  this.   A  certain 

silver.     But  works  of  art  of  great  excellence  are  not  Arab  chronicler,  Yahya  ibn  Said  of  Antioch,  in  the 

entirely  lacking.    The  Abbey  of  St.  Blasien  formerly  eleventh  centuiy  refers  to  "Simon,  Secretary  and 

owned  an  antix>endium  portraying  the  passage  of  the  Logothete,  who  composed  the  stories  of  the  saints  and 

imperial  armv  through  the  Black  Forest  in  the  year  their  feasts  "(Delehaye  in"  Revue  des  (Questions  hist.", 

1678,  a  mo6t  beautiful  piece  of  work  (now  in  Vienna).  X,  84).   Another  point  that  fixes  his  time  as  the  latter 

Other  examples  of  the  zeal  employed  in  the  manu-  half  of  the  tenth  century  is  that,  as  Ehrhard  has 

facture  of  precious  metal-work  are  the  reliquary  shrine  proved,  the  speech  made  by  Constantine  VII  at  the 

of  St.  Engelbert  in  Cologne,  dating  from  1633,  which  translation  of  the  portrait  of  Christ  from  Edessa  on 

shows  the  saint  lying  prostrate  on  the  cover,  and  16  August,  944^  is  contained  in  Symeon's  part  of  the 

statues  of  bishops  on  tne  sides,  but  otherwise  only  Menology  ("  Die  Legendensammlung  '*,  etc.,  pp.  48, 

architectural  forms;  also  the  shrine  of  St.  Fridolin  at  73).    Formerly  his  period  was  generally  thought  to  be 

Sftckingen   (Baden),  characterized  by  the  complete  earlier.    In  his  life  of  St.  Theoctistus  of  Lesbos  he  gives 

mobility  of  its  lines;  and  furthermore  the  valuable  what  seems  to  be  a  passa^  about  himself,  in  which 

monstrance  in  Klostemeubui^  near  Vienna,  which  is  he  says  that  he  took  part  m  the  expedition  of  Admi- 

in  the  form  of  an  elder-tree  (1720).  ral  Himerios  to  Crete  in  902.    It  is  now  proved  that 

Probably  at  no  time  was  so  little  money  expended  Symeon  simply  copied  all  this  life,  including  the  auto- 

upon  religious  furniture  as  during  the  period  of  Classi-  biographical  note,  from  an  earlier  writer,  Niketas 

cism;  it  is  the  age  of  barren  Rationalism,  which  was  (Ehrhard,  "Byz.  Lit.",  p.  200). 
practically  devastating  m  its  effect  upon  the  liturgy        Symeon's  chief  work,  the  one  to  which  he  owes  his 

and  religious  life.    To  devote  large  sums  to  the  ac-  great  reputation  in  the  Byzantine  Church,  is  the  col- 

quisition  of  precious  furniture  was  not  in  consonance  lection  of  Legends.     But  it  is  not  easy  to  say  how 

with  the  spirit  of  this  age.    For  this  reason  candle-  much  of  the  Menology  was  really  compo^  by  him. 

sticks  and  even  monstrances  were  not  infrequently  On  the  one  hand,  in  many  cases  he  simply  copied 

made  of  tin  or  wood,  but  to  preserve  appearances,  existing  lives  of  saints;   on  the  other,  the  collection 

often  coated  with  silver  or  gola.    We  do  not  desire,  has  grown  considerably  since  his  time  and  all  of  it 

however,  to  leave  this  period  with  this  eloomv  picture,  without  discrimination  goes  by  his  name.    Leo  Alia- 

In  the  baroque  period  the  art  of  Sie  blacksmith  tins  (op.  cit.)  ascribes  122  legends  only  to  Symeon, 

reached  ita  second  climax  in  Germany  and  France.  Delehaye  (/'Les  m^nologes  grecs '*  in  the  "Analecta 

Under  the  hanmier  of  the  smith  the  inert  mass  began  Bollandiana",  XVI,  311-29),  thinks  that  148  or  150 

to  sprout  and  blossom.    The  superb  choir-railines,  are  authentic  and  original.     It  niay  be  noticed  that  the 

lanterns,  candle-stands,  and  chandeliers  show  to  tibe  authentic  ones  are  chiefly  those  in  the  early  months  of 

present  day  that  the  art  of  the  blacksmith  in  the  ser-  the  3^ar,  from  September  (the  Byzantine  Calendar  be- 

vice  of  the  Church  was  at  that  time  spurred  on  to  the  gins  in  September;  the  saints  in  the  Menology  are  ar- 

hi^hest  endeavours.    The  revival  of  the  styles  of  the  ranged  as  their  feasts  occur).    It  is  certain,  that  a 

Middle  Ages  during  the  nineteenth  century  proved  number  of  these  legends  were  written  by  Symeon 

beneficial  to  the  rdi^ous  metal-work  also.     At  the  from  such  sources  as  he  found  (partly  oral  tradition), 

present  day  candlesticks,  chalices,  monstrances  are  The  sifting  of  these  from  the  rest  still  needs  to  be  done 

manufactured,  which  in  costliness  and  purity  of  style  (Ehrhard,  1.  c,  201-2).     His  reputation  as  an  author 

are  not  inferior  to  the  best  works  of  ancient  art.  has  been  restored  by  the  latest  students.    At  one  time 

Moreover  tie  tendency  toward  the  creation  of  a  new  his  name  was  a  byword  for  absurd  fabrications.    Ehr- 

fltyle  is  noticeable  also  in  the  art  of  metal-working  hard,  DobschQtz,  and  others  have  now  shown  him  to 

Whether  this  is  to  be  crowned  with  lasting  success,  is  be  a  conscientious  compiler  who  made  the  best  use  of 

a  question  for  the  future  to  decide.  his  material  that  he  could.    The  often  absurd  stories  in 

w ,,_,.      .   -^-  •        w    •  -I    ro.-:  ^.  T#>»  ..^  ^  ^*^^^  ^^^  already  contained  in  the  sources  from 

ciJSS^iMiSfSrVSteS  fst^S^  «&•  ^a^m  wWch  ^  wrot*  them:  he  is  not  responsible  for  these, 

Lsmmr.  lUuttrierte  Getehxehte  dea  KunHoefterbea  (Berlin.  1909).  Since  his  Object  was  simplv  to  collect  and  arrange  the 

Bed  A  Kleinschmidt.  legends  of  tne  saints  as  they  existed  in  his  time.    He 
X.—15 


MBTAPHT8IC8                          226  IBTAPHTBICB 

has  often  been  compared  to  the  great  Wettem  com-  Descartes's  false  assumption  that  the  method  in  met»- 

piler  of  legends^  Jacobus deVoragine(d.  1298).    Some  physics  is  subjective,  in  other  words,  that  all  the 

(Kondakofif,  "Histoire  de  Tart  b3r2antin/'  Paris,  1886,  conclusions  of  metaphysics  are  based  on  the  study  of 

I,  46)  prefer  Symeon  of  the  two.    His  legends  were  subjective,  or  mental,  phenemona. 

translated  into  Latin  by  Lippomanus,  "  Vita  ss.  pri-  Taking  a  wider  view  of  the  scope  and  method  of 

scorum  patnim"  (Vemce,  vols.  V-VII,  1556-1558).  metaphysics,  the  followers  of  Aristotle  and  many  who 

Supposing  the  identity  oRtne  Bletaphrast  and  Symeon  do  not  acknowled^  Aristotle  as  a  leader  in  philosophy 

Magister,  we  have  other  works  by  him,  a  Chronicle  not  define  the  science  m  terms  of  all  reality,  botn  objective 

extant  in  its  original  form,  but  altered  and  supple-  and  subjective.     Here  five  fonns  of  definition  are  of- 

mented  in  the  Chronicle  that  goes  by  his  name,  in  the  fered,  wnush  ultimately  mean  one  and  the  same  thin^: 

Corpus  of  Bonn  (Theophanes  continuatus,  Bonn,  1^28,  (1)  Metaphysics  is  the  science  of  being  as  being, — Thu 


^nus 
mon  with  other  sciences,  this  characteristic  that  it 

841-965),  some  prayers  and  poems  (V,  0.,  CXIV,  seeks  a  knowledge  of  things  in  their  causes.   What  is 

209-225)  and  nine  letters  (P.  G.,  CaIV,  282-236).  peculiar  to  metaphysics  is  the  difference  "of  being  as 

Symeon  Metaphrastes  is  a  saint  in  the  Orthodox  being''.    In  this  phrase  are  combined  at  once  the 

Church.    His  feast  is  28  November.  material  object  and  the  formal  object  of  metaphysics. 

,o?Sv5°"®*^°?^  oflegenda  in  P.  (7..  CXIV-CXVI.  Vol.  CXiy,  The  material  object  IS  being— the  whole  worlclof  real- 

185-205.  oontaizu  BIichaxl  Psbxxub'b  enoomium  and  office  for  •^__  -..Uo* u^r  anhiAnf  iv<>  /^r7CKiA«*f  ivo  nnaaiKU  ^i-  <u»f iiaI 

Symeon's  feast,  the  first  source  for  his  life.  itv,  wlietner  subjective  or  Objective,  possible  or  actual, 

Allatius,  De  Symwium  acripiia  diatnba  (Paris,  1664);  abstract  or  concrete,  immaterial  or  material,  infinite 

Haku.  D«  byzant.  rerun  eanptorAua  (IJJ?).  *i8-e0;  Oudin,  or  finite.    Everything  that  exists  comes  within  the 

CommerU.  de  acnpi.  ecclea.t  II  (1722),  13(X>-83;  Krumbachbr,  „-»-^-^  ^t  w^t^*^^uZ,oi^^\in^-,ti^^      n^-liA. i ^^^^  •««»  «<^ 

Oeeeh.  der  byeanUniechen  LiUenUvr  (2nd  ed..  Munich.  1897)!  SCOpe  of  metaphysical  in(}UMy.     Other  sciences  ue  TO- 

~  ---  --  stncted  to  one  or  several  departments  of  bemgiphjrsics 


Sie  AnaL  BoUand.^jCVl  (1897),  3i2-29;'lDBif,  LeMinoiooe  de    Metaphysics  knows  no  such  restrictions.    Its  domam 
Mjiaphratu,  ib..  Xvn  (1898).  448-52;  Hirsch.  Bytardinieche    is  all  reality.    For  instance,  the  human  soul  and  God, 

^J^^'^^i^T'  '"^""^  ^^  Frn^SS^E.""    because  they  have  neither  colour  nor  weight,  thenmc 

nor  electric  properties,  do  not  fall  withm  the  scope  of 
MetaphysicBi  that  portion  of  philosophy  which  the  physicist's  investigation;  because  they  are  devoui 
treats  of  the  most  general  and  fundamental  principles  of  quantity,  they  do  not  come  within  the  field  of  in- 
underlying  all  reality  and  all  knowledge,  quiiy  of  the  mathematician.  But.  since  they  are 
I.  Thb  Name. — ^The  word  metaphysics  is  fonned  bein^,  they  do  come  within  the  domain  of  meta- 
from  the  Greek  turii  rd  <t>vcixd^  a  title  wnich,  about  the  physical  investigation.  The  material  object  of  meta- 
year  70  B.  c,  was  prefixed  by  Andronicus  of  Rhodes  to  physics  is,  therefore,  all  being.  As  Aiistotle  sajrs 
that  collection  of  Aristotelian  treatises  which  since  (^t.,  IV,  1004  a,  34) :  "  It  is  the  function  of  the  phi- 
then  goes  by  the  name  of  the  ''  Metaphysics  ".  Aris-  losopher  to  be  able  to  investigate  all  things. "  Its  for- 
totle  nimself  had  referred  to  that  portion  of  philoso-  mal  object  is  idso  ''  being  ",  or  "  beingness.  **  The  for- 
phy  as  |Hhe  theological  science"  0^\o7uci^),  because  mal  object  of  any  science  is  that  particular  phase. 
It  culminated  in  the  consideration  of  the  nature  of  (quality,  or  aspect  of  things  which  interests  that  science 
God,  and  as  " first  philosophy''  {itpiiryi  <t>CKo9o^la),  both    in  a  specific  way.    Man.  for  instance,  is  the  material 

object  of  psychology,  etnics,  sociology,  anthropology, 
philology,  and  various  other  sciences.    The  formal 


because  it  considered  tiie  first  causes  of  things,  and  be- 
cause, in  his  estimation,  it  is  first  in  importance.  The 
•ditor,  however,  overlooked  both  these  titles,  and,  be-    object,"Lbwever,  of  each  of  these  is  different.    The 


cause  he  believed  that  that  part  of  the  Aristotelian  formal  object  of  psychology  is  mental  phenomena  and 
corjms  came  naturally  after  tne  physical  treatises,  he  the  subject  of  tnem;  the  formal  object  of  ethios  is 
entitled  it  ''after  the  physics '\  This  is  the  historical  man's  relation  to  his  ultimate  destiny;  that  of  sociol- 
origin  of  the  term.  However,  once  the  name  was  ogy  is  man's  relation  to  his  fellow-men  in  institutions, 
given,  the  commentators  sought  to  find  intrinsic  rea-  laws,  customs,  etc. ;  that  of  anthropology  is  the  origin 
sons  for  its  appropriateness.  For  instance,  it  was  of  man,  distinction  of  races,  etc. ;  that  of  philology  is 
understood  to  mean  "  the  science  of  the  world  beyond  man's  use  of  articulate  speech.  The  formal  object  of 
nature",  that  is,  the  science  of  the  immaterial.  Again,  the  ph^ical  group  generally  is  the  so-called  physksal 
it  was  understood  to  refer  to  the  chronological  or  properties  of  oodies,  such  as  light,  sound,  heat,  moleo- 
pedagogical  order  amone  our  philosophical  studies,  so  ular  constitution,  atomic  structure,  vitai  phenomena 
that  the  "  metaphysical  '  sciences  would  mean,  those  in  general,  etc.  The  formal  object  of  the  mathemati- 
which  we  study  after  having  mastered  the  sciences  cal  group  is  quantity;  what  interests  the  mathemati- 
which  deal  with  the  physical  world  (St.  Thomas,  "In  cian  is  not  the  colour,  heat,  etc.,  of  an  object,  but  its 
Lib.  BoetiideTrin.",y,  1).  In  the  widespread,  though  size  or  bulk.  Similarly  the  metaphysician  is  inter- 
erroneous  use  of  the  term  in  current  popular  literature,  ested  in  a  specific  way  neither  in  the  physical  nor  tiie 
there  is  a  remnantofthe  notion  thatmetaphysical  means  mathematical  qualities  of  things,  but  in  their  entity 
ultraphysical:  thus,  "metaphysical  healing"  means  or  beingness.  If,  then,  physics  is  the  science  of  beinjg 
healing  oy  means  of  remedies  which  are  not  physical,  as  affected  by  physical  properties,  and  mathematics  is 
II.  Definition. — ^The  term  metaphysics,  as  used  by  the  science  of  oeine  as  possessing  quantity,  metaphys- 
one  school  of  philosophers,  is  narrowed  down  to  mean  ios  is  the  science  of  Deinjg  as  being.  Since  the  material 
the  science  of  mental  phenomena  and  of  the  laws  of  object  of  metaphysics  is  all  being^  the  metaphysician 
mind.  In  this  sense,  it  is  employed,  for  instance,  by  is  mterested  in  evers^hins  that  is  or  ean  be.  Since 
Hamilton  (**  Lectures  on  Metaph. ",  Lect.  VII)  as  ^e  formal  object  of  his  study  is  again,  beins,  the  point 
synonymous  with  psychology.  Hamilton  holds  that  of  view  of  metaphysics  is  cbfTerent  from  that  of  the 
empincal  psychology,  or  the  phenomenology  of  mind,  other  sciences.  The  metaphysician  studies  all  reality ; 
treats  of  the  facts  of  consciousness,  rational  psychol-  still,  the  resulting  science  is  not  a  summing  up  of  the 
ogy,  or  the  nomology  of  mind,  treats  of  the  laws  of  departmental  sciences  which  deal  with  portions  of 
mental  phenomena,  and  metaphysics,  or  inferential  reality,  because  his  point  of  view  is  different  from  that 
psychology,  treats  of  the  results  derived  from  the  of  the  student  of  the  departmental  sciences, 
study  of  the  facts  and  laws  of  mind.  This  use  of  the  (2)  MetapJ^sies  is  the  science  of  immaterial  being. — 
tenn  metaphysics  is  unfortunate  because  it  mte  on  "The  fint  9Ci^0Qe"i  says  AristQtIe  (Met.,  VI,  10^  m 


MBTAPB78I08                         227  MBTAPHT8ICS 

16),  "ieais  with  thing?  which  are  both  separate  (from  tion  offered  in  the  preceding  paragraph  because,  by  a 
matter)  and  immovable".  In  this  connexion  the  well  known  law  oflo^c,  the  less  the  oomprehensioa 
floholastics  (cf.  St.  Thom.,  ibid.),  distinguished  two  ths  greater  the  extension  of  a  term  or  concept.  The 
kinds  of  immaterial:  (a)  immaterial  mioad  esse  or  im-  science  which  deals  with  the  most  abstract  concei>- 
material  beings,  such  as  God  and  the  himian  soul,  tions  must,  therefore,  be  the  science  of  the  most  uni- 
which  exist  without  matter;  (b)  immaterial  guood  con-  versal  conceptions.  Among  our  ideas  the  most  uni- 
etphimt  or  concepts,  such  as  substance,  cause,  quality,  versal  are  Being,  and  the  determinations  of  it  which 
into  the  comprehension  of  which  matter  does  not  are  called  transcendental,  namely  unity,  truth,  good- 
enter.  Metaphysics,  in  so  far  as  it  treats  of  immaterial  ness^  and  beauty^  each  of  which  is  coextensive  with  be- 
bemgs,  is  callea  special  metaphysics  and  is  divided  ing  itself,  accoidmg  to  the  formulas,  "  Eveiy  being  is 
into  rational  psychology,  which  treats  of  the  human  one",  "Every  being  is  true",  etc.  Pfext  in  universal- 
soul,  rational  theology,  which  treats  of  the  existence  ity  come  the  highest  determinations  of  Being  in  the 
and  attributes  of  God,  and  cosmology,  which  treats  of  swprema  genera^  substance  and  accident,  or,  if  Being  be 
the  ultimate  principles  of  the  universe.  Metaphysics,  analysed  in  the  order  of  metaphysical  constitution,  es- 
in  80  far  as  it  treats  of  immaterial  conce|}t8,  of  those  sence  and  existence,  potency  and  actuaUty.  Very 
general  notions  in  which  matter  is  not  included,  is  high  up  in  the  scale  of  extension  will  be  cause  and 
called  general  metaphysics,  or  ontology,  that  is,  the  effect.  All  these  are  included  within  the  range  of 
science  of  Bein^;.  Taking  the  term  now  in  its  widest  metaphyseal  inquiry,  and  are  dealt  with  in  every 
sense,  so  as  to  mclude  both  general  and  special  meta-  scholastic  manual  of  metaphysics.  "  Being  in  its  hi^h- 
physics,  wh^i  we  say  that  metaphysics  is  the  science  est  determinations"  is,  then,  another  way  of  descnb- 
of  the  immaterial,  we  mean  that  whatever  exists,  ing  the  object  of  metaphjrsics.  Where^  however, 
whether  it  is  an  immaterial  being  or  a  material  being,  shall  we  draw  the  line?  What  determinations  are  not 
so  long  as  it  offers  to  our  consideration  immaterial  con-  highest?  For  instance,  are  space  and  time  determina- 
oepts,  such  as  substance  or  cause^  is  the  object  of  tions  dt  Being,  which  are  general  enough  to  be  consid- 
metaphysical  investigation.  In  this  way,  it  becomes  ered  in  metaphvsics?  The  answer  to  these  questions 
evident  that  this  demiition  coincides  with  that  given  is  to  be  deciaed  according  to  the  dictates  of  practical 
in  the  preceding  paragraph.  convenience.  Many  of  the  problems  sometimes  in- 
(3)  Metaphysics  is  me  science  of  the  mast  abstract  oon-  duded  in  general  metaphysics  may  conveniently  be 
eepUons. — ^AU  science,  according  to  the  scholastics,  treated  in  special  parts,  such  as  cosmology  and  psy- 
deals  with  the  abstract.    The  knowledge  of  the  con-  chologv. 

Crete  individual  objects  of  our  experience,  with  their  (5)Metaj>hysics  is  the  science  of  the  first  principles, ^^ 

ever  changing  qualities  and  the  particular  individu-  This  definition  also  is  given  by  Aristotle  (Met.  Iv ,  1003 

atmg  characteristics  which  make  tnem  to  be  individual  a,  26).^   Every  science  is  an  inquiry  into  the  causes 

(for  instance^  the  knowledge  of  this  tree,  of  that  and  principles  of  thin^;  this  science  inquires  into  the 

nower,  of  this  particular  animal  or  person)  may  be  first  principles  and  highest  causes,  not  only  in  the 

very  useful  knowled^,  but  it  is  not  scientific.    Scien-  order  of  existence,  but  also  in  the  order  of  thought.  It 

tific  knowled^  bemis,  when  we  abstract  from  what  belongs,  then,  to  metaphysics  (1)  to  inquire  into  the 

makes  the  thmg  to  be  individual,  when  we  know  it  in  nature  of  cause  and  prinaple  in  general  and  to  deters 

the  general  principles  that  constitute  it.    The  first  de-  mine  the  meaning  of  the  different  kinds  of  causality, 

gree  of  abstoiction  is  found  in  the  physical  sciences,  formal,  material,  efficient,  and  final:  (2)  to  investigate 

which  abstract  merely  from  the  particularizing,  indi-  the  first  principles  in  the  order  of  knowledge,  and 

viduating  characteristics,  and  consider  the  general  establish  the  validity,  for  instance,  of  the  principles 

laws,  or  principles,  of  motion,  light,  heat,  substantial  of  identity  and  contradiction, 

change^  etc    The    mathematical    sciences    ascend  All  these  definitions  are  Repressions  of  the  Aristote- 

higher  m  the  scale  of  abstraction.    They  leave  out  of  lian  doctrine  that  metaphysics,  like  ph^rsics  and  mathe* 

consideration  not  only  the  individuating  qualities  but  matics,  is  a  science  ot  reality,  it  being  beyond  the 

also  the  physical  qualities  of  things,  and  consider  only  scope  of  metaphysics  to  inquire  whether  reality  is^  or 

quantitv  and  its  laws.    The  metaphysical  sciences  is  not,  given  in  experience.    This  question,  which  is  a 

reach  the  highest  point  of  abstraction.    They  pre-  fundamentallv  important  one  in  modem  philosophy, 

seind^  or  abstract,  not  only  from  those  quaUties  which  was  discussed  by  the  scholastics  in  that  portion  of 

physios  and  mathematics  abstract  from,  but  also  logic  which  thev  called  critica,  major  logic,  or  applied 

leave  out  of  consideration  the  determination  of  auan-  logic,  but  which  is  now  generally  called  epistemology 


1003  a,  21)  "  which  investigates  being  as  being,  and  ijie  tween  ihe  two  branches  of  philosophy,  viz .  metaphysics 

attributes  which  belong  to  this  in  virtue  of  its  own  na-  and  epistemology.    In  works  like  Fullerton's  "Sys- 

ture"  (t4  ro^y  ^dpxorra  ra^  tt*r6).    The  objection  tem  of  Metaphysics"  (New  York,  1906)  and  Hodg- 

therefore,  that  metaphysics  is  an  abstract  science,  son's  "Metaphysics  of  Experience"  (London,  1898) 

would,  in  the  estimation  of  the  scholastics,  militate  no  attempt  is  inade  to  separate  the  two. 

not  only  against  metaphysics  but  against  all  the  other  III.  Ths  Rejection  of  Metaphtsics,  by  many 

sciences  as  well.    The  peculiarity  of  metaphysics  is  schools  of  philosophy  in  modem  times,  is  one  of  thie 

not  that  it  is  abstract,  but  that  it  carries  the  process  of  most  remarkable  developments  of  post-Cartesian  phi* 

abstraction  farther  than  do  the  other  sciences.    This,  losophy.    A  difference  in  the  point  of  view  leads  to  a 

however,  does  not  make  it  to  be  unreal.    On  the  con«  very  great  divergence  in  the  estimate  placed  on  meta- 

trary.  what  is  left  out  of  consideration  in  metaphysics,  physical  studies.    On  the  one  side  we  have  the  verdict 

namely  individuating  qualities,  physical  movement,  that  metaphysics  is  nothing  but  "transcendental 

and  spedfie  quantity,  derive  whatever  reality  the;^  moonshine^',  on  the  other,  the  opinion  that  it  is  "or- 

bave  as  conceptions  from  the  concept,  Bein^,  which  is  ganized  common  sense",  or  "  an  unusually  obstinate 

the  object  of  metaphysics.    Metaphysics,  m  fact,  is  effort  to  think  accurately".    Materialism,  naturally, 

the  most  real  of  aJl  the  sciences  precisely  because,  objects  to  the  daim  of  metaphysics  to  be  a  science  ot 

oj  abstracting  from  everything  else,  it  has  centred,  the  immaterial.    If  nothing  exists  except  matter,  a 

>o  to  speak,  its  thought  on  Being,  which  is  the  science  of  the  immaterial  has  no  justification.    Mate- 

iouroe  and  root  of  ruJity  everywhere  else  in  the  lialists,  however,  forget  that  the  assertion,  "Nothing 

other  sdenoes.  exists  except  matter",  is  either  a  summing  up  of  the 

(4)  Metaphysics  is  the  sdenee  of  the  most  universal  individual  experience  of  the  materialist  himself,  msaa- 

^wiMpfums.— This  would  follow  from  the  coosidera-  ing  that  he  has  never  experienced  anything  exoegH 


MBTAPHYSIC8  228  MBTAPHYSIC8 

matter  and  manifestations  of  matter,  and  then  the  as-  the  claims  of  metaphysics  as  in  the  vagaiies  of  tk 

sertion  is  merely  of  biographical  interest;  or  it  is  an  metaphysicians. 

affirmation  regarding  possible  human  experience,  a  IV.  Relation  of  Mbtaphybics  to  Other  Sex- 
declaration  of  the  impossibility  of  inmiaterial  exist-  ences. — The  consideration  of  the  relation  in  which 
ence,  and  in  that  sense  it  is  a  statement  which  in  itself  metaphysics  stands,  or  ought  to  stand,  to  the  other 
has  a  metaphysical  import.  Materialism  is,  in  fact,  a  sciences  should  resmt  in  a  refutation  of  the  positivist 
metaphysical  theory  of  reality  and  is  a  contribution  to  contention  that  metaphysics  is  useless.  In  the  first 
the  science  which  it  professes  to  reject.  Philosophi-  place,  metaphysics  is  the  natural  co-ordinating  science 
cal  agnosticism,  whidi  is  derived  ultimately  from  which  crowns  the  unifying  efforts  of  the  other  sciences. 
Kant's  doctrine  of  the  unknowableness  of  nouminal  It  accomplishes  in  the  highest  plane  of  knowledge  that 
reality  (Ding  an  sich)^  rejects  metaphysics  on  the  process  of  unification  towards  which  the  human  mind 
p^und  that  while  the  immaterial  does,  mdeed,  exist,  tends  irresistibly.  ^  Without  it,  the  explanations  and 
It  is  unknown  and  must  remain  unknowable  to  the  co-ordinations  attained  in  the  lower  sciences  would  be, 
speculative  reason.  Kant  (see  Kant)  maintained  perhaps,  satisfactorv  within  the  limits  of  those  sci- 
tnat  all  metaphysical  reasoning,  since  it  attempts  by  ences^  but  would  fail  to  meet  the  requirements  of  that 
means  of  the  speculative  reason  to  go  beyond  expen-  unifying  instinct  which  the  mind  tends  to  apply  to 
ence,  is  doomed  to  failure,  because  the  a  priori  forms  knowledge  in  ^neral.  So  long  as  the  mind  of  the 
which  the  understanding  imposes  on  the  empirical  knower  is  one,  it  is  impossible  not  to  attempt  to  bring 
data  of  knowledge  modify  the  quality  of  that  knowl-  under  the  most  genersd  conceptions  and  principles  the 
edge  by  makine  it  to  be  transcendental,  but  do  not  ex-  conclusions  of  we  various  sciences.  That  is  the  task 
tend  it  beyond  the  realm  of  actual  sense  experience,  of  metaphysics.  Whenever  we  look  around  amon^ 
The  followers  of  Kimt  stigmatize  as  intellectual  for-  the  contents  of  the  mind  and  try  to  discover  order  ana 
malism  the  view  that  the  speculative  reason  does  ao-  hierarchical  arrangement  among  them,  we  are  at- 
tually  attain  ultra-empirical  knowledge.  This  is  the  tempting  a  system  of  metaphysics.  In  the  next  place, 
contention  of  the  modernists  and  other  Catholic  wri-  the  process  of  explanation  which  belongs  to  each  of 
ters  who  are  more  or  less  influenced  by  Kant.  These  the  lower  sciences,  if  pursued  far  enough,  hnnga  us 
decry  rational  metaphysics  and  offer  as  a  substitute  face  to  face  with  the  demand  for  a  metaphysical  ex- 
a  metaphysics  based  on  sentimenti  vital  activity,  or  planation.  Thus,  the  chemical  problem  of  atomic  or 
some  other  non-rational  foundation.  proto-atomic  constitution  of  bodies  leads  inevitably  to 
The  answer  to  this  line  of  thought  is  a  denial  of  its  the  question.  What  is  matter?  The  biological  prob- 
fundamental  tenet,  the  doctrine,  namely,  that  the  ra-  lem  of  the  nature  and  origin  of  life  brings  us  to  the 
tional  faculty  cannot  attain  a  knowledge  of  the  essen-  point  where  it  is  imperative  to  answer  the  Query,  What 
tial  or  noumenal  natures  of  things.  Gratuitous  as-  is  life?  The  questions:  What  is  substance?  What  is  a 
sertion  is  often  best  refuted  by  categorical  denial,  cause?   What  is  ouantity?  are  additional  examples  of 


from  the  republic  of  the  sciences,  the  idealist,  having  of  investigation  brings  us  to  a  highroad  of  inauiry 
deprived  it  of  its  scientific  character,  elevates  it  to  the  which  sooner  or  later  crosses  the  border  and  leads  us 
rank  of  ffisthetic  pre-eminence  side  by  side  with  poe-  into  metaphysics.  When  therefore,  the  scientist  re- 
tly.  He  considers  that  it  furnishes  a  point  of  view  jects  metaphysics,  he  suppresses  a  natural  and  ineradi- 
from  which  to  contemplate  the  beauty,  harmony,  and  cable  tenoency  of  the  individual  mind  towards  unifi- 
value  of  those  things  which  science  merely  explains,  cation  and,  at  the  same  time,  he  tries  to  put  up  in 
He  holds  that  it  is  not  the  province  of  metaphysics  to  every  highway  and  bjrwa^  of  ms  own  science  a  barrier 
assign  reasons  or  causes,  but  to  furnish  motives  for  against  further  progress  in  the  direction  of  rational 
action  and  enhance  the  value  of  reality.  For  him,  its  explanation.  Besides,  the  cultivation  of  the  meta- 
upUfting  and  regenerating  function  is  entirely  inde-  physical  habit  of  mind  is  productive  of  excellent  re- 
pendent  of  its  alleged  abihty  to  explain:  he  considers  suits  in  the  sphere  of  general  culture.  The  facultv  of 
metaphysics  to  be,  not  an  ontology,  or  science  of  real-  appreciating  principles  as  well  as  facts  is  a  quan^ 
ity,  but  a  teleoloapr,  or  application  of  the  principle  of  wmch  cannot  oe  absent  from  the  mind  without  detn- 
purpose.  That  this  is  a  function  of  metaphysics  no  ment  to  that  symmetry  of  development  wherein  true 
one  will  deny.  It  is  only  one  function,  however,  and  cidture  consists.  The  scientist  who  objects  to  meta- 
unless  the  doctrine  of  final  causes  has  its  foundation  in  physics,  right!  v  condemns  the  metaphvsician  who  dis- 
a  doctrine  of  formal  and  efficient  causes.  teleologi(»l  dams  to  consider  facts.  He  himself,  unless  he  cultivate 
metaphjrsics  is  a  castle  in  the  air.  Finally^  the  pod-  the  metaphysical  powers  of  his  mind,  is  in  danger  of 
tivist,  and  the  scientist  whom  the  positivist  has  in-  reaching  the  point  where  he  is  incapable  of  appreciat- 
fluenced,  reject  metaphysics  because  all  our  knowl-  ing  principles.  Both  the  empirical  talent  for  ascertain- 
edge  is  confined  to  facts  and  the  relations  among  facts,  ing  facta  and  the  metaphysical  g^P  of  principles  and 
To  attempt  to  go  beyond  facts  and  the  succession  or  laws  are  necessary  for  the  rounding  out  of  man's  men- 
ooncomitance  of  facts  is  to  essay  the  impossible,  tal  powers,  and  there  is  no  reason  why  they  should  not 
Causes,  essences,  and  so  forth,  are  terms  whicn  clothe  both  be  cultivated. 

in  fictitious  garb  our  ignorance  of  the  real  scientific  ex-  V.  Relation  of  Metaphtbics  to  T^ologt.j— 

planation.    The  whole  gist  of  positivism  is  contained  The  nature  of  metaphysics  determines  its  eBsential 

m  Hume's  verdict  that  "  it  is  impossible  to  go  beyond  and  intimate  relation  to  theolofi^.    Theology,  it  need 

experience".    This  psychological  dictum  is  accepted  hardly  be  said,  derives  its  condusions  from  premises 

bv  the  philosophical  positivist,  as  the  death  sentence  which  are  revealed,  and  in  so  far  as  it  does  this  it  rises 

01  metaphysics.    With  the  scientist,  however^  other  above  all  schools  of  philosophy^  or  metaphysics.    At 

considerations  weigh  more  than  the  psychological  ar-  the  same  time,  it  is  a  human  science,  and,  as  such,  it 

Cjument.    Hie  scientist  points  to  the  present  condi-  must  formulate  its  premises  in  exact  terminology  and 

tion  of  metaphysics;  he  calls  attention  to  the  fact  that,  must  employ  processes  of  human  reasoning  in  attain- 

while  the  pnysical  sciences  have  advanced  by  leaps  ing  its  conclusions.    For  this,  it  depends  on  meta- 

and  bounds,  metaphysics  is  still  grappling  with  tne  physics.    Sometimes,  indeed,  as  when  it  deals  with 

most  fundamental  problems  and  has  not  even  settled  the  supernatural  mysteries  of  faith,  theology  acknowi- 

the  questions  on  which  its  very  existence  depends,  edges  that  metaphysical  conceptions  are  inadequate 


The  condition  of  metaphysics  is,  indeed,  such  as  to  in-    and  metaphysical  /ormulie  incompetent  to  ex^ 
^te  the  contempt  and  provoke  the  disdain  of  the    the  truths  discussed.    Nevertheless,  if  theology  had 
scientist;  the  faiut,  however,  may  lie  not  so  much  in    no  metaphysical  formularies  to  rely  upor .  it  could 


MBTAPH78IC8 


229 


MBTAPH78IC8 


neitlier  ezpran  its  premises  nor  deduce  its  conclusions 
in  a  scientific  manner.  Aj^ain,  theoloflry^  relies  on 
metaphysics  to  prove  certam  truths,  called  the  pre- 
ambuta,  which  are  not  revealed  but  are  nevertheless 
presupposed  before  revelation  can  be  considered  rea- 
sonable  or  possible.  These  truths  are  not  the  founda- 
tion on  which  we  rest  our  supernatural  faith.  If  they 
should  fail,  faith  would  not  suffer,  though  theology 
should  then  be  rebuilt  on  another  foimdation.  Fur- 
thermore, metaphysics,  as  Aristotle  pointed  out,  cul- 
minates in  the  discussion  of  the  existence  and  nature 
of  God.  God  is  the  object  of  theology.  It  is  onlv  nat- 
ural, therefore,  that  metaphysics  and  theolosy  snould 
have  many  points  of  contact,  and  that  the  latter 
should  rety  on  the  former.  Finalljr,  since  all  truth  is 
one,  both  m  the  source  from  which  it  is  derived,  and  in 
the  subject,  the  human  mind,  which  it  adorns,  there 
must  be  a  kinship  between  two  sciences  which,  like 
theology  and  metaphysics,  treat  of  the  most  impor- 
tant conceptions  of  the  human  mind.  The  difference 
in  the  manner  of  treatment,  theology  rel3ring  on  reve- 
lation, and  metaphysics  on  reason  alone,  does  not 
affect  the  unity  of  purpose  and  the  final  harmony  of 
the  conclusions  of  tne  two  sciences. 

But,  while  theology  thus  derives  assistance  from 
metaphysics,  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  metaphysics 
has  derived  advantages  from  its  close  association  with 
theology.  Pre-Christian  philosophy  failed  to  arrive 
at  precise  metaphysical  determinations  of  the  notions 
of  substance  and  person.  This  defect  was  corrected 
in  part  bv  Origen,  Clement,  and  Athanasius,  and  in 
part  by  their  successors,  the  scholastics,  the  impulse 
m  both  cases  being  given  to  philosophical  definition  by 
the  requirements  of  theological  si)eculation  concerning 
the  Blessed  Trinity.  Pre-Christian  philosophy  failed 
to  five  a  coherent,  satisfactory  account  of  the  ori^n 
of  Qie  world:  Plato's  myths  and  Aristotle's  doctrine 
of  the  eternity  of  matter  could  not  long  continue  to 
satisfy  the  Cnristian  mind.  It  was,  once  more,  the 
Alexandrian  School  of  Christian  metaphvsics  that,  by 
elaborating  the  Biblical  conception  of  creation  ex 
nihilo,  save  an  explanation  of  the  origin  of  the  uni- 
verse which  is  satisfactory  to  the  metaphysician  as 
well  as  to  the  theolog^ian.  Finally,  the  Catholic  doc- 
trine of  Transubstantiation,  as  discussed  by  the  scho- 
lastics, gave  occasion  for  a  more  definite  and  detailed 
determination  of  the  metaphysical  conception  of  acci- 
dent in  general  and  of  quantity  in  particular. 

VI.  1^  Method  of  Metaphtbicb. — Among  the 
objections  most  frequently  ur^ed  against  metaphys- 
ics, especially  against  scholastic  metaphysics,  is  the 
unscientific  character  of  its  method.  Tlie  metaphysi- 
cian, we  are  told,  pursues  the  a  priori  path  of  knowl- 
edge; he  neglects  or  even  condemns  the  use  of  the  a 
posteriori  empirical  method  which  is  employed  with 
80  much  profit  in  the  investigation  of  nature;  he  spins, 
as  Bacon  says,  the  threads  of  his  metaphysical  fabric 
from  the  contents  of  his  own  mind,  as  tne  spider  spins 
her  web  from  the  substance  of  her  bodv,  instead  of 
gathering  from  every  source  in  the  world  aroimd  him 
the  materials  for  his  study,  and  then  working  them  up 
into  metaphysical  principles,  as  the  bee  gathers  nectar 
from  the  flowers  and  elaborates  it  into  honey.  In 
order  to  clear  up  the  misimderstanding  which  under- 
lies this  objection,  it  is  necessary  to  remark  that  there 
are  three  lands  oi  method:  (1)  the  a  priori,  which,  as- 
suming certain  self-evident  postulates,  maxims,  and 
definitions  to  be  true,  proceeds  deductively  to  draw 
conclusions  implicated  m  those  assumptions;  (2)  The 
subjective  a  posteriori  method,  which,  from  an  exam- 
ination of  the  phenomena  of  consciousness  builds  up 
empirically,  that  is,  inductively,  conclusions  based 
on  those  phenomena;  (3)  the  objective  a  posteriori 
method,  which  builds  on  the  facts  of  experience  in  gen- 
eral in  the  same  way  as  the  subjective  method  builds 
on  the  facts  of  introspection.  The  second  method  b 
pre-eminently  the  method  of  the  Cartesians,  who,  like 


their  leader,  Descartes,  strive  to  build  the  whole  edi- 
fice of  philosophy  on  the  foundation  furnished  by  re- 
flection on  our  thoueht-processcs:  Cogito,  ergo  sum. 
It  is  also  the  method  of  the  Kantians,  who,  rejecting 
the  psychological  basis  of  metaphysics  as  unsafe,  buila 
on  the  moral  basis,  the  categorical  imperative:  their 
line  of  reasoning  is  " I  ought,  therefore  1  am  free",  etc. 
The  third  is  the  method  of  those  who,  rejecting  the 
Aristotelean  conceptions,  essence,  substance,  cause, 
etc.,  substitute  so-callea  empirical  conceptions  of 
force,  mass,  and  so  forth,  under  which  they  attempt  to 
subsume  in  a  system  of  empirioo-critical  metaphysics 
the  conceptions  peculiar  to  the  various  sciences. , 

The  first  method  is  admittedlv  unscientific  (in  the 
popular  sense  of  the  word)  ancl  is  adopted  only  by 
those  philosophers  who,  like  Plato,  consider  that  the 
true  source  of  philosophical  knowledge  is  above  us, 
not  in  the  world  around  and  beneath  us.  If  the  for- 
mula unxverialia  ante  rem  (see  Universals)  is  taken 
in  the  exclusive  sense,  then  we  may  not  look  to  experi- 
ence, but  to  intuition  of  a  higher  order  of  truth,  for 
our  metaphysical  principles.  It  is  a  calumny  which 
originated  in  ignorance  perhaps,  more  than  in  preju- 
dice, that  the  scholastics  followed  this  a  priori  method 
in  metaphysics.  True,  the  scholastic  philosopher, 
often  invokes  such  principles  as  "  A^re  sequitur  esse 
"  Quidquid  recipitur  per  modum  recipientis  recipitur  ", 
etc.,  and  therefrom  deduces  metaphysical  conclusions. 
If,  however,  we  examine  more  closelv,  if  we  go  back 
from  the  ''Summa",  or  text-book,  where  the  adage  is 
quoted  without  proof,  to  the  "Commentary  on  Aris- 
totle" where  the  axiom  is  first  introduced,  we  shall 
find  that  it  is  proved  by  inductive  or  empirical  argU' 
ment,  and  is  therefore,  a  legitimate  premise  from 
which  to  deduce  other  truths.  In  point  of  fact^  the 
scholastics  use  a  method  which  is  at  once  a  prion  and 
a  posteriori,  and  the  latter  both  in  the  objective  and 
the  subjective  sense.  In  their  exposition  of  truth 
they  naturally  use  the  a  priori,  or  deductive,  method. 
In  their  investigation  of  trutn  they  explore  empiri- 
cally both  the  world  of  mental  phenomena  within  us, 
and  the  world  of  physical  phenomena  without  us,  for 
the  purpose  of  building  up  inductively  those  meta- 
physical principles  from  which  they  proceed.  It  may 
De  conceaed  that  many  of  the  later  scholastics  are  too 
ready  to  invoke  authority  instead  of  investigating;  it 
may  be  conceded,  even,  that  the  greatest  of  the  scho- 
lastics were  too  dependent  on  books,  especially  on 
Aristotle's  works,  for  their  knowledge  of  nature.  But, 
in  principle,  at  least,  the  best  representatives  of  scho- 
lasticism recognized  that  in  philosophy  the  alignment 
from  authority  is  the  weakest  argument,  and  if  the  cir- 
cumstances in  which  they  lived  and  wrote  made  it  im- 
perative on  them  to  master  the  contents  of  Aristotle's 
writings  on  natural  science,  it  must,  nevertheless,  be 
granted  by  every  fair  minded  critic  that  in  metaphys- 
ics at  least  they  improved  on  the  doctrines  of  this 
Sta^rite. 

vll.  HiBTORT  OP  Metaphysics. — ^The  history  of 
metaphysics  naturally  falls  into  the  same  divisions  as 
the  history  of  philosophy  in  general.  In  a  brief  out- 
line of  the  course  which  metaphysical  speculation  has 
followed,  it  will  be  possible  to  consider  only  the  prin- 
cipal stages,  namely  (1)  Hindu  philosophy,  (2)  Cfreek 
philosophy,  (3)  Early  Christian  philosophy,  (4)  Medie- 
val philosophy,  (5).  Modem  philosophy. 

(1^  Hinau  Philosophy, — Of  all  the  peoples  of  antiq- 
uit^^the  Hindus  were  the  most  successful  in  rising 
unmediately  from  the  mythological  explanation  of  the 
universe  to  an  explanation  in  terms  of  metaphysics. 
Apparently^  without  passing  through  the  intermediary 
stage  of  scientific  explanaBon,  they  reached  at  once 
the  heights  of  the  metaphysical  point  of  view.  From 
po]3rtheism  or  henotheism  they  proceeded  very  eajrfy 
to  pantheism,  and  from  that  to  a  monistic  metaphysi- 
cal conception  of  reality.  Their  starting-point  was  the 
realisation  that  man  is  bom  into  a  state  of  bondage 


MBTAPH78IC8  230  MBTAPHTSIC8 

and  that  liis  cliief  business  in  life  is  to  deliver  himself  ''thing"  itself,  the  phenomenon  presented  by  the 

from  that  condition  by  means  of  knowledge.    The  senses,  there  is  a  participation  of  the  Idea,  limited,  dis- 

knowledge,  they  tau^t,  which  avails  most  in  the  stnig-  figured  and  debased  by  miion  with  a  negative  principle 

|;le  for  freedom  is  this:  the  world  of  sense  phenomena  of  limitation  called  matter.    The  metaphysical  oon- 

is  an  illusion  {mdyd),  all  real  thincs  are  identical  in  the  stituents  of  reality  are,  therefore,  the  Ideas  as  positive 

one  supreme  substance,  the  soul  is  part  of  this  real  factors  and  this  ne^tive  principle.    From  the  Ideaa 

substance,  and  will  ultimately  return  to  the  Whole,  comes  all  that  is  positive,  permanent,  intelligible,  eter- 

The  real  substance  is,  as  Max  Mailer  remarks,  spoken  nal  in  the  world.    From  the  negative  principle  come 

of  as  a  neuter,  and  in  this  doctrine  "is  contained  in  imperfection,  negation,  change,  and  liability  to  diaso- 

niiO0 a  whole  system  of  philosophy"  (''Six  Systems  of  lution.    Thus,  profiting  by  the  epistemological  doo- 

Indian  Philosophy",  London,  1899,  p.  60).    The  first,  trines  of  Socrat^.  without  losing  surht  of  the  antago- 

and  most  important  of  all  truths,  t^n,  is  that  realitv  nistic  teachings  or  the  Eleatics  and  of  Heraclitus,  Plato 

is  one,  and  tnat  each  of  us  is  identical  with  the  All:  evolved  his  theory  of  Ideas  as  a  metaphyBical  solution 

"  That  art  thou"  is  the  highest  expression  of  self-knowl-  of  the  problem  of  change,  which  had  oa&ed  his  prede- 

edge.  and  the  gate  to  all  salutary  truth.    Thus,  the  oessors. 

Hindus,  actuated  by  an  ethical,  or  ascetic,  motive,        Aristotle  also  was  a  follower  of  Socrates.    He  was 

attained  a  metaphysical  formula  to  which  they  re-  influenced,  too,  by  the  theorv  of  Ideas  advocated  by 

duced  all  reality.  his  master,  Puito.    For,  altnou^  he  rejected  that 

(2)  Greek  Philosophy, — The  first  Greek  philosophers  theory,  he  did  so  after  a  study  of  it  which  enabled  him 
were  students  of  nature.  They  were  actuated  not  by  to  view  the  problem  of  change  in  the  light  of  metaphys- 
an  ethical  motive,  but  by  a  kind  of  scientific  curiosity  ical  principles.  like  Plato,  he  accepted  ihe  Socratic 
to  know  the  origins  of  tmngs.  There  was  no  metaphy-  doctrine  that  the  only  true  knowledge  is  Imowledge  of 
sician  among  the  lonians  (see  Ionian  School  of  Phi-  concepts.  Like  Plato,  too,  he  inferred  from  this  that 
losopht)  .  Out  of  the  problem  of  origins,  however,  the  the  concept  must  represent  liie  reality  ^f  a  thing.  But 
metaphysical  problem  was  developed  by  the  Eleatics  unlike  Plato,  he  made  at  this  point  an  important  dis- 
and  Dv  Heraclitus.  These  philosophers  considered  tinction.  The  realitv,  he  taukht,  which  thr  concept 
that  the  explanations  of  the  lonians — ^that  the  world  represents  is  in  the  thing  whioi  it  constitutes,  not  as 
originated  from  water  or  air — were  too  naive,  relied  too  an  Idea,  but  as  an  essence.  He  considers  that  the 
much  on  the  verdict  of  the  senses.  Consequently.  Platonic  world  of  Ideas  is  a  meaninp;le8S  duplication  of 
they  began  to  contrast  the  real  truth  which  the  mind  things:  the  world  of  essences  is  m,  not  above,  nor 
(poOs)  sees,  and  the  illusoi^  truth  {S6^)  which  appears  beyond,  the  world  of  phenomena:  there  is,  conse- 
to  the  senses.  The  Eleatics,  on  the  one  hand,  asserted  quently,  no  contradiction  between  senseHexperienoe 
that  the  permanent  ehment,  which  they  called  Being,  and  intellectual  knowledge:  the  metaphysical  princi- 
alone  exists,  and  that  c''\ange,  motion,  and  multiplicity  pies  of  things  are  known  by  abstraction  from  those 
are  illusions.  Heraclitus,  on  the  other  hand,  reached  mdividuating  qualities,  which  are  presented  in  sense- 
the  conclusion  that  what  mind  reveals  is  change,  which  knowledge;  the  knowledge  of  them  is  ultimate^ 
alone  is  real,  while  permanency  is  only  apparent^  is,  in  empirical,  and  not  to  be  explained  by  an  intuition 
fact,  an  illusion  of  the  senses.  Thus,  these  thinkers  which  we  are  alleged  to  have  enjoyed  in  u  previous 
thrust  into  the  foreground  the  problem  of  change  and  existence.  In  the  essence  of  material  things  Aristotle 
permanency.  They  themselves,  were  not,  however,  further  distinguished  a  twofold  principle,  namely  the 
wholly  free  from  the  limitations  which  confined  the  Form,  which  is  the  source  of  perfection,  determinate- 
earlier  lonians  to  a  physical  view  of  the  problems  of  ness,  activity  and  of  all  positive  qualities,  and  the 
philosophy.  They  formulated  metaphysical  principles  Matter,  which  is  the  source  of  iniperfection,  indetermi- 
of  reality,  but  both  in  the  language  which  they  used  nation,  passivity  and  of  all  the  limitations  and  priva> 
and  in  the  mode  of  thou^t  which  they  adopted,  they  tions  of  a  thing.  Coining  now  !x>  the  *x>rderliuid  of 
seemed  to  be  unable  to  rise  above  the  consideration  of  metaphysics  and  physics,  Aristotle  defined  the  nature 
matter  and  material  principles.  Nevertheless,  they  of  causality,  and  distinguished  four  supreme  kinds  of 
did  immense  service  to  metaphysics  by  bringing  out  cause,  Material,  FomuJ,  Efficient  and  Final  (see 
clearly  the  problem  of  change.                                  ^  Caubb).    In  addition  to  these  contributions  to  the 

Socrates  was  primarily  an  ethical  teacher.    Still,  in  solution  of  the  problem  of  change,  which  had.  by  his* 

laying  the  founoation  of  ethics  he  formulated  a  theory  torical  evolution,   become  the  central  proolem  of 

of  knowledge  which  had  immediate  application  to  the  metaph3rsics,  Aristotle  contributed  to  metaphysics  a 

problem  of  metaphysics.   He  taught  that  the  contrast  discussion  of  the  nature  of  Beinx  in  general,  and  drew 

and  apparently  irreconcilable  contradiction  between  up  a  scheme  of  classification  of  wings  which  is  known 

the  veraict  of  the  mind  and  the  deliverance  of  the  as  his  system  of  Categories.   He  is  least  satisfactory  in 

senses  disappear  if  we  determine  the  scientific  condi-  his  treatment  of  the  problem  of  the  existence  and 

tions  of  true  Imowledge.    He  held  that  these  condi-  nature  of  God,  a  question  in  which,  as  he  himself 

tions  are  summed  up  in  the  processes  of  induction  and  admits,  all  metephysical  speculation  culminates, 
definition.    His  conclusion,  therefore,  i»,  that  out  of        After  the  time  of  Aristotle,  philosophy  among  the 

the  data  of  the  senses,  which  are  contingent  and  par-  Greeks  became  centred  in  problems  of  numan  destiny 

ticular,  we  may  form  concepts,  which  are  the  elemente  and  human  conduct.    The  Stoics  and  the  Epicureans, 

of  true  scientific  knowledge.    He  himself  applied  the  who  were  the  chief  representatives  of  this  tendency, 

doctrine  to  eti^cs.  devoted  attention  to  questions  of  metaphysics,  only  m 

Plato,  the  pupil  of  Socrates,  carried  the  Socratic  so  far  as  they  considered  that  such  ouestions  may  in- 
teaching  into  the  region  of  metaphysics.  If  Imowledge  fluence  human  happiness.  As  a  result  of  this  subordi- 
through  concepte  is  the  only  true  knowledge,  it  follows,  nation  of  metaphysics  to  ethics,  the  pantheistic  mate- 
says  Elato,  that  the  concept  represents  the  only  re^ty,  rialism  of  the  Stoics  and  the  materialistic  monism  of 
and  all  the  reality,  in  the  object  of  our  knowlRge.  the  Epicureans  fall  far  short  of  the  perfection  which 
The  sum  of  the  reality  of  a  thing,  is  therefore  tiie  Idea,  the  doctrines  of  Plato  and  Aristotle  attained.  Con- 
Corresponding  to  the  internal,  or  psychological,  world  temporaneously  with  the  Stoic  and  Epicurean  schools, 
of  our  concepts  is  not  only  the  world  of  our  sense  expe-  a  new  school  of  Platonism,  generally  called  Neo- 
rienoe  (the  snadow-world  of  phenomena),  but  also  the  Platonism,  interested  itself  very  much  in  problems  of 
world  of  Ideas,  of  which  our  world  of  conoepto  is  only  asceticism  and  m3rsticism,  and,  in  connexion  with 
a  reflection,  and  the  world  of  sense  phenomena,  a  these  problems,  ^ve  a  new  turn  to  the  drift  of  meta- 
shadow  merely.  T^t  which  makes  anyt^ng  to  be  physical  speculation.  The  Neo-Platoniste,  influenced 
what  it  is,  the  essence,  as  we  should  call  it,  is  the  Idea  oy  the  monotheism  of  the  Orientals,  and,  later  by  that 
of  that  thing  existing  in  the  world  above  us.    In  the  of  the  Christians,  took  up  the  task  of  explaining  how 


1IETAPH78IG8  231  METAPHTSXGS 

the  manifold,  diversified,  imperfect  world  originated  portions  of  Aristotle's  '^Organon**.  From  these  dis^ 
from  the  One,  Unchangeable,  and  P^ect  Being.  They  cussions  thejr  passed  to  problems  of  psychology,  but  it 
exaggerated  the  Platonic  doctrine  of  matter  to  the  was  not  until  the  end  of  the  twelfth  century,  when 
point  of  maintaining  that  all  evil,  moral  as  well  as  Aristotle's  metaphysical  treatise  and  his  works  on 
physical,  oripnates  irom  a  material  source.  At  the  psychology  became  accessible  in  Latin,  thatscholastio 
same  time,  tney  ascril^ed  to  the  spiritualized  Ideas  metaphysics  rose  to  the  dignity  and  proportions  of  a 
which  they  calleid  M/iopet  (spirits)  all  actuality,  Intel-  ^stem.  By  way  of  exception,  John  the  Scot  (see 
ligenoe,  and  force  in  the  whole  imi verse.  These  intelli-  Ebiuoena),  as  early  as  the  first  half  of  the  ninth 
genoes  were  derived,  they  said,  from  the  One  b^^  a  century,  developed  a  highly  wrought  system  of  meta* 
prooess  of  emanation,  which  is  akin  to  the  "streaming  ph}rsi<^  speculation  characterized  by  idealism,  pan- 
forth"  of  light  from  the  iUuminating  bodv.  This  sys-  theism,  and  Neo-Platonic  mysticism.  In  the  eleventh 
tern  of  metaphjTBics  teaches,  therefore,  tnat  the  One,  century  the  school  of  Chartres,  under  the  influence  of 
and  intelli^nces  derived  from  the  One,  are  the  only  Platomsm,  discussed  in  a  metaphysical  spirit  the  prob- 
posilive  prmciples,  while  matter  is  the  only  negative  lems  of  the  nature  of  reality  and  the  origin  of  the 
principle  of  things.  This  is  the  sjrstem  which  was  most  universe. 

widely  accepted  in  pagan  circles  during  the  first  cen-        The  philosophy  of  the  thirteenth  century,  repre- 

turies  of  the  Christian  era.  sented   by  Alexander  of  Hales,   St.   Bonaventure, 

(3)  Early  Christian  PkUosophy. — ^The  first  heretics  Roger  Bacon,  Albert  the  Great,  St.  Thomas,  and  Duns 
among  the  Christian  thinkers  were  influence !  in  their  Scotus,  accorded  to  metaphysics  its  place  as  the 
phflosophy  by  Neo-Platonism.  For  the  most  part,  science  which  completes  and  crowns  the  efforts  of  the 
thev  aaopted  the  Gnostic  view  (see  Gnosticism)  that  mind  to  attain  a  knowledge  of  things  human  and  di- 
in  the  last  appeal,  the  test  of  Christian  truth  is  not  the  vine.  It  acknowledged  the  importance  of  the  relation 
official  teachme  of  the  Church  or  the  exoteric  doctrine  which  metaphysics  T)ears,  on  the  one  hand,  to  the 
of  the  gospels,  out  a  secret  gnosis,  a  body  of  doctrine  other  portions  of  philosopny,  and.  on  the  other  hand, 
in^Nuted  oy  Christ  to  the  chosen  few.  This  body  of  to  the  science  of  theology.  Funaamentally  Aristote- 
doctrine  was  in  reality  a  modified  Neo-Platonism.  Its  lean  in  its  conception  ofxnethod  and  scope,  the  metar 
most  salient  point  was  the  theory  that  evil  is  not  a  physics  of  the  golden  age  of  scholasticism  departed 
creation  <^  God  but  the  work  of  the  devil.  The  prob-  from  Aristotle's  teaching  only  to  suppl]^  the  defects 
lem  of  evil  thus  came  to  occupy  an  important  place  in  and  correct  the  faults  which  it  detect^  in  Aristotle's 
the  phflosophical  systems  of  orthodox  Christian  think-  philosophy.  Thus,  it  worked  out  on  Aristotelean  lines 
ers  down  to  the  tune  of  St.  Augustine.  Other  prob-  the  proolems  of  person  and  nature,  substance  and  ao- 
kms,  too,  claimed  special  attention,  notably  the  cident,  cause  and  effect;  it  took  up  and  carried  to 
Question  of  the  origin  of  the  imiverse.  From  the  higher  systematic  development  St.  Augustine's  recon- 
tneolo^cal  controversies  concerning  the  mysteries  of  ciuation  of  evil  with  the  goodness  of  God ;  it  elabo- 
the  Tnnity  and  the  Incarnation,  arose  the  discussion  rated  in  detail  the  question  of  the  nature  of  matter  and 
of  the  meaning  of  nature,  substance,  and  person.  From  the  origin  of  the  universe  by  God's  creative  act.  At 
all  these  sources  sprang  the  Christian  Neo-Platonism  the  same  time,  the  metaphysics  of  the  schools  was 
of  the  great  Alexandrian  School,  which  included  obliged  to  face  new  problems  which  were  thrust  on  the 
Clement  and  Origen,  and  the  later  phase  of  Christian  attention  of  the  schoolmen  b^r  the  ex^etical  and  edu- 
Platoniam  exemplified  by  St.  Augustine.  In  the  phi-  cational  activity  of  the  Arabians.  Thus,  it  drew  the 
losophy  of  St.  Augustine  we  have  the  greatest  con-  line  of  distinction  between  Theism  and  Pantheism,  dis- 
stnictive  effort  ot  the  Christian  mind  during  the  cussed  the  question  of  fatalism  and  free  will,  and  re- 
Patristic  Era.  It  is  a  philosophy  which  centres  in  the  jected  the  Arabian  interpretation  of  Aristotle  which 
problems  arising  from  the  nature  of  God,  and  the  jeopardized  the  doctrine  of  personal  immortality, 
native  and  destinv  of  ihe  human  soul.  The  most  Towards  the  end  of  the  scholastic  period  the  appear- 
erucial  of  these  problems  is  that  of  the  existence  of  evil,  ance  of  the  anti-metaphysical  nominalism  of  CXsKnanL 
How  can  evil  exist  in  a  world  created  and  governed  by  Durandus,  and  others  had  the  effect  of  driving  some  ot 
a  God,  Who  is  at  once  supremelv  good  and  all-power-  the  later  schoolmen  to  adopt  an  extreme  a  pnorism  in 
ful?  Rejecting  the  Mani^ean  theory  that  evil  has  an  phflosophy.  which  more  tnan  any  other  single  cause 
origin  distinct  from  God,  St.  Augustme  devotes  all  his  contributed  to  bring  about  the  antagonism  between 
efiforts  to  showing,  from  the  nature  of  evil,  that  it  does  metaphysics  and  natural  science,  which  marks  the  era 
not  demand  a  duect  efficient  act  on  the  part  of  God.  of  scientific  discovery.  This  condition,  though  wide- 
but  onl^  a  permissive  act,  and  that  this  toleration  oi  spread,  was  not,  however,  universal.  Men  like  Suarei 
evil  is  justified  b^  the  gradation  of  beings  which  re-  and  other  great  commentators  continued  down  to  the 
suits  from  the  existence  of  imperfection,  and  which  is  seventeentn  century  to  present  in  their  metaphysical 
essential  to  the  harmony  and  variety  of  the  universe  in  treatises  the  best  traditions  of  the  scholasticism  of  the 
generaL    Another  question  which  attains  a  good  deal  thirteenth  century. 

of  prominence  in  St.  Augustine's  metaphysics  is  that        (5)  Modem  Philosophy, — ^At  the  bediming  of  the 

of  the  origin  of  the  world.   All  things,  he  teaches,  were  modem  era  we  find  a  aivergence  of  opinion  concerning 

created  at  the  beginning,  material  creatures  as  well  as  the  scope  and  value  of  metaphysical  speculation.    On 

angels,  and  the  subsequent  appearance  of  plants,  ani-  the  one  hand.  Bacon,  while  himself  retaining  the  name 

mua,  and  men  in  a  chronological  series  is  merely  the  metaphysics  to  designate  the  science  of  the  essential 

development  in  time  of  those  "seeds  of  things"  which  properties  of  bodies,  is  opposed  to  the  metaphysical 

were  implanted  in  the  material  world  at  the  beginning,  philosophy  of  the  scholastics,  and  chiefly  because  that 

However.  St.  Augustine  is  careful  to  make  an  excep-  phflosophy  cave  too  much  prominence  to  final  causes 

tion  in  tne  case  of  the  individual  human  soul.    He  and  the  study  of  the  mind.    On  the  other  hand,  Des- 

avoids  the  doctrine  of  pre-existence  which  Origen  had  cartes,  whfle  declaring  that  "phflosophy  is  a  tree, 

taught,  and  maintrfjins  that  the  individual  som  origi-  which  has  metaphysics  for  its  root",  understands  that 

nates  at  the  same  time  as  the  body,  although  he  is  not  the  science  of  metaphysics  is  based  exclusively  on  the 

prepared  to  decide  definitively  whether  it  originates  data  of  the  subjective  consciousness.    Spinoza  ac- 

hr  a  distinct  creative  act  or  is  derived  from  the  souls  cepts  this  restriction,  implicitly  at  least,  although  his 

01  the  child's  parents  (see  Traducianism).  explicit  aim  in  phflosophy  is  ethical,  namely  to  pre- 

(4)  Medieval  Philowphy, — The  first  scholastic  phfl-  sent  that  view  ot  reality  which  wfll  lead  to  the  deliver- 
osophers  devoted  their  attention  to  the  discussion  of  ance  of  the  soul  from  l)ondage.  Leibniz  takes  a  more 
iogusal  problems  arising  out  of  the  interpretation  <rf  objective  view.  He  tries  to  adopt  a  definition  of  real- 
the  texts  which  were  studied  in  the  schools,  such  as  ity  which  wfll  reconcfle  the  idealism  of  Plato  with  the 
Pocphyiy'a  "  Jn^ge",  and  Boethius's  translf^tioa  of  results  pf  scientific  research,  and  he  aims  at  harmQai* 


METAPH78IC8  232  1IETAPH78IG8 

fog  tbe  materialism  of  the  atornkts  with  the  spiritual-  the  questum,  What  is  reality?  is  manifestly  a  step 

ism  of  the  scholastics.    Locke,  by  limiting  all  our  towards  a  rehabilitation  of  metaphysics.    An  analysis 

knowledge  to  the  two  soiurces,  sensation  and  reflection,  of  reality  is  followed  inevitably  oy  an  attempt  to  syn- 

precludes  the  possibility  of  metaphysical  speculation  thesise.    The   pn^matic  synthesis,   naturally,   wiU 

beyond  the  facts  of  experience  and  of  consciousness:  have  for  its  foimcmtion  neither  the  law  of  ioentity, 

in  tact,  he  maintains  (Essay,  IV,  8)  that  all  metaphysi-  that  being  is  being,  nor  the  law  of  contradiction,  that 

cal  formulae,  when  they  are  not  merely  tautological  being  is  not  not-being,  but  some  principle  of  "  value  ", 

and,  therefore  "trifling",  have  only  a  hypothetical  akin  to  that  of  the  WerthrTheorie  of  Lotze.    Of  quite 


hypothetical  nature  of  all  so-called  necessary  truth,  and  critical  expositions  of  the  text  of  Aristotle,  the 

mathematical  as  well  as  metaph3rsical.    The  same  only  philosophical  literature  in  recent  times  which 

position  is  taken  by  the  French  sensists  and  material-  adopts  the  Aristotelean  view  of  the  nature  and  scope 

ists  of  the  eighteenth  oenturv.     Berkeley,  although  of  metaphysics,  is  that  which  has  come  from  the  pens 

his  professed  aim  was  merely  "to  remove  the  mist  and  of  the  Neo-Scholastics.    The  Neo-Scholastic  doctrine 

veil  of  words''  which  hindered  the  clear  vision  of  the  on  at  least  one  point  in  metaphysics  is  given  in  the  fol- 

truth,  passed  from  empirical  immaterudism  to  a  sys-  lowing  paragraph. 

tern  of  Platonic  mysticism  based  on  the  metaphysical  Ylu.  Doctrine  of  Being. — ^The  three  ideas  which 

principle  of  causality.  are  most  important  in  any  system  of  metaphysics  are 

Beginning  with  ICant,  the  question  of  the  existence  Being,  Substance,  and  Cause.  These  have  a  decisive 
and  scope  of  metaphysical  science  assumes  a  new  influence,  and  may  be  said  to  determine  the  character 
phase.  Metaphysics  is  now  tbe  science  which  claims  of  a  metaphysical  system.  Substance  and  Cause  are 
to  know  things  m  themselves,  and  as  Kant  sees  it,  all  treated  elsewhere  under  separate  titles  (see  Cause  and 
post-Cartesian  metaphysics  is  wrong  in  its  starting-  Substancr).  It  will,  therefore,  be  sufficient  here  to 
point.  Kant  holds  tnat  both  the  empiricist's  rejection  give  the  outlines  of  the  scholastic  doctrine  of  Being, 
of  metaphysics  and  the  dogmatist's  defence  of  it  are  which,  indeed,  is  the  most  fundamental  of  the  three, 
wrong.  Ilie  empiricist  is  wrong  in  asserting  that  we  and  decides,  so  to  speak,  beforehand,  what  the  scho- 
cannot  gp  beyond  experience:  the  dogmatist  is  wrong  lastics  teach  n^ardine  Substance  and  Cause, 
in  affirming  that  we  can  go  beyond  experience  by  means  (1 )  Description  of  Being. — Being  cannot  be  defined : 
of  the  theoretical  reason.  The  practical  reason,  the  (a)  because  a  definition,  according  to  the  scholastic  f or- 
faculty  of  moral  consciousness,  can  alone  take  us  be-  mula,  must  be  "  by  proximate  genus  and  ultimate  dif- 
yond  experience,  and  lead  us  to  a  knowledge  of  things  in  f erence  " ,  and  Being,  having  the  widest  extension ,  can- 
themselves.  Practical  reason,  therefore,  or  the  moral  not  be  included  in  any  genus ;  (b)  because  a  definition  is 
law,  of  which  we  are  immediately  conscious,  is  the  only  the  analysis  of  the  comprehension  of  a  concept,  and 
foimdation  of  metaphysical  science.  The  successors  Bein^,  having  the  least  comprehension,  is,  as  it  were, 
of  Kant,  namely,  Fichte,  Schelling,  Hegelj  Schopen-  indivisible  in  its  comprehension,  resisting  all  efforts  to 
hauer.  and  Von  Hartmann,  no  matter  how  much  they  resolve  it  into  simpler  thought  elements.  Neverthe- 
may  aiffer  in  other  respects,  hold  that  the  aim  of  meta-  less.  Being  may  be  describeid.  The  word  "Being", 
physics  is  to  attain  tne  ultrarempirical,  or  absolute,  taken  either  as  a  participle  or  as  a  noun,  has  reference 
reality,  whether  this  be  called  self  (Fichte),  the  abso-  to  the  "act"  of  existence.  Whatever  exists,  there- 
lute  of  indifference  (Schelling),  the  dynamic  abso-  fore,  is  a  Being,  whether  it  exists  in  the  mind  or  out- 
lute,  spirit  or  Idea  (Hegel),  the  Will  (Schopenhauer),  side  the  mind,  whether  it  is  actual  or  only  potential, 
or  the  Unconscious  (Von  Hartmann).  Another  whether  it  requires  a  subiect  in  which  to  innere  or  is 
group,  the  empiro-critics,  who  also  acknowledge  their  capable  of  subsisting  without  a  subject  of  inherence, 
dependence  on  Kant,  assign  to  metaphysics  uie  task  Thus,  the  broadest  division  of  Being  is  into,  notional, 
of  discussing  the  fundamental  principles  of  knowledge  which  exists  only  in  the  mind  {ens  rationis),  and.  real, 
by  means  ofa  critical  examination  of  experience.  Fi-  which  exists  inaependently  of  the  created  mind  (ens 
nally,  there  is  among  German  philosophers  of  our  own  reale).  Real  Beinff  is  further  divided  into  the  poten- 
day,  an  inclination  to  use  the  word  metaphysics  to  tial  and  the  actuiu.  This  is  an  important  point  of 
designate  any  view  of  reality  which,  transcending  the  scholastic  teaching,  which  is  sometimes  overlooked  in 
limits  of  the  particular  sciences,  strives  to  combine  the  exposition  ana  still  more  in  the  criticism  of  scho- 
and  relate  the  results  of  those  sciences  in  a  synthetic  lasticism.  For  the  scholastics,  the  real  world  extends 
formula  (Weltanschauung^.  far  beyond  the  actual  world  of  our  experience  or  even 

EInglish  philosopherB  either  define  metaphysics  in  of  possible  experience.  Beyond  the  realm  of  actually 
terms  of  mental  pnenomena,  as  Hamilton  does,  or  re-  existing  things  they  see  a  world  of  tendencies,  poten- 
striot  its  field  of  mquiry  to  the  problem  of  the  value  of  cies.  and  possibilities  which  are  truly  real.  The  oak  is 
knowledge,  thus  confounding  it  with  epistemologVj  or  really  present,  though  only  potentially,  in  the  acorn; 
so  over  to  the  Hegelian  point  of  view  that  metapnys-  t^e  pamting  is  really,  though  only  potentially,  present, 
ics  is  tiie  science  of  the  ^nesis  and  development  of  in  the  mind  of  the  artist;  and  so,  in  every  case,  before 
dynamic  categories  of  reahty.  The  evolutionist  school,  the  effect  becomes  actual  it  is  really  present  in  the 
represented  by  Herbert  Spencer,  while  they  deny  the  cause  in  the  measure  in  which  its  actual  existence  de- 
cogency  of  'metaphysical  reasonings  "i  attempt  a  pends  on  the  cause. 

ceneral  synthesis  of  lul  truth  under  the  evolutionist  (2)  Relation  of  Being  to  other  Concej^, — Scholastic 

formula,  which  is  in  reality  metaphysics  in  disguise,  psycnology,  adopting  Aristotle's  doctrine  that  all  our 

Their  effort  in  this  direction  is,  at  least,  an  aclmowl-  ideas  are  acouired  through  the  senses,  teaches  that  the 

edgement  of  the  justice  of  the  scholastic  claim  that  first  knowleage  which  we  acquire  is  sense-knowledge, 

there  must  be  a  hegemonic  science  which  unifies  and  Out  of  the  material  fumishea  by  the  senses  the  mind 

co-ordinates  in  an  articulate  system  the  conclusions  elaborates  ideas  or  concepts.    The  first  of  these  ideas 

of  the  various  sciences,  and  wnich  corrects  the  ten-  is  the  most  general,  the  poorest  in  representative  c(»- 

dencies  of  those  sciences  towards  a  specialisation  tent,  namely,  the  idea  of  ''Being".    In  this  seose, 

which  ends  in  fragmentation.  tiierefore,  the  idea  of  beinp,  or,  more  correctly,  per- 

In  80  far  as  pragmatism,  represented  by  James,  haps,  the  idea  of  "somethmg",  is  the  first  of  all  our 

Dewey,  and  Schiller,  rejects  absolute  truth,  it  may  be  ideas. 

flidd  to  cut  the  ground  from  under  metaphysics.  Turning,  now.  to  the  logical  relation,  how,  ask  the 

Nevertheless,  the  latest  phase  of  praematism,  m  which  scholastics,  is  the  idea  of  Being  preaicated  cyf  the 

interest  is  shifted  from  the  epistemoTogical  problem  to  lower,  or  less  general  concepts,  such  as  substanoe,  aeci- 


1IETAPH78IC8 


233 


1IETAPHT8IC8 


dent,  b«dy,  plant,  tree,  eto.T  In  the  first  place,  the 
predicate  oeing  is  never  univocally  afRrmea  of  lower 
concepts,  because  it  is  not  a  ^nus.  Neither  is  it  pred- 
icated equivocally,  because  its  meaning  when  predi- 
cated of  substance,  for  example,  is  not  entirely  distinct 
from  its  meaning  when  predicated  of  accident.  The 
predication  is,  therefore,  analo^cal.  What,  then,  is 
the  relation,  in  comprehension,  between  Being  and  the 
lower  concepts?  It  is  obvious  that  the  lower  concept 
has  greater  comprehension  than  Being.  But  can  it  oe 
said  that  the  lower  concept  adds  to  the  comprehension 
of  Being?  Manifestly,  tnat  ]s  impossible,  because  if 
anything  distinct  from  beios  is  added  to  beinyg,  what  is 
added  is  "nothing'',  and  there  is  no  addition.  The 
schoolmen,  therefore,  teach  that  the  lower  concept 
simply  brings  out  in  an  explicit  manner  a  mode  or 
moaes  of  beine  which  are  contained  implicitly  but  not 
expressed  in  the  higher  concept,  Being.  The  compre- 
hension, for  exampfe,  of  substiGuice  is  greater  than  that 
of  being.  Nevertheless  it  is  not  correct  to  say  that. 
Substance  =  Beiop  +  a;  for  if  a  is  distinct  from  the 
term  Being,  to  which  it  is  added,  it  must  be  Nothing. 
The  truth,  then,  is  that  Substance  bringis  out  explic- 
itly a  moae  (namely  the  power  of  existing  without  a 
subject  in  which  to  inhere)  which  is  neither  explicitly 
affirmed  nor  explicitly  denied  but  only  implicitly  con- 
tained in  the  concept  of  Beinp. 

(3)  Being  and  Nothing, — Beine,  therefore,  has  a  com- 
prehension, which,  though  it  is  tne  least  of  all  compre- 
nensions,  is  definite.  It  is  not  a  bare,  empty  concept, 
and,  therefore,  equal  to  "nothing",  as  the  H^lians 
teach.  This  doctrine  of  the  scholastics  is  the  line  of 
demarcation  between  Aristoteleanism  on  the  one  hand 
and  Hegelianism  on  the  other.  Aristotle  teaches  that 
bein^  luus  a  definite  comprehension,  that,  therefore, 
the  fundamental  law  of  thought  as  well  as  the  basic 
principle  of  reality  is  the  identity  of  Being  with  itself: 
Bein^=BeiDg,  A  is  A,  or  Eveiythinf  is  what  it  is. 
H^^  does  not  deny  that  this  Anstotefean  principle  is 
true.  He  holds,  however,  that  Being  has  an  mde- 
terminate  comprehension,  a  comprehension  which  is 
dynamic  or,  as  it  were,  fluent.  Therefore,  he  says, 
the  principle  Being = Being,  A  is  A,  or  Everything  is 
what  it  is,  is  only  part  of  the  truth,  for  Being  is  also 
equal  to  Nothing,  A  =  not- A,  Everything  is  its  oppo- 
site. The  full  truth  is:  Being  is  Becoming;  no  static 
or  fixed  formula  is  true ;  everything  is  constantly  pass- 
ing into  its  opposite.  .  The  consequences  which  follow 
from  this  fundamental  divemnce  of  doctrine  regard- 
ing Being  are  enormous.  Not  the  least  serious  of 
these  is  tne  Hegelian  conclusion  that  all  reality  is 
dynamic  and  that  God  Himself  is  a  process. 

(4)  Being  f  Existence,  and  Essence. — As  wisdom  (sapi' 
entia)  is  that  by  which  a  person  is  wise  {sapere)^  so  es- 
sence (essentia)  is  that  by  which  a  thing  is  (esse).  If 
one  inquires  what  is  the  intrinsic  cause  of  a  person 
being  wise,  the  answer  is,  wisdom;  if  one  asks  what  is 
the  intrinsic  cause  of  existence,  the  answer  is,  essence. 
E^ence,  therefore,  is  that  by  which  a  thing  is  what  it 
is.  It  is  the  source  of  all  the  necessary  and  universal 
properties  of  a  thiog,  and  is  itself  necessary,  univer- 
sal, eternal,  and  unchangeable.  The  act  to  which  it 
refers  is  existence,  in  the  same  way  as  the  act  to 
which  wisdom  refers,  is  the  exercise  of  wisdom  (sor 
pere).  Both  existence  and  essence  are  realities,  the 
one  in  the  entitative  order,  the  other  in  the  quiddative 
order.  Of  course,  the  existence  of  a  notional  being 
(ens  rationis)  is  only  notional;  its  essence,  too,  is  no- 
tional. But  in  the  case  of  a  real,  created  Being,  the 
existence  is  one  kind  of  reality,  a  real  actuality,  and 
the  essence  is  another  kind  of  i^ity,  a  reality  in  the 
potential  order.  This  doctrine  of  the  real  distinction 
oetween  essence  and  existence  in  real  created  beings 
is  not  admitted  by  all  scholastic  philosophers.  Suarez, 
for  instance,  and  his  school,  hold  that  the  distinction 
19  only  loeieal  or  notional;  the  Scotists,  too,  maintain 
thatthe  oistinction  in  question  is  less  than  real.   The 


Thomists,  on  the  contrary,  hold  that  in  God  alone  „ 
sence  and  existence  are  identical,  that  in  all  creatures 
there  is  a  real  distinction,  because  in  creatures  exist- 
ence is  participated,  diversified,  and  multiplied,  not  b^ 
reason  of  itself  but  by  reason  of  the  essence  which  it 
actualizes.  There  is  much  controversy  not  only  over 
the  question  itself,  but  also  concerning  the  interpreta- 
tion of  the  words  of  St.  Thomas,  although  there  seems 
very  little  ground  for  denying  that  in  the  work  "  De 
Ente  et  Essentia"  the  Angelic  Doctor  holds  a  real  dis- 
tinction between  essence  and  existence. 

(5)  Tran^scendental  Properties  of  Being. — Equally  ex- 
tensive with  the  concept  of  Being  are  the  concepts 
good,  true,  one,  and  beautiful.  Everv  beine  is  good, 
true,  one,  and  beautiful,  in  the  metapnysical  sense,  or 
as  tne  scnolastics  expressed  it.  Being  and  Good  are 
convertible,  Being  and  True  are  convertible,  etc. 
{Bonum  et  ens  convertuntur,  etc.).  Goodness,  in  this 
sense,  means  the  fullness  of  entity  or  perfection  which 
belongs  to  each  being  in  its  own  order  of  existence; 
truth  means  the  correspondence  of  a  thing  to  the  idea 
of  it,  which  exists  in  the  Divine  Mind ;  oneness  means 
the  lack  of  actual  division,  and  beauty  means  that 
completeness,  harmony  or  symmetry  of  essential  na- 
ture which  is  only  an  aspect  of  truth  and  goodness. 
These  properties,  goodness,  truth,  oneness,  and  beauty, 
are  called  transcendental,  because  they  transcend,  or 
exceed  in  extension,  all  the  lower  classes  into  which 
reality  is  divided. 

(6)  The  Categories. — Real  Being  is  divided  (not  by 
strict  logical  division,  but  by  a  process  analogous  to 
it)  into  Finite  and  Infinite.  Finite  Being  is  divided 
into  the  supreme  genera.  Substance  ana  Accident. 
Accident  is  further  divided  into  Quantity,  Quality, 
Relation,  Action,  "Passion",  Place,  Time,  Posture, 
and  Habit  (or  possession).  These  nine  Accidents, 
together  with  the  supreme  genus,  substance,  are  the 
ten  Aristotelean  Categories  into  which,  as  supreme 
classes,  all  Being  is  divided. 

I.  Aristotblxan  Mstapbthcb: — ^Aristotlb,  Metapkujnea  in 
the  Berlin  edition,  Aristot^it  Opera  OnBce  et  LaJtine  (Beriin, 
1823-7).  tr.  McMahon  (London.  1878.  New  York.  1887),  tr. 
Robs  (Oxford,  1008):  oommentaries  by  St.  Thomas.  S.  Thomm 
Opera  Omnia,  XXI V  (Paris.  1876):  Stlvestbr  Maurub.  Arte- 
Uaaie  Opera  (Rome.  1668).  etc.;  Wallace,  OtUlirtea  ofPhiL  of 
Ariet.  ((Jambridge.  1894);  Plat.  AriatoU  (Paris.  1003). 

II.  Scholastic  Mktaphysios: — St.  Thomas,  op.  cit.,  and  De 
Ente  el  Etsentia,  with  Cajstan's  commentary,  m  Qtiaetionea 
Diepp.t  TV  (Rome,  1883);  Suarxx.  Diepp.,  Metaphyeioa  in 
Opera  OmniOf  XXV  (Paris,  1866);  schoiastio  manuals,  Zi- 
OLiARA,  Libbrators,  Lorbnselli;  Vallbt.  Reznstadtlbr, 
Qrbdt,  Hickbt,  etc..  in  Latin:  Harper,  Metaphyeice  of  the 
SehooU  (3  vols.,  London,  1879-M) ;  Rickabt,  General  Metaphye- 
ica  (London,  1800) ;  Hill,  ElemenU  of  PhUoeophy  (Baltimore* 
1873):  Mbrcxer,  (mtologie  (Louvain,  4th  ed.,  1005);  Gutbbr- 
LET.  AUoemeine  Metaphyeik  (MOnster.  1006). 

III.  Heoblian:— i7«rel'«  Werke  (18  vols.,  Berlin,  1832-40); 
Haldakb,  Pathway  to  Reality  (2  vols..  London.  1003);  Brai>- 
LET,  Appearance  and  Reality  (London,  1002);  SriRLiNa.  The 
Secret  ofHegd  (London,  1865);  McTagoart,  AbaoltUe  Rdativ- 
irnn  (London.  l887). 

IV.  The  following  include  psychology  and  epistemology  in 
Metaphysios:  Hamilton,  Lectures  on  Melaphysica  (4  vols., 
Edinbuigh,  1850,  London,  1861);  Hodgson,  The  Metaphyeice  of 
Experience  (4  vols..  New  York,  1808);  Fullerton,  Syeten  of 
Metaphyeice  (New  York,  1004);  Ladd,  Theory  of  Reality  (New 
York,  1800). 

V.  Various  Tendencies: — ^Bowne,  Metaphyeice  (New  York, 
1808);  Taylor,  ElemenU  of  Metaphyeice  (London,  1003): 
Day,  Ontological  Science  (New  York,  1878) :  Ribbl,  Sctenee  cuid 
MetaphyeieettT.  Fairbanks    (London,  1804);   Lotke,  Meta- 

?hyeik,  tr.  Bosanqubt  (2  vols..  London.  1887);  James.  A 
'Iwralxetie  Universe  (New  York,  1000);  Schiller,  Studiee  in 
Humaniem  (London,  1003);  Royce,  Philoeophy  of  Loyalty  (New 
York,  1008).  Consult  also,  the  various  "Introductions  ,  for 
example,  KClpe.  Introduction  to  Philosophy ,  tr.  Pillsbury  and 
TXtchner  (London,  1001);  Watson,  OtUline  ofPhilosophu,  2nd 
ed.  (QlasBOw,  1808);  Paulsen.  Introduction  to  Philosophy ,  tr. 
Tbilly  (New  York.  1808);  Marvin,  Introduction  to  SyetemaOe 
Philosophy  (New  York,  1003);  Ladd.  Introduction  to  Philoeofhv 
(New  York,  1001). 

VI.  History  of  Metaphysiob: — ^Von  Hartmann,  Oeech.  der 
MetaTphysik  (3  vols.,  Berlin,  1800-1000):  Willmann,  Gesch.  dee 
Ideahemus  (3  vols..  Brunswick,  1804-07);  and  general  histories 
of  Philosophy,  such  as,  SrdcxL,  History  ofPhuosophy^  tr.  Fzn- 
LAY  (DubBn,  1888-1003);  Turner,  History  of  Philosophy  (Bos- 
ton. 1003). 

WiLUAM  TcntNER. 


HXTASTASIO                          234  HKnUfSTOBOSIS 

Hetastaalo,   Ptento,    Italian  poet,   b.  at  Ittune,  of  the  community^  left  Ampleforth  to  establish  a 

1698;    d.  at  Vienna,   1782.     Of  humble  origin,  hia  monaatery  at  Prior  Park,  near  Bath.     On  13  Hard), 

father,  once  a  Papal  soldier,  waa  Iat«r  a  pork-butcher;  1830,  the  Holy  Se«  authorized  them  to  transfer  their 

Metaatasio  was  placed  in  tne  shop  of  a  goldsmith  to  obedience  to  the  vicar  Apostolic;  a  little  later,  owing 

learn  his  craft.     B^  some  cliance  he  attracted  tlie  to  some  misunderstanding,  they  were  secularised.     In 

attention  of  the  jurisconsult  and  litterateur,  Vincenzo  1331  Father  Metcalfe  was  made  chaplain  to  Sir  E. 

Gravina,  who  took  him  in  charge,  and  Grscizing  his  Uostyn,  of  Tatacic,  Flint,  and  soon  acquired  a  knowl- 

name  o\  Trapassi,  into  the  aynon^ous  Metastasio,  edge  of  the  Welsh  language,  bo  as  to  minister  to  the 

Eve  him  a  solid  education.     At  hia  death  in  1718  he  Welsh  population.     After  five  years  he  was  transferred 

t  to  hia  prot^K^a  considerable  sum  of  money,  which  toNewport,and  in  1844  to  Bristol.  Anangementswere 

tiie  latter  soon  dissipated.     Then  he  was  compelled  to  almost  complet«d  for  his  re-odmission  into  the  Beno- 

appreaticehimself  atNapleatoalawyer,  who,  however,  dictines  in  1847,  when  an  outbreak  of  fever  in  Leeds, 

found  the  apprentice  more  prone  to  write  verses  than  inspired  him  to  offer  his  services  to  the  bishop  of  that 

to  study  legal  codes.     The  beginning  of  Metastasio's  city;  he  hastened  to  the  plague-stricken  populace,  and 

teal  career  is  marked  by  the  composition,  at  the  re-  in  a  short  time  fell  a  victim  to  the  epidemic.     His 

quest  of  the  Viceroy  of  Naples,  of  nia  musical  drama,  principal  works  are:  a  Welsh  translation  of  Challoner's 

"""    "Orti    Espe-  two  works,  "Think  well  on't"and  "The  Garden  of  the 

'    which    had  Soul"  (Llyfr  Gweddi  y  Catholig);   also  "Crynoad  o'r 

signal  success.  AthrawifethCristtonogol"  (Rhyl,  1806}. 

rte    leadinB    Dart  Gillow.  Bioo.  Did,  o/finif,Cn<A,.iJ(.Inum.Mn(Briiw.V.M; 

tWein  wa^pla^  Jii^^*"-  ^^'  ™-  ^''""'"■'  «'""<™«'  "  ^^  '''^■ 

by  the  famous  ao-  A.  A.  MacEbi.eam. 
tress,  la  Ronianina 

(Marianne  Benti-  UBtAllopoUs,  a  titular  see  of  Phrygia  Pacatiana^  in 
Bulgarelli),      She  Asia  Minor.    The  inscriptions  make  known  a  Phrygiac 
at    once     became  town  named  Mol«Ita,  which  name  is  connected  with 
attached     to    the  the  Phrygian  feminine  proper  name  Motatis  and  the 
young  poet,  com-  Cilician  masculine  Motales,  as  also  with  Mutalli,  or 
missioned  liim   to  Mutallu,thenameofanaacientHittitekingof  North- 
write  a  new  plav,  em  Commagene.    One  of  these  inscriptions  was  found 
the    "Didone  ab-  in  the  village  of  Uedele,  in  the  vilayet  of  Broussa, 
bandona ",       had  wliich  evidently  preserves  the  ancient  name.    Hotella 
hira  taught  music  seems  to  be  the  town  which  Hierodes  (Synecdemus, 
byanoted  teacher,  668,  6)  calls  Pulcherianopolis;   it  mav  be  supposed  to 
and  took  him  to  have  neen  raised  to  the  rank  of  a  oishopnc  by  the 
Rome  and  toVen-  Empress  Pulcheria  (414-53).   Shortly  before  663,  per- 
icewith  her  on  her  haps  in  535,  Justinian  raised  Hierapolis  to  metropoli- 
PiBTBo  Mbtabtabio                professional  tours,  tan  rank,  and  attached  to  it  a  certain  number  of 
At  Vienna   the    Italian    melodramatist,    Apostolo  suffragan  sees  previously  dependent  on  Laodicea. 
Zeno,  was  about  to  relinquish  his  post  as  imperial  Among  these  the  "  Notitiie  Episeopatuum"  mention, 
poet,    and    in   1730  he  recommended  that  Metas-  from  the  ninth  to  the  twelfth  or  thirteenth  century, 
tasio   be    appointed    ids   sucoesaor.     With  this  rec-  tliis  same  Motella,  wliich  they  call  MetellofKilis,  and 
ommendation  and  with  the  aid  ot  the  Countess  of  even  once  Metallopolis.    An  inscription  informs  us  ol 
Althann,  who  remained  his  patroness  during  her  life-  Bbhop   Michael,   m   556;    and   another,   of   Bishop 
time,  he  obtained  the  appointment.     Thereafter,  and  Cyriacus,  perhaps  in  667.    At  the  Council  13!  Nioea, 
especially  daring  the  decade  t>etween  1730  and  1740,  787,  the  see  was  represented  by  Eudozius,  a  priest  and 
Metastasio   was  engaged  in  the  compoeition  of  hia  monk.    Bishop  Michael  attended  the  two  councila  (rf 
many  melodramas  (over  seventy  in  number],  hia  Constantinople  in  869  and  879. 

oratorios,  cantale,  canionette,  etc.     Among  the  most        '"  "  '>_■_.  fi.—-^.- r 

noted  of  his  melodramas — wliich  announce  the  com-  ^^ 

in^    opera— are:      "Endimione",    "Orti    Esperidi",  '                                                              g,  p^TRinis 

"Galatea",  "Angelica",  "Didone",  "Siroe  ,  "Ca- 

tone",      "Artaserse",      "Adriano",      "Dcmetrio",  Metcmpiychoiis  (Gr.  ttrri  (/ifuxoi.     Lat.  mel«mp- 

"lasipile",    "Demofoonte",    "Clememsa   di   Tito",  tyehotit:  Fr.  metemptydiote:   Ger.  udenwanderung), 

"Semiramide",  "Olimpiade",  "Temistocle",  and  the  in    other   words   the    doctrine    of    tlte   trsjumigra- 

"  Attilio  B«golo".     The  last-named  is  regarded  as  bis  tion  of  souls,  teaches  that  the  same  soul  inhabits  in 

masterpieoe.     All  the  pieces  of  Metastasio  took  the  suceeasion  the  bodiea  of  different  beings,  both  men 


pc^ular  fancy,  chiefly  because  he  sedulously  avoided  and  animals.     It  was  a  tenet  common  to  many  sys- 

all  unhappy  denouements,  and,  enlivenbg  his  effica,-  tems  of   philosophic    thought   and   religious  belief 

cious  dialogue   with   common   sense  aphorisms,    he  widely  Beparat«d  from  each  other  both  geographical^ 

combined  them  with  arias  and  ariettas  that  appealed  and  historically.     Although  in  modem  times  it  is  as- 

to  the  many.    His  Letters  are  important  in  connexion  aociated  among  civilised  races  almost  exclusively  with 

withanystudy  of  his  artistic  development.  the  countries  of  Asia  and  particularly  with  India,  there 

The  iiest  edition  of  hia  works  is  that  of  Paris.  1780-  is  evidence  that  at  one  period  ot  another  it  has  flour- 

82.    Additions  are  found  in  the  OpereP(Mfu?ne,  Vienna,  ishedin  almost  every  put  of  the  world;  and  it  still  pre- 

1796.    (See  also  the  editions  of  Florence,   1820  and  vails  in  various  forms  among  savage  nations  scattered 

1826).  His  letters  were  edited  by  Carduccl  (Bologna,  over  the  globe.     This  univeraality  seems  to  mai^  it 

1883),  and  by  AntonaTraversi  (Rome  1885.}  as  one  ot  those  spontaneous  or  instinctive  beliefs  by 

J.  M.  D.  Ford  which  man's  nature  responds  to  the  deep  and  uraent 


problems  of  existence ;  wnilst  the  n ^ 

HatcaUa,  Edwabd,   b.  in  Yorkshire,  1792;   d.   a  varied  forms  which  it  assumes  in  different  systems, 

martyr  of  charity  at  Leeds,  7  May,  1847.     He  entered  and  the  many-coloured  mytholoRy  in  which  it  has 

theBenedictine  monastery  at  Ampleforth  in  1811,  and  clothed  itaelf,  show  it  to  be  capable  of  powerfully  ap- 

WBS  ordained  five  years  later.     He  distinguished  him-  pealing  to  the  imagination,  ana  of  adapting  itseu  with 

self  early  as  a  linguist.    From  1822  to  1824,  ho  served  great  versatility  to  widely  difTeient  types  of  mind. 

(« the  mission  at  Kilvington.     About  this  time,  at  the  The  explanation  of  this  success  seems  bo  lie  partly  in 

nqueat  of  Bishc^  Bainea,  be  and  some  other  members  its  being  an  expression  of  the  fundwnentol  beb^  in  im- 


MREBIPSYCHOSIS 


235 


METEMPSYCHOSIS 


mortality,  partly  in  its  comprehensiveneasi  binding 
toeether,  as  for  the  most  part  it  seems  to  do,  all  indi- 
vidual existences  in  one  single,  mibroken  scheme; 
partly  also  in  the  imiestrainea  liberty  which  it  leaves 
to  the  mythologising  fancy. 

HiBTOBY. — Egypt. — ^Herodotus  tells  us  in  a  well- 
known  passage  that  ''the  Egyptians  were  the  first  to 
aasert  tne  immortality  of  the  soul,  and  that  it  passes 
on  the  death  of  the  body  into  another  animal ;  and  that 
when  it  has  gone  the  round  of  all  forms  of  life  on  land, 
in  water,  and  in  air,  then  it  once  more  enters  a  human 
body  bom  for  it;  and  this  cycle  of  the  soul  takes  place 
in  three  thousand  years  "  (ii.  123).  That  the  doctrine 
fint  originated  witn  tlie  Egyptians  is  unlikely.  It  al- 
most certainly  passed  f ioniE(zypt  into  Greece,  but  the 
same  belief  haa  sprung  up  inoependently  in  many  na- 
tions from  a  very  early  date.  The  accounts  of  £!gyp- 
tian  metempsychosis  vary  considerably:  indeed  such  a 
doctrine  was  bound  to  undeigo  modifications  accord- 
ing to  changes  in  the  national  religion.  In  the  "  Book 
of  the  Dead  ",  it  is  connected  with  the  notion  of  a  judg- 
ment after  death,  transmigration  into  infra-human 
forms  being  a  punishment  for  sin.  Certain  animals 
were  recognized  by  the  Elgyptians  as  the  abode  of 
specially  wicked  persons  anowere  on  this  account,  ac- 
cording to  Plutarch,  preferred  for  sacrificial  purposes. 
In  Herodotus'  accoimt  given  above,  this  ethical  note 
is  absent,  and  transmigration  is  a  purely  natural  and 
necessary  cosmic  process.  Plato's  version  mediates 
between  these  two  views.  He  represents  the  Egyp- 
tians as  teaching  that  ordinary  mortals  will,  after  a 
cycle  of  ten  thousand  years,  return  to  the  human  form, 
but  that  an  adept  in  philosophy  may  hope  to  accom- 
plish the  process  in  three  thousand  years.  There  was 
also  a  pantheistic  form  of  Egyptian  metempsychosis, 
the  individual  bein^  r^ardeoas  an  emanation  from  a 
single  universal  principle  to  which  it  was  destined  to 
retum  after  having  completed  its  "  cycle  of  necessity  ". 
There  are  traces  of  this  doctrine  of  a  cosmic  cycle  in 
the  Fourth  Eclogue  of  Veigil.  It  has  been  thought 
that  the  custom  of  embalming  the  dead  was  connected 
with  this  form  of  the  doctrine,  the  object  beins  to  pre- 
serve the  body  intact  for  the  retum  of  the  soiu.  It  is 
probable,  indeed,  that  the  belief  in  such  a  retum 
nelped  to  confirm  the  practice,  but  it  can  hardly  have 
provided  the  sole  motive,  since  we  find  that  other  ani- 
mals were  also  freauently  embalmed. 

Greece,  as  already  stated,  probably  borrowed  the 
theory  of  transmigration  from  Egypt.  According  to 
tradition,  it  had  oeen  taught  by  Musseus  and  Or- 
pheus, and  it  was  an  element  of  the  Orphic  and  other 
mystic  doctrines.  Pindar  represents  it  in  this  rela- 
tion (cf.  2nd  Ol.  Ode).  The  mtroduction  of  metemp- 
Bychosia  as  a  philosophical  doctrine  is  due  to  Pyth^o- 
nu,  who,  we  are  told,  gave  himself  out  as  identical 
with  the  Trojan  hero  Euphorbos,  and  added  copious 
details  of  his  subsequent  soul-wanderings.  Vegeta- 
rianism and  a  general  regard  for  animals  was  the 
Practical  Pythagorean  deduction  from  the  doctrine, 
'lato's  metempsychosis  was  learnt  from  the  Pytha- 
goreans. He  ^ave  the  doctrine  a  philosophic  stand- 
ms  such  as  it  never  before  possessed;  for  Plato 
euibits  the  most  elaborate  attempt  in  the  history  of 
philosophy  to  find  in  the  facts  of  actual  experience 
justification  for  the  theonr  of  the  pro-existence  of  the 
BouL  In  particular,  sxmdry  aiguments  adopted  later 
on  to  prove  inunortaHty  were  employed  by  nim  to  es- 
tablisn  pre-existence.  Such  were  the  proofs  from  uni- 
versal cognitions  and  the  natural  attraction  of  the  soul 
towards  the  One,  the  Permanent,  and  the  Beautiful. 
Plato  ascribes  to  these  arguments  a  retrospective  as 
well  as  a  prospective  force.  He  seeks  to  show  that 
leamin^i  is  but  a  form  of  reminiscence,  and  love  but 
the  desire  for  reimion  with  a  once-possessed  good. 
Han  is  a  fallen  spirit,  "full  of  forgetfulness".  His 
■ole  hope  is,  by  means  of  education  and  philosophy,  to 
seeover  his  memory  of  himself  and  of  truth,  and  tnus 


free  himself  from  the  chains  of  irrationality  that  bind 
him.  Thus  only  can  he  hasten  his  retum  to  his  "  true 
fatherland  "  and  his  perfect  assimilation  to  the  Divine. 
Neglqgt  of  this  will  lead  to  further  and  perhjuw  per- 
maSBt  degradation  in  the  world  beyond.  The  wise 
man  will  have  an  advantageous  transmigration  be- 
cause he  has  practised  prudence,  and  the  choice  of  his 
next  life  will  be  put  into  his  own  hands.  The  vicious, 
ignorant,  and  passion-blinded  man  will,  for  the  con- 
trary reason,  find  himself  bound  to  a  wretched  ex- 
istence in  some  lower  form.  Plato's  scheme  of  me- 
tempsychosis is  conspicuous  for  the  scope  it  allows  to 
human  freedom.  The  transmigration  of  the  individual 
soul  is  no  mere  episode  of  a  imiversal  world-move- 
ment, predestined  and  unchangeable.  Its  course  is 
reidly  influenced  by  character,  and  character  in  turn  is 
determined  by  conduct.  A  main  object  of  his  theory 
was  to  guarantee  personal  continuity  of  the  soul's  life, 
the  point  in  whicn  most  other  systems  of  transmigra- 
tion fail.  Besides  Plato  and  ryth^oras,  the  chief 
professors  of  this  doctrine  amonc  the  Greeks  were 
Kmpedocles,  Timseus  of  Locri,  and  the  Neoplatonists, 
none  of  whom  call  for  detailed  notice.  Apollonius  of 
Tyana  also  taught  it. 

India, — ^The  doctrine  of  transmigration  is  not  found 
in  the  oldest  of  the  sacred  books  of  India,  viz.,  the  Rig- 
Veda:  but  in  the  later  works  it  appears  as  an  imcon- 
testea  dogma,  and  as  such  it  has  been  received  by  the 
two  great  religions  of  India.  (1)  Brahmanism. — In 
Brahmanism,  we  &id  the  doctrine  of  world-cycles,  of 
annihilations  and  restorations  destined  to  recur  at 
enormous  intervals  of  time;  and  of  this  ^neral  move- 
ment the  fortunes  of  the  soul  are  but  an  mcident.  At 
the  same  time,  transmigrations  are  determined  by 
moral  worth.  JBvery  actlias  its  award  in  some  future 
life.  By  irreversible  law,  evil  deeds  beget  tmhappi- 
ness,  sooner  or  later;  these,  indeed,  are  nothing  else 
but  the  slowly-ripened  fruit  of  conduct,  which  every 
man  must  eat.  Thus  they  explain  the  anomalies  of 
experience  presented  in  the  misfortimes  of  the  good 
and  the  prosperity  of  the  wicked:  each  is  ''eating  the 
fruit  of  his  past  actions  *\  actions  done  perhaps  in  some 
far-remote  existence.  Such  a  belief  may  tend  to  pa- 
tience and  resignation  in  present  suffering,  but  it  has  a 
distinctly  unpleasant  effect  upon  the  Brahznanical  out- 
look on  the  future.  A  pious  Brahman  cannot  assure 
himself  of  happiness  in  his  next  incarnation;  there  mav 
he  the  penalty  of  great  unknown  sin  still  to  be  faced, 
beatitude  is  union  with  Brahma  and  emancipation 
from  the  series  of  births,  but  no  degree  of  actual  holi- 
ness can  guarantee  this,  since  one  is  always  exposed  to 
the  danger  of  being  thrown  back  either  by  sin  past  or 
sin  to  come,  the  fruit  of  which  will  have  to  be  eaten, 
and  so  on,  we  might  be  tempted  to  imagine,  ad  infi' 
nitum.    Hence  a  great  fear  of  re-incarnation  prevails. 

(2)  Buddhism. — Brahminism  is  boimd  up  with 
caste,  and  is  therefore  strongly  aristocratic,  insisting 
much  on  innate  superiorities.  Buddhism,  on  the  con- 
trary, cuts  through  caste-divisions  and  asserts  the 
paramoimt  importance  of  "works",  of  individual 
effort,  though  always  with  a  bac^roimd  of  fatalism 
which  the  denial  of  a  personal  Ax>videnoe  entails. 
According  to  the  Buddhist  doctrine,  the  ambition  to 
rise  to  the  summit  of  existence  musit  infallibly  be  ful- 
filled; and  the  mission  of  Guatama  was  to  teach  the 
way  to  its  attainment,  i.  e.,  to  Buddhaship  and  Nir- 
vana. It  is  only  through  a  long  series  of  existences 
that  this  consummation  can  be  reached.  Guatama 
himself  had  as  many  as  five  hxmdred  and  fifty  trans- 
mioTations  in  various  forms  of  life. 

'Hie  characteristic  feature  in  Buddhistic  metemp- 
sychosis is  the  doctrine  of  Karma,  which  is  a  subtle  sub- 
stitute for  the  conception  of  personal  continuity. 
According  to  this  view  it  is  not  the  concrete  individu- 
ality of  the  soul  that  survives,  and  inigrates  into  a  new 
life,  but  only  the  karma,  or  action^  i.  e.,  the  sum  of  the 
man's  deeds,  his  merits,  the  ethical  resultant  of  his 


METEMPSYCHOSIS 


236 


METEMPSYCHOSIS 


previous  life,  its  total  value,  stripped  of  its  former 
individuation,  which  is  regarded  as  accidental.  As 
the  karma  is  greater  or  less,  so  will  the  next  transmi- 

Sation  be  a  promotion  or  a  degradation.  At  times 
e  deppradation  may  be  so  extreme  that  harma  is 
embodied  in  an  inanimate  form,  as  in  the  case  of  Gua- 
tama's  disciple  who.  for  negligence  in  his  master's 
service,  was  reduced  after  death  to  the  form  of  a 
broomstick. 

Later  Jewish  Teaching, — ^The  notion  of  soul-wander- 
ing is  familiar  to  the  Jewish  Rabbins.  They  distin- 
guish two  kinds  of  transmigrations,  (1)  Gilgul  Neshor 
methf  in  which  the  soul  was  tied  down  to  a  life-tenancy 
of  a  single  body:  (2)  Ibbur^  in  which  souls  may  inhabit 
bodies  b^  temporary  possession  without  passing 
through  birth  and  death.  Josephus  tells  us  that  trans- 
migration was  a  doctrine  of  the  Pharisees,  who  taught 
ibSt  the  righteous  should  be  allowed  to  return  to  hfe, 
while  the  wicked  were  to  be  doomed  to  eternal  impris- 
onment. It  was  their  gloomy  conception  of  Sheol,  like 
the  gloom^r  Greek  conception  of  Hades,  that  forced 
them  to  this  shift  for  a  compensation  to  virtue.  On 
the  other  hand  some  of  the  Talmudists  invoke  endless 
transmigration  as  a  penalty  for  crime.  The  descrip- 
tions of  the  soul's  journeys  over  land  and  sea  are 
elaborated  with  a  wealth  of  imagination,  frequently 
verging  on  the  grotesque.  The  retributive  purpose 
was  rigorously  maintamed.  ''If  a  man  hath  com- 
mitted one  sin  more  than  his  good  works,  he  is  con- 
demned to  transformation  into  some  diape  of  lower 
life."  Not  only  so,  but  if  his  giiilt  had  been  extreme, 
he  mi^ht  be  doomed  to  an  inanimate  existence.  The 
followmg  is  a  sample  of  what  awaits  the  "guiltiest  of 
the  guilty".  "The  dark  tormentors  rush  after  them 
with  goads  and  whips  of  fire;  their  chase  is  ceaseless; 
they  hunt  them  from  the  plain  to  the  mountain,  from 
the  mountain  to  the  river,  from  the  river  to  the  ocean, 
from  the  ocean  roimd  the  circle  of  the  earth.  Thus  the 
tormented  fly  in  terror,  and  the  tormentors  follow  in 
vengeance  until  the  time  decreed  is  done.  Then  the 
doomed  sink  into  dust  and  ashes.  Another  beginning 
of  existence,  the  commencement  of  a  second  trial, 
awaits  them.  They  become  clav,  they  take  the  nature 
of  the  stone  and  the  mineral;  they  are  water,  fiie,  air; 
thev  roll  in  the  thimder;  they  float  in  the  cloud;  they 
rush  in  the  whirlwind.  They  change  again ;  they  enter 
into  the  shapes  of  the  vegetable  tribes;  they  live  in  the 
shrub,  the  nower,  the  tree.  Ages  on  ages  pass.  An- 
other change  comes.  Thev  enter  into  iSe  shape  of  the 
beast,  the  bird,  the  fiish,  the  insect.  .  .  .  Then  at  last 
they  are  suffered  to  enter  into  the  rank  of  human  be- 
ings once  more."  After  still  further  probations  in 
various  grades  of  human  life,  the  soul  will  at  length 
come  to  inhabit  a  child  of  Israel.  If  in  this  state  it 
should  fall  again,  it  is  lost  etemall}^. 

How  far  these  and  such  like  descriptions  were  reallv 
believed,  how  far  they  were  conscious  fable,  is  difficult 
to  determine.  That  there  was  a  fairly  widespread  be- 
lief in  the  doctrine  of  pre-existence  in  some  form, 
seems  likely  enough. 

Christian  iiyea.— St.  Jerome  tells  us  that  metemp- 
sychosis was  a  secret  doctrine  of  certain  sectaries  in  his 
day,  but  it  was  too  evidently  opposed  to  the  CathoUc 
doctrine  of  Redemption  ever  to  obtain  a  settled  foot- 
ing. It  was  held,  however,  in  a  Platonic  form  by  tiie 
Gnostics,  and  was  so  taught  by  Origen  in  his  great 
work,  Utpl  dpxCav,  Bodi^  existence,  according  to 
Origen,  is  a  penal  and  unnatural  condition,  a  punish- 
ment for  sin  committed  in  a  previous  state  of  bliss,  the 
groesness  of  the  sin  beinj;  the  measure  of  the  fall. 
Another  effect  of  that  sm  is  inequality*  all  were 
created  equal.  He  speaks  only  os  ratioruu  creatures, 
vis.,  men  and  demons,  the  two  claenses  of  the  fallen. 
He  does  not  seem  to  have  considered  it  necessarv  to 
extend  his  theory  to  include  lower  forms  of  life.  Pun- 
ishment for  sin  done  in  the  body  is  not  vindictive  or 
eternal,  but  temporal  and  remedial.    Indeed,  Origen 's 


theory  excludes  both  eternal  punishment  and  eternal 
bliss;  for  the  soul  which  has  oeen  restored  at  last  to 
union  with  God  will  aj^ain  infallibly  decline  from  its 
hiffh  state  through  satiet^y  of  the  good,  and  be  again 
repeated  to  material  existence;  and  so  on  through 
endfess  cycles  of  apostasy,  banishment,  and  return  (see 
Obigen).    The  Manichseans  (q.  v.)  combine  metemp- 

5|rchosis  with  belief  in  eternal  punishment.  After 
eath,  the  sinner  is  thrust  into  the  place  of  punish- 
ment till  partially  cleansed.  He  is  then  reclaimed  to 
the  light  and  given  another  trial  in  this  world.  If 
after  ten  such  experiments  he  is  still  unfit  for  bliss 
he  is  condemned  forever.  The  Manichecan  system 
of  metempe^chosis  was  extremely  consistent  and 
thorough-going;  St.  Augustine  in  his  ''De  Moribus 
Manicmeorum  ridicules  the  absurd  observances  to 
which  it  gave  rise.  For  traces  of  the  doctrine  in  the 
Middle  Ages  see  articles  on  the  Albigensians  and  the 
CatharL  These  sects  inherited  many  of  the  cardinal 
doctrines  of  Manichffianism,  and  may  be  considered,  in 
fact,  as  Neo-Manichffians. 

Advocates  of  metempsychosb  have  not  been  want- 
ing in  modem  timesJbut  there  is  none  who  speaks  wiUi 
much  conviction.  The  greatest  name  is  Lessing,  and 
his  critical  mind  seems  to  have  been  chiefly  attracted 
to  the  doctrine  by  its  illustrious  history,  the  neglect 
into  which  it  had  fallen,  and  the  inconclusiveness  of 
the  arguments  used  against  it.  It  was  also  maintain^ 
by  Fourier  in  IVance  and  Soame  Jenyns  in  England, 
libibnits  and  others  have  maintained  that  all  souls 
were  created  from  the  be^nning  of  the  world;  but  this 
does  not  involve  migrations. 

Savage  Races, — It  remains  to  touch  very  briefly  on 
the  abundant  data  furnished  by  modem  anthropo- 
logical research.  Belief  in  transmigration  has  been 
found,  as  stated  above,  in  every  part  of  the  globe  and 
at  every  stage  of  culture.  It  must  have  been  almost 
universal  at  one  time  among  the  tribes  of  North  Amer- 
ica, and  it  has  been  found  also  in  Mexico,  Brazil,  and 
other  parts  of  the  American  continent;  likewise  among 
the  aborigines  of  Australia  and  New  Zealand,  in  the 
Sandwich  Islands  and  many  parts  of  Africa,  it  often 
takes  the  form  of  a  belief  in  the  return  of  long-departed 
ancestors,  and  ^us  provides  a  simple  explanation  of 
the  strange  facts  of  heredity.  On  tne  birth  of  a  child 
the  parents  eagerly  examine  it  for  traces  of  its  iden- 
tity, which,  when  oiscovered,  will  determine  the  name 
of  the  chila  and  its  place  in  their  affections.  Some- 
times ^e  mother  is  informed  beforehand  in  a  dream 
which  ancestor  of  the  house  is  about  to  be  bom  of  her. 
The  belief  in  the  soul  as  an  independent  reality  ia 
common  among  savage  races.  The  departed  soul  was 
thought  to  hover  roimd  the  place  of  burial  at  least  for 
a  time  after  death.  Hence,  e.  g.,  amon^  the  Algon- 
quins,  if  a  speedv  return  was  de»red .  as  m  the  case  of 
httle  children,  tne  body  was  buried  by  the  wa3raide 
that  it  might  find  a  mother  in  some  of  the  passers-by. 
A  curious  Ireak  of  superstition  is  the  belief  of  manv  of 
the  dark  races,  e.  g.,  in  Australia,  that  their  fair- 
skinned  brethren  from  Europe  are  re-incarnations  of 
people  of  their  own  race.  Among  the  uneducated 
clacaes  of  India,  as  Sir  A.  Lyall  tells  us,  the  notion  that 
witches  and  sorcerers,  living  or  dead,  have  the  power 
of  possessing  the  homes  of  animals  still  prevails.  A 
sioular  idea  prompted  the  Sandwich  Islanclers  to  throw 
the  bodies  of  their  dead  to  the  sharks  in  the  hope  of 
thus  rendering  them  less  hostile  to  mankind. 

In  the  face  of  a  belief  at  first  sight  so  far-fetched  and 
yet  at  Uie  same  time  so  widely  cuffused,  we  are  led  to 
anticipate  some  great  general  causes  which  have 
worked  together  to  produce  it.  A  few  such  causes  may 
be  mentioned:  (1)  The  practically  universal  convic- 
tion that  the  soul  is  a  real  entity  distinct  from  the 
body  and  that  it  survives  death;  (2)  connected  witk 
this,  there  is  the  imperative  moral  demand  for  an 
equitable  future  retrioution  of  rewards  and  poniab- 
ments  in  accordance  with  good  or  ill  conduirt  here 


TIm doebrine  of  transmigntion satisfiefl  in aome degree  knonn  as  the  "United  Societies".    They  bear  an 

both  theoe  TirtuaUv-  instinctive  (aitha.    (3)  As  men-  almost  exclusively  practical  charactfir,  and  reouire 

tfoDed  above,  it  oneta  a  plausible  explanation  of  the  no  doctrinal   test  of  the   candidates.    Methodism, 

phenomena  of  ha«di^.    (4)  It  abo  provides  an  ez-  however,  developed  its  own  theological  Bj'Bt«m  aa 

planaUonofsomefeatureaoftheinfra-iationalcreation  expressed  in  two  principal  standards  of  orthodoxy. 


whleh  seems  to  ape  in  so  many  points  the  good  and  The  first  is  the  "Twenty-five  Articles"  of  leli^n. 
evil  qualities  of  human  nature.  It  appears  a  natural  They  are  an  abridgment  and  adaptation  of  the  Thirty- 
aeoountof  such  phenomena  to  say  that  these  creatures    nine  Articles  of  the  Church  of  England,  and  form  the 


in  fact,  nothing  else  than  embodiments  of  the  only  doctrinal  standard  strictW  bmding  on  American 
numan  characters  which  they  typify.  The  world  thus  Methodists.  Twenty-tour  of  these  srticles  wero 
seems  to  become,  through  and  through,  moral  and  prepared  by  John  Wesley  for  the  Church  in  America 
human.    Indeed,  when  ^e  belief  in  a  personal  Provi-    and  adopted  at  the  Conference  of  Baltimore  in  1784. 

J 1 r — I,- !.__.  .__Li 1 f__^     The  article  which  recog~ ' —  " '■-'■  —  >  ■- j > 

of  the  United  States  (J 
liie  second  standard  U 
published    i 

Testament".  These  writing  were  imposed  by  him 
on  the  British  Methodists  in  his  "  Deed  of  Declaration ' ' 
and  accepted  by  the  "Le^l  Hundrtd".  TheAmer- 
ican  Church,  while  not  stnctly  bound  to  them,  highly 
esteems  and  extensively  uses  them.  More  funda- 
mental for  all  Methodists  than  these  standards  are 
the  inspired  Scriptures,  which  are  declared  by  them 
to  be  the  sole  ana  sufficient  rule  of  belief  and  practice. 
The  dogmas  of  the  Trinity  and  the  Divinity  of  Jesus 

, ,  Sir  Thomas,  bught,  confessor  of  the    Christ  are  upheld.    The  universality  of  oripnal  sin 

Faitb,  d.  in  York  Castle,  1S73,  He  was  eldest  son  of  and  the  consequent  partial  deterioration  of  human 
Thomas  Metham,  of  Metham,  Yorkshire,  and  Grace,  nature  find  their  efficacious  remedy  in  the  universal 
daught«r(rfThomasFudsey,<nBarfDrd,and wastwice  distribution  of  grace.  Man's  free  eo-operation  with 
married;  first,  to  Dorothy,  daughter  of  George,  Lord  this  Divine  ^t  is  necessary  for  eternal  salvation, 
Darey  and  Meinill,  and  then  to  Edith,  daughter  of  which  is  offered  to  all,  but  may  be  freely  rejected. 
Nicholas  Palmes  <A  Nabum.  He  was  dubbed  a  There  is  no  room  in  Methodism  for  the  rigorous  doc- 
koigbt  of  iba  carpet,  2  Oct.,  1553,  the  day  after  Queen  trine  of  predestination  as  understood  by  Calvinism. 
Mary's  ooronation.  Throng  his  second  son  by  his  While  the  doctrine  of  justification  by  faith  alone  h 
first  wife,  George,  he  was  grandfather  of  Father  tau^t,  the  performance  of  good  works  enjoined  by 
liiomas  Metham,  S.J.,  one  ra  the  Dilati.  By  16  God  is  commended,  but  the  doctrine  of  works  ot 
August,  1505,  he  and  his  second  wife  bad  been  sent  to     supererogation  is  condemned. 

ga«  "for  contempt  of  Her  Majesty's  ordinances  con-  Only  two  sacraments  are  admitte4:  Baptism  and 
oeming  the  adnunistration  of  divme  service  and  the  the  Lord's  Supper.  Baptism  does  not  produce  sancti- 
BBctanients".  On  6  Feb.  1589-70  an  unkjown  cor-  fying  grace  in  the  soul,  but  strenKthens  its  faith,  and 
rerowident  writea  to  Sir  William  Cecil  from  York —  is  ^e  sign  of  a  regeneration  which  has  already  taken 
"We  have  tiere  Sir  Thomas  Metham,  a  most  wilful  place  in  the  recipient.  Its  administration  to  infants  is 
papist,  who  utterly  refuses  to  come  to  service,  receive  commanded  because  they  are  already  members  of  the 
thcCommunionorreadanybooksexoeptapprovedby  Kingdom  of  God.  The  Eucharist  is  a  memorial  of 
the  Church  of  Rome,  or  to  be  conferred  with  at  all.  the  Passion  and  Death  of  Jesus  Christ,  who  is  not 
He  refuses  to  be  tried  before  the  Commissioners  for  really  present  under  the  species  of  bread  and  wine, 
causes  ecclesiastical;  he  uses  the  corrupt  Louvaine  but  is  received  in  a  spiritual  manner  by  believers, 
books,  and  mnintjiria  at  Louvaine  two  of  his  sons,  The  sacrament  is  admrnistered  under  both  kinds  to 
with  whom  he  corresponds.  It  is  four  years  since  he  the  laity.  The  "witness  of  the  Spirit"  to  the  soul 
and  Dame  Edith,  his  wife,  were  first  committed  to  of theindividualbelieverand theconsequentassurance 
ward,  sinoe  which  he  has  aaily  grown  more  wealthy  of  salvation  are  distinctive  doctrines  of  Methodism. 
and  wilful,  and  now  seems  utterly  incorrigible.  He  This  assurance  is  a  certaintyof  present  pardon,  not  of 
doea  much  hurt  here,  and  is  reverenced  by  the  papists  final  perseveiance.  It  is  experienced  independently  of 
aa  a  pillar  of  their  faith.  I  caused  him  to  be  commit-  the  sacraments  through  the  immediate  testimony  of 
ted  to  the  Castle,  where  he  remams  and  does  harm,  yet  the  Holy  Spirit,  and  does  not  preclude  the  passibility 
wouMharedonemoreif  he  had  lived  at  large.  If  you  of  future  transgressions.  Transgressions  of  an  involun- 
would  be  a  means  of  his  removal,  you  would  take  taiycharacteraroalsocompatiblowithanothercharac- 
away  a  great  occasion  of  evil  in  these  parts."  In  1587  tenstic  doctrine  of  Methodism,  that  of  perfection  or 
lAdy  Hetham  was  still  a  recusant.  complete  sanctifi cation.     The   Christian,  it  is  main- 

SXFf!:'^?f;^^.''S'*"  'i^  ^.'^ 'ASrii^V"*i^  ?•■•     tamed,  may  m  this  life  reach  a  state  of  holiness  which 

!SSi:'Sj..''f^.^SS-?Ti;SS.i^'?iin'S.&  «du<i«,.J  vd»„t.rr  o».„<,  .B.ta,t  a«i,  but  nm 

piiinMr  printed,  187B),  2S3;   BrmypB.  ilrmoriaU  (Oiford,  admits  of  growth  in  grace.      It  is  therefore  a  state  of 

18K),  ni,  U.  181;  Iimi,  Anub  (Oxlord.  ISMJ^II,  ii.  M7:  perfectibility  rather  than  of  Stationary  perfection.  The 

^S^-f^^R.X).i^        ^^'^-        ■  """^^  Invocation  of  saints  and  the  venerati^  of  reliM  and 

John  B.  WAiNXwaiaHT.  imagesarerejected.     While  the  existence  of  purgatory 

is  denied  in  the  Twenty-five  Articles  (Art.  XIV),  an  In- 

Mathodism,  a   religious   movement   which   was  termediat«  stateof  purification,  for  persons  who  never 

originated  in  1739  by  John  Weslejr  in  the  AngUcan  heardofChrist.isadmittedto-daybysomeMethodists. 

CSiuroh,  and  subaecjuently  gave  rise  to  numerous  In  its  work  of  conversion  Methodism  is  aggressive 

•epaiata  denominations.  and  largely  appeals  to  religious  sentiment ;  camp-meet- 

I.  DocTRWAi.  Poamoff  and  PKcnLiARiriES.— The  ings  and  revivals  are  important  forms  of  evangeliza- 

fact  that  John  Wesley  and  Methodism  considered  re-  tion,  at  least  in  America.    Ansong  the  practices  which 

li^n  primarily  as  practical,  not  dosmatic,  probably  Wesley  imposed  upon  his  followers  were  the  strict  ob- 

acoounts  for  the  absence  of  any  formal  Methodist  servance  of  the  Lord's  Day,  the  use  of  few  words  in 

creed.    The  "General  Rules",  issued  by  John  and  buying  and  selling,  and  abstinence  from  all  intoxi- 

Charlca  Wcaley  on  1  Maj^,  1743,  stated  the  conditions  catine  drinks,  from  all  purely  worldly  amusements, 

of  admission  into  ti>e  societies  or^niied  by  them  and  and  frora  costly  appareL    Tne  churw  servicewhich 


BBTHODXSM 


238 


IBTHODISM 


he  prepared  for  them  was  an  abridgment  and  modifica- 
tion of  the  Book  of  Common  Prayer,  but  it  never  came 
into  imiversal  use,  sentiment  among  Methodists  being 
rather  unfavourable  to  any  set  form  of  liturgy.  In 
America  the  ministry  is  divided  into  two  orders; the 
deacons  and  the  elders  or  presbvters ;  in  Great  Britain 
and  her  colonies  only  one  oraer  exists,  the  elders. 
Ihe  name  of  bishop  used  in  the  episcopal  bodies  is  a 
title  of  office,  not  of  order;  it  expresses  superiority  to 
elders  not  in  ordination,  but  in  the  exercise  of  admmis- 
trative  functions.  No  Methodist  denomination  rec- 
ognizes a  difference  of  degree  between  episcopal  and 
presbyterial  ordination.  A  characteristic  institution 
of  Methodism  are  the  love-feasts  which  recall  the  agape 
of  Christian  antiquity.  In  these  gatherings  of  be- 
lievers bread  and  water  are  handed  round  in  token  of 
brotiierly  imion,  and  the  time  is  devoted  to  singing 
and  tile  relating  of  religious  experiences. 

II.  Organization. — Admission  to  full  member- 
ship in  the  Methodist  bodies  was  until  recently  usually 
granted  only  after  the  successful  termination  of  a  six 
months'  probationary  period.  The  Methodist  Epis- 
copal Church,  South,  has  completely  done  away  with 
this  sjnstem.  Both  probationers  and  full  members 
are  divided  into  small  bands  known  as  ''classes". 
These  hold  weeklymeetings  under  the  direction  of  the 
"  class-leader ' '.  They  secure  for  each  member  individ- 
ual spiritual  care  and  facilitate  the  collection  of 
church  fimds.  The  financial  contributions  taken  up 
by  the  class-leader  are  remitted  to  the  "stewards"  of 
the  ''society",  which  is  the  next  administrative  unit. 
The  "society''  corresponds  to  the  parish  or  local 
church  in  other  denominations.  The  appropriate- 
ness of  the  term  will  readily  appear^  u  it  be  re- 
membered that  Methodism  was  origmally  a  re- 
vival movement,  and  not  a  distinct  denomination. 
Several  societies  (or  at  times  only  one)  form  a  "  cir- 
cuit ' '.  Among  the  officially  recognized  officers  of  this 
twofold  division  are:  (1)  uie  "exhorters",  who  are 
commissioned  to  hold  meetings  for  exhortation  and 
prayer;  (2)  the  "local  preachers",  la^en  who,  with- 
out renouncing  their  secular  avocation,  are  licensed 
to  preach;  (3)  the  "itinerant  preachers  ,  who  devote 
themselves  exclusively  to  the  ministry.  At  the  head 
of  the  circuit  is  the  superintendent.  In  some  Ameri- 
can Methodist  branches  the  "  circuit",  in  the  sense  de- 
scribed, does  not  exist .  But  they  maintain  the  division 
into  "districts",  and  the  authority  over  each  of  these 
is  vested  in  a  "presiding  elder"  or  "district  superin- 
tendent". In  the  Meuiodist  Episcopal  Church  his 
appointment  is  limited  to  a  period  not  exceeding  six 
years,  and  is  in  the  hands  of  the  bishop.  The  latter  is 
the  only  church  official  who  is  named  for  life.  The 
permanent  character  of  his  position  is  the  more 
remarkable  from  the  fact  that  "itinerancy"  has 
from  the  very  b^inning  been  a  distinctive  feature 
of  Methodism.  This  peculiarity  denotes  the  mis- 
sionary character  of  the  Wesleyan  movement,  and 
calls  for  the  frequent  transfer  of  the  ministers  from 
one  charge  to  another  by  the  bishop  or  the  stationing 
committee.  In  the  English  Wesleyan  Church  minis- 
ters cannot  be  continued  for  more  than  three  years  in 
the  same  charge.  In  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church 
the  pastoral  term,  originally  for  one  year  in  the  same 
place,  was  successively  extended  to  two  years  (1804), 
three  years  (1864),  and  five  years  (1888).  In  1900 
all  limit  was  removed. 

The  administrative  authority  is  mainly  exercised 
by  a  system  of  assemblies,  called  meetings  or  confer- 
ences. Among  Engli^  Methodists  they  are:  (1)  "the 
auarteriy  meeting  of  the  circuit",  composed  of  all 
the  ministers,  local  preachers,  class-leaders,  stewards, 
Sunday-school  superintendents  of  the  circuit;  (2)  "the 
district  meeting  "j  consisting  of  all  the  ministers  of 
the  subordinate  cm  uits,  some  lay  delegates^  and,  for 
financial  matters,  tl.e  stewards  and  such  officials;  (3) 
the  "Annual  Conference",  which  in   1784  legalljr 


succeeded  John  Wesley  in  the  direction  of  the  Metho- 
dist movement  and  was  originally  composed  of  one 
hundred  itinerant  preachers  (the  '^ Legal  Hundred"). 
At  present  it  includes  lay  dele^tes  and  meets  in  two 
sections :  (a)  the  "  pastoral  session  ",  which  settles  pas- 
toral and  disciplinary  questions,  and  from  which  lay- 
men are  excluded;  (b)  the  "representative  session", 
in  which  cler^  and  laity  discuss  financial  affairs  ana 
external  admmistrative  (questions.  In  the  American 
Methodist  Episcopal  bodies  the  administrative  system 
is  organized  as  follows:  (1)  the  "Quarterly  Confer- 
ence similar  in  composition  to  the  circuit-meeting. 
It  controls  the  affairs  of  every  individual  church,  and 
holds  its  deliberations  under  the  direction  of  the  "dis- 
trict superintendent"  or  his  representative;  (2)  the 
"  Annual  Conf eren  ce  ",  at  which  several "  districts ' '  are 
represented  by  their  itinerant  preachers  under  the 
presidency  of  the  bishop.  It  elects  preachers,  pro- 
nounces upon  candidates  for  ordination,  and  enioys 
disciplinaiT' power ;  (3)  the  "Quadrennial  General  Con- 
ference", endowed  with  the  highest  legislative  and 
judicial  authority  and  the  right  of  episcopal  elections. 
In  recent  years  the  holding  of  (Ecumenical  Methodist 
conferences  has  been  inaugurated.  They  are  repre- 
sentative assemblies  of  the  various  Methodist  denomi*^ 
nations,  but  have  no  legislative  authority.  The  first 
conference  of  this  type  convened  in  London  in  1881. 
the  second  met  in  Washington  in  1891,  and  the  thiitl 
again  in  London  in  1901.  Toronto,  Canada,  will  be 
the  meeting-place  of  the  fourth  conference  in  1911. 

III.  History. — (1)  In  the  Britisk  Ides. — ^The  names 
of  three  ordained  clergymen  of  the  An^ican  Church 
stand  out  prominently  in  the  early  history  of  the 
Methodist  movement:  John  Wesley,  its  author  and 
or^nizer,  Charles  Wesley,  his  brother,  the  hynm- 
writer,  and  Georee  Whiteneld,  the  eloquent  preacher 
and  revivalist.  John  and  Charles  Wesley  were  bom 
at  Epworth,  Lincolnshire,  the  former  on  17  Jime,  1703, 
and  the  latter  on  18  December,  1707  (O.  S.)-  In  1714 
John  entered  the  Charterhouse  School  in  London,  and 
in  1720  went  to  Oxford  to  continue  his  studies.  He 
was  ordained  to  the  diaconate  in  1725,  and  chosen 
fellow  of  Lincoln  College,  Oxford,  in  the  following 
year.  His  ordination  on  22  September,  1728,  was 
both  preceded  and  followed  by  a  period  of  min- 
isterial activity  in  his  father's  parish  at  Epworth. 
On  his  return  to  Oxford  (22  November,  1729)  he 
loined  the  little  band  of  students  organized  by  lus 
brother  Charles  for  the  purpose  of  studying  the  Scrip- 
tures, and  practising  their  religious  duties  with  greater 
fidelity.  John  became  the  le»ier  of  this  group  called 
in  derision  by  fellow-students  "the  holy  club  ,  "the 
Methodists".  It  is  to  this  that  Methodism  owes  its 
name,  but  not  its  existence.  When  in  1735  the  associ- 
ation disbanded,  John  and  Charles  Wesley  proceeded 
to  London  where  they  received  a  call  to  repair  as 
missionaries  to  the  Colony  of  Georgia.  They  sailed 
from  Gravesend  on  21  October.  1735,  and  on  5  Feb- 
ruary, 1736,  landed  at  Savannali.  The  deep  relinous 
impression  made  upon  John  by  some  Moravian  feOow- 
voyagers  and  a  meeting  with  their  bishop  (Spangen- 
berg)  in  Georgia  were  not  without  influence  on  Meth- 
odism. Returning  to  En^nd  in  1738,  whither  his 
brother  had  preceded  him,  he  openly  dedared  that  he 
who  had  tried  to  convert  others  was  himself  not  yet 
converted.  In  London  he  met  another  Moravian, 
Peter  Bdhler,  attended  the  meetings  of  the  Moravian 
Fetter  Lane  Society,  and  was  converted  (i.  e.,  obtained 
and  experienced  saving  faith)  on  24  May,  1738. 
He  then  proceeded  to  Hennhut  in  Saxony  to  make  a 
study  of  the  chief  settlement  of  the  Moravians. 

In  1739  Wesley  organized  the  first  Methodist 
Society,  laid  the  foundation  of  the  first  separate  place 
of  worship  at  Bristol,  and  also  opened  a  chapel  (Tlie 
Foundry)  in  London.  As  the  pulpits  of  the  Estab- 
lished Chureh  were  closed  against  the  Wesleys  and 
Whitefiekl,  the  latter  took  the  decisive  step  of  preach- 


ICETHODXSM                            239  BBTHODISM 

ing  in  the  open  air  in  the  colliery  district  of  Kingswood  persons  responsible  for  their  publication,  and  the  loss 
near  Bristol.  EUs  success  was  enormous,  and  the  of  at  least  100,000  members  to  the  Wesleyan  Method- 
Wesleys  almost  immediately  followed  his  example,  ist  Connexion.  Some  of  these  affiliated  with  minor 
At  Uie  very  inception  of  Uie  Methodist  movement  an  branches,  but  the  majoritv  was  lost  to  Methodism, 
important  doctrmal  difference  arose  between  White-  These  controversies  were  followed  by  a  period  of  more 
field  and  John  Wesley  regarding  predestination.  The  peaceful  evolution  extending  to  our  own  day.  The 
former  held  Calvinistic  views,  oelieving  in  limited  mcrease  in  the  number  of  theological  seminaries  among 
dection  and  salvation,  while  the  latter  emphasized  the  British  Methodists  has  emphasized  the  distinction 
doctrine  of  universal  redemption.  This  difference  in  between  clergy  and  laity  and  points  to  more  complete 
opinion  placed  a  permanent  characteristic  doctrinal  internal  organization.  A  fact  which  reveals  a  similar 
difference  between  Arminian  Methodism  and  the  Cal-  tendency  is  the  institution  of  deaconesses.  They  were 
viniBtic  Lady  Huntingdon  Connexion.  Whitefield  introduced  in  the  Wesleyan  Methodist  Church  in  1890. 
pve  his  support  to  the  latter  movement  which  owed  (2)  Methodism  in  the  United  States. — ^The  history 
its  name  to  the  protection  and  liberal  financial  as-  of  Methodism  in  the  United  States  does  not  date 
atstance  of  the  Countess  of  Huntingdon  (1707-91).  back  to  the  visit  of  John  and  Charles  Wesley  to  Geor- 
Althoug^  Wesley  always  intended  to  remain  within  gia,  but  begins  only  in  1766.  In  that  year  Philip 
the  Church  of  England,  circumstances  gradually  led  Embury,  a  local  preacher^  at  the  request  of  Mrs. 
him  to  give  his  evangislistic  movement  a  separate  Barbara  Heck,  delivered  his  first  sermon  in  his  own 
organization.  The  exclusion  of  his  followers  from  house  at  New  York.  They  had  both  oome  to  America 
the  sacraments  by  the  An^ican  clergy  in  1740  over-  in  1760  from  Ireland,  whither  their  Palatine  ancestors 
came  his  hesitation  to  administer  them  in  his  own  had  fled  from  the  devastating  wars  of  Louis  XIV. 
meeting-rooms.  The  increase  in  the  number  of  So-  Only  four  persons  were  present  at  the  first  sermon, 
cieties  led  the  following  year  to  the  institution  of  the  but  the  number  soon  increased,  especially  after  the 
lay  preachers,  who  became  an  important  factor  in  the  arrival  of  Captain  Thomas  Webb,  another  local 
success  of  tne  Methodist  propaganda,  llie  year  preacher.  The  latter  displayed  a  stirrinp  zeal,  and  in 
1742  saw  the  creation  of  the  "  class"  system,  and  two  1768  the  first  Methodist  chapel  in  America  was  dedi- 
years  later  the  first  annual  conference  was  held,  cated.  Almost  simultaneous  with  this  introduction 
Uesirousof  ensuring  the  perpetuation  of  his  work,  he  of  Methodism  into  New  York  was  its  planting  in 
legally  constituted  it  his  successor  in  1784.  By  a  Maryland.  Webb  introduced  it  in  Philadelphia,  and 
d^  of  declaration  filed  in  the  High  Court  of  Cban-  it  spread  to  NewJersey  and  Virginia.  In  1769  Wesley, 
eery,  he  vested  tibe  right  of  appointing  ministers  in  response  to  repeated  appeals  for  helpers,  sent  over 
and  preachers  in  the  conference  composed  of  one  two  preachers,  Joseph  Pumoor  and  Richard  Board- 
hundred  itinerant  preachers.  This  ^Legal  Hun-  man ;  others  followed,  among  them  Francis  Asbury 
dred"  enjoyed,  in  respect  to  the  conference,  the  (1771)  and  Thomas  Rankin  (1772).  The  first  con- 
power  of  filling  vacancies  and  of  expelling  unworthy  ference  convened  at  Philadelphia  in  1773,  recognized 
members.  On  the  refusal  of  the  Bishop  of  London  the  authority  of  John  Wesley,  and  prohibited  tne  ad- 
to  ordain  two  ministers  and  a  superintendent  for  ministration  of  the  sacraments  by  Methodist  preach- 
America,  Wesley^  convinced  that  bishop  and  presbyter  ers.  The  total  membership  reported  was  lloO.  An 
enjoyed  equal  rights  in  the  matter,  performed  the  increase  was  recorded  in  the  two  succeeding  con- 
ordination  himseu  (1784).  ferences,  also  held  at  Philadelphia,  in  1774  and  1775 

Important  problems  calling  for  solution  arose  im-  respectivelv.  But  the  Revolution  impeded  the  pro- 
mediately  after  Wesley's  death.  In  the  first  place  the  gress  of  Methodism.  Owing  to  the  nationality  of 
want  of  his  personal  direction  had  to  be  supplied,  mostofitspreachersand  to  the  publication  of  Wesley's 
This  was  effected  in  1791  b^  the  division  of  the  coun-  pamphlet  against  the  independence  of  the  colonies,  it 
try  into  districts  and  the  institution  of  the  district  was  looked  upon  as  an  English  product  and  treated 
committees  with  full  disciplinary  and  administrative  accordingly.  When  peace  was  restored,  the  need  of  a 
power  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  conference.  As  the  separate  church  organization  made  itself  felt.  Wesley 
administration  of  the  sacraments  by  Methodist  cler-  now  heeded  Asbury's  appeal  for  an  independent 
^men  had  not  yet  become  the  universal  rule,  the  ecclesiastical  government  and  the  administration  of 
^urdies  that  did  not  enjoy  this  privilege  insisted  upon  the  sacramente  by  Methodist  ministers.  In  1784  he 
its  concession.  The  question  was  permanently  settled  ordained  the  preachers  Whatooat  and  Vasey  as  elders, 
by  the  "  Plan  of  Pacification ' '  in  1795.  It  granted  the  and  Dr.  Thomas  Coke  as  superintendent  for  America, 
nght  of  administering  the  sacraments  to  all  churches  Coke  arrived  in  New  York  on  3  November,  1784,  and 
in  which  the  majority  of  the  trustees,  stewards,  and  that  same  year  what  has  become  known  as  the  Christ- 
leaders  pronounoed  in  favour  of  such  practice.  The  mas  conference  was  convened  at  Baltimore.  From 
insistent  demand  of  Alexander  Kilham  (1762-98)  it  dates  the  organization  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal 
sikI  his  followers  for  more  extensive  rights  for  the  Church.  Wesley's  plans  and  instructions  were  laid 
laity  received  a  temporazy  and  partly  favourable  an-  before  this  assemblv,  and  his  articles  of  faith  and  his 
swer  at  the  important  conference  of  Leeds  in  1797.  liturgy  adopted.  As  Asbury  refused  to  be  ordained 
Lay  representation  in  the  conference  was,  however,  without  previous  election  he  was  unanimously  chosen 
emphatically  refused  and  Kilham  seceded.  Since  1875  superintendent,  a  title  for  which,  against  Wesl^'s 
thQr  have  been  admitted  as  delegates.  will,  that  of  bishop  was  substituted  in  1788.    Ine 

The  spread  of  liberal  opinions  was  also  at  the  bot-  rapid  increase  of  tne  denomination  about  this  time 

tom  of  several  controversies,  which  were  intensified  is  mdicated  by  the  membership  of  66,000  reported  to 

by  the  dissatisfaction  of  some  members  with  the  pre-  the  conference  of  1792.    The  growth  of  the  Church 

ponderating  influence  of  Dr.  Jabez  Bunting  (1779-  continued  with  the  increase  in  population;  but  ques- 

1858)  in  the  denomination.    The  introduction  of  an  tions  of  expediency,  race,  ana  government  caused 

organ  in  Brunswick  Chapel  at  Leeds  (1828)  and  the  secessions.    The  slavezy  agitation  especiaUy  resulted 

foundation  of  a  theological  school  for  the  formation  in  momentous  consequences  for  the  denomination, 

of  young  preadiers   (1834)  were  merely  occasions  It  began  at  a  verv  early  date,  but  reached  a  crisis  only 

^di  brought  to  a  head  the  growing  discontent  with  towards  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth  centiiry.    At 

Buntinp  and  the  central  authority.    The  oontrover-  the  general  conference  held  in  New  York  in  1844, 

fies  which  resulted  in  these  two  cases  were  of  but  minor  Bishop  J.  0.  Andrew  was  suspended  from  the  exer- 

ii&portance,  when  compared  with  the  agitation  of  the  dse  of  his  ofl&oe  owing  to  his  owner^p  of  slaves, 

years  1849-56.    This  period  of  strife  witnessed  the  This  decision  met  with  the  uncompromising  opposi- 

circulation  of  the  so-called  "Fly-Sheets",  directed  tion  of  the  Southern  delegates^ut  was  just  as standily 

gainst  Bunting's  personal  rule,  uie  expulsion  of  the  upheld  by  its  supporters.    The  withdrawal  of  th« 


BCETBODIfiM 


240 


METHODISM 


slave-holding  states  from  the  general  body  now  ap- 
peared unavoidable,  and  a  "Plan  of  Separation"  was 
elaborated  and  accepted.  The  Southern  delegates 
held  a  convention  at  Louisville,  Kentucky,  in  1845, 
at  which  the  "Methodist  Episcopal  Church,  South" 
was  formed.  The  new  ormnization,  after  a  period 
of  progress,  suffered  heavuy  durine  the  Civil  War. 
Since  then  the  relations  between  the  Northern  and 
Southern  branches  of  Episcopal  Methodism  have 
assumed  a  very  friendly  character.  There  is  a  large; 
measure  of  co-operation  particularly  in  the  forei^ 
mission  field.  A  joint  commission  on  federation  is  m 
existence  and  in  May,  1910,  it  recommended  the 
creation  of  a  federal  council  (i.  e.,  a  joint  court  of 
last  resort)  to  the  general  conference  of  the  Meth- 
odist Episcopal  Church,  South. 

(3)  Methodism  in  Other  Countries. — (a)  American. — 
The  first  apostle  of  Methodism  in  Newfoundland  was 
lAwrence  Cou^lan,  who  began  his  work  there  in  1765. 
It  was  only  in  1785,  however,  that  the  country  received  a 
regular  preacher.  The  evangelization  of  Nova  Scotia, 
wnere  the  first  Methodists  settled  in  1771,  was  begun 
later  (1781),  but  was  carried  on  more  systematically. 
In  the  year  1786  a  provincial  conference  was  held 
at  Halifax.  In  spite  of  their  early  relations  with 
American  Methodism,  Newfoundland  and  the  eastern 
provinces  of  Canada  were  after  1799  supplied  with 
preachers  from  England,  and  came  under  English 
jurisdiction.  In  1855  they  were  constituted  a  sepa- 
rate conference,  the  Wesleyan  Methodist  Conference 
of  Eastern  British  America.  The  Provinces  of  On- 
tario and  Quebec  received  Methodism  at  an  early 
date  from  tne  United  States.  Philip  Embury  and 
Barbara  Heck  moved  to  Montreal  in'1774,  and  Wil- 
liam Losee  was  in  1790  appointed  preacher  to  these 
provinces  by  the  New  York  Conference.  The  War 
of  1812-4  interrupted  the  work  undertaken  by  the 
Methodist  Episcopal  Church  in  this  section.  The 
settlement  of  nmnerous  English  Methodists  in  these 
provinces  after  the  restoration  of  peace  brou^t 
about  difficulties  respecting  allegiance  and  jurisdic- 
tion between  the  English  and  American  branches. 
The  result  was  that  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church 
organized  its  congregations  into  a  separate  conference 
in  1824,  and  two  years  later  granted  them  complete 
independence.  Immigration  also  brought  members 
of  the  minor  Methodist  bodies  to  Canada:  the  Wes- 
tern New  Connexion,  the  Bible  Christians,  and  the 
Primitive  Methodists.  But  in  1874  the  Wesle^ran 
Methodist  Church  and  the  Wesleyan  New  Connexion 
combined.  The  other  separate  bodies  joined  the 
union  a  little  later  (1883-4),  thus  forming  the  "Meth- 
odist Church  of  Canada",  which  includes  all  the  white 
congre^tions  of  the  Dominion.  The  ''British  Meth- 
odist Episcopal  Church'',  which  still  maintains  a 
separate  existence,  has  only  coloured  membership. 
It  was  formerly  a  part  of  the  African  Methodist  Epis- 
copal C!hurch,  ana  gained  complete  independence  in 
1864.  Bermuda,  where  GM)rge  Whitefield  preached 
in  1748  and  J.  Stephenson  appeared  as  first  regular 

Breacher  in  1799,  forms  at  present  a  district  of  the 
[ethodist  Church  of  Canada.  South  America  was 
entered  in  1835,  when  the  Rev.  F.  E.  Pitts  visited  Bio 
de  Janeiro,  Buenos  Ayres,  and  other  places,  and  organ- 
ised several  societies.  The  special  South  American 
Conference  was  established  in  1893,  and  supplemented 
in  1897  by  the  Western  South  American  Mission  Con- 
ference. Missionary  work  was  inaugurated  in  Mexico 
in  1873  by  William  Butler. 

(b)  European. — Methodism  was  introduced  into 
France  in  1790,  but  it  has  never  succeeded  in  getting 
a  strong  foothold  there.  In  1852  France  was  con- 
stituted a  separate  conference  affiliated  to  British 
Methodism.  In  1907  the  American  Church  organized 
a  mission  there.  From  France  Methodism  spread  to 
Italy  in  1852.  Some  years  later  (1861)  two  mission- 
aries. Green  and  Piggot,  were  sent  from  England  to 


Florence  and  founded  several  stations  in  Northern 
Italjr.  The  Methodist  Episcopal  Church  started  a 
missionary  enterprise  in  Italy  m  1871,  but  has  never 
attained  great  success.  The  nrst  Methodist  missionary 
to  Germanv  was  G.  MQller.  He  started  his  preaching 
in  1830  and  gained  some  adherents  mainly  in  WQrtem- 
bei^.  Methodist  missions  are  maintamed  also  in 
Switzerland,  Scandinavia,  Russia,  Bulgaria,  Spain, 
and  Portugal. 

(c)  Australasian,  Asiatic  and  African. — ^Methodism 
has  had  considerable  success  in  Australasia.  It  ap- 
pneared  at  an  early  date,  not  only  on  the  Australian  con- 
tinent but  also  in  some  of  the  ^uth  Sea  Islands.  The 
first  class  was  formed  in  Sydney  in  1812,  and  the  first 
missionary  in  the  country  was  S.  Lei^.  Methodism 
spread  to  Tasmania  in  1820,  to  Tonga  in  1822,  to  New' 
Zealand  in  1823,  and  in  1835  Cai^  and  Cross  be^n 
their  evaneelistic  work  in  the  Fiji  Islands.  In  1854 
Australian  Methodism  was  formed  mto  an  afiiliated  oon* 
ference  of  England,  and  in  1876  became  independent. 

The  foundation  of  the  first  Methodist  missions  in 
Asia  (1814)  was  due  to  the  initiative  of  Thomas  Coke. 
Embarking  on  30  December,  1813,  at  the  head  of  a 
band  of  six  missionaries,  he  died  on  the  voya^,  but 
the  imdertaking  succeeded.  The  representatives  of 
English  Methodism  were  Joined  in  1856  by  William 
Butler  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  (Church.  In  1847 
this  same  C^iurch  sent  J.  D.  Collins,  M.  C.  White,  and 
R.  S.  MacUy  to  China.  Stations  have  also  been 
founded  in  the  Philippine  Islands  and  in  Japan,  where 
the  Methodist  Church  of  Japan  was  organized  ml907; 

George  Warren  left  England  for  Sierra  Leone  in  1811. 
The  American  Cliurch  entered  the  field  in  1833.  South 
Africa,  where  Methodism  is  particularly  well  repre- 
sented, was  erected  in  1882  into  an  affiliated  oouer- 
ence  of  the  Endish  Wesleyan  dliurch. 

IV.  Other  Methodist  Bodies. — Secessions  from 
the  main  bodies  of  Methodism  followed  idmost  im- 
mediately upon  Wesley's  death.  The  following  orig- 
inated in  England: 

(1)  The  Methodist  New  Connexion  was  founded  at 
Leeilj  in  1797  by  Alexander  Kilham  (1762-98) ;  hence 
its  liicmbers  are  also  known  as  "Kilhamites".  It 
was  the  first  organized  secession  from  the  main  body 
of  English  Methodism,  and  started  its  separate  exist- 
ence with  6000  members.  Its  foundation  was  oc- 
casioned by  the  conference's  refusal  to  grant  laymen 
the  extensive  riehts  in  church  government  claimed 
for  them  by  Kilham.  The  sect  never  acquired  any 
considerable  importance. 

(2)  The  Primitive  Methodists,  who  met  with  greater 
success  than  the  New  (])onnexion,  were  organized  in 
1810.  Camp-meetinp;s  had  been  introduced  into 
England  from  America,  but  in  1807  the  conference 

Sronounced  against  tnem.  Two  local  preadbers, 
[u^  Bourne  and  William  Clowes,  disregarding  this 
decision,  publicly  advocated  the  holding  of  such 
meetings  and  were  expelled.  Th^  then  established 
this  new  body,  characterized  by  the  preponderating 
influence  it  grants  laymen  in  church  government,  the 
admission  ofwomen  to  the  pulpit,  andgreat  simplicity 
in  ecclesiastical  and  private  life.  According  to  the 
"  Methodist  Year-book  "  (1910)  it  has  219,343  membera. 
The  Irish  Primitive  Westet^an  Methodists  must  not 
be  confounded  with  the  "Primitive  Methodists"  just 
spoken  of.  The  former  were  founded  in  1816  by 
Adam  Averell,  and  in  1878  again  united  wiUi  the 
Wesle^m  Methodists. 

(3)  The  Bible  Christians,  also  called  Brwmiies  from 
the  name  of  their  founder  William  O 'Bryan,  were 
organized  as  a  separate  sect  in  Cornwall  in  1816. 
Like  the  Primitive  Methodists,  they  grant  extensive 
influence  in  churth  affairs  to  laymen  and  liber^  of 
preaching  to  women.  Although  they  spreetd  mm 
England  to  the  colonies,  their  aggregate  membership 
was  never  very  large. 

(4)  The  Wesleyan  Reform  Union  grew  out  of  the 


BBTHODISM 


241 


BBTHODISM 


Mat  Methodist  disruption  of  1850-2,  and  numbers 
but  8489  members. 

(5)  The  United  Methodist  Free  Churches  represent 
the  combination  of  the  Wesleyan  Association,  the 
Protestant  Methodists,  and  a  large  auota  of  the  seces- 
sion from  the  main  Methodist  boay  caused  bv  the 
unpopularity  of  Dr.  Bimting's  rule.  The  Wesle^^ 
Methodist  Association  was  organized  in  1836  bv  Dr. 
Samuel  Warren,  whose  opposition  to  the  foimoation 
of  a  theologicai  seminary  resulted  in  his  secession 
from  the  parent  body.  At  an  earlier  date  opposition 
to  the  installation  of  an  organ  in  a  church  at  Leeds 
ended  in  the  formation  of  the  ''Protestant  Metho- 
dists" (1828).  These  were  the  first  to  join  the  Wes- 
leyan Methodist  Association,  the  opponents  of  Bunt- 
ing following  in  1857. 

(6)  The  Welsh  CalvimsOc  Methodist  Church  is  Meth- 
odist almost  solely  in  name.  As  an  evangelistic 
movement  it  chronologically  preceded  Methodism 
dating  back  to  the  preaching  of  Howell  Harris  and 
Duiid  Rowlands  in  1735-6;  as  an  organization  it  was 
partly  established  in  1811  bjr  Thomas  Charles,  and 
completed  in  1864  by  the  union  of  the  Churches  of 
NorUi  and  South  Wales  and  the  holding  of  the  first 
General  Assembly.  Whitefield's  influence  on  Welsh 
Methodism  was  not  ofprimary  importance.  In  doc- 
trine the  church  is  Calvinistic  and  in  constitution 
largely  Presbyterian.  It  is  to-day  frequently  called 
the  "Presbyterian  Church  of  Wales". 

In  the  United  States,  beside  the  Methodist  Episco- 
pal Church,  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church,  South, 
and  the  Primitive  Methodists,  which  have  been 
spokoi  of  above,  the  following  denominations  exist: — 

(1)  The  Methodist  Protestant  Church  was  founded 
on  2  November,  1830,  at  Baltimore  by  members  of  the 
Methodist  Episcopal  Church  who  had  been  expelled 
or  had  freely  withdrawn  from  that  body.  The  separa- 
tion was  due  to  the  refusal  to  extend  the  governmental 
rights  of  lavmen.  The  Methodist  Protestant  Church 
has  no  bisnops.  It  divided  in  1858  on  the  slavery 
Question,  but  the  two  branches  reunited  in  187/ 
(number  of  conununicants,  188,122).  This  figure  is 
given  by  Dr.  Carroll  (Christian  Advocate,  27  January, 
New  York,  1910),  whose  statistics  we  shall  quote  for 
all  the  Methodist  bodies  of  the  United  States. 

(2)  The  Wesleyan  Methodist  Connexion  of  America 
was  organized  in  1843  at  Utica,  New  York,  by  advo- 
cates of  a  more  radical  attitude  against  slavery  in  the 
Methodist  Episcopal  Church.  It  has  neither  episco- 
pate nor  itinerancy,  and  debars  members  of  secret 
societies  (communicants,  19,485). 

(3)  The  Congregational  Methodist  Church  dates  back 
to  1852;  it  sprang  from  the  Methodist  Episcopal 
Church,  South,  and  is  Methodist  in  doctrine  and  con- 
gregational in  polity  (membership,  15,529). 

(4)  The  Free  Methodist  Church  was  organized  in 
1860  at  Pekin,  New  York,  as  a  protest  against  the 
alleged  abandonment  of  the  ideals  of  ancient  Metho- 
dism by  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Chiu-ch.  There  are  no 
bishops ;  members  of  secret  societies  are  excluded :  the 
use  of  tobacco  and  the  wearing  of  rich  apparel  are 
prohibited  (membership,  32,166). 

(5)  The  New  Congregational  Methodists  originated 
in  Georgia  in  1881  and  in  doctrine  and  organiza- 
tion closely  resemble  the  Congregational  Methodist 
Church  (membership,  1782). 

(6)  The  Independent  Methodists  maintain  no  central 
^vemment.  Each  congregation  among  tiiem,  en- 
joys supreme  control  over  its  affairs  (commimicants, 
1161). 

(7)  T%«  African  Methodist  Episcopal  Zion  Church, 
with  which  we  begin  the  treatment  of  the  foUowine 
exclusively  coloured  denominations,  mav  be  traced 
back  to  the  year  1796.  Some  coloured  Methodists  in 
New  York  organized  themselves  at  that  date  into  a 
separate  congregation  and  built  a  church  which  they 
called  "Zion".    They  remained  for  a  time  under  the 

X.— 16 


pastoral  supervision  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal 
Church,  but  in  1820  formed  an  independent  Church 
differing  but  little  from  the  parent  body  (conununi- 
cants, 545,681). 

(8)  The  Union  American  Methodist  Episcopal 
Church f  organized  in  1813  at  Wilmington,  Delaware, 
had  for  its  founder  the  coloured  preacher,  Peter 
Spencer  (membership,  18,500). 

(9)  The  African  Methodist  Episcopal  Church  has 
existed  as  an  independent  organization  since  1816. 
Its  foundation  was  due  to  a  desire  for  more  extensive 
privileges  and  greater  freedom  of  action  among  a 
number  of  coloured  Methodists  of  Philadelphia.  It 
does  not  differ  in  important  points  from  the  MeUiodist 
Episcopal  Church  (membership,  452,126). 

(10)  The  African  Union  Methodist  Protestant  Church 
also  dates  back  to  1816^  it  rejects  the  episcopacy, 
itinerancy,  and  a  paid  mmistry  (membership.  4000). 

(11)  The  Zion  Union  Apostolic  Church  was  rounded 
in  Virginia  in  1869.  In  its  organization  it  closely  re- 
sembles the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church  (communi- 
cants, 3059). 

(12)  The  Coloured  Methodist  Episcopal  Church  is 
merely  a  branch  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Chiurch, 
South,  organized  independently  in  1870  for  negroes 
(membership,  233,911). 

(13)  The  Congregational  Methodists,  Coloured,  differ 
only  in  race  from  the  Congregational  Methodists 
(communicants,  319). 

(14)  The  Evangelist  Missionary  Church  was  organ- 
ized in  1886  in  Ohio  by  memoers  of  the  Afncan 
Methodist  Episcopal  Zion  Church.  It  has  no  creed 
but  the  Bible,  ana  inclines  to  the  admission  of  only 
one  person  in  God,  that  of  Jesus  Christ. 

V.  Educational  and  Social  Activities. — ^The 
founders  of  Methodism  had  enjoyed  tlie  advantages 
of  a  university  training,  and  must  have  realized  tne 

Sriceless  value  of  education.  The  fact,  however,  that 
ohn  Wesley  laid  almost  exclusive  stress  on  the  practi- 
cal element  in  religion  tended  to  make  a  deep  and  ex- 
tensive knowledge  of  doctrinal  principles  seem  super- 
fluous. The  extraordinary  success  of  his  preaching 
which  urgently  demanded  ministera  for  the  ever- 
increasing  number  of  his  followers,  led  to  the  appoint- 
ment, in  the  earlv  history  of  Methodism,  of  preachera 
more  commendable  for  their  religious  zeal  than  re- 
markable for  their  theological  learning.  Indeed,  for 
a  comparatively  long  period,  the  opposition  of  Metho- 
odists  to  scho€)ls  of  tneology  was  pronounced.  The 
establishment  of  the  first  institution  of  the  kind  in 
1834  at  Haxton,  England,  caused  a  split  in  tlie  denom- 
ination. At  the  present  day,  however,  the  need  of 
theological  training  is  universally  recognized  and 
suppliSi  by  numerous  schools.  In  England  the  chief 
institutions  aro  located  at  Richmond,  Didsbuiy, 
Headineley,  and  Handsworth.  American  Methodists 
founded  their  first  theological  school  in  1841  at  New- 
bury, Vermont.  It  was  removed  to  Concord,  New 
Hampshire,  in  1847,  and  has  formed  since  1867  part 
of  Boston  University.  Numerous  other  foundations 
were  subsequently  added,  among  them  Garrett  Bibli- 
cal Irstitut^  (1854)  at  Evanston,  Illinois,  and  Drew 
Theological  Seminary  (1867)  at  Madison,  New  Jersey. 
Wldle  Metihodism  has  no  parochial  school  system,  its 
first  denominational  institution  of  learning  dates  back 
to  1740,  when  John  Wesley  took  over  a  school  at 
Kingswood.  It  was  not  until  the  beginning  of  the 
nineteenth  century,  however,  that  a  vigorous  educa- 
tional movement  set  in  to  continue  up  to  the  present 
day.  An  idea  of  the  efforts  made  in  this  direction  by 
Methodists  may  be  gained  by  a  reference  to  the  statis- 
tics published  m  the  ''Methodist  Yeai^Book"  (1010), 
pp.  108-13.  According  to  the  reports  there  given, 
the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church  alone  (the  other 
branches  also  support  their  schools)  maintains  197 
educational  institutions,  including  50  colleges  and 
universities,  47  classical  seminaries,  8  institutions  ex- 


BCBTHODIOS                           242  MSTHODn78 

dusively  for  women,  23  theolo^cal  institutions  (some  policy  of  the  Government  and  restore  the  Patriai«tb 
of  them  forming  part  of  the  imivendties  ab-ead^r  men-  Nicephorus.  But  Michael  only  increased  the  f  ezt;^ 
tioned),  63  foreign  mission  schools,  and  4  missionary  ness  of  the  persecution.  As  soon  as  Methodius  had 
institutes  and  Bible  training  schools.  An  educational  delivered  his  letter  and  exhorted  the  emperor  to  act 
project  which  appeals  for  support  and  svmpathy  to  all  according  to  it,  he  was  severely  scoursed  (with  70 
Branches  of  American  Methodism,  is  the  exclusively  stripes),  taken  to  the  island  Antigoni  in  the  Propontis, 
post-graduate  "American  University".  A  site  of  and  there  imprisoned  in  a  disused  tomb.  The  tomb 
ninety-two  acres  was  purchased  in  1890  in  the  suburbs  must  be  conceived  as  a  building  of  a  certain  size; 
of  Washington,  D.  C,  and  the  xmiversity  was  organ-  Methodius  lived  seven  years  in  it.  In  828  Michael  II, 
ized  the  following  year.  It  is  not  to  be  opened  in  any  not  long  before  his  death,  mitigated  the  persecution 
of  its  departments  until  its  endowment  ^*  be  not  less  and  proclaimed  a  general  amnesty.  Profitmg  by  this, 
than  $5,000,000  over  and  above  its  present  real  Methodius  came  out  of  his  prison  and  returned  to  Con- 
estate".  The  dissemination  of  reli^ous  literature  is  stantinople  almost  worn  out  by  his  privations.  His 
obtained  by  the  foundation  of  "Book  Concerns"  spirit  was  unbroken  and  he  took  up  tne  defence  of  tiie 
Oocated  at  New  York  and  Cincinnati  for  the  Metho-  holy  ima^  as  zealously  as  before, 
dist  Episcopal  Chiu*di;  at  Nashville.  Tennessee,  for  Michael  II  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Theophllus 
the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church  Soutn)  and  a  periodi-  (829-842),  who  caused  the  last  and  fiercest  persecu- 
oal  press,  for  the  publications  of  which  the  title  of  tion  of  image-worshippers.  Methodius  agam  with- 
" Advocates"  is  particularly  popular.  The  young  stood  the  emperor  to  his  face,  was  again  scoui^g^  and 
people  are  banded  toother  for  the  promotion  of  imprisoned  under  the  palace.  But  uie  same  ni^ht  he 
personal  piety  and  charitable  work  in  the  prosperous  escaped,  helped  bv  his  mends  in  the  city,  who  hid  him 
Epworth  League  founded  in  1889  at  Cleveland,  Ohio,  in  their  house  ana  bound  up  his  wounds.  For  this  the 
for  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church,  and  or^mizea  Government  confiscated  their  property.  But  seeing 
in  the  Methodist  Episco^Md  Church,  South,  in  1891.  that  Methodius  was  not  to  be  overcome  by  pimish- 
In  the  second  half  of  the  nineteenth  century,  the  de-  ment,  the  emperor  tried  to  convince  him  bv  axgument. 
nomination  extended  its  social  work  considerably  bv  The  result  of^  their  discussion  was  that  Methodius  to 
tlie  foundation  of  orphanages  and  homes  for  the  agea.  some  extent  persuaded  the  emperor.  At  any  rate 
Hospitals  were  introduced  in  1881  wiUi  the  inoorporan  towards  the  end  of  the  reign  the  persecution  was  miti- 
tion  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Hospital  at  Brooklvn.  gated.  Theophilus  died  in  842  and  at  once  the  whole 
VI.  General  Statistics. — ^According  to  the  "Metho-  situation  was  changed.  His  wife.  Theodora,  became 
dist  Year-book"  (New  York,  1910)  the  Wesleyan  regent  for  her  son  Michael  III  (the  Drunkard,  842- 
Methodists  have  520,868  church  members  (induaing  86/).    She  had  always  been  an  image-worahipper  in 

Probationers)  in  Great  Britain,  29,531  in  Ireland,  secret;  now  that  she  had  the  power  she  at  once  began  to 
43.467  in  their  foreign  missions,  and  117,146  in  South  restore  images,  set  free  the  confessors  in  prison  and 
Africa.  The  Australasian  Metnodist  Qiurch  has  a  bring  back  everything  to  the  conditions  of  the  Second 
membership  of  150,751,  and  the  Church  of  Canada  Nicene  Council  (787).  The  Patriarch  of  Constanti- 
one  of  333,692.  In  the  United  States  Methodism  (all  nople,  John  VII  (832-842),  was  an  Iconoclast  set  up 
branches)  niimbers,  according  to  Dr.  Carroll,  6,477,224  by  the  late  Government.  As  he  persisted  in  his  heresy 
communicants.  ^  these  3,159,913  belong  to  the  he  was  deposed  and  Methodius  was  made  patriarch  in 
MeUiodist  Episcopal  Church  and  1,780,778  to  the  his  place  (842-846).  Methodius  then  helped  the  em- 
Methodist  Episcopal  Church,  South.  press-regent  in  her  restoration.  He  summoned  a 
SmATw,  Creed*  of  Chnttendom                  1877).1.  a82-904;  synod  at  Constantinople  (842)  that  approved  of  John 

i?«%S  ^r  ^^S^j^f^r^^^'^TorlSliSl  i  ^I'B  deposition  and  'his  owii  succession.    It  h«l  no 

Smith,  HiH.  of  Wea£uanMeihodi9m(Jjondon,iS57-e2);  Car-  new  laws  to  make  about  unages.    The  decrees  of 

ROLL,  The  Reltgioua  Forree  oftkeU.a.ia  Amer.  Church  Hiai.  Nicsea  II  that  had  received  the  assent  of  the  pope  and 

frX<Ji^'!7(».?N?W  t^^iffjfJfjS^^S:.  the  whole  Church  as  those  of  mi  (EcumenicaT^uncU 

odxaU  in  the  Story  of  the  Churehe»  SertM  (New  York,  1903};  were  put  m  force  agam.     On  19  Feb.,  842,  the  images 

Albxandbr,  i7Mf.  o/(A«  itffltfA4>du(  fpia^^  were   brought   in   solemn   procession   back   to   the 

^Sr-.f  J?Si5^te.''('^5^^.S.'''iilS)*  '  85SSJSSS:  churches. >his  was  the  first  "Feast  of  Orthodory", 

Methodism  in  Canada  (London,  1903).  kept  agam  m  memory  of  that  event  on  the  first  Sun- 

N.  A.  Webeb.  day  ox  Lent  every  year  throughout  the  Byzantine 

«ir«4-ii««<i4n«    QATwpm     o^  i>irT>T*    «^««  if«a»/^,>wTra  Church.     Mcthodlus  thcn  procccded  to  dcposc  Icono- 

Sa?S^          '                       ^^           Mbthodiub,  ^j^^  y^^^^^  throughout  bs  patriarchateVreplacing 

SAINTS.  them  by  image-worsnippers.    In  doing  so  he  seems  to 

MethodioB  I.  Patriarch  of  Constantinople  (842-  have  acted  severely.    An  opposition  formed  itself 

846),  defender  of  images  during  the  second  Iconoclast  asainst  him  that  nearly  became  an  oiganised  schism, 

persecution,  b.  at  Syracuse,  towards  the  end  of  the  The  puitriarch  was  accused  of  rape;  but  the  woman  in 

eighth  century^;  d.  at  Constantinople,  14  June,  846.  question  admitted  on  examination  that  she  had  been 

The  son  of  a  nch  family,  he  came,  as  a  young  man,  to  bought  by  his  enemies. 

Constantinople  intendm^  to  obtain  a  place  at  Court.  (Ja  13  March,  842,  Methodius  brought  the  relics  of 
But  a  monk  persuaded  him  to  change  his  mind  and  he  his  predecessor  Nicephorus  (who  had  died  in  exile) 
entered  a  monastery.  Under  the  Emperor  Leo  V  (the  with  ereat  honour  to  Constantinople.  They  were  ex- 
Armenian,  813-820)  the  Iconoclast  persecution  broke  posed  for  a  time  in  the  church  of  the  Holv  Wisdom, 
out  for  the  second  time.  The  monies  were  nearly  all  then  buried  in  that  of  the  Apostles.  Methodius  was 
staunch  defenders  of  the  images;  Methodius  stood  by  succeeded  by  Ignatius,  under  whom  the  jgreat  schism 
his  order  and  distinguished  himself  by  his  opposition  to  of  Photius  broke  out.  Methodius  is  a  samt  to  Catho- 
the  Government.  In  815  the  Patriarch  Nicephorus  I  lies  and  Orthodox.  He  is  named  in  the  Roman  Mar- 
(806-815)  was  deposed  and  banished  for  his  resistance  tyroloey  (14  June),  on  which  day  the  Bysantine 
to  tiie  Iconoclast  laws;  in  his  place  Theodotus  I  (815-  Churcn  keeps  his  feast  together  with  that  of  the 
821)  was  intruded.  In  the  same  year  Methodius  went  Prophet  Eliseus.  He  is  acclaimed  with  the  other  pa- 
to  Rome,  apparently  sent  by  the  aeposed  patriarch,  to  triw^,  defenders  of  images,  in  the  service  of  the 
report  the  matter  to  the  pope  (Paschal  I.  817-824).  feast  of  Orthodoxy:  "To  Gennanus,  Tarasius,  Nioe- 
He  stayed  in  Rome  till  Leo  V  was  murderea  in  820  and  phorus  and  Methodius,  true  high  priests  of  God  and 
flucceeded  by  Michael  II  (820-829).  Hopins  for  bet-  defenders  and  teachers  of  Orthodoxy,  R.  Eternal 
ter  thines  from  the  new  emperor,  Metnodius  then  memory  (thrice)."  The  Uniate  Syrums  have  his 
went  back  to  Constantinople  beuing  a  letter  in  which  feast  on  the  same  day.  The  Orthodox  have  a  curious 
the  pope  tried  to  persuade  Michf^l  to  change  the  legend,  that  his  prayers  and  those  of  Theodora  saved 


METHODIUS  243  METHTMNA 

Theophilufl  out  of  heQ.    It  is  told  in  the  Synaxarion  treatise  attacking  the  Gnostic  view  of  the  origin  of 

for  the  feast  of  Orthodoxy.  evil  and  in  proof  of  the  freedom  of  the  human  will ;  (2) 

St.  Methodius  is  reputed  to  have  written  many  *' OnthBResurree^on'* (kyXao^Qvl^rtplr^dpaffrdaetn), 

works.     Of  these  only  a  few  sermons  and  letters  are  in  which  the  doctrine  that  the  same  body  that  man 

extant  (in  Migne,  P.  G.,  C,  1272-1325).    An  account  of  has  in  life  will  be  awakened  to  incorruptibilit}r  at  the 

the  martyrdom  of  Denis  the  Areopagite  by  him  is  in  resurrection  is  specially  put  forward  in  opposition  to 

Migne,  P.  G.»  IV,  66^-682,  two  sermons  on  St.  Nicho-  Origen.    While  large  portions  of  the  original  Greek 

las  in  N.  C.  Falconius,  "  S.  Nicolai  acta  primigenia"  text  of  both  these  writings  are  preserved,  we  have  only 

(Naples,    1751),  39-74.    For  other   framients  and  Slavonian  versions  of  the  four  following  shorter  trea- 

Bcholia,  see  Krumbacher,  "  Byzantinische  Litteratiur "  tises:  (3)  "  De  vita  *\  on  life  and  rational  action,  which 

(Munich,  2nd  ed.,  1897),  167.  exhorts  in  particular  to  contentedness  in  this  life  and 

AnonymoiuLt/eofMethadiiu'mPG.,C,pj4-l26l,l^^  to  the  hope  of  the  life  to  Come;  (4)  "De  dbis",  on  the 

2S:?5gRrL- ^SJ^-t^  discrimination  of  foods  (among.the  Jews),  anJ  on  the 

S.  Hippolyti  opera  (Hamburg,  1718).  pp.  89-96;  Cavbl,  Senp-  yoimg  COW,  which  IS  mentioned  m  Leviticus,  With  alle- 

tontmeocUM.  htMUnia  literana,  II  (l«ndon,  1688),  30;  Fabri-  gorical  expUnation  of  the  Old-Testament  food-legisla- 

273^274^**^  BU^ltoiAeca  Ora^  Vu  (Hamburg.  1790-1806).  ^ion and  the  led  COW  (Num.,  xix) ;  (6)  " De  lepra ^^ 

Adrian  Fortescue.  Leprosy,  to  Sistelius,  a  dialogue  between  EubuUus 

rMethodius)  and  Sistelius  on  the  mystic  sense  of  the 

Methodiiu  of  Olympus,  Saint,  bishop  and  ecclesi-  Old-Testament  references  to  lepere  (Lev.,  xiii^;    (6) 

astical  author,  date  of  birth  unknown;  d.  a  martyr,  "De  sanguisuga'*,  on  the  leech  in  Proverbs  (Prov., 

probably  in  311.    Concerning  the  life  of  this  first  xxx,  15  sq.)  and  on  the  text,  "the  heavens  show  forth 

scientific  opponent  of  Origen  very  few  reports  have  the  glory  of  God"  (Ps.  xviii,  2).    Of  other  writings, 

been  hajided  down;  and  even  these  short  accounts  no  longer  extant,  Jerome  mentions  (loc.  cit.)  a  volu- 

present  many  difficulties.    Eusebius  has  not  men-  minous  work  against  Porphyrins,  the  Neoplatonist 

tioned  him  in  his  "Church  Histonr",  probablv  be-  who  had  published  a  booK  against  Christianity;  a 

cause  he  opposed  various  theories  of  Origen.     We  are  treatise  on  the  "  Pvthonissa  "  directed  against  Ongen, 

indebted  to  St.  Jerome  for  the  earliest  accounts  of  him  commentaries  on  Genesis  and  the  Canticle  of  Cantides. 

(De  viris  illustribus,  Ixxxiii) .  According  to  him,  Metho-  By  other  later  authors  a  work  "  On  the  llartyrs  " ,  and 

dius  was  Bishop  of  Olympus  in  Lycia  and  afterwards  a  dialogue  "Xenon"  are  attributed  to  Methodius;  in 

E-shop  of  Tyre.  But  the  latter  statement  is  not  reliable;  the  latter  he  opposes  the  doctrine  of  Origen  on  the 

no  later  Greek  author  knows  anything  of  his  being  eternity  of  the  world.    New  editions  of  his  worics  are: 

Bishop  of  Tyre;  and  according  to  Eusebius  (Hist.  Ecd.,  P.  G.,  XVIII;  Jahn,  "S.  Methodii  opera  et  S.  Metho- 

VIII.  xiii),  Tynumio  was  Bishop  of  Tyre  during  the  dius  platonisans"  (Halle.  1865);  Bonwetsch,  "Metho- 

Diocietian  persecution  and  died  a  martyr;  after  the  dius  von  Olympus:  I,  Scnriften"  (Leipzig,  1891). 


Maximinus  Daja   (311).     Although    he    then   adds,  FKttjn,  SMmU  tmd  Bubm  in  den  SckHften  dea  Meihodiut  von 

"that  ^me  •«ert^'  tU  this  nuiy  have  happened  ^^!l^a^Ji^''tS^iM^^^'fX\^):S&''i^<r: 

under  DeciUS  and  Valerian  at  Chalets,  this  statement  Habnack.  Geachichte  der  aUehrita.  LiUratur,  I,  468  sqq.;  IlTil? 

(ut  alU  aMrmani).  adduced  even  by  him  as  uncer-  BQq..;  Barpbnhbwbr,  PatrologUf  tr.  Sbahan  (FraibuiR  and  St. 

tain,  is  not  to  be  accepted.    Various  attempts  have  JS!3i/^^*  ^^*^'  ^™*  IPatroloote,  I  iP'^«'fe^2>*>- 

been  made  to  clear  up  the  error  concerning  the  men-  J.  r.  i^jbsch. 

tion  of  Tyre  as  a  subsequent  bishopric  of  Methodius;  Methuflelah.    See  Mathubaia. 

it  is  possible  that  he  was  transported  to  Tyre  during  m»^i.««««.     *•*  i^  «     •    *u   :-i-.  j   *  t    u        ti. 

the  jSrsecution  and  died  there.  *^              ^             »  MethymMja  titular  see  mihe  isknd  of  Lesbos.   It 

MeUiodius  had  a  very  comprehensive  philosophical  ^^  once  the  second  city  of  the  island,  and  cnioyed 

l«-^4inn  RndwMRnimnoriknttheoloiilRnMwellA*  great  prosperity,  In  the  PelopoimMian  War  it  played 

hrisl 

(ginning  of  the  fourth  century,  r"!?"  "  •»r'»'it  """■"!J5'^'~  "«^"  ."*  •"  .«si8tau«o 

He  became  of  special  mpoSmce  in  the  history  if  **'.*''*',^^-   ^heMcient  poets  prawe  the  exoeUent 

theological  litemtore.  in  that  he  successfuUy  comlited  ^«  »/  w*^?SSli^^''  n  »•  o'h«  '  l^Vr'^ 

various  erroneous  views  of  the  great  Alexandrian,  ^//  '•  ^^'  ""^'u^t' ,"'  *',^j  ^^^1  \  ^^'  ^^h 

Origen     He  particuJarly  attacked^.. doctrine,  thai  5?^*i5S!f!!,rfr*i?fA*!5yJ!?f  ^^^^^^                   "^ 
man  s  body  at  the  resurrection 
as  he  had  m  life;  also  his  i '  ~ 

and  the  erroneous  notions  ..^.v....^.    ..^.w«..«.e»  ^      ^v        i            •*  j     -iu  -a         /ah  i-       ut\ 

he  leoognised  the  great  services  of  Origen  in  ecdesias-  •'X^en*''  <*nt«»y.  '"'^ted^t'i  R«™e  (Allatius,     De 

ticalSeSlo^.    Like  him,  he  is  strongly  influenced  by  P'P?*'!*^!?*'^  "°*r  '  ^^'PJ^  MO  it  is  mentioned 

PUto's  phi&ophy,  and  uses  to  a  gi4at  extent  tl^  *'y  ^,  "Ecth^'  of  pseudo-Epipl»mus  as  an  auto- 

atlegorit^  expfinktion  of  Scripture.    Of  his  numei-  cephaloia  archdiocese,  and  about  1084  was  nujde  a 

o^workB  only  <me  has  come  down  to  us  complete  in  a  metropolitan  see  «Hider  AJewus  I  Oomnenus.    It  has 

Greek  text,  vu.,  the  dialogue  on  virginity,  mder  the  J?*S  r  *T?  ^     "*       Orthodox  Chvffch,  thowh  for 

title:  "SyiiposiGm,  or  on  Virginity"  {ZvHiru,,^,^  Caches  it  is  now  a  mere  titular  archdiocese.  To-day 

iY>i<«)  in  P^.,  ivill,  27-220.    In  the  dialogue,  '*  be«»  t^e  name  of  Mohvo^and  with  the  places  de- 

ONnpooed  with  reference  to  PUto's  "Banquet"? h^  gS"±?*"P??jJ"V™'^"^l'°<Si^***''^'***''''*''5 

depirtsTfesUve  meal  of  ten  virgins  in  the  garden  of  !2'???u*?  ^^^*^f  Greeks,  9000  Mussulmans,  and 

Ai^te  (virtue),  at  whidi  each  of  the  participators  ex-  ff  Catholiw.    The  last  named  are  dependent  on  the 

tolsCaJristian  virginity  and  its  subUnJS^xcetlence.    It  2'<^**  9' 8™y™*-   ^^^^V}*^  ^-.^.^"^^f^^ 

condodes  with  a  hyiiL  <m  Christ  as  the  Bridegroom  of  **«*!'«'  "»***«  Tj'^y**  ^  ^°^?;  S'i^****  *'  *^' 

the  CJhurch.    Lar^r  fragments  are  preserved  of  sev-  wti^em  extremity  of  the  island  of  Mitylene,  nearly 

eial  other  writings  in  Greek;  we  know  of  other  works  V"?^^  miles  from  MeteUn  and  five  nawl  milM  from  the 

from  oM  versions  in  Slavonian,  though  some  are  ab-  Af^^ic  continent,  Mobyo  occupies  a  delightful  marine 

breviated  site  on  the  slope  of  a  hill  formed  of  basaltic  rocks. 

«<L    rn—s «.j. i_  iu«  t  »  J-  «             ttx  1*  QniBH,  Orian*  ChritL,  I,  Ml-44;    Oaus,  Serin  epito- 

ThefoUomncworicsarein  the  form  of  dialogue:  (1)  ponn^Ma;  Cvam,lMTwqm*iAii*:i  (P«rii  1872).  ^BT 

On  Free  Will'   {w*pl  toO  (i^rc(mw(«v),  an  important  8.  SaiaAyium, 


METROPHANES 


244 


METBOPOLITIN 


Metrophaaes  of  Smyrna,  leader  of  the  faithful 
lenatian  bishops  at  the  time  of  the  Photian  schism 
(§67).  Baronius  (Ami.  Eccl.,  ad  an.  843,  I)  savs  that 
his  mother  was  the  woman  who  was  bribed  to  orinf  a 
false  accusation  of  rape  against  the  Patriarch  Metho- 
dius I  (842-^46)  durm^  tne  Iconoclast  troubles.  If 
this  be  true  he  was  a  native  of  Constantinople.  In  857, 
when  Ignatius  was  deposed^  Metrophanes  was  already 
Metropolitan  of  Smyrna.  He  was  strongly  opposed  to 
Photius.  For  a  short  time  he  wavered,  as  Photius 
promised  not  to  attack  Ignatius'  rights,  but,  as  soon 
as  he  foxmd  how  little  the  intruder  kept  his  word,  he 
went  back  to  his  former  attitude,  from  which  nothing 
could  make  him  waver  again.  Metrophanes  was  the 
leader  of  the  bishops  who  excommunicated  Photius  in 
858;  they  declared  themselves  excommunicate  if  ever 
the^  recognized  him.  This  somewhat  rash  pledge  ex- 
plains his  attitude  later.  He  was  chained  and  impris- 
oned, then  sent  into  exile  by  the  Government.  After 
Photius'  first  fall  (867)  Metrophanes  came  back  to 
his  see.  He  was  present  at  the  eighth  general  council 
(Constantinople,  IV,  869),  opened  the  sixth  session 
with  a  speecn  and  was  one  of  the  judges  who  con- 
demned jPhotius.  When  Ignatius  died  in  877  and 
Photius  succeeded  lawfully  with  the  consent  of  John 
VIII,  Metrophanes  still  refused  to  recognize  him,  for 
which  conduct  he  was  again  banished.  At  the  Photian 
Synod  of  879  a  certain  Nicctas  appears  as  Metropolitan 
of  Smyrna;  meanwhile  Metropnanes  lay  sick  at  Con- 
stantinople. In  880  as  he  still  refused  to  have  any- 
thing to  do  with  Photius  he  was  excommunicated  b^ 
the  papal  legates.  After  that  he  disappears.  It  is 
uncertain  whether  he  returned  to  his  see  at  Photius' 
second  fall  or  whether  he  died  in  exile.  A  letter  of  his 
to  a  patrician,  Manuel,  is  extant,  written  in  870,  in 
which  he  gives  his  reasons  for  his  opposition  to  Photius 
(in  Mansi,  XIV,  414).  Other  works  attributed  to  him 
but  strongly  Photian  in  tone  (*'  Against  the  new  Man- 
icheans",  i.  e.,  the  Latins,  and  "  On  the  Procession  of 
the  Holy  Ghost  from  the  Father  alone")  are  certainly 
spurious.    See  Fabricius-Harles,  Bibliotheca  GrsBca 

(Hamburg,  1790-1809),  XI,  700. 
HsRaaNRdTHBR,  Photiu9  (Regenflburg,  1867),  vols.  I  and  II, 

JHM«w».  Adrian  Fortescub, 

Metropolis,  a  titular  episcopal  see  and  suffragan  of 
Ephesus.  Strabo  (XIV,  1,  2 ;  XIV,  1,15),  who  speaks 
of  its  celebrated  wines,  places  this  city  between  Ephe- 
sus and  Smyrna,  at  one  hundred  and  twenty  stadia 
(nearly  fourteen  miles)  from  the  former.  It  is  like- 
wise mentioned  in  Pliny,  ''  Historia  naturaUs  ",  V,  29, 
and  in  Ptolemy  (V,  ii,  14)  unless  here  the  refer- 
ence be  to  Metropolis  in  Phiygia.  A  similar  allusion 
is  made  in  "Corpus  inscript.  Latin."  (Ill,  79,  Addi- 
tam.,  59).  Le  i^uien  (Onens  chr.,  I,  709;  indicates 
only  two  of  its  bishops:  Maroellinus  at  the  Council  of 
Chaloedon  in  451  and  John  at  the  pseudo-Council  of 
Photius  in  878,  but  from  the  **  Notitue  episcopatuum  " 
we  know  that  in  the  fourteenth  century  the  diocese 
was  still  in  existence.  Metropolis  is  now  completely 
destro3red,  its  ruins  being  visible  in  a  place  call^  Tra- 
tsa  in  the  nahi^  of  Torbali  and  the  vilayet  (Turk- 
ish province)  of  Smyrna,  quite  close  to  the  river  Cays- 
trus.  The  neighbouring  village  of  Torbali  has  been 
built  up  with  stone  once  used  in  the  structures  of  an- 
cient Bletropohs  and,  at  TVatsa,  there  may  still  be  seen 
a  portion  of  its  wall,  also  its  theatre  and  acropolis,  the 
latter  formed  of  huge  blocks,  while  the  olive  groves  are 
dotted  with  architectural  ruins.  This  Metropolis, 
however,  must  not  be  confoimded  with  two  cities  ot 
the  same  name,  one  of  which  was  in  Phrygia  and  the 
other  in  Thessaly. 

Smith,  Didionary  of  Oreek  and  Roman  O«offraphy  (Londoiif 
1870),  a.  ▼.;  Tbxibr.  Ane  Mineure  (Parts,  1862).  358. 

S.  VailhI:. 

MotropoUtani  in  ecclesiastical  language  whatever 
rslates  to  the  metropolis,  the  prindpal  city,  or  see,  of 


an  ecclesiastical  province ;  thus  "we  speak  of  a  metropol- 
itan church,  a  metropolitan  chapter,  a  noetropohtui 
official,  etc.  The  word  metropolitim,  used  without 
any  quaUficative,  means  the  bishop  of  the  metropoli- 
tan see,  now  usually  styled  archoishop.  ^  The  term 
metropolite  (HirrporoXlrtpj  Metropolita)  is  also  em- 
ployed, espedaUv  in  the  Eastem  Churches  (see 
Archbishop).  The  entire  body  of  rights  and  duties 
which  canon  law  attributes  to  the  metropolitan,  or 
archbishop  as  such,  i.e.,  not  for  his  own  diocese,  but 
for  those  sulTragan  to  him  and  forming  his  ecclesi- 
astical province,  is  called  the  metropoliticum.  The 
effective  authoritv  of  metropolitans  over  their  prov- 
inces has  gradually  diminished  in  the  course  ot  cen- 
turies, and  they  do  not  now  exercise  even  so  much  as 
was  accorded  them  by  the  Council  of  Trent;  every 
bishop  being  more  strongly  and  more  directly  boimd 
to  Rome  is  so  much  the  less  bound  to  his  province  and 
its  metropolitan.  The  jurisdiction  of  the  latter  over 
his  suffragan  dioceses  is  in  a  sense  ordinary,  beine 
established  by  law;  but  it  is  mediate  and  restricted 
to  the  objects  provided  for  by  the  canons.  Since  the 
Council  of  Trent  the  rights  of  the  metropolitan  have 
been  reduced  to  the  following: 

(1)  He  convokes  and  presides  at  the  provincial 
council,  at  which  all  his  suffragans  must  appeiar,  saving 
legitimate  excuse,  and  which  must  be  held  every  three 
years  (Cone.  Trid.,  Sess.  XXIV,  c.  ii,  De  ref.).  The 
same  holds  for  other  provincial  meetings  of  bishops. 

(2)  He  retains,  in  theory,  the  right  of  canonical  visi- 
tation of  his  suffragan  dioceses,  but  on  two  conditions 
which  make  the  ri^nt  practically  inoperative:  he  must 
first  finish  the  visitation  of  his  own  diocese,  and  the 
visitation  must  be  authorized  by  the  provincial  council. 
In  the  course  of  this  visitation,  the  metropolitan,  like 
the  bishop,  has  the  right  of  "  procuration ",  i  e..  he  and 
his  retinue  must  be  received  and  entertainea  at  the 
expense  of  the  churches  visited.  Moreover,  he  can 
absolve  "  in  foro  conscientise  "  (ibid.,  iii). 

(3)  He  is  charged  with  special  vigilance  over  his  suf- 
f  ramis  in  the  matter  of  residence ;  he  must  denounce 
to  the  pope  those  who  have  been  twice  absent  for  six 
months  each  time,  without  due  cause  or  permission 
(Cone.  Trid.  Sess.,  vi,  c.  i).  And  similarlv  for  the  pre- 
scriptions relating  to  seminaries  (Sess.  XX,III,  c.  xviii). 

(4)  The  metropolitan  has  no  judicial  authority  over 
his  suffragans,  major  criminal  causes  of  bishops  being 
reserved  to  the  Holy  See,  and  minor  ones  to  the  pro- 
vincial council  (Sess.  XXIV,  c.  v.) ;  but  he  is  still  the 
judge  of  second  instance  for  causes,  civil  or  criminal, 
adjudicated  in  the  first  instance  b^  the  officials  of  his 
suffragans  and  appealed  to  his  tribunal.  Hence  re- 
sults a  certain  inequality  for  matters  adjudicated  in 
the  first  instance  in  the  archdiocese,  ana  to  remedv 
this  various  concessions  have  now  been  provided. 
But  the  nomination  of  two  officials  by  the  archbishop, 
one  diocesan,  the  other  metropolitan,  with  appeal 
from  the  one  to  the  other,  is  not  admissible.  This 
practice  was  used  in  France  under  the  old  regime,  but 
was  not  general,  and  even  the  Galileans  held  it  to  be 
at  variance  with  canon  law  (H^ricourt,  "Lea  Lois 
eccl^siastiques  de  France",  E.  V,  13).  C)n  this  prin- 
ciple the  nullity  of  Napoleon's  marriage  was  decided 
by  the  diocesan  and  the  metropolitan  officials  of  Paris, 
1810  (Schnitser,  "Kathol.  Eherecht",  Freibuig,  1898. 
660).  The  metropolitan  tribunal  may  also'tiy  as  at 
first  instance  causes  not  terminated  within  two  yean 
by  a  bishop's  tribunal  (Sess.  XXIV,  c.  xx). 

In  regard  to  devolution  (q.  v.),  the  metropolitan 
may  nominate  the  vicar  capitular  of  a  vacant  diooese, 
if  the  chapter  has  failed  to  nominate  within  eight 
days  (Sess.  xxiv,  c.  xvi).  In  like  manner  he  has  the 
rignt  to  fill  open  benefices  (i.  e.,  those  of  free  collation) 
which  his  suffragans  have  left  unfilled  after  six  mont^; 
also  to  canonically  institute  candidates  presented  by 
patrons  if  the  bishop  allows  two  months  to  pass  with- 
out instituting. 


IBTBOPOLITICin                     245  UTTESNIGH 

(6)  I^Htly,  in  the  nutter  of  honorific  liahta  and  peror  FranceB  of  Austria. 

privileges  the  metropolitan  has  the  pallium  (a.  v.)  aa  to  become  more  and  mon 

the  enaign  of  hii  junsclicti(»;  be  takes  preoeaeace  of  union  with  Josephine  waa  a  valid  marriage,  nevertbe- 

all  biahope;    he  may  have  the  archiepiscopal  crosa  less  it  is  certain  that  when  Napoleon  wedded  Maria 

[crux  gestatoria)  borne  before  him  anywhere  within  Louise  (II  March,  ISIO)  the  Court  of  Vienna  and  the 

hia    province,    except   in   the    presence   of  a  papal  Papal  Curia  were  absolutely  convinced  of  the  unlaw- 

legate;    he  may  celebrate  pontifically   (saving  such  fulness  of  Napoleon's  Qrst  alliance. 

aeU  as    GonstituM   an    exercise    of    jurisdiction,   e.  Napoleon's  connexion  with  the  imperial  family  of 

" ,   ordinaticMt),   may  wcat  bis   rochet  and  moietta  Austria  had  no  influence  on  politics.     Fate  led  the 


i  (atk  hidden  under  the  mantelletta,  like  a     French  Emperor,   after  ruining 'so  many  others, 
'  another  diocese) ;  mav  bless  publicly,  and     ruin  himself.     At  Schnnbrunn  lie  pronounced  tne 
may  grant  an  indul^^ce  of  100  oays  (S,  C.  Induls.,  8     temporal  sovereignty  of  the  Roman  See  to  he  at  an 


Aug., 1903).  Heensigns  his  armswith  the  double  archie-  end,  and  in  reply  to  the  pcipt^'e 

pisco{»l  cross  and  the  hat  with  ten  tassels  on  either  side,  remarked:    "This   will   not  cause  the  arms  to  drop 

Femraiub   ^rmpia  BibliaUitm.  i.  v.  ArchiepiKopui;  Sja-  from  the  hands  of  my  grenariiers. "     Although  he  im- 

t9\'^^trBpi:^^lP^-:^^r!iii^-        '*•  '^'-  prisoned  the  pope,  in  the  Russian  campaign  on  the 

A.  BoDDiNHow,  Beresina  the  arms 

..  ^       uu  c.      ..  did  drop  from  the 

Hatroptdiacam.    See  BlBnioPOLrrAN.  f^ien    hands    of 

BIatt«nlcb,  Kleuenb  Lotbas  Wenzbl,  Prince  his  srenadiera. 
vos,  atateaman;  b.  at  Cobleni,  15  May,  1773;  d.  at  As  the  crisis  ap- 
Vienna,  11  June,  1859;  son  of  Count  Georg,  Austrian  proached  the  de- 
envoy  of  the  Court  of  Vienna  at  Cobleni,  and  Maria  cision  lay  with 
Beatrix,  nfe  Countess  von  Kageneck.  He  studied  Austria.  From  a 
philosophy  at  the  University  of  Strasburg,  and  law  quarter  P"t 
and  diplomacy  at  Mains,  A  journey  to  England  eleven  m  the 
completed  his  education.  Mettemich  began  his  pub-  morning  until  half 
lie  career  in  1801  as  Austrian  ambassador  bo  the  past  eight  in  the 
Court  of  Dresden,  Though  he  had  for  several  yeare  evening  Metter- 
prepared  himself  for  a  diplomatic  career,  he  was  "i^h  was  closeted 
eiipecially  fortunate  in  being  immediately  appointed  with  Napoleon 
to  so  prominent  a  position.  Only  two  years  later  {Dresden,  26  June, 
be  was  made  ambassador  to  Berlin.  The  emperor  1813).  "Our  con- 
considered  it  very  important  to  have  a  minister  ference  consisted 
at  Beriin  who  could  gain  the  favour  of  the  Court  of    the   atrangeot 

and  the  principal  Prussian  statesmen,  and  who  knew  farrago  of  hetero-  

how  to  combine  "  great  powers  of  observation  with  a  geneous  subjeeta,  Rluiihs  Lotiiak  Wehiu.  tow 
moderate  and  ^reeable  manner".  Mettemich  had  al-  charaoteriaed  now  M>miimca 
ready  proved  that  he  possessed  these  qualities.  Na-  byextrome  friend-  Piintlaj  by  Sir  TbomM  I*wtmic« 
poleon  was  then  emperor  with  the  new  empire  at  the  liness,  now  by  the  most  violent  outbursts  of  fuiy". 
■enith  of  its  power.  The  Emperor  Francis  needed  his  Napoleon  n^ed,  threatened,  and  leaped  up  like 
ablest  ambassador  at  Napoleon's  Court,  and  in  May,  a  chafed  lion.  Mettemich  remained  calm.  Napo- 
1806,  he  sent  Mettemich  to  Farii.  Mettemich  found  leon  let  his  hat,  which  be  was  holding  under  his 
himself  in  the  difficult  position  of  representing  Austria  arm,  drop  to  the  floor.  Mettemich  did  not  stoop 
in  the  face  of  the  overweening  threats  and  ambitious  to  pick  it  up.  The  emperor  also  tried  persua- 
planBOfNa]]oleon  at  the  height  of  his  power.  He  did  sion.  "Your  sovereigns",  he  said,  "who  were  bora  to 
so  with  dignity  and  firmness,  as  his  report  of  his  impor-  their  thrones  cannot  comprehend  the  feelings  that 
tantaudiencewithNapoleononlSAugust,  1808, shows,  move  me.  To  them  it  is  nothing  to  return  to  their 
Tbeyear  1809iaroarked  by  the  great  war  between  Aua-  capitals  defeated.  But  I  am  a  soldier.  I  need 
tria  and  France.  The  German  estates  were  Ciilted  upon  honour  and  glory.  I  caimot  reappear  among  my 
to  join  her,  but  only  the  Tyrol  responded,  (hi  13  May  people  devoid  of  prestige.  1  must  remain  great,  ad- 
Vienna  was  besieged  by  the  French,  but  eight  days  mired,  covered  with  glory."  For  that  reason,  he  said, 
later  Napoleon  waa  defeated  by  the  Archduke  Charles  he  could  not  accept  the  proposed  conditions  of  peace. 
at  Aspem.  Mettemich,  treated  as  a  prisoner  of  stale  Mettemich  repliea,  "  But  when  will  this  condition  of 
by  Napoleon,  was  finally  released  in  July  in  exchange  things  cease,  in  which  defeat  and  victory  are  alike 
for  members  of  the  French  embaasy.  Alter  the  battle  reasons  for  continuing  these  dismal  wars?  If  victori- 
of  Wagram  Austria's  position  was  oopeleas.  Its  army  ous,  you  insist  upon  the  fruits  of  your  victory;  if  de- 
was  cut  off  from  Huogai?  and  compelled  to  retreat  to  feated,  you  are  determined  to  rise  agam. "  Napoleon 
Moravia  and  Bohemia.  A  ereat  statesman  was  needed  made  various  offers  for  Austria's  neutrality,  but 
to  save  the  situation.  On  4  August  the  Emperor  Mettemich  declined  all  bargaining,  and  Napoleon's  of  t- 
Francis  appointed  Mettemich  as  minister  of  state  to  repeated  threat,  "We  shall  meet  in  Vienna",  was  his 
conferwitbNapaleon,andon80ct^l>er,ministerof the  farewell  to  Mettemich.  Mettemich  gave  the  signal 
imperial  house  and  of  foreign  affairs.  By  the  treaty  tor  war,  and  Schwaraenberg  led  the  decisive  battle  of 
of  Sehdnbrarm  (14  October),  Austria  was  greatly  re-  Leipsig.  The  Emperor  Francis  raised  his  "beloved 
diued  in  sise,  and  reached  the  greatest  depths  of  its  Count  Mettemich  to  the  rank  of  Austrian  prince. 
humiliation.  But  the  moment  ot  its  drawJation  saw  "  Your  able  efforts  in  conducting  the  department  with 
the  beginning  of  its  rise.  The  two-head«i  eagle  soared  which  I  entrusted  you  in  difficult  times  are  now,  at  a 
totbeloftiest  heights,  audit  was  Mettemich  who  gave  moment  highly  decisive  in  the  world'sdestiny,  happily 
it  the  strength  for  its  flight.     For  nearly  forty  years  he  crowned  with  success. " 

directed  Austria's  policy.  His  first  concern  was  to  Mettemich  reached  the  height  of  his  power  and  re- 
establish tolerable  relations  with  the  French  Emperor,  nown  at  the  Congress  of  Vienna  (1814-1815).  No 
Napoleon  desired  by  means  of  a  new  marria^  to  ally  idea  can  be  had  of  the  difficulty  of  the  problems  that 
himself  with  one  of  the  old  European  dynasties  in  the  were  to  be  solved.  The  very  first  conference  of  the 
hope  to  raise  himself  and  to  provide  an  heir  for  the  representatives  of  the  powers  previously  allied  against 
'mperial  throne.     He  obtained  a  divorce  from  Jose-  France  (Austria,  Prussia,  Russia,  and  England),  held 


METTBBNIGH                           246  METTBBNIOH 

It  constantly  required  all  of  Mettemich's  most  bril-  paring  a  oonstitution,  and  was  thought  to  be  inclined 

liant  qualities  to  preserve  harmony.    One  of  his  to  do  so. 

favourite  means  was  to  provide  festivities  of  all  sorts.  As  time  passed  "the  Mettemich  system"  came  to 

They  have  often  been  criticised  as  if  they  had  been  the  be  held  more  and  more  responsible  for  eveiything 

object  of  the  congress,  and  not  a  means  to  attain  its  unpleasant,  and   its  author  to  be   hated  and  at- 

ends.    Mettemich  succeeded  finally  in  bridging  over  tacked.    His  own  acts  show  the  injustice  done  the 

every  difficulty.    The  Emperor  Francis  expres^  his  prince  in  this  i^ard.    To  quote  from  his  "  Political 

satisfaction  with  Mettemich's  services  in  securing  peace  Testament":  "To  me  the  word  freedom  has  not  the 

and  order  in  Europe,  and  especially  in  restoring  to  Aus-  value  of  a  starting-point,  but  of  an  actual  goal  to  be 

tria   its  ancient  pfe-eminence.    The  rearrangement  striven  for.    The  word  order  designates  the  startins- 

of  German  and  Italian  affairs  gave  but  little  satisfao-  point.    It  ia  only  on  order  that  fr^dom  can  be  based, 

tion  to  either  side,  but  henceforth  Mettemich  was  the  Without  order  as  a  foundation  the  cry  for  freedom 

leading  statesman  of  Europe.    For  the  settlement  of  is  nothing  more  than  the  endeavour  of  some  party  or 

Questions  still  pending  and  other  difficulties  that  arose,  other  for  an  end  it  has  in  view.     When  actually  car- 

the  foUowine  congresses  were  held:  Aix-la-Chapelle,  ried  out  in  practice,  that  cry  for  freedom  will  inevi- 

1818;  Karlsbad  (a  conference  of  ministers),  1819:  tably  express  itself  in  tyranny.    At  all  times  and  in  all 

Vienna,  1820;  Troppau,  1820;  Laibach,  1821;  ana  situations  I  was  a  man  of  order,  yet  my  endeavour  was 

Verona,    1822.    The   Congress    of    Aix-la-Ghapelle.  always  for  true  and  not  for  pretended  libertv."   These 

at  which  the  monarchs  of  Austria,  Prussia,  and  woixis  are  the  key  to  the  imderstanding  and  apprecia- 

Russia  were  personally  present,  devoted  its  attention  tion  of  Mettemich's  actions. 

to  the  adjustment  of  the  relations  of  the  powers  to  Two  more  passages  characteristic  of  the  great  states- 
France,  though  Mettemich  also  emphasised  the  dan-  man's  temper  of  mind  may  be  cited:  ''Admirers  of 
gers  arising  from  demagogic  agitation,  and  expressed  the  press  honour  it  with  the  title,  '  representative  of 
his  suspicions  that  its  focus  was  in  Germany.  When,  pubuc  opinion',  though  eveiythinj;  written  in  the 
not  long  after,  the  Russian  councillor,  Kotsebue,  was  papers  is  nothing  but  the  expression  of  those  who 
assassinated  by  the  student,  Sand,  Mettemich  in  write.  Will  the  value  of  being  the  expression  of  public 
twenty-four  conferences  of  German  ministers  at  Karls-  cpinion  ever  be  attributed  to  the  publications  of  a 
bad  took  measures  to  put  an  end  to  the  political  Govemment,  even  of  a  Republican  Government? 
troubles  in  Germany.  All  publications  of  less  than  Surely  not!  Yet  every  obscure  journalist  claims  this 
twenty  folios  were  to  be  subject  to  censorship;  ^vem-  value  for  his  own  products.  What  a  confusion  of 
ment  officers  were  to  be  placed  at  the  universities  to  ideas  I"  No  less  just  and  important  a  remark  is  the 
supervise  them;  in  the  severed  states  the  constitutions  following  on  state  religion:  ''The  downfall  of  em- 
providing  for  diets  in  accordance  with  ancient  usage  pires  always  directly  depends  upon  the  spread  of  un- 
were  to  be  retained;  representative  constitutions  were  belief.  For  this  very  reason  religious  belief,  the  first 
to  be  suppressed.  Despite  England's  and  Russia's  of  virtues,  is  the  strongest  power.  It  alone  curbs  at- 
resistance,  Mettemich  at  the  two  succeeding  con-  tack  and  makes  resistance  irresistible.  Religion  can- 
^^esses  successfully  carried  his  proposition  to  intervene  not  decline  in  a  nation  without  causing  that  nation's 
m  behalf  of  the  Italian  states,  which  were  threatened  strength  also  to  decline,  and  the  fall  of  states  does  not 
and  hard  pressed  by  the  revolution.  This  measure  proceed  in  arithmetical  progression  according  to  the 
brought  upon  Austria  the  hatred  of  the  Italian  law  of  falling  bodies,  but  rapidly  leads  to  destruction." 
pMBople.  fmally  Austria  and  Russia  split  on  the  ques-  When  on  13  March,  1848,  tne  storm  of  the  revolution 
tion  of  freeing  Greece  from  the  Turkish  yoke,  Austria  raged  in  Vienna,  the  state  chancellor,  who  preferred  to 
showing  herself  to  be  a  decided  friend  of  the  Turks,  sacrifice  himself  rather  than  others,  immediately 


The  result  was  a  blow  to  Mettemich's  policy.    He  had  signed  his  position.    He  went  to  England,  Brussels, 

dropped  from  the  high-water  mark  of  his  influence,  and  Schloss  Johannisberg.    From  the  last  place  he  re- 

Theieafter  Russia's  influence  increased.  turned  to  Vienna  in  1851,  and  eight  years  later  died  in 

Since  the  death  of  Prince  Kaunits  (1794)  the  poei-  his  palace  on  the  Reimwee  at  tne  age  of  eighty-six. 

tion  of  house,  court,  and  state  chancellor  had  been  In  Europe  Napoleon,  Mettemich,  and  Bismarck 

vacant,  but  in  1821  Mettemich  was  invested  with  that  set  their  stamp  upon  the  nineteenth  century.    All 

office.    "  Your  deserts  have  been  increased  by  the  un-  three  of  them  lived  to  see  their  own  fall.    Metter- 

interrupted  seal,  the  ability  and  fearlessness  with  nich  remained  the  longest  in  the  leading  position  of 

which,  especially  in  the  last  two  years,  you  devoted  "coaclnnan  of  Europe^'.    Nothing  better  character- 

yourself  to  the  preservation  of  ceneral  order  and  the  ises  the  great  statesman  than  what  ne  repeatedly  said, 

triumph  of  law  over  the  disorder^  doings  of  disturbers  proud  and  aristocratic  as  always,  to  Baron  A.  von 

of  the  peace  in  the  states  at  home  and  abroad."    Un-  HQbner  a  few  weeks  before  his  death :  "  I  was  a  rock  of 

der  the  Emperor  Ferdinand  I  after  1835,  the  direction  order"  (un  rocher  tVordre).    Mettemich  married  three 

of  affairs,  alter  the  emperor  himself,  was  in  the  hands  times:  in  1795  Maria  Eleonora,  granddaughter  of 

of  a  council  consisting  of  the  Archduke  Ludwig  (uncle  Princess  Kaunits,  by  whom  he  had  seven  children;  in 

of  the  emperor),  the  state  chancellor  Mettemich,  and  1827  Maria  Antonia,  Baroness  von  Le^kam,  by  whom 

the  court  chancellor  Kolowrat.    Mettemich's  influence  he  had  a  son,  Richard  Klemens:  and  m  1831  Countess 

over  Austria's  internal  affairs  was  less  than  is  generally  Melanie  Zichv,  by  whom  he  haa  three  children.    The 

supposed.    Goimt  Hartig,  who  was  well  informed,  do-  only  one  of  nis  sons  that  survived  him  was  Richard 

Clares  (Geschichte  der  Revolution,  p.  19):  "In  matters  Klemens,  who  published:  "Aus  Mettemichs  nach- 

of  internal  administration  the  prince  was  seldom  oelassenenPapieren"  (8  vols.,  Vienna,  1880-84).    The 

heard,  and  was  purposely  kept  away  from  them."    In  first  two  volumes  contain  Mettemich's  biography.    In 

this  department  after  1826,  it  was  the  minister  Count  the  third  volume  begms  the  "Schriften-Samnilung" 

Kolowrat  whose  influence  was  decisive.    Many  envied  arranged  according  to  years  as  follows :  vol.  Ill,  1816- 

Mettemich  his  pre-eminence.    The  aristocracy  always  22 ;  vol.  IV,  1823-29 ;  vol.  V,  1830-35 ;  vol.  VI,  1835- 

saw  the  foreigner  in  him,  and  others  looked  with  re-  43 ;  vol.  VII,  1844-48.    Vol.  Vll  contains  "  Mein  ROck- 

sentment  upon  the  preference  shown  foreigners  in  the  tritt",  pp.  617-32,  "  Mein  politisches  Testament",  pp. 

state  chancery  (Friedrich  Gents,  Adam  MQlIer,  Fried-  633-42,  and  "Ehren,  Warden,  und  Ausseichnungen^'. 

richSchlegBl,Jarke).    Grillparaer,  director  of  archives  pp.   643-68.    Vol.  VIII,  1848-59,   contains:    ^' Axis 

in  the  Hoflujnmer,  expressed  himself  very  harshly  on  dem  Tagebuch  der  FQrstin  Melanie"  (pp.  3-141),  Met- 

that  point  in  1839,  though  it  must  be  noted  that  Urill-  temich's  letters  to  his  daughter  Leooitine  (1848-58) 

parser  had  been  highly  incensed.    In  all  these  matters  (pp.  142-282) ,  letters  to  Baron  Koller  in  London,  Count 

Kolowrat  had  the  advantage  of  Mettemich.    He  was  Buol  in  Virana,  and  others  (1849-58)  (pp.  283-420), 

even  considered  capable  oi  granting,  or,  at  least,  of  pre-  supplements  to  the  Princess  Melanie's  wjry,  a  ooUec- 


247 

iioQ  of  Mettemkh's  wxitmgp  (1848-53)  (pp.  421-586),  fourteenfch  eentuiy  the  right  to  elect  the  Tredeosfn 

and  the  year  ci  his  death  (1859)  (pp.  589-627).  jurati,  and  in  1383  the  light  of  ooinins.    The  guilds, 

Fitnt  Clemma  von  MeUemich  in  Dm'  KathoKk.  I  (1870),  wMch  during  the  fouiteentn  century  had  attained  great 

•nd  Leipfls.  1906— );  Wumbacb.  BiographUchM  Lextkon  de»  the  last  revolutionary  attempt  of  the  artisans  to  seise 

Kai9atuma  OetUrreich,  XVIII  (1868).  23-62.  Control  of  the  city  government  (1405)  was  put  down 

C.  WoLFSOBUBSB.  wi^  much  bloodshed. 

The  city  had  often  to  fight  for  its  freedom:  from 

Metiy  town  and  bishopric  in  Lorraine.  1324-27  against  the  Dukes  of  Luxemburg  and  Lo> 

I.  The  Town  of  Metz. — In  ancient  times  Meta,  raine,  as  well  as  against  the  Archbishop  of  Trier;  in 
then  known  as  Divodurum,  was  the  capital  of  the  Celtic  1363  and  1365  agamst  the  band  of  English  mercena- 
Mediomatrici,  and  at  the  beginning  of  the  Christian  ries  under  Arnold  of  Cervola,  in  the  fifteenth  century 
era  was  already  occupied  by  the  Romans.  As  the  against  France  and  the  Dukes  of  Bureundy,  who 
iuncti<m  of  several  xnilitary  roads,  and  as  a  well-  sought  to  annex  Metz  to  their  lands  or  at  least  wanted 
fortified  town,  it  soon  became  of  great  importance,  to  exercise  a  protectorate.  Nevertheless  it  main- 
One  of  the  last  strongholds  to  surrender  to  the  Ger-  tained  its  independence,  even  though  at  great  cost,  and 
mans,  it  survived  the  attacks  of  the  Huns,  and  finally  remained,  outwardly  at  least,  part  of  the  German  Em- 
passed,  about  the  end  of  the  fifth  centmy,  through  pire,  whose  ruler,  however,  concerned  himself  very 
peaceful  negotiations  into  the  hands  of  the  Franks,  little  with  this  important  frontier  stronghold.  Charles 
Theodorick  of  Austrasia  chose  it  in  511  as  his  red-  IV  in  1354  and  1356  held  brilliant  diets  here,  at  the 
denoe;  the  reien  of  Queen  Brunhild  reflected  great  latter  of  which  was  promulgated  the  famous  statute 
splendour  on  the  town.  Though  the  first  Christian  known  as  the  "Golden  BuU".  The  town  therefore 
churches  were  to  be  found  outside  the  city,  the  exis-  felt  that  it  occupied  an  almost  independent  position 
tenoe  in  the  fifth  century  of  the  oratory  of  St.  Stephen  between  France  and  Germany,  and  wanted  most  of 
within  the  city  walls  has  been  fully  proved.  In  the  all  to  evade  the  obligation  of  imperial  taxes  and  at- 
beginning  of  the  seventh  century  tne  oldest  monastic  tendance  at  the  diet.  The  estrangement  between  it 
establishments  were  those  of  St.  Glossinde  and  St.  and  the  German  States  daily  became  wider,  and  fi- 
Peter.  Under  the  Carlovingians  the  town  preserved  nally  affairs  came  to  such  a  pass  that  in  the  religious 
the  good-will  of  the  rulers,  whose  family  seat  was  and  political  troubles  of  1552  the  Protestant  party 
near  by;  Charles  the  Bald  was  crowned  in  the  in  Germany  betrayed  Metz  to  France.  By  an  agree- 
Basilica,  and  here  Louis  the  Pious  and  his  son  ment  of  the  German  princes,  Moritz  of  Saxony. 
Drogo  are  buried.  In  843  Metz  became  the  capital  of  William  of  Hesse,  John  Albrecht  of  Mecklenbuig,  and 
the  Kingdom  of  Lorraine,  and  several  diets  ana  coun-  George  Frederick  of  Brandenbuig,  with  Henry  II  of 
cils  were  held  there.  Numerous  books  of  Holv  Writ,  France,  ratified  by  the  French  king  at  Chambord 
the  product  of  the  Metz  schools  of  writing  and  paint-  (15  January),  Metz  was  formally  transferred  to  France, 
ing,  such  as  the  famous  "Trier  Ada"  manuscript 'and  the  gates  of  the  city  were  opened  (10  April),  and 
the  Sacramentary  of  Drogo  (now  at  Paris),  are  evi-  Henry  took  possession  as  vicariua  sacri  imperii  et  urbia 
denoe  of  the  active  intelfectual  lives  that  were  led.  protector  (18  April).    The  Duke  of  Guise,  commander 

In  870  the  town  became  part  of  the  East  Frank  of  the  garrison,  restored  the  old  fortifications  and 

kingdom,  and  belong^    (91 1-25)  as  part  of  Lor-  added  new  ones,  and  successfully  resisted  the  attacks 

raine  to  France.    The  increasing  influence  of  the  of  the  emperor  from  October  to  December,  1552; 

bishops  in  the  city  became  greater  when  Adalbert  I  Metz  remamed  French.    The  recognition  by  the  em- 

(928-^2)  obtained  a  share  of  the  privileges  of  the  pire  of  the  Ul^E&l  surrender  came  at  the  conclusion  of 

counts ;  until  the  twelfth  century,  therefore,  the  history  the  Peace  of  Westphalia.    By  the  construction  of  the 

of  the  town  is  practically  identical  with  that  of  the  citadel  (1555-62)  the  new  government  secured  itself 

bishops  (see  below).    In  1039  a  splendid  edifice  was  against  the  citizens,  who  were  discontented  with  the 

built  to  take  the  place  of  the  old  church  of  St.  Stephen,  turn  of  events.    Important  internal  changes  soon 

In  the  twelfth  century  began  the  efforts  of  the  took  place.    In  place  of  the  Paraiges  stood  the  au- 

burgesses  to  free  themselves  from  the  domination  thority  of  the  French  king,  whose  representative  was 

oi  uie  bishops.    In  1180  the  burgesses  for  the  first  the  governor.    The  head-alderman,  now  appointed 

time  formed  themselves  into  a  close  corporation,  and  in  by  the  governor,  was  replaced  (1640)  by  a  Koyalist 

1207  the  Tredecem  jurati  were  appointed  as  municipal  Mayor.    The  aldermen  were  also  appointed  by  the 

representatives,  but  they  were  still  nominated  di-  governor  and  henceforth  drawn  from  the  whole  body 

rectly  by  the  bishop,  who  had  also  a  controlling  influ-  of  burgesses;  in  1633  the  judgeship  passed  to  the 

ence  in  the  selection  of  the  presiding  officer  of  the  Parliament.    The  powers  of  the  Tredecem  jurati  were 

board  of  aldermen,  whidi  first  appears  in  the  eleventh  also  restricted,  in  1634  totally  abolished,  and  replaced 

century.    The  twenty-five  representatives  sent  by  the  by  the  BaUliage  royal, 

various  parishes  held  an  independent  position ;  in  ju-  Among  the  cities  of  Lorraine,  Metz  held  a  prominent 

dicial  matters  they  helped  tne  Tredecem  jurati  and  position  during  the  French  occupation  for  two  rea- 

formed  the  democratic  element  of  the  system  of  sons:  in  the  fiiit  place  it  became  one  of  the  most  im- 

govemment.    The  other  municipal  authorities  were  portant  fortresses  through  the  work  of  Vauban  (1674) 

chosen  by  the  town  aristocracy,  the  so-called  Paraiges.  and  Cormontaigne  (1730);  secondly,  it  became  the 

i.  e.  the  nve  associations  whose  members  were  selected  capital  of  the  temporal  province  of  the  three  bishop- 

from  distinguished  families  to  protect  the  interests  of  rics  of  Metz,  Toul,  and  Verdun,  which  France  had 

their  relatives.    The  other  body  of  bureesses,  called  a  seized  (1552)  and.  by  the  Peace  of  Westphalia,  le- 

Commune,  also  appears  as  a  raraige  from  the  year  tained.    In  1633  there  was  created  for  this  "  Province 

1297;  in  the  individual  offices  it  was  represented  by  des  trois  ^v^h^"  (also  called  "G^^ralit^  des  trois 

double  the  number  of  members  that  each  of  the  older  ^vteh^"   or  ''Int^dance  de  Metz'')   a  supreme 

five  Paraiges  had.     Making  common  cause,  the  older  court  of  justice  and  court  of  administration,  the  Metz 

family  unions  and  the  Commune  found  it  advantage-  Parliament.    In  1681  the  Chambre  Royale,  the  no- 

ous  to  gradually  increase  the  powers  of  the  city  as  op-  torious  Assembly  chamber,  whose  business  it  was  to 

posed  to  the  bishops,  and  also  to  keep  the  control  of  decide  what  fiefs  belonced  to  the  three  bishoprics 

the  municipal  government  fully  in  tneir  hands  and  which  Louis  XIV  clamed  for  France,  was  made  a  part 

out  of  that  of  the  powerful  erowing  guilds,  so  that  of  this  Parliament,  which  lasted,  after  a  temporary 

untfl  the  sixteenth  century  Metz  remained  a  purely  dissolution  (1771-75),  until  the  filial  settlement  oy  the 

aristocratic  organization.   In  1 300  the  Parai^  gained  National  Assembly  in  1789,  whereupon  the  division 

the  light  to  ^  the  office  of  head-alderman,  auring  the  of  the  land  into  departments  and  districts  followed. 


248 

Mets  became  the  capital  of  the  Department  of  Mo-  Bruno  of  Cologne,  governed  the  see;  then  Dietrich  II 
selle,  created  in  1790.  The  revolution  brought  great  (964-84),  a  cousin  of  Otto^  Adalbert  II  (984-1005) ; 
calamities  upon  the  city.  In  the  campaigns  of  1814  Adalbert  III  (1006) ;  Dietrich  III  (1006-47),  brother 
and  1815  the  allied  armies  twice  besieged  the  city,  of  the  Empress  Kunisunde;  Adalbert  IV  (1047-72), 
but  were  unable  to  take  it.  During  the  Franco-  all  closely  related  to  the  reigning  house.  In  spite  of 
Prussian  War  of  1870-71  Metz  was  the  headquarters  this,  however,  the  choice  of  oishops  was  generally  an 
and  rendezvous  of  the  third  French  Army  Corps  under  excellent  one.  The  first  church  reform  movement,  of 
Bazaine.  Through  the  operations  of  the  German  which  the  monasteries  of  St.  Clement,  St.  Amulf .  and 
army,  Bazaine,  a^r  the  battles  of  Colombey,  Mars-la-  St.  Glossinde  were  the  focus,  originated  with  Adal- 
Tour,  and  Gravelotte  (14-18  August)  was  besieged  bert  I  and  Bruno;  under  Dietrich!  the  monastery  of 
in  Metz.  The  German  army  of  investment  was  com-  St.  Symphorus  was  again  restored,  and  the  new  cathe- 
manded  by  Prince  Frederick  Charles  of  Prussia;  as  dral  of  St.  Stephen  built  by  Dietrich  III  in  1039. 
the  few  sorties  of  the  garrison  were  unable  to  break  the  This  friendly  relation  received  a  serious  set-back 
German  lines,  Metz  was  forced  to  surrender  (27  Oc-  through  the  mvestiture  controversy,  which  manv 
tober),  with  the  result  that  6000  French  officers  and  bishops  carried  on  with  the  assistance  of  the  emperor^ 
170,000  men  were  taken  prisoners.  By  the  Treaty  of  adversaries.  The  Sucon  Herman  (1073-90)  appealed 
Frankfort,  Metz  became  once  more  a  German  city,  to  the  pope  and  was  in  consequence  deposed  oy  the 
and  since  then  has  been  made  a  most  important  gar-  emperor,  and  two  other  bishops  appointed  in  his 
rison  and  a  first-class  fortress.  The  city^  after  the  stead.  Until  the  conclusion  of  the  Concordat  of 
levelling  of  the  fortifications  on  the  south  and  east  Worms  a  papal  and  an  imperial  bishop  were  continu- 
(1898),  secured  space  for  growth  and  development,  allv  opposed  to  each  other.  Even  Stephen  of  Bar 
In  1905  the  city  had  60,419  inhabitants,  of  whom  (1120-63),  appointed  by  Calixtus  II,  onlv  obtained 
43,082  were  Catholics,  15,556  Protestants,  and  1691  possession  of  his  see  after  this  Concordat.  In  an 
Jews;  by  1910  the  number  of  inhabitants,  through  the  endeavour  to  free  themselves  from  the  episcopal 
absorption  of  several  villages,  has  increased  to  68,100.  power,  the  inhabitants  of  Metz  sought  to  make  use  of 
II.  The  See  of  Metz. — ^The  first  fully  authenti-  these  quarrels  between  the  emperor  and  the  bishop, 
cat^  bishop  is  Sperus  or  Hesperus,  who  took  part  but  Stephen  once  more  restored  the  sovereignty  of  tne 
in  the  Synod  of  Clermont  (535).  The  most  important  bishops.  Bishop  Bertrand  (1179-1212)  gave  the  city 
of  the  early  bishops  is  the  holy  Amulf  (611-27),  the  system  of  government  described  above.  Under 
founder  of  the  race  of  the  Carlovingians.  His  re-  his  successor  Conrad  I  of  Scharfenberg  (1212-24)  the 
mains  were  transferred  in  643  by  his  successor  Abbo  first  settlements  of  the  new  orders  of  Mendicant  Friars, 
(627-42)  to  the  church  of  St.  John  outside  the  city  the  Franciscans,  Dominicans,  Augustinians,  and  Car- 
and  henceforth  known  as  St.  Amulf 's  church.  The  melites,  were  made  in  the  diocese.  With  John  of  A»- 
bishops  were  usually  abbots  of  the  monastery  of  St.  premont  (1224-38),  the  first  bishop  to  be  elected 
Amun.  The  boundaries  of  the  diocese  stretched  solely  by  cathedrai  chapter,  and  Jacob  of  Lorraine 
originally  to  the  BJiine,  but  after  the  See  of  Strasbuig  (1239-60),  who  once  more  upheld  the  rights  of  the 
was  foimded,  only  to  the  Vosges  mountains;  from  the  bishops  against  the  city,  the  development  of  the  tem- 
top  of  the  northern  Vosges  mountains  the  diocese  pond  possessions  of  the  bishopric  came  to  a  halt.  These 
embraced  the  upper  Saar  and  adjoining  districts,  and  temporal  possessions  were  obtained  through  the  gifts  of 
esctended  to  the  Moselle  and  a  little  beyond  Dieden-  the  Carlovingians,  always  friendly  to  Metz.  In  770  it 
hofen;  the  southern  boundary  followed  the  left  tribu-  received  full  rights  over  the  property  of  the  Senones 
tary  of  Uie  Moselle,  Rupt  de  Mad,  then  up  the  Mo-  Abbey  under  Drogo,  over  the  MaursmOnster  Abbey,  in 
selle  to  the  mouth  of  the  Meurthe,  and  in  a  slight  923  over  Zabem,  in  931  over  Saarburg,  and  many 
curve  to  the  upper  Meurthe.  This  district,  which  is  others.  On  the  dissolution  of  the  old  oountships  in  the 
not  to  be  contoimded  with  the  temporal  province,  tenth  century,  the  bishopric,  subject  only  to  the  im- 
comprised  practically  the  diocese  up  to  the  nmeteenth  perial  government,  enlarged  its  possessions  and  ac- 
century.  rrominent  bishops  of  the  eighth  century  ouired  sovereignty  in  the  old  District  of  MoseUe,  in 
included  Chrod^ang  (742-46),  who  founded  the  Ab-  the  Saar  District,  and  in  the  Blies  District.  The 
bey  of  Gorze  and  gave  to  his  clergy  a  special  rule  for  a  most  important  acquisitions  at  that  time  and  later 
canonical  life,  modelled  after  the  Benedictine  rule,  were  R^milly  (984),  SaarbrUcken  (998),  the  lordship 
the  basis  of  the  vita  communis  of  the  regular  cleigy.  of  PQttlingen  (1135),  and  Lotzelburg  (1143),  the  fieie 
Then  followed  Angilram  (768-91),  the  fnend  of  of  the  ooimtship  of  Dagsbuig  (1225),  the  lordship 
Charles  the  Great,  who,  like  his  predecessor,  received  of  Briey  (1225),  Rixingcn  and  Mdrsbeiig  (1255). 
the  pallium.  Yet  the  archiepiscopal  dignitv  was  not  Throughout  the  thirteenth  and  fourteenth  centuries 
transferred  to  the  see  itself;  Metz  was  always  r&-  began  the  decline  of  these  possessions,  principally  on 
sardeMl  as  being  a  suffragan  of  Trier.  Bishop  Drogo  account  of  the  quarrels  of  almost  ail  the  bishops; 
(823-55),  son  ol  the  Emperor  Charles,  remained  loyal  namely,  Rainald  of  Bar  (1302-16),  Adhemer  of  Mod- 
to  his  brother  Louis  the  Pious,  and  exerted  consider-  teil  (1327-61),  under  whom  the  present  cathedrai  was 
able  influence.  In  the  administration  of  the  dioceses,  begim,  Dietrich  IV  Bayer  of  Boppard  (1365-^4)  with 
the  suffragan  bishops  Amalarius  and  Lantfried  sup-  the  Dukes  of  Lorraine  and  the  Counts  of  Bar  and 
ported  him.  In  the  important  position  Metz  as-  Luxemburg.  During  the  thirteenth  century  sover- 
sumed  after  the  division  of  the  Frankish  dominions  eignty  over  the  city  of  Metz  and  its  environs  (the 
into  West  and  East  Franconia,  the  German  rulers  took  iMzy«  Messin)  was  lost;  the  continual  need  of  money 
care  that  only  men  who  would  be  loyal  to  them  were  by  the  bishops  and  the  cathedral  chapter  forced  them 
appointed  to  the  episcopal  see.  After  the  unworthy  to  pledge  the  title  deeds  of  their  domains,  fiefs,  and 
Wigerich  or  WitG:er  of  Lorraine  (917-27),  Henry  I  ap-  taxes  to  the  Dukes  of  Lorraine,  the  (founts  of  Bar,  the 
pointed  the  Swabian  Bruno,  who,  in  the  second  year  citv  of  Metz,  and  even  to  the  buiieesses. 
of  his  administration,  blinded  by  the  inhabitants  of  Another  element  was  the  fact  that  during  the  great 
Metz,  returned  to  his  hermitage.  Adalbert  (928-62),  Western  Schism,  for  a  long  time  two  bishops  had  made 
although  at  first  an  opponent  of  Otto  I,  received  on  the  diocese  a  scene  of  strife,  until  Rudolf  of  Coucy  r&- 
the  death  of  the  Duke  of  Metz  (945)  a  portion  of  the  ceived  general  recognition  (1387-1415).  His  suo- 
privileges  of  coimt,  a  fact  which  went  far  to  increase  cessors  Conrad  II  Bayer  of  Boppard  (1415-59),  and 
the  secular  power  of  the  bishops;  in  959,  through  the  Geoi^ge  I  of  Bavaria  (1459-84)  were  the  last  Gennan 
division  of  the  Duchy  of  Lorraine  into  Upper  and  bishops  of  the  old  see  to  once  more  work  for  the  main- 
Lower  Lorraine,  the  diocese  was  withdrawn  from  the  tenance  of  a  loyal  sentiment  in  the  city  and  see.  With 
ducal  authority  and  placed  immediately  under  the  Henrv  II  of  liorraine  (1484-1505^  b^an  and  contin* 
imperial.  After  the  death  of  Adalbert,  Otto's  brother,  ued  during  the  next  one  hundred  and  twenty  yean. 


MEULiSBlAN 


249 


MEULEMAN 


the  long  line  of  bishops  of  the  ducal  house  of  Lor- 
raine which  had  incessantly  aimed  to  increase  its  do- 
mains at  the  expense  of  the  bishopric  and  was  well 
supported  therein  by  the  kindred  bishops  through  the 
transfer  of  numerous  enfeoffments  and  mortgages. 
One  benefit,  derived  through  the  bishops,  was  tlmt  the 
Catholic  faith  was  preserved  in  their  diocese  and  in 
this  they  had  the  powerful  support  of  their  house.  In 
this  way,  Cardinal  John  lY  of  Lorraine  (151S-43 
and  1548-50).  who  exercised  authority  over  no  less 
than  twelve  bishoprics  withstood  the  Reformation. 
Charles  I  of  Guise,  appointed  by  the  Cardinal  of  Lor- 
raine, retained  only  the  temporal  administration  of 
the  bishopric,  and  appointed  in  succession  as  bishops 
for  the  spiritual  government,  Cardinal  Robert  of 
Lenoncourt  (1551-55)  who  after  the  reversion  of  the 
city  of  Mets  to  France  tried  to  enforce  the  bishops' 
claim  to  sovereignty  over  the  city  and  declared  him- 
self Prince  et  Seignewr  de  la  viUe,  Francis  de  Beau- 
querre  de  Pdguillon  (1555-68),  and  Cardinal  Louis  of 
Lorraine  (1568-78).  Others  who  also  worked  con- 
scientiously, by  furthering  the  internal  reforms  in 
conformity  witn  the  decrees  of  the  Council  of  Trent, 
weie  Charles  II  of  Lorraine  (1578—1607);  Cardinal 
Axmas  von  Givry  (1608-12),  and  Henry  of  Bour^ 
bon,  Marquis  of  Vemeuil  (1612-52).  Under  the  last 
bishop  the  see  was  transferred  to  France  in  accord- 
ance with  the  Peace  of  Westphalia.  Through  sales, 
mortgages,  and  loans,  the  temporal  property  had  be- 
come very  much  dismembered;  but  France  wanted  as 
far  as  possible,  to  re-establish  a  complete  district  out 
of  the  transferred  districtua  Metensia,  The  Assembly 
Chamber  decided  what  enfeoffment  and  dependan- 
cies  had  belonged  to  the  newly  acquired  district,  and 
confiscated  a  considerable  number  owing  to  the  frivo- 
lous Assembly  quarrel.  The  Province  dee  Trois  iviches 
(see  above)  was  formed  out  of  the  temporal  provinces 
of  the  bishoprics  of  Metz,  Toul,  and  Verdim,  also  out 
of  lands  relinquished  by  the  Spaniards. 

Under  French  rule  the  conflict  over  the  right  of 
filling  the  episcopal  see  at  once  broke  out,  which  right 
Louis  XIV  claimed  and  in  1664  obtained  from  Alex- 
ander VII.  As  a  general  rule  the  crown  nominated 
worthy  prelates  for  the  bishopric:  George  II  of  Au- 
busson  0668-97),  Henri  Charles  du  Cambout  (1697- 
1732)  and  Claude  de  Rouvray  Saint-Simon  (1733-60) 
who  in  1736  assumed  the  title  of  prince  bishop.  The 
last  prince  bishop,  Cardinal  Louis  de  Montmorency- 
Lavu  (1761-1802)  fled  to  Germany  on  the  outbreak 
of  the  French  revolution  (d.  1808  at  Altona).  The 
Revolution  and  the  Constitution  civile  du  clerg6 
broke  up  the  old  organization  of  the  dioceses  and 
installed  a  constitutional  bishop,  who,  however,  in 
1793,  was  thrown  into  jail.  The  Concordat  between 
the  pope  and  Napoleon  (1801)  restored  the  bishop- 
ric witn  a  different  diocese,  the  three  Departments 
of  Moselle,  Ardennes,  and  Fordts  were  allotted  to 
it,  and  it  was  placed  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the 
Archbishop  of  Besangon.  Peter  Francis  Bienaim^ 
(1802-06),  the  first  bishop  of  the  new  diocese,  divided 
the  tcrritoiy  into  90  proper  and  1251  auxiliary  par- 
ishes. In  1817  that  portion  of  the  Departments  of 
Ardennes  and  For^  which  became  Prussian  territory 
was  separated  (the  bishop  was  Joseph  Jauffret,  1806- 
2^)  and  in  1821  the  remamder  of  Ardennes  and  Fordts, 
80  that  Metz  had  only  30  parishes  and  418  subordinate 
parishes.  After  Jauffret,  who  instituted  the  vearly 
diocesan  ^mod,  followed  Jacob  Francis  Besson  ri824- 
42),  then  raul  George  Maria  Dupont  des  Loges  (1843- 
86),  founder  of  the  bovs'  training  school  in  Montigny 
near  Metz.  In  1871  the  diocese  became  part  of  the 
German  Empire,  and  the  new  boundaries  of  Lorraine 
became  also  the  boundaries  of  the  bishopric.  In  1874 
it  was  separated  from  the  Metropolitanate  of  Be- 
sangon  and  placed  immediately  under  the  Holy  See. 
The  Kulturkampf  destroyed  many  institutions  in 
Meta  founded  by  the  Catholics  and  bishops  of  that 


city.  On  the  death  of  Dupont  des  Loges,  who  on  ac- 
count of  his  outspoken  French  opinions,  was  always  at 
loggerheads  with  the  German  Government,  succeeded 
in  1886  Ludwig  Fleck,  coadjutor  bishop  from  1881, 
and  after  him  the  Benedictine  Willibbrd  Benzler, 
former  Abbot  of  Maria-Laach  (b.  16  October,  1853). 
The  present  Diocese  of  Metz  comprising  tne  Dis- 
trict of  Lorraine  covers  an  area  of  2400  square  miles 
and  on  1  December,  1905,  numbered  533,389  Catho- 
lics, 74,167  Protestants,  1060  Dissenters,  and  7165 
Jews.    The  see  is  divided  into  4  archdiaconates,  and 

36  arehpresbyterates ;  in  1910  it  contained  641  par- 
ishes besides  73  missions;  893  secular,  and  36  regu- 
lar, priests.  The  bishop  has  3  vicars-general.  The 
Cathedral  Chapter  consists  of  9  titular  and  24  hono- 
rary canons.  The  diocesan  institutions  are  the 
seminary  for  priests  at  Metz  with  10  professors,  the 
small  seminary  at  Montigny  near  Metz,  the  cathedral 
school  of  St.  Amulf  at  Metz,  and  St.  Augustine's 
Institute  at  Bitsch.  The  following  orders  and  con- 
gregations had  houses  in  1910  in  the  diocese:  the 
Conventuals,  1  house  with  7  fathers,  and  7  brothers; 
the  Franciscans,  1  house,  4  fathers,  and  6  brothers; 
the  Redemptorists,  1  house,  11  fathers,  and  4  broth- 
ers: the  Fatners  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  1  house,  5  fathers, 
ana  13  brothers ;  the  Christian  Brothers,  2  houses,  and 
20  brothers;  the  Brothers  of  Mercy,  3  houses,  and  13 
brothers.  Orders  of  nuns:  the  Benedictine  Abbey  at 
Oriocourt,  36  sisters;  21  Barefoot  Carmelites  of  Metz: 

37  Sisters  of  the  Visitation  of  Metz;  554  Sisters  of 
Sainte  Chr^tienne,  the  mother-house  at  Metz,  and 
25  convents;  715  Sisters  of  Providence,  with  the 
mother-house  at  Peltre,  and  140  branches ;  508  Sisters 
of  Divine  Providence  with  the  mother-house  at  Metz, 
and  116  convents;  96  Sisters  of  Christian  Doctrine,  4 
convents;  40  Sisters  of  Compassion  with  1  branch; 
62  Sisters  of  the  Good  Shepherd,  2  houses;  25  Sisters 
of  the  Poor  Child  Jesus  at  Plappeville;  14  Sisters  of 
the  Sacred  Heart  of  Mary  at  Vic;  47  Dominicans,  5 
houses;  124  Sisters  of  the  Maternity,  6  houses;  144 
Sisters  of  St.  Vincent  de  Paul,  17  branches;  77  Sisters 
of  Charity,  the  mother-house  at  Strasbur;^,  11  houses; 
81  Borromeans,  9  convents;  20  Little  Sisters  of  the 
Poor  at  Metz ;  23  Sisters  of  Hope  at  Metz ;  18  Sisters  of 
the  Divine  Saviour,  3  houses;  80  Servants  of  the  Sa- 
cred Heart  of  Jesus,  5  branches ;  73  Franciscans  of  the 
Holy  Hearts  of  Jesus  and  Mary,  3  convents ;  4  Fran- 
ciscans from  the  mother-house  at  Luxemburg  in  Ret- 
tel;  13  Tertiaries  of  St.  Francis,  3  houses,  2  servants 
of  Mary  from  the  mother-house  of  St.  Firmin  at  Nancy, 
1  house.  The  most  important  chiirehes  of  the  dio- 
ceses are  the  cathedral  of  St.  Stephen,  a  magnificent 
Gothic  structure,  the  main  parts  of  which  were  built 
in  the  fourteenth  century;  it  was  completed  in  1546, 
and  in  1875  it  was  completely  restored;  the  Gothic 
churches  of  Metz,  St.  Vincent  (thirteenth  and  four- 
teenth centuries),  St.  Martin  (twelfth  and  thirteenth 
centuries),  St.  Segolana  (thirteenth  and  fourteenth 
centuries),  the  collesiate  church  at  Gorze  (twelfth  cen- 
tury), the  late  Gothic  parish  church  at  Mdrchingin, 
the  church  of  St.  Peter  at  Finstingen,  etc. 

Histoire  OinirdU  de  Mett  par  dea  rdiqieta  BinSdidina  (6  vols., 
MetB,  1709-00);  d'Hannoncbllbs,  Mdxancien (2  vols.,  Mets, 
1856V,  Westphal,  GescA.  der  Stadt  Metz  (3  vols.,  Mets.  1876- 
78) ;  SAUBRI.AND,  Die  ImmunitiU  von  MeU  (Mets.  1887) ;  Kraus, 
Kun^  undAUeHum  in  Lothringen  (Strasburff,1889) ;  Technischer 
Fnhrer  dureh  MeU  (Mets,  1894);  Kbune,  MeU,  eeineOeachichie 
und  Samndunoen  (Mets,  1907).  Histories:  L*A%istratiie  (Mets, 
1837-67) :  Mhnoiree  de  VAcadhnie  de  Metz  (Mets,  1819-) ;  Jahr- 
hOcherderOeaelUchaft  fOr  lothrinoiaehe  OeschichU  und  AUerluma- 
kunde  (Mets,  1888);  Gallia  Chrigtiana,  XIII;  Lbpaob,  UAneien 
Diockae  de  MeU  et  PouUUadecediociee  (Nancy,  1872):  Dobrino, 
Beitr&ge  nor  &Ueaten  Oeachichle  dee  Biethume  MeU  (Innsbruck, 
1886);  Revue  ecdfnaalique  de  Mete  (Mets,  1890— especially  1890 
and  1891);  Frttsch,  s.  v.,  in  Dte  katholxttehe  Kirche  uneerer 
Zeit  und  ihreDiener,  II  (MOnich,  1900),  198-205;  DieaUenTer- 
rUoriendes  Bexirke  Lothnngen,  II,  ed.  du  Prel  (Strasburg,  1909). 

Joseph  Lins. 
Menkman,  Brice.    See  Calcxttta,  Archdiocese 

OP. 


Paris  between  1305  and  1320.     He  took  the  name  of    Sononk  and  mergBS  into  the  Rocky  Mouutaia  system 
his  native  city,  but  received  from  his  contemponirieB    in  the  United  States.    In  the  Huican  territory  the 
the  Dickname  Clopinel  {dopiner,  to  limp)  because  he    two  ranges  ate  so  doaely  united  aa  to  form  almost  a 
waa  lame.    Such  nicknamee  were  very  common  in  the 
Middle  Aees  and  were  used  in  lieu  of  patronymics,  the 
custom  of  which  was  not  yet  estabWied.     Jean  de 
Heun'e  social  condition  has  been  a  much  debated 
question.     It  seems  certain  to-day  that  he  was  bom  of 
well-to-do  parents,  received  a  very  good  education, 
and,  about  1300,  was  a  wealthy  buivess  of  Paris,  a 
steady  and  pious  man  who  enjoyed  the  esteem  of  nia 
fellow  oiticens  and  the  friendship  of  many  a  noble  lord. 
He  translated  the  "De  re  militari"  of  vegetius,  the 
"De  consolations  philoBoidiira"  of  Boethius  and  com- 
posed in  French  versee  a  Testament  in  which  he  re- 
proves women  and  the  friars.     His  fame  rests  on  a 
work  of  his  earlier  years,  the  completion  of  the  "  Ro- 
man de  la  Rose",  which  had  been  left  unfinished  by 
Guillaume  de  Lorris.    As  it  stood,  the  latter's  work 
was  a  sort  of  didactic  poem  in  which  he  used  allegori- 
cal characters  to  describe  the  forms,  the  phases,  and 
the  progress  of  love.     His  aim  seemed  to  luive  been  to 
compose  a  treatise  on  the  art  of  loving  for  the  use  of 
the  noble  lords  and  ladies  of  the  thirteenth  century. 
To  the  4669  verses  of  his  predecessor,  Jean  de  Meun 
added  more  than  18,000  and  made  the  poem  a  sort 
of  cyclopedia  of  all  the  knowledge  of  the  time.    He 
quoted,  translated,  and  imitated  all  the  writers  then 
known:  Plato,  Aristotle,  Cicero,  Virgil,  Ovid,  Augus- 
tine, Juvenal,  Livy,  Abelard,  Ri^er  Bacon.     Of  the 
18,000  verses  which  he  has  written,  it  has  been  possi- 
ble t«  assign  13,000  to  their  authors.    All  the  charac-    compact  whole,  occupying  nearly  all  the  region  from 
teiB  became  ao  many  pedants  who  discoursed  on  all    ocean  to  ocean,  forming  the  vast  tablelands  that  ex- 
sorts  oE  topics,  however  remote  they  might  be  from  the    tend  from  Oaxaca  to  Chihuahua  and  Coahuila,  asd 
subject:  the  origin  of  the  state,  the  origin  of  the  royal    leaving  but  a  narrow  strip  of  land  along  the  coast  line. 
power,  instinct,  justice,  the  nature  of  evil,  marriage,     On theeastem coast thelandslopesalmostimpercepti- 
property,  the  conflict  betweentheregular  and  the  secu-    biy  to  the  Gulf,  whereas  on  the  western  tbe  descent  is 
tar  clergy,  between  tbe  friars  and  the  university,  etc.    sharp  and  abrupt.    This  accounts  for  the  few  good 
The  book  is  full  of  attacks  on  all  classes  and  duties  of    ports  on  the  Guu  side,  and  the  abundance  of  harlxHirs 
society:  the  magtstrateOj  the  soldiers,  the  uobks,  the    and  sheltered  bays  on  the  Pacific  shore.    The  highest 
monks,  tithes,  feudal  rights,  proper^.    De  Heun's    peaks  of  these  vast  mountain  ranges  are:  Popocatepetl 
talent  IS  vigorous,  but  his  style  IS  often  cymcal  and  re-    (17,800  feet)  Citlaltepetl,  or  Peak  of  Orisaba  (17,000 
minds  the  reader  of  the  worst  pages  of  Rabelais,  feet),  IxtacinuatI  (16,100  feet).    To  this  physical  con- 

fP^'^i^%ti^5ror™„'*w*"' a.m™'^-  '^^  figuration  of  theland,  the  absence  in  mSaIco  of  any 
fp^^B<bl^n^^'^HZT^^,^^y,^^^.  ™ter  systems  ofimportanoe,is  to  be  attributed.  The 
Orinma  n  KUTcet  du  Roman  dt  la  Sou  n>ui»,  issoi.  principal  nvers,  none  of  which  cames  a  great  volume 

PiEBBX  Mabiquk.        ofwater,aretbeBravOjPdnuco,andGrijalva,emptying 
into  the  Gulf  oi  Uenco,  and  the  Mexcala,  Santiago, 

Blezico. — GEOOKAfHT. — The  Republic  of  Mexico  is  Mayo,  and  Yaaui,  emptying  into  the  Pacific.  Very  few 
rituated  at  the  extreme  point  <rf  ttw  North  American  islands  are  to  M  foundon  the  eastern  coast  of  Mexico, 
continent,  bounded  on  the  north  by  the  United  States,  ouite  unlike  the  Pacific  shore,  which  along  tbe  coast  of 
on  the  east  by  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  the  Caribbean  Sea,  tne  peninsula  of  Lower  California  is  dotted  with  small 
British  Honduras,  and  Guatemala,  and  on  tbe  south  islands.  The  four  seasons  <^  the  year,  common  to 
and  west  by  the  Pacific  Ocean.  It  comprises  an  area  most  countries,  are  unknown  in  Mexico,  owing  to  the 
oi  767,005  square  miles,  with  a  population  of  13,-  entirely  different  climatic  conditions.  Common  usage 
001,000,  of  whom  2,062,000  are  whites  or  Creoles,  has  divided  the  year  into  two  distinct  seasons,  the 
7,380,000  half-breeds  or  mestisos,  1,082,000  Indians,  rainy  and  the  dry  season,  the  former  extending  from 
and  about  80,000  negroes.  Among  the  whites  there  May  to  October.  During  this  entire  time  there  are 
are  approximately  60,000  foreigners,  tJie  greater  num-  daily  showers^  which  not  infrequently  are  heavy 
ber  being  North  Americans,  Central  Americans,  downpours.  The  other  six  months  are  dry,  not  a 
Spaniards,  French,  Italians,  etc.  Tbe  form  rA  govam-  drop  of  rain  falling,  at  least  on  the  tablelands.  The 
ment  is  republican;  its  head  is  a  president,  who  is  dimate  of  the  coast  regions  is  always  verywarm,  while 
elected  every  six  years;  the  legislature  consists  of  two  that  of  the  tablelands  is  temperate.  The  phenom- 
bodies,  senate  and  chamber  of  deputies;  and  there  is  a  enonof  frost  in  December  and  January  on  the  tablie- 
supreme  court.  The  repubhc  is  eompcoed  of  twenty-  lands  of  Mexico,  Puebia,  and  Toluca,  situated  at  an 
seven  states,  three  temtories,  and  a  federal  district,  altitude  <^  more  than  0000  feet  above  IJie  sea  level,  is 
Tbe  territ4uy  of  Quintans  Roo,  created  in  1903,  was  a  due  not  so  much  to  extremee  of  climate  aa  to  the  ranty 
part  of  the  State  of  Yucatan.  The  names  of  tbe  states,  oftbeair  causing  a  rapid  condensation  of  tbe  vapours, 
with  population,  area  in  square  miles,  capitals  and  Many  of  tbe  native  races  which  inhabited  Mexico  at 
numberofpeople,areBivenintheacconq>anyiiuttable.    tbe  time  of  the  Conquest  are  still  in  existence  ;  tb» 

Tbe  Cordillera  of  the  Andes  which  erossee  Uie  nar-  principal  ones  are:  the  Hexicana.  Astaca.  or  NaboA, 
row  isthmus  that  unites  the  Americas,  branches  out  m  the  States  of  Mexico  Morelos  Jalisco;  the  Tarasca, 
into  two  ranges  when  it  reaches  the  peak  <rf  Zempoal-  or  Micboacana,  in  the  State  of  Miehoacan;  tbe  Otomf 
topee  over  (10,000  feet),  in  the  State  <d  Oaxaca;  tbe  in  San  Luis  Potoel,  in  Guanajuato  and  Quer^taro;  the 
(tlstoni  brfuipb  t«nninate8  (tf  th^  Rip  Br$vo  (or  Rio    Opato-Pima,  inSonora,  Chjliaubua,  and  Dutan^o;  tbe 


I  ^«(»i» 


251 


I  -^mUU 


Hixteco-TBapoteca  in  Oaxaca;  the  Mijea,  or  Zoque,  in 
parts  of  Oaxaca,  Vera  Cruz,  and  Chiapas;  theCnontal 
and  Huave,  in  Tabasco,  Oaxaca,  and  Cniapas;  the  Mava 
in  Yucatan.  Among  the  less  important  races  are  the 
Huaxteca  in  the  north  of  Vera  Cnu  and  Southern 
Tamaulipas,  the  Totonaca  in  the  centre  of  the  State  of 
Vera  Cruz,  the  Bfatlalzinca  in  the  State  of  Mexico,  and 
tbMB  Guaycures  and  Laimones  in  Lower  California. 
Remarkable  ruins,  found  in  many  parts  of  the  republic, 
bcAr  witness  to  the  degree  of  civilization  to  which 
tiiese  nations  had  attained.  Chief  among  these  may 
be  mentioned  the  ruins  of  Uxmal  and  Chichen-Itza  in 
Yucatan  (Maya  nation),  those  of  Palenque  and  Biitla 
in  Oaxaca  (Tzapotec  nation),  the  baths  of  Netsahua- 
coyotl  in  Texcoco  (Chichimeca-Nahoa  nation),  and  the 
pyramids  of  TeoUhuacan  rioltec  nation) .  The  sepaAi- 
tion  of  Church  and  State  has  been  established  by  law, 
but  the  religion  of  the  ooimtry  is  Catholic,  there  being 
actually  very  few  who  profess  any  other.  Railroads, 
14,857  miles ;  telegraph  fines,  40,640  miles.  In  1907  the 
product  of  the  mines  amounted  to  $83,078,500,  $42,- 
723,500  of  this  being  gold,  $19,048,000  silver,  and 
$12  400,000  copper.  In  1908  $12,001,000,  $8,300^000 
gold  and  $3,701,800  silver,  was  minted.  The  prmd- 
pal  products  besides  minerals  are  com,  cotton,  agave 
plant  (henequen),  wheat,  sugar,  coffee,  cabinet  woods, 
tobacco,  petroleum,  etc. 

History. — Pre-CorUa  Period. — The  chronology  and 
historical  documents  of  the  Aztecs  give  us  a  more  or 
less  clear  account  of  their  history  for  ei^t  centuries 
prior  to  the  conquest,  but  these  refer  only  to  their  own 
oistoTy  and  that  of  the  tribes  living  in  close  proximity 
to  them,  little  or  nothing  being  said  of  the  origin  of 
the  Otomies,  Olenques,  Cuitlatecos,  and  Biichoacanos. 
According  to  Claviiero  the  Toltecs  came  to  Mexico 
about  A.  D.  648,  the  Chichimecs  in  1170.  and  the 
Aztecs  in  1 196.  That  their  ancestors  came  trom  other 
lands,  is  asserted  by  all  these  tribes  in  their  traditions, 
and  the  north  is  generally  the  direction  from  which 
they  claim  to  have  come.  It  seems  probable  that 
th^  first  immigrants  to  Mexico  came  from  Asia,  either 
bv  way  of  Behring  Strait,  or  across  the  Pacific  Ocean. 
The  theorv  that  these  people  had  some  close  connex- 
ion with  tne  Egyptians  and  other  peoples  of  Asia  and 
Africa  has  some  substantiating  evidence  in  the  ruins 
still  extant,  the  pyramids,  the  exact  and  complicated 
method  of  computing  time,  the  hieroglyphics,  and  the 
oostumes  (almost  identical  with  those  of  the  ancient 
E^tians),  seen  in  the  mural  paintings  in  the  ruins  of 
Chicben-Itza.  It  seems  that  the  Otomies  were  one  of 
the  oldest  nations  of  Anahuac,  and  the  Itzaes  of  Yuca- 
tan. These  were  followed  by  the  Mayas  in  Yucatan,and 
in  Anahuac  the  Toltecs,  the  Chichimicas,  and  Nahoas, 
with  their  seven  tribes,  the  Xochimilcas,  Chalcas,  Teo- 
panecs,  Acolhuas,  Tlanuicas.  Tlaxcaltecs,  and  Aztecs. 
The  last-named  founded  tne  dty  of  Tenochtitlan, 
or  MexitU,  in  1325,  and  gradually,  overpowering 
the  other  tribes,  extended  their  empire  north  as  far  as 
the  Kingdom  of  Michoacan,  and  the  domain  of  the 
nvage  Otomies^  east  to  the  Gulf,  west  to  the  Pacific, 
and  south  to  Nicaragua.  This  was  the  extent  of  the 
Aztec  empire  at  the  time  of  the  Spanish  invasion  in 
1519. 

Language  and  religion. — ^Nahuatl,  or  Aztec,  some- 
what modified  in  the  region  of  the  central  tableland, 
was  the  official  language  of  the  empire,  but  many 
other  dialects  were  in  use  in  other  sections.  The 
principal  ones  were:  Tarascan  in  Michoacan,  Mayan 
m  Yucatan,  Otomian  in  the  northern  limits  of  the 
Aiipire,  Mixteco-Tzapotecan  and  Chontal  in  Oaxaca, 
and  Chiapanecan  and  Tzendal  in  Chiapas  and  Tabasco. 
The  religion  of  all  these  nations  was  a  monstrous  pol^- 
ueiBin.  Human  sacrifice  was  a  feature  of  the  worship 
of  neariy  all  the  tribes,  but  in  none  did  it  assume  the 
PSantie  proportions  tnat  it  did  among  the  Aztecs  in 
^^  ipeat  teocalH,  or  temple,  at  the  capital.  Father 
Hotohnia  in  his  letter  of  2  January,  1553,  to  the  ikn- 


peror  Charles  Y,  speaking  of  the  human  sacrifices  with 
which  the  Emperor  Ahuitzotl  (1486-1502)  celebrated 
the  opening  of  the  great  temple  in  Mexico,  says:  "  In 
a  sacrificial  service  lasting  three  or  four  days  80,400 
men  were  sacrificed.  They  were  brought  through 
four  streets  walking  single  file  until  they  reached  the 
idols. "  Father  Durdn,  speaking  of  this  same  sacrifice 
and  of  the  great  number  of  victims,  adds:  "  Which  to 
me  seemed  so  incredible,  that,  if  history  and  the  fact 
that  I  found  it  recorded  in  many  places  outside  of 
histozy,  both  in  writing  and  pictonally  represented, 
did  not  compel  me  to  believe  it,  I  shomd  not  dare  to 
assert  it".  The  Vatican  and  Tellerian  manuscripts 
give  the  number  of  victims  as  20,000;  this  numoer 
seems  more  probable. 

Upon  this  occasion  victims  were  simultaneously 
sacrificed  in  fourteen  principal  temples  of  the  city. 
In  the  great  teocalli,  there  were  four  groups  of 
sacrifices,  and  the  same  was  probably  the  case  in 
other  places;  the  time  for  the  sacrifices  was  from  sim- 
rise  to  sunset,  about  thirteen  hours,  each  victim  re- 
quired about  five  minutes,  so  that  computing  by  this 
standard  the  number  of  victims  might  easfly  reach 
the  above-mentioned  number.  Father  Mendieta,  as 
well  as  Father  Motolinia  and  other  authorities,  agree 
in  affinning  that  the  number  of  victims  annimlly 
sacrificed  to  Huitziloposotli  and  other  Aztec  deities 
reached  the  number  of  15,000  to  20,000.  To  the  stu- 
dent of  Aztec  history  this  will  not  appear  unlikely,  for 
they  kept  up  a  continuous  warfare  with  their  neigh- 
bours, not  so  much  to  extend  their  empire  as  for  tne 
avowed  purpose  of  securing  victims  for  the  sacrifices. 
In  battle  their  idea  was  not  so  much  to  kill  as  to  take 
their  enemies  prisoners.  To  this,  in  very  great  meas- 
ure, the  Kingdom  of  Michoacan  and  the  Republic  of 
Tlaxcala,  situated  in  the  very  heart  of  the  Aztec  em- 

§ire,  only  a  few  miles  from  the  capital,  owed  their  in- 
ependence,  and  the  Spaniards  many  of  their  victories. 
Hemin  Cortes  may  for  this  reason  have  escaped  death 
at  the  hands  of  the  Indians  in  the  numerous  battles  of 
the  siege  of  the  capital.  Notwithstanding  the  hideous 
form  of  worship  and  the  bloody  sacrifices,  the  peoples 
of  ancient  Mexico  preserved  a  series  of  traditions 
which  may  be  classified  as  Biblical  and  Christian ;  the 
Biblical  traditions  are  undoubtedly  the  remnants  of 
the  religious  beliefs  of  the  first  races  who  mimited  to 
these  shores:  the  probable  origin  of  the  Christian 
traditions  will  be  explained  later. 

Biblical  Traditions.— (1)  Idea  of  the  Unity  of  God. 
— ^The  Aztecs  save  the  name  of  Teotl  to  a  supreme,  in- 
visible, etemal  being,  whom  they  never  attenipted  to 
Sortray  in  visible  form,  and  whom  they  called  Tolque- 
fahuaque.  Creator  of  all  things,  Ipalneomani,  He  by 
whom  we  live.  The  Mayas  called  this  same  supreme 
being,  Hunab-ku,  and  neither  does  this  tribe  seem  to 
have  ever  attempted  to  give  form  and  personality 
to  their  deity.  The  Michoacans  adored  Tucupacha, 
one  god  ana  creator  of  all  things.  (2)  Creation. — 
Among  the  Aztecs  the  idea  of  the  creation  had  been 
preserved.  They  believed  that  ^  Tloouo-Nahuaque 
nad  created  a  man  and  a  woman  in  a  delightful  gar- 
den; the  woman  was  called  Cihuacohuatl,  the  snake 
woman.  (3)  Deluge. — Among  the  Michoacans  we  find 
traditions  of  the  Deluge.  Tezpi,  to  escape  from 
drowning  in  a  terrible  deluge  that  occurred,  em- 
barked m  a  boat  shaped  like  a  box,  with  his  wife 
and  children,  many  species  of  animals,  and  pro- 
visions of  grain  and  seeos.  When  the  rain  had  abated, 
and  the  flood  subsided,  he  liberated  a  bird  called 
an  aura,  a  water  bud,  which  did  not  return.  Then 
others  were  released,  and  all  but  the  humming 
bird  failed  to  return.  The  illustration  on  the  follow- 
ing page  of  an  Aztec  hieroglyphic  taken  from  the  Vati- 
can manuscript  represents  the  Deluge  as  conceived  by 
the  Aztecs.  The  symbol  Calli  is  seen  in  the  water,  a 
house  with  the  head  and  hand  of  a  woman  projecting 
to  signify  the  submersion  of  all  dwellings  and  their  in- 


BOZICO  21 

babitantH.  The  two  fish  Bwimming  in  the  water  sig- 
nify, besides  the  (act  that  they  were  saved,  that  all  mea 
were  transformed  into  TUcamJchin,  fish-people,  bc- 
cording  to  the  Aztec  tradition.  In  the  midst  of  the 
waters  floats  a  hollow  wooden  canoe,  Acalli,  occupied 
by  a  man  and  a  woman,  the  only  priviieged  pair  to 
escape  t)ie  disaster.  The  goddess  Chalchiuntlique,  as 
though  descending  from  the  heavens  in  a  flash  of 
lightning,  surrounded  by  her  symbols  of  rain  and 
water,  presides  over  the  scene.  The  date  of  the 
Deluge  IS  marked  at  the  right  with  the  sign  Matiac- 
tliatl  of  the  month  Atemoztli  (3  January);  the  dura- 
tion of  the  flood  is  marlted  by  the  sign  to  the  left. 
Each  major  circle  finished  with  a  feathered  end,  equals 
400,  and  each  minor  circle  indicates  a  miit,  ho  that  to- 
gether they  equal  4008  years. 

(4)  Tower  of  Babel. — tn  the  commentary  on  the 
Vatican  manuscript  mention  is  made  of  the  e^ochafter 
Atonatiuh,  that  is  the  Deluge,  when  giants  inhabited 
the  earth,  and  of  the  giant  Xelhua,  who,  after  the 
waters  had  subsided,  went  to  Cholollan,  where  he  be- 
gan to  build  the  great  pyramid  out  of  huge  bricks  of 
sun-baked  clay  (adobes),  made  in  Tkalmanalco  at  the 


base  of  the  Cocotl 
of  the  pyramids  by 
hand.  A  line  of  men 
extended  from  olace 
to  place,  and  the 
bricks  were  passed 
from  hand  to  hand. 
The  gods,  seeing  that 
the  pyramid  tnreat- 
ened  to  touch  the 
sky,  were  displeased 
and  rained  down  fire 
from      the     heavens. 


and  conveyed  to  the  si 


■pying   r 


any 


and  dispersing 
rest.  (5)  Confusionof 
Tongues.  — Teocipactli 
and  Yochiquetzal,  the 
man  and  woman  who 
were  saved  from  the 
flood,  according  to  the 
Aztec  tradition, 
landed  on  the  moun- 
tain of  Colhuacan. 
They  had  many  children,  but  they  were  all  dumb  until 
a  dove  from  tne  branches  of  a  tree  taught  them  to 
speak.  Their  tongues,  however,  were  so  diverse  that 
tn^  could  not  understand  one  another. 

fSiristian  Traditions. — In  the  history  of  the  na- 
tions of  ancient  Mexu^o  the  coming  of  Quelzalcoatl 
marks  a  distinct  era.  He  was  said  to  have  come  from 
the  Province  of  Pinueo,  a  white  man,  of  great  stature, 
broad  brow,  lai^  eyes,  long  black  hair,  rounded  beard, 
and  dressed  in  a  tunic  covered  with  black  and  red 
crosses.  Chaste,  intelligent,  and  just,  a  lover  of  peace, 
veiaed  in  the  sciences  and  arts,  he  preached  by  his 
example  and  doctrine  a  new  religion  which  inculcated 
fasting  and  penance,  love  and  reverence  tor  the  Divin- 
ity', practise  of  virtue,  and  hatred  of  vice.  He  pre- 
dicted that  in  the  course  of  time  white  men  with  beards, 
like  himself,  would  come  from  the  East,  would  take 
possession  of  their  country,  overthrow  their  idols,  and 
establish  a  new  religion.  Expelled  from  Tollan,  he 
sought  fefug^  in  Cholollan,  but,  being  pursued  even 
here  by  the  ToUans,  he  passed  on  to  Yucatan,  where, 
under  the  name  of  Kukulean,  he  repeated  the  predic- 
tions he  had  made  in  Anahuac,  introduced  the  venera- 
tion of  the  Cross,  and  preached  Christian  doctrine. 
Laterhe  set  sail  from  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  goin^  towards 
the  east,  to  his  own  land,  as  he  himself  said.  The 
Opinion  of  ancient  writers  that  this  person  was  the 
Apostle  Saint  Thomas  is  now  universally  rejected, 
and  the  meet  probable  explanation  of  the  identity  of 
QuetEalcoatlisthathe  was  an  Icelandic  or  Norse  priest 


of  the  tenth  or  eleventh  century,  who,  on  one  of  then 
bold  voyages  of  adventure,  accidentally  discovered 
this  new  land  or,  shipwrecked  inthcGulf.drifted  totbe 
coast  of  PAnuco,  Christian  traditions,  above  all  that 
of  the  veneration  of  the  Cross,  dat«  in  Anahuac  and 
Yucatan  from  the  coming  of  Queizalcoat!.  In  Yuca- 
tan the  followeiB  of  Francisco  Hem^dez  de  Cdrdoba 
found  crosses  which  were  the  object  of  adoration. 
With  regard  to  the  Cross  of  Cozumel,  the  Indians  said 
that  a  man  more  resplendent  than  the  sun  had  died 
upon  it.  The  Mayas  preserved  a  rite  suggestive  of 
baptism  and  confession,  and  among  the  Totonacos  an 
imitation  of  communion  was  practised,  the  bread 
which  was  used  was  called  Toyoiliaitlacual,  i.  e.,  food 
of  our  soul.  Crosses  were  also  found  in  Queretaro, 
Tepic,  TianguLstepec,  and  Metztitlan. 

No  better  authority  can  be  cited,  in  connexion  with 
the  famous  Cross  of  Palenque,  which  is  herewith  repro- 
duced than  tlie  learned  archsologist,  Oroxco  y  Berra. 
He  says:  "The  civilization  indicat«a  by  the  ruins  of 
Paleniiue  and  of  Yucatan,  differs  in  every  respect,  lan- 
guage, writing,  architecture,  dress,  customs,  habits, 
and  tbeogony,  from  that  of  the  Aztecs.  If  there  are 
some  points  of  resemblance  they  can  be  traced  to  the 
epoch    of  Kukulean, 


There  is  also  histor- 
ical proof  that  the 
Cross  of  Palenque  is 
of  much  more  an- 
cient origin  than  that 
of  the  Toltecs.  From 
this  it  may  be  in- 
ferred that  the  Cross 
of  Palenque  does  not 
owe  its  origin  to  the 
same  source  as  tbo 
crosses  of  Mexico  and 
Cozumel,  that  is.  to 
the  coming  of  Kukul- 
ean, or  QuetzalcoatI, 
and  consequently  haa 
no  Christian  stenifi- 
cance  such  as  thuee 
had.  It  seems  to  be  of 
Buddhistic  origin. "  Among  the  Tzapotecs  and  Mijes 
of  the  State  of  Oaxaca  there  is  also  a  very  distinct 
tradition  about  Pecoclia,  who  came  from  the  West, 
landing  in  Huatuico  about  the  sixth  century.  He  is 
said  to  nave  planted  a  cross  there,  and  to  have  taught 
the  Indians  the  veneration  they  should  have  for  this 
symbol.  This  cross  is  still  preserved  in  the  cathedral 
of  Oaxaca,  the  claims  for  its  authenticity  resting  on 
the  most  thoroughly  respectable  tradition,  and  upon 
documents  that  have  legal  as  well  as  canonical  weight. 
It  mav  not  be  out  of  place  hcie  to  make  some  men- 
tion of  tne  songs  and  prophecies  which  existed  among 
the  Indians  before  the  coming  of  the  Spaniards. 
Quetialcoatl  had  predicted  the  coming  of  a  strange 
race,  and  when  the  Spaniards  landed  the  natives  re- 
ceived them  as  the  long  expected  messengers  whose 
coming  had  been  predicted  to  them.  In  Yucatan, 
Ions  before  thecommgof  the  Spaniards,  the  poet  Pat- 
zin-Yaxun-Chan  had  thus  addressed  the  people:  "O 
Itzalanos  I  hate  your  gods,  forget  them  for  they  an 
finite,  adore  the  God  of  truth,  who  is  omnipotent,  and 
the  creator  of  ail  things. "  The  high  priest  of  Tixca- 
cayon,  Cauch,  said:  There  shall  come  the  sign  of  a 
Ma  who  dwells  on  high,  and  the  cross  which  illumined 
%e  world  shall  be  made  manifest ;  the  worship  of  false 
gods  shall  cease.  Your  father  comes,  O  Itcalanoal 
your  brother  comes,  O  Itzalanos  I  receive  your 
oearded  guests  from  the  East,  who  come  t«  bring  the 
of  God.    God  it  is  who  comes  to  ua,  meek  and 


hX." 


BOZICO                              263  HEZIGO 

Cahttial  Period. — (1)  Conquerors  and  Coaquered. —  Spanish  victories  were  due  more  to  the  mode  of  Id- 
With  the  capture  of  Cuahutemot^in,  13  August,  1521,  dtan  warfare  and  in  some  cases,  as  in  that  of  Otumba, 
the  Ast«c  empire  came  to  an  end,  and  witli  it  Nahoa  to  Cortte'a  indomitable  courage  and  strategy.  As  has 
einlix&tion,  if  auch  may  be  called  the  atlainmenU  of  a  already  been  said,  the  Indians  did  not  fight  to  conquer 
nation  which,  although  preserving  in  aoine  of  the  but  to  take  their  enemies  prisoners,  and  the  battles 
bnacbes  of  human  knowledge  remnants  of  an  ancient  alter  the  &rst  assault  became  a  series  of  confused  hand- 
culture,  Uicked  nevertheless  many  of  the  essenti^  of  to-hand  fights  without  order  or  harmony  on  the  part  of 
eiviliution,  practised  human  sacrifice,  polygeny,  and  the  Indians,  whereas  the  Spaniards  preserved  their 
•lavery,  and  kept  up  aa  incessant  warfare  with  their  unity  and  fought  under  the  direction  of  their  leader. 
neighbourB  for  the  avowed  purpose  of  providing  vie-  Valour  was  not  wanting  on  either  side,  but  the  Indians 
tims  to  be  sacrificed  in  a  fruitless  endeavour  to  satiate  yielded  to  the  temptation  of  an  easy  flight,  while  the 
the  thirst  for  blood  of  their  false  gods.  Most  histo-  Spaniards  fought  with  the  courage  of  desperation; 
liana  attribute  the  victories  of  the  Spanish  conquerors  knowing  well  that  the  sacrificial  stone  was  the  fate  that 
to  the  firearms  they  carried,  the  horses  they  rode,  the  awaitetftbe  prisoner,  with  them  it  was  to  cont^uer  or 
hone  being  entirely  unknown  to  the  Indians,  the  steel  t«die.  Historians  have  been  so  carried  away  with  the 
armour  they  wore,  and  the  help  of  the  Indian  allies,  military  exploits  of  .Cort&  that  the  men  who  fought 
No  doubt  all  these  contributed  in  a  measure,  but  not  with  him,  sharing  all  his  dangers,  have  been  ovei^ 
IS  much  as  is  represent«d.  Of  the  500  or  600  men  looked.  Greed  for  gold  was  not  the  sole  dominant 
that  composed  the  first  expedition,  only  thirteen  motive  of  their  actions,  as  has  been  so  persistently  as- 
oanied  firearms,  and  tfa^  were  heavy  cumbereome  serted ;  it  was  a  strange  mixture  of  indomitable  coup- 


PnE-CHHIBTlAH  CHOM  OF  PaLEMQDE 

Of  Buddhistic  orisia  Bcoordiag  to  Oroioo  v  Berrs 

pieces,  hard  to  manage  as  were  all  the  firearms  of  that  age,  harshness,  tireless  energy,  cupidity,  licentious- 
time.  The  artillery  train  was  primitive,  and  its  ness,  Spanish  loyalty,  and  religious  spirit.  Some  of 
cftpacHy  limited,  and  always  accompanied  the  main  those  who  had  fought  most  valiantly  and  who  received 
e(4umu.  The  detachments  which  were  sent  out  to  their  share  of  the  spoils,  judging  their  gains  ill  gotten, 
subjugate  or  pacify  the  villages,  and  which  had  sharp  laid  aijide  their  worldly  possessions  acquired  at  such  a 
eDCOunt«iB,  could  not  hamper  their  movements  in  this  high  price,  and  embraced  the  religious  life.  I^ter 
way.  The  horsemen  were  but  sixteen  in  all,  and  after  they  emerged  from  the  cloister  transformed  into 
their  first  astonishment,  not  unmixed  with  awe,  the  missionaries,  full  of  zeal  and  bringing  to  the  arduous 
Dativea  soon  learned  that  they  could  be  felled  by  a  task  of  evaogeliiing  the  Indians,  the  same  valour. 
Bingleblow.  Except  officers,  few  of  the  Spaniards  wore  disregard  of  Tatigue,  and  untiring  enei^  they  had 
knnour,  the  majority  had  quilted  cotton  suits,  and  for  previously  displayed  in  the  army  of  discovery  and 
»rmfl  the  sword  and  buckler;  the  hoiaemen  were  armed  conqueat. 

with  lancies.  With  the  fall  of  the  great  Tenochtitlan,  the  first 

As  to  wewons,  the  Indians  were  quit«  as  well  pro-  period  may  be  said  to  close.    This  was  followed  by 

vided  as  the  Spaniards;  thick  wooden  helmets  covered  many  expeditions  of  discovery  and  conquest,  endiiu 

with  leather  protected  the  head,  and  all  carried  the  for  the  most  part  in  the  founding  of  colonies.      Al^ 

e^matli,  a  strong  shield  large  enough  to  almost  cover  varado  penetrated  as  far  as  Guatemala;  CristSbal  de 

tbe  entire  breast.    The  allies  no  doubt  helped,  but  in  Olid  reached  Honduras,  Montejo,  father  and  son,  oo- 

the  stubbornly  fought  battles  with  the  TIaxcalteea,  complishedtheconquestof Yucatan;  Cort^wentasfar 

the  Spaniards  w(Hi  singlehanded;  their  Indian  allies  as  Lower  California.     Nu&odeGuzm^,theconqueror 

in  ttke  very  beat  of  battle  thinking  mor«  of  pillage  of  Mit^oaican  (or  Tarasco  Kingdom]  and  tbe  founder 

than  of  fighting,  during  the  siege,  when  the  Spani^  of  the  city  of  Guadalajara,  whose  career  might  have 

cause  seemed  doomed,  the  allies  forsook  them.     When  been  so  distinguished  for  glory,   allowed  his  crusl, 

laterthey  returned  they  were  such  a  hindrance  on  the  avaricious   disposition    to    overrule  all   his   actions, 

narrow  causeways,  that  in  order  to  fight  freely,  tbe  Fleeing  from  Mexico  to  avoid  the  storm  that  his  evil 

^luiards  were  obliged  to  send  tbem  to  the  rear.  The  deeds  had  brou^  upon  him,  be  eitoountared  Tango- 


put  him  to  death.  Purauing  his  way  he  left  a  trail  <u 
ashes  and  blood  through  the  whole  Taraaco  Kingdom, 
The  saintly  Vaaco  de  Quiroga,  firat  Bishop  of  Michoa- 
can,  with  difficulty  effaced  the  traces  of  this  bloody 


boop.  Retracing  his  steps,  he  founded  the  cit^  of 
Guaoalajara.  At  enmity  with  Cort4e,  unrecogniied 
Iw  the  Audiencifl  and  the  viceroy,  cursed  by  his  vic- 
tims, he  returned  to  Mexico,  to  be  seized,  imprisoned, 
and  transported  to  Spain,  where  be  died  in  poverty 
and  want.  NuQo  was  succeeded  by  the  mild,  vimiins 
CrisUibal  de  Oaat«.  By  the  close  of  the  sixteenth 
century  the  conquest  from  Guatemala  to  New  Mexico 
had  been  practically  accomplished. 

In  New  Spain,  no  Sayri  Tupac  nor  Tupac  Amaru 
ever  arose  to  attempt  to  overthrow  the  Spaniards,  as 
fa]  Peru.  The  Indiana  conquered  by  Cort4s  and  the 
commanders  who  followed  him  remaned  aubmiaaive. 
There  were  occo- 
rional  uprisings 
among  the  Northern 


India 


,   but   1 


lough  to 
affect  the  peace  of 
the  colony  in  gen- 
eral. Neither  bad 
tbe  Government  to 
contend  with  any 
disloyalty  among  its 
own  Bubjecta;  the 
Spaniards  oS  New 
Spain  never  belied 
the  proverbial  Spaji- 
ish  loyalty.  The 
king  received  from 
the  nands  of  Gort^e 
and  those  who  con- 
tinued his  work  a 
vast  empit«  almost 
free  of  expense  to  tbe  Tayel  exchequer.  All  that 
was  required  seemed  to  be  to  talte  possession  of 
tbe  new  territories  added  to  the  Crown;  but  the 
situation  was  not  without  its  difficultiee.  For  the 
conquest  a  military  commander  had  been  suffi- 
cient; tbe  new  empire  would  require  a  Government. 
In  the  methods  employed  to  organise  this  new 
empire,   Spain   has  frequently   been    charged    with 


of  Cuahutemotzin  and  the  horrible  death  of  Tan- 
goaxan  II  will  ever  disgrace  the  memory  of  Cortes 
and  Nuiio  de  Guzm&i.  The  slavery  to  which  the 
Indians  were  reduced  during  the  early  years  of  the 
eonqueet,  their  distribution  among  the  plantations, 
tbe  contemptuous  disregard  of  the  conquerors  for  the 
lives  of  Inciians,  looking  upon  them  at  first  aa  irra- 
tional beings,  are  blots  which  can  hardly  be  eflaoed 
from  the  history  of  tbe  Spanish  conquest  in  America. 
But  the  impartial  historian  may  well  c^l  attention 
to  certain  facts  and  thus  enable  tbe  reader,  viewing 
the  question  from  every  aspect,  to  form  a  correct 
historical  opinion. 

Neither  the  home  Government  nor  the  Spanish 
nation  was  ever  an  accomplice  in  theee  deeds  of  cru- 
elty of  the  Spaniards  in  New  Spain.  Spain,  it  is 
true,  rewarded  the  conoueron  of  Mexico  just  as 
nations  to-dav  honour  tne  victorious  generals  who 
have  left  in  their  wake  devastated  lands  and  ijattio- 
fields  strewn  with  the  dead.  These  expeditions  of 
conquest  were  the  natural  outcome  of  circumBtanees; 
they  were  carried  out  under  royal  command,  and  were 
no  more  piratical  expeditions  then  than  they  would 
be  now.  Spain  did  not  fail  to  demand  a  strict  account 
from  all  who,  afl«r  tbe  submission  of  the  people,  ex- 


ceeded the  limits  of  their  authority,  and  she  used 
every  measure  within  her  reach,  though  not  always 
Buoceasfully,  to  obtain  fair  treatment  for  the  con- 
quered Indians.  Innumerable  royal  decreee  and  laws 
enjoining  just  and  equitable  treatment  for  the  Indians, 
were  issued  to  the  viceroys  and  govemois  of  America. 
Through  the  aid  of  the  missjonariee,  the  Spanish 
Government  obtained  from  Paul  III  (17  June,  1537), 
the  Bull  which  gave  to  the  Indians  equal  riehta  with 
the  white  man,  and  proclaimed  them  capable  of  re- 
ceiving the  Christian  faith  and  its  sacraments,  thus 
destroying  the  pernicious  opinion  that  they  were 
irrational  beings.  Severe  laws  were  promulgated 
against  those  who  should  attempt  to  enslave  the 
Indians,  and  the  Government  oniered  that  slaves 
should  be  brought  from  Africa  (as  was  tbe  cust^un  of 
the  period),  rattier  than  that  Spanish  subjects  should 
become  slaves. 

With  regard  to  eneomiendoi  (a  system  of  patents 
involving  virtual  enslavement  of  the  Indiana)  no  one 
who  baa  read  the  life  of  Fray  Bartolom6  de  laa  Cases 
can  be  ignorant  of 
the  earnest  effort 
made  by  the  Gov- 
ernment to  do  awa^ 
with  them,  but,  as 
this  waa  impoaaihle, 
and  as  the  att«inpt 
was  creating  dis- 
order (see  HoTO- 
unia),  the  Govem- 


the  condition  of  tbe 
Indiana,  and  to  save 
them  as  much  as 
possible  from  haish 
treatment  by  their 
masters.  If  the  ex- 
cesses of  some  of  the 
concjuerorB    i 


PTBiuan  or  Sam  Jdam  T>OTtBn*cjtN 


out  m  such  bold  re- 
lief, it  is  because  of  the  unceasing  protests  of  the  many 
SpaniardBwhowerenottheirnartisanB.  Themostvebe- 
ment  accusers  of  the  Spaniards  base  their  assertions  on 
the  writingB  of  Spaniaras  themselves,  particulariy  those 
of  the  fiery  Las  Casas,  to  whom  the  Government  ap- 
pears to  have  allowed  free  speech.  The  missionanea 
were  equally  vehement,  oft«n  mabJng  unreasonable 
demancTs,  and  showing  themselves  more  bitt«r  to- 
wards their  own  countrymen  than  a  stranger  would 
have  been.  Even  Philip  11  suffered  in  silence  this 
torrent  of  complaint  and  abuse  of  his  Government,  and 
tolerated  charges  which,  in  similar  cireumstanoes,  in 
the  realm  of  the  haughty  Elizabeth  would  have  been 
dearly  paid  by  those  complaining.  A  laud^leaenti- 
ment  of  fairness  and  compassion  towards  the  van- 
quished race  inspired  these  writing,  and  their  very 
nature  and  purpose  precluded  all  mention  of  any  deeds 
of  kindnees  and  humanitje.  The  grueeome  picture 
that  has  resulted  from  this  makea  it  appear  that  in 
that  army  of  conquerors  and  eolonisers  there  waa  not 
a  single  one  who  was  a  Christian  and  a  man.  In  their 
seal  for  j  ustice  theSpaniarda  have  really  caat  diahonour 
on  thcdr  country,  and  this  must  ever  redound  to  their 
^ory. 

(2)  Evangelisstion  and  Conversion  of  the  Indiana. — 
In  the  rai^  of  the  Spaniards  there  were  several 
priests,  but  little  could  be  done  during  the  first  stormy 
period.  When  the  conquest  had  been  efTected,  and 
order  restored,  the  Franciscans  were  the  first  to  offer 
themselves  for  the  work.  Three  Flemish  Franciscans, 
among  them  the  famous  lay  brother  Peter  of  Ghent 
(Pedro  de  Gante),  kinsman  of  the  Emperor  Charles  V, 
had  preceded  the  first  twelve  Franciscans  who  for- 
mally took  possession  of  the  miaaionB  in  1524.  Upon 
the  arrival  of  the  latter,  they  joined  their  mnks,  and 


HIXIOO  255  UZICO 

the  superior,  Fn]r  Haitfn  de  Valencia,  appointed  does  not  justify  the  statement  that  the  conveidoa  ot 
them  to  various  places  near  the  City  of  Mexico,  where  the  Indians  was  not  sincere.  The  most  notable 
they  b^an  at  onoe,  as  beet  they  could,  to  teach  and  apoalasies  occurred  at  the  end  of  the  sixteenth  century, 
pleach.  At  first,  espeoially  among  the  adults,  little  when  Cosijopii,  formerly  King  of  Tehuantepec,  was 
could  be  accomplished,  as  they  did  not  know  the  Ian-  surprised,  surrounded  by  his  ancient  courtiers  and  a 
euage,  so  they  turned  their  attention  to  the  children,  great  number  of  people,  taking  part  in  an  idolatrous 
There  their  seal  was  rewarded  with  more  succeaa,  the  ceremony,  and  in  the  seventeenth  century,  when  the 
children  being  more  docile  and  less  imbued  with  the  priests  of  the  Province  of  Oaxaca  heanf  that  great 
effects  of  idolatrous  worship.  By  degrees  they  gained  numbers  of  Indians  congreeat^d  secretly  at  nisht  to 
ground,  and  before  long  sdulta  were  asking  for  bap-  worship  their  idols.  But  this  occurred  when  tnc  in- 
tiam,  the  number  increasing  daily  until  witnin  a  few  fluence  of  the  missionaries  over  the  Indians  had 
years  the  greater  portion  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  greatly  diminished,  whether  owing  to  the  abandon- 
newly  conquered  territory  had  received  baptism.  The  ment  of  gome  of  the  parishes,  to  disputes  with  the 
apparition,  iti  1531,  ot  Our  Lady  of  Guadalupe  to  the  secular  clergy,  or  because  to  some  extent  religious 
Indian  Juan  Die^o  hod  a  powerful  effect,  the  increase  discipline  had  been  relaxed. 
in  conversions  bemg  very  noticeable  after  that  time.  Tt,  f  k;.  ..^..^.Tr;....  ;t  ^^-.i  ■■ 

The  fact  that  they  had  found  the  territory  con^ 
quered,  and  the  inhaoitants  pacified  and  submissive, 
had  greatly  aided  the  missionaries:  they  could,  more- 
over, count  on  the  support  of  the  Government,  and  the 
new  converts  on  its  favour  and  protection.  It  must, 
however,  be  borne  in  mind  that  tnere  was  no  coercion: 
the  Indians  did  not  see  in  baptism  an  Eegis  that  would 
protect  them  from  cruelty  and  persecution,  other- 
wise they  surely  would  have  hastened  to  be  baptized 
in  those  early  years  when  the  unsettled  state  of 
the  government  exposed  them  to  greater  oppression 
and  outrage.  The  motive  must  be  sought  deeper. 
The  Altec  religion,  with  its  human  sacrifices,  draining 
constancy  the  life  of  the  mass  of  the  people,  must 
surely  have  inclined  them  to  a  religion  which  freed 
them  from  such  a  yoke.  Moreover,  their  religEon, 
though  reci^izing  the  immortality  of  the  soul,  as- 
aignS  future  happiness,  not  accoraing  to  the  merits, 
but  according  to  the  worldly  condition,  of  the  indi- 
vidual, his  profession,  and  the  fortuitous  manner  of 
da^tb.  This  contrasted  strongly  with  the  Christian 
dogma  of  the  immortality  of  the  soul  and  the  power 
of  all,  however  lowly,  to  acquire  by  their  merits  the 
right  to  possess  it.  Some  liave  questioned  whether 
or  not  the  lives  of  the  missionaries  were  a  contributing 
influence  in  the  conveision  of  the  Indians.  It  is  true 
that  the  ancient  Attec  priests  practised  seven  pen- 
ances and  austerities,  but  their  harshness,  haughti-  Aiteo  Caludar  Stons 
nees,  and  aloofness  from  the  poor  formed  a  sharp  Natlooal  Museum,  City  of  Uezi«i 
contrast  with  the  conduct  of  the  missionaries,  who,  on 

the  contrary,  sought,  sheltered,  taught,  and  defended  assumed  in  some  respects.  Thus,  for  example,  the 
thent.  The  fact  Uiat  the  haughty  conquerors,  whom  Christianity  of  the  Indian  is  essentially  sad  and  som- 
thelndianasomuchadmired,  showed  the  missionaries  bre.  This  has  been  attribut«d  to  the  occasion  on  which 
so  much  outward  deference  and  respect,  even  kneeling  Christianity  was  introduced  among  them,  te  racial 
at  their  feet,  raised  them  at  once  to  a  higher  level.  traits,   to  the  impression   indelibly  imprinted   upon 

One  oF  the  most  eminent  Franciscans  of  this  mis-  them  by  their  ancient  rites,  and  to  the  fact  that  the 
sion,  Fr.  Sahagiin,  charges  the  first  missionaries  with  Indian  sees  in  the  crucifix  the  actual  evidences  of  in- 
a  lackof  worldlysagocity  (prudencia8«rpenftna),and  suit  and  abuse,  of  suffering  and  dejection.  The 
says  that  they  aid  not  see  that  the  Indians  were  de-  crucifixes  in  the  Indian  churchesarerepuiaive,andonly 
oeiving  them,  to  all  appearances  embracing  the  Faith,  in  rare  instances  have  the  priests  succeeded  in  improv- 
yet  holding  in  secret  to  their  idolatrous  practices,  ing  or  changing  these  images.  Devotion  to  some 
This  accusation  in  a  measure  attacks  the  memory  of  particular  samt,  above  all  to  the  Apostle  St.  James, 
theoe  bat  holy  missionaries,  and  it  seems  almost  out-  may  also  be  noted.  Their  ancient  polytheism  had 
■ide  the  ranee  of  possibilities  that  such  a  multitude  taugbtthem  that  the  favour  of  each  god  who  possessed 
could  have  oeen  u  accord  to  deceive  them.  The  apecial  prenwatives  was  to  be  sought,  which  explains 
axamples  of  virtuous  lives  led  by  several  of  the  ca-  tne  manyand  varied  propitiatory  sacrifices  of  their  re- 
eiques  (Indian  chiefs),  prominent  i>etsonages,  and  by  ligion,  and  the  new  converts  probably  did  not  at  first 
many  of  the  Ppor  pleMians,  the  sincere  and  upright  understand  the  relative  position  of  the  saints,  nor  the 
maimer  in  which  tney  received  and  carried  out  the  distinction  between  the  adoration  due  to  God  and  the 
severe  condition  of  abandoning  their  polygamous  reverence  due  to  the  saints.  Hearing  the  Spaniards 
practices,  bear  witness  to  the  fact  that  not  all  these  speak  constantly  of  the  Apostle  St.  James,  they  be- 
ocmversions  were  feigned.  Of  course,  it  does  not  came  convinced  that  he  was  some  sort  of  divine  pro- 
b^ow  from  this  that  every  Indian  without  exception  tector  of  the  conquerors,  to  be  justly  feared  by  tneir 
who  embraced  Christianity,  did  so  in  all  sincerity,  enemies,  and  that  it  was  theretore  necessary  to  gain 
Doubtless  there  were  not  many  among  thera  who  his  favour.  Rence  the  great  devotion  that  the 
attaiiwd  a  perfect  understanding  of  the  new  dogmas,  Indians  had  for  St.  James,  the  numerous  churches 
but  neariy  all  preferred  the  new  religion  because  of  the  dedicated  to  him.  and  the  atetues  of  him  in  so  many 
evident  advantages  it  possessed  over  the  ancient  churehes,mount^oQawhiteho(se,withd(awnswora, 
doetrinea  and  worship.    Their  knowled^  may  not    in  the  act  of  charging. 

have  extended  to  juaging  the  fixed  limits  between  A  much  debated  question  at  that  time  was  whether 
wliat  was  allQwed  and  what  wh  forbidden,  but  this    conquest  should  precede  Qonveiaion,  or  whether  the 


Huaco  2f 

efforts  of  the  missionaries  alone  would  suffice  to  aub- 
jugate  and  brinstbe  Indians  to  a  Christian  and  civilised 
mode  oC  life.  The  former  theory  had  been  applied 
to  the  first  nationa,  which  the  misaionariea  found 
conquered  and  pacified  when  tbej  b^an  their  work 
funoae  them.  The  question  presented  itself  when 
expeditions  OKainst  the  Indians  of  the  northern  part  of 
Mexico  were  being  planned.  The  independent  state 
of  these  tribes  was  a  constant  menace  to  the  peace  and 
pit^ress  of  the  colony  in  the  south,  and  the  rich  mines 
known  to  exist  there  were  also  an  inducement.  The 
system  adopted,  which  seems  to  have  been  enjoined 
by  royal  mandate,  was  to  send  armed  CTpcdltions, 
accompanied  always  by  several  missionaries,  to  take 
pOBseasion  of  the  territory  and  to  establish  garrisons 
and  forts  to  hold  it.  By  this  arrangement  the  cross  and 
the  sword  went  hand  in  hand,  but  the  i   '    '  ' 


6  UZICO 

through  the  efforts  of  Father  Salvatiem,  and  to  him 
and  the  famous  Father  Kino  is  due  the  diacovei?  that 
Lower  California  was  apeoiuBula,  and  not  an  ial^d.  w 
had  been  supposed  for  a  oenturr  and  a  half.  Wbnt 
the  Jeeuits  were  expelled  from  all  the  Spanish  coloaiM 
by  Charles  III,  many  of  their  missions  were  aban- 
doned, others  were  taken  in  charge  by  the  mission- 
aries of  the  College  of  Our  Lady  of  Guadalupe  in  Zbc«i- 
tecas.  Towards  the  close  of  the  eighteenth  century 
the  Franciscans,  handicapped  for  so  many  years  by 
disadvantages  and  dissensions,  retumea  with  re- 
newed life  and  vigour  to  the  work  of  the  missions,  and 
took  char^  of  many  of  the  deserted  missions  of  Cali* 
fomia.  Tney  sent  many  worthy  successors  of  the 
first  Franciscans,  among  them  the  well-known  Frs^ 
Juntpero  Serra,  founder  of  the  missions  of  Upper  Cali- 

(3)  The  Destruction  of  the  Ail«e  Hiero^yphiea. — 
The  general  opinion  of  the  ordinary  student  of  Hen- 
can  history,  after  reading  the  works  of  Preecott, 
Bancroft,  Robertson,  aniT  others,  is  that  the  first 
missionaries  and  the  first  Bishop  of  Mexico,  Juan  de 
Zumirrago,  were  reaponsible  tor  the  destruction  of  the 
hieroglyphic  annals  of  the  Astees.  Expreaaiona  such 
as  tl^  following,  occur  frequentlv:  "IgDOtanee  and 
fanaticism  of  the  first  miaaionaries  :  "  the  Omar  of  the 
new  continent".  If  we  look  carefully  into  tbeaourcee 
from  which  these  opinions  have  been  taken  we  shall 
see  that  these  charges  are  entirely  unfounded  or,  at 
least,  greatlv  exag^rat«d.  To  make  this  point  clear, 
we  shall  at  tne  begmning  set  aside  such  writers  as  Prea- 
cott,  H.  H.  Bancroft,  Lucas  Alamdn,  Humboldt,  Cavo. 
Clavijero,  Robertson,  Gemelli,  Siguenta,  Herrera,  ana 
others,  who,  although  teamed  men,  from  the  very 
circumstances  of  having  written  at  a  time  far  removed 
from  the  era  of  the  conquest  and  evangelisation  of 
Mexico,  perhaps  never  having  visited  the  country  it- 
self, have  necessarily  confinea  themselves  to  repeating 


NBtional  Muaeum.  City  of  Hoxioo 

the  sevent«enth  and  eighteenth  centuries,  especially 
the  Jesuits,  were  not  satisfied  with  this  method,  and 
attempted  the  conveniion  of  these  tribes  without  the 
aid  or  arms.    They  left  the  fortified  heaJquartei 


;upied  by  the  Spaniards  to  visit  and  convert  other 
b&s.  and  often  found  among  them  the  martyr's 
The  Tarahumares,  Tcpehuanee,  Papigochic, 


and  the  tribes  of  Sonora  and  Sinaloa  put  manv  Jesuit 
missionaries  to  death,  but  each  one  who  fell  was 
quickly  replaced  by  another,  even  the  horrible  spec- 
tacle of  the  bloody  and  mutilated  remains  of  their 
companions  lying  unburied  in  the  smoking  ruins  of  the 
mission  chapel  did  not  daunt  their  courage.  At  times 
formidable  rebellions  broke  out,  as  in  New  Mexico  in 
1680,  when,  in  the  general  massacre,  twenty-one 
Franciscans  perished,  and  Christianity  was  all  but 
exterminate!  1, 

Towards  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century  the 
tribes  of  the  Eastern  Coast,  inhabiting  what  is  now 
TamaulipBS,  Nuevo  Le6n,  Coahuila,  and  Texas,  were 
under  the  Franciscans ;  those  of  the  West,  the  present 
limits  of  Durango,  Chihuahua,  Sinaloa,  Sonora,  and 
Lower  California,  were  under  the  Jesuits.  Lower 
California  was  acquired  for  the  Spanish  Government 


them  contemporary  with  the  conquest  and  otben 
practically  contemporaneous,  who  haveseen  thf  work 
of  the  missionaries  and  witnessed  the  evenfej  imnv^Si- 
ately  following  the  conquest.  Of  tlws.  thirteei.  six 
may  still  be  eliminated  as  treatino  purely  of  the  de- 
struction of  idols  and  teoeailit,  or  ttanples,  not  having 
concertted  themselves  with  manuscnpts  and  hiero- 
glyphics. These  are  Fray  Martfn  de  Valencia,  Su- 
penor  of  the  first  Franciscans,  Fray  Pedro  de  Gante, 
Fray  Toribio  de  Benavante,  Fray  JerAnimo  de  Hen- 
dieta,  the  letter  of  the  bishops  to  the  Emperor  Charles  V 
(1537),  and  his  reply.  Of  the  seven  remaining  author* 
five  wrote  at  the  end  of  the  eirtcenth  century  and  the 
beginning  of  the  seventeenth,  such  as  Sahacun  (1660- 
80),  Torqucmada  (his  works  were  published  in  1615), 
Durdn  (1519-80),  Ixtlilxochiti  ClSOO-15),  and  J.  B. 
Pomar  (1582).  Two  authorities  of  the  time  of  the 
conquest  are  the  codex  called  "  Libro  de  Oro  "  (Golden 
Book),  1530-34,  and  the  letter  of  Bishop  Zum&mg» 
to  the  General  Chapter  of  Toloaa,  written  at  the  end  o< 
the  year  1531. 

Before  treating  each  of  theae  authorities  separately 
it  may  be  as  well  to  establish  some  important  facta. 
Acconling  to  Sahagdn,  In  the  time  of  the  native  Uexi- 
can  King  Itiocoatl  (1427-40)  a  number  of  paintiricpi 
had  been  burnt  to  keep  them  from  falling  into  tne 
hands  of  the  vulRar,  who  might  have  treated  them 
with  disrespect.  This  may  be  called  the  first  deetruo- 
tion.  Ixtlilxochiti  (Fernando  de  Alba)  asserts  that 
when  the  TIaxealtecs  entered  Texcoco  in  company 
with  Cort&  (31  December,  1520)  they  "set  fire  to 
everything  belonging  to  King  Netcahualpilli,  and  thus 
burnt  the  royal  archives  of  all  New  Spain  "  (second  de- 
struction). Mendicta  says  that  at  the  time  of  the 
coming  of  the  Spaniarda  many  paintings  were  hidden 
and  locked  up,  to  save  them  from  the  ravages  of  war; 
the  owners  dying  or  moving  away,  these  p^wis  were 


MXXIOO                                  257  HXXIOO 

loat  (thiid  deBtmctimi).  Hem^  CorUa,  in  oider  to  rites,  and  not  annals  of  historic  v&Iue.  Aa  reeards 
take  the  City  of  Uezico,  bad  to  demotiah  almost  the  other  authora  who  were  almost  contemporary  witn  the 
whole  of  it,  iDcludiiw  the  teocaUit;  many  writings  must  conquest,  it  must  be  noted  that  within  a  few  j^rs 
have  been  destroyed  then  (fourth  destruction).  tbey  began  investigations  concerning  Indian  antioui- 
All  this  woB  previous  to  the  comina  of  the  first  ties  and  naturally  turned  to  the  hieroglyphics  tnat 
iwiaainnaripH.  NO  evidence  is  to  be  found  in  any  of  the  had  been  preserved,  seeking  explanations  from  the 
writers  of  the  period  that  either  the  missionariee  or  Indians  who  were  most  versed  in  deciphering  these. 
Bishop  Zum&rr^ia  burnt  anythii^  in  Mexico,  Texcoco,  But  they  had  already  lost  in  great  part  the  knowledge 
or  AtEcapotiaIco,  that  might  even  remotely  be  called  of  the  meaning  of  these  figures,  which  imd  been  trans- 
aliterarymonument.  On  the  contrary,  Fray  JerAoimo  mitted  by  tradition  only.  Ixtiiixochitl  asserts  that 
de  Mendieta,  one  of  the  first  Franciscans,  in  the  out  of  a  gathering  of  the  principal  Indians  of  New 
prologue  of  the  second  volume  of  hia  "  Hiatoria  E^lesi-  Spain,  who  had  a  reputation  for  knowing  their  bistory, 
ftstica  Indiana"  states  that  far  from  the  firat  friaiB  be  found  only  two  who  had  full  knowledge  and  under- 
destroying  Indian  manuscripts,  their  euperior.  Pray  standing  of  the  paintings  and  si^ns.  Urged  by  the 
H«Ttfn  de  Valencia,  and  the  president  of  the  Second  interpreters  to  explain  certain  points  whicn  they  did 
Audiencia,  D.  Sebastian  Ramiiei  de  Fuen  Leal,  com-  not  understand,  they  felt  great  repugmince  in  con- 
miseioned  Fray  Andrea  del  Olmo,  in  1533,  t«  write  a  fesaing  their  ignorance,  and  in  order  to  dissimulate  it 
book  on  Indian  antiquities.  This  he  did  having  seen  had  recourse  t«  the  convenient  alternative  of  laying 
"  all  the  picturea  representing  ancient  ritee  and  cub-  the  blame  on  the  scarcity  of  pictures.  Their  desire  to 
toms,  owned  by  the  caciques  and  other  peTSOns  of  im-  ahield  their  ancestors  for  their  failure  to  record  some 
portanoe  in  these  facts  of  importance 
provinces", andhav-  induced  themtoex- 
mg  received  ready  aggerate  the  part 
answers  and  expla-  taKen  by  Bishop 
nations  from  all  the  Zum&rraga  and  the 
oldest  inhabitants  missionaries, 
whom  he  questioned.  "  '^ 
Moreover,    in    1633 

ot  1634,  the   ptunt-  — _ 

ing  to  which  tlie  chitl  do  not  i 
name  of  Codex  Zu-  Bishop  Zum&rraga, 
nUUraga  has  been  but  attribute  evei^- 
given  was  being  thing  to  the  mis' 
studied  and  ex-  sionaries.  Fray  Tor- 
plained,  notwith-  quemada  blames  the 
standing  the  horror  missionaries  and 
it  must  have  inspired  Bishop  Zumirraga, 
from  being  stained  pointing  to  the  ar- 
with  human  blood.  chives  of  AtEcapot- 
As  Bishop  Zum4r-  saico  as  destroyed 
raga  did  not  reach  by  him.  This,  how- 
Hexicountil  1528,  he  ever,  appears  utterly 
cannot  be  blamed  or  unlikely  as  no  former 
held  responsible  for  writer  ever  men- 
what  had  happened  tinned  the  archives 
previous  to  this.  In  of  Atzcapotialco, 
the  years  1529  and  and  it  is  quite  pos- 
1630  be  had  more  Battlbs  or  OoBTte  in  Uaxioo  siblenosucharchives 
than  enough  to  do  in                        AftermaAatsodrBwinsm  tha"Lieiuo  dsTlueala"  everexisted.      Mor&- 

oppoaingtneexceesesof  the  First  Audiencia, andany-  over,  had  there  been  any  truth  in  this  accusation, 

one  who  is  familiar  with  the  history  of  this  period  will  IxtlilxochitI,   who   was    m   search  of  these   proofs, 

know  that  he  had  other  matters  tnan  the  burning  of  would  have  related  it  in  his  works ;  as  it  ia.  he  does 

manuscripts — to  aay  nothing  of  entire  archives,  as  not  even  mention  it.     Finally,  it  must  be  borne  in 

Bome  writers  assert— to  occupy  him.    At  the  close  of  mind  that  Torquemada  only  gathered  t<^ether  the 

the  year  1631  he  was  recalled  to  Spain,  and  did  not  re-  writings  of  the  early  missionanes,  and  interwove  his 

turn  until  late  in  the  year  1534.    At  this  timenohiero-  works  with  fragments  of  these  writings.     He  could  not 

glyphic  records  were  destroyed,  but,   as  we  have  find  such  a  ch^ge  against  Bishop  Zumdrraga  because 

alieai^  stated,  they  were  being  collected  and  inter-  it  was  not  there.  As  re^rds  the  first  missionaries,  we 

preted.     This  being  the  ease,  let  us  now  examine  the  have  already  mentions  the  value  they  placed  upon 

texts  which  are  quoted  t^ainst  the  missionariee  and  the  pictures  and  the  use  they  made  of  the  hiero- 

Biahop  Zum&naga.  glyphics.     Two  documents  of  the  time  of  the  Conquest 

J.  B.Pomar,wbo,  like  Ixtlibtochitl,  was  a  descend-  may  be  cited  in  this  connexion:  the  "Librode  Oro" 

ant  ot  the  kings  of  Texcoco,  may  be  set  aside  at  once.  (Golden  Book)  and  the  letter  of  Bishop  Zumirraea  to 

He  states  that  in  Texcoco  the  Indians  themaelves  the  Chapter  of  Toloea.     In  the"LibrodeOro",  which 

burnt  the  paintings  that  had  earlier  escaped  the  incen-  is  the  work  of  the  first  Fronciacana,  and  which  has 

diarlsm  of  the  TIaxcaltece,  for  fear  Bishop  ZmnArraga  been  verj^  badly  edited,  some  phrases  being  almost 

might  attribute  t«  them  idolatrous  worship,  because  unintelligible,  we  Md  the  following  words:   "As  we 

at  Uiat  time  D,  Carios  Ometochtiin,  son  of  Netiahual-  have  destroyed  and  burnt  the  books  and  all  that  pei^ 

pilli,  was  accused  of  idolatry.    It  was  not,  therefore,  a  tains  to  ceremonial  or  issuapect,  and  threatened  th^ 

question  of  an  act  of  Bishop  Ziun&rrage,  but  of  a  fear,  if  theydo  not  reveal  them,  now  when  we  ask  for  books, 

well  or  ill-founded,  on  the  part  of  the  Indians.    The  if  any  have  them  they  tell  ua  they  are  burnt,  and  adc 

Texcocanos,  seeing  that  their  lord  was  indicted  for  why  we  want  them.     There  are  books  among  them 

idolatry,  and  fearing  that  the  investigations  might  in-  that  are  not  prohibited,  such  as  give  the  computation 

criminate  others,  not  altogether  faultless,  hastened  to  of  the  ^rears,  months,  and  days,  and  annals,  although 

shield  themselvesbybummgsomepaintings,theehar-  there  is  always  aomethhig  that  is  suspect.    Besides, 

aeter  of  which  is  not  known.    Theymay  in  reality  have  there  are  others  which  are  prohibited,  treating  of 

been  repreeentationa  (tf  idolatrous  and  auperstitioua  idolatry  and  dreama."    The  only  thing  that  can  be 
X.— 17 


proved  as  certun  from  this  document  b  that  the 
missionaries  burnt  booka  of  heathenish  Mid  idolatrous 
ceremonies;  the  distinction  between  tbese  and  books 
o(  annals  being  clearly  drawn ;  the  one  prohibited,  the 
other  not.  As  the  accusation  ispriticipatly  based  on  the 
burning  of  historical  hieroglyphics,  we  see  from  this 
document  that  there  ia  no  foundation  for  it. 

There  remains  the  famous  letter  of  Bishop  Zumfl- 
rtaga  to  the  Chapter  of  Tolosa,  written  in  1531,  A» 
there  have  been  twenty-one  editions  of  this  celebrated 
letter,  there  are  some  variations;  the  quotation  is 
eiven  as  it  is  found  in  the  oldest  edition,  which  says: 
Baptiiata  sunt  piusquam  dueenta  quinquaginta 
mUlia  hominum,  quingenta  deorum  t«mpla  sunt  de- 
structa,  et  piusquam  vicesies  mille  fifune  dtemonum, 
quas adorabant,fractee et  combust«e, '°  Theaccusation 


as  a  mark  of  indignity,  and  then  broken  up.  This,  in 
all  probability,  is  the  meaning  of  the  woida  in  Bishop 
Zum&rraga's  letter. 

Briefly,  then,  the  ptecedios  facts  show:  (a)  That 
before  the  coming  of  the  first  miasionariea  many 
hieroglyphic  paintmga  had  been  destroyed,  (b)  That 
the  missionaries  who  came  in  1524,  and  who  wrote 
histories,  speak  of  idols  and  temples  destroyed,  but  say 
nothing  of  writii«a  bein^  burnt,  and  as  early  as  1530 
they  b^^n  to  distinguiah  between  prohibited  and 


turns  on  the  words  figuriE  dtemonum  combuebe, 
Le.,  burnt.  Critics  say  that  the  word  &um(  should  be 
applied  to  books  and  Indian  writings  which  the 
missionaries  took  for  idols  or  objecte  of  adoration. 
Sane  criticism,  however,  induces  us  to  the  contrary 
belief,  or  at  least  to  attribute  less  importance  to  this 
word  burnt.  From  the  "Ubn  de  Oro",  it  is  evident 
that  the  missionaries  distinguished  from  the  beginning 
between  prohibited  and  non-prohibi1«d  booka;  they 
did  not,  therefore,  t^e  every  nien^yphic  for  an  idol. 
No  writer  of  that  period,  and  there  were  many,  ever 
said  that  the  Indians  adored  the  writings,  nor  did  the 
missionaries  believe  such  a  thing,  tor  they  clearly  dis- 
tinguished between  idols  and  writineg.  Fray  Men- 
dieta  mentions  certain  idols  of  paper,  but  he  does  not 
call  them  writings,  Divila  Padilla  (1596)  speaks  of 
another  very  lai^  idol  of  paper,  filled  with  smaller 
idols,  but  he  does  not  say  that  these  were  writings. 
Besides,  there  were  idols  of  wood  that  could  be  burned, 
the  stone  ones  could  be  covered  with  clothing  and  so 
burned,  and  in  the  chronicles  of  the  time  mention  is 
continuallymadeof  the  burning  of  idols.  Whentheee 
were  made  of  stone  they  were  cast  into  tJie  Qames  first, 


destroyed  the  historical  tuere^lyphica  of  the  Indians, 
.^.-ii  II  -_  .!__  ')egitming,  has  grown  in  prop«r- 
farther  removed  from  tie  time 
ol  tne  conquest,  (d)  That,  even  granting  that  there 
ever  was  such  a  destruction,  it  could  not  have  been  so 
great,  tor  from  1668  to  1580  the  viceroy  D.  Martfn 
Enrfques  ordered  that  the  paintings  of  the  Indiana  be 
brought  together  in  order  to  rewrite  their  histoiy,  and 
many  were  brought  from  Tula,  Texcoco,  and  Mexico, 
and  in  the  euhteenth  century  the  celebrated  writer 
and  collector  Boturini  found  many  more. 

(4)  Public  Instruction  During  the  Earliest  Colonial 
Period.— When  the  first  band  of  twelve  I'ranciscans 
arrived  at  Tlaxcala  in  1524  they  found  there  Father 
Teoto,  who  had  come  two  years  before.  Seeing  that  he 
and  his  companions  had  not  madq  much  progress  in  the 
conversion  of  the  natives,  Fmy  Martfn  de  Valencia 
asked  the  reason,  and  what  they  had  been  dcing  in  the 
time  they  had  been  in  the  colony:  "Learning  a  theol- 
ogy unknown  to  St,  Augustine  (namely),  the  language 
Mthese  Indians  ",  replied  Father  Tecto.  Once  estab- 
lished, the  missionaries  devoted  tliemselves  to  building 
churches  and  convents  to  which  a  school  was  always 
attached.  In  the  large  court  of  the  convent  cate- 
chism was  taught  early  in  the  morning  to  the  adulta 
and  to  the  children  of  the  Tnacehuide*  ^workmen),  in 
order  that  they  might  then  go  to  their  work.  The 
school  was  reserved  for  the  children  of  the  nobles  and 
persons  of  prominence.  As  the  Indians  did  not  at 
first  realize  the  importance   of  this  inst 

schools  were  not  well  attended,  and  the 

had  to  ask  the  aid  of  the  civil  authorities  to  compel 

Kirenta  to  send  their  children  to  be  instructed. 
any  of  the  nobles,  not  wishing  to  entrust  their  chil- 
dren to  the  new  apostles,  but  not  daring  to  disobey, 
sent  as  substitutes  the  children  of  some  former  de- 
pendent, passing  them  off  as  their  own,  but  soon  see- 
mg  the  advantages  of  the  education  imparted  bv  the 
fnars  sent  their  own  children,  insisting  on  their  being 
admitted  to  the  schools.  Some  of  these  schools  were 
BO  large  that  tbey  accommodated  from  800  to  1000 
children.  The  older  and  more  advanced  pupils 
taught  the  labourers,  who  came  in  large  niunbeiB  in 
their  free  bours  to  be  instructed. 

At  first,  when  the  missionaries  were  not  fully  CMi- 
versant  with  the  language,  they  taught  by  means  of 

Eicturee,  and  the  Indians,  accustomed  to  tbeir  own 
ierogl^hic  figures,  understood  readily.  In  making 
copies  tne  Indians  inserted  Aiteo  words  written  in 
European  characters,  originating  a  curious  mixed 
writing  of  whkib  some  examples  are  still  preserved. 
As  soon  as  the  missionaries  mastered  the  language 
they  turned  their  attention  more  especially  to  the 
children  of  the  nobles,  since  the  children  of  tne  work- 
ing class  did  not  need  so  thorough  an  education.  Ac- 
cording to  the  custom  of  the  times,  they  would  not  be 
called  to  rule,  and  the  sooner  their  course  of  instruc- 
tion was  completed  the  sooner  they  would  be  tree  to 
help  their  parents.  The  same  reasons  did  not  hold 
forthegirls,  and  nodistinction  was  made  among  them, 
.11  u_i —  . 1.*  1 .!,-_    „.  K-..  :„  the  pallor  —* 


I  4«(»;i 


259 


I  4«(«^« 


six  women  teachers,  and  in  1534  he  himself  brought  six 
Later  on,  the  viceroy,  D.  Antonio  de  Mendosa, 


more. 


founded  an  asylum  for  half-caste  girls,  which  at  first  was 
hampered  bv  lack  of  funds,  but  the  king  endowed  it 
and  directecf  that  all  those  who  wished  to  marry  the 
girls  should  be  provided  with  em{)loyment. 
When  the  missionaries  landed,  in  1524,  they  did  not 


had  to  go  to  tuti  universities  of  Spain,  as  the  Mexican 
schools  afforded  no  facilities  for  taking  university 
courses.  To  remedv  this  the  colonial  authorities  de- 
teimined  to  establisn  a  local  university. 

University  of  Mexico. — ^The  viceroy,  D.  Antonio 
de  Mendoza  (1535-50),  to  whom  New  Spain  owed  so 
much  for  his  interest  in  public  instruction,  petitioned 


find  a  single  Indian  who  could  r^ad ;  nothing  had  been    the  Emperor  Charles  V  for  the  establishment  of  a  uni- 


done  in  this  direction  for  them  bvthe  army  of  con- 
quest. Twenty  years  later,  1544,  Bishop  Zum&rraga 
wanted  to  have  the  cateclusm  of  Fray  redro  de  C6r'- 
doba  translated  into  the  Indian  tongue,  which  was 
finally  done,  as  he  believed  so  much  g^)d  would  result 
from  it,  "for",  as  he  said,  ''there  are  so  many  who 
to 


versity  suitably  endowed.  The  petition,  supported 
by  the  city,  the  prelates,  and  the  religious  orders,  was 
favourably  received,  and  although  the  proiect  was  not 
carried  out  until  after  D.  Antomo  de  Menaoza  had  re- 
signed the  governorship  of  New  Spain,  in  1550,  to  as- 
sume that  of  Peru,  the  credit  of  having  begun  the  work 


know  how  to  read".    Contemporaiy  writers  bear  is  due  to  him.    The  university  was  founded  during  the 

witness  to  the  rapid  progress  of  the  Indians  in  writing,  term  of  his  successor,  D.  Luis  de  Velasco  (1550-64). 

music,  and  even  m  Latin.    The  one  who  distinguishea  The  decree  of  foundation  signed  by  the  prince  who 

himself  most  in  teaching  the  Indians  was  tne  lay  later  reigned  as  Philip  II,  was  issued  by  tne  emperor 

brother  Pedro  de  Gante,  kinsman  of  the  Emperor  at  Toro  on  21  August,  1551,  and  the  university  was 

Charles  V.    He  gathered  together  about  a  thousand  opened  3  June,  1553.      A  yearly  endowment  of  one 

children  in  the  convent  of  San  Francisco  of  Mexico  and  thousand  dollars  in  gold  from  the  mines  was  conferred 


taupbt  them,  besides 
their  religion,  music, 
singing,  and  Latin. 
He  also  started  a 
school  for  adults  and 
founded  a  school  of 
fine  arts  and  crafts. 
With  no  resources 
but  his  indomitable 
enei^,  bom  of  his 
ardent  charity,  he 
raised  from  the 
foundations  and  sus- 
tained for  many 
years,  a  magnificent 
church,  a  hospital, 
and  a  great  estab- 
lishment which  was 
at  one  and  the  same 
time  a  primary 
school,  a  college  for 
higher  studies,  and 
an  academy  of  fine 
arts  and  crafts — in 
short,  a  centre  of 
civilisation.       The 


upon  it,  and  all  the 
faculties  and  privi- 
leges of  the  Univer- 
sity of  Salamanca. 
The  first  chairs 
foimded,  with  their 
respect!  veprofessors, 
were  as  follows: 
Theology,  Fray  Pe- 
dro de  la  Pefia,  Do- 
minican, afterwards 
Bishop  of  Quito, 
whose  successor  in 
the  Faculty  was  the 
learned  Juan  Ne- 
grete,  professor  of 
the  University  of 
Paris:  Sacred  Scrip- 
ture, Fray  Alonso  de 
la  Veracruz;  Canon 
Law,  Dr.  Morones, 
fiscal  of  the  Audien- 
cia;  Civil  Law,  Dr. 
Mel^rejo ;  Institutes 
and  Law,  Licentiate 
Frias  de  Albomos; 


Our  Ladt  or  Quadalupb,  Aquas  Caxjentbs 
Sbowing  wall-belfry  and  double  dome 

missionaries  spared  nothing  to  unite  secular  learning  Arts,  Canon  Juan  Garcfa;  Rhetoric,  Dr.  Cervantes 

with  religious  instruction,  and,  having  in  mind  the  Salazar;  Grammar,  Bias  de  Bustamante.  Some  years 

fondness  of  the  Indians  for  the  frequent  solemnities  later  the  chairs  of  medicine  and  of  the  Otomic  and 

of  their  bloody  worship,  introduced  religious  dramas.  Mexican  lan^uaees  were  added.     At  first  there  was 

Ancient  chronicles  have  preserved  excellent  accounts  of  only  one  chau*  of  medicine,  but  towards  the  close  of 

the  skill  displayed  by  the  Indians  acting  these  dramas,  the  sixteenth  century  the  division  known  as  prima 

Bishop  Zumdrraga,  who  aspired  alwavs  to  higher  and  visperas  was  introduced,  the  former  incfuding 

things  for  the  Indian,  managed  to  open  for  them  the  anatomy  and  physiology,  the  latter,  pathology  and 

famous  college  of  Santa  Cruz,  at  Tlaltelolco,  on  6  therapeutics. 

January,  1534.    This  foundation  began  with  sixty  The  title  of  Royal  and  Pontifical  was  conferred  on 

students,  the  number  rapidly  increasing.     Besides  re-  the  new  university  and  all  the  doctors  then  in  Mexico, 

ligion  and  good  habits,  they  were  taught  reading,  writ-  including  Archbishop  Monttifar,  were  attached  to  it. 

ing,  Latin  grammar,  rhetoric,  philosophy,  music,  and  The  professorships  were  divided  into  temporary  and 

Mexican  medicine.    The  college   of  Tlaltelolco  sent  perpetual;  the  firat  were  for  four  years  ana  were  com- 


forth  native  governors  and  mayors  for  the  Indian 
towns,  teachers  for  the  Indians,  and  at  times  for  the 
young  Spaniards  and  Creoles.  Some  of  them  were  a 
great  help  to  the  missionaries  in  their  philological 
work.  In  1553  there  were  in  Mexico  three  principal 
colleges:  the  one  at  Tlaltelolco  for  the  Indians,  San 


petitive,  the  second  were  affected  only  by  the  death  or 
resignation  of  the  incumbent.  When  a  chair  was  won 
by  competiton  the  recipient  paid  the  fees  or  dues, 
swore  to  fulfil  his  duties  well,  and  promised  to  take  no 
part  in  balls,  theatres,  or  public  demonstrations.  Ac- 
cording to  the  instructions  left  by  the  Duque  de  Linares 


Juan  de  Letrin  for  the  mestizos,  both  under  the  care  to  his  successor  the  Marques  de  Valero,  the  award  of 

of  the  Franciscans,  and  another  for  the  Spaniards  and  professorships  was  voted  on  by  the  senior  auditor  rep- 

creoles  who  did  not  wish  to  mingle  witn  the  others,  resenting  the  Audiencia,  the  dean  as  representative  of 

This  last  was  under  teachers  witn  bachelor  degrees  the  Church,  an  official  of  the  Inquisition,  the  dean  and 

from  Spain,  until  the  Augustinians  founded  their  great  the  rector  of  the  university,  the  maaister  scholarum 

coll^  of  San  Pablo,  1575.    They  were  the  first  to  and  the  archbishop,  who  presided  and  in  whose  house 

estamish  a  school  to  be  frequented  by  both  Creoles  the  voting  took  place.    So  much  Stress  was  laid  upon 

and  Spaniards.  Shortly  afterwards  the  Jesuits  founded  the  study  of  the  Indian  language  that  in  the  private 

the  college  of  San  Ildefonso  in  Mexico  with  the  same  instructions  which   the   Marauds  de  las  Amarillas 

idea  in  view.     For  all  higher  studies,  however,  students  brought  from  Madrid  he  was  directed  to  consider  the 


UZICO  2) 

■dvuBbility  of  adding  U>  the  statutes  of  the  univenity 
a  clause  to  the  effect  that  the  dea;r«e  of  theology 
should  not  be  conferred  on  those  who  did  not  know 
the  Mexican  language,  and  filing  a  special  hour  for  its 
study  by  the  students  of  philosophy,  either  before  or 
while  tHey  were  studying  cEaaaics. 

In  the  famous  instruction  which  the  second  Conde 
de  Revillagigedo  left  to  his  successor  the  Harqu^s  de 
Branciforte,  we  find  that  by  a  royal  decree  of  11  June, 
1702,  all  members  of  the  university  were  obliged  to 
obtain  the  viceroy's  permission  to  marry.  The  vice* 
roy,  who  was  the  vice-patron  of  the  university,  was  to 
appoint  the  rector  in  caee  the  election  did  not  give  a 
decisive  plurality  to  any  candidate.  Towards  the  end 
of  the  eighteentn  century  a  covirse  of  botany  was  in- 
troducetT     The  viceroy,  Conde  de  Revillagigedo,  de* 


thelen,  in  the  batruotions  left  by  the  viceroy  D.  An- 
tonio Sebastian  de  Toledo,  Harqu£s  de  Blancera,  to 
bis  BuocesBor,  D.  Pedro  Nuflo  deColfin.DuouedeVera- 

Pia,  22  Oct.,  1673,  we  find  the  following:  ''The  royal 
niversity  of  Mexico,  though  richly  endowed  with 
brilliant  and  learned  profeegors  in  all  the  branches, 
wos^greatly  hampered  Dy  the  multiplicity  of  statutes 
by  which  it  was  governed.  I  was  informed  that  the 
viceroy  D.  Juan  oe  Palafox  had  overcome  this  diffi- 
culty by  compiling  new  statutes,  and  that  these  were 
being  withheld  by  some  maUcious  person  interested  in 
contmuing  the  disorder.  T  took  tne  neceeeary  means 
to  have  these  traced  and  brought  to  light,  together 
with  the  royal  decree  of  1  May,  1649,  confirming  them. 
These  were  laid  before  the  university,  26  Sept.,  1668, 
were  accepted  without  any  difficulty,  and  since  then 
have  been  observed  with  signal  benefit  to  the  schools, 
securing  the  approbation  of  his  majesty  (decree  of  17 
Jan,,  1671),  and  aSording  relief  to  the  viceroys  who 
were  frequently  confronted  by  doubts  and  (Usputes 
which  it  was  difficult  to  settle. " 

The  univeraity  continued  its  work  until  1833,  when 
it  was  closed  by  Freudent  G6mei  Farias.  President 
Santa  Anna  re-established  it  in  1834,  with  some  modi- 
fications of  tiie  statutes;  but  during  the  following 


olared  that  reforms  were  needed  in  the  methods  of 
study  and  in  the  manner  of  conferring  degrees,  that 
little  attention  was  ^ven  to  the  classics,  that  there 
was  no  apparatus  for  the  study  of  modem  experimen- 
tal phvsics,  and  that  there  were  few  modem  works  in 
the  library.  We  know,  however,  that  D.  Manuel 
Ignacio  Beye  de  Cisneroe,  who  was  rector  in  1760, 
built  the  library  and  drew  up  regulations  for  it,  which 
were  confirmea  by  the  king  in  1761.  It  contained 
more  than  10,000  volumes,  many  of  them  rare  and  val- 
uable, espedally  regarding  the  nistory  of  Mexico,  and 
tt  was  open  to  the  public  morning  and  afternoon,  two 
librarians  with  the  de^^ree  of  doctor  being  in  char^. 

At  first  the  university  was  governed  by  provisional 
rtatutes  drawn  up  by  tne  viceroy  and  the  Audiencia, 
modifying  those  of  ^lamauca  as  the  circumstances  of 
the  country  required.  The  Auditor  Farfan  amended 
these  in  1580,  and  in  1583  stiU  further  revision  was 
made  by  Archbishop  Mo3^  de  C^jntreras.  In  1645, 
D.  Juan  de  Palafoz,  who  was  appointed  visitor,  com- 
piled new  statutes  which,  when  approved  by  the  king, 
were  to  Bupenede  all  previous  enactments.    Never- 


Uc  sentiment  was  against  it.  President  Comonfort 
suppressed  it  in  1857.  Zulosga  reopened  it  on  5  May, 
1858,  but  it  was  once  more  closed  on  23  Jan.,  1861,  by 
Judrei.  During  the  regency  of  1863  it  revived  for  a 
time  imtil  the  Emperor  Maximilian  suppreaed  it  de< 
finitively  on  30  November,  1865. 

(5)  The  Royal  Patronage  and  the  Cleigy. — It  is  not 
possible  to  proceed  very  far  in  the  history  of  New 
Spain,  whether  civil  or  ecclesiastical,  without  tn*"Pg 
into  account  what  has  been  called  the  royal  patron- 
age of  the  Spanish  monaichs.  In  fact  it  is  hardly 
possible  to  conceive  a  more  absolute  systom  of  control 
than  that  exercised  by  the  kings  of  Spain,  whether  in 
person  or  through  the  Council  of  the  Indies  and  the 
viceroys  and  governors  in  all  the  eccleeiastical  affaira 
of  the  Indies.  A  detailed  account  of  these  privile^, 
which  were  general  throughout  all  Spanish  America, 
will  begivenwithexamplesof  the  practical  application 
ofthepoiroTiatotheory  in  the  colony  of  NewSpain.  By 
the  provisions  of  the  Bull  of  4  July,  1508, "  Universalia 
Ecclesiie  regimini",  no  churches,  monasteries,  or  re- 
ligious foundations  could  be  erected,  in  territory  al- 
ready discovered  or  that  should  be  subseauently  dis- 
covered, without  the  consent  of  the  Spauisn  monarch. 
It  conferred  also  on  the  Spanish  monarch  the  power  of 
nominating  suitable  candidatee  for  the  metropoUtan 
and  other  sees,  and  any  that  might  be  erected  in  the 
future.  Bishf^M  were  obliged  to  confer  canonical 
institution  to  eccleeiastical  benefices  ten  days  after 
the  ro^  notification  had  been  made,  and  in  case 
opposition  were  oflered  without  legitimate  cause  any 
other  bishop  chosen  by  the  candidate  could  and  should 
confer  such  canonical  institution.  The  Bull  also 
conferred  the  right  to  present  candidates  for  all  the 
abbacies  and  prelacies  of  the  regulars  and,  indeed  for 
every  ecclesiastical  benefice,  lai^  or  email. 

Besides  these  privil^es  the  kmg  also  had  the  right 
of  designating  tne  boundaries  of  all  new  dioceses,  of 
sending  religious  to  the  Indies,  of  determining  their 
stay  there  and  their  removal  irom  one  province  to 
another.  Reli^ous  establishments  were  under  the 
supervision  of  the  Council  of  the  Indies,  and.  in  order 
that  this  might  be  exercised  with  all  possible  tnorou^ 
nees,  the  oince  of  commissioner  general,  for  which 
Father  Mendieta  worked  so  eameetly,  was  established. 
The  provincial  or  custodian  of  the  r^ulais  was  named 
by  their  general,  but  he  bad  to  notify  the  commissioner 
general  of  Spain,  who  communicated  with  the  Council 
of  the  Indies,  and  without  its  permission  the  nomina- 
tion was  Buq>»ided.    All  decrees  supprwHing  prov- 


incee  or  craating  new  ones,  founding  of  nev  convents, 
sending  visitors  ^neial  or  provinoUls,  journeys  of 
the  rel^oua,  naming  of  presidents  for  chapterB,  any 
instnictioiiB  ^ven  by  the  auperioiB  not  directly  con- 
nected with  the  ordinary  government  of  the  order,  as 
well  as  the  patents  wmcn  revoked  any  conceeBiouB 
previously  granted,  had  to  be  presented  to  the  Council 
of  the  Indies.  All  Bulls  anJ  Briefs  from  Rome,  in- 
Btniotions  from  eenerals  and  other  reli^ous  superiors, 
had  to  go  througn  the  Council  of  the  Indies,  and  without 
its  seal  no  use  could  be  made  of  them.  The  records  of 
provinciiJ  councils  and  synods  in  the  colonies,  their 
constitutions  and  decrees,  and  thoee  of  the  chapters  and 
aasemblies  of  the  legulais,  could  not  be  publisned  until 
revised  and  examined  by  the  Council.  The  Briefs  of 
the  Congregation  of  the  Pro]>aeaDda  ai^pointing  mis- 
sion&riee  for  the  Indies  carried  no  weight  whatever 
if  unaccompanied  by  permission  from  the  king  or  the 
Council  of  the  Indies. 

In  order  to  form  a  new  mission,  province,  or  semi- 
naty  for  missionarieB  it  w^  necessary  to  go  through  all 
these  proceedings. 
The  province  or 
house  soliciting  this 
permissicm  appoint- 
ed a  commissioner 
who  personally  or 
througti  his  superi- 
ors made  his  request 
to  the  viceroy  or 
governor,  to  the  Au- 
aiencia  of  the  place, 
and  to  the  bbhop,  all 
of  whom  were  obi  iged 
to  submit  their  re- 
spective reports.  The 

plied  with  the  neces- 
sary permits  of  the 
viceroy  or  governor 
and  of  bis  superiors, 
sailed  for  Spain,  and 
at  the  Court  the  mat- 
ter was  laid  before 
the      commissioner 

genend  of  the  Indies.  Odb  Lu>t  of  Ouada: 

When   all    this   was  Style  ol  Fraudiu 

done,  and  not  before, 

the  petition  could  be  presented  to  the  Supreme  Coun- 
cil of  the  Indies,  together  with  the  documents  which 
certified  to  the  necessity  for  the  new  foundation.  The 
permission  having  been  obtained,  the  Council  named 
the  provinces  from  which  the  religious  should  be 
drawn,  and  if  the  Council  failed  to  do  so  the  com- 
missioner general  did  it,  sometimes  leaving  it  to  the 
choice  of  the  aforesaid  religious  commissioner.  The 
selection  having  been  made  and  the  new  mLsaionaries 
gathered  ti^trier,  he  could  now  embark  with  all  the 
necessary  authorization  of  superiors  and  council,  and 
go  to  his  destination,  whence  he  was  obliged  to  report  to 
the  authorities  who  had  given  him  permission  to  go  to 
Spain.  If  a  religious  wished  to  leave  the  Indies  and 
return  to  Spain,  the  permission  of  the  father  Keneral, 
the  commissioner  general,  or  of  the  pope  nimself 
(royal  decree  of  29  July,  1564)  did  not  suffice,  it  was 
necessary  to  obtain  the  consent  of  the  king  or  the 
Council  of  the  Indies.  Sometimes  the  permission  of 
the  bishops  of  the  province  was  sufficient,  the  viceroy, 
president,  or  governor  having  been  first  consulted ; 
they  were  obliged  to  report  to  the  council  the  reasons 
forgiving  the  permission. 

When  the  chapters  of  the  religious  orders  were  held 
in  places  where  the  viceroys  or  governors  did  not  re- 
side, the  latter  had  to  write  to  tl^  assembled  religious 
admonishing  them  to  the  strict  observance  of  their 
rule  and  constitution ;  and  if  the  chapter  met  where  the 
viceroy  or  governor  lived,  he  was  obliged  to  be  present. 


and  partnerships  indicative  of  simony  and  abuse,  a 
fraternal   correction  proved   insufficient   to  r^Ftore 
order,  the  culpable  ones  were  sent  to  Spain.    Any 
visitor,  provincial,  prior,  guardian,  or  prelate  who  muht 
be  named  or  elected  in  the  Indies,  was  obliged  before 
exercising  his  o&»  to  notify  the  viceroy,  president, 
Audiencia,  or  governor  then  m  supreme  power  in  the 
province,  showing  his  letters  of  nomination  and  elec- 
tion, in  order  to  obtain  the  protection  and  help  neces- 
sary for  the  exercise  of  the  duties  of  hia  office  in  the 
province  {royal  decree,  1  June,  1654).     In  the  same 
decree  it  was  ordered  that  "the  provincials  of  all 
orders  residing  in  the  Indies  shall  each  and  every  one 
have  alwa^  ready  a  list  of  the  monasteries  and  houses 
under  their  control  and  the  control  of  their  subjects  in 
the  province,  also  all  the  religious,  giving  each  one's 
name,  age,  qualifications,  the  office  or  mmistry  each 
one  exercises)  and  this  shall  be  given  each  year  to  our 
viceroy,  Audiencia,  or  governor,  or  to  the  person  who 
exercises  the  supreme  government  of  the  province, 
adding  or  subtracb- 
ing  the  names  of  the 
leUgious  who  have 
been  added  to  the 
ootnmunitiea  or  who 
have  left.    The  pro- 
vincials of  the  oraers, 
each  and  every  one, 
shall  make  a  list  of 
the  religious  who  ant 
engf^ed  in  the  work 
of  teaching  catfr- 
chism  to  the  Indians, 
administering     the 
sacraments,  and  act- 
ing as  parish  priests 
where  the  prmcipal 
monasteries  are  situ- 
ated, and  this  shall 
be  given  each  year 
to  our  viceroy,  Au- 
diencia, or  governor, 
who  will  give  it  to 
the  bishop,   so  that 
upB,  CiDDAo  JuXru  he  may  know  what 

L  miuon  building  p  e  r  B  O 


ing  the  sacraments  and  doing  Uie  work  of  parish 

pnests " 

From  this  and  much  more  that  might  be  added  if 
space  permitted  it  may  be  seen  that  the  civil  power 

had  almost  absolute  control  in  the  religious  affairs  of 
the  colonies,  including  those  of  New  Spain.  Someof 
these  privileges  had  been  usurped  by  the  kings,  and 
others  had  been  granted  by  the  Holy  See.  To  nave  a 
proper  understanding  of  the  reason  of  these  conces- 
sions, which  now  seem  to  us  excessive,  we  must  bear  in 
mind  all  that  the  Spanish  kings  did  for  the  cause  of  re- 
ligion in  America.  They  erected  and  endowed  nearly 
all  thechurcheain  the  New  World,  defrayed  the  travel- 
ling expenses  of  the  religious  and  bishops  until  they 
reached  their  posts;  they  had  assigned  different 
amounts,  by  wav  of  alms,  to  churchee  of  religious 
orders,  in  order  tnat  these  might  be  supplied  with  oil, 
lights,  wine,  altar  breads,  and  other  requisites  for  Divine 
worship.  The  building  of  new  churches  and  cathe- 
drals, the  foundation  of  missions,  depended  largely  on 
the  royal  bounty.  When  some  church,  especi^y  in 
the  Indian  towns,  needed  repairing,  the  citizens  could 
easily,  on  application,  be  freed  from  the  tribute  which 
was  paid  to  tne  king,  in  order  to  devote  the  money  to 
the  needs  of  the  church.  Although  the  Bull  of  Alex- 
ander VI  conferred  the  tithes  of  ul  the  Indies  on  the 
kinc  on  condition  that  he  should  endow  the  churches 
ana  provide  an  adequate  maintenance  for  their  minis- 
tei8,  the  kings  nevertheleaa  rarely  availed  themselves 


of  the  grant,  but  donated  to  the  bishops,  dioceses, 
clergy,  churches,  and  hospitals  in  the  Indies  a  great 
part  of  what  was  due  them  from  thia  source. 

In  so  far  as  the  royal  patron^  in  New  Spain  is 
concerned,  it  must  be  admitted,  m  deference  Ut  the 
truth,  that  if  in  some  instances  royal  decisions  were 
oppressive  and  little  in  accordance  with  the  liberty  of 
the  Church;  the  royal  supervision  in  many  other  re- 
spects was  benefici^.  In  illustration  of  the  first  may 
be  cit«d  the  case  of  the  bishop  who,  without  rejecting 
that  he  had  not  the  authonzatioa  of  the  Council  of 


issued  when  he  ascended  the  pontifical  throne,  erant- 
ing  a  general  jubilee  to  all  the  faithful  who  should  pray 
to  ibe  Divine  Majesty  that  he  might  be  granted  the 


light  to  govern  Wisely  the  universal  Church.  For  this 
^e  bishop  vaa  reproved  by  the  royal  decree  of  10 
June,  1652.  As  reganls  the  second,  it  must  be  ad- 
mitted that,  in  the  beginning  at  least,  the  Spanish 
monarch  made  wise  selection  of  the  men  appointed  to 
the  episcopal  sees  of  Mexico.  It  sulhcea  to  mention 
eueh  men  as  Frav  Julian  Garces,  fir^t  Bishop  of  Tlax- 
cala,  Fray  Juan  de  Zumirra^,  first  Bishop  of  Mexico, 
D.  Vasco  de  Quin^a,  first  Bishop  of  Michoacan;  in 
general,  with  few  exceptions,  the  bishops  of  New  Spain 
were  scholarly  men,  lealoua  for  the  salvation  of  souls. 
Notwithstanding  the  many  formalities  attending  the 
establishment  ofreligious  houses  in  Mexico,  there  were 
very  many,  both  men  and  women ,  belongiM  to  the  con- 
templative and  active  orders  who  succeeded  in  secur- 
Sthe  necessary  authorization.  Among  the  religious 
era  of  men  established  in  Meiicodurbg  the  Spanish 
occupation  may  be  mentioned  the  Franciscans,  Domini- 
cans, Augustinians,  Carmelites,  Brothrrs  of  St.  Jamee 
Wieguinoi),  Jeauita,  Mercedarians,  Bethlehemites, 
Benedictines,  Oratorians,  and  Brothers  of  St.  John  of 
God;  among  the  women,  the  Poor  Clares,  Capuchinea, 
Carmelites,  Conceptioniata,  Cistercians,  Auguatinians, 
Dominicans.  In  another  section  of  this  article  an 
account  will  be  given  of  all  the  dioceses  erected  dur- 
ing the  colonial  period.  If,  also,  account  is  taken  of 
die  almost  innumenble  hoepitAls,  chur^jes,  oonventa, 


2  MIZIOO 

and  monasteries  that  were  built  in  New  Spain,  it  will 

be  seen  that  the  kings,  instead  of  using  their  royal 
preri^atives  to  hinder  these  foundations,  did  all  in 
their  power  to  spread  and  encourage  them. 

The  much  vexed  question  of  alternate  rule,  which 
caused  much  dissension  in  the  religioua  orders,  moved 
Pope  Innocent  XI  to  decree  that  in  the  provinces  of 
suco  religious  in  America  as  liad  Europeans  and 
Creoles  in  the  communities,  theprelacies  should  be  con- 
ferred alternately,  some  years  on  the  one  and  some  on 
the  others.  When  the  kin^  heard  that  the  papal  oider 
was  not  being  carried  out  m  Mexico,  he  required  the 
viceroy,  D.  Antonio  Sebastian  de  Toledo,  Marqu4a  de 
Mancera,  by  otficial  decree  of  28  November,  1667,  to 
investigate  the  matter  thoroughly,  and  to  have  the 
orders  of  the  Holy  Father  carried  out.  Although  at 
first  owing  to  the  scarcitv  of  secular  priests,  the  kings 
permitteareligious  to  hold  parishes,  later,  learaii^  that 
it  was  the  cause  of  relaxed  discipline  among  them,  of 
exemption  from  episcopal  visitation,  and  sometime* 
of  unfairness  and  abuse  trf  the  Indians,  they  did 
everything  within  their  power  to  have  these  reli- 
gious replaced  by  secular  priests.  As  to  the  inter 
vention  of  the  viceroys  in  the  chapters  of  the  reli 
gioUB  orders,  it  is  known  that  the  part  taken  by  tho 
Conde  de  Revillagigo^o,  viceroy  from  1746-55,  in 
the  chapter  of  the  Carmelites,  to  settle  the  question 
of  admitting  a  visitor,  was  moat  beneficial,  as  well  as 
other  regulations  among  the  Franciscans,  Auguatin- 
ians, and  Brothers  of  St.  John  of  God.  In  the  instruc- 
tions given  by  Ferdinand  VI,  in  1755,  to  D.  Acustin  de 
Ahuinada  y  Villali^n,  Marqufa  de  las  Amariilas,  who 
was  leaving  tor  his  post  as  Viceroy  of  New  Spain,  the 
following  is  found:  "See  that  the  "bishops,  the  secular 
and  religious  clergy,  receive  alt  the  support  they  need 
from  the  civil  courta,  to  uproot  idolatry;  that  those 
having  Indians,n^roes,  or  mulattoes  in  their  homes  aa 
servants  send  them  daily  to  the  Christian  doctrine 
classes,  and  that  those  working  in  the  Gelds  be  given 
the  same  opportunity  on  Sundav  and  other  days  of 

KM:ept,  not  occupying  them  in  other  thinra  until  they 
ve  learned  the  catechism ;  and  if  they  do  not  com- 
ply they  shall  be  fined.  All  priests  who  are  to  work 
amonK  the  Indians  should  know  their  languages,  and 
it  is  necessary  that  they  should  study  these  languages. 
The  condition  of  the  Indians  in  all  New  Spain  should 
be  investigated  to  see  if  they  are  oppressed  by  those 
whose  duty  it  is  to  teach  them,  and  m  case  such  con- 
ditions are  found  to  exist,  they  are  to  be  reported  to 
the  bbhop,  and  with  his  help  measures  must  be  taken 
to  eradicate  the  evil. " 

(6)  The  Inquisition  in  New  Spain.— For  some  writers 
the  Spanish  Inquisition  in  Mexico  has  always  been  a 
particularly  alarming  subject,  the  exa^erated  ac- 
counts of  its  atrocities  and  the  number  of  its  victims 
verging  on  the  ridiculous.  It  has  even  been  said  that 
if  the  Spaniards  abolished  the  human  sacrifices  of  the 
ancient  Aetee  ri^ime,  they  more  than  replaced  them 
with  the  bonfires  of  the  Inquisition.  Fray  Martfn  de 
Valencia,  when  he  arrived  in  Mexico  in  1524,  bore  the 
title  of  Commisaioner  General  of  the  Inquisition  in 
New  Spain,  but  judgment  of  offences  of  a  grave  nature 
was  reserved  to  the  Inquisitor  of  the  lalaa  y  Tierra 
Firme,  who  resided  in  the  Island  of  San  Doming. 
Fray  Martfn  was  to  hold  this  office  until  some  Dommi- 
can  on  whom  the  official  charge  of  inquiaitor  bad  been 
conferred  ahould  arrive  in  Mexico.  And  in  fact, 
when  the  first  Dominicans  reached  Mexico  in  1526, 
their  superior.  Fray  Tomds  Ortiz,  became  commissioner 
of  the  Inquisition.  He  returned  almost  immediately 
to  Spain,  and  Fray  Domingo  de  Betanzos  succeeded 
him.  In  1.'>2S  the  new  superior  of  the  Dominicans, 
Fray  Vicente  de  Santa  Maria,  succeeded  to  the  tKle. 
At  the  time  of  the  second  Audicncia,  of  which  the 
eminent  D.  Sebastian  de  Fuen  Leal  was  president,  a 
meeting  was  held,  attended  by  Bishop  Zumdrn«a, 
Cort^.  rnd  seveml  of  the  most  influential  men  of  the 


mZKX)  263  Mmoo 

eaprtal,  at  which  it  vss  decided  "  that  on  ftcoount  of  the  year  1666",  etc.  The  Duquede  Linares  saya  in  his 
the  intercourae  with  foreignera,  and  becaiue  tbe  many  instruction  to  the  Marquee  de  Valero,  in  1716,  speak* 
privat«ere  that  cruised  along  the  coasts  might  intro-  ingof  the  inquisitors  of  nis  time:  "  Of  the  inquiaitore  I 
duce  evil  customs  and  habite  among  the  natives  and  should  inform  Your  Excellency  that  I  am  indebted  to 
the  Spaniaids,  who  by  the  ^^ace  of  God  had  been  them  not  Mily  for  a  just  respect,  esteem,  and  appre- 
preserved  from  the  taint  of  heresy,  it  was  neceesary  to  elation  for  my  official  character,  but  their  milanees 
establish  the  Holy  Office  of  the  Inquisition  ".  and  prudence  have  been  such  that  when  the  apparent 

It  was  no  doubt  in  consequence  of  this  resolution     seal  of  some  of  the  ministers  has  attempted  to  enkin- 
that  on  27  Jime,   1535,  Bishop  Zum&rraaa  was  ap-     die  some  sparks,  I  have  been  able  to  extinguish  them 
pointed  inquisitor,  with  ample  faculties,  including  that     owing  to  tne  consultations  and  the  mutual  confidence 
of  turning  over  the  offender  t^  the  secular  arm  and  of     which  have  always  existed  between  us". 
establjahing  the  Holy  Office.     He  did  not  establish  the         For  the  sake  of  clearness,  the  persons  condemned 
tribunal,  but  it  is  known  that  he  tried  and  condemned     by  the  Inquisition  may  be  placed  under  three  heads: 
to  be  burnt  a  Texcocan  noble  accused  of  having  sacri-     reiajadoe  (delivered  to  the  secdar  arm  for  execution  of 
ficed  human  beings.     After  this  it  was  forbidden  by     sentence)   in  person  or  effigy,  Teconciiiado»    (recon- 
the  royal  decree  o?  Charles  V,  of  IS  October,  1538,  to     ciled),  and  ■penilenU*  (penitents).     The  relajadoa  in 
try  cases  against  the  Indians  before  the  Holy  Olfice, 
and  that  in  matters  of  faith  the  bishop  should  be  their 
judge.     Since  then  there  is  no  record  of  a  single  In- 
dian having  been  tried  before  the  tribunal  of  the  In- 
quisition. In  1554,  Archbishop  Montdfar,  a  Dominican 
and  qualificator  of  the  Inquisition  in  Granada,  though 
Dot  bearing  the  title  of  inquisitor,  proceeded  as  though 
thus  empowered,  no  doubt  because  of  the  ordinary 
iuriadiction  possessed  by  the  bishop  in  matters  of 
faith,  and  passed  the  aulos  of  1555  and  1558.   Cardinal 
Diego  de  Eepinosa,  Bishop  of  SigUenaa,  and  Grand  In- 

Siisitor  of  Spain,  appointed  as  inquisitor  for  Mexico 
.  Pedro  Moya  de  Contreraa,  also  two  lawyere,  Juan 
Cervantes  and  Alonso  Femfindei  de  Bonilla.  Their 
juriadiction  extended  over  all  of  New  Spain,  Guate- 
mala, and  the  Philippines.  The  royal  ilecree  of  10 
August,  1570,  commanded  that  the  City  of  Mexico 
was  to  aid  and  respect  the  inquisitors,  and  on  2  Novem- 
ber, 1571,  the  tribunal  was  established  with  all  due 
solemnity.  It  exercised  its  authority  in  Mexico  until 
S  June,  1813,  when  the  decree  of  tbe  Spanish  Corbes 
suppressing  it  was  published.  On  21  January,  1814, 
h  was  re-established,  and  in  1820  definitively  abol- 

bi  New  Spain  the  Tribunal  of  the  Inquisition  was 
eompofied  oi  three  Apostolic  inquisitors  and  a  treas- 
urer, each  with  a  salary  of  three  thousand  pesos,  paid 
three  times  a  year  in  advance  by  the  canonries  of  the 
catbedr^  of  then  respective  diatricta.     There  was 
also  a  head  constable,  a  trustee,  treasurer,  three  secre- 
taries, several  consultors,  qualificatora,  and  lay  officials. 
The  tribunal  bad  authority  to  pass  general  and  partic- 
ular oufosde/e.     What  the  viceroys  of  Mexico  thought  CATHiDiut.  or  CmHtjAsni 
of  this  trilaunal  may  be  gathered  from  the  many  instruc-  Begun  1711;  completed  1780 
tions  which  by  order  of  the  king  each  viceroy  had  to  person  were  burnt,  either  alive  or  first  garroted.    On  the 
leave  for  his  successor  in  the    government  of    the  way  to  the  place  of  execution  they  were  clothed  m  the 
colony.     And  it  may  be  noted  that  these  instructions,  samarra,  a  sort  of  scapular  of  cloth  or  cotton,  yellow 
coming  from  men  who  were  laying  down  the  reins  of  or  red,  upon  which  dragons,  demons,  and  flames  were 
KOvemmeot,  apeak  with  perfect  freedom,  not  hesitat-  painted,  among  which  could  be  seen  the  picture  of  the 
mg  to  censure  what  was  considered  worthy  of  censuie.  criminal.     The  head  was  covered  with  a  species  of 
From  these  instructions  it  is  evident  that  the  author-  mitre  called  eorota,  covered  with  the  same  devices. 
Hy  of  the  tribunal  was  not  as  absolute  as  is  generally  The  retajodcs  in  effi^  were  those  who,  having  esca}>ed 
supposed.     The  MarquSa  de  Mancera,  in  the  instruc-  ordied,  were  bumedineffiCT,  sometimes  together  with 
tions  left  22  Oct.,  1673,  for  his  successor  the  Duque  de  their  bones  and  bodies.     This  was  done  with  those 
Veragua,  aftersaying  that  the  Tribunal  of  the  Inqiiisi-  whodiedorwho  committed  suicide  during  tbe  process. 
tioa  "has  been  and  is  feared  and  respected  with  all  due  It  sometimes  happened  that  a  criminal  attempted  to 
reverence  in  these  provinces,  knowmg  full  well  that,  commit  suicide;  il  before  dying  he  be^ed  pardon  and 
owing  to  its  uprightness  and  vigilance,  they  find  them-  retracted  his  errors,  he  was  reconcQed  in  effigy.     Such 
selves  by  the  grace  of  God  free  from  the  errors  and  was  the  case  of  the  French  physician,  Etienne  Morel, 
abominations  which  at  different  times  the  common  whose  auto  d«/e  was  carried  out  9  August,  1795.     The 
enemy  has  soi^ht  to  sow  in  their  midst",  adds,  "but,  reconcUiodoa  y/ere  those  who,  recognizmg  their  offences 
■e  ita  jurisdiction  is  so  absolute,  the  tribunal  does  not  and  errors,  retracted  and  asked  pardon.     They  were 
always  keep  as  it  should  within  its  proper  limits,  nor  not  condemned  to  death,  but  were  obliged  to  submit 
do  the  viceroys,  governors,  or  Audiencias  take  it  upon  to  various  punishmentA.     One  was,  to  wear  the  San 
titemselvee  to  hold  it  within  bounds,  except  in  cases  Benito,  called /u«go  revolto  or  revuello,  a  garment  simi- 
of  tbe  most  urgent  necessity;  nevertheless,  when  the  lar  to  that  worn  by  the  reJajodoa,  with  a  correspondit^ 
excesses  are  notably  prejudicial  to  the  respect  due  the  coroza,  only  that  in  this  the  flames  pointed  downwards 
royal  representation,  to  its  jurisdiction,  or  ita  excheq-  to  show  that  by  their  repentance  they  had  escaped  the 
uer,  or  when  the  delay  causes  irreparable  damage,  capital   pimishment.     Other    forms    of    punishment 
there   is   special   authority   for  applying   a  suitable  wereinflictedaccording  to  the  gravity  of  tbe  offence — 
remedy,  and  I  made  use  ci  this  faculty  at  tbe  close  of  exile,  the  galleys,  wmpping,  imprisonment,  certain 


I  4:«r»{i 


264 


UZIGO 


pnyera  and  psalms  to  be  recited  on  certain  days  of  the 
year,  carrying  green  candles,  confiscation  of  property, 
etc. 

The  ordinary  penitents  were  those  whose  faults  did 
not  merit  the  death  sentence.  They  wore  the  plain 
San  Benito,  that  is,  similar  in  form  to  the  other,  but 
decorated  with  the  cross  of  St.  Andrew,  and  they  wore 
no  coToza,  Various  punishments  were  imposed  on 
them,  always  less  than  those  of  the  reconcUiadoaf  and 
at  times  almost  grotesque,  e.  g.,  the  case  of  the  criminal 
condemned  on  7  December,  1664,  of  whom  it  is 
recorded,  ''The  sentence  having  been  read,  he  was 
taken  out  into  the  court  of  the  convent,  placed  on  a 
scaffold,  and  stripped  to  the  waist.  Indians  then 
smeiued  him  with  honey,  feathered  him,  and  left  him 
in  the  sun  for  four  hours. "  From  the  list  made  by  D. 
Jos6  Pichsjdo  of  the  Oratory  of  St.  Philip  Neri,  who 
copied  every  tablet  in  the  transept  of  Mexico  cathe- 
dral, we  see  that  the  crimes  usually  condemned  by  the 
Inquisition  were  heresy  and  Judaism.  Many  were 
condemned  for  blasphemy,  bigamy,  perjury,  forgery, 
and  witchcraft,  as  idolators,  Illumlnati,  Freemasons, 
and  apostates;  for  having  heard  confessions  and  said 
Mass  without  Holy  orders,  for  having,  with  intent  to 
deceive,  received  Holy  orders  before  attaining  the 
prescribed  canonical  age,  for  rebaptizing,  abetting 

Solygamy,  and  feigning  revelations  (autoa  de  fe  21 
une,  1789  and  8  August,  1795). 
A  r6sum4  of  the  autoa  de  fe  from  the  figures  of  Fr. 
Pichardo,  supplemented  by  others,  gives  the  follow- 
ing result: — 


RBCONCXLBD 

RELAJADOS 
Df  PERSON 

RSLAJAD08 
XNErPIGT 

Auto  of  Fray  Martin  de 
Valencia 

2 

2 

12 
774 

1 
1 

0 
49 

0 

Fray  Juan  de  Zum&rrajsa 

Fray  Alonao  de  Monttirar 

(1556-62) 

0 
0 

The    Inquisition    (1574- 
1803) 

109 

Total 

790 

61 

109 

The  Ust  published  b^  J.  Garcia  Icasbalceta,  includ- 
ing onlv  the  atUos  providing  for  capital  punishment,  is 
somewhat  different: — 


RBLAJAOOB 

nr  PERSON 

RBLAJADOS 
IN   EPFXQT 

Fray  Martin  de  Valencia 
Fray  Juan  de  Zum&rrasa 
Inquisition  Auto  of  1674 
„     ..  1696 

-    •  iSS 

-      "  IftTR 

••     "1688 

"       "   17l5 

„     „  1795 

1 
1 
5 
8 
8 
0 
13 
7 
1 
0 
1 
1 
0 

0 

0 

0 

10 

16 

5 

66 

1 

0 

1 

0 

0 

1 

Total  in  277  years 

41 

09 

This  number  can  be  increased,  as  the  cndoe  from 
1703  to  1728  (except  1715)  are  not  included,  although 
during  this  period  cases  were  rarely  turned  over  to  the 
secular  arm.  And  even  allowing  for  this  it  is  evident 
that  the  number  of  victims  commonl  v  attributed  to 
the  Inquisition  of  New  Spain  is  greatly  exag^rated. 

From  this  it  may  be  seen  how  erroneous  it  is  to  de- 
nounce the  Inquisition  as  one  of  the  greatest  blots  of 
the  Spanish  domination  in  Mexico.  The  Inquisition 
existed  in  Spain,  and  it  was  natural  that  it  should  be 
established  m  the  new  colonies.  As  the  Indians  were 
exempt  from  its  jurisdiction,  the  full  measure  of  its 
seventy  fell  upon  the  Spaniards  and  heietios,  pirates 


or  otherwise,  of  other  nations  who  infested  the  coasts 
of  New  Spain.  In  fact,  in  the  auioa  defe  the  greater 
number  m  the  condemned  were  Portuguese,  for  Judais- 
ing,  and  then,  in  order,  Englishmen,  Frencnmen,  Ger- 
mans. Spaniards,  Mexiean  Creoles,  and  Swedes.  To 
say  tnat  the  victims  of  the  Inauisition  in  New  Spain 
exceeded  the  number  sacrificed  by  the  Axtecs  is  a  gross 
perversion  of  the  facts.  The  Astecs  sacrificed  thou- 
sands of  victims  in  one  festival  alone ;  the  Inauisition, 
coverinc  &  period  of  three  hundred  years,  and  extend- 
ing its  jurisdiction  far  beyond  the  confines  of  the 
Aztec  empire,  barely  reached  fifty  victims.  The  In- 
auisition pardoned  readll^r,  and  those  who  recomised 
tneir  errors  and  repented  it  easily  reconciled.  When 
it  found  or  thougnt  i':  found  (for  this  tribunal  like 
every  other  human  tribunal  made  itc  mistakes)  a 
criminal,  he  was  turned  over  to  the  secular  courts  of 

i'ustice,  which  passed  and  executed  the  sentence.  In 
act  the  Inquisition  did  no  more  nor  less  than  the  jury 
of  to-day.  It  is  true  that  it  made  use  of  the  torture, 
but  this  was  a  practice  common  to  all  tribumds  of  that 
time.  It  also  made  use  of  the  secret  pr^ceas — a 
method  not  unlikely  to  be  productive  of  errur — ^but  it 
was  easy  to  set  aside  the  punishment  or  at  least  to 
mitigate  it  by  repenting  if  one  were  guilty,  or  by 
frankly  professing  the  Catholic  Faith  if  one  \7ere  not. 

Nor  can  the  Inquisition  be  blamed  for  judeing  her- 
esv  a  crime  punishable  by  death;  it  was  so  neld  by 
all  the  civil  courts  of  the  times,  and  not  without  reason, 
because  the  heretics  of  those  days  were  the  initiators 
of  rebellion  in  Catholic  countries.  At  that  time  in 
England  to  be  a  Catholic  was  a  crime  punishable  by 
death  (see  PxNiiL  Laws)  .  Judged  impartially,  the  In* 
auisition  in  New  Spain  appears  as  a  tribunal  which 
snares,  it  is  true,  the  defects  of  contemporaiy  methods, 
subject  to  mistakes  like  all  other  human  institutions, 
more  merciful  than  anv  other  court  under  similar 
circumstances,  above  all  if  the  relatively  small  num- 
ber of  death  sentences  and  the  large  number  of  recon- 
ciled be  taken  into  consideration,  as  well  as  the  gloiy 
of  having  accomplished  at  the  cost  of  a  small  num- 
ber of  lives,  what  the  nations  of  Europe  could  not 
achieve  even  through  the  medium  of  long,  bloody, 
fratricidal  wars,  the  unity  of  religion  and  the  preserva- 
tion of  the  faith.  As  regards  the  mUo  de  fe  o(  27 
November,  1815,  which  condemned  D.  Jos6  Maria 
Morelos,  the  principal  leader  of  the  war  of  indepesMl- 
ence,  see  Morelob. 

(7)  The  Spanish  Government  and  the  Colony. — 
Mexico  having  been  conquered,  Cortte.  in  virtue  of  the 
famous  election  of  Vera  Cruz  and  through  force  of 
circumstances,  became  the  ruler.  When,  however, 
Charles  V  realised  the  importance  of  the  conquest, 
without  deposing  Cortte,  he  began  sending  over  other 
officials  who,  it  may  be  said,  were  not  vei^  wisely 
chosen.  Cortes,  though  outwardly  complying,  did 
not  receive  them  well,  doubtless  because  m  foresaw 
that  they  would  be  c  disturbing  element  in  the  re- 
cently conquered  territories.  When,  however,  he 
started  on  his  famous  expedition  of  the  Hibueras.  he 
showed  equally  little  tact  in  selecting  the  men  he  left 
to  fill  his  place.  In  the  selection  of  the  first  Audiencia 
(152R-31),  coxnposed  of  Nufio  de  Gusmin,  Juan  Ottia 
Matienso,  and  uiegp  Degadillo,  the  emperor  was  even 
more  tactless.  The  excesses  and  injustices  of  these 
judges  were  innumerable,  and  the  entire  colony  suffered. 
Everything  changed  imder  the  govemment  of  the 
second  Audiencia  (1531-35),  composed  of  Bishop 
Sebastian  Ramfres  de  Fuen  LuJ,  D.  Vasco  de  Quiroeat 
D.  Francisco  Ceinos,  and  D.  Juan  Salmer6n.  be- 
ginning the  work  of  reconstruction  with  seal  and  per- 
fect integrity,  they  met  at  the  very  outset  with  an 
obstacle  that  greatlv  hampered  them.  The  ancient 
legislation  destrovea  by  the  conquest  had  not  heea  re- 
placed by  any  otber,  while  the  Spanish  code  was  en- 
tirely inadequate  for  the  new  dominions.  To  meet 
this  situatiaQ,  Spanish  kings  b^gan  formulating  and 


uzxoo  265  mzioo 

Moding  over  a  multitude  of  tuyal  deenee,  applicable    tazee  were  not  onerous,  and  if  at  timea  these  were  co^ 
KHQetimea  to  only  one  i»t>vinoe  or  relating  to  some    cessive  it  did  not  arise  from  insupportable  ezactime, 
particular  qucHtion,  frequently  conflicting  and  cou'     but  from  the  methods  of  administration.     Many  of 
tradictory  because  the  sovereigns  were  weeing  in  the    the  mistakes  noted  ttwlay,  and  so  easily  censured, 
dark,  deciding  questions  as  they  presented  themselves,     wbtq  due  to  the  impossibility  of  one  man  alone  attend- 
ofbm  without  Havinff  formed  an  exact  opinion  of  the     ins  to  all  the  details  of  so  complicatod  a  piece  of  ma- 
matters  involved.^So  numerous  were  the  decrees    chmery,  above  all  to  the  m&t  distance  of  the  central 
that  the  collection  formed  a  library  of  documents,  not-    government.    Scattered  thrCHigh  all  the  ancient  doou- 
withstandii^  which  many  oaaea  remained  unprovided    ment«  may  be  found  complaints  attributing  many  of 
for,  and  Mmd  Mtly  be  settled  by  special  oei^Bions.    the  troubies  affecting  the  Indies  to  "  t^  cursed  dis- 
Tbeae.however,  ran  the  risk  of  royal  aisapprovalj  and    tanoe  that  prevents  tiieir  enjoying  the  presence  of 
tlw  viceroys  and jeovamors  rarely  cared  to  assume  the    their  king".    The  truth,  though  sought  in  all  eameat- 
r«sponBibility.     To  understand  the  baneful  effects  of     □ee8,came  to  the  royal  knowledge  late  and  after  many 
such  a  system  it  b  only  nocessary  to  picture  a  people     difficulties;  it  was  therefore  natural  that  the  remedies 
ruled  by  the  changeable  mind  of  a  sovereign  2000     for  evils  should  be  almost  always  late. 
IcAgu^  away,  and  lequiring  years  to  investigate  and        The  motives  and  intentions  of  the  Spanish  kmgs 
report  on  questions  submitt«d.    When  reference  ta 
made  to  the  famous  "  RecopilaciAn  de  Indias  ",  many 
imwine  that  it  was  some  code  of  very  early  date, 
probably  of  the  sixteenth  century,  whereas  it  did  not 
go  into  effect  until  the  end  of  the  seventeenth  century, 
about  midway  in  the  period  of  Spanish  domination. 
Whatever  honour  redounds  to  Spain  from  this  code  is 
diminished  by  the  tardiness  of  its  execution. 

The  Spanish  Government  is  reproached  for  having 
iacrialed  Mexico  and  hindered  foreign  commerce. 
The  inunenae  extent  of  the  colony  of  New  Spain,  the 
extensive  sea  coasts  on  both  sides,  the  scanty  popula- 
tion, the  fata)  and  insupportable  climate  in  certain 
sections,  the  deserts,  the  impenetrable  forests,  the 
gigantic  mountain  ranges,  made  communication  and 
defence  against  foreign  aggicsaion  extremely  difficult. 
Ttie  envy  and  covetousness  of  other  nations,'  chafing 
under  the  sting  of  having  rejected  the  offer  of  the 
discovery,  were  a  constant  source  of  menace  to  these 
over-sea  possessions.  Stmngers  could  select  her 
weakest  point  of  attack;  Spain  bad  to  defend  all  sides. 
Heaos  ol  communication,  established  with  difficulty, 
were  coostaotly  being  interrupted;  foreign  nations, 
wiUiout  diatii^uishing  between  times  of  war  and  times 
of  peace,  kept  upa  continuous  piratical  warfare,  sacked 
tiw  coasts,  and  seized  the  cargoes  of  the  ships.  While 
th^  state  of  continual  aggression  and  menace  delayed 
and  impeded  the  development  of  the  colony,  those 
responsible  for  it  were  the  very  ones  to  bring  forward 
this  chaise  against  Spain.  To  allow  such  people  to 
enter  freely,  even  under  the  pretext  of  trade,  was  vety 
dangerous.  A  foothold  once  established,  it  would  not 
havetakenlong  to  spread  over  the  entire  country,  and 
it  waspreoiaely  to  avmd  this  that  it  was  necessary  to 
wage  mcessant  war.  This  is  amply  proved  by  the 
Ttaolts  attendmg  the  concession  granted  the  English  could  not  have  been  better;  at  times  they  bordered  on 
to  cut  timber  in  Yucatan,  which  ended  in  the  abeorp-  the  Utopian,  but  it  was  humanly  impossible  that 
tion  by  the  English  Government  of  the  entire  strip  of  among  so  manv  officials  all  should  have  been  exem- 
Hezieaa  territory  now  known  as  British  Honduras,  plary.  As  the  king  was  obli^  to  act  through  them,  it 
It  was  therefoi«  imperative  to  isolate  the  colony  in  wasunavoidable  tnathiswisbesshouldoftenbeeiuer 
order  to  keep  it,  without,  however,  for  this  reason  op-  intentionally  or  unintentionally  ignored .  The  wealth 
pressiog  it.  of  the  country  excited  envy;  and  its  great  distance 

One  cannot  brand  as  stupid  and  blind  a  state  policy  mitigated  fear.  The  Juicio  de  Residencia,  totally 
that  wilJtout  any  great  armed  force  maintained  for  unknown  to-day,  did  not  always  prove  efficacious, 
three  hundred  years,  submissive  and  peaceful,  extensive  yet  its  establishment  shows  the  earnest  desire  of  re- 
distant  territories,  the  object  of  univeisal  envy.  It  is  stricting  the  pien^atives  of  the  administration,  and 
true  that  during  the  colonial  period  there  was  no  at  times  it  proved  a  strong  controlling  force  that  made 
Uberty  of  the  press,  but  this  was  the  case  also  in  many  itself  felt.  It  is  therefore,  a  vulgar  error  to  believe 
European  countriee,  and  notwithstanding  this,  in  that  the  Spanish  Government  was  merciless  towards 
SpatQ  as  well  as  in  Hexioo  and  through  all  America,  the  Colony  of  Mexico.  Like  all  nations,  Spain  sought 
toe  writing  of  Las  Casae,  which  almost  (questioned  the  revenue  from  her  colony  {disint«reetedneGa  and  chanty 
kgitimanr  of  the  conquest  of  the  Indies,  circulated  ateaotgovemmcntal^^uBs),butBhedid  not  exhaust 
freely.  The  first  printing  machine  was  brought  to  the  its  resources.  If  at  times  special  restrictions  were  im- 
New  World  not  torough  the  personal  interest  or  for  posed,  they  were  the  outcome  of  circumstanoes  and 
theperaonaladvantaeeof  an^mdividual.butthrouKh  of  the  not  imnaturfC  desire  to  retain  possession  of  the 
the  paternal  solicitude  of  Bistu^  Zumtlrraga  and  the    colony. 

Viceroy  D.  Antonio  de  Hendoia.  Public  instruction,  Foremost  among  the  public  works  undertaken  by 
good  or  bad,  ao^ording  to  individual  opinion,  was  on  the  vice-regal  Government  was  the  draining  of  the 
ao  aqoality  with  that  of  Spain,  and  to  tiie  universities  Valley  of  Mexico.  The  decree  authorising  this  work 
foonded  in  Mexico,  which  were  of  the  same  rank  aa  is  dated  23  October,  1607,  and  the  funds  for  the  work 
thon  of  ^iain,  many  noted  pmfesBors  were  sent.    The    were  raised  bya  tax<rf  1  percent,  levied  on  all  the 


I   -»  «!».» 


266  MEXICO 


residences  of  the  city,  seeing  that  their  owners  would  Government  refused  to  ratify  the  treaty,  and  the  par- 

Srofit  most  directly  by  the  improvement.  The  In-  tisans  of  Iturbide,  taking  advantage  of  tnis,  proclaimed 
ians  engaged  upon  this  work  were  paid  5  reales  (63  him  emperor.  Owing,  however,  to  the  difficulties  and 
cents)  and  an  almud  (7  quarts)  of  com  per  week,  and  a  the  oppositicm  he  encountered,  he  reskned  the  follow- 
daily  ration  of  1  pound  of  meat,  peppers,  wood,  and  ing  year,  and  withdrew  to  Leghorn,  Italy.  In  1824, 
other  provisions.  A  hospital  was  founded  at  Huehue-  hoping  once  more  to  be  of  service  to  his  country,  and 
toca  for  the  benefit  of  disabled  workmen,  ground  being  without  knowing  that  he  was  under  sentence  of 
broken  on  28  November,  1607,  by  the  Viceroy  D.  Luis  death  by  the  Government,  he  returned  to  Mexico, 
de  Valasco,  who  dug  the  first  sod,  after  Mass  had  been  He  was  arrested  on  his  arrival,  condemned,  and 
said  in  the  villaee  of  Nochistongo.  Father  Juan  put  to  death  on  19  July,  1824.  Freemasonry,  so 
Sinches,  S.  J.,  ana  the  cosmqgrapher,  Enrique  Mar-  activelv  promoted  in  Mexico  by  the  first  minister 
tin  (Martfnez),  were  placed  in  cnarge  of  the  work,  from  the  United  States,  Joel  K.  Poinsset,  began 
Later  Pather  sdnchez  retired,  leaving  Martin  in  full  gradually  to  lessen  the  loyalty  which,  in  accordance 
charge.  This  vast  work  employed  the  labour  of  with  the  plan  of  Iguala,  l>oth  the  rulers  and  the  gov- 
471,154  men.  The  Nochistongo  tunnel  measured  over  emed  had  manifested  towards  the  Church.  Little 
four  miles  long,  with  a  section  measuring  1 1  feet  6  inches  by  little  laws  were  enacted  against  the  Church,  curtail- 
by  13  feet  7  inches.  The  work  was  finished  on  7  May,  ing  her  rights,  as,  for  example,  in  1833,  the  exclusion  of 
1608,  and  in  a  report  made  by  order  of  the  Viceroy  the  clergy  from  the  public  schools,  notwithstanding 
Velasco  it  is  stated  that  only  50  of  the  workmen  had  the  fact  that  at  the  time  the  president,  D.  Valentin 
died,  and  of  these  10  were  accidentally  killed.  It  is  G<5mez  Farias,  claimed  for  the  Republican  Govern- 
true  that  this  great  work  did  not  give  the  expected  ment  all  the  privileges  of  the  royal  patronage,  with 
results,  but  it  nevertheless  remains  to  the  credit  of  the  the  power  of  nlling  vacant  sees  and  otner  ecclesiastical 
Government  that  undertook  it  for  the  welfare  of  the  benefices. 

people.    Finally,  it  may  be  noted  that  in  examining  General  Antonio  L6pez  de  Santa  Anna  dominated 

the  list  of  the  viceroys  who  governed  Mexico,  the  the  scene  for  almost  fifty  years,  but  he  was  a  man  with- 

desire  of  the  Spanish  monarchs  that  the  persons  en-  out  principle,  and  his  policy  was  weak  and  vacillating, 

trusted  with  this  charge  should  be  persons  of  impor-  Whatever  services  he  rendered  his  country  were  more 

tance,  is  very  evident,  and  if  there  were  some  who  than  outweighed  by  the  many  evils  of  his  administra- 

proved  unworthy  of  the  duty  entrusted  to  them,  op-  tion.     From  1824  to  1846  the  nation  was  embroiled  in 

pressing  the  people  and  furthering  their  own  private  an  interminable  series  of  revolutions,  having  to  face  at 

mterests,  there  were  many  others,  like  Mendoza,  the  same  time  some  serious  national  issues.     Guate- 

Velasco,  Payo  de  Rivera,  Juan  de  Acufia,  Bucareli,  the  mala,  which  had  cast  in  her  lot  with  Mexico,  separated 

second  Uonde  de  Revillagigedo,  and  others  who  proved  from  her  forever;  the  French  invaded  the  country; 

themselves  upright  and  prudent  governors,  and  mer-  Yucatan  separated  from  the  central  government  for 

ited  the  gratitude  of  the  colony.  several  years,  and  the  independence  of  Texas  brought 

Independent  Mexico. — ^The  revolt  of  the  English  on  the  war  with  the  United  States.    The  North 

colonies  in  America,  the  principles  of  the  French  Kev-  American  troops  were  in  possession  of  the  capital, 

olution,  the  proclamation  of  Joseph  Bonaparte  as  and  to  establish  peace  it  was  necessary  to  cede  to 

King  of  Spain,  the  uprising  of  the  Spaniards  against  the  conquerors  all  the  territory  situated  north  of  the 

Napoleon,  and  old  racial  antipathies,  are  the  causes  to  Rio  Grande,  besides  California,  Arizona,  and  New 

which  the  independence  of  Mexico  is  usually  attributed.  Mexico.    And  then,  when  peace  was  most  necessary 

This  was  doubtless  precipitated  by  the  fact  that  for  the  healing  of  the  nation's  wounds,  there  came, 

Miguel  Hidaleoy  Costula,  parish  priest  of  Dolores,  dis-  instead,  civil  wars  and  bloodshed.     In  1851,  Pius  IX 

covered  that  nis  plot  was  on  the  point  of  being  be-  sent  Monsignor  Luis  Clement!  to  settle  some  religious 

traved,  and  on  16  September,  1810,  raised  the  stand-  Questions.     He  was  ofiicially  received  by  the  presi- 

ara  of  revolt  against  Spain.     From  the  little  city  of  dent,Senor  Arista,  but  was  finally  obliged  to  witlniraw 

Dolores  he  marched  with  an  ill-assorted,  badly  armed  ahd  return  to  Rome  without  ha vmg  accomplished  any- 

company  of  Indians  to  the  very  capital  itself,  but,  not  thing.     Dissensions  continued,  and  in  1857  the  famous 

daring  to  attack  it,  retraced  his  steps  to  Guadalajara.  Constitution,  which  is  still  in  force  in  the  republic. 

At  the  bridge  of  Calder6n  he  was  defeated ,  and  pursued  was  promulgated  by  the  president,  lenacio  Comonf  ort. 

as  he  fled  through  Acatita  de  Bajan ;  he  was  captured  His  successor,  Benito  Judrez,  issued  a  series  of  laws 

and  executed  at  Chihuahua,  30  July,  181 1 .    His  work  against  the  Catholic  reli^on.    At  this  time  an  attempt 

was  taken  up  and  continued  by  Jos^  Maria  Morelos,  was  made  to  carry  a  schismatical  movement  into  effect, 

parish  priest  of  Cardcuaro,  and  upon  his  death  by  the  Plans  were  made  by  the  secret  societies,  as  well  as 

Spaniard  Mina.    When  Mina  was  captured  and  put  to  other  anti-Catholic  associations  of  reformers,  to  induce 

death,  almost  all  hope  of  gaining  independence  seemed  President  Judrez  to  declare  that  the  Mexican  nation 

lost.  D.Vicente  Guerrero,  entrenched  m  the  mountains,  separated  herself  from  communion  with  Rome,  and 

kept  up  a  desultory  warfare  until  negotiations  were  establish  a  national  religion  whose  first  pontifT,  named 

opened  with  the  royalist  general,  D.  .Justin  deltur-  by  the  Government,  should  be  Sr.  Pardio,  formerly 

bide,  who  had  been  sent  to  subdue  the  insurgents,  parish  priest  of  Zotuta  in  Yucatan,  who  had  fraudu- 

These  negotiations  issued  in  the  plan  of  Iguala,  by  lently  obtained  a  Bull  from  Gregory  XVI  consecrating 

which  Mexico  was  to  be  independent,  its  government  him  titular  Bishop  of  Germanicopolis  and  auxiliary  to 

A  constitutional  monarchy,  and  the  Roman  Catholic  D.  Jose  Maria  Guerra,  Bishop  of  Yucatan.     The  sud- 

religion  the  only  one  recognized  and  tolerated.    Fei^  den  death  of  Sr.  Pardio,  in  May,  1861,  ended  this 

dinand  VII  was  chosen  as  sovereign  or,  in  his  default,  absurd  attempt. 

one  of  his  brothers  or  some  member  of  the  reigning  This  was  followed  by  the  French  intervention,  the  em- 
house  who  should  be  chosen  by  the  Congress.  The  pire,  and  the  tragedy  of  Cerrode  Las  Campanas  in  June, 
secular  and  regular  clergy  were  to  be  maintained  in  1867.  In  1864,  while  Maximilian  was  emperor,  the 
all  their  former  privilege  and  pre-eminence.  papal  nuncio,  Monsignor  Meglia,  visited  Mexico,  but  he 
Graduallv  both  royalists  and  insurgents  b^an  to  did  not  obtain  anything  from  the  emperor,  as  Maxi- 
Bupport  this  plan,  and  on  24  August,  1821,  by  the  milian  declared  that  the  "  Reform  Laws ''.  with  regard 
Treaty  of  Cordoba,  even  the  Viceroy  D.  Juan  O^Don-  to  laicization  of  church  property,  would  be  up&ld. 
oju,  who  had  just  limded  at  Vera  Cruz,  signified  his  con-  Judrez  died  in  1872,  and  was  succeeded  by  D.  Seba»- 
currenoe.  On  27  September  of  the  same  year  the  tian  Lerdo  de  Tejada.  The  latter  was  overthrown  by 
army  of  las  tree  aarantiae  (three  guarantees),  as  it  Porfirio  Diaz,  who  became  president.  He  has  filled 
was  called,  entered  the  City  of  Mexico.  At  the  be-  this  office  imtil  the  present  time  (1910),  with  the  ex- 
gmning  of  1822  it  became  known  that  the  Spanish  ception  of  one  term  from  1880  to  1884.    His  ooncilia* 


UKXICO  21 

toiy  pcdiev,  the  encouragement,  protection,  and  sup- 
port of  indiutriea,  the  opeaing  of  ways  o[  communica- 
tion, have  developed  the  rich  reeources  of  the  country, 
and  given  Mexico  on  epoch  of  much  needed  peace. 

CoNaTTTUTlON   OF    1857   AND    LaWB   OF  RbFORM.-— 

from  4  July,  1822,  when  the  law  was  issued  permit- 
ting the  Government  to  take  poEsession  of  the  Phitip- 
f>ine  mission  property,  and  of  revenues  from  pious 
oundationa  which  were  not  to  be  epent  within  the 
limits  of  the  Mexican  Republic,  to  the  law  of  23 
November,  1855,  Article  42  of  which  abolished  all 
ecclesiastical  jurisdiction  in  civil  matters,  a  aeries  of 
laws  were  enacted  by  Congress  and  the  legislatures  of 
the  states  clearly  showing  the  anti-religious  spirit  of 
those  who  fiumed  them.  This  spirit  was  at  its  height 
from  1857  to  1874.  During  the  presidency  of  D.  Igna- 
cio  Comonfort  the  famous  Constitution  of  1857,decree' 
iog  the  separation  of  Church  and  State,  was  promul- 

St«d,   and   in   the   years   following    Benito    Jufirei 
imed  innumerable  laws  systematizing  the  provisions 


many  of  the  Reform 
Laws  framed  by 
Judre*  to  constitu- 
tional statutes. 

(A)  The  Church 
and  her  Priviiegea. — 
Iaw  of  11  August, 
1839.  Art.  3,— All 
laws,  circulars,  and 
ordinances  of  any 
kind  whatsoever,  es- 
tablished by  public 
authority,  by  last 
will  and  testament, 
or  by  custom,  which 
require  officials  to 
attend  public  reli- 
zioua  functiooa,  in  a 
body  are  hereby  re- 

peftfed.       Law   of  4  Mexicah  Labour 

December,  1880:  Art.  i°  "•a  *•>"■«  mJ 

8. — Right  of  asylum  in  chuicheB  is  abolished,  and 
force  may  and  should  be  employed  in  whatever  meas- 
ure it  may  be  deemed  necessary  to  arrest  and  re- 
move according  to  law  a  declared  or  suspected 
eriminal,  without  the  ecclesiastical  authorities  hav- 
ing a  right  to  intervene.  Art.  17. — Olficiai  recog- 
Dition  formerly  given  to  various  ecclesiastical  persons 
and  coTporatioas  is  withdrawn.  Art.  IB.^The  use  of 
church  bells  is  to  be  regulated  by  police  ordinance. 
Art.  24.^Public  oflieials  are  forbiaden  in  their  official 
capacity  to  assist  at  any  religious  ceremony,  or  enter- 
tftmment  in  honour  oC  a  clcmyman,  however  high  in 
tank  he  may  be.  Troops  of  soldiers  are  incluoed  in 
the  foregoing  prohibition. 

Law  of  13  May,  1873,  only  article.— No  religious 
rite  or  demonstration  of  any  kind  whatsoever  may 
lake  place  outside  of  the  church  building  in  any  part 
of  the  republic.  Law  of  14  December,  1874,  Art.  3.— 
No  official,  official  corporation,  or  body  of  troops  may 
attend  in  an  official  capacity  religious  services  of  any 
kind  whatsoever,  nor  snail  uie  Government  recognize 
in  any  manner  whatsoever  religious  solemnities.  All 
days,  therefore,  that  do  not  commemorate  some  ex- 
clusively civil  event  cease  to  be  holidays.  Sundays 
are  set  apart  as  days  of  rest  for  offices  and  public  in- 
stitutions. Art.  5. — No  religious  rite  may  take  place 
outside  the  church  building,  neither  shall  the  ministers 
of  teli^on  or  any  individual  of  either  sex,  of  any  de- 
nomination whatsoever,  wear  in  public  a  special  dress 
or  insignia  which  would  characteriie  him  m  any  way, 
under  penalty  of  a  fine  of  ten  to  two  hundred  dollarH, 

(B)Refi4rvousOr(ferg.— Constitution  of  1857,  Art.  5.— 
The  State  cannot  allow  any  contract,  pact,  or  agree- 
ment to  go  into  effect  that  has  for  iu  objeot  the  im- 


painnent,  loas,  or  irrevocable  sacrifice  of  a  man's  lib- 
erty, whatever  the  cause  may  be,  work,  education,  or 

religious  vow.  Consequently  the  law  does  not  reoog- 
niie  monastic  orders,  nor  can  it  permit  their  establiah- 
ment,  whatever  be  their  designation  or  object.  Art, 
27. — Religious  institutions  or  corporations,  whatever 
their  character,  name,  period  of  existence,  and  object, 
and  such  civil  institutions  as  are  under  the  patronage, 
direction,  or  admimstration  of  these,  or  of  the  minis- 
ters of  any  religious  denomination,  Bria.ll  have  no  legal 
right  to  acquire  title  to  or  administer  any  property, 
but  such  buildings  as  arc  destined  for  the  immediate 
and  direct  use  of  said  corporations  and  institutions. 
Neither  shall  they  have  the  right  to  acquire  or  manage 
revenues  derived  from  real  estate. 

Law  of  12  July,  1859,  Art.  5. — All  the  male  refiglous 
orders  which  exist  throughout  the  repubUc,  whatever 
their  name  or  the  purpose  of  their  existence^  are 
hereby  suppresaed  throughout  the  whole  repubhi 
also  all  archconfratemitiea,  confraternities,  congn 
tions,  or  sisterhoods  annexed  to  the   religious   com- 
munities, cathedrals,  parishes,  or  any  other  churches. 
Art.   6.— The  foun- 
dation or  erection  of 
new  convents  of  reg- 
ulars,     archcotifra- 
temities,    confrater- 
nities,    congrega- 
tions, or  sistemoods, 
under  whatever  form 

them,  is  prohibited, 
likewise  the  wearing 
of  the  garb  or  habit  of 
the  suppressed  or- 
ders. Art.  7.— By 
this  law  the  ecclesi- 
astics of  the  sup- 
pressed orders  are 
reduced  to  the  con- 
dition of  secular 
ir'b  BRnsH-SHAcK  clergy,  and  shall,  like 

;.tUMoftl»mMt  these,  be  subject  as 

regards  the  exercise  of  theirministry  to  the  onunariea 
of  their  respective  dioceses.  Art.  12. — All  books, 
printed  or  manuscript,  paintings,  antiquitieSj  and 
other  articles  belonging  to  the  suppressed  religious 
comniimities  shall  be  given  to  museums,  lyceums, 
libraries,  and  other  public  establishments.  Art.  13. 
— All  members  of  the  suppressed  orders  who  fifteen 
days  after  the  publication  of  this  law  in  their  re- 
spective localities  shall  continue  to  wear  the  habit 
or  live  in  community  sliall  forfeit  the  right  to  col- 
lect their  quota  as  assigned  by  Article  8,  and  if  after 


their  community  life,  they  shall  immediately  be  ex- 
pelled from  the  country.  Art.  21.^A11  novitiates 
for  women  are  perpetually  closed.  Those  at  present 
in  novitiates  cannot  be  professed, 

Lawof  26 Feb.,  1863,  Art.  I.— Allrcligious communi- 
ties of  women  are  suppressed  throuehout  the  republic. 
Law  of  25  September,  1873,  Art  5.— The  law  does 
not  recognise  monastic  orders,  nor  can  it  permit  theb 
esteblishment,  whatever  their  name  or  the  object 
for  which  they  are  founded.  I«w  of  4  Dec,  1873, 
Art.  19. — The  State  does  not  recojpiiae  monastic  oi^ 
ders  nor  can  it  permit  their  esteblishment,  whatever 
their  name  or  the  object  for  which  they  are  founded. 
Any  orders  that  may  be  secretly  established  shall  be 
considered  unlawful  assemblies  which  the  authorities 
may  dissolve  should  the  members  attempt  to  live  in 
community,  and  in  all  such  cases  the  superiors  or 
heads  shall  be  judged  criminals,  infringing  on  individ- 


I  4«(»;i 


268 


I  4:«(»{i 


(C)  Cfcurcfc  Ph)p«rfy.— Law  of  12  July,  1869,  Art.  1  .— 
All  propertv  which  under  dififerent  titles  has  been  ad- 
ministered oy  the  secular  and  regular  cleigy,  whatever 
kind  of  property  it  ma;^  be,  taxes,  shares,  or  stocks,  or 
the  name  or  purpose  it  may  have  had,  becomes  the 
property  of  the  State.  Law  of  5  February,  1861 ,  Art. 
100. — ^The  Government  hands  over  all  parochial  resi- 
dences, episcopal  palaces,  and  dwellinfls  of  the  heads  of 
any  denomination,  declaring  them  inalienable  and  free 
from  taxation  as  long  as  uiey  are  reserved  for  their 
own  specific  purpose.  Law  of  25  September,  1873, 
Art.  3. — No  reliffiious  institution  may  acquire  property 
nor  the  revenue  derived  from  property.  LawoflOOct., 
1874,  Art.  16. — ^The  direct  ownership  of  the  churches 
nationalized  according  to  the  law  of  12  July,  1859,  and 
left  for  the  maintenance  of  Catholic  worship,  as  well  as 
those  which  have  since  been  turned  over  to  any  other 
institution,  continues  to  reside  in  the  nation;  but  their 
exclusive  use,  preservation,  and  improvement,  as  long 
as  no  decree  of  consolidation  is  issued,  remains  wlm 
the  religious  institutions  to  which  they  have  been 
granted.  Art.  17. — ^The  buildings  mentioned  in  the 
preceding  article  will  be  exempt  from  taxation,  ex- 
cept when  they  have  actually  or  nominally  passed  into 
tlw  hands  of  one  or  more  private  individuals  who  hold 
the  title  without  transmitting  it  to  a  relinous  society; 
in  such  cases  the  property  shall  be  si^ject  to  the 
common  law. 

(D)  Legaciea  and  WUU. — ^Law  of  14  December, 
1874,  Art.  8. — Legacies  made  in  favour  of  ministers 
of  religion,  of  their  relatives  to  the  fourth  degree, 
or  of  persons  living  with  said  ministers  when  they  have 
rendered  any  spiritual  aid  to  the  testators  in  their  last 
illness,  or  when  they  have  been  their  spiritual  direc- 
tors, are  null  and  void. 

(E)  Civil  Marriage  and  Divorce. — ^Law  of  23  July, 
1859,  Art.  1. — Marriage  is  a  civil  contract  that  can 
licitly  and  validly  be  contracted  before  the  civil  author- 
ity. It  suffices  for  its  validity  that  the  contracting 
parties,  having  complied  with  the  formalities  of  the 
law,  present  themselves  before  the  proper  authority, 
and  freely  express  their  desire  of  being  united  in  mar- 
riage. Law  of  4  December,  1860,  Art.  20.— The  civil 
authorities  shall  not  interfere  in  the  religious  rites  and 
practices  concerning  marriage,  but  the  contract  from 
which  this  union  proceeds  remains  exclusively  subject 
to  the  laws.  Anv  other  marriage  that  is  contracted  in 
the  republic  without  observing  the  formalities  pre- 
scribed by  these  laws  is  null,  and  therefore  ineffectual 
to  produce  any  of  the  civil  ends  which  the  law  grants 
only  to  a  lawfully  contracted  marriage.  Law  of  10 
December,  1874,  Art.  23. — All  decisions  regarding 
nullity,  validity,  divorce,  and  other  questions  relative 
to  the  marriage  state,  must  be  tried  before  the  civil 
tribunals  which  will  determine  the  law  without  taking 
into  consideration  any  resolutions  on  this  subject  that 
may  have  been  provided  by  the  ministers  of  religion. 

(F)  Cemeteries  and  Graves.— L&w  of  31  July,  1859, 
Art.  1.— The  intervention  of  the  clergy,  secular  or 
regular,  in  the  management  of  cemeteries,  vaults,  and 
crypts,  which  up  to  the  present  time  has  been  in 
force,  ceases  throughout  the  republic.  Law  of  4 
December,  1860,  Art.  21.— The  governors  of  states, 
districts,  and  territories  shall  exercise  the  strictest 
vigilance  for  the  enforcement  of  the  laws  in  regard  to 
cemeteries  and  burial  groimds,  and  in  no  place  shall 
decent  burial  be  refused  the  dead  no  matter  what  may 
be  the  decision  of  the  priests  or  their  respective 
churches. 

(G)  Hospitah  and  Charitable  Institutions.— Iaw  of 
2  February;  1861,  Art.  1.— All  hospitals  and  chari- 
table institutions  which  up  to  the  present  time  have 
been  under  ecclesiastical  autiiority  and  managed  by 
religious  corporations  are  secularised.  Law  of  5  Feb- 
ruary, 1861,  Art  67.— Charitable  instituttons  that  were 
managed  by  ecclesiastical  corporations  or  committees 
independent  of  the  Government  are  secularised  and 


placed  under  the  immediate  supervision  of  the  dvfl 
authorities.  Iaw  of  28  February,  1861,  Art.  1.— AH 
hoepitala,  asylums,  houses  of  correction,  and  charitable 
institutions  which  exist  at  the  present  time,  and  which 
shall  be  founded  in  the  Federal  District,  shall  be  under 
the  protection  of  the  Government.  Law  of  27  Auffust^ 
1904,  Art.  25. — ^The  ministers  of  any  form  of  religion 
cannot  act  as  the  directors,  administrators,  or  patrons 
of  private  charity;  neither  can  officials,  dignitaries,  or 
reli^ous  corporations,  nor  anyone,  delegated  by  them, 
act  m  the  same  capacity. 

(H)  Oaths.— law  of  26  September,  1873,  Art.  21.— 
The  simple  promise  to  speak  the  truth  and  to  fulfil  the 
obligations  it  entails,  shall  take  the  place  of  the  reli- 
gious oath  with  its  consequences  and  penalties. 

(I)  /rwfrwceum.— Law  of  4  December,  1874,  Art.  4.— 
Reli^ous  instruction  and  the  exercises  of  any  form  of 
religion  are  prohibited  in  all  federal,  state,  and  muni- 
cipal schools.  Morality  will  be  taught  in  any  of  the 
schools  when  the  nature  of  their  constitutions  permits 
it,  but  without  reference  to  any  form  of  religion.  The 
infraction  of  this  article  will  be  punished  by  a  fine  of 
from  25  to  200  pesos,  and  dismisHal  from  office  if  the 
offence  is  repeated. 

(J)  Military  Service.— Law  of  4  December,  1860, 
Art.  19. — The  ministers  of  all  forms  of  religion  are 
exempt  from  military  and  coercive  personal  service, 
but  not  from  the  taxes  which  the  law  imposes  for  this 
privilefi»  of  exemption. 

(K)  Public  0)pos.— Constitution  of  1857,  Art.  56.— 
No  member  of  the  ecclesiastical  Ixxly  can  be  elected  a 
congressman.  Law  of  13  November,  1874,  Art.  58. — 
Nominations  for  senator  are  subject  to  the  same  con- 
ditions as  those  for  congressman. 

Ecclesiastical  Organization. — There  is  no  doubt 
that  the  See  of  Yucatan,  with  the  title  of  Carolensis, 
wader  the  patronage  of  Nuestra  Setiora  de  los  Reme- 
dios,  was  the  first  bishopric  erected  in  Mexico;  the 
Bull  of  Leo  X,  ''  Sacri  Apostolatus  mimsterio  ",  issued 
January,  1518,  proves  this.  The  erection  of  this 
diocese  followed  the  first  reports  of  the  discovery  of 
the  peninsula,  and  bv  the  Bull  we  see  that  Yucatan 
was  still  thought  to  be  an  island.  However,  as  soon 
as  more  definite  information  was  received  concerning 
Mexico  after  the  conauest,  establishing  the  fact  that 
Yucatan  was  part  of  the  mainland,  the  proceedings  for 
the  erection  of  the  diocese  were  suspended,  especially 
as  the  Spaniards,  diverted  by  other  enterprises,  gave 
little  thought  to  x  ucatan,  and  when  it  was  abandoned 
by  D.  Francisco  de  Montejo,  in  1527,  they  did  not  re- 
turn until  1542.  It  may  also  be  notea  that  when 
Clement  VII  named  Fray  Julian  de  Garoes  first  Bishop 
of  New  Spain  in  1526,  the  title  Episcopus  Carolensis 
was  still  used,  and  the  Emperor  Charies  V,  using  the 
faculties  granted  him  by  the  popes  of  assigning  the 
limits  of  new  dioceses,  says  in  the  royal  decree  which 
accompanied  the  Bull:  ''We  declare,  assign,  and 
determine  as  the  limits  of  the  Bishopric  of  Yucatan  and 
Santa  Marfa  de  los  Remedies  the  following  lands  and 
provinces;  first,  the  Province  of  Tlaxcala,  inclusive, 
and  S.  Juan  de  Ult!ia'',  etc.  As  Tlaxcala  had  a 
greater  population  and  was  nearer  the  capital.  Bishop 
Uarces  established  the  episcopal  residence  there,  from 
whence  it  was  afterwaras  moved  to  Puebla. 

Up  to  1544  the  dioceses  in  New  Spain  were: — 
Puebla,  erected  in  1526  at  Tlaxcala,  translated  to 
Puebla,  1539;  Mexico,  1530;  Guatemala,  1534; 
Oaxaca,  erected  with  the  title  of  Antequera  in  1535: 
Michoacan,  erected  in  1536  at  Tzintzuntian,  translated 
later  to  Patscuaro,  and  from  there  to  the  new  city  of 
Valladolid,  now  Morelia;  Chiapas,  1546.  They  were 
all  suffragans  of  the  Archdiocese  of  Seville  in  Spain. 
Yucatan,  thoueh  erected  first,  never  had  any  resident 
bishop  until  1561.  On  31  January,  1545,  at  the 
solicitation  of  Charles  V,  the  Holy  Father,  Paul  III. 
separated  these  dioceses  from  the  metropolitan  See  of 
Seville  and  erected  the  Archdiocese  of  Mexico,  with 


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the  above-mentioned  dioceses  for  suffragans.  Before 
the  end  of  the  sixteenth  century  the  ecclesiastical 
Province  of  Mexico  included,  besides  those  already  men- 
tioned, the  Diocese  of  Comayagua  in  Honduras,  erected 
1539;  Guadalajara,  1548;  Verapas  in  Guatemala, 
erected  in  1556,  suppressed  1605;  Manila  in  the  Philip- 
pine Islands,  erected  1581. 

At  the  close  of  the  eighteenth  century  all  the  dio- 
ceses situated  outside  Mexican  territory  had  been 
separated  to  form  new  ecclesiastical  provinces,  and 
Chiapas,  which  from  1743  had  belonged  to  the  Arch- 
diocese of  Guatemala,  was  not  reunited  to  the  ecclesi- 
astical Province  of  Mexico  until  the  middle  of  the 
nineteenth  century.  Other  new  dioceses  had  been 
founded:  Durango,  1620;  Monterey,  with  the  title  of 
Linares,  1777;  Sonora,  1779  (the  episcopal  residence  in 
different  cities  at  various  epochs,  Arispe,  Alamos,  Cu- 
liacan,  and  at  Hermosillo  when  the  Diocese  of  Sinaloa 
was  erected).  In  the  nineteenth  century,  Mexico 
being  still  tne  only  archdiocese,  the  Dioceses  of  S. 
Francisco  de  California,  erected  1840,  and  S.  Luis 
PotosI,  erected  1854,  were  added.  Pius  IX.  in  the 
secret  consistory  of  16  March,  1863,  establisned  the 
Dioceses  of  Chilapa,  Tulancingo,  Vera  Cruz,  Zacatecas, 
Le6n,  Quer^taro,  Zamora,  ana  the  Vicariate  Apostolic 
of  Tamaulipas  (created  a  bishopric  in  1869),  and  raised 
to  archiepiacopal  rank  the  episcopal  Sees  of  Guadala- 
jara and  Michoacan.  From  1869  to  1891  the  Vicari- 
ate Apostolic  of  Lower  California  (1872),  the  Dioceses 
of  Tabasco  (1880)  and  Colima  (1881),  were  established. 
In  1891,  Leo  XIII,  by  the  Bull  "lUud  in  primis", 
erected  the  new  Dioceses  of  Cuemavaca,  Tepic.  Tehu- 
antepec,  Saltillo,  and  Chihuahua,  and  raisea  toe  Sees 
of  Oaxaca,  Monterey,  and  Durango  to  archiepis- 
copal  rank.  In  1895  the  Diocese  of  Campeche  was 
erected,  and  in  1899  that  of  Aguas  Cahentes.  In 
1903  the  new  Diocese  of  Huajudpan  was  created,  and 
Puebla  raised  to  the  rank  of  an  archdiocese,  and  in 
1907  Yucatan  was  made  an  archdiocese.  At  the 
present  time  the  ecclesiastical  provinces  of  Mexico  are 
constituted  as  follows: — 


Tmovwcmb 


Mtzioo 

Quadalaj 


Antequera 

linuw 

Donnco 

Tucataa 

Puflblft 


SeK8 


Mexioo,  VeraCnia  (epia.  residenoe,  JaUpa),  Tulan- 
cingo, Chilapa,  Cuemavaca. 

Guadalajaz^,  2acat6caa,  Tepic,  Colima,  Aguasca- 
lientee. 

Michoacan  (epia.  reaidenoe,  Morelia),  Zamora, 
Leon,  Quez^taro. 


tillo,  Tamaulipas  (epia.  rea.^udad  Victoria). 
Darango,  Sonore  (epia.  rea..  Uennoaillo),  Bmaloa 

(epia.  res.  J  CuUaoan),  Chihuahua,  Vic.  Apoe.  of 

Lower  CSahfomia  (rea..  La  Pas) 
Yucatan  (epia.  rea.,  Merida),  Campeche,  with  the 
Territory  of  (^intana  Roo,  Tabaaoo  (epia.  rea., 

8.  Juan  Bautiata). 
Puebla,  HuajtiApan. 


BoUtin  de  la  oficiiui  xntemaeionaL  de  hu  RepHblieiu  Ameri- 
tontu  (Washington.  1009);  Schuls,  Cureo  general  de  Oeogmjfia 
(Mexico,  1005) ;  Norxbga,  Atlae  miniaiura  de  la  Republica  mexi- 
cttna  (Mexioo,  1007);  Clatxjbro,  Hietoria  antigtia  de  MSxieo 
(London,  1826) ;  Orosoo  t  Bbrra, Hietoria  arUiova  y  dela  Con- 
Qtiieta  de  MSxtoo  (Mexico.  1880);  Ritbra,  Loa  Oobemantee  de 
MSzieo  (Mexico.  1872);  Icazbalcbta,  Obraa  (Mexioo,  1808); 
Mixieo  d  travSe  ae  lo»  nqloe  (Barcelona,  — );  Sabao^,  Hidoria 
genenl  de  lae  eoeae  de  Nueva  EevaAa  (Mexioo,  1820);  DurXn, 
HUUma  de  la»  Indiae  de  Nueva  Eepafla  y  lelae  de  Tierra-Firme 
(Mexico,  1867);  InMruccidn  que  Iob  Virreuee  de  Nueva  Bepaffa 
deiaroH  d  sua  eueeeeree  (Mexico,  1873);  (>brbo6n,  Epoca  colo- 
nial, Mixieo  vie/o  (Mexico,  1000);  Qillow,  ApunUe  hietdricoe 
(Mexioo,  1880);  Vbrdxa,  Compendia  de  la  hietoria  de  Mixieo 
(Moioo,  1006):  PRIBTO,  Leeeionea  de  hietoria  patria  (Mexico, 
1803);  MBNiNDES  t  Pblato,  Hietoria  de  he  Heterodoxoe  ee- 
JMfolet  (Madrid.  1881):  Parrab,  Oolnemo  de  ha  Regulareede  la 
Amiriea  (Madrid,  1788);  Cddigo  de  la  Reforma  (Mexico.  1003); 
^^tio/  prdctieo  de  la  Conetitucion  y  de  la  Reforma  (Mexico, 
1006) ;  Vbra.  Cateciemo  oeoordfico-hietdrico-eaiadietico  de  la  Igleeia 
mexiama  (Amecameca,  1881);  Basurto,  El  artobiepado  de 
MfctGo  (Mexioo,  1001);  Sotomator,  Hietoria  del  Apoetdlico 
Cokgut  de  Ntra.  Sra.  de  Zacatecae;  Carrxllo,  El  Obiepado  de 
I'wal*!  (Merida,  1806);  ALAiiitK.  -  ^^^ 


de  Mixieo  (Mexico, 


1860);  Idbk,  Dieeiiaeionee  eobre  la  hietoria  de  la  RewMiea 
mexieana  (Mcodoo,  1844) ;  Zamacgib,  Hietoria  de  Mixieo  deede  loe 
tiempoa  mde  remotoehaetanueetroa  diaa  (Mexioo,  1878) :  Rombro, 
Nolteiaa  para  formar  la  hiaUnia  y  eatodMioa  del  Otnapado  de 
Miehoaedn  (Mexico.  1862) ;  RBCABBNa,  El  primer  Obiepo  de  Tlax' 
ctUa  ([Mexico,  1884);  Mendzbta,  Hiatorta  ecleaidalica  indiana 
Hhlexico,  1870);  Coleecidn  de  docwnentoa  para  la  hietoria  de 
Mixieo  (Mexico,  1858);  Arranooxz,  Mixieo  deede  1808  haata 
1^97  (Madrid,  1872);  Apuntee  para  la  hiatoria  del  Oobiemo  del 
General  D.  Antonio  Ldpez  de  Santa  Anna  (Mexico,  1845);  GarcIa 
CuBABf  El  libro  de  mia  recuerdoe  (Mexico,  1004);  Lefbtrb, 
Hialona  de  la  intervencidn  franceaa  en  Mixieo  (Bruaaela,  1869); 
IxTULXocHiTL,  Ofmu  hiat^ricaa  (Mexico,  1^1);  Lb6n,^{  lUmo, 
8r.  D.  Vaeeo  de  Quirooa,  primer  Obiepo  de  Miehoaedn^  Mixieo; 
Davi8,  Afemartea  of  the  Revolution  in  Mexico  (London,  1824); 
H.  H.  Bancroft,  Life  of  Porfirio  Diax  (San  Francisco,  1887); 
Bttlnbb,  Ju&ree  y  lae  revolucionee  de  Ayutla  y  de  Reforma 
(Mexico,  1005) ;  Idem.  El  verdadero  Ju&ree  y  la  verdad  awre  la 
xntervencidn  y  el  imperio  (Mexioo,  1004) ;  GARcf a.  La  /ftguim- 
eidnde  Mixieo  (Mexioo,  1006) ;  iDHUfAutoadefyde  la  Inquiaicidn 
de  Mixieo  eon  extracto  de  eua  caueaa  1646-1648  (Mexioo,  1010). 

Camillcts  Csivelu. 

Btadco,  Abchdiocbbe  op  (Mbxicana). — The 
boundaries  of  the  Diocese  of  Mexico  were  at  first  not 
well  defined.  When  Cuba  was  discovered  three  sees 
were  erected,  but  when  the  prelates  arrived ,  their 
episcopal  sees  had  been  destroyed,  and  the  inhabitants 
had  fled.  In  order  to  avoid  such  mistakes,  the  Holy 
See  allowed  the  kings  of  Spain  to  fix  the  boundaries  of 
the  new  dioceses  erected  on  the  American  continent, 
still  considered  a  part  of  Asia.  From  1500  to  1863 
the  Diocese  of  Mexico  extended  from  the  Atlantic  to 
the  Pacific,  namehr  from  Tampico  to  Acapulco.  At 
present  it  is  connned  to  the  Federal  District,  the 
States  of  Morelos,  Mexico,  and  part  of  Hioialgo. 
The  first  bishop.  Ziunarraga,  came  to  Mexico  when 
Clement  VII  had  just  been  released  from  theprison  in 
Castel  Sant'  Angelo,  where  he  was  kept  by  Cnaries  V 
for  several  months  after  the  sack  of  Rome  by  Bour- 
bon's army.  Strange  as  it  majr  seem,  he  was  allowed, 
and  even  obliged  to  come  with  only  the  emperor's 
nomination,  governed  the  diocese  without  any  papal 
appointment,  and  styled  himself  ''Omnimoda  potes- 
tate  Antistes".  He  returned  to  Spain,  received  his 
Bulls,  and  was .  consecrated  six  years  after  his  first 
arrival  on  the  American  continent.  He  has  been 
falsely  accused  of  having  destroved  most  valuable 
monuments;  he  ought  not  to  be  blamed  for  having 
burnt  the  idols,  temples,  and  hieroglyphics  which  pre- 
vented the  conversion  of  the  aborigines.  In  his  time 
the  Blessed  Virgin,  according  to  Mexican  tradition, 
appeared  to  the  neophyte  Juan  Diego,  and  became  the 
patroness  of  America.  He  introduced  the  first  print- 
mg  office  in  the  New  World,  published  many  books, 
founded  many  schools  and  colleges,  and  was  a  saintly 
man,  a  faithful  follower  of  St.  Francis  of  Assisi,  to 
whose  order  he  belonged.  He  ruled  over  the  diocese, 
raised  before  he  died  to  the  rank  of  an  archdiocese, 
from  1528  to  1548. 

Five  provincial  councils  have  been  held  in  the  dty 
of  Mexico.  The  first  and  second  under  the  second 
archbishop,  Alonso  de  Montufar.  The  third  was  pre- 
sided over  by  the  third  archbishop.  Pedro  Moya  de 
Contreras.  The  twenty-fourth  arcnoishop,  Francisco 
Antonio  de  Lorenxana  assembled  and  presided  over 
the  fourth  provincial  coimcil  in  1770.  Prospero 
Alarcon,  thirtynsecond  archbishop,  was  the  presiaent 
of  the  fifth  and  last  provincial  council  in  1896.  The 
most  important  of  all  was  the  third  council,  which  has 
been  for  centuries  the  code  of  ecclesiastical  law  for 
the  Mexican  Church.  Archbishops  Moya  de  Contre- 
ras, GarcCa  Guerra,  Palafox,  Osorio,  Ortega,  Haro  y 
Peralta,  and  Lizana  y  Beaumont  were  also  viceroys 
and  captains-general  of  New  Spain,  and  were  as  able 
to  brandish  the  sword  as  to  wield  tne  crosier.  Arch- 
bishop Labastida  was  regent  of  the  short  lived  empire 
of  Maximilian .  He  was  the  last  prelate  to  be  invested 
with  any  political  authority.  The  most  distinguished 
of  the  line  was  Francisco  Antonio  de  Lorensana,  trans- 
ferred to  Toledo^  and  created  cardinal  by  Clement 
XrV.    He    published    several    important    booki^ 


BIEZOEB 


270 


MBZZOFANTI 


founded  many  institutions  both  in  New  and  Old 
Spain,  helped  with  his  own  means  Pius  VI  when  he 
was  sent  to  France  as  a  prisoner  by  Napoleon,  and 
largely  contributed  to  the  support  of  the  carclinals 
assembled  in  Venice,  in  the  conclave  that  elected  Pius 
VII.  A  few  years  after  the  conquest,  via.,  in  the  be- 
ginning of  the  sixteenth  century,  the  Archdiocese  of 
Mexico  already  possessed  over  fifty  convents  of  nims, 
a  imiversity,  equal  to  that  of  Salamanca,  several  col- 
leges, and  numberless  schools.  Their  number  went 
on  increasing,  until  all  religious  progress  was  stopped 
by  the  War  of  Independence  and  the  dvil  wars  tnat 
followed.  All  were  destroyed  by  law  and  in  reality 
under  President  Juarez.  President  Diaz  has  treated 
the  Church  better;  but  the  penal  laws  have  not  been 
repealed.  The  present  archbishop,  Mgr  Mora  y  del 
Rio  was  bom  at  Pajuacar^,  24  f'eb.,  1854;  studied 
at  Zamora  and  Home:  was  ordained,  22  Dec,  1877; 
consecrated  Bishop  of  Tehuantepec,  19  Jan.,  1893; 
and  promoted  to  tne  See  of  Mexico,  2  Dec,  1908  in 
succession  to  Mgr  Alarcon.  The  population  almost 
entirely  Catholic  is  about  780,000. 

Oalena  de  tetratoa  en  la  Catedral  de  Mketeo;  Icazbalgbta, 
Primer  Obiapo  y  Azohitpo  de  Mixico;  Sosa,  Epiacopada  Mexu 
eano:  Cardinal  Loreruana,  paBsim;  Balbubna,  Grandega  Mexu 
cana.  J.  MONTBS  DB  OcA  T  ObREGON. 

Mezger,  Francis,  Joseph,  and  Paul,  three 
brothers,  learned  Benedictines  of  the  monastery  of  St. 
Peter  in  Salzburg,  and  professors  at  the  University  of 
Salzburg. 

Fbancis,  the  oldest  of  the  three,  b.  at  Ingolstadt,  25 
October,  1632;  d.  at  Salzburg,  11  December,  1701. 
He  took  vows  in  1651;  was  ordained  priest  in  1657; 
taught  philosophy  at  the  University  of  Salzburg  in 
1659;  became  regent  of  the  convictus  and  secretary 
of  the  university  in  1661;  taught  philosophy  again 
from  1663  to  1665;  and  then  moral  theology  imtil 
1668.  From  1669  to  1688  he  taught  various  branches 
at  the  Bavarian  monastery  of  Ettal  and  at  his  own 
monastery.  From  1688  until  his  death  he  was  master 
of  novices  and  director  of  clerics  at  his  monastery. 
He  wrote  the  following  philosophical  treatises:  "  Pm- 
losophia  rationalis  rationibus  explicata"  (Salzburg, 
1660);  "Anima  rationibus  philosophicis  animata  et 
explicata"  (ib.,  1661) ;  " Philosophia  naturalis  rationi- 
bus naturaUbus  elucidata''  (ib.,  1661);  "Manuale 
philosophicum"  (ib.,  1665);  "Homomicrocosmus" 
(ib.,  1665).  The  following  are  some  of  his  transla- 
tions: "Philosophia  sacra"  (ib.,  1678),  from  the 
French  of  the  Parisian  Capuchin  Ivo;  "  Heiliges  Bene- 
diktiner-Jahr"  (2  volumes,  Munich,  1690),  from  the 
Latin;  "Dioptrapollticesreligiosse"  (Salzburg,  1694), 
and  "Exercitia  spiritualia''  (ib.,  1693),  both  m)m  the 
French  of  the  Maurist  Le  Gontat;  "  Suocinctie  medita- 
tiones  christianae"  (4  vols.,  ib.,  1695),  from  the  French 
of  the  Maurist  Claude  Martin;  "Via  regia  studios® 
juventutis  ad  veram  sapientiam"  (Frankfort,  1699), 
from  the  Italian;  and  a  few  others  of  less  importance. 

Joseph,  b.  5  September,  1635,  at  Eichst&dt;  d.  26 
October,  1683,  at  tne  monastery  of  St.  €rall,  while  on  a 
pilgrimage  to  Einsiedeln.  He  took  vows  at  the  same 
time  with  his  brother  Francis  in  1651;  was  ordained 
priest  in  1659;  taught  poetry  in  the  gymnasium  of 
Salzburg  in  1660;  was  master  of  novices  and  sub-prior 
in  his  monastery  in  1661;  taught  philosophy  at  the 
University  of  Salzburg,  1662-4;  apologetics  and  pole- 
mics, 1665-7;  canon  law,  1668-73;  he  was  prior  of  his 
monastery  and  taught  hermeneutics  and  polemics, 
1673-8,  when  he  was  appointed  vice-chancellor  of  the 
university.  He  was  an  intimate  friend  of  Mabillon. 
with  whom  he  kept  up  a  constant  corre8p>ondence  ana 
who  in  his  "Iter  Germanicum"  calls  him  "Univer- 
sitatis  Salisburgensis  prsBcipuum  omamentum"  (Ve- 
tera Analecta,  I,  xi).  His  chief  work  is  "Historia 
Salisburgensis"  covering  the  period  from  582  to  1687, 
of  which  work  he,  however,  had  written  only  the  first 
four  books  (582-1555)  when  he  died,  leaving  Uie 


remainder  to  be  completed  by  his  two  brothers.  In 
1664  he  published  at  Salzburg  his  four  philosop^cal 
treatises :  (1) "  Considerationes  de  scientiis  et  de  modis 
sciendi  in  (^nere  " ;  (2)  * '  Axiomata  physica  quiestioni- 
bus  problematicis  distincta";  (3)  ''Quatuor  ffradus 
naturae:  esse,  vivere,  sentire,  intelligere";  (4)"Unita8 
et  distinctio  rerum  qusstionibus  philosophicis  expli- 
cata".  His  other  works  are:  "Tabula  bipartit«^ 
successionis  ecclesiasucsB  tam  ex  testamento  quam  ab 
intestato"  (Salzbui^,  1670);  "Panacsa  juris"  (ib.. 
1673) ;  "  Lapis  mysticus  et  comu  parvulum  Danielis ' 
(ib.,  1677,  1682);  "  Institutiones  in  sacram  scriptu- 
ram"  (ib.,  1680);  "Assertio  antiquitatis  ecclesis 
metropolitans  Salisburgensis  et  monasterii  S.  Petri, 
O.  8.  Ben."  (ib.,  1682). 

Paul,  the  most  celebrated  of  the  three  brothers,  b. 
23  November,  1637,  at  Eichstfidt;  d.  12  April,  1702. 
at  Salzburg.  He  took  vows  in  1653;  was  ordained 
priest  in  1660;  taught  at  the  gymnasium  of  Salzburg^ 
1660-4;  was  master  of  novioes  and  director  of  clerics, 
1664-6;  taught  philosophy,  first  at  the  University  of 
Sabsbune,  1668-70;  then  at  the  monastery  of  Gott- 
weig,  1671-2.  Returning  to  the  University  of  Sals- 
burg,  he  taught  theology,  1673-88;  exegesis  and 
polemics,  1689-1700.  In  1683  he  had  succeeded  his 
deceased  brother  Joseph  as  vice-chancellor.  His  chief 
production  is:  '"Hieologia  scholastica  secundum  viam 
et  doctrinam  D.  Thomae"  (4  volumes,  Augsburg, 
1695,  1719),  probably  the  best  work  on  dogmatic 
theology  that  nas  been  produced  by  a  German  Bene- 
dictine. It  is  especially  noteworthy  that  the  author's 
treatment  of  the  immaculate  conception  and  of  papal 
infallibility  is  in  exact  accordance  with  the  defimtions 
of  1864  and  1870.  His  other  works  are:"Somnia 
philosophdrum  de  possibilibus  et  impossibilibus" 
(Salzburg,  1670):  ^Contemplationes  philosophicse 
magasd  urbis  ccelestis  et  elementaris"  (ib.,  1670): 
"JRfercurius  loricus"  (ib.,  1671);  "De  ^tia  Dei'^ 
(ib.,  1675); "  AJlocutiones  de  mediis  pietatis  Marians" 
(ib.,  1677) ;  "  Orationes  parthenis,  miscellaneee,  sacro- 
profanffi,  problemata  inauguralia  seu  orationes  acade- 
micffl"  (ib.,  1699-1700);  "Sacra  historia  de  gentis 
hebraics  ortu"  (Dillingen,  1700;  Augsburg,  1715). 

Concerning  all  three  see  Sattubr,  CoUett^-BUUter  xur  Oeach. 
der  ehemalioen  BenedidtnefUnivernUU  SdUbwrg  (Kemptoi. 
1890).  212-218;  Lindksr,  Profeaabuch  der  Benedietiner  AUei  S. 
Peter  in  Scdaburg  (Salzbuig,  1906),  53-58.  65-68.  For  Joseph 
and  Paul  see  Straus,  Vt'ri  acriplia.  erudilione  ae  pieUUe  inaignea^ 
quoa  genuit  vd  aluU  Biehatadium  (Eichstadt,  1790),  326-331. 

Michael  Oit. 

Messofantii  Giuseppe,  cardinal,  the  greatest  of 
polyglots,  b.  19  September,  1774;  d.  15  March,  1849. 
He  was  the  son  of  a  poor  carpenter  of  Bologna.  In 
the  Scuole  Pie,  besides  the  classical  languages,  he 
learned  Spanish,  German,  Mexican,  and  some  South 
American  dialects  from  ex-Jesuits  who  had  been  ex- 
iled from  America.  To  his  great  love  of  study  he 
added  a  prodigious  memory,  so  that  at  the  age  of 
twelve  years  he  was  able  to  begin  the  three  years 
course  of  philosophv,  which  he  closed  with  a  public 
disputation.  His  theological  studies  were  completed 
witn  no  less  distinction,  at  an  age  at  which  he  could 
not  yet  be  ordained;  consequent^  he  devoted  himself 
to  the  study  of  Oriental  languages;  and  in  1797  he  was 
appointed  to  the  chair  of  Hebrew  at  the  University  of 
Bolognia,  and  ordained  a  priest.  When  the  Cisalpine 
Republic  was  established,  he  refused  to  take  the  oath 
of  allegiance  to  it,  lost  his  chair  at  the  university,  and 
was  compelled  to  give  private  lessons  in  order  to 
support  himself.  After  the  battles  of  1799  and  of 
1800,  the  hospitals  of  Bolosna  were  crowded  with 
wounded  and  sick  of  almost  all  the  nationalities  of  Eu- 
rope, and  Mezzofanti  in  giving  religious  assistance  to 
the  unfortunate  seised  the  opportunity  of  perfecting 
his  knowledge  of  the  languages  which  he  had  already 
studied,  as  well  as  of  leammg  new  ones.  In  1803 
he  was  appointed  assistant  in  the  library  of  the  Insti- 
Imte,  ana  later,  professor  of  Hebrew  and  of  Grsek  at 


271  BOAMI 


languages  was  suppressed,  and  Me22ofanti  received,  in  shaw.    By  the  United  States  Government  these  were 

tf»mpensation,  a  pension  of  1000  lire;  but,  in  1815,  he  reoognized  as  three  distinct  tribes.    Altogether  the^ 

became  librarian  of  the  imiversity,  and  occupied  his  may  have  numbered  originally  over  4000  souls.    It  is 

chair  once  more.    Besides  the  study  of  languages,  to  possible  that  Nioolet  m   1634,  and  Radisson  and 

which  he  gave  many  hours  of  the  day  and  ni^t,  he  Groseilliers  in  1658-60  may  have  met  in  their  Wisoon- 

devoted  himself  to  the  study  of  ethnolcwy,  archsol-  sin  joum^ings  the  Miami,  but  this  is  not  known, 

ogy,  numismatics,  and  astronomy.     Bforeover,  he  They  are  first  mentioned  b^  the  Jesuit  Dreuillettes  in 

performed  the  offices  of  his  holy  ministry,  and  was  1658  as  a  tribe  recently  discovered,  under  the  name 

commonly  called  the  confessor  of  foreigners.     In  of  Oumamik,  living  south-west  from  Green  Bay,  Wis. 

1831  he  was  among  the  deputies  who  went  to  ask  The  estimate  of  24,000  souls  is  an  evident  ezaggcr- 

the  pope's  foreiveness,  in  the  name  of  the  city  of  ation.    About  1668  and  again  in  1670  they  were 

Bologna,   for  tne  rebellion  of  that  year,  and  the  visited  by  Perrot.    In  the  latter  year  the  Jesuit  Father 

pope,  repeating  Pius  VII's  invitation  of  1814,  re*  Claude  Allouez  found  them,  or  a  part  of  the  tribe, 

quested  Mezzofanti  to  remain  at  Rome  and  place  his  livine  with  the  Mascoutens  in  a  palisaded  town,  in 

learning  directly  at  Uxe  service  of  the  Holy  See,  an  in-  which  he  established  the  mission  of  Saint-Jacques, 

vitation  which  the  modest  priest,  this  time,  accepted,  about  the  head  of  Fox  river  in  south-east  Wisconsin 

after  long  resistance;  soon  he  received  the  title  of  Do-  (see  Mascoutens).    He  describes  them  as  gentle, 

mestic  Prelate,  and  a  canonry  at  Santa  Maria  Ma£-  affable,  and  sedate,  while  Dablon,  his  companion,  calls 

giore,  which  was  changed,  later,  for  one  at  St.  Peter^.  them  more  civilized  than  the  lake  tribes.    Apparently 

At  Rome,  also,  he  tooK  advantaee  of  opportunities  to  these  were  only  a  part  of  the  tribe,  the  main  body  be- 

practice  the  languages  that  he  had  acquired,  and  to  ing  farther  south,  although  all  the  bands  were  repre- 

master  new  ones  and  in  order  to  learn  Chinese  he  sented.    They  listened  eagerly  to  the  missionary's 

went  to  the  Capodimonte  college  for  f orei^  missions,  instruction  and  to  satisfy  them  Allouez  was  obliged 

at  Naples.     In  1833,  he  was  named  Custodian-in-Chief  to  set  up  a  large  cross  in  their  section  of  tne  ^lage 

of  the  Vatican  Library,  and  Consultor  of  the  ConsTcgar  as  well  as  in  that  occupied  by  the  Mascoutens. 

Uon  for  the  correction  of  the  Liturgical  Books  of  Orien-  In  1673  Allouez,  wno  had  learned  the  language, 

tal  Rites,  of  which  he  became  Prefect.    On  12  Febru-  reports  good  progress,  and  that  they  now  hung  their 

ary,  1838,  he  was  created  cardinal  under  the  title  of  St.  onerings  upon  the  cross  instead  of  sacrificing  to  their 

Onofrio  al  Gianicolo;  he  was  also  a  member  of  the  con-  heathen  gods,  chief  among  which  was  the  Sim.    There 

gregations  of  the  Propaganda,  of  Rites,  of  the  Index,  was  however  a  strong  opposition  party.    In  Jime  of 

and  of  the  Ebcamination  of  Bishops.    The  events  of  this  same  year  the  noted  Fr.  Jacaues  Marquette 

1848  undermined  his  already  enfeebled  health,  and  a  stopped  at  the  village  and  procured  Miami  guides  for 

combination  of  pneumonia  and  gastric  fever  put  an  his  voyage  down  the  Mississippi.    He  describes  the 

end  to  his  life.    He  was  buried  without  pomp  in  a  Miami  as  the  most  civilized,  liberal,  and  shapdy  of 

modest  tomb  of  his  titular  church,  over  which  a  monu-  the  three  tribes  then  assembled  in  the  town,    lliey 

ment  was  raised  in  1885.  wore  their  hair  in  two  long  braids  down  their  breasts. 

According  to  Russell,  Cardinal  Mezzofanti  spoke  were  accounted  brave  and  generally  successful  war- 
perfectly  thirty-eip;ht  languases,  among  which  were:  riors,  lived  in  cabins  covered  with  rush  mats,  and 
biblical  and  rabbimc  Hebrew,  Arabic,  Chaldean,Coptic,  were  so  eager  to  listen  to  Fr.  Allouez  that  they  left  him 
Armenian,  ancient  and  modem,  Persian,  Turlosh,  Al-  little  rest  even  at  night.  Tlie  cross  was  decorated  with 
banian,  Malteae,  Greek,  ancient  and  modem,  Latin,  Indian  offerings,  and  one  chief  who  had  recently  died 
Italian,  Spanish,  Portuguese,  French,  German,  £ng-  at  a  distance  nad  asked  to  have  his  bones  brought 
lish,  lUjman,  Russian,  Polish,  Bohemian,  Magyar,  for  interment  beside  it,  which  was  done.  But  despite 
Chinese,  Syriac,  Geez,  Amharic,  Hindustani,  Guzerati,  their  willingness  the  mission  languished  and  was  soon 
Basque,  Wallachian,  and  Calif omian;  he  spoke  thirty  afterwards  abandoned,  partly  on  accoimt  of  lack  of 
other  languages,  less  perfectly,  and  fifty  dialects  missionaries  and  partly  on  account  of  the  disturbed 
of  the  languages  mentioned  above.  His  knowledge  conditions  growing  out  of  the  inroads  of  the  Iroc|uois, 
of  these  languages  was  intuitive,  rather  than  analytic,  who,  having  destroyed  the  Hurons  and  others  in  the 
and  consequently  he  left  no  scientific  works,  although  east,  had  now  turned  upon  the  Illinois  and  others 
some  studies  in  comparative  linguistics  are  to  be  of  the  west,  and  latterly  (1682)  upon  the  Miami.  The 
found  among  his  manuscripts,  which  he  left,  in  part,  missionary  Lamberviile,  then  stationed  at  Onondaga, 
to  the  municipal  library,  and  in  part  to  the  library  of  gives  a  graphic  account  of  the  wholesale  butcheries  ana 
the  University  of  Bologna.  horrible  tortures  of  prisoners  of  which  he  was  witness. 

Mahatpit.  EaquiaM  Hatonque  m  U  cajrdmal  Maaofanti  The  Iroquois,  it  must  be  remembered,  were  well  armed 

^^)  I  ^^^^^  The  Lift  of  Cardinal  Menofantx  (Lon-  ^^  ^  j ^^  jy^^^^i  and  English  traders,  while  the 

XJ.  Benigni.  remote  western  tribes  had  only  the  bow.    Shortly 

after  the  building  of  La  Salle's  temporary  fort  on  the 

ICami  Indians,  an  important  tribe  of  Aloonquian  St.  Joseph  river,  near  the  present  South  Bend,  Ind., 

stock  formeriy  claiming  prior  dominion  over  tne  whole  a  band  of  Miami  moved  down  and  formed  a  village 

of  what  is  now  Indiana  and  western  Ohio,  including  near  to  the  same  spot,  while  some  Potawatomi  also 

the  territories  drained  by  the  Wabash,  St.  Joseph,  settled  near  them.    Allouez  followed  them  and,  prob- 

Maumee.  and  Miami  rivers.    They  were  closely  con-  ably  about  1685,  established  the  mission  of  Saint 

nected,  both  linguistically  and  politically,  with  their  Joseph,  where  he  continued  until  his  death  in  1689. 

western  neighbours,  the  Illinois,  the  two  tribe-groupe  In  1692-3  Fr.  Gravier  wintered  with  the  Miami,  prob- 

spealdng  dialects  of  the  same  language.    The  Miami,  ably  in  Illinois.    In  1694  we  find  the  Wea  in  a  village 

however,  were  of  more  independent  and  warlike  char-  where  Chicago  now  is.    In  1721  Fr.  Charlevoix  visit^ 

acter.    The  it^osX  name,  properly  pronounced  as  in  the  St.  Joseph  village,  where  he  foimd  nearly  all  of 

I^tin,  Me-ah-me  (whence  Maumee),  and  in  the  full  both  tribes  nominaUy  Christian,  but,  from  lone  ab- 

pltffal  form  Ou-miami-wek,  is  of  uncertain  meaning  sence  of  a  missionary,  ''fallen  into  great disoroers". 

and  derivation.    Tliey  were  called  by  the  early  £n^-  Soon  afterwards  this  matter  was  remedied  and  in 

lish  writers  Twig^twee,  a  corruption  of  their  Iroouois  1750  the  mission  was  in  flourishing  condition.    At  the 

name,  intended  to  imitate  the  cry  of  a  crane.    About  same  time  Fr.  Pierre  du  Jaunay  was  among  the  Wea, 

1685  tiie  French  recognized  six  bands,  or  subtribes,  then  residing  at  Wea  creek  on  the  Wabash,  near  the 

in  the  tribe,  conaolidated  at  a  later  penod  into  three,  present  Lafayette,  Ind.    A  third  Jesuit  mission  ex- 


MIGAH                                272  MICHAKL 

istod  among  the  Piankishaw,  who  had  their  principal  adults  who  die  perish  by  the  hands  of  their  fdlow 

vfllage  lower  down  the  Wabash,  adjoinine  the  present  Indians."    A   notable   exception   was   their   chief, 

town  of  Vincennes,  founded  in  1702.    After  tne  sup-  Richardville,  of  mixed  blooc^  who  died  in  the  same 

pression  of  the  Jesuits  in  New  France  in  1762,  the  year,  a  consistent  Catholic,  whose  "stem  honesty 

missionaries  continued  their  work,  as  seculars,  as  well  and  strict  pimctuality,  as  well  as  dignified  bearing, 

as  was  possible,  until  their  deaths.  Father  Pierre  commandea  universal  respect".    In  the  meantime 

Potier,  "the  last  Jesuit  in  the  west",  dying  at  Detroit  the  restored  Jesuits  had  again  taken  up  the  western 

in  1781.  mission  work  in  1824.    In  1836  Frs.  Charles  F.  van 

Throu^  the  influence  of  English  traders  a  large  Quickenbome  and  Hoecken  began  a  series  of  mission- 
part  of  the  tribe  had  become  hostile  to  the  French  and  ary  visits  among  the  Kickapoo,  Wea,  Pianldshaw, 
under  the  head  chief  "La  Demoiselle"  had  removed  Potawatomi,  and  other  removed  and  native  tribes  in 
about  1748  from  the  nei^bourhood  of  the  French  Kansas  which  resulted  in  the  establishment  of  a  sue- 
post  at  the  head  of  the  luuaumee  (now  Fort  Wayne,  cessful  mission  amone  the  Potawatomi  (St.  Haiy's) 
Ind.)  to  a  point  on  the  Miami  near  the  present  Pi(]ua,  to  which  the  other  tribes  were  contributors.  lu  1847 
Ohio,  and  established  there  a  town  called  Pickawilbny,  a  mission  was  started  among  the  removed  Miami,  who 
whicn  grew  rapidlv  in  size  and  importance  and  became  had  made  official  request  for  Catholic  teachers,  but  it 
a  centre  of  English  trading  influence.  After  repeated  was  discontinued  two  years  later,  probably  because  of 
refusals  to  return,  a  party  of  northern  Indians,  led  the  utter  unworthiness  of  the  Indians,  who  are  ofli- 
by  a  French  triader,  Lan^de,  in  June,  1752,  attacked  daily  described  in  the  same  ^ear  as  "a  miserable  race 
and  binned  the  town,  killing  and  eating  La  Demoi-  of  beings,  considering  nothmg  but  what  contributes 
selle,  and  carrying  the  traders  to  Canada.  By  this  to  the  pernicious  indulgence  of  their  d^raved  ap- 
time  the  whole  tnbe  was  settled  alone  the  Wabash  petites  to^  whiskey".  Ine  picture  in  1840  is  in  even 
and  the  uppjer  Maiunee.  They  generally  sided  with  darker  colors — "destroying  themselves  by  liquor 
the  French  in  the  French  and  Indian  and  Pontiac's  and  extensively  murdermg  one  another",  the  lowest 
wars,  and  with  the  English  against  the  Americans  in  in  condition  of  all  the  removed  tribes,  and  reduced  in 
the  later  wars.  Their  great  chief,  Mishikinakwa,  or  three  years  b^  more  than  one  half.  In  1855  we  hear 
Little  Turtle  (1752-1812),  led  the  allied  Indian  forces  of  the  first  unprovement,  through  the  temperance 
which  defeated  Harmar  in  1790  and  St.  Qair  in  1791,  efforts  of  the  ^nch  half-breeds  in  the  tribe.  The 
but  was  himself  defeated  by  Wayne  in  1794,  resulting  Quapaw  mission  of  St.  Mary's,  Okla.,  in  duurge  of  a 
in  the  famous  Treaty  of  Greenville  in  the  next  year,  secular  priest  assisted  by  five  Sisters  of  Divine  Pkovi- 
by  which  the  Indians  surrendered  the  greater  part  of  dence  now  cares  for  276  Indians  of  the  associated  rem- 
Ohio.  After  the  close  of  the  war  of  1812,  in  which  nant  tribes,  including  about  40  of  Miami  kinship.  Of 
again  they  fought  on  the  En^ish  side,  the  Miami  be^an  an  original  4000  or  more  there  are  left  now  only  about 
a  series  of  treaty  sales  culminating  in  1840,  by  wluch  400,  namely — Indiana,  243;  Miami  in  Okla.,  128;  Wea 
they  sold  all  their  territory  excepting  a  small  tract  andf  Piankishaw,  with  Peoria,  in  Okla.,  about  40. 
of  about  ten  square  miles,  agreemg  to  remove  west  Very  little  has  been  recorded  of  the  customs  or 
of  the  Mississippi.  The  filial  removal  to  Kansas  was  general  ethnology  of  the  Miand.  They  were  oiganlsed 
made  by  the  main  Miami  band  under  military  pres-  upon  the  clan  syston,  with,  according  to  Moigan,  ten 
sure  in  1846,  the  Wea  and  Piankishaw  having  preceded  cmUes,  One  of  their  dances  has  been  described,  the 
them  by  a  number  of  years.  The  main  emigration  in  feather  dance,  in  which  the  perfonners,  carrying  feath- 
1846  numbered  about  650.  The  small  reserved  tract  ered  wands,  imitated  the  movements  of  biras.  They 
in  Indiana  was  allotted  in  severalty  to  its  owners  in  had  a  cannibal  societv — or  possibly  a  clan — ^upon 
1872  and  their  tribal  relations  were  dissolved.  In  which  devolved  the  obligation  of  eating  the  body  of 
1854  the  united  Wea  and  Piankishaw  were  officially  a  prisoner  upon  occasion  of  certain  great  victories. 
consolidated  with  the  Peoria  and  Kaskaskia,  the  rem-  Such  ceremonial  cannibalism  was  almost  universal 
nant  of  the  ancient  Illinois,  and  in  1867  they  removed  among  the  northern  and  eastern  tribes.  Their  chief 
altogether  to  their  present  lands  under  the  Quapaw  deities  seem  to  have  been  the  Sun  and  Thxmder.  They 
agency  in  north-east  Oklahoma  (Indian  Ter.).  In  buried  in  the  eroimd,  under  small  log  structures  upon 
1573  the  remnant  of  the  emigrant  Miami,  having  the  surface  of  the  g^und,  or  in  large  logs  split  and 
sold  their  lands  in  Kansas,  foUowed  their  kindred  hollowed  out  for  the  purpose.  Of  the  languaoe  noth- 
to  the  same  a^ncy.  ing  of  importance  has  been  published  beyona  a  Wea 

After  the  withdrawal  of  the  Jesuits  various  secular  Pnmer,  by  the  Baptist  mission  in  1837,  althou^ 

priests  ministered  as  best  th^  could  to  the  Indians  consideratile  manuscript  exists  with  the  Bureau  of 

within  reach  of  the  frontier  settlements,  notably  American  Ethnology.    It  is  still  spoken  by  a  laige 

Fr.  Gibault  about  Detroit  and  Fort  Wayne,  and  proportion  of  the  siurivors. 


industrial   farm   on   the  upper  Wabash,  where  for  Afu:%ent  Society  C^ew  York.  1877);  CouaatwR.  09 lsD.AMrAjiA 

several  years  they  instructed  Miami,  Shawnee,  and  Annual  S^AWMhu^tU>n);Dir^ 

others  i»[oro^  to  withdraw  to  Ohio  by  the  01^  gS^oWSfiSJI^^ 

position  of  the  Shawnee  prophet,  brother  of  Tecum-  8oe.  PiAs.,  11  (Indianapolis.  1S93). 

tha.    In  1818  the  Baptist  minister,  Rev.  Isaac  McGoy,  Jambs  Moonxt. 

began  a  work  among  the  Wea  and  Miami  which  con-  BSicali.    See  Micrbas. 

tinned  for  four  years  and  was  then  discontinued.    In 

1833  another  Baptist  minister,  Rev.  Jotham  Meeker,  Michael,    Miutabt  Ordbbs  of  Saimt. — (1)   A 

assisted  by  Rev.  David  Lykins,  began  work  among  Bavarian  order,  founded  in  1721  by  Elector  Joseph 

the  Wea  and  Piankishaw,  already  in  Kansas  for  oome  Clemens  of  Coloflic,  Duke  of  Bavaria,  and  confinned 

years,  and  built  up  a  flourishing  school  with  oorres-  by  Maximilian  Joseph,  King  of  Bavaria,  11  Sept., 


tirely  ne^ected;  without  either  religious  or  eduoa-  US37),  and  under  Otto  I  was  reon»niaed  (1887). 

tional  work,  they  sank  to  the  lowest  d^ths  throu^  (2)  An  order  founded  in  1469  by  Louis  XI,  the  chief 

dissipation,  and  were  rapidlv  and  oonstantlv  dimm-  military  order  of  France  until  the  institution  of  the 

ishing  b;^  intemperance  and  drunkeh  muraers.    In  Knights  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  after  ^ich  the  two  to- 

1841  their  agent  reports  that  ^more  than  half  the  gether  formed  the  ardns  du  rai,  the  reception  of  the 


273  MICHAKL 

flrosB  of  the  fonner  being  made  a  condition  to  member-  agent  was  Leo,  Metropolitan  of  Acfarida  in  Bulgaria, 

ddp  in  the  latter.   After  the  Revolution  the  order  was  In  1053  this  latter  sent  a  letter  to  Bishop  John  of 

revived,  in  1816,  as  a  distinction  to  be  oonfened  on  Tranum  in  ApuUa,  complaining  of  certain  Latin  cus- 

those  who  had  accomplished  notable  work  in  art  or  toms,  especially  fasting  on  Saturday  and  the  use  of 

science,  or  who  had  performed  extraordinary  services  asyme  (unleavened)  bread  for  the  Holv  Eucharist 

for  the  state.    In  1^5  tliere  was  a  solenm  reception  He  says  that  the  letter  is  meant  for  ''all  the  bishops 

into  the  ordrea  du  rot,  which  did  not,  however,  survive  of  the  Franks  and  for  the  most  venerable  pope" 

the  Revolution  of  1830.  (pubUshed  by  Will, "  Actaet  scripta",  66-60).    There 

(3)  Knights  of  St.  Michael's  Wing,  founded  in  the  is  no  doubt  tnat  it  was  dictated  oy  Csrularius.    John 

Cist^tsian  monastery  of  Alcobasa,  about  1171,  by  of  Tranum  sent  the  letter  on  to  Cardinal  Humbert  of 

AlfonBO  I,  Khig  of  Portu^,  in  commemoration  of  a  Silva  Candida,  who  translated  it  and  showed  it  to  the 

victory  over  the  Moors,  in  which,  according  to  tradi-  pope.    CsBrulaiius  then  sent  to  the  other  patriarchs  a 

tion,  he  was  assisted  by  St.  Michael  in  person.    The  treatise  written  by  Nicetas  Pectoiatus  (Niketas  Steth- 

knu^ts  were  placed  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  atosin  Greek),  a  monk  of  Studion,againstaiyme  bread. 

Abbot  of  Alcobasa  and  were  pledgea  to  recite  the  same  fasting  on  Saturday,  and  oeliba<^.    Because  of  these 

prayers  as  Cistercian  lay  brothers.    The  order  was  in  ''homble  infirmities",  Nicetas  describes  Latins  as 

existence  but  a  short  time.  "dogs,  bad  workmen,  schismatics,  hypocrites,  and 

HAltot.  OrdrtB  rdiifie^  (Paito,  1859).  liars"  (Will,  op.  dt.,  127-36).    CflBrularius's  third 

Flobencb  Rudgb  McGahan.  move  made  it  plain  that  he  meant  war  to  the  knife. 

Still  entirely  unprovoked,  he  closed  all  the  Latm 

Michael  Oamlariiu  (Kiipov\dptot),  Patriarch  of  churches  at  Constantinople,  including  that  of  the 
Constantinople  (1043^58),  author  of  the  second  and  papal  legate.  His  chancellor  Nicephorus  biust  open 
final  schism  of  the  Byzantine  Church,  date  of  birth  the  Latin  tabernacles,  and  trampled  on  the  Holv 
unknown ;  d.  1058.  After  the  reconciliation  following  Eucharist  because  it  was  consecrated  in  as3rme  bread, 
the  schism  of  Photius  (d.  801),  there  remained  at  The  pope  then  answered  the  letter  of  Leo  of  Achrida. 
Constantinople  an  anti-Latin  piurty  that  gloried  in  the  Knowing  well  whence  it  came,  he  addressed  his  an- 
work  of  that  patriarch,  honoured  him  as  the  great  swer  in  the  first  place  to  Cserularius.  It  is  a  dignified 
defender  of  the  Orthodox  Church,  and  waited  for  a  defence  of  the  customs  attacked  and  of  the  rights  of 
chance  of  renewing  his  quarrel.  The  only  explanation  the  Holy  See.  He  points  out  that  no  one  thought 
of  Michael  Csrularius's  conduct  is  that  he  oelonged  of  attacking  the  many  Byzantine  monasteries  and 
from  the  beginning  to  the  extreme  wing  of  that  party,  churches  in  the  West  (WiU,  op.  dt.,  65-85).  For  a 
and  had  always  meant  to  break  with  the  pope  as  soon  moment  Cserularius  seems  to  have  wavered  in  his 
as  he  could.  Belonging  to  one  of  the  great  families  plan  because  of  the  importance  of  the  pope's  help 
of  Constantinople,  he  held  in  his  youth  some  place  at  against  the  Normans.  He  writes  to  Peter  III  of 
the  Court.  He  began  his  public  career  by  plotting  Antiodi,  that  he  had  for  this  reason  proposed  an  al- 
with  Constantino  Monomacnus.  the  future  emperor,  liance  with  Leo  (Will,  174).  Leo  answered  this  pro- 
to  depose  Emperor  Michael  Iv  (1034-1041).  Both  posal  resenting  the  stupendous  arrogance  of  Michael's 
conspirators  were  banished,  and,  in  their  exile,  formed  tone,  but  still  hoping  for  peace.  At  the  same  time 
the  friendship  to  which  Csrularius  owed  his  later  ad-  he  wrote  a  very  friendly  letter  to  the  emperor,  and  sent 
vanoement.  Csrularius  was  known  as  a  dangerous  both  documents  to  Constantinople  by^  three  legates 
person,  so  the  Government  tried  to  stop  his  political  Cardinal  Humbert.  Cardinal  Frederick  (his  own 
career  bv  making  him  a  monk.  At  first  he  refused;  cousin  and  Chancellor  of  the  Roman  Church,  after^ 
then  suddenly  the  suicide  of  his  brother  caused  his  wards  Stephen  IX,  1057-58),  and  Archbishop  Peter 
conversion,  and  he  voluntarily  entered  a  monastery,  of  Amalfi.  The  emperor,  who  was  exceedingly 
In  1042  Monomachus  became  emperor  peaceably  by  annoyed  about  the  whole  quarrel,  received  the  legates 
marrying  Zoe,  a  descendant  of  Basil  the  Macedonian  with  honour  and  lodged  them  in  his  palace.  CsBrular- 
^Basii  I,  867-86)  and  widow  of  both  Komanus  III  ius,  who  had  now  quite  given  up  tne  idea  of  his  al- 
11028-34)  and  Michael  IV.  He  remembered  his  old  liance,  was  very  indignant  that  the  legates  did  not 
iriend  and  fellow-conspirator  and  gave  him  an  ambig-  give  him  precedence  and  prostrate  before  him,  and 
uous  place  at  court,  described  as  that  of  the  emper^  wrote  to  Peter  6[  Antioch  that  they  are  ''insolent, 
or's  ''familiar  friend  and  guest  at  meals"  (Psellus,  boastful,  rash,  arrogaiit,  and  stupid"  (WilL  177). 
"Enkomion".  I,  324).  As  Cierularius  was  a  monk,  Several  weeks  passed  in  discussion.  Cardinal  Hum- 
any  further  advancement  must  be  that  of  an  ecclesias-  bert  wrote  defences  of  the  Latin  customs,  and  inci-* 
tical  career.  He  was  therefore  next  made  syncellus  dentallv  converted  Nicetas  Pectoratus  (Will,  93-126, 
(that  is,  secretaiy)  of  the  patriarch,  Alexius  (1025-34).  136-50).  Cserularius  refused  to  see  the  legates  or  to 
The  syncellus  was  always  a  bishop,  and  held  a  place  hold  any  commimication  with  them:  he  struck  the 
in  the  church  second  only  to  that  of  the  patriarch  pope's  name  from  his  diptydis,  and  so  declared  open 
himself.  In  1034  Alexius  died,  and  Ck>nstantine  ap-t,  schism.  The  legates  then  prepared  the  Bull  of  ex- 
pointed  Cserularius  as  his  successor.  There  was  no  communication  against  him.  Leo  of  Achrida,  and  their 
election;  the  em{>eror  "went  like  an  arrow  to  the  adherents,  wliich  they  laia  on  the  altar  of  Suicta 
target"  (Psellus,  ibid.,  p.  326).  From  this  moment  Sophia  on  16  Julv,  1054.  Two  days  later  they  set 
the^  Btoiy  of  Csrularius  becomes  that  of  the  great  out  for  Rome.  Tne  emperor  was  still  on  good  terms 
schism.  with  them  and  gave  them  presents  for  Monte  Cassino. 

The  time  was  singularly  unpropitious  for  a  quarrel  Hardly  were  they  gone  when  Csrularius  sent  for  them 

with  the  pope.    The  Normans  were  invading  Sicily,  to  come  back,  meaning  to  have  them  murdered  (the 

enemies  of  both  the  papacy  and  the  Eastern  Empire,  evidence  for  this  is  given  in  Fortescue,  "Orthodox 

from  whom  they  were  conquering  that  island.    There  Eastern  Church",  186-7).    Cserularius,  when  this  at- 

was  every  reason  why  the  pope  (St.  Leo  IX,  1048-54)  tempt  failed,  sent  an  account  of  the  whole  story  to  the 

and  the  emperor  should  keep  friends  and  unite  their  other  patriarchs  so  full  cd  lies  that  John  of  Antioch 

forces  against  the  common  enemy.    Both  knew  it,  answered  him:    "  I  am  covered  with  shame  that  vour 

and  tried  throughout  to  prevent  a  quarrel.    But  venerable  letter  should  contain  such  thin^    Believe 

it  was  forced  on  them  by  the  outrageous  conduct  of  the  me,  I  do  not  know  how  to  explain  it  for  vour  own  SfJce, 

patriarch.    Suddenly,  after  no  kind  of  provocation,  in  especially  if  you  have  written  fike  this  to  the  oUier 

the  midst  of  what  Jonn  Beccus  describes  as  "perfect  most  blessed  patriarchs"  (Will,  190). 

peace"    between  the  two  Churches   (L.  Allatius,  After  the  schism  Cierularius  became  for  a  time  the 

"  Gnsda  orthod. ",  I,  37),  Carularius  sent  a  dedara-  strongest  man  at  Constantinople.    He  quarrelled  with 

turn  of  war  against  the  pope  and  the  Latins.    His  his  fonner  patron,  Constantine  IX,  who  Kppeaaod  him 
X.— 1» 


MICHAKL  274 

by  abject  apolo^es.    He  became  a  kind  of  king-  oame  to  Barcelona,  and  asked  to  be  received  into  the 

maker.    When   Theodora    succeeded    Q055-6).    he  monastery  of  the  Trinitarians,  in  which  order,  after  a 

''tried  to  rule  over  the  empress"  (Psellus,  "£nko-  three  years'  novitiate,  he  took  vows  in  the  monasteiy 

mion",  357).    Michael  VI  (1056-7)   was  not  suffi-  of  St.  Lambert  at  Saraf;ossa,  6  Sept.,  1607.    When 

dently  submissive,  so  Caerularius  worked  up  a  revolu-  one  d&yr  a  Discalced  Tiinitarian  came  to  St.  Lambert's 

tion,  deposed  him,  went  himself  to  cut  on  his  hair,  to  receive  Holy  orders,  Michael  felt  himself  drawn  to 

and  shut  him  up  in  a  monastery.    Li  his  place  he  set  this  more  austere  congregation.    After  mature  de* 

up  Isaac  Comnenus  TIsEiac  I,  1057-9).    Isaac  knew  liberation,  and  with  the  permission  of  his  superior,  he 

well  to  whom  he  owed  his  place  and  was  at  first  very  entered  the  novitiate  of  the  Discalced  Trinitarians  at 

docile.    At  this  time  Csrularius  reached  the  height  Madrid,  and  took  vows  at  Alcald:  he  became  priest 

of  his  power.    He  appointed  all  the  officers  of  state,  and  was  twice  elected  siiperior  ot  the  monastery  ai 

and  was  the  real  sovereign  of  the  empire.    So  little  Valladolid.    He  lived  a  life  of  prayer  and  great  morti- 

did  he  disguise  this  fact  that  he  began  to  wear  the  fication^  was  especially  devout  towards  the  Hol> 

purple  shoes  that  were  always  the  prerogative  of  the  Eucharist,  and  is  said  to  have  been  rapt  in  ecstasy 

emperor.    "Losing  all  shame",   says  Psellus,   "he  several  times  dining  Consteration.    He  was  beatified 

t'oined  royalty  and  priesthood  in  himself;  in  his  hand  by  Pius  VI,  24  May,  1779  and  canonized  by  Pius  IX, 

ke  held  the  cross  wnile  imperial  laws  came  from  his  8  June,  1862.    His  feast  is  celebrated  on  5  July.    He 

mouth"  (in  Br^hier,  op.  cit.,  275).    Then  Isaac  got  is  generaUv  represented  kneeling  before  an  altar 

tired  of  being  the  patnarch's  puppet  and  wanted  to  where  the  Blessed  Sacrament  is  ex^)8ed. 
reign  himself.     So  once  again  (Jaerularius  worked  up  a         Vita  «  miraeolidiS.  MicheU  dHSarUi,  published  anonymously 

revolution.    This  time  he  meant  to  have  himself  3^ff?  15?2>a  9.^^S^^^  T^^^S^'^*^*'^!^ 

^^^Tvy,^  ^,v^*w^»^«      n,,*  To««^  -,on  ♦^wv  r^t^i'^L-  f^»  l>;wn -  SafUi  fai  TA«  CothoUc  WorU,  LXXIV  (New  York,  1902),  «29- 

crowned  emperor.     But  Isaac  was  too  quick  for  him;  41.  ouArin,  Viea  dea  Sainu,  5  July;  Sadler.  deUioaC-JUxi' 

he  had  him  arrested  at  once  and  tned  for  high  treason,  kon  (Auoibuxg,  IS6&S2),  439-440. 
Michael  Psellus  was  employed  to  bring  the  charge  Michasl  Ott. 

against  him.    He  was  accused  of  treason,  paganism, 

and  magic;  he  was  *' impious,  tyrannical,  murderous,        Michael   of  Oesena   (Micselb   Fuschi).    Friar 

sacrilegious,  unworthy".    He  was  condemned  to  ban-  Minor,  Biinister  General  of  the  Franciscan  Orxler.  and 

ishment  at  Madytus  on  the  Hellespont.    On  the  way  theologian,  b.  at  Cesena,  a  small  town  in  Central  Italy, 

there  was  a  shipwreck  from  the  effects  of  which  he  near  ^Forll,  about  1270;  d.  at  Munich,  29  Nov.,  1342. 

died  (1059).  Of  his  early  life  little  is  known.    Having  entered  the 

As  soon  as  he  was  dead  his  apotheosis  began.    The  Franciscan  Order,  he  studied  at  Paris  and  took  the 

emperor  professed  much  regret  for  what  had  hap<  doctor's  degree  in  theology.    He  taught  theoloK^  at 

pened;  his  bodv  was  brought  back  to  Constantinople  Bologna  and  wrote  several  commentaries  on  Holy 

and  buried  with  great  pomp  in  the  church  of  the  Holy  Scripture  and  the  " Sentences"  of  Peter  Lombard.  At 

Angels.    Psellus,  whonad  brought  the  charges  against  the  general  chapter  of  Naples  (31  May,  1316)  he  was 


see  bibliography).  It  seems  that,  as  soon  as  he  was  Bologna,  he  issued  the  document,  "Gravi  qua  pre- 
dead  and  therefore  no  longer  dangerous,  the  Govern-  mor"(21  Aug.,  1316),  which,  together  with  sevml 
ment  found  it  more  prudent  to  pretend  to  share  the  other  ordinances  regarding  l^e  matter  of  poverty,  in- 
popular  enthusiasm  for  him.  From  Psellus's  two  duced  John  XXII  to  publish  the  Bull,  "  Quorumdam 
accounts  (the  indictment  at  the  trial  and  the  funeral  exigit"  (7  Oct.,  1317).  whose  purpose  was  to  explain 
oration)  it  is  not  difficult  to  form  an  opinion  about  the  decretals  of  Nicnolas  III,  'NEbdit  qui  seminat" 


emperors  he  set  up  8,nd  deposed.  His  life  was  austere,  no  fittle  disturbance  within  the  order.  The  Bull  was 
He  had  unbounded  ambition,  pride,  and  savage  vin-  warmly  opposed  by  Michael  and  his  party,  who  claimed 
dictiveness.  It  was  said  at  the  time  that  he  never  that  in  adopting  the  strict  poverty  upon  which  Michael 
forgave  an  injury.  He  was  not  a  scholar,  nor  in  anv  had  insisted  innia  letters,  they  were  following  the  ex- 
way  so  great  a  man  as  his  predecessor  and  model,  ample  and  teaching  of  Christ  and  His  Apostles.  Thus 
Photius.  It  seems  that  his  breach  with  Rome  was  the  controvcxrsy  finally  shifted  to  a  speciilative  theo- 
a  part  of  a  general  scheme.  He  wanted  to  make  logical  question:  whether  or  not  it  was  consonant  with 
himself  autocrat  of  at  least  Eastern  Europe.  He  could  Catholic  Faitii  to  hold  that  Christ  and  the  Apostles  had 
easily  cow  the  feeble  emperors;  he  could  and  did  die-  no  property  individually  or  in  common;  and  whOe  in 
tate  orders  overweeningly  to  the  other  Eastern  the  famous  dispute  at  Narbonne  in  1321  the  inquisi- 
patriarchs,  but  he  knew  that  he  could  not  frighten  nor  tor,  John  of  Bema,  claimed  that  it  was  heretical,  Ber- 
persuade  the  pope  to  tolerate  such  a  position.  A  engarius  of  Perpignan  declared  it  a  Catholic  dogma  in 
breach  with  the  West  was  thus  the  first  necessary  step  penect  accordance  with  the  decretals  of  Nicholas  HI 
in  a  career  that  was  meant  to  end  in  a  combination  of  and  Clement  V.  The  matter  having  been  brought  be- 
patriarchate  and  empire  in  his  own  person.  He  did  fore  John  XXII,  a  further  attempt  to  settle  the  con- 
not  succeed  in  that  plan,  but  he  did  something  much  troversy  was  made  by  distinguishing  between  domin- 
inore  momentous;  he  founded  the  schismatical  Byzan-  ion  and  simple  use,  so  that  both  propositions.  Christ 
tine  Church.  and  the  Apostles  had  no  property,  i.  e.,  dommion  of 
Will,  Acta  0  Scripta  gwa  de  confrovernU  e^imaraem  et  property,  and  Christ  and  the  Apostles  possessed  prop- 
latina  aacido  XI  componta  extant  (Leipzig,  1861);  Psellus,  T-*^  :  /  ♦k«„o-»  ^t  ^w^^^^-^  J^^,^  ^^XTt^TTu  *t>  *ii 
Historu,  ed.  Sathas  mBvzantine  TexU  (Lohdon.  1*8);  Psbl^  ^^K^'  ®-»  ***®  ^^^  °^  ^J^^^T'  ^®™  *^®-     ^^  *"®  ^^ 

LUB,  Enkomion  in  Sathas,  Bibi.  medii  avi,  IV  (1875),  326  sQq.:  Quia  nonnunquam'  (26  March,  1322)  the  pope  de- 

S^vr/**  ^CV^^?^^*  *?JoiJ^iT®^*™=?» ^  •cAgma ofienka  clared  that  he  intended  merely  to  explain  the  decrees 

du  XI*    ni^cle    (Pans.  1899);    Herobnrother,   Photxut,  III     ^*  u:„  ^..,^^^«««^«„  ^^A  ^^^^Ji^,.^iJ^*..^ ^  v.«»^.^ 

(Ratisbon,  1869) ;  Pichler.  Getch.  der  kirchL  Trennuno  tunschen  ^^  °^  predecessors,  and  excommumcated  anyone  who 

dem Orieni u. Occu2eni(Mumch,  1864-5) ;NoRD EN, DcuPopflttum  attempted  to  misconstrue  the  meaning  of  the  papal 

und  Bmng  perlin.  1903) ;  Fortescue.  The  Otihodox^  Eaatem  Constitution  "  Quorumdam  exigit ".    In  June  of  the 

Church  (London,  1907),  chap,  v.  The Schtam ofCendanua.  -„w»-> ^.w.-  «  «..^-«i  *u  «* JtaC      Li  i    j 

Adrian  Fortescue.  Bame  yesr  a  general  chapter  of  the  orf^^ 

at  Perugia  and  decided  that  to  assert  that  Christ  and 

Ifichael  de  Sanctia  (ds  lob  Santos),  Saint,  b.  His  Apostles  possessed  no  earthly  goods  was  not  only 

at  Vich  in  Catalonia,  29  September,  1591 ;  d.  at  Valla-  not  heretical,  but  sound  and  Catholic  doctrine.    At 

dolid,  10  April,  1625.    At  the  age  of  twelve  years  he  the  same  time  Bonagratia  of  Bergamo  waa  oominia- 


MICHAKL 


276 


MICHAEL 


atoned  to  represent  the  chapter  before  the  papal  Curia 
at  Avignoii.  The  controversy  continued  unabated 
until,  in  1327,  Michael  was  summoned  to  appear  be- 
fore the  pope.  He  feigned  iUness  and  delayed;  but 
obeyed  a  siibsequent  sununons  and  was  forbidden  by 
the  pope  under  pain  of  zrave  censure  to  leave  Avi- 
gnon. He  was  thus  unable  to  attend  the  chapter  held 
at  Bologna  in  May  of  the  following  year  (1328);  yet 
despite  his  absence  and  the  protest  of  the  papal  legate, 
he  was  re-«lected  minister  general,  the  chapter  deem- 
ing the  charges  against  him  insufficient  to  deprive  him 
of  office.  SeversJ  prelates  and  princes  wrote  to  the 
pope  in  Michael's  benalf ;  but  before  these  letters  or  the 
result  of  the  chapter  could  reach  Avignon,  Michael, 
with  William  of  Occam  and  Bonagratia  of  Bereamo, 
who  were  also  retained  by  the  pope  at  Avienon,  ned  by 
night  (25  May)  to  a  galley  sent  them  oy  Louis  of 
Bavaria. 

At  Pisa,  where  they  were  triumphantly  received  by 
the  party  of  Louis  and  were  j  oined  by  a  number  of  other 
schismatics,  the  deposed  minister  general  published 
a  solemn  appeal  from  the  pope  to  a  council  (12  Dec., 
1328),  posted  it  on  the  door  of  the  cathedral,  and  the 
next  day  read  to  the  assembled  multitude  a  decree  of 
the  Emperor  Louis  deposing  John  XXII.  The  pope 
issued  the  Encyclical  ''Quia  vir  reprobus",  wamine 
the  faithful  against  Michael;  and  the  latter  answered 
in  his  ''Ad  perpetuam  rei  memoriam  innotescat 
Quod  e^,  Fr.  Michael"    (25    Nov.,   1330)  and  in 

Christians  fidei  fundamentum",  in  which  he  ac- 
cused the  pope  of  heresy  in  the  three  Bulls,  "  Ad  Con- 
ditorem  Canonum'*  "Cum  inter  nonnmlos",  and 
"Quia  quorumdam  .  These  and  "Litteras  plurium 
magistrorum",  and  "Teste  Solomone"^  which  Michael 
wrote  in  his  own  defence,  are  contained  m  Occam's  Dia- 
logue. The  general  chapter  of  Paris  (11  June,  1329), 
at  which  Carainal  Bertrand  presided,  condemned  tlie 
conduct  and  writings  of  Michael  and  all  who  took  part 
with  him  against  John  XXII;  and  elected  Gerard 
Odon  minister  general  of  the  order.  The  next  year 
(1330)  Bfichael  and  other  schismatics  followed  I^uis 
to  Bavaria.  The  chapter  of  Perpignan  (25  April,  1331) 
expelled  Michael  from  the  order  and  sentenced  him  to 
perpetual  imprisonment.  During  the  latter  years  of 
nislife  he  was  abandoned  by  nearly  all  his  sympathis- 
ers, but  it  is  probable  that  he  died  repentant.  His  re- 
mains, with  those  of  his  accomplices,  William  Occam 
and  Bonagratia  of  Bergamo,  lie  buried  in  the  Biuf  Qs- 
serkirche  at  Munich. 

Waddiko,  Annales  Minarum,  ad  an.  1316,  nos.  8,  5,  10;  ad 
an.  1328.  nos.  6,  13.  and  paasim;  Scriptorea  Ordinia  Minonnn, 
250:  M  ABOOUR,  AfUheil  der  Minoritm  am  Kampft  noiscAen  KOntg 
Ludwig  IV,  von  Bauem  und  Papal  Johann  xXII.  (Emmerich, 
1874):  QUDKNATK,  Miehaid  von  Ccsaena  (Breslau,  1876):  Ana- 
kda  Fmneiaeana  (Quaracchi.  1807),  IV.  470, 487, 488, 600, 617, 
704,705. 

Stephen  M.  Donovan, 

Bfichael  Scotaa  (Scott  or  Scot),  a  thirteenth- 
century  mathematician,  philosopher,  and  scholar.  He 
was  bom  in  Scotland,  about  the  year  1175.  The  con- 
tention that  he  was  an  Irishman  seems  to  be  disposed 
of  by  the  fact  that  when,  in  1223,  he  was  offered  the 
Archbishopric  of  Cashel,  he  declined  on  the  ground 
that  he  was  ignorant  of  the  Irish  language.  It  is  not 
clear  whether  ''Scotus"  indicates  merely  a  native  of 
Scotland,  or  one  of  the  clan  Scott,  or  Scot,  which  was 
very  numerous  in  the  Scottish  lowlands.  There  is  a 
traaition  to  the  effect  that  he  studied  first  at  the 
cathedral  school  of  Durham,  and  afterwards  '^*  the 
Universities  of  Oxford  and  Paris.  At  the  last  men- 
tioned plaoe  he  was  known  as  "the  mathematician", 
which  implies  that  he  studied  in  the  Faculty  of  Arts. 
It  is  probable  that  he  studied  theology  also.  At  any 
rate,  ne  was  beyond  doubt  a  cleric.  It  seems  likely 
that,  on  leaving  Paris,  he  visited  the  University  of 
Bologna,  before  repairing  to  Sicily,  to  the  Court  of 
Frederick  11.  This  occurred  about  1200.  At  Palermo, 
h»  joined  the  circle  of  learned  men  who  surrounded 


the  emperor;  by  some,  indeed,  he  is  said  to  have  been 
elevated  to  the  rank  of  imperial  tutor,  although  the 
MSS.,  as  a  rule,  entitled  him  "  astrologer  to  the  Lord 
Emperor  Frederick".  In  1209  he  went  to  Toledo, 
made  the  acquaintance  of  several  distinguished  Ara- 
bian scholars  and  wrote  his  "  Abbreviatio  Avicennse  *\ 
the  MS.,  of  which  bears  the  date  1210.  He  also  took 
up  the  studv  of  astronomy  and  alchemy,  and  trans- 
lated from  the  Arabic  several  works  on  those  subjects. 
That  he  was  interested  in  the  philosophy  of  the 
Arabians  is  evident  from  the  fact  that  he  translated 
several  philosophical  commentaries  of  Averroes. 

After  his  return  to  Palermo,  about  1220.  Michael 
devoted  special  attention  to  the  science  ana  practice 
of  medicine.  He  received  several  sims  of  pontifical 
as  well  as  imperial  favour.  By  Pope  Hononus  III  he 
was  offered  several  ecclesiastical  benefices,  among 
them  being  the  Archbishopric  of  Cashel.  in  Ireland. 
He  was  also  offered  the  Archbishopric  or  Canterbury 
both  by  Honorius  in  1223,  and  by  Gregory  IX  in  1227. 
In  this  case,  however,  it  was  the  unwillingness  of  the 
local  dergv  and  not  that  of  the  candidate  himself  that 
stood  in  the  way  of  Michaers  preferment.  His  dis- 
appointment is,  according  to  his  latest  biographer,  re- 
flected in  the  gloomy  "prophecies"  which  ne  com- 
posed about  this  time,  and  which  were  so  well  known 
during  the  Middle  Ages.  According  to  Roger  Bacon, 
Michael  visited  Oxford  "about  the  jrear  1230".  bear- 
ing with  him  "certain  books  of  Aristotle  ana  com- 
mentaries of  learned  men  concerning  physics,  and 
mathematics".  The  date  of  his  death  is  uncertain; 
it  is  generallv  given  as  1234.  The  legend  which  grew 
up  aroimd  the  name  of  Michael  Scot  was  due  to  his 
extraordinary  reputation  as  a  scholar  and  an  adept  in 
the  secret  arts.  He  figures  as  a  magician  in  Dante's 
"Inferno",  in  Boccaccio's  " Decamerone",  in  local 
Italian  ana  Scottish  folk-lore,  and  in  Sir  Walter  Scott's 
"La^  of  the  Last  Minstrel  .  The  most  important 
of  his  original  works  are  (1)  "Liber  Ph^iognomis", 
first  printed  in  1477,  and  since  then  reprmted  eighteen 
times  in  various  languages;  (2)  "Astronomia  ,  still 
in  MS.,  in  the  Bodleian  Library;  (3)  "Liber  Intro- 
ductorius".  also  in  MS.,  ibid.;  (4)  "Liber  Luminis 
Luminum",  in  a  MS.,  or  the  Riciardi  coll.,  Florence; 
r5)  "De  Alchimia",  in  MS.  in  Corpus  Christi  College, 
Oxford.  Besides  the  translations  mentioned  above,  a 
Latin  version  of  Aristotle's  "Ethics"  made  from  the 
Greek  text  is  sometimes  attributed  to  Michael  Scot. 

Brown,  Life  and  Legend  of  Miehad  Scot  (Edinburgh,  1807); 
JouRDAiN,  Recherchee  eur  Vdge  et  Voriqine  dee  traditctions  kUinea 
d'Ariatole  (faria,  1843);  Milman,  Michael  Scot  almoal  an  Iriah 
Arehbi8hop,_puh.  by  Pbilobiblon  Society,  1854;  Hial,  litlSr,  da 
la  France,  XX.  43-51;  UxvTitAV.Noticeaetextraita,  XXI,  pt. 
II.  204:  Idem,  Hiat,  de  laphil.  acol  (Paris,  1880)  II,  pt.  I,  124 
Bqq.;  Dbniflb,  ChaHul  Univ„Parxa„  I  (Paris,  1889).  103. 

William  Tubner. 

Bfichaal  the  Archangel  (Hebr.  ^fiO^D, ''  Who  is  like 
God?"),  Saint,  one  of  the  principal  an^ls;  his  name 
was  the  war-cry  of  the  good  angels  in  the  battle 
fought  in  heaven  a^inst  Satan  and  his  followers. 
Foiu-  times  his  name  is  recorded  in  Scripture:  (a)  Dan., 
X,  13  sqo .,  Gabriel  says  to  Daniel,  when  he  aska  God  to 
permit  the  Jews  to  return  to  Jerusalem:  "The  Angel 
[D.  y.  prince]  of  the  Idngdom  of  the  Persians 
resisted  me  .  .  .  and,  behold  Michael,  one  of  the 
chief  princes,  came  to  help  me  .  •  .  and  none 
is  my  nelper  in  all  these  things,  but  Michael  vour 
prince";  (b),  Dan.,  xii,  the  .£igel  speaking  of  the 
end  of  the  world  and  tne  Antichrist  says:  At  that 
time  shall  Michael  rise  iip,  the  great  prince,  who 
standeth  for  the  children  ot  thy  people."  (c)  In  the 
Catholic  Epistle  of  St.  Jude:  ^'When  Michael  the 
ardiangel,  disputing  with  the  devil,  contended  about 
the  body  of  Moses",  etc.  St.  Jude  alludes  to  an 
ancient  Jewish  tradition  of  a  dispute  between  Michael 
and  Satan  over  the  body  of  Moses,  an  account  of  which 
IB  also  found  in  the  apocryphal  book  on  the  assump* 


276 


tion  of  Mofles  (Origen,  '*  De  principiis",  m,  2. 1).  St. 
llichael  oonoesued  the  tomb  of  Moees;  Satan,  nowever, 
by  disclosing  it,  tried  to  seduce  the  Jewish  peojple  to 
the  sin  of  hero-worship.  St.  Michael  also  guards  the 
body  of  Eve,  according  to  the  "Revelation  of  Moses" 
("Apocryphal  Gospels  ,  etc.,  ed.  A. Walker,  Edinburi^y 
p.  647).  (dj  Apocalypse,  xii,  7,  "And  there  was  a 
great  battle  in  heaven,  Michael  and  his  angels  fought 
wiUi  the  dragon."  St.  John  speaks  of  the  great 
conflict  at  the  end  of  time,  which  reflects  also  the 
battle  in  heaven  at  the  beginning  of  time.  According 
to  the  Fathers  there  is  often  question  of  St.  Michael  in 
Scripture  where  his  name  is  not  mentioned.  They 
say  lie  was  the  cherub  who  stood  at  the  gate  of  para- 
6me,  "to  keep  the  way  of  the  tree  of  life"  (Gen.,  iii, 
24),  the  an^lthrough  whom  God  published  the  Deca- 
logue to  his  chosen  people,  the  angel  who  stood  m 
tiie  way  against  Balaam  (Numbers,  xxu,  22  Bqq.),  the 
angfel  who  routed  the  army  of  Sennacherib  (I  Y  Ivuus, 
six,  35),  etc.  Gf.  P.  Bonaventuia  da  Sorrento  ("Mi- 
cha-el'S  Naples,  1892). 

Following  these  Scriptural  paasages.  Ghristian  tradi- 
tion gives  to  St.  Michael  four  offices:  (l)Tofightagainst 
Satan.  (2)  To  rescue  the  souls  of  the  faithful  from  the 
TOwer  of  the  devil,  especially  at  the  hour  of  death.  (3) 
To  be  the  champion  of  God's  people,  the  Jews  in  tne 
Old  Law,  the  Christians  in  the  New  Testament;  there- 
fore he  was  tiie  patron  of  the  CSiurch,  and  of  tlie  order 
of  kni^ts  during  the  Middle  Afs&a,  (4)  To  call  awa^ 
from  earth  and  bring  men's  souls  to  judgment  ("  sigm- 
fer  S.  Michael  reprsesentet  eas  in  lucem  sanctam", 
Offert.  Miss.  Defunct. "  Constituit  eum  principem  super 
animas  suscipiendas  ",  Antiph.  off.  Cf.  "  Hennas", 
Pastor,  I,  3.  Simil.  VIII,  3).  Regarding  his  rank  in 
the  celestial  hierarchy  opinions  vary;  St.  Basil  (Hom. 
de  angelis)  and  other  Cfreek  Fathers,  also  Salmeron, 
Bellarmine,  etc.,  place  St.  Michael  over  all  the  angels; 
they  say  he  is  c^ed  "archangel"  because  he  is  the 
prince  of  the  other  ansels;  others  (cf.  P.  Bonaventura, 
op.  cit.)  believe  that  ne  is  ibe  prince  of  the  seraphim, 
the  firat  of  1^  nine  anjgelic  choirs.  But  according  to 
St.  Thomas  (Summa,  I^Q.  cziii,  a.  3)  he  is  the  pnnoe 
of  the  last  and  lowest  choir,  the  angels.  The  Roman 
Liturgy  seems  to  follow  the  Greek  Fathers;  it  calls  him 
"Prinoeps  militisa  coelestis  quem  honoriflcant  ange- 
k>rum  cives".  The  hymn  of  the  Mosarabic  Breviary 
places  St.  Michael  even  above  the  Twenty-four  Elders. 
The  Greek  Liturgy  styles  hisa'Apxt^p^rirrot, "  highest 
general"  (of.  Mensa,  8  Nov. and  6  Sept.). 

Veneration. — ^It  would  have  been  natural  to  St. 
Michael,  the  champion  of  the  Jewish  people,  to  be  the 
champion  also  of  Christians,  ^ving  victory  in  war  to 
his  chents.  The  early  Christians,  nowever,  regarded 
some  of  the  martyrs  as  their  military  patrons:  St. 
George^  St.  Theodore,  St.  Demetrius,  St.  Sergius,  St. 
Procopius,  St.  Mercunus,  etc.;  but  to  St.  Micnael  they 
gave  the  care  of  their  sick.  At  the  place  where  he 
was  firat  venerated,  in  Phrygia^  his  prestij;e  as  an^lic 
healer  obscured  his  interposition  in  mibtary  anaira. 
It  was  from  early  times  the  centre  of  the  true 
cult  of  the  holy  angels,  particularW*  of  St.  Mi- 
chael. Tradition  relates  that  St.  ]£chael  in  the 
earliest  ages  caused  a  medicinal  spring  to  spout  at 
Ghairotopa  near  Colosss,  where  all  the  sick  who 
bathed  tnere,  invoking  the  Blessed  Trinity  and  St. 
Michael,  were  cured.  Still  more  famous  are  tbe  springs 
which  St.  Michael  is  said  to  have  drawn  from  the  rock 
at  ColossiD  (Chon»,  the  present  Khonas,  on  the 
Lycus).  The  pa«;ans  directed  a  stream  against  the 
sanctuary  of  St.  Michael  to  destroy  it,  but  the  arch- 
angel spfit  the  rock  by  lightning  to  give  a  new  bed  to 
the  stream,  and  sanctified  forever  me  watera  which 
came  from  the  goige.  The  Greeks  claim  that  this 
apparition  took  place  about  the  middle  of  the  first 
centuiy  and  celebrate  a  feast  in  commemoration  of  it 
on  6  September  (Analecta  Bolland.,  VIII^  285-328). 
Abo  at  Fythia  in  Bithynia  and  elsewhere  m  Asia  the 


hot  springs  were  dedicated  to  St.  Ifichael  At  Con- 
stantmopfe  likewise,  St.  Michael  was  the  great  heavenly 
physician.  His  principSl  sanctuaiy,  the  MichaeUony 
was  at  Sosthenion,  some  fifty  miles  south  of  Con- 
stantinople; there  the  archangel  is  said  to  have 
appearea  to  the  Emperor  Constantine.  Tlie  sick 
slept  in  this  church  at  night  to  wait  for  a  manifesta- 
tion of  St.  Michael;  his  least  was  kept  tiiere  0  June. 
Another  famous  church  was  within  the  walls  of  the 
city,  at  the  thermal  baths  of  the  Emperor  Arcadius: 
there  the^rnazis  of  the  archangel  was  celebrated 
8  Nov.  This  feast  spread  over  the  entire  Greek 
Church,  and  the  Syrian,  Armenian,  and  Coptic  Churches 
adopted  it  also;  it  is  now  the  principal  feast  of  St. 
Michael  in  the  Orient.  It  may  have  originated  in 
Phrygia,  but  its  station  at  Constantinopfe  was  the 
Therm®  of  Arcadius  (Martinow, "  Annus  Grteco-slavi- 
cus",  8  Nov.)*  Other  feasts  of  St.  Michael  at  Con- 
stantinople were:  27  Oct.,  in  the  "Promotu"  church; 
18  June,  in  the  CSiurch  of  St.  Julian  at  the  Forum;  10 
Dec.,  at  Athsea  (Maximilian,  Lituigia  Orientalis, 
Freibun^  1908). 

The  Qiristians  of  IJeypt  placed  their  life^vinff 
river,  the  Nile  under  the  protection  of  St.  Michael; 
they  adopted  the  Greek  feast  and  keep  it  12  Nov.; 
on  the  twelfth  of  every  month  they  celebrate  a 
special  commemoration  of  the  archangel,  but  12  June, 
when  the  river  commences  to  rise,  they  keep  as  a  holi- 
day of  oblinition  the  feast  of  St.  Michael  "for  the  ris- 
ing of  the  r^ile",  e^^  t^t  r^y  ^ft^terpov  d»6fiaffiw  tw» 
xora/c(wF  dadrow  (N.  Nilles,  "KaL  man.",  U,  702, 
Innsbruck). 

At  Bome  the  Leonine  Sacramentaiy  (sixth  cent.) 
has  the  "  Natale  Basilics  AngeH  via  Salaria",  30  Sept.; 
of  the  five  Masses  for  the  feast  Uiree  mention  St. 
Michael.    The  Gelasian  Sacramentary  (seventh  cent.) 

S'ves  the  feast  "S.  Michaelis  Archangeli",  and  the 
recorian  Sacramentary  (eighth  cent.).  "Dedicatio 
Basuioms  S.  Angeli  Michaelis  '^!  29  Sept.  A  manuscript 
also  here  adds  "  via  Salaria  "  (Ebner, "  Miss.  Rom.  Iter 
Italicum",127).  This  church  of  the  Via  Salaria  was  six 
miles  to  tne  north  of  the  city:  in  the  ninth  centuir  it 
was  called  BaxUicA  Archanadi  in  Septimo  (Armemni, 
"  Chiese  di  Roma",  p.  855).  It  disappeared  a  thou- 
sand years  ago.  At  Rome  also  the  part  of  heavenly 
physician  was  nven  to  St.  Michael.  According  to 
an  (apocryphal?)  legend  of  the  tenth  century  he  ap- 
peared over  the  Moles  Hadriani  ^Castel  di  S.  Angek>), 
m  950,  during  the  procession  which  St.  Gregoiy  held 
against  the  pestilence,  putting  an  end  to  t^plague. 
Boniface  iV  (608-15)  built  on  the  Moles  Hadnani 
in  honour  of  him,  a  church,  which  was  s^Ied  SL 
Michadia  inter  nvUbea  (in  mmmitate  cirei). 

Well  known  is  the  apparition  of  St.  Michael  (a.  404 
or  530-^),  as  related  m  the  Roman  Breviaiy,  8  May, 
at  his  renowned  sanctuary  on  Monte  Gaigano,  wfaeie 
his  ori^nal  gloi^  as  patron  in  war  was  restored  to  him. 
To  his  mtercession  the  Lombards  of  Sipontum  (Manfre- 
donia)  attributed  their  victory  over  the  Greek  Nea- 
politans, 8  May,  663.  In  commemoration  of  this 
victoi^y  the  church  of  Sipontum  instituted  a  special 
feast  in  honour  of  the  arcnan^l,  on  8  May,  which  has 
spread  over  the  entire  Latin  Church  and  ia  now  called 
(since  the  time  of  Pius  V^  "  Apparitio  S.  Michaelis", 
althou^  it  originally  aid  not  commemorate  the 
apparition,  but  the  victory. 

In  Normandy  St.  Michael  is  the  natron  of  mariners 
in  his  famous  sanctuary  at  Mont-oaint-Michel  in  the 
Diocese  of  Coutanoes.  He  is  said  to  have  appeared 
there,  in  708,  to  St.  Aubert,  Bishop  of  Avrancnee.  In 
Normandy  his  feast "  S.  Biichaelis  in  periculo  maris  "  or 
"in  Monte  Tumba"  was  universally  celebrated  on  18 
Oct.,  the  anniversary  of  the  dedication  of  the  first 
church,  16  Oct.,  710;  the  feast  is  now  confined  to  the 
Diocese  of  Coutances.  In  Germany,  after  its  evangel- 
isation, St.  Michael  replaced  for  the  Christiana  tiM 
pagan  god  Wotan,  to  whom  many  mounting  wen 


BQCHAS 


277 


BQCHEAS 


Baeredy  hence  the  numerous  mountain  chapels  of  St. 
Michael  all  over  Germany. 

The  hymns  of  the  Roman  Office  are  said  to  have 
been  composed  by  St.  Rabanus  Itfaurus  of  Fulda  (d. 
866).  In  art  St.  Michael  is  represented  as  an  an^lic 
warriori  fully  armed  with  helmet,  sword,  and  shield 
(often  the  shield  bears  the  Latin  inscription:  Quia 
ut  Deu8),  standing  over  the  diacon,  whom  he  some- 
times pierces  wiui  a  lance.  &  also  holds  a  pair 
of  scales  in  which  he  weighs  the  souls  of  the  departed 
(cf.  Rock,  "The  Church  of  Our  Fathers",  III,  160), 
or  the  book  of  life,  to  show  that  he  takes  part  in  the 
judgment.  His  feast  (29  Sept.)  in  the  Middle  Ages  was 
celebrated  as  a  holy  day  of  obligation,  but  along  with 
several  other  feasts  it  was  gradually  abolished  since 
the  eighteenth  century  (see  Fe  Aarrs) .  Michaelmas  Day, 
in  England  and  other  countries,  is  one  of  the  regular 
quarter-days  for  settling  rents  and  accounts;  but  it  is 
no  loager  remarkable  for  the  hospitality  with  which 
it  was  formerly  celebrated.  Stubble-geese  being  es- 
teemed in  pertection  about  this  time,  most  families 
had  one  dressed  on  Michaelmas  Day.  In  some  par- 
ishes (Isle  of  Skye)  they  had  a  procession  on  this 
day  and  baked  a  cake,  called  St.  Michaers  bannock. 
(Hampson, "  Medii  ^vi  Calendarium",  London,  1841, 
I,348sqq.) 

BoNAYsivTDRA  DA  SoRRBNTO,  Mx-cha-d  (NapleB,  1802); 
KiLursR,  Heartolom  (St.   Louis,    1008).  328  sqq.;   Luaus- 


1006);  Probst,  Die  OltrSm.  Sacrameniarien  (Monster,  1802), 
118;  Ada 88.,  8  May:  20  Sept.;  PaaUmOblatt  (St.  Louis,  July, 
1910);  HomiUUe  Review  0.960);  Ducbrsns,  Originee  du  Cube 
ckrMen  (1880).  264. 

Frederick  G.  Holweck. 
MichAS.    See  Micheas. 

Uchaad,  Jo8eph-Fran{x>i8,  historian,  b.  at  Al- 
bens.  Savoy,  1767;  d.  at  Passy,  30  Sept.,  1839.  He 
belonged  to  an  ancient  family  of  Savov.    Educated  at 

the  College  of 
Bouig  at  Gresse. 
in  1786  he  entered 
apublishing  house 
at  Lyons,  but  left 
it  after  a  lew  ]^ears 
to  take  up  ioux^ 
nalistic  worK  at 
Paris,  where,  dur- 
ing the  Revolu- 
tion, he  defended 
warmly  and  not 
without  risk  the 
royal  cause.  Ar- 
rested on  13  Ven- 
d^miaire,  1795,  he 
succeeded  in 
escaping  and  re- 
sumed the  jour- 
nalistic  war. 
Joswh-Peak con  MicHAUD  Under   the   Ck)n- 

sulate  he  wrote  several  pamphlets  in  which  appeared 
criticisms  of  Napoleon  that  led  to  his  imprisonment  in 
the  Temple  for  a  time.  After  his  release  irom  prison  he 
decided  to  abandon  politics  for  literature.  In  1808 
be  published  the  first  volume  of  the  "  History  of  the 
Crusades".  In  the  same  year  he  founded  with  his 
brother  the  "Biographic  Universelle".  Elected  to 
the  French  Academv  in  1814,  he  was,  under  the  Res- 
toration, deputy  editor  of  "La  Quotidienne ",  and 
then  lecturer  to  Charles  X.  In  May,  1830,  he  under- 
took a  voyage  to  the  East  and  the  Holy  Land  in 
order  to  study  phases  of  Eastern  life  and  thus  im- 
I>art  more  realistic  colour  to  the  accounts  of  his 
*  History  of  the  Crusades".  He  was  unable  to  com- 
plete the  final  edition. 

tfichaud's  most  important  work  is  his  "History  of 
the  Crusades"  (1st  ed.,  3  vols.,  Paris,  1812-17;  6th 


ed.,  Poi^oulat,  6  vols.,  Paris,  1841).  In  his  choice  of 
the  subiect  and  the  manner  in  which  he  treated  it 
Michaua  was  an  innovator;  his  work  was  one  of  the 
first  productions  of  the  historical  school  which,  in- 
spired by  the  works  of  Chateaubriand,  restored  the 
Middle  Ages  to  a  place  of  honour.  To-day  the  value 
of  this  work  seems  open  to  question;  the  information 
appears  insufficient  and  the  romantic  colour  is  often 
false.  It  was  none  the  less  the  starting  point  of 
studies  relating  to  the  Crusades,  and  it  was  under  the 
influence  of  this  publication  that  the  Academy  of  In- 
scriptions in  1841  decided  to  publish  the  collection  of 
Historians  of  the  Crusades.  Michaud  had  accom- 
panied his  work  with  a  "  Bibliothdque  des  Croisades  " 
(Paris,  1829,  4  vols.,  12^),  which  contained  French 
translations  of  the  European  and  Arabic  chronicles 
relating  to  the  Crusades.  Besides,  he  directed  the 
publication  of  the  "Biographic  Universelle"  (2nd  ed., 
45  vols.,  Paris,  1843).  and  in  collaboration  with  Pou- 
joulat  that  of  the  "Collection  des  M^moires  pour 
servir  a  Thistoire  de  France  depuis  le  13®  sidcle  jus- 
qu'au  18«"  (32  vols.,  Paris,  1836-44). 
Saimtb-Bbuvk,  Caueeriea  du  lundi,  VII,  20-41. 

Louis  Br^hier. 

Micheas  (Michas). — In  Hebrew  the  complete  form 
of  the  name  is  Mlkh&yahil  or  Mikhftyehii  (contracted 
into  Mlkheha?  II  Paral.,  zviii,  8,  kethibh)  or  Mtkh&- 
yah  (who  is  like  Y&hd,  Yeh^,  Yah?)-  the  shortened 
form  is  Mlkhah.  Among  the  O.-T.  bearers  of  this 
name  three  especially  deserve  notice. 

I.  The  Book  of  Jud^  (xvii-zvlii)  contains  the 
history  of  a  certain  Michas  (Hebr.,  xvii,  1  and  4: 
Mlkh&yeh{i*  elsewhere  Mikhah),  a  resident  of  the  hiU- 
country  of  Ephraim  who  foimdeid  an  idolatrous  sane- 
tuanr.  As  he  restored  to  his  mother  the  1100  pieces 
of  silver  which  he  had  stolen  from  her,  she  devoted  200 
wherewith  to  make  an  idol  which  was  set  up  in  the 
house  of  Michas.  In  addition,  Michas  made  an  ephod 
and  teraphim.  He  first  appointed  as  nriest  his  son, 
but  afterwards  engaged  a  Levite  of  BettUehem,  Jona- 
than, a  descendant  of  Moses  by  Gersam.  The  Dan- 
ites,  passing  by  whilst  on  a  mination,  took  with  them 
the  Levite  Jonathan  and  the  objects  of  the  idolatrous 
worship  belonging  to  Michas,  in  spite  of  the  latter's 
protests,  and  set  them  up  in  the  sanctuaiv  which 
they  established  in  the  town  of  Dan,  so  called  after 
their  name.  See  the  commentaries  on  Book  of  Jud^, 
by  G.  F.  Moore  (Edinburgh,  1903);  Budde  (Tu- 
bingen, 1897) ;  Hummelauer  (Pans,  1888) ;  Lagrange 
(Paris,  1903) ;  etc. ;  cf .  A.  Van  Hoonacker,  "  Le  Sacer- 
dooe  L^vitique"  (London  and  Louvain,  1899),  225, 
227,  230,  239,  244,  and  372. 

II.  Micheas,  son  of  Jemla  (Hebr.  Mlkh&yehil;  II 
Paral.,  xviil,  14:  Mtkhah;  ibid.,  verse  8:  Mtkhehil? 
keth.),  a  prophet  of  the  Kingdom  of  Samaria,  contem- 
porary with  Elias  and  Eliseus.  It  is  related  in  III 
KmgSi  xxii  (cf.  II  Paral.,  xviii),  that  Achab,  King  of 
Israel  (c.  873-852  b.  c),  allied  to  Josaphat,  King  of 
Juda,  havinp  obtained  from  400  prophets  an  assur- 
ance that  his  intended  expedition  against  Ramoth- 
Galaad,  a  town  which  he  wished  to  recover  from  the 
Syrians,  would  succeed,  summoned  at  the  earnest  re- 

2uest  of  Josaphat  the  Prophet  Micheas,  son  of  Jemla, 
[though  the  latter,  he  asserted,  had  always  proved  to 
him  a  prophet  of  evO.  Micheas,  in  his  first  answer, 
foretold  the  success  of  the  enterprise,  but  his  words 
were  probably  spoken  in  an  ironical  tone,  for  Achab 
adjur^  him  in  the  name  of  the  Lord  to  speak  the 
truth.  Micheas  then  announced  the  defeat  of  the 
two  kings.  He  added  that  he  had  seen  in  a  vision  a 
spirit  promise  Yahweh  to  deceive  Achab  by  his 
prophets.  Whereupon  one  of  these  prophets,  Sedecias, 
son  of  Chanaana,  struck  him  on  the  face.  Achab 
order^  the  imprisonment  of  Micheas  till  the  day 
when  he  should  return  in  peace.  "  If  thou  return  in 
peace",  said  Micheas,  "the  Lord  hath  not  spoken  by 


•  (^ :  I  -i 


278 


I  (H :  I  A 


99 


me."  In  the  ensuing  battle  Achab  was  severely 
wounded  by  a  chance  arrow  and  died  the  same  day. 
See  the  commentaries  on  the  Books  of  Kines  by  Skinner 
in  "  Edinburgh  Century  Bible";  W.  E.  Barnes  (Cam- 
bridge, 1908);  Kittel  (Gottingen,  1900);  Kloeter- 
mann  (Munich,  1887);  cf.  W.  R.  Harper,  "Comm.  on 
Amos  and  Hosea"  (Edinburgh,  1905),  Iv  sq. 

III.  Micheas  (Hebr.  Mikhah;  Jer.,  xxvi,  18:  Mtkh&- 
yah  keth,)f  the  author  of  the  book  which  holds  the 
sixth  place  in  the  collection  of  the  Twelve  Minor 
Prophets,  was  bom  at  M6rdsh^th  (Mich.,  i,  1*  Jer., 
xxvi.  18),  a  locality  not  far  from  the  town  of  Geth 
(Mich.,  i,  14).  Jerusalem  was  the  scene  of  his  minis- 
try, and  it  occurred,  as  we  learn  from  the  title  of  his 
book,  under  the  Kings  Joathan  (c.  740-735  b.  c), 
Achaz  (735-727?),  and  Ezechias  (727-698?).  We  do 
not,  however,  appear  to  possess  any  of  his  addresses 
piior  to  the  reign  of  Ezechias.  He  was  thus  a  con- 
temporary of  the  Prophet  Isaias.  His  book  falls  into 
three  parts:  (1)  The  first  part  consists  of  chapters 
i-iii.  Micheas  begins  by  annoimcing  the  impending 
destruction  of  Samaria  as  a  punishment  for  its  sins, 
and  Jerusalem  also  is  threatened.     In  chapter  ii  the 

Jrophet  develops  his  threats  against  the  Kingdom  of 
uda  and  gives  his  reasons  for  them.  In  chapter  iii  he 
utters  his  reproaches  with  greater  distinctness  against 
the  chief  culprits:  the  prophets,  the  priests,  the  pnnces, 
and  the  judges.  Because  of  their  transgressions,  Sion 
shall  be  ploughed  as  a  field,  etc.  (iii,  12).  This  pas- 
sage was  quoted  by  the  defenders  of  Jeremias  against 
those  who  wished  to  punish  with  death  the  boulness 
with  which  the  latter  had  announced  God's  chastise- 
ments: Micheas  of  Morasthi  was  not  pimished  with 
death,  but,  on  the  contrary,  Ezechias  and  the  people  did 

Senance  and  the  Lord  withdrew  his  threat  against 
erusalem  (Jer.,  xxvi,  18  sq.).  There  is  a  general  con- 
sensus of  opinion  to  attribute  to  the  Prophet  Micheas 
the  authorship  of  this  part  of  the  book ;  serious  doubts 
have  been  expressed  only  concerning  ii,  11  and  12. 
Chapters  i-iii  must  have  been  composed  shortly  be- 
fore the  destruction  of  the  Kingdom  of  Samana  by 
the  Assyrians  (722  b.  c). 

(2)  In  the  second  part  (iv-v),  we  have  a  discourse 
announcing  the  future  conversion  of  the  nations  to  the 
law  of  Yahweh  and  describing  the  Messianic  peace,  an 
era  to  be  inaugurated  by  the  triumph  of  Israel  over  all 
its  enemies,  svmbolized  by  the  Assyrians.  In  v,  1  sq. 
(Hebr.,  2  sq.),  the  prophet  introduces  the  Messianic 
king  whose  place  of  origin  is  to  be  Bethlehem-Eph- 
rata;  Yahweh  will  only  give  up  his  people  "till  the 
time  wherein  she  that  travaileth  shall  bring  forth", 
an  allusion  to  the  well-known  passage  of  Is.,  vii,  14. 
Several  recent  critics  have  maintained  that  chapters 
iv-v,  either  wholly  or  in  part,  are  of  post-exilic  origin. 
But  their  arguments,  principally  based  on  considera- 
tions inspired  by  certam  theories  on  the  history  of  the 
Messianic  doctrme,  are  not  convincing.  Neither  is  it 
necessai^  to  suppose  that  in  iv,  8,  the  comparison 
of  the  citadel  of  Sion  with  the  "tower  of  the  flock" 
alludes  to  the  ruinous  condition  of  Judea  and  Jerusa- 
lem at  the  time  of  the  composition  of  the  address ;  this 
comparison  merely  refers  to  the  moral  situation  held 
towards  the  rest  of  the  country  by  the  capital,  whence 
Yahweh  is  presumed  to  keep  watch.  Tne  connexion 
of  ideas,  it  is  true,  is  interrupted  in  iv,  10,  and  in  v,  4-5 
(Vulg.  5-6),  both  of  which  may  be  later  additions.  A 
characteristic  trait  of  Micheas's  style  in  chapter  1  is 
found  in  the  puns  on  the  names  of  localities,  and  it  is 
noticeable  that  an  entirely  similar  pun  can  be  seen  in 
V,  i  (Hebr.,  iv,  14),  particularly  when  the  LXX  version 
is  taken  into  account.  The  reading  supposed  by  the 
LXX  suggests  a  very  satisfactory  interpretation  of 
this  difficult  passage:  "And  now,  surroimd  thyself 
with  a  wall  {qHdher),  Beth-Gader. "  The  difference  of 
tone  and  contents  clearly  show  that  iv-v  must  have 
been  composed  in  other  circumstances  than  i-iii.  They 
probably  date  from  shortly  after  the  ftJl  of  Samaria 


in  722  B.  c.  In  i-iii  Micheas  had  expressed  the  feat 
that  after  the  conquest  of  Samaria  the  Assyrian  army 
would  invade  Judea;  but  Yahweh  withdrew  His 
threat  (Jer.,  xxvi,  19),  and  the  enemy  left  Palestine 
without  attacking  Jerusalem.  Chapters  iv-v  have 
preserved  us  an  echo  of  the  joy  caused  in  Jerusalem 
by  the  removal  of  the  dan^r. 

(3)  Chapters  vi-vii,  which  form  the  third  part,  are 
cast  in  a  dramatic  shape.  Yahweh  interpellates  the 
people  and  reproaches  tnem  with  ingratitude  (vi,  3-5). 
The  people  ask  by  what  offerings  they  can  expiate  their 
sin  (vi,  6-7).  The  prophet  answers  that  Yahweh 
claims  the  observance  of  the  moral  law  rather  than 
sacrifices  (vi,  8).  But  this  law  has  been  shamefully 
violated  by  the  nation,  which  has  thus  brought  on  it- 
self  God's  punishment  (vi,  9  soq.).  The  present 
writer  has  suggested  ("  Lcs  Douse  Petits  Propn^tes", 
Paris,  1908,  405)  that  the  passage  vii,  llb-13,  be  so 
transposed  as  to  follow  vii,  6;  in  this  way  the  justifi- 
cation of  the  punishments  assumes  a  connected  form 
in  vi, 9-vii,  6  +  llb-13.  The  rest  of  chapter  vii  (7-ll» 
+ 14  sqq.)  contains  a  prayer  in  which  the  fallen  city 
expresses  hope  in  a  coming  restoration  and  confidence 
in  God. 

The  opinions  of  critics  are  much  divided  on  the 
composition  of  these  chapters.  Several  consider  them 
a  mere  collection  of  detached  fragments  of  more  or  less 
recent  origin ;  but  the  analysis  just  given  shows  that 
there  is  a  satisfactory  connexion  between  them.  The 
chief  reason  why  critics  find  it  difficult  to  attribute 
to  Micheas  the  authorship  of  chapters  vi-vii,  or  at 
least  of  a  large  portion,  is  because  they  identify  the 
fallen  city  of  vii,  7  sqq.,  with  Jerusalem.  But  the 
prophet  never  mentions  Jerusalem,  and  there  is  no 
proof  that  Jerusalem  is  the  city  intended.  On  the 
contrary,  certain  traits  are  better  explained  on  the 
supposition  that  the  city  in  the  prophet's  mind  is 
Samaria;  see  especially  vi,  16,  and  vii,  14.  According 
to  this  hypothesis,  the  prophet  in  vi-vii,  6  +  11^-13, 
casts  a  retrospective  look  at  the  causes  which  brought 
about  the  fall  of  Samaria,  and  in  vii,  7-lla  + 14  sqq., 
he  expresses  his  desires  for  its  return  to  the  Lord's 
favour.  As  in  the  historical  situation  thus  supposed 
there  is  nothing  which  does  not  exactly  tally  with  the 
circumstances  of  Micheas's  time,  as  there  is  no  dis- 
a^;reement  in  ideas  between  Micheas  i,  sqq.,  and 
vi-vii,  as  on  the  contrary  real  affinities  in  style  and 
vocabulary  exist  between  Micheas  i,  sqq.,  and  vi-vii, 
it  seems  unnecessary  to  deny  to  the  Prophet  Micheas 
the  authorship  of  these  two  chapters. 

Chetnb,  Micah  urith  notes  and  tntroduetion  (Cambridge. 
1902);  Rbinks,  Der  Prophel  Micha  (Giessen,  1874);  Rtmel. 
Untermehunotn  aber  die  TextQetlaU  und  die  Eehtheil  dee  Buchee 
Micha  (Leiptlg,  1887);  Stade,  Bemerktmgen  vber  d.  Bttch 
Mieha  in  Zeitachrifi  fQr  oUteMamenO.  WieaeneehafU  I  (1881). 
161  sq.;  Ill  (1883).  1  aqg.;  Hortok  in  Century  Bible  Com- 
meniariee  on  the  Minor  JrropheU,  b.  v.  Hoeea- Micah.  See 
Aqosub;  Maulchiab, 

A.  Van  Hoonacker. 

Ifichel,  Jean,  a  French  dramatic  poet  of  the  fif- 
teenth century,  who  revised  and  enlarged  the  mystery 
of  the  Passion  composed  by  Amoul  Gr^ban.  There 
are  three  Michels  mentioned  in  connexion  with  this 
work.  Some  consider  Bishop  Jean  Michel  of  Angers 
as  it  author,  but  this  opinion  can  hardly  be  maintained. 
None  of  his  biographers  speak  of  his  contributions  to 
the  mystery  of  the  Passion;  moreover,  he  died  in 
1447  and  therefore  could  not  have  revised  the  work 
of  Gr6ban,  which  first  appeared  about  1450.  A 
catalogue  containing  the  names  of  the  counsellors  of 
the  Paris  Parliament  mentions  a  "Maistre  Jehan 
Michel ",  first  physician  of  King  Charles  VIII,  who  was 
made  a  counsellor  in  1491.  We  also  read  in  "  Le  Ver- 
ger d'Honneur"  by  Andr6  de  La  Vigne,  a  contem- 
porary poet,  "On  23  August,  1495,  there  died  at 
Chien  (riedmont)  Maistre  Jehan  Michel,  first  physi- 
cian of  the  king,  most  excellent  doctor  in  medicine". 
The  thinl  Jean  Michel,  also  a  doctor,  was  the  physician 


MIGHBLANOBLO  279  MICHBLOZZO 

of  the  young  dauphin,  son  of  Charles  VIII.    His  volumes,  were  published  posthumously  at  TQlHngen» 

name  appears  several  times  in  the  cartulary  of  the  1819  sqq. 

University  of  Angers,  and  in  the  books  of  the  medical  ^  Staudbnicbttbii.    Michael    Hahn    n^erdingai,    1893); 

faculty  iith^y     He  dfed  m  1501.  .Since  the  \^^,S,l^\S'S^i^^^lf^i'^^^S^ll^S^: 

Passion  was  produced  for  the  first  time  m  its  new  Henog  EneyeL,  V  (New  York,  lOOO),  117. 

shape  at  Angers  in  1486,  it  is  probable  that  its  author  N.  A.  Webeb. 

was  the  third  Jean  Michel,  but  the  fact  has  not  been 

proved.  MicheBa,  Edwabd,  theologian,  b.  in  St.  Maurits, 

Besides  his  contributions  to  Orphan's  Passion,  Jean  6  Feb.,  1813;  d.  in  Luxemburg,  8  June,  1855.    After 

Michel  composed  another  mystery,  a  Resurrection,  his  ordination,  in  1836,  he  was  appointed  private 

which  was  played  at  Angers  on  the  occasion  of  King  secretary  to  the  Archbishop  of  Cologne,  Clemens  Au- 

Rent's  visit  to  that  city.    Jean  Michel  has  not  the  gust  von  Droste-Vischering,  whose  imprisonment  he 

dryness  of  his  predecessor;  on  the  other  hand  he  lacks  shared,  first  in  the  fortress  of  Minden  (1837),  and 

his  accuracy.    He  incorporates  into  his  m^^teries  the  later  at  Magdeburg  and  Erfurt.     On  his  release  in  1841 

most  extravagant  legends  and  the  fantastic  informa-  he  returnedto  St.  Mauritz,  where,  the  following  year,  he 

tion  found  in  the  apocryphal  writers.    He  delights  in  established  the  Sisters  of  Divine  Providence,  whom  he 

pictures  of  low  city  life  m  the  fifteenth  century,  and  placed  in  chaige  of  an  orphanage  he  had  also  founded, 

his  language  is  often  realistic  in  the  extreme.  In  1844  he  was  made  professor  of  doematic  theology 

Prrrr  db  Julusvillb,  Let  myat^rM  (Paris,  1880) ;  Crsxsbn-  in  the  seminary  at  Luxemburg,  where  ne  remained  un- 

A&^?i^J^(p!ri!ri^)f~'~"  *•  "^  ^  ^^  <*®**^-    ^^o"«  ^^  published  writings  are: 

P.  J.  Masiqus.  "  V6lker  der  SQdsee  u.  die  Gcschichte  der  protestant- 

ischen  imd  katholischen  Missionen  unter  denselben" 

Michelangelo  Buonarroti*    See  Buonarroti.  (Munster,  1847):  ''Lieder  aus  Westfalen",  edited  by 

••..«.  ^  ^    .    .     .        .,.•■!  his  brother  Friedrich  in  1857 ; "  Das  heilige  Messopfer 

Ifichehans,  a  Ctem^  Protestant  sect  which  de-  ^^  das  Frohnleichnamsfest  in  ihrer  welthistoriscW 

nvwite  name  from"  Michel's  thepopulardMigM  Bedeutung"  (Erfurt,  1841).    He  was  also  the  founder 

of  its  founder  Johann  Michael  Habn,  b.  of  P^«mt  of  the  ''Hfonstersche  Sonntagsblatt"  and  co-founder 

parentoge,  2  February,  1758^  at  Altorf  new  Stutt-  and  editor-in^hief  of   "Das  Luxemburger    Wort" 

cart;  d.  at  Smdlingen  near  Herrenbere  m  WQrtem-  (iS4g) 

berg,  20  January,  1819.     Naturally  of  a  deeply  re-        LAucamrr  in  Buchberger,  Kirthliehea  HandUz.:  Konvena- 

;ious  disposition,  he  claimed  to  have  been  favoured  at  tiontUx. 


le  age  of  seventeen  with  a  vision  lasting  for  the  space  Florhncb  Rudgb  McGahan. 
of  three  hours.    From  that  time  on  he  led  a  stnctly 

retired  life  and  was  a  r^ular  attendant  at  the  meet^-  BSiclieloiBO  di  Bartolomnieo,  architect  and  sculp- 
ings  of  the  Pietists.  His  peculiarities  drew  forth  the  tor,  b.  at  Florence  c.  1391 ;  d.  1472.  He  exercised  a 
enereetic  disapproval  of  his  father,  who  even  resorted  quiet,  but  far-reaching,  influence  during  the  earlv 
to  physical  violence  a^inst  him.  But  as  parental  op-  Kenaissance,  and  for  more  than  a  decade  worked  with 
position  resulted  in  dnvine  the  son  from  home  without  Donatello,  to  whom  several  of  Micheloszo's  works  have 
changing  his  manner  of  life,  it  was  soon  abandoned  as  been  erroneously  attributed.  The  Aragazzi  monu- 
useless.  After  a  seven  weeks'  vision,  alleged  to  have  ment  in  the  cathedral  at  Montepulciano  and  the  Bran- 
occurred  in  1780,  Hahn  began  to  proclaim  his  beliefs  cacci  tomb  at  Naples  are  the  work  of  Michelozzo  alone, 
through  speech  and  writing.  Large  audiences  flocked  whilst  he  assistea  Donatello  in  the  execution  of  the 
to  his  preaching  and  both  the  ecclesiastical  and  the  tomb  of  John  XXIII.  He  also  modelled  several 
civil  authorities  instituted  proceedings  a^inst  him.  pieces  in  brass  for  Donatello,  with  whom  he  collabor- 
He  sought  quiet  in  foreign  lands,  notably  in  Switser-  ated  on  a  pulpit  for  the  cathedral  of  Prato.  Ghiberti 
land,  wnere  he  met  Lavater.  From  1794  until  his  received  important  assistance  from  him  on  his  "  Mat- 
death,  he  devoted  his  time,  undisturbed,  to  religious  thew"  and  on  the  bronze  sacristy  door  of  the  cathe- 
propaganda,  living  on  the  estate  of  Duchess  Frances  dral  of  Florence.  Later  on,  he  inade  bronze  caste  of 
at  bindlinffen.  While  he  entertained  for  some  time  some  of  Luca  della  Robbia's  designs.  Among  other 
the  idea  of  establishing  a  distinct  community,  a  plan  works  at  Florence,  a  silver  figure  of  St.  John,  a  larger 
which  was  realized  at  IComthal  near  Stuttgart,  after  replica  of  which  was  afterwards  made  in  clay,  is  cer- 
his  death,  neither  he  nor  his  followers  ever  separated  tainly  the  work  of  Michelozzo  alone,  while  others  again 
completely  and  permanently  from  the  state  Church,  are  ascribed  to  him  with  more  or  less  probability.  In 
The  Bible,  interpreted  not  in  a  literal  but  a  mystical,  San  Giorgio  Maggiore,  at  Venice,  there  is  stiU  pre- 
alleporical  sense,  occupies,  in  his  religious  system,  the  served  a  wooden  crucifix  by  him.  That  Michelozzo 
position  of  supreme  guide  in  matters  of  faith.  The  was  influenced  by  Donatello  in  his  plastic  work,  can- 
Trinity  of  Persons  in  God  is  replaced  by  a  threefold  not  be  denied;  but  his  own  style  was  not  devoid  of 
manifestation  of  one  and  the  same  deity.    A  double  originality. 

fall  of  man  is  admitted,  for  Adam  fell  first  in  seeking  *•  askr  architect,  it  is  sufficient  to  say  of  him  that  he 
consort  for  the  multiplication  of  the  human  species,  was  certainly  worthy  to  be  coinjpared  with  Brunelles- 
and  again  in  yielding  to  her  suggestion  of  disobeaience.  chi.  Being  court  architect  at  Florence  after  1435,  he 
Hence  the  necessitjr  of  redemption  by  Jesus  Christ,  a  built  the  Medici  chapel  in  the  church  of  Santa  Croce 
redemption  which  is  understood  mainly  in  a  ph^ical  and  undertook  the  rebuilding  of  the  convent  of  San 
sense,  in  as  much  as  the  Redeemer  exudes,  m  his  Marco,  in  which  the  cloister  and  the  hall  of  the  library 
bloody  sweat,  the  coarse,  sensual  elemente  in  man  to  are  his  work.  He  also  built  the  facade  of  the  church 
whom  he  restores  a  spiritualized  body.  A  second  and  of  Sant'  Agostino  in  Montepulciano.  In  these  build- 
proximate  advent  of  Christ  is  taught;  also  the  ultimate  ings  he  manifested  a  certa^  preference  for  antiaue 
universal  salvation  of  all  beinra.  the  fallen  angels  in-  forms,  though  there  are  also  traces  of  the  Gothic  innu- 
cluded.  Amon|[  the  sources  (n  nis  belief  Hahn  men-  ence  which  was  then  passing  awav.  Probably  his 
tioDs  only  the  Bible  and  special  personal  illumination;  greatest  work  was  the  palace  of  tne  Medici  (after- 
his  ideas,  however,  are  undouotedly  related  to  the  wards  in  the  possession  of  the  Riccardi),  whicn  lost 
views  of  the  theosophiste  BOhme  and  Otinger.  His  teuch  of  ite  fine  balance  of  mass  when  it  was  enlaiged. 
folkiwers,  found  chiefly  among  the  rural  population,  Between  this  edifice  and  Brunelleschi's  Pitti  Palace 
are  scattered  over  Wdrtemberg,  Baden,  and  the  Pal-  there  is  a  great  resemblance,  though  the  Pitti  mav  be  a 
atinate.  ^  Their  approximate  number  is  15,000  souls  work  of  later  date.  Still  Brunelfeschi  retains  the  su- 
divided  into  26  districto,  each  of  which  holds  semi-an-  periority  by  virtue  of  his  Palazzo  di  Parte  Guelfa.  A 
nual  conferenoeB.    The  works  of  Hahn,  comprising  16  pfponliarity  of  the  Riocardi  (Medioi)  Palace  is  the  gn^ 


storiea,  after  which  ,                      _       -       . 

BUq,  moreover,  was  afterwards  generally  imitated,  in  the  Gmat  Lakei  in  tbe  last  statistieal  year  1903. 

ot  very  large,  but  imposing  in  ef^t,  it  presents,  be-  Commerce. — la  carried  on  bjr  water  as  well  as  by  rail- 

low,  a  colonnade,  above,  between  bold  comicea,  a  wall  road,  and  its  volume   is   verv  extenaive.     Meant  of 

decorated  with   antique   leliefa,  and   then  an  upper  Communication. — StcamvMaelaandveaBelaotaUkiatb 

story  with  semicircular,  double-ligbt,  windows  simikr  navigate  tbe  Oreat  LaltM,  except  during  two  or  three 

to  tnoae  of  the  facade.    The  composite  capital  used  of  the  winter  months,    litere  are  8723  mika  of  steana 

here  was  afterwards  generally  adopted  aa  a  decorative  nilroada  and  930  miles  of  electric  roads  exclusive  of 

element.    To  Michetoiio  are  also  due  a  court  in  the  citv  street  tailioads. 

Falaizo  Vecehio  and  another  in  the  Corsi  Palace,  as  Educational  Ststbu. — Univerrity  of  MiMgaa. — 

well  as  a  palace  built  for  the  Hedici  in  Milan,  of  whicb  Founded  at  Detroit  (1817)  with  Rev.  John  Monteitti 

only  a  snudl  part  has  been  pieeerved.     In  this,  as  also  and  Father  Richard  aa  its  entire  faculty.    Its  pteaeat 

in  a  palace  at  Ragusa  by  the  same  master,  the  upper  organisation  and  location  at  Ann  Arbor,  dat«  from 

floor  nad  windows  with  the  pointed  ajchea  of  an  eai^  liiS?.    It  has  a  collegiate  staff  of  409  profeaawa, 

lier  st^.    At  Milan  his  Fortmari  chapel  is  still  to  be  instructors,  assistants,   and   administrative  offioen 

seen  in  Sant'  Eustoi^o.    As  compared  with  Dona-  and  (1908)  had  5,188  enrolled  students.    Besides  the 

tello  and  Brunelleschi,  Micheloizo  is  given  the  higher  classical  course  it  haa  achools  of  medicine  and  law. 

place  by  some  criticsr  though  others  rutk  him  lower.  Students  of  both  sexes  are  admitted  and  lesidenta  of 

WouT,    UicMdom    di    Bartoltrmmto    (Straibuig,    1900)!  Michigan  have  tuition  free.     It  is  supported  by  three- 

niSa  'Soa*  """"'  '""■  "••"-"■  "—•"»••  .Ightaif  .  mm  tM  on  .>11  propenj  S  th.  Mt  ud 

G.  GiBTMANN.  interest  on  ongmal  endowment  fimd  and  students' 

fees  and  appropriationa  by  legislature,  and  b  governed 

Mtchtgap. — TheStateofMiohiganisboundedontbe  by  a  boanf  of  eight  regents,  two  being  elected  every 

north  by  Lake  Superior,  on  the  east  by  Canada,  Lake  second  year  who  hold  office  eight  years.    Sate  A^n- 

Hurtn  and  Lake  St.  Clair,  on  the  south  by  Ohio  and  euUural  College,  founded  in  1865,  located  at  Lansing, 

Indiana,  and  on  the  west  by  Lake  Michigan  and  the  besides  scientiEc  and  practical  agriculture  haa  techno- 

State  of  Wisconsin.     It  has  an  area  of  58,915  squaie  logical  elaaaeB.     It  haa  90  instructors,  had  1191  stn- 

milea.  dents  in  1608,  and  ia  supported  by  interest  cm  endow- 

GBoonAPHT. — Michigan  eonsiats  of  two  distinct  ment  fund,  one-tenth  of  a  mill  tax  and  appropriations 

parts  separated  by  the  Strait  of  Mackinac  and  known  from  U.  S.  Treasury  and  by  state  Lt^lature,  students' 

respectively  as  the  feea.andieceiptsforproduce.    Collegeof Mijia, opened 

Lower  and   Upper  in  1886,  located  at  Houghton  in  the  Upper  Peninsula 

Peninsula.    The     '      '  '        '  '       ""  

Lower     Peninsula, 
the  most  important 

part,     consists    of  <■  v.  ,<««»    f-^fw^o.      ^u^n^    ai^    iviu    lu    vuc    vwbvd, 

k  agricultural    lands  located  at  Ypsilanti,  Mount  Pleasant,  Marquette,  ana 

I  including  the  "Fruit  Kalamasoo.    They  employ  in  all  170  instructors,  have 

I  Belt"  about  thirty  an  average  attendance  of  6,281  pupils,  and  are  sup- 

[  miles  wide,  extencl-  ported  by  legislative  appropriations  and  students'  fees. 

ing  along  the  shore  Special  Schools.^A  school  for  tbe  deaf,  established 

of^Lake  Michigan,  in  1854,  located  at  Flint,  has  48  instructors,  au  avenge 

in  which  all  fniits  attendance  of  320  pupiU,  and  is  supported  by  legia- 

of     tbe     northern  lative  appropriations.     A  school  for  the  blind  waa  e^ 

states  flourish  and  tablishea  (1881)  at  Lansing,  and  has  15instructoi8.aa 

all  the  general  farm-  average  of  131  pupils,  and  is  supported  t^  legislative 

SiAL  OF  MicHcoAH                 jng    crops    of    the  appropriations.     The  Employment  Institute  tor  the 

northern  states  are  grown.    SomelargetractB,former1y  Bfmd,  established   1903,  located   at   Saginaw,  has  7 

covered  with  pine,  aie  sandy  and  of  small  value,  but  instructors  and  102  pupils,  and  is  also  supported  by 

the  greater  part  of  the  land  is  fertile.     There  are  salt  legislative  appropriation.     The  State  Pubuo   School 

wor^  and  gypsum  mines  and  some  coal  fields  in  this  for  Destitute  and  Ill-treated  Children  was  opened  in 

section,  as  well  aa  brick'Clay.     The  Upper  Peninsula  1874  at  Coldwater.     Instruction  is  ziven  is  manual 

ismountainousandrocky,  interspersed  with  level  tracts  labour  and  primary  school  grades.     It  has  5  teachem, 

of  good  soil.    It  is  rich  in  iron  and  copper,  fumishing  8  cottage  managers,  average  of  inmates  626,  average 

seventy  per  cent  of  all  the  iron  produced  in  the  United  age  of  children  Q  i%  years.     Supported  by  legislative 

States  and  fourteen  per  cent  of  t  ne  copper  of  the  world,  appropriation. 

There  are  still  large  tracts  of  virgin  forest,  and  the  land  Public  School  Syilem. — Each  township  and  citT  is 

suitable  for  agriculture  haa  not  yet  been  fully  settled,  divided  into  school  districts  of  convenient  siie,eac'bof 

Statistics. — The  population  as  shown  by  the  last  which  has  ite  school  house  and  teacher  or  teachers.     In 

State  census  taken  m  1904  was  2.530,016,  of  which  cities,  villages,  and  such  townships  as  so  detennine  hy 

2,253,938wereinthe  Lower  Peninsula.     Itisestimated  vote,  graded  and  high  schools  are  maintained  as  wdl 

that  the  population  has  increased  at  least  20  per  cent  M  the  primary  achools,  and  all  are  supported  by  tax»- 

since  that  time.    Affricidtwe. — The  agricultural  prod-  tion  of  the  property  in  each  school  district.    There  are 

uoe  for  the  year  1908   is   estimated   at    60,420,000  17,286  teachers  in  the  [lublic  schools  and  743,630 

bushels  of  com,  15,732,000  bushels  of  wheat,  41,847,-  pupils,  the  total  appropriation  from  all  sources  was 

000  bushels  of  oats,  besides  large  quantities  of  beans,  $19,2(^,449.61  in  the  last  fiscal  year.    This  doee  not 

sugar-beets,  potatoes,  and  other  crops.     The  value  of  include  the  private  or  denominational  schools.     All 

its  wool  was  $2,732,000.    It  bad  2,130,000  sheep,  ehildien  between  the  ages  of  seven  and  fifteen  years 

704,000  horaes,  2,451,000  neat  cattle,  and   1,388,000  are  compelled  by  taw  to  attend  some  school,  either 

swine.     Mining. — The   value  of  the  output  of  the  public,  parochial,  or  private  at  least  four  months  in 

mines  is  estimated  at  1106,514,000  for  the  year  1907.  each  year,  unless  shown  to  be  properlv  taught  at  home. 

Manufaeturea. — The  value  of  the  manufactures  for  Hibtost. — The  first  settlero  in   Michigan   (about 

the  last  statistical  year,  1905,  is  estimated  at  $429,-  1641)    were    the    hardy    and    adventurous    Froich 

039,778,  consisting  of  iron  works,  furniture  and  other  Canadians  who   established   trading  posts  at  Saidt 

woodworks.  Bait  works,  automoUles,  and  manufac-  Ste.  Marie  and  Michillimacldnao  (now  "MacUnao"), 

tuiee  of  many  other  descriptions.    Fxdienei. — Michi-  whichtheyteachedbywayof  theOttawaRiver.tbeus 


•  (»^:i 


\AK  281  MICHZaiN 


i^  portage  to  Lake  Nipissmg  and  so  by  Geoigian  Bay  be  appropriated  for  any  such  purpose.  The  civil  and 
to  their  destination.  This  route  was  evidently  so-  political  rights,  privileges  ana  capacities  of  no  per  ion 
lected  through  fear  of  the  Iroouois.  usually  hostile  to  shall  be  diminisned  or  enlarged  on  account  of  nis  re« 
Gaoada,  on  the  shores  of  Lakes  Erie  and  Ontario,  li^ious  belief."  The  statutes  prohibit  under  penalty  of 
These  pianeers  were  soon  f  oUowed  and  aided  by  the  a  fine  of  $10  the  keeping  open  of  an^  workshop  or  place 
Jesuit  Fathers  Allouea,  Manjuette,  and  others.  De-  of  business;  transaction  of  any  business;  all  work  and 
troit  was  first  settled  by  Antoine  De  La  Motte  Cadillac  labour ;  attendance  at  dance,  public  diversion ;  show  or 
(1701).  and  the  French  Canadians  who  followed  him  entertainment ;  taking  part  in  any  sport,  game,  or  play, 
formed  the  eariiest  fanning  population,  settling  on  the  on  Sundav:  works  of  necessity  and  charity  are  ex- 
shores  of  Detroit  River.  Until  the  country  fell  into  cepted.  All  persons  are  also  prohibited  from  attend- 
the  hands  of  the  British  (1760)  there  were  no  settlers  ing  any  public  assembly,  except  for  religious  services  or 
of  any  other  nationality,  and  during  the  British  ocou-  concerts  of  sacred  music.  The  sale  of  intoxicating 
pation  and  afterward,  imtil  after  the  close  of  the  war  of  liquors  on  Sunday  is  made  a  misdemeanour,  punishable 
1812,  there  were  but  few.  Lidian  troubles  and  the  un-  by  fine  and  imprisonment.  Disturbing  religious  meet- 
settled  state  caused  l^  war  were  so  prejudicial  to  im-  ings  on  Sunday  is  made  a  misdemeanour,  punishable  by 
migration  that  when  Michigan  was  organised  as  a  terri-  fine  and  imprisonment.  Oaths  are  administered  by 
to^  (1805)  its  population  did  not  exceed  4,000  persons,  the  person  who  swears-  holding  up  his  right  hand,  ex- 
But  when  the  public  lands  were  offered  for  sale  (1818)  oept  in  cases  where  the  affiant  has  anv  particular  mode 
a  tide  of  settlers  at  once  set  in  from  New  England,  New  which  he  considers  more  binding.  The  form  in  general 
York,  Ohio,  and  other  states,  besides  emigrants  from  xise  is  ''You  do  solemnly  swear  that  ...  So  help  you 
Ireland,  Great  Britain,  and  Germany.  Later  there  Crod."  Blasphemy  ana  profanity  are  punished  by  fine 
was  also  large  emigration  from  Holland,  and  later  still  and  imprisonment.  There  are  no  laws  concerning  the 
from  Poland,  Sweden,  Italy,  and  in  short  from  every  use  of  prayer  in  the  Legislature.  The  custom  is  that 
European  nation,  as  well  as  some  fbom  Turkey,  Syria,  at  the  nrst  session  of  each  house  some  minister  of  the 
Armenia,  and  China.  Michigan  was  admitted  as  the  Gospel  is  invited  to  offer  prayer.  Christmas  Day 
twenty-sixth  state  of  the  Union,  20  Jan..  1837.  It  and  New  Year's  Dav  are  recognised  as  holidays, 
adopted  a  constitution  on  being  admitted  as  a  state,  but  business  and  worK  are  not  prohibited  on  those 
In  1850  a  second  constitution  materiallv  changing  the  days,  which  are  on  a  par  with  Inaependence  Day,  etc. 
former  one  was  framed  and  adopted,  and  (1909)  a  tnird  Seal  of  Corrfession. — "  No  minister  of  the  Gospel  or 
constitution,  better  suited  to  tne  needs  of  the  state,  priest  of  any  denomination  whatsoever  shall  be  sJ- 
was  prepared,  adopted  by  popular  vote,  and  went  lowed  to  disclose  any  confessions  made  to  him  in  his 
into  effect  Jan.,  1910.  Fomud  possession  of  the  en-  professional  character,  in  the  course  of  discipline  en- 
tire region  was  taken  m  the  name  of  the  King  of  joined  by  the  rules  or  practice  of  such  denommation.'' 
France  at  Sault  Ste.  Marie  (1672).  In  1701  Antoine  And  all  ministerB  of  the  Gospel  are  exempt  from  serv- 
De  La  Motte  Cadillac  foimded  Detroit,  naming  it  Fort  ing  on  juries,  and  from  military  duty. 
Pontchartrain.  In  1760  Michigan  came  under  British  '  Church  Property. — ^Any  five  adult  persons  may 
rule.  In  1796  the  United  States  took  possession,  and  become  incorporated  as  a  religious  society  by  execut- 
Michigan  became  a  part  of  the  Northwest  Territory,  ing  and  acknowledging  Articles  of  Association  in  trip- 
Michigan  (without  the  Upper  Peninsula)  became  an  licate,  stating  the  name  and  purpose  of  the  corporation, 
orauused  territory  in  1805.  Father  Gabriel  Richard  the  names  and  residences  of  the  original  incorporators, 
of  Detroit  was  elected  territorial  delegate  to  Omgress  and  the  period  for  which  it  is  incorporated.  One  of  the 
(1823),  being  the  oidy  Catholic  priest  who  ever  had  a  triplicates  must  be  filed  with  the  Secretary  of  State, 
seat  in  that  assembly.  and  one  with  the  Coimty  Registrar  of  Deeds.    Sudi 

There  arose  a  dispute  with  Ohio  as  to  the  boundaiy  corporation  may  make  its  own  by-laws,  which  must  be 

line  near  Toledo.    Michigan  adopted  a  constitution  and  recorded  bv  the  Registrar  of  Deeds,  and  is  entitled  to 

took  all  necessary  steps  for  admission  into  the  Union,  receive  ana  hold  real  and  personal  property  by  pur- 

but  was  prevented  from  doing  so  by  reason  of  the  chase,  gift,  or  bequest  and  may  sue  or  be  sued.    Tnere 

Ohio  dispute,  which  was  settled  by  the  boundaiy  is  no  restriction  as  to  number  or  nomenclature  of  of- 

line  being  determined  in  favour  of  Ohio,  and  by  ficers.    Religious  bodies  such  as  dioceses,  synods,  con- 

Michif^ui  obtaining  instead  the  Upper   Peninsula,  ferences,  ana  the  like  may  obtain  corporate  powers  to 

It  was  then  allowed  to  enter  the  Umon  (1837).    The  hold  property,  sue  and  be  sued,  etc.,  by  electing  not 

capital  was  removed  from  I>etroit  to  Tensing  (1847),  less  tnan  three  or  more  than  nine  trustees  andfiling 

then  a  small  village  in  a  dense  forest,  now  a  city  of  certificates  of  such  election  and  the  corporate  name 

24,000  inhabitants.    A  oolonv  of  Mormons  took  poe-  by  which  they  are  to  be  known  with  tne  Secretary 

session  of  Beaver  Island  in  Lake  Michigan,  from  wnich  of  State  and  County  Clerk.    Religious  coiporations 

they  were  forcibly  expelled  by  armed  fishermen  from  organised  without  capital  stock  are  not  limited  as  to 

the  mainland  in  1856.  duration  of  time.    All  houses  of  public  worship  with 

The  Republican  partjrwas  organised  "under  the  their  furniture  and  pews  and  parsonages  owned  by 

oaks''  at  Jackson,  Michigan,     up  to  that  time  the  religious  societies  are  exempt.    Also  all  property  oo- 

Democratic  party  had  been  in  power  in  the  state,  but  cupied  by  charitable,  educational,  and  scientific  in- 

ever  since  the  Republicans  have  had  a  large  majority  stitutions  incorporated  under  laws  of  the  state, 

of  the  voters.    Tnis  state  sent  93,700  men  to  the  Civil  Sales  of  Liquor, — A  tax  of  $500  per  year  is  imposed. 

War,  of  whom  14,855  died  in  the  service.  Dealers  must  furnish  bonds  in  not  less  than  93000. 

Mich^an  furnished  five  renments,  of  1026  officers  Selling  to  minors,  intoxicated  persons,  or  habitual 

and  men  each,  for  the  Spanish  War  (1898),  of  which  drunkards  is  prohibited,  fdso  selling  on  Sundays,  holi- 

three  regiments  wenUto  Cuba.  days,  and  election  days.     Dealers  and  their  bonds- 

Lawb  and  Rsuoion. — ^The  constitution  provides  men  are  liable  to  wives  and  families  for  injuries  caused 
that "  Every  person  shall  be  at  liberty  to  worsnip  God  by  intoxication  by  liquors  furnished  by  them.  Sa- 
according  to  the  dictates  of  his  own  conscience.  No  loons  must  be  closed  at  certain  hours.  Heavy  pen- 
person  s£dl  be  compelled  to  attend,  or  against  his  con-  alties  are  provided  for  infraction  of  the  law.  Any 
sent,  to  contribute  to  the  erection  or  support  of  any  countv  may  by  a  majority  vote  absolutely  prohibit  the 
place  of  religious  worship,  or  to  pa^  tithes,  taxes,  or  manufacture  and  sale  of  liquor  within  its  limits, 
other  rates  for  the  support  of  any  minister  of  the  gospel  WilU  and  TestamerUe  may  be  made  hj  any  one  of 
or  teachers  of  religion.  No  money  shall  be  appro-  full  age  and  sound  mind,  must  be  in  writing  and  exe- 
priated  or  drawn  from  the  treasury  for  the  benefit  of  cuted  in  presence  of  two  witnesses  who  must  sign  at 
any  religious  sect  or  society,  theological  or  religious  request  and  in  presence  of  the  testator.  Bequests  to 
seminary;  nor  shall  property  belonging  to  the  state  a  witness  are  void.    A  widow  may  elect  to  take  her 


BaCHOACAN  282  MICHOACIN 

statutory  allowance  and  dower  instead  of  a  bequest.        CathoUes  dUHnffuished  in  Public  Life, — Reverend 

There  is  no  limitation  as  to  charitable  bequests.  Gabriel  Richard  and  Timothy  E.  Tanney  were  repre- 

PuBLic  Institutionb. — Aside  from  the  state  in-  sentatives  in  Congress.   The  following  were  members  of 

stltutions  already  mentioned,  there  are  four  insane  the  Territorial  legislative  Council:  Laurent  Durocher, 

asylums,  a  home  for  the  feeble-minded  and  epileptic,  Henry  Connor,  «^hn  McDonell,  Charles  Moran. 
and  a  sanatorium  for  tuberculosis.    Every  county  has        State  Senators :  Edward  Bradley,  Laurent  Durocher, 

its  poor  farm  for  the  indigent,  and  all  charities  are  John  McDonell,  Bernard  O'ReiUy.    Circuit  Judees: 

imcfer  the  supervision  of  the  State  Board  of  Correc-  O'Brien  J.  Atkinson,  James  B.  McMahon,  and  Robert 

tions  and  Charities.  J.  Kelle^. 

Prisons  and  Reformatories, — ^There  are  two  state        Promment  Members  of  the  State  House  of  Repre- 

prisons,  at  Jackson  and  at  Marquette,  a  reformatory  sentatives  were:  John  Atkinson,  Theodore  J.  Campau. 
tor  male  offenders  at  Ionia,  and  a  house  of  correction        Catholics  at  present  living  who  have  distinguished 

for  males  and  females  at  Detroit.    The  Industrial  themselves  publioly  are:  Thomas  Weadock  and  John 

School  for  Boys  at  Lansing  and  the  Industrial  School  Corliss,  botn  of  whom  were  members  of  Congress; 

for  Girls  at  Adrian  are  reformatories.  James  Caplis,  Peter  Doran,  Joseph  Nagel,  and  Michael 

Cemeteries  may  be  established  by  municipalities  or  Moriarty,  state  senaton;  Circuit  Judge  Alfied  J. 

by  private  corporations  or  private  citizens.    The  only  Murphv;  members  of  the  state  House  ofRepresenta- 

limitation  as  to  locality  is  in  cases  where  it  would  tives  John  C.   Donnelly,  John  Donovan,  Nicholas 

create  a  nuisance.  Whelan;  and  William  T.  McGurrin,  Brigadier  General 

Marriage  and  Divorce, — ^Marriage  is  a  civil  con-  of  the  Michigan  National  Guards;  also  Judee  of  Re- 
tract in  law;  males  of  the  age  of  eighteen  and  females  corder's  Court  in  Detroit,  James  Phelan,  ana  Probate 
of  the  age  of  sixteen  are  competent  to  contract.    First  Judge  of  Ottawa  County,  Edward  P.  Kirby. 
cousins  as  well  as  nearer  relatives  are  forbidden  to  ,  Campbhll,  Hutoru  of  Michioan;  Hittorical  Record*  in  Stau 

marry.    Fences  under  eighteen  must  have  the  writ-  i^2-^^^'^^r!!^tn'^i!S^:-  ^'S.'HiS^^ 

ten  consent  of  one  parent  or  of  a  guardian.     A  licence  oftKe  Diocese  of  SauUSU.  Marie  and  Marquette;  Official  Catholic 

is   required   which   is    issued    by    the   county   clerk.  Diruiory  {X^l(f)\  Reeorda  of  the  Dioceeee  of  Detroit  and  Grand 

Marria^    may  be  solemnized  by  justices  of  the  ^^^p*^-  Francis  A.  Stage. 

peace,  judges  of  probate  and  of  municipal  courts,  and 

by  resident  ministers  of  the  Gospel.  All  marriages  BDchoacan,  Archdiocese  of  (Michoacanensis), 
must  be  recorded  by  the  county  clerk.  No  particmar  in  Mexico. — ^The  Diocese  of  Michoacan  was  estab- 
form  is  prescribed,  but  the  parties  must  take  each  other  lished  in  1536  by  Pope  Paul  III  at  tiie  instance  of 
as  husband  and  wife.  Two  witnesses  are  required  be-  the  Emperor  Charles  V,  its  boundaries  to  coincide 
sides  the  ma^trate  or  minister.  Divorce  from  the  with  those  of  the  ancient  Kingdom  of  Michoacan.  In 
bonds  of  matrimony  is  granted  for  adultery,  impotency,  1863  it  became  an  archdiocese,  wiUi  L^on,  Quer^taro, 
imprisonment  for  three  years  or  over,  desertion  for  two  and  Zamora  for  suffragans,  its  limits  being  at  Uie 
years,  habitual  drunkenness.  Divorce  "  from  bed  and  same  time  greatly  reduced.  Its  population  is  about 
boara  "  is  granted  for  extreme  crueltv,  and  where  the  one  million,  and  the  principal  cities  are  Morelia,  ZH4- 
husband  being  of  sufficient  ability  fails  to  provide  a  cuaro,  Maravatfo,  Pdtzcuaro,  Puru^diro,  and  Piedad 
suitable  maintenance  for  his  wife;  but  the  court  may  in  the  State  of  Michoacan,  and  Acdmbaro,  Salva- 
grant  an  absolute  divorce  for  either  of  these  causes,  tierra,  Celaya,  Salamanca,  and  P^jamo  in  the  State 
A  sentence  to  the  state  prison  for  life  dissolves  the  of  Guanajuato.  The  first  bishop  was  tiie  eminent 
marriage  without  any  judicial  divorce.  Spaniard  D.  Vasco  de  Quiroga  (1538-65),  one  of  the 
Ecclesiastical  Statistics. — ^This  state  comprises  greatest  missionaries  to  the  Mexican  aborigines, 
the  Dioceses  of  Detroit,  Grand  Rapids,  Sault  Sainte  Among  other  bishops  of  the  bpanish  period,  the  fol- 
Marie,  and  Marquette.  It  has  3  bishops,  466  priests,  lowing  were  distinguished  for  their  learning  and  vir- 
412  ecclesiastical  students,  306  churches,  193  missions,  tue:  Kamfrez  del  rrado,  who  has  been  compared  to 
208  stations  and  chapels,  2  seminaries,  8  orphan  St.  Charles  Borromeo;SinchezdeTa^le,  who  founded 
asylums,  1  infant  asylum,  48,059  young  people  imder  the  conciliar  seminary  {semiruxrio  indenUno)  for  the 
Catholic  care  as  pupils,  orphans  and  dependents,  2  diocese  in  1770;  Fray  Antonio  de  San  Miguel,  builder 
industrial  schools  for  girls,  13  hospitals,  1  home  for  of  the  great  aqueduct  of  Morelia  and  commonly 
feeble-minded,  1  home  for  a^ed  poor,  and  a  Catholic  spoken  (h  as  the  father  of  his  people.  Of  the  bishops 
population  of  489,451.  Michigan  was  under  the  con-  who  have  governed  the  Diocese  of  Michoacan  only 
trol  of  the  See  of  Quebec  until  the  formation  of  the  two  have  been  natives  of  Mexico,  Porttugal  and  Mun- 
Diocese  of  Baltimore  (1789),  under  which  it  remained  gufa.  The  latter  was  named  archbishop  in  1863. 
until  it  was  included  in  the  Diocese  of  Bardstown  Portugal  was  the  first  American  ecclesiastic  to  be 
(1808),  and  later,  when  the  new  Diocese  of  Cincinnati  named  a  cardinal  by  the  pope,  although  he  died  be- 
was  created,  Michigan  was  made  a  part  of  its  territory,  fore  receiving  the  cardinars  hat.  Muneuia  was  the 
The  descendants  of  the  original  French  Canadians  are  author  of  some  very  excellent  books  on  Taw  and  phi- 
numerically  inferior  to  the  descendants  of  the  later  losophy,  and  lived  up  to  his  motto:  "Lose  wealth,  out 
Irish  immigrants,  who  form  the  largest  part  of  the  save  principles".  D.  Isnacio  Arci^  and  D.  Ateno- 
Gatholic  population.  There  are  also  many  Germans,  genes  Silva  succeeded  Archbishop  Muneufa  and,  in 
Poles,  some  Lithuanians,  Bohemians,  Flemings,  uie  epoch  of  peace  which  the  republic  nas  since  en- 
Italians,  Syrians,  and  a  few  Indians.  When  Bishop  joyed,  have  achieved  some  notable  results. 
Fenwick  of  Cincinnati  visited  Michifi»n  in  1832  he  The  library  of  the  Seminary  of  Morelia  numbers 
confirmed  142  Indians  at  L'Arbre  Croche.  These  76,000  volumes;  there  is  also  a  physical  laboratory  and 
now  belong  to  the  Diocese  of  Grand  Rapids,  which  valuable  astronomical  apparatus.  In  every  one  of  the 
contains  in  all  eighteen  Indian  missions  with  a  popu-  64  parishes  and  the  18  succursal  parishes  of  the  arch« 
lation  of  378  families,  and  three  schools,  two  of  which  diocese  there  is  at  least  one  school  for  boys  and  another 
are  taught  by  religious,  the  third  by  a  lay  teacher,  for  girls.  At  Morelia  the  schools  are  very  numerous,  the 
The  Diocese  of  Sault  Sainte  Marie  and  Marquette  attendance  being  over  three  thousand,  boys  and  girls, 
contains  about  2000  Catholic  Indians  in  12  Indian  Celaya,  Salvatierra,  and  Piedad  have  four  parochial 
missions,  attended  by.  the  Jesuit  Fathers  at  Sault  schools  each,  and  several  other  parishes  have  two. 
Sainte  Marie,  L'Anse,  and  elsewhere.  There  are  few  Several  charitable  institutions  are  admirably  main- 
Catholic  Indians  left  in  the  Diocese  of  Detroit,  tained  by  the  cleigy.  In  times  of  scarcity,  when  the 
About  thirty  families  of  the  once  powerful  Pottawat-  price  of  com  goes  up,  the  diocesan  authorities  follow  the 
omies  at  Rush  Lake  in  Berrien  County  are  all  that  example  of  the  great  Bishop  San  Miguel,  who.  In  1785. 
remain  of  the  old  missiou  of  St.  Joseph.  with  the  consent  of  the  oalbedral  chftpter,  esEpeodea 


motamtoz 


2S3 


IflOMACS 


280,000  pe0O8  for  the  relief  of  the  people— «n  enor- 
mous sum  for  those  days.  During  the  two  last  epis- 
copates the  improvement  has  been  notable,  the  num- 
ber of  priests  mcreasing  to  348.  Hidalgo,  Morelas, 
Iturbide,  heroes  of  the  war  of  Independence,  the 
learned  Mungufa,  the  poet  Navarrete,  and  the  philos- 
opher Abarca  were  all  bom  within  the  limits  of  the 
Archdiooese  of  Michoacan.  Morelia,  the  capital,  has 
some  notable  buildings,  among  which  may  be  men- 
tioned the  beautiful  cathedral,  the  eovemment  build- 
ings, the  seminary,  the  art  school  (formerly  a  Jesuit 
college),  and  the  college  of  the  Teresianas.  In  the 
same  city  the  Christian  Brothers,  the  Salesians,  and 
the  Servants  of  Mary  conduct  institutions.  The 
classes  in  the  various  schools  are  taught  principally  by 
French  and  Italian  professors  and  Spanish  nims. 

RoMXRo,  Hiatoria  del  Obiapado  de  Michoaedn;  Lk6n.  Fraj/ 
AtUonio  de  San  Miguel:  Diceionario  de  Oeografia  y  EMtaaiatiea^' 
Moreno.  Vaeeo  de  Qttiropa:  Mixico  d  travia  de  loa  ngloa;  Archv- 
voidela  Secreiarta  AnobiapaL 

Francisco  Elquero. 

Mickiewiciy  Adam,  b.  near  Novogrodek,  Lithu- 
ania, 1798;  d.  at  Constantinople,  1855.  He  studied 
at  Novogrodek  imtil  1815,  when  he  entered  Vilna 

University.  Here 
he  studied  Ger- 
man and  English 
romantic  poetry 
with  the  greatest 
zeal.  A  thwarted 
passion  for  Marya 
Weres  zc  z  a  k 
roused  rather 
than  quenched  his 
genius;  and,  soon 
after  becoming  a 
professor  in 
Kovno  (1819),  he 
published  his  nrst 
poetical  creations 
m  two  volumes 
(Vilna,  1822-3). 
These  included: 
(a)  "Dziady" 
(The  Ancestors), 
which,  besides  its 
artistic  lyricism,  marks  the  first  appearance  of 
romanticism  in  Poland.  His  hero  Gustav  is  rather 
of  the  morbid  Werther  type;  (b)  manv  ballads  and 
romances,  setting  forth  Litnuanian  folk-lore  with  great 
power  and  skill;  most,  though  not  all,  of  these  are 
visibly  influenced  by  Goethe,  Schiller,  and  BQrger; 
(c)  "  Grasyna ",  in  form  like  the  lyric  epics  of  that 
period,  but,  unlike  these,  full  of  real  epic  simplicity, 
majesty,  and  obiectivity.  To  the  same  period  belongs 
his  celebrated  "Ode  to  Youth",  thougn  it  appears 
somewhat  later.  The  current  ot  his  genius  was  then 
chang&d  by  persecution.  While  at  the  imiversity  he 
belong  to  a  society  of  students,  with  which  he  after- 
wards continued  to  correspond;  he  was  now  most  un- 
justly thrown  into  prison  with  the  other  members, 
since  none  of  them  had  ever  dreamed  of  ins\irrection. 
The  keynote  of  his  poems  was  no  longer  disappointed 
love,  but  suffering  patriotism.  Sentenced  to  exile  in 
Russia,  he  left  Litnuania  forever  (1824),  and  went 
first  to  Odessa  and  thence  to  the  Crimea,  where  he 
wrote  his  "Sonnets"  (Moscow,  1826).  These  are 
gloomy  but  extremely  picturesque,  and  most  effective 
by  the  infinite  sadness  which  repeatedly  appears  in 
them  with  striking  unexpectedness.  Sent  afterwards 
to  Moscow,  Mickiewicz  wrote  there  his  famous  **  Kon- 
rad  Wallenrod",  published  later  in  St.  Petersburg 
(1828).  This  poem  is  unequal;  its  hero  is  too  Byron- 
esque,  and  it  seems  to  preach  revenge  by  treachery. 
But  its  wonderful  patriotism,  inspiration,  and  artistic 
finish  raised  it  as  a  whole  above  anything  he  had  yet 
written. 


Adam  Mxckixwxcs 


In  1829,  after  a  stay  at  St.  Petersburg,  Mickiewioi 
obtained  his  great  desue — ^leave  to  go  abroad.  On  his 
way  to  Rome  he  passed  through  Weimar,  and  visited 
Goethe,  who^  we  are  told,  was  greatly  impressed  by 
him.  when  m  Italy  he  wrote  very  little,  but  returned 
to  the  fervent  practice  of  the  Catholic  religion,  which 
he  had  before  neglected.  In  1831  the  Polish  insurrec- 
tion broke  out;  Mickiewics  attempted  to  return  to 
Poland,  but  was  stopped  at  the  Prussian  frontier. 
He  then  went  to  Dresden,  where  he  wrote  the  third 
part  of  the  "Dziady".  It  deserves  special  notice  as 
containing,  besides  the  expression  of  that  revolt 
against  God  which  some  Poles  felt  after  the  loss  of 
their  independence,  a  mistaken  attempt  to  explain 
their  country's  fate  as  that  of  a  Christ-like  victim 
slain  for  the  sins  of  other  nations;  it  offers  also  a  key 
to  Mickiewicz's  own  spiritual  life.  In  1832  he  went  to 
Paris,  and  there  vnrote  (in  Biblical  prose)  his  "  Book 
of  the  Pilgrimage",  in  which  he  treats  the  Polish  refu- 
gees as  apostles  and  sowers  of  the  Word  among  the 
nations.  Later,  in  1834,  he  published  his  long  poem 
"Pan  Tadeusz",  a  marvellously  lively  and  faithful 
portrait  of  Lithuanian  life  in  tne  first  years  of  the 
nineteenth  century.  Plot,  devel6pment,  characters, 
episodes,  every  passage,  and  almost  every  line  are  ex- 
cellent: it  is  a  nigh-water  mark  in  Polish  poetry,  one 
of  the  world's  masterpieces.  After  this  achievement 
Mickiewicz  gave  up  poetry:  his  sole  aim  was  hence- 
forth to  work  out  Poland's  regeneration  by  serving 
God.  "An  order  of  Poles",  he  said,  "was  needed  to 
bring  the  nation  back  to  God . "  From  this  idea,  which 
he  advocated  widely,  the  Order  of  the  Resurrection 
may  be  said  to  have  sprimg. 

In  1835  he  married,  and  was  afterwards  in  constant 
pecuniary  straits.  For  some  time  he  gave  lessons  in 
Latin  literature  at  the  Academy  of  Lausanne  (1838-9) ; 
he  was  then  named  professor  in  the  College  de  France, 
and  his  French  work,  "  A  Course  of  Slav  Literature  ", 
is  very  good.  But  in  the  third  year  of  his  teaching  he 
began  to  abandon  literature  for  certain  philosophical 
and  religious  ideas.  Towianski  had  won  him  over  to 
his  wild  theory  of  Messianism,  already  foreshadowed 
in  several  of  Mickiewicz's  poems.  He  eagerly  em- 
braced the  idea  of  a  faith  that  should  be  to  Christian- ' 
ity  what  the  latter  was  to  Judaism.  Such  a  change, 
though  readily  accounted  for,  had  melancholy  results. 
Messianism  was  condemned;  Mickiewicz  became  the 
apostle  of  a  false  doctrine,  and  lost  his  chair  of  litera- 
ture. He  subsequently  submitted  (1848),  but  still 
continued  to  dream  of  a  great  regeneration  of  peoples, 
brought  about  by  revolution.  When  the  Crimean  War 
came,  he  hoped  for  an  invasion  of  Poland,  and  even 
went  to  Constantinople  to  form  a  Polish  legion,  but 
died  there  of  cholera.  His  body  was  taken  to 
Paris,  and  thence  (1890)  to  the  cathedral  of  Krakow, 
where  it  now  reposes.  Mickiewicz  has  much  in  com- 
mon with  Schiller;  he  is  also  like  Bjrron,  but  above 
him  both  in  moral  tone  and  in  objectivity,  in  which  he 
recalls  Goethe.  But  he  rose  superior  to  all  of  them  as 
a  fervent  believer  in  Christ.  Since  Mickiewicz,  Poland 
can  boast  of  having  one  of  the  world's  great  literatures, 
while  of  all  Polish  poets  he  is  the  most  talented,  the 
most  intensely  patriotic,  and  the  most  potent  factor  in 
the  national  life  of  Poland. 

His  Matter  Thaddetu,  tr.  Bioos.  was  published  in  2  vols. 
(London,  1886).  See  the  Lives  by  Trrtak  (3  vols..  Lemberg, 
1884);  CHBaEix)W8Ki  (2  vols.,  Craoow,  1898);  Mxcxiswxcs,  Ft. 
tr.  (Paris,  1888). 

8.  Tarnowbki. 

BSicmaca  (Souriquoia  of  the  early  French),  the 
easternmost  of  the  Algonquin  tribes  and  probably  the 
first  visited  by  a  white  man,  formerly  occupied  what 
is  now  Nova  Scotia,  Prince  Edward  Island,  and  Cape 
Breton,  as  well  as  part  of  New  Brunswick,  Quebec, 
and  south-western  Newfoundland.  According^  to 
their  traditions  they  held  third  rank  in  the  oripnal 
distribution  of  land  among  the  confederation  of  the 


inciucg  2! 

MBtem  Algonquins.  The  first  plftce  beltrnged  to  the 
"father"  of  tn&t  natioa,  namely,  the  Ottawa  tribe, 
which  received  as  its  share  the  "  ujid  of  origiiis  " ;  the 
second,  called  Wapanaklag,  the  "country  of  the 
dawn",  fell  to  the  lot  of  the  Abenakis,  whik  the  third 
province,  known  as  Migmagig,  waa  allotted  to  the  Mic- 
iiaca.    Until  the  aniral  of  the  whit«  men,  an  annual 

i-^  >'i<i  LA  c  >-t<! 
2  >°  LA  =-*<s  >X)  c  i-^ 

C  W  &.  ^  «-{:«i  "IP 
C     «-E±,     »^     !->H     I     4^ 


«-!=»;     C^^ 


X      C 


3fe    "'Ns    A    h    *^OH 


indeed      muie  m 


to  H( 
I  will  BO  wti 
indeed  all 
Indeed     ve 


I  they  oreeted  nien(tndluii)   they  we 
perhspe       to  Hoaven       will  so 
— tiiBft     ere  wiu     tboee      auly      1 
Witt      he  thet       indeed 

inded       uid         hi*  neii 

■    TBnit    FATaER    KlUDU 


4  mciucs 

Halifax,  exaoperated  tbem,  but  on  the  fall  of  Canada, 
Abb£  Maillard  (1735-62)  succeeded  in  recondling 
tbem  to  the  new  order.  Several  chiefs  made  their  for- 
mal submission  (1761),  and  ever  since,  though  more  in 
sympathy  with  the  French,  the  Micmacs  have  re- 
mained loyal  to  the  British  Crown.  In  1778  the 
United  States  endeavoured  to  incite  them  to  revolt, 
but  Father  Bourg,  at  the  request  of  the  colonial  author- 
ities, restrained  them  from  the  war-patb. 

The  Micmacs  originally  dwelt  in  the  ordinary  con- 
ic&l  wigwams  common  to  most  Algonquin  trjbea;  their 
garments  were  of  dressed  leather  and  ornamented  vrith 
an  abundance  of  fringe;  their  government  resembled 
that  of  the  Ngw  Englaiid  abon^nes;  and  their  main 
occupation  was  fishing.  Except  in  the  case  of  the 
chiefsj  polygamy  was  not  general.  There  is  an  old 
tradition,  related  by  an  Abenaki  of  Oldtown  (Nicolar, 
"Life  and  Traditions  of  the  Red  Men  ",  1893)  that  the 
Indians  came  from  the  West  while  the  white  men 
originated  in  the  East.    The  Micmacs  are  remarkable 


of  acijuiring  religious  and  secular  knowledge.  These 
were  mvent^d  in  1677  by  Father  Leclercq,  who  took 
the  idea  from  the  rude  signs  he  one  day  saw  some  chil- 
dren draw  on  birch  bark  with  coal,  in  their  attempt  to 
memorize  the  prayers  he  had  just  taught  them.  They 
consisted  of  more  or  less  fanciful  characters,  a  few  M 
which,  such  as  a  star  for  heaven  and  an  orb  for  the 
earth,  bore  some  resemblance  to  the  object  repre- 
sented. A  number  of  manuals  were  composed  which 
remained  in  manuscript  until  1866,  when  Father  Kau- 
der,  a  Redemptorist  who  for  some  time  ministered  to 
them,  had  type  bearing  the  ideo^ms  cast  in  Austria, 
with  which  he  printed  a  catechism  and  prayer  book. 
Though  the  hieroglyphics  are  still  known  by  the  Mic- 
macs, for  all  general  purposes  Roman  type  has  been 
substituted,  in  which  a  httle  newspaper  is  pubhshed 
monthly  in  their  own  language  at  Restigouche,  Que- 
bec. In  the  autumn  of  1849  the  Protestants  formed 
a  Micmac  Missionary  Sodety,  which  commenced  work 
the  following  year  and  made  a  few  proselytes  In  the 
vicinity  of  Charlottetown.  Rev.  Silas  Rand,  a  great 
linguist  and  prolific  writer,  was  the  principal  agent. 
The  Indians,  ahnoat  without  exception,  have  remained 
steadfast  in  their  fidelity  to  the  Church  of  their  Siab 


ceremony  long  recalled  this  compact.  There  is  a 
probabihty  that  the  Micmacs  were  visited  by  Sebas- 
tian Cabot  (1497)  and  by  Cortereal  (1501).  They 
welcomed  the  French  and  theii'  religion,  preached  to 
them  by  secular  priests  and  Jesuits,  as  well  as  by 
Recollects  and  Capuchins.  Father  Biard  (1611)  ht^ 
left  us  an  int«resting  account  of  this  tribe,  wliich  he 
characterized  as  mild  and  peaceful  in  temperament. 
He  estimated  its  numbers  at  three  thousand  or  three 
thousand  &ve  hundred.  The  Capuchins  even  opened 
for  it  and  the  white  settlers  the  tirst  high  school  within 
the  limits  of  New  France,  and  a  report  of  the  Micmac 
missions  sent  to  Rome  (1633)  located  one  of  them 
in  Portu  Re^o.  Father  Leclercc),  a  French  Recollect 
who  did  much  for  their  Instniction,  called  them  Gas- 
pesians,  probably  because  be  had  fust  landed  (1675) 
on  the  Gasp^  peninsula,  where  he  successfully  lalJoured 
for  about  twelve  years.  It  was  not  until  1893  that 
these  aborigines  tiecame  officially  known  under  their 
true  name.  Quick  to  appreciate  the  religion  oF  the 
French,  the  Micmacs  were  no  less  faithful  to  the  fla|> 
which  to  them  symbolized  it.  Though  not  pven  to 
the  cruel  practices  of  the  Iroqutus  and  other  eastern 
tribes,  they  proved  their  bravery  by  their  active  share 
in  the  French  and  Enclish  wars,  and  their  lasting 
hostility  to  the  colonization  schemes  of  England.  The 
erection  of  forts  on  the  coast,  especially  the  one  at 


I.  Another  point  for  which  the  Micmaca 
may  be  said  to  be  remarkable  is  the  manner  in  wliich 
their  population  holds  its  own  in  spite  of  many  diffi- 
culties, such  as  the  bad  example  given  by  the  whites 
and  the  facility  with  which  they  can  procure  intoxi- 
cants. In  1891  they  had  increased  to  4108;  and 
later,  a  careful  census  taken  by  one  of  the  Capuchins, 
living  among  them  since  1894,  showed  that  they 
numbered  3850  in  Canada  and  200  in  Newfoundland. 
The  Blue  Book  of  the  Canadian  Government  for  1009 
sets  down  their  numbers  at  3961  within  the  Dominion 
alone,  practically  all  of  whom  are  Catholics.     AU  the 


WGBOLOaxni  285 


lll)» 


Indians  of  Nova  Scotia  and  Prince  Edward  Idand  under  the  title  "Academiarum  celebrium  univerai 

(respectively  2073  and  274)  are  Micmaos.  terranun   orbis   libri   VIII  locupletati".     He  also 

Lbclbroq, i^ottvelbAiitationcie 2a Gcup^sie (Paris,  1091);  Idbm,  published:     ''Officiorum   scholasticorum   libri   duo. 

f£f)f£SSr!l»^i(^^^^^  r^?J^P"r  toin  iuventutis  quam  popuU  Christiam 

MikmakU  and  Maricheeu  (London.  1758);  Lettre  de  VAbbS  magistrorum,  qui  divinas  et  hunmnas  literas  pubhce 

MaiUard  swr  2m  miuiona  de  VAcadU  et  pariiculiirement  aur  lee  pnvatunque  docenti  munus  edisserit,  posterior  vero 


A.  G.  MoRiCB.  interpretesScripturaBsacnBexMS.codicibusGrBBciset 

Latinis  restituit  et  conimentario  illustravit"  (Colo^Ci 

MLcrologlu  either  a  "synopsis"  or  a  "short  ex-  1^78);   " Imperatorum,  P^;um  et  principum  clanssi- 

planation  ",  and  in  the  Middle  A^Ba  used  as  an  equiva-  monimque  virorum  qusstiones  theologies,  iuridicss  et 

tent  for  "Manual".    The  best  known  of  several  is  pohtica  cum  pulcherrimis  responsiombus"^  (Cologne, 

^  Miciologus  de  ecclesiasticis  observationibus  ",  an  ex-  ^^^)  J  "  Historia  monastica,  qu»  religioss  et  solitarise 

Sanation  of  the  litumr  of  the  Holy  Sacrifice  of  the  vitae  originem,  progressiones,  incrementa  et  naturam 

Haas,  and  of  the  eccl^iastical  year;  first  edited  at  ®^  Scriptura  Sacra,  ex  pontificio  et  Csesareo  jure,  ex 

Paris,  in  1510,  and  handed  down  in  a  number  of  manu-  antiquissimis  historiis,  ex  veterum  Patrum  et  librorum 

scripts  (P.  L.,  CLI  sqq.).    This  comprehensive  work,  scnptis  demonstrat "  (Col^pie,  1603). 

rf  iTnnnrtjLnf»A  for  hofh  th«  hiidxii-ir  i>H  fh«  oHpniiafA  FoTVWB,  BMioth,  Bdgtca  (Bruasels,  1739),  529  8q.;  Hasts- 

™P?™J?ce  tor  DOtn  ine  ms^ry  ^a  tne  aaequate  hmm.  Bibliolh,  CoUmieneie  (Cologne.   1747).   150;    Paquot, 

tmderstanding  of  the  lltuigy  of  the  Mass  and  of  the  Mimoiree  jaour  eervir  h  rkieUnre  lUUraire  dee  dix-eept  Province* 

ecclesiastical  year,  is  divided  into  three  parts.    The  if  .PoyBae.lll  (Louvain,  1770),  25-29;  Bumoo,  Die  ^kem. 

»jthor  treats  fi«t  <rf  the  M«88  (chap.  i-:«iu)  in  wla-  &J^/l,§!^iTSi^^^lh^  '^  ^"""^  "^^^ 
tion  to  its  histoncal  development;  second,  of  the  lit-  Friedrich  Lauchebt. 

uigy  of  the  ember  days  (chap,  xxiv-xxix) ;  and  third,        •»«  j  ji 

of  the  whole  of  the  ecclesiastical  year,  with  obeervar        Mwoto  Ara.---A  term  commonly  used  to  desig- 

tions  of  the  offices  of  the  feasts  and  holidays  (chap.  ^**®  ^^^  period  of  European  history  between  the  Fall 

zxx-bdi).     In  chapters  xxiv-xxv  the  writer  empha-  ^^  *^®  Rpman  £^pu«  and  about  the  middle  of  the  fif- 

sises  the  authority  of  the  Apostolic  See  in  lituigical  teenth  century.    The  precise  dates  of  the  beginning, 

questions,  and  mentions  Gregory  VII  in  such  a  man-  culmmation,  and  end  of  the  Middle  Ages  are  more  or 

ncr  as  to  show  that  he  was  an  adherent  of  that  pope,  ^^^s  arbitrarily  assumed  according  to  the  point  of 

although  Gregory  was  dead  at  the  time  the  author  vi®^  adopted.    The  period  is  usually  considered  to 

wroteTne  also  re&rs  to  Anselm  of  Lucca  in  such  a  way  ^P^^  ^^^  those  migrations  of  the  (xeiman  Tribes 

as  to  infer  Anselm's  being  still  alive  at  that  time  which  led  to  the  destruction  of  the  Roman  Empire  in 

(chap,  xvii),  hence  we  may  conclude  the  work  to  have  **^®  'West  in  376,  when  the  Huns  fell  upon  the  Gothic 

been  composed  between  23  May,  1085,  date  of  the  tribes  north  of  the  Black  Sea  and  forced  the  Visigoths 

death  of  Gregory  VII,  and  March,  1086,  the  death  of  over  the  boundaries  of  the  Roman  Empire  on  the 

Anselm  of  Lucca.    I  vo  of  Chartres  was  generally  held  lower  Danube.    A  later  date,  however,  is  sometimes 

to  be  the  author  of  the  "  Micrologus  ",  but  investiga-  assumed,  viz.,  when  Odoacer  deposed  Romulus  Angus- 

tions  of  Dom  Morin  and  Dom  B&umer  point  to  Bemold  tulus,  the  last  of  the  Roman  Emperors  of  the  West,  in 

of  (Constance,  a  monk  of  the  abbey  of  St.  Blasien  *76.     Others,  again,  begin  the  Middle  Ages  with  the 

(d.  1100),  as  the  author.  opening  years  of  the  seventh  century  and  the  death 

Another  well-known  treatise,  edited  under  the  title  (^^)  ^^  Venantius  Fortunatus,  the  last  representa- 
*  Miciologus  de  disciplina  artis  music® ",  is  by  the  *ive  of  classic  Latin  literature.  The  close  of  the  Mid- 
famous  Guido  of  Arezao,  and  is  one  of  the  most  im-  dl©  Ages  is  also  variously  fixed;  some  make  it  comcide 
toortant  writings  of  that  teacher  of  ecclesiastical  music  J^  V^  *^®  ^^,  of  Huinanism  and  the  Renaifisanoe  in 
(P.  L.,  CXLI,  379  sqq.,  ed.  Hermersdorflf,  Trier— 1876).  ^^Vk  ^  ^^e  fourteenth  century ;  with  the  FaU  of  Con- 

MoRiif.  Que  rauteur  du  Micrologue  eel  Bemold  de  ConeUmee  stantmople,  m  1453;  With  the  discovery  of  America  by 

in  RmeB^icHM  (1891).  385-95;  BXumur,  Der  Mier^ague.  Columbus  in  1492;  or,  again,  with  the  great  religious 

em  Werk     Bemolds  von  Konatam  in  Neuee  Archxv,  XVIH  «,l,;Hm  nf  f Ka  oiYfAAnfli^nf nrv       AnvVioivl  an/TPoaf 

(1893).  429-46:  THALHorBR.  Handbueh  der  kaiholiechen  Litw  fpniffln  Of  Uie  sixteentn  <»ntu^.    Any  hard  and  fast 

ffft.  I  (2ad  ed.,  Freiburg,  1894),  80-81.  Ime  drawn  to  designate  either  the  beginnm^  or  close  of 

J.  P.  KiBSCH.  the  period  in  question  is  arbitrary.    The  widest  limits 

gVen.  vis.,  the  irruption  of  the  Visigoths  over  the 
..  «  ,  )unaaries  of  the  Roman  Empire,  for  the  beginning, 

about  1537  at  Oldenzaal,  or.  according  to  others,  at  and  the  middle  of  the  sixteentn  century,  for  t£e  close, 

Ootmarsum,  Overvssel,  Holland;   d.  at  CJolc^e,  13  may  be  taken  as  inclusively  sufficient,  and  embrace,  be- 

Jan.,  161 1 .     He  calls  hunself  Otmersensis  on  the  title-  yond  dispute,  every  movement  or  phase  of  history  that 

iMge  of  his  work,  "  De  celebrioribus  Academiis  " .    He  can  be  claimed  as  properly  belonging  to  the  Middle  Ages, 
studied  the  humanities  at  the  Fraterherren  gymna-        Agreatpartof  The  Catholic  Encyclopedia  is  de- 

sium  of   Zwolle.   philosophy  and  jurisprudence  at  voted  to  the  movements,  ecclesiastical,  intellectual, 

Cologne  University,  where  he  became  doctor  of  philo-  social,  political,  and  artistic,  which  made  up  European 

sophy  and  both  branches  of  law,  and  abo  licentiate  of  history  during  this  period  so  fertile  in  human  activities, 

theology;  he  also  taught  peripatetic  philosophy  at  the  whether  sacred  or  profane.    Under  the  titles  covering 

Montanum  gymnasium  there.     He  remainea  in  West-  the  political  divisions  of  Europe,  past  and  present 

phalia  durmg  the  troubles  in  the  Arehdiooese  of  (e.  g.,  Alsace-Lorraine;   AimALT;   Aubtro-Hun- 

Coloene  in  the  time  of  Arohbishop  Gebhard  Truchsess  garian  Monarchy;  Baden;  Bavaria;  Belgium; 

Ton  vValdbuiv,  and  was  professor  at  various  foreign  Bohemia;  Bremen;  Bulgaria;  Castile  and  Ara- 

academies;  afterwards  he  returned  to  Cologne,  whore  gon;  Croatia;  Denmark;  England;  France;  Ger- 

he  passed  the  greater  part  of  his  life.     In  1580  he  be-  many;     Greece;    Hamburg;     Hesbb;    Hungary; 

came  dean  of  St.  Mana  ad  gradus,  Cologne,  in  1596  Ireland;  Italy;  Karinthia;  Krain;  LEdN;  Lifpe; 

dean  of  St.  Andreas,  and  in  1601  canon  of  the  cathe-  LObeck;    Luxemburg;    Mecklenburg;    Monaco; 

dial  chapter.    Rector  of  Cologne  University  1  ^0^1  Montenegro;  Navarre;  Netherlands;  Norway; 

and  16(X2-04,  he  was  appointed  vice-chancellor  by  Oldenburg;    Papal    States;  Portugal;  Reuss; 

the  coadjutor.  Ferdinand  of  Bavaria,  in  1602.    He  Rome;  Rumania;  Russia- Saxe-Altenburg; Saxe- 

lies  buried  in  the  churoh  of  St.  Andreas.    As  an  author  Coburg    and    Gotha;    Saxe-Meiningen;    Saxe- 

he  was  best  known  by  his  "De  celebrioribus  universi  Weimar;  Saxony;  Schaumburg-Lippb;  Schwarz- 

orbis  Aoademiis,  libri  II"  (Cologne,  1567, 1572,  1594,  burg-Rudolstadt;  Schwarzburo-Sondershausen; 

and  lastly  1602) ,  considerably  enlarged,  in  two  volumes^  Scotland  ;  Servia  ;  Sicily  ;  Spain  ;  Sweden  ;  Swirz- 


WDDusBBOuoa  286  MmBtimm 

liRLAND;VBKtcB;WALi>BCK;  Wales;  WOrtemskro)  cathedral  of  the  new  Diocese  of  Middlesbrough.  Tbe 
ftte  given  in  detail  their  i«8pective  political  ana  Diooeae  of  Beverley,  conterminous  with  Yorkshire, 
religiouB  developments  throughout  the  Middle  Ages,    was,  by  Apostolic  Letters  of  Leo  XIII,  dated  20  De- 

Under  articles  of  a  wider  scope  (e.  g.,  Eitrope  ;  Chris-  cember,  1878,  divided  into  the  Dioceses  of  Leeds  and 
TENDou ;  Pope)  is  found  a  more  general  and  synthetic  Middlesbrough,  Bishop  Camthwait«  (formerly  c^  Bev- 
treatment.  Particularaspectsandmovementspeculiar  erley,  henceforth  of  Leeds)  being  ad  interim  named 
to  different  portions  of  it  are  found  in  such  articles  as  administrator  of  the  new  Diocese  of  Middlesbrough. 
Chivalry;  CRtrBADBa;  Ecclesiastical  Abt ;  Feudal-  It  was  not  until  11  December,  1879,  that  the  papal 
ism;  Gothic  Architecture;  iNgtiisiTiON ;  Ikvesti-  Brief  was  received  notifyine  the  appointment  of  the 
TOREe,  Conflict  or;  Land-tenure  is  the  Christian  new  bishop  in  the  pereon  of  the  Rev.  Richard  Lacy, 
Era;  MoNAaTiciSM-  Music,  Ecclesiasticai,;  Paint-  whose  consecration  took  place  in  his  own  cathedral  (W 
iNa;PiLORiuAOE3;  Sculpture;  in  the  articles  upon  the  IS  December,  187S,  at  the  hands  of  Cardinal  Manning, 
great  religious  orders,  congregations,  and  institutions  assisted  by  Bishop  Comthwaite  of  Leeds  and  Bishop 
which  then  came  intowiatence;  in  tne  biographies  of  O'Reilly  rf  Liverpool.  The  chapter  of  the  new  diocese, 
the  popes,  rulera,  historical  personages,  scholars,  phi-  consisting  of  a  provost  and  ten  canons,  was  erected  by 
loaophers,  poeta,  and  scientists  whose  iives  fall  within  a  decree  of  Leo  XIII  on  13  February,  1881.  Our  Lady 
this  period;  in  the  accounts  of  the  universities,  of  Perpetual  Succour  is  the  chief  patroness  of  the  dio- 
cities,  and  dioceses  which  were  founded  and  developed  cese  and  titular  of  the  cathedral;  6tB.  Wilfrid  and 
throughout  Europe  from  the  fall  of  the  Roman  £m-  John  of  Beverley  are  its  secondary  patrons.  Besides 
pire  to  the  time  of  the  Reformation,  and  in  innumer-  these  there  are  many  others  who  have  shed  the  lustre 
able  minor  articles  throughout  the  woric.  of  their  sanctity  on  northern  Yorkshire;   St.  Hilda, 

Abbess  of  Whitby  (scene  of   the   famous  Synod  of 
Middlesbrough,  Diocese  or  (Medioburoensis)  .—     Whitby  in  664j ;  St.  John  of  Bridlington;  St.  William 
In  medieval  history  it  was  known  as  Myddilburga  or     of  York;  St.  Everilda;   Blessed  John  Fisher;  Blessed 
Middilburga,   with   many  other  variations  of  form.     Thomas  Percy,  Earl  of  Northumberland;  the  Venera- 
ble Nicholas  Postgate,  and  many  others. 

Notwithstanding  the  fact  tl^t  the  ecclesiastical 
division  of  Yorkshire  met  with  adverse  criticism  at  the 
hands  of  several  leading  members  of  both  clergy  and 
laity,  moved  by  sentiment  rather  than  a  profound 
knowledge  of  the  needs  of  religion,  the  following  sta- 
tistics demonstrate  both  how  groundless  were  the  fears 
then  entertained,  and  how  accurately  the  situation 
had  been  gauged  by  the  ecclesiastical  authorities.  In 
1839  the  CathoUc  population  of  Yorkshire  was  13,000; 
in  1909  it  was  167,027.  In  1839  there  could  haidly  be 
3000  Catholics  in  what  is  now  the  Diocese  of  Middles- 
brough; in  1909  they  numbered  50,344.  In  1879  the 
total  number  of  pnests  in  the  Diocese  of  Middles- 
brough was  64;  in  1909  they  numbered  113  (76  secu- 
lars and  37  regulars).  In  1879  ihechurehesand  chapels 
were 38;  in  1909  they  were  67.  In  1879  the  school- 
children numbered  3135;  in  1909  they  numbered 
10,060.  Inl879  therewere  17eiementaryBchoolB;  in 
„  .  „  ^  1909  there  were  43.    There  are  23  elementary  schools 

Whttbi  Abbet,  Yokshih..  Emouu™  ^^j  j^  middle-class  schools  conducted  byrelipoua;  two 

There  is  an  old  tradition  that  a  chureh  inhonourof  St.  orphanages,  one  for  boys  under  the  Sisters  of  Charity 
Hilda  was  dedicated  by  St.  Cuthbert  at  Middleabrou^  of  St.  Vincent  de  Paul  at  Hull,  and  the  other  for  girls 
about  686,  but  the  earliest  positive  reference  to  Mid-  under  the  Poor  Sisters  of  Naiareth  at  Middlesbrough; 
dlesbrough  in  ecclesiastical  history  goes  to  show  that  one  reformatory  for  boys  under  the  Fathers  of  Chanty 
in  the  beginning  of  the  twelfth  century  it  was  the  site  at  Market  Weighton;  two  pupil  teachers'  centres,  one 
o(  a  church  dependent  on  the  Abbey  of  St.  Hilda  at  under  the  Sisters  of  Merey  at  Hull,  and  the  other  under 
Whitby.  Atthat  time  the  church  of  St.  Hilda  at  Mid-  the  Faithful  Companions  ot  Jesus  at  Middlesbrough; 
dieaburc"  was  given  by  Robert  de  Brusof  SkeltonCas-  onetrainingcollegeforleachers,underSistersot  Mercy. 
tle,founderofGuiBborou6hPriory,tothe  Black  Monks  at  Hull;  two  colleges  for  boys,  one  under  the  Marisl 
ot  St.  Benedict  at  Whitby,  on  condition  that  there  Fathers,  at  Middlesbrough,  the  other  under  Benedic- 
should  alwa>-s  be  some  monks  at  Middlesbrough  serv-  tine  monks,  in  connexion  with  the  well-known  Abbey 
ing  God  and  St.  Hilda;  and  there  seems  to  have  been     of  Ampleforth. 

a  clause  binding  the  monks  to  distribute  twelve  peace  Bishop  Lacy  was  bom  at  Navan,  Meath,  Ireland,  16 
per  week  in  alms  to  the  poor  of  Middlesbrough  for  the  January,  1841,  studied  at  Vshaw  College  (Durham) 
soul  of  the  said  Robert  de  Brus,  In  the  plunder  of  the  and  at  the  English  College  in  Rome,  where  he  waa 
religious  houses   the  "Cell   of   Middlesbrough"   was     ordained  21  December,  1867. 

granted  by  Queen  Elinftbeth  to  one  Thomas  Reeve  on  KinBT.Ancimi  Middialm»vK-  Yocko,  Whm,;  MMIm- 
4Februarv,1563.     FromthatdaUthareisnoevidence     *™«*  ^'™«™  ■«'^""'  Richabd  Lact 

to  show  tnat  Mass  was  ever  celebrated  there,  until  in 

1848  a  private  room  in  North  Street  was  used  for  this  Middlrton,  Anthowt,  Venerable.  See  Joxxs, 
purpose.     A  little  later  a  modest  chapel  was  erected     Edward,  Venerable. 

and  a  resident  priest  placed  in  charge.  Two  causes  Middleton,  Robert,  Venehabl*.  See  Hunt, 
concurred  m  the  formation  of  a  lar^  Catholic  congre-     Thurston    Venerable 

In  1872  Rev.  Richard  Lacy  was  entrusted  with  the  Midrasbim.— The  term  commonly  designat«B  an> 

charge  of  the   Middlesbrough   Mission.     In  August,  cient  rabbinical  commentaries  on  the  Hebrew  Scrip- 

1878,  St.  Mary's  church  (replacing  the  original  modest  tures.    It  is  the  plural  form  of  the  word  EnTD,  Midratk 

chapel)  was  opened  with  great  solemnity  by  Cardinal  which   is   found  only  twice   in   the   Old   Testament 

Manning  and  Bishop  Comthwaile  of  Beverley.    In  {II  Par.  [Chroniclesf,  xiii,  22;  xidv,  27),  when  it  is 

December  of  the  same  year,  St.  Mary's  became  the  rendered  by  liha-  (book)  in  the  Vul^te,  mod  by 


MiDWiVES 


287 


MiDWiVES 


"oommentary''  in  the  Revised  Vereion.  In  rabbini- 
cal parkmce,  Midiash  has  the  abstract  and  general 
sense  of  study,  exposition  of  Scripture,  while  Mid- 
nshim  are  primarily  the  free  and  artificial  explanations 
of  the  Sacred  Text  given  by  its  ancient  expositors, 
and  secondarily  the  collections  of  such  explanations  in 
the  shape  of  commentaries  on  Holy  Writ. 

Origin  and  Kinds  of  Midrashim. — After  the  re- 
turn from  Babylon,  the  Law  was  the  centre  of  the  life 
of  the  Jews  at  home  and  abroad.  Henceforth,  the 
one  concern  of  the  Jewish  authorities  was  to  make  sure 
that  the  Mosaic  precepts  be  accurately  complied  with 
by  all,  and  under  all  circumstances,  and  it  is  from  this 
practical  standpoint  that  the  Scribes  and  after  them 
the  Rabbis  studied  and  expounded  the  contents  of 
their  sacred  writings.  A  part  of  these  contents,  viz., 
the  enactments  of  the  Mosaic  Law,  made  of  course 
directly  for  the  purpose  of  promoting  legal  righteous- 
ness in  Israel;  yet,  as  these  laws  had  been  framed  in 
view  of  concrete  circumstances  of  the  past,  they  had  to 
be  explained  in  a  more  or  less  artificial  way  to  make 
them  fit  the  altered  circumstances  of  Jewish  life,  or 
serve  as  a  Scriptural  basis  or  support  of  the  various 
traditional  observances  which  made  up  the  oral  law. 
All  such  artificial  explanations  of  the  terms  of  the 
Mosaic  legislation  are  legal,  or  Halachic,  Midrashim. 
Distinct  from  this  general  kind  of  Midrasnim  are  those 
called  homiletical,  or  Hagadic,  which  embrace  the  in- 
terpretation, illustration,  or  expansion,  in  a  moralizing 
or  edifying  manner,  of  the  non-legal  portions  of  the 
Hebrew  Bible.  As  the  object  of  this  latter  kind  of 
Midrashim  was  not  to  determine  the  precise  require- 
ments of  the  Law,  but  rather  to  confirm  in  a  general 
manner  Jewish  hearers  in  their  faith  and  its  practice, 
Hagadic  explanations  of  the  non-legal  parts  of  Scrip- 
ture are  characterized  by  a  much  greater  freedom  of 
exposition  than  the  Halachic  Midrasnim ;  and  it  may  be 
truly  said  that  Hagadic  expositors  have  availed  them- 
selves of  whatever  material — sayings  of  prominent  Rab- 
bis (e.  g.,  philosophical  or  mystical  disquisitions  con- 
cerning angels,  demons,  paradise,  hell,  Messias,  Satan, 
feasts  and  fasts,  parables,  legends,  satirical  assaults 
on  the  heathen  and  their  rites,  etc.) — could  render 
their  treatment  of  those  portions  of  the  Sacred  Text 
more  instructive  or  edifying.  Both  kinds  of  Mid- 
rashim were  at  first  preserved  only  orally;  but  their 
writing  down  commenced  with  the  second  century  of 
our  era,  and  they  now  exist  in  the  shape  chiefly  of 
exegetical  or  homiletical  works  on  the  whole  or  parts 
of  the  Hebrew  Bible. 

PRINCIPAL  Midrashim. — The  three  earliest  and  in 
several  respects  most  important  Midrashio  collections 
are:  (1)  tne  Mechilta,  on  a  portion  of  Exodus,  and 
embodying  the  tradition  mainly  of  the  School  of 
Rabbi  Ishmael  (first  century)  j  (2)  the  Sivkra,  on 
Leviticus,  embodying  the  tradition  of  Rabbi  Aqiba 
with  additions  from  tne  School  of  Rabbi  Ishmael;  (3) 
the  Siphre,  on  Numbers  and  Deuteronomy,  going 
back  mainly  to  the  schools  of  the  same  two  Rabbis. 
These  three  works  are  used  in  the  Gemaras.  (4)  The 
Rabboth  (great  commentaries),  a  large  collection  of 
ten  Midrashim  on  the  Pentateuch  and  Megilloth, 
which  bear  the  respective  names  of:  (a)  Bereshith 
Rabba,  on  Genesis  (mainly  from  the  sixth  century) ; 
(b)  Shemoth  Rabba,  on  Exodus  (eleventh  or  twelfth 
century) :  (c)  Wayyiqra  Rabba,  on  Leviticus  (middle 
of  seventh  century);  (d)  Bamidbar  Rabba,  on  Num- 
bers (twelfth  century);  (e)  Debharim  Rabba,  on 
Deuteronomy  (tenth  century);  (f)  Shir  Ashshirim 
Rabba,  on  Ganticle  of  Canticles  (probably  before 
middle  of  ninth  century) ;  (g)  Ruth  Rabba,  on  Ruth 
(same  date  as  foregoing) ;  (h)  Echa  Rabba,  on  Lam- 
entations (seventh  century);  (i)  Midrash  Qoheleth, 
(XI  Ecdesiastes  (probably  before  middle  of  ninth  oent- 
tury);  (j)  Midrash  Esther,  on  Esther  (a.  d.  040).  Of 
these  Rabboth,  the  Midrashim  on  Exodus,  Leviticus, 
NumbeiB,  and  Deuteronomy  are  chiefly  made  up  of 


homilies  on  the  Scripture  sections  for  the  Sabbath  or 
festival,  while  the  others  are  rather  of  an  exe^etical 
nature.  (5)  The  Pesiqta,  a  compilation  of  homuies  on 
special  Pentateuchal  and  Prophetic  lessons  (early 
eighth  century) ;  (6)  Pirqe  Rabbi  Eliezer  (not  before 
eighth  century),  a  Midrashic  narrative  of  the  more 
important  events  of  the  Pentateuch;  (7)  Tanchuma 
or  Yelammedenu  (ninth  century)  on  the  whole  Penta- 
teuch; its  homilies  consist  of  a  Halachic  introduction, 
followed  by  several  proems,  exposition  of  the  openins 
verses,  and  the  Messianic  conclusion;  (8)  Midrash 
Shemuel,  on  the  first  two  Books  of  Kings  (I,  II  Sam- 
uel); (9)  Midrash  Tehillim,  on  the  Psalms;  (10)  Afid- 
rash  Mishle,  on  Proverbs;  (11)  Yalqut  Shimeoni,  a 
kind  of  catena  extending  over  all  the  Hebrew  Scrips 
tures. 

Importance  of  Midrashim. — At  first  sight,  one 
might  think  that  such  farrago  as  the  Midrashic  litera- 
ture could  be  of  interest  and  value  only  to  a  Jew  as 
Jew,  inasmuch  as  the  Midrashim  are  thoroughly 
steeped  in  the  spirit  of  Judaism,  bear  distinct  witness 
to  tne  laws,  customs,  doctrines,  aspirations  of  the  Jew- 
ish race,  and  record  the  noblest  ideas,  sayings,  and 
teachings  of  the  Jewish  sages  in  early  times.  The 
more,  however,  he  examines  the  contents  of  these 
ancient  expositorv  works,  the  more  he  discovers  that 
they  are  an  invaluable  source  of  information  to  the 
Christian  apologist,  the  Biblical  student,  and  the 
general  scholar  as  well.  In  this  body  of  ancient 
literature,  there  is  much  in  the  line  of  ideas,  expres- 
sions, reasonings,  and  descriptions,  which  can  be  used 
to  illustrate  and  confirm  the  inspired  records  of  Chris- 
tianity and  the  traditional  teachings  of  the  Church, 
notably  concerning  the  passages  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment to  be  re^rded  as  Messianic.  The  Biblical  stu- 
dent will  at  times  notice  in  the  oldest  parts  of  the 
Midrashim,  Scriptural  readings  anterior  to  those  em- 
bodied in  the  Massoretic  text.  Again,  ''when  it  is 
bonie  in  mind  that  the  annotators  and  punctuators  of 
the  Hebrew  text,  and  the  translators  of  the  [most] 
ancient  versions,  were  Jews  impregnated  with  the 
theolqncal  opinions  of  the  nation,  and  prosecuted 
their  Biblical  labours  in  harmony  with  these  opinions 
.  .  .  the  importance  of  the  Halachic  and  Hagadic 
exegesis  to  tne  criticism  of  the  Hebrew  text,  and  to  a 
rieht  understanding  of  the  Greek,  Chaldee,  Syriac,  and 
other  versions,  can  nardly  be  overrated  "  (Ginsburg,  in 
Kitto's  " Cyclop,  of  Biblical  Liter. ",  III,  173).  Lastly 
the  philologist,  the  historian,  the  philosopher,  the 
jurist,  and  the  statesman,  will  easily  find  in  the  Mid- 
rashim remarks  and  discussions  which  have  a  direct 
bearing  on  their  respective  branches  of  study. 

Ugolxni.  Tfteaaurtu  Antiquitatum  Sacrarum,  vols.  XIV-XVI 
(Venice,  1752-1754):  Jellineck.  Bet  Ha-Midrasch  (Leipstg, 
and  Vienna,  1853-1877);  SchOrkr,  The  Jewish  PeapU  in  iKb 
Time  of  Christ  (New  York.  1891);  Zunz,  die  gotieadienaaiehen 
Vortrdot  d.Jikden  (Frankfort,  1892);  W^nbchb.  Bibliotheca 
Rabbiniea  (JjeipMis,  1880-1885;  Trier.  1892,  1893);  GrOnhut, 
Sofer  Ha-Likkutxm  (; Jerusalem,  1898-1901);  Strack.  EinL 
i.  d.  Tcdmvd  (Leipsig,  1900) ;  Obsterlbt  and  Box,  The 
ReUgion  and  Worviip  of  the  Synaoomu  (Nenv  York.  1907). 

Francis  E.  Gioot. 

Midwives  come  under  the  canon  law  of  the  Church 
in  their  relation  towards  two  of  the  sacraments, 
baptism  and  matrimonv.  As  regards  marriage,  their 
testimony  is  frequently  required  in  cases  de  non 
consummaio  matnmonio,  whether  owing  to  the  im- 
pediment of  impotency  or  because  a  dispensation  is 
asked  super  matrimonio  raio  tantum.  In  such  cases, 
the  testimony  of  three  midwives  is  held  sufficient  in 
practice,  since  the  number  seven  mentioned  in  the  "  Cor- 
pus Juris  Canonic! "  (c.  4,  de  Probat.)  is  not  considered 
to  be  obligatory  in  Law,  though  some  older  canonists 
insisted  on  the  necessity  of  having  the  testimony  of 
seven  midwives.  As  regards  the  sacrament  of  bap- 
tism the  office  of  midwives  is  of  the  highest  impor- 
tance. ^  On  them  frequently  devolves  the  dutv  of 
conferring  this  sacrament,  under  circumstances  where 


288  maAzzi 

no  other  person's  ministration  Is  possible.    Hence,    quarter  in  that  town;  it  was  therefore,  to  say  the  least 


hard  and  mortifying  when,  after  twenty-five  years  ot 
administration  the  ''Conduum  locum  tenens  regium" 


the  Churcn  has  always  been  most  solicitous  con- 
cerning the  character  of  midwives  and  their  instruc-  administration  the  ''Concilium  locum  tenens  legium 
tion  in  this  religious  duty.  Canonists  teach  that  asked  him  if  there  was  any  priest  in  his  diocese  in  poe- 
women*  who  undertake  the  office  of  midwife  are  session  of  two  benefices  or  offices,  as  in  that  case  it  was 
bound  under  mortal  sin  to  learn  the  methods  and  the  emperor's  pleasure  (Joseph  II)  that  one  of  them 
requirements  of  valid  baptism,  as  in  case  of  necessity  should  oe  given  up.  Migazzi  was  forced  to  resign 
this  duty  frequently  devolves  upon  them.    There  has  from  Waitsen. 

been  much  legislation  on  this  subject  in  various  dioo-  As  Archbishop  of  Vienna  time  brought  him  many 
esan  synods,  whose  canons  place  special  obligations  sorrows.  Pious  and  devoted  to  the  Church  as  Maria 
on  parish  priests  and  midwives.  Tne  former  are  re-  Theresa  imdoubtedly  was.  yet  during  her  reign  in 
minded  that,  as  midwives  in  conferring  baptism  act  in  Austria  the  so-called  Enligntenment  era  (Aufkldrung) 
place  of  the  parish  priest,  he  is  strictly  bound  to  in-  developed  inevitably.  Its  followers  imagmed  that 
torm  himself  whether  they  have  sufficient  knowledge  they  could  remedy  all  the  evils  of  the  time  and  pro- 
to  administer  the  sacrament  validly.  Some  diocesan  mote  in  every  way  the  prosperity  of  mankind.  The 
synods  require  that  midwives,  before  being  approved  representative  and  the  hterature  of  the  new  movement 
for  duty^  take  an  oath  that  they  will  labour  to  procure  were  everywhere  in  evidence.  Its  opponents  were 
the  spmtual  safety  of  infant  and  mother.  When  denouncea  as  stupid  obscurantists  and  simpletons, 
a  new-bom  child  has  been  baptised  by  a  midwife,  the  "The  Masonic  lodge  of  the  Three  Canons"  was 
parish  priest  must  inquire  carefully  whether  she  had  printed  at  Vienna  in  1742,  and  at  Prague  in  1749  that 
the  proper  intention  and  administered  the  rite  accord-  of  the  "Three  Crowned  Stars  and  Honesty".  In 
ing  to  the  prescriptions  of  the  Church.  If  there  is  a  memorial  to  the  empress  written  in  1769  tne  arch- 
any  reason  for  doubt,  the  baptism  is  to  be  repeated  bishop  desigziated  as  the  primary  csauses  of  current 
conditionally  (Catech.  Rom.,  II,  ii,  §  43) ;  but  if  it  evils  the  spirit  of  the  times,  atheistic  Kterature,  the 
be  certain  that  the  sacrament  was  properly  conferred  pernicious  mfluence  of  many  professors,  the  condition 
it  may  not  be  repeated  (c.  Maiores,  3  de  bapt;  Cone,  of  the  censorship,  contemporary  literature,  the  oon- 
Trid.  Sess.  VI,  can.  ix),  and  only  the  other  ceremonies  tempt  of  the  clergy^  the  bad  example  of  the  nobiUty, 
are  to  be  supplied  by  the  parish  priest.  Finally,  it  is  the  conduct  of  affairs  of  state  by  irreligious  persons, 
likewise  necessary  that  midwives  be  well  informed  on  and  neglect  of  the  observance  of  holy  days.  Upon 
the  Church's  teaching  concerning  the  performance  of  each  of  these  disorders  he  spoke  in  noble  terms  of  pro- 
abortion,  found  truth.    The  situation  was  all  the  more  critical 

Fbrraris.  BibL  Can.,  V  (Rome.  1889),  ■.  v.  ObfUtriees;  for  the  Church  since  while  her  means  of  resistance  were 

TAUHTow.rA*  Law  o/(A«CAurc*  (London.  1906).  B.v.BoptMTO.  diminished,   her  enemies   were   gaining  adherents. 

William  H.  W.  Fanning.  Meanwhile  Clement  XIV  suppressed  the  Society  of 

Jesus,  but  Migajszi  endeavourea  to  save  it  for  Austria. 

Bffigaiiii  Christofh  Anton,  Cardinal,  Prince  Arch-  He  wrote  to  the  empress, ''  If  the  members  of  the  order 

bishop  of  Vienna,  b.  1714,  in  the  Tyrol,  d.  14  April,  are  dispersed,  how  can  their  places  be  so  easily  sup- 

1803,  at  Vienna.    At  nine  years  of  age  he  entered  the  plied?    What  expense  will  be  entailed  and  how  many 

school  for  pages  at  the  residence  of  Prince  Bishop  years  must  pass  oefore  the  settled  condition  broken 

Lamberg  at  Passau,  who  later  proposed  him  for  aa-  up  by  the  departure  of  these  priests  can  be  restored?" 

mittance  to  the  Collegium  Germanicum  in  Rome.    At  Just  twenty  years  later  the  cardinal  wrote  to  Emperor 

the  age  of  twenty-two  he  returned  to  the  Tyrol  and  Francis,  "  Even  the  French  envoy  who  was  last  here, 

devoted  himself  to  the  study  of  civil  and  canon  law.  did  not  hesitate,  as  I  can  prove  to  your  Bfojesty, 

Cardinal  Lamberg  took  him  as  conclavist  to  the  Con-  to  say  that  if  the  Jesuits  had  not  been  suppressed, 

clave  of  1740,  whence  Benedict  XIV  came  forth  pope.  France  would  not  have  experienced  that  Revolution 

and  to  him  Cardinal  Lamberg  earnestly  recommenoea  so  terrible  in  its  consequences. "     The  archbishop 

his  favourite  Migassi.    The  latter  remained  at  Rome  opposed  as  far  as  they  were  anticlerical,  the  govem- 

**  in  order  to  quench  m^  thirst  for  the  best  science  at  its  ment  monopoly  of  educational  matters,  the  "  enlight- 

very  source".    By  this  he  meantphilosophv  as  proved  ened"  theology,  the  "purified"  law,  tne  "enUgjhten- 

by  his  words  spoken  about  this  time;  ''Witnout  a  ment"  literature,  " tolerance ",  and  encro&chment  on 

knowledge  of  pnilosophy  wit  is  merely  a  light  fra-  purely    religious    matters.    He    also    founded    the 

grance  which  is  soon  lost,  and  erudition  a  rude  form-  ^'Priesterseminar",  an  establishment  for  the  better 

less  mass  without  life  or  movement^  which  rolls  on-  preparation  of  young  priests  for  parochial  work.    At 

ward  unable  to  leave  any  mark  of  its  passage,  con-  Rome  he  was  influential  enough  to  obtain  for  the 

suming  everything  without  itself  deriving  any  benefit  Austrian  monarch  the  privilege  of  being  named  in  the 

therefrom."    In   1745   he   was   appointed   auditor  Canon  of  the  Mass.    Migaszi  lived  to  see  the  election 

of  the  Rota  for  the  German  nation.    Owing  to  the  of  three  popes.    Maria  Theresa  and  Kaunits  took  a 

special  friendship  of  Benedict  XIV,  he  was  able  to  lively  interest  in  his  accounts  of  what  transpired  in  the 

conclude  several  di£5cult  transactions  to  the  entire  Conclave  (23  Nov.,  1775-16  Feb.,  1776)  which  elected 

satisfaction  of  the  Empress  Maria  Theresa,  who  in  Pius  VI,  who  subsequently  visited  Vienna  during  the 

return  appointed  him  in  1751  coadjutor  to  the  aged  reign  of  Joseph  II.    He  owed  his  election  to  Migaasi, 

Arehbi^op    of    Mechlin.    Thereupon     consecrated  leader  of  the  Rovalist  party.    How  the  empress  ap- 

bishop,  he  was  soon  removed  to  Madrid  as  ambassa-  predated  Migazzi  is  sufficiently  proved  in  a  letter  sne 

dor.    A  treaty  which  he  concluded  pleased  the  em-  wrote  to  him  during  the  Conckve,  "I  am  as  ill-hu- 

gress  so  much  that  she  appointed  him  coadjutor  of  moured  as  though  I  had  been  three  months  in  Con- 
bunt  Bishop  Althan  of  Waitsen  (1756);  but  as  clave.    I  pray  for  you;  but  I  am  often  amused  to  see 
Althan  died  oefore  his  arrival,  and  six  months  later  you  imprisoned." 

Prince  Archbishop  Trantson  also  died  in  Vienna,  the  When  Frederick  II  heard  of  the  death  of  the  em- 
empress  named  Migazsi  his  successor.  In  1761  press  he  wrote,  ''Maria  Theresa  is  no  more.  A  new 
Maria  Theresa  made  him  administrator  for  life  of  the  order  of  things  will  now  begin. "  Joseph  II  during 
See  of  Waitzen,  and  at  the  same  time  obtained  the  his  ten  years'  reign  published  6200  laws,  court  ordi- 
purple  for  him  from  Clement  XIII.  It  is  true  that  nances,  and  decrees  afifecting  the  Church.  Even 
Migassi  was  now  in  possession  of  two  sees,  the  reve-  what  is  judicious  in  them  generally  bears  the  stamp  of 
nues  of  which  he  applied  to  their  improvement.  In  haste.  The  first  measures,  levellea  against  ecdesiasU- 
Waitsen  he  erected  the  cathedral  and  episcopal  palace  cal  jurisdiction,  created  dissatisfaction  as  encroach- 
and  founded  the"  Collegium  ()auperumnobiuum"  and  ments  on  the  rights  of  the  Church.  The  number  of 
the  convent.    Indeed  he  built  almost  an  entire  new  memorials  addressed  by  Cardinal  Migassi  to  Joseph 


WONABD                             289  taONABD 

n  tad  the  government  was  astonishing  large.    He  Vitrf ,  after  Hignard  hitd  painted  the  chapel  of  hii 

(npowd  all  the  Joeephist  reform  decrees  injurious  to  country  seat  at  Caubert,  took  him  to  Pans  and  ob- 

tbe  Church.     The  "mmplilied  and  improved  studiea",  tained  for  him  admission  to  the  most  celebrated 

tbe  oeW  methods  of  ecclesiastical  education  (^neral  at«lier  of  the  time,  that  of  Simon  Vouet.     But  the  one 

■eimnariea),   interierence    with  the   constitutions   of  place  which  more  than  all  others  attracted  painten 

refi^ous  ordera,  the  suppression  of  convents,  and  was  Rome,  where  a  throng  of  foreign  artists  were  at 

viol&tioas  of  her  rights  and  interference  with  the  mat-  that  time  living,  among  them  Pousatn  and  Claude 

limoniaJ  le^Ution  ot  the  Church,  called  for  vigorous  Lonain,  who  had  settledthere  for  life.    Mignard  was 

protests  onthe  cardinal's  part;  but thougbbeprot«sted  a  member  of  this  colony  for  twenty-two  years.     Here 

unceasingly,  it  was  of  no  avail.    To  be  sure,  matters  he  found  Dufieenoy  (1611-65),  who  had  been  bisoom- 

did  not  culminate  in  a  rupture  with  Rome,  and  by  rade  at  Vouet'a  and  with  whom  he  formed  a  dose 

bis  vint  to  Vienna  I^us  VT  made  some  impression  friendship,  and  together  they  copied  Carrwci's  famous 

oo  the  emperor,  and  the  Holy  See  pronounoed  no  frescoes  m  the  Farnese  Palace.     But  Dufresnoy  was 

tdemn  condemnation  of  Josepnism.     On  12  March,  before  all  things  a  critic,  and  his  best  known  work 

1790,  Leopold,  Grand  Duke  of  Tuscany,  arrived  in  is  not  a  painting,  but  a  txxit,  "De  arte  gi^>hioa", 

Vienna,  aa  successor  of  his  brother  Joseph,  and  as  a  "innuftl  written 

(uiy  as   21   March,   Migazzi  presented   lum  with  a  in   extremely  ele- 

memorialcfHicenungthesadconditionof  tbe  Austrian  gant  L^tin  verse, 

Church.     He  mentioned  thirteen  "grievances"  and  published  after  his 

painted  out  for  each  the  means  of  redress:  laxity  in  death  with  notes 

monastic  discipline,  the  general  seminaries,  marriage  by  De  Piles,  and 

licensee,  and  the  "Religious  Commission",  which  as-  reprinted  for  a 

■timed  the  position  of  judge  of  tbe  bishops  and  their  hundred  years  as  a 

li^ts.     Finding  his  wishm  onlv  partly  fulfilled.  Mi-  masterpiece,  lliis 

gaui  repeatedly  exprCBsed  his  disaatisiactitHi,  rare      amateur 

Emperor  Francis  II,  a  Christian  whose  faith  and  wielded  a  ^reat 
ooDscience  were  sincere,  ruled  his  people  with  fatherly  educational  mflu- 
care.  In  spite  of  this  he  confirmed  the  Joaephist  ence  over  Mi- 
BTstem  throughout  his  leign.  For  nearly  a  g^erat ion  enard,  and  made 
the  French  wars  abeorbea  his  attention,  during  which  him  ac<)uaint«d 
time  tbe  aforesaid  "  Religious  Commission "  paid  little  with  Venice  and 
heed  to  tiie  representations  of  the  bishops.  The  car-  its  incomparable 
dinal  insisted  on  its  abolition.  "I  am  in  all  things  school,  which  our 
jour  Uaieaty's  obedient  subject,  but  in  spiritiml  classic  art  had 
matters  tne  shepherd  must  say  fearlessly  that  it  is  a  professed  to  de- 
scandal  to  all  Catholics  to  see  such  fetters  laid  upon  spise.  Mignard 
the  bishops.  The  scandal  is  even  greater  when  such  was  above  all  an 
power  is  vested  in  worldlv,  questionable,  even  openly  adroit,  industrious 

oan^rous  and  disreputable  men".     Age  did  not  di-  workman,  who  knew  well  how  to  flatter  public  tast« 

minish  his  interest  even  in  matters  apparently  trivial,  and  thus  secure  his  own  advancement.    Hesoonmode 

nor  lessen  the  virile  strength  of  his  speech.    "The  for  himself  a  position  as  portrait-painter  uniaue  in 

dismal  outlook  of  the  Church  in  your  Majesty's  domin-  Roman  society;  his  patrons  were  princes,  cardinals, 

ions  is  all  the  more  ^evous  from  the  fact  that  one  and  three  successive  popes — Urban  VIII,  Innooent 

must  stand  by  in  idleness,  while  he  realises  how  X,  and  Alexander  VTI. 

easily  the  increasing  evils  could  bo  remedied,  how  At thesometimeheproducedmanyreligiousworks, 

easily  your  Majestv's  conscience  could  be  calmed,  countless  oratory  pictures,  chiefly  those  Madonnas 

tbe  honour  of  Almigoty  God,  respect  for  the  Faith  and  which  came  to  be  known  as   "mignardes".     That 

theChurchof  God  be  secured,  the  rightful  activities  of  name,  intended  at  the  time  to  be  eulogistic,  seems  to 

the  priestbood  set  free,  and  religion  and  virtue  restored  us  the  beat  possible  criticism  of  a  type  of  work  marked 

to  toe  Cath<Jic  people.    All  this  would  follow  at  once,  by  a  certam  conscious  grace  ana   preciosity.    One 

if  oohr  your  Majesty,  setting  aside  further  indecision,  feels  a  delicacy  about  saying  positively  that  these 

would  resolve  generously  and  perseveringly  to  close  Madonnas  are  not  devotional,  since  they  satisfied  the 

(nee  for  all  tbe  sources  of  so  great  evils".     The  em-  piousinstinctsof  whole  generations  of  devout  peisons; 

peror  hi  fact  made  henceforth  greater  and  more  but  it  is  impossible  in  our  time  not  to  perceive  in  them 

numerous  concessions,  each  of  which  was  greeted  by  a  singular  meanness,  ortificialitv,  and  puerility  of 

Migaiii  with  satisfaction.     When  the  pilgrimage  to  feeling.     But  in  the  midst  of  all  these  labours,  the 

Haiia  ZeU,  the  most  famous  shrine  in  Austria,  was  artist  found  time  for  such  la^  compositions  as  the 

Qoce  more  jiermittod,  the  cardinal  in  person  led  the  frescoes  in  the  church  of  S.  Carlo   afle  ouattro  fon- 

fiiM  procession.     During  his  long  life  Migani  strove  tane.     He  thus  attained  an  unqueetionabli 

with  unceasing  activity  for  the  welfare  of  the  Church:     '  -  ' 1...^-  _  ^l-. > — .,__  t.  .,. 

and  he  died  full  of  yeais  and  of  merits.     He  lies  buried 
in  the  church  of  St.  Stephen. 

~                 :.  Criioibn  Anionio  CanUnai  ^won,  Bbt  exhibited  In  Rome,  where 


B^ing  tur  QndC.  det  jMcpUnumu*.  with  a  portrait  of  Wuiii  and  to  Pietro  of  Cortona.     During  his  travels  through 

1899),  380-041.  the  greatest  distmction,  and  pamted  Cardinal  Sforxa  a 

C.  WoLFSOBCBER.  portrait  and  those  of  the  Princesses  Isabella  and 
Maria  of  Modena.  On  his  return  to  Rome  (1655)  he 
married  Anna  Avolaia,  on  architect's  daughter,  whose 

,  ._  .,      ,  ..,.  beauty  was  perfect  and  who  posed  for  hifl  Madonnas. 

deMined  for  the  medical  profession,  Pierre  gave eaily  The  reputation  of  "Mignard  the  Roman",  as  he  was 

ngos  ot  hia  true  vocation.     For  one  year  he  studied  called,  to  distinguish  him  from  his  brother,  "Mignard 

at  Bourges,  under  a  teacher  of  tbe  name  of  Boucher,  of  Avignon",  had  spread   to  France,   where   Louis 

then  for  two  years  at  Fontainebleau,  where,  thanks  XTV  was  beginning  his  personal  reign,  inaugurating 

to  the  works  of  Primatice  and  Rosso,  and  the  collec-  that  system  which  reliea  upon  the  glory  of  the  arts 

tirnis  formed  there  by  Francis  I,  there  bad  been  for  no  leas  than  the  glory  of  arms  for  the  exaltation  of  the 

liity  years  a  sort  of  national  school.    The  Marshal  of  monarchy.     Mignard  was  summoned  back  to  Prance, 
X.— 1» 


BnONE  290  BnONE 

and  reached  Paris  (1658),  where  he  met  Molidre,  and  were  good,  according  to  the  taste  of  the  period,  imi- 

fonned  his  famous  friendship  with  that  poet.  tated  from  Caraccio  and  from  Guido's  mythologies, 

He  foimd  awaiting  him  in  France  the  same  exoep-  artificial,  pleasing,  facile,  somewhat  heavy  and  weak 

tional  position  that  he  had  enjoyed  in  Italy.    Hardly  in  st^le.    The  beist  of  nls  religious  pictures  is  the 

had  he  arrived  when  he  executed  portraits  of  Louis  "  Visitation  "  in  the  Museum  at  Orleans. 
XIV  and  other  membens  of  the  ro^al  family.    His        At  last,  Le  Brun  having  died  (1691),  Mignard,  at 

replv  to  detractors,  who  c)uestioned  his  talent  for  great  the  age  of  ei^ty,  succeeded  to  all  his  offices,  was 

works,  was  the  decoration  of  the  Hdtel  d'Epemon,  solemnly  received  into  the  Academy,  and  in  one 

soon  followed  by  that  of  the  cupola  of  the  Val-de-  session  elected  to  all  its  degrees,  including  that  of 

Grftce.    The  latter,  said  to  be  the  largest  frescoed  president.    Louvois  having  consulted  him  on  the 

suriace  in  the  world,  comprising  two  hundred  colossal  project  of  decorating  the  cupola  of  the  Invalides,  the 

figures,   represents   Paradise.    In   pursuance   of    a  veteran  painter  saw  an  opportunity  of  crowning  his 

formula  dear  to  the  Roman  decorator,  the  throng  of  career  with  an  exceptional  performance,  but  Louvois 

celestial  personages  is  here  displayed   around  the  died,  the  work  was  oelayed,  and  the  artist  lost  all  hope 

Blessed  Trinity — ^the  Virgin,  the  Apostles,  the  Evange-  of  realizing  his  last  dream.    He  died,  it  may  almost 

lists,  viigins,  and  confessors,  founders  of  orders,  holy  be  said,  with  his  brushes  in  Iiis  hand,  at  the  age  of 

kii^  like  Constantine,  Charlemagne,  and  St.  Louis,  eighty-four.    His  last  work  is  a  picture  in  whidi  he 

and,  finally,  Anne  of  Austria,  kneeling,  oflfering  the  himself  appears  as  "St.  Luke  painting  the  Blessed 

model  of  the  church  dedicated  by  her  to  Jeau  NascerUi  Virgin  ". 

Virginique  Matri,    This  style  of  apotheosis,  already  _  Db  Monvillb,  Vys  de  M.  Mignard  (Ainaterdam.  1731;) 

trite  in  Italy,  still  possessed  the  merit  of  novelty  in  ^^%''fZi^'f^'^;^:f%i!^  §^„iir5sd^-*SJ; 

France.     The  immense  composition,  havmg  cost  its  rAcatUmie  de  Peinture  (Paris.  1853);  Ck>URTAi>oN-DELAiBTRK. 

author  only  eight  months*  work,  suffers  the  penalty  ^^^  de  Mignard  (Troyea,  1781)  ;  Blakc.  Hialoirt  de»  PeinireM, 

of. its.  hurried  citation.  .  ITie  compyition  lacks  in-  |rtS^^SJj8^1rci,\iJ5,fe'klSfS"A^f^^ 

spiration,  the  colourmg  is  feeble  and  neutral  rather  Louvre  (Paria,  1884). 

tnan  bright,  yet  it  was  a  very  celebrated  work  in  its  Louis  Gillet. 

time,  because  it  flattered  the  megalomania  and  the 

chauvinism  of  the  public;  France  no  longer  need  envy  Migne,  Jacques-Paul,  priest,  and  publisher  of 
Italy;  Rome  was  no  longer  at  Rome,  it  was  in  Paris,  theological  works,  b.  at  oaint-Flour.  25  October, 
In  this  way  Mignard's  cupola  took  on  the  character  1800;  d.  at  Paris,  24  October,  1875.  Alter  completing 
of  a  national  victory,  as  Molidre  said  in  his  famous  his  college  courses,  he  devoted  himself  to  the  study 
poem  "La  Gloire  du  Val  de  Gr&ce";  thus  this  very  of  theology  in  Orleans^  and  while  a  student  there 
mediocre,  though  ambitious,  piece  of  painting  was  filled,  for  a  time,  the  position  of  professor  in  the  fourth 
honoured  at  its  birth  by  the  most  popular  and  class  of  the  college  of  Ch&teaudim.  He  was  ordained 
"national"  of  French  writers.  Whether  from  policy  priest  in  1824,  and  in  the  following  year  was  made 
or  from  inclination,  Mignard  belonged  to  the  social  pastor  of  Puiseaux,  in  the  Diocese  of  Orleans.  He 
circle  of  Racine,  Boileau,  and  La  Fontaine,  at  a  time  published  a  pamphlet:  "De  la  liberty",  which  brought 
when  artists  in  France  associated  but  little  with  any  nim  into  conflict  with  his  bishop,  Brunault  de  Beaure- 
but  their  professional  brethren.  Thanks  tp  these  con-  gard,  in  consequence  of  which  he  resigned  his  parish, 
nections,  ne  is  the  artist  of  whom  seventeenth-century  and  went  to  Paris^  where,  in  the  same  year,  he  founded 
literature  has  most  to  say.  Scarron  and  La  Bruy^re  "  L'Univers  Religieux  ",  later  "  L'Univers  " — a  journal 
acclaimed  his  greatness,  and  as  he  had  the  knack  intended  by  him  to  be  free  from  any  political  ten- 
of  turning  his  literary  friendshins  to  good  accoimt,  dency^  and  concerned  with  Catholic  interests  alone, 
he  was  able  to  maintain  for  thirty  years  his  curious  He  edited  this  paper  until  1836,  and  contributed  to  it  a 
sauabble  with  the  Academy.  This  bod^,  after  a  series  very  great  number  of  articles.  Meanwhile,  he  had 
of  difficulties,  had  been  definitely  organized  by  Colbert  conceived  the  plan  of  publishing  for  the  use  of  the 
under  the  presidency  of  Le  Brun,  whose  authority  clergy  a  series  ol  important,  older  and  newer,  theologi- 
Mignard  would  not  recognize.  The  whole  of  the  court  cal  works,  at  so  moderate  a  price  that  they  mi^t 
faction  which  opposed  Colbert  naturally  took  sides  meet  with  a  wide  circulation,  and  thus  further  an 
with  Mignard,  who,  without  any  official  position,  was  earnest  and  scientific  studv  in  ecclesiastical  circles, 
clever  enough  to  keep  up  his  reputation  as  "  premier  For  this  purpose  he  founded  in  the  suburb  Petit- 
painter",  and  to  add  to  it  that  spicy  opposition  which  Montrouge  a  targe  printing  house,  with  all  the  neoes- 
m  France  always  serves  to  carry  an  artist's  reputation  sary  departments,  the  Imprimerie  Catholique,  where 
farthest.  The  Ust  of  portraits  executed  by  Mignard  he  employed  more  than  three  hundred  woricmen. 
in  the  second  period  of  his  life  includes  all  French  From  1836  he  devoted  his  energies  exclusively  to  this 
society  of  that  time.  The  young  queen,  the  Due  great  and  imp)ortant  undertaking,  which  made  him 
d'Engnien.  the  Princess  Palatine,  Chimcellor  Siguier,  universallv  known.  ^  Within  a  relatively  short  time 
the  Due  ae  Beaufort,  Bossuet,  le  Tellier,  Turenne,  he  succeeded  in  publishing  many  volumes  of  the  older 
Villacerf,  la  Revnie,  the  Comtesse  de  Grignan,  the  theological  literature,  and  partly  because  of  the  mod- 
Duchesse  de  Ch&tillon,  Molidre,  the  famous  Ninon  de  erate  cost,  he  obtained  for  them  a  wide  circulation. 
Lenclos,  id^  sat  to  him.  He  piEiinted  Louis  XIV  ten  We  may  mention  here:  "Scripturse  Sacne  Cunus 
times,  and  on  the  last  occasion  the  king  said  to  him,  Completus"  (28  vols.,  1840-^5),  with  excellent  com- 
"Mignard,  yoxi  find  me  changed".  True,  sire",  mentaries  of  older  and  newer  writers  on  each  of  the 
said  the  pamter;  "I  see  a  few  more  campaigns  on  Books  of  Scripture;  "Theologise  Cursus  Completus" 
Your  Majestv's  brow".  He  used  for  his  women  (28  vols.,  1840-45)2  with  treatises  of  manv  earlier 
models  a  rather  gaudv  style,  in  which  the  draperies  writers  supplementing  the  main  articles;  '^D^mon- 
were  somewhat  overdrawn,  and  a  system  of  half-  strations  Evang^liques"  (20  vols.,  1842-53),  in  which 
mythological  emblems  and  allusions  which  faithfully  are  gathered  together  the  apologetic  writings  of  over 
reflect  the  ideals  of  the  court  of  Louis  XFV.  Hence  one  hundred  authors  from  every  epoch  of  church 
these  portraits  have  the  same  historical  value  as  those  history;  "Collection  Int^grale  et  Universelle  des 
of  Lely  or  Kneller  at  the  court  of  James  II,  while  Orateurs  Sacr^"  in  two  series  (102  vols.,  1844-66), 
some  of  them  possess  an  unquestionable  attractive-  containing  the  works  of  the  best  pulpit  orators  of  the 
ness.  But  this  was  only  one  part  of  Mignard's  work,  preceding  centuries  j  "Summa  Aurea  de  Laudibus 
He  decorated  many  residenoej,  public  buildings,  and  Beat®  Mari»  Virginis,  coll.  J.  J.  Bourass^"  (13 
churches,  but  all  that  remains  of  these  works  is  the  vols.^  1866-68);  "Encyclop^ie  Th^logique",  an  ex- 
^  Apollo  ceiling  in  the  castle  of  Balleroy  (Manche).  tensive  collection  of  works  of  reference,  alphabetically 
However^  we  know  by  engraving  that  the9Q  works  aminged,  and  not  confined  to  theological  matten 


BOGRATION                             291  BOGRATION 

alone,  but  including  a  number  of  auxiliary  scienoes.  Book  of  Exodus  more  clearly  describes  the  withdrawal 

such  as  philosoDhy,  geography,  history,  natural  his-  of  the  Hebrew  tribes  from  the  land  and  rule  of  an- 

tory,  bibliograpny,  three  series,  containmg  altogether  cient  Egypt.    A  typical  illustration  of  tribal  migra- 

171  vols.,  184^-66.    Several  of  the  dictionaries  of  the  tion  was  the  separation  of  Abraham  and  Lot,  when  the 

collection  are  of  unequal  value,  and  may  be  considered  latter  gathered  his  substance  and  set  his  face  towards 

as  out  of  date.  Sodom,  while  Abraham  took  his  way  to  the  plains, 

The  most  important  and  meritorious  of  his  publica-  founded  a  nation,  and  went  into  history  as  the  Father 

tioDS  is  the  "  Patrologia  ",  in  two  collections:  "  Patro-  of  the  Mighty.    Of  the  Greeks,  too,  it  may  be  said  that 

logiiB  TAtinm  Cursus  Completus  ",  in  two  series  (217  the  dominant  fact  of  their  leading  epoch  was  the  wan- 

vols,  in  all,  1844-55),  witn  four  volumes  of  indexes  dering  of  the  race,  imtil  its  narrow  borders  widened 

(vols.  218-221,  1862-64),  and   "Patrologiffi  Grsecse  out  into  Magna  Clrsecia.     Throughout  early  Latin 

CuTBus  Completus  '*,  of  which  one  series  contains  only  literature  runs  the  same  story  of  the  migrations  and 

Latin  translations  of  the  originals  (81  vols.,  1856-61).  conquests  of  the  Latin  race,  reaching  a  cumax  in  the 

The  second  series  contains  the  Greek  text  with  a  Latin  colossal  structure  of  the  Roman  Empire.    Modem 

translation    (166   vols.,    1857-66).    To   the   Greek  writers  have  discussed  the  fall  of  tnat  structure 

Patrol<^Sy  there  was   no  index,  but  a  Greek,  D.  and  the  building  of  that  strange  conglomerate  of 

Scholarioe,  added  a  list  of  the  authors  and  subjects,  Asiatic  and  European,  of  Germanic  and  Romance 

(Athens,  1879)  and  began  a  complete  table  of  con-  elements,  till  a  new,  and  greater,  Europe  arose  from 

tents   (Athens,  1883).    The  Patrolo^a  Latina  con-  the  old. 

tains  ail  the  attainable  published  writings  of  Latin  General  movements  of  population  are  termed  mi- 
ecclesiastical  authors  from  the  earliest  known  to  Pope  grations.  It  is  a  general  term  indicating  a  permanent 
Innocent  III  (d.  1216).  The  Patrolo^  Grseca  m-  change  of  habitat,  i.  e.  a  more  or  less  serious  intent  to 
dudes  the  printed  works  of  Greek  Christian  writers  take  up  permanent  residence  in  the  new  coimtry. 
down  to  the  Council  of  Florence  (1438-39).  The  The  terms  immigration  and  emigration  denote  re- 
intention  was  to  choose  for  the  new  issues  the  best  spectively  the  entry  into  and  the  departure  from 
editions  of  each  author,  with  suitable  introductions  any  given  country.  Generallv  speaking,  inrniigration 
and  critical  additions,  wnich  plan,  unfortunately,  was  presents  more  serious  problems  than  emigration, 
not  always  realised.  The  printing,  too,  was  fre-  though  certain  dangers  do  arise  from  an  excess  of 
quently  unsatisfactory,  and  in  most  of  the  Migne  re-  emigration.  Many  problems  grow  out  of  inunigra- 
prints  we  find  a  number  of  misprints  and  errata.  The  tion,  and  to  these,  legislators  and  rulers  have  turned 
great  value  of  the  collection  hes  in  the  fact  that  at  a  their  attention. 

moderate  cost  and  in  a  handy  form  a  great  work  of  Migrations  have  taken  place  under  a  variety  of  con* 
reference  was  produced,  and  a  whole  series  of  rare  and  ditions.  In  general  they  have  been  volimtaiy :  peo- 
Bcattered  writmgs  were  gathered  together,  and  made  pies  have  come  and  gone  of  their  own  free  will.  JBut 
easily  accessible  to  the  learned  world.  The  collections  forced  migrations  have  not  been  unknown  in  history, 
had  a  large  circulation,  and  are  widely  used  as  works  as  when  a  conquering  people  has  expelled,  killed,  or 
ol  reference.  Besides  these  great  collections,  Migne  sold  the  conquered  into  slavery.  The  rule,  however, 
printed  a  large  number  of  the  writings  of  sin^e  im-  has  been  to  leave  the  population  on  the  soil  under  con- 
portant  theological  authors,  in  complete  editions,  ditions  more  or  less  severe.  The  latest  principle, 
e.  g.  Saint  Thomas  Aquinas,  Saint  Teresa,  C!ardinal  dominant  among  Western  nations,  is  to  disturb  the 
B^rulle;  the  great  pulpit  orators  Bourdaloue,  Bossuet,  population  as  little  as  possible,  either  in  their  person 
Ha88illon,Flichier;  the  writers  LefrancdePompignan,  or  property.  The  right  to  exile  a  people  has  been 
de  Pressy,  R^enier,  Thi^bault,  du  Voisin,  de  Maistre,  abandoned,  and  the  noted  case  when  England  trans- 
and  others.  Up  to  1856,  Migne  was  also  proprietor  ported  the  Acadians  in  1755  marks  the  date  when  sen- 
of  a  journal  "La  V^rit^",  which  gathered  articles  timent  turned  against  it  and  practice  rapidly  followed; 
from  papers  of  every  tendency,  and  republished  them  transferred  to  a  new  authority,  as  the  Filipinos  were, 
as  aids  to  a  comprehensive  induction  on  current  ideas  the  people  do  not  migrate.  Indeed,  in  the  treaties 
and  facts.  In  connexion  with  his  Imprimerie  Catho-  transferring  territory  to  new  hands,  the  inhabitants 
lique  were  established  workshops  for  the  production  are  sometimes  expressly  guaranteed  against  expulsion, 
of  religious  objects,  such  as  pictures,  statues^  and  as  in  the  Louisiana  Purchase  Treaty  of  1803.  En- 
organs.  In  1868  a  great  conflagration  broke  out  m  the  forced  migration  has  taken  other  forms.  It  has 
printing  house,  which  extended  to  the  entire  Mont-  shown  itself  in  the  organization  of  criminal  colonies, 
rouge  establishment,  destroying  almost  entirely  the  as  seen  in  Tasmania.  It  has  been  practised  by  Russia 
work  of  years,  and  the  valuable  stereot3rpe  plates  of  in  the  attempt  to  settle  Siberia.  While  conrpuLsory 
the  Patrolo^.  The  loss  was  over  six  million  francs,  migration  has  not  played  a  great  part,  assisted  niigra- 
but  Migne  did  not  lose  courage,  and  began  at  once  to  tion  has  been  a  large  factor  in  either  inducing  or  direct- 
rebuild.  But  difficulties  accumulated.  The  Arch-  ing  the  movement  of  population.^  Assistance  may  be 
bishop  of  Paris  was  averse  to  the  commercial  elements  given  either  by  the  lancf  which  gives  or  that  which  re- 
in the  work,  forbade  the  continuance  of  the  business,  ceives  the  emigrant.  An  illustration  of  the  former  is 
and,  finally,  suspended  the  publisher  from  his  priestly  the  aid  dven  to  emigrants  from  Prussia  to  Argentine 
functions.  The  Franco-German  war  of  1870  inflicted  and  to  tne  Kamenm  region.  In  times  of  colonial  ex- 
peat  losses;  then  from  Rome  came  a  decree  condenm-  pansion  this  method  has  been  especially  effective, 
mg  the  misuse  of  Mass  stipends  for  the  purchase  of  Ftospective  colonists  have  been  given  bonuses  in  the 
books,  and  Migne  was  especially  named  in  connexion  form  of  tax-exemptions  and  liberal  grants  of  land;  the 
with  this  abuse.  He  died  without  ever  having  re-  last  mode  is  best  illustrated  in  the  grants  in  the  London 
gained  his  former  prosperity,  and  his  business  puased  charter  of  1609-12.  Liberation  from  civil  and  crim- 
into  the  hands  of  Uarmer  Freres.  inal  prosecution  was  also  an  effective  means  to  induce 

Vapbrbai^  IHcfummiire  univerul dea  Contemporains,  4th ed,  migration:  tiiis  was  used  in  England  when  the  jails 

gam.  1880).  1290;  PolybiMUm,  partie  ZitfA«tr«.l  (Paris,  1868).  ^^  emptied,  and  debtors  flocked  to  Georgia,  and 

J.  p.  KiBSCH.  when  the  courts  offered  the  choice  of  self-imposed  exile 

to  accused  and  condenmed  persons.    Cases  are  not 

Migration. — ^The  movement  of  populations  from  wanting  where  coimtries  have  attracted  immigrants 

Elaoe  to  place  is  one  of  the  eariiest  social  phenomena  to  themselves  in  various  ways.    Conspicuous  as  an 

istory  records.    Tlie  earliest  migration  recorded  in  example  was  the  United  States,  where  for  decades 

the  Bible  was  when,  after  the  confusion  of  tongpues,  "contract  labour"  supplied  the  market  and  made  it 

men  wandered  over  the  face  of  the  earth  (Gen.,  xL  8)  possible  for  absolutely  impecunious  labourers  to  mi- 

under  conditions  only  vaguely  known  to-day.    The  grate  to  America.    So  extensive  had  this  assistance 


WGRATION  292  UKaJLTtOtt 

become  that  Congress  has  for  many  vears  leeislated  Brttain.    With  the  industrial  changes  in  England, 

with  the  view  of  preventing  further  aid  of  this  kind.  when  the  modem  age  dawned,  lessening  supplies  of 

Migration  to-oay  differs  in  many  important  par-  food  pushed  men  beyond  the  sea.    In  more  modem 

ticulars  from  that  of  earlier  times.    Down  to  a  quite  times  the  himger-stncken  peoples  of  European  lands 

recent  date  peoples  moved  as  tribes,  nations,  or  races,  have  come  to  the  new  parts  of  the  world,  to  America, 

moving  and  settling  en  masse.    Taking  forceful  pos-  North  and  South;  to  Australia  and  South  Africa;  fiom 

session  of  extended  areas,  they  maintained  their  in-  Russia  they  have  pushed  into  Asia,  while  Japan  lays 

dividuality  eitlier  under  colonial  systems  or  as  sepA-  hold  of  outlying  islands  where  congested  population 

rate  groups;  they  finally  established  nations,     with  may  find  room  for  expansion.    Moreover,  there  are 

these  migrating  groups  went  their  own  institutions,  secondary  causes  which  play  back  and  forth  with  vary- 

language,  religion,  industrial  methods,  and  political  ing  degrees  of  force  and  effectiveness.    These  causes 

smd  l^Eti  systems.    Usually  they  moved  into  unin-  operate  temporarily  thoufi^  powerfully.    They  usually 

habited  or  spa^i^y  settled  areas,  where  no  question  of  act  reciprocally  in  the  different  countries,  and,  like 

amalgamation  could  arise.    With  certain  exceptions,  the  sun  and  moon  affecting  the  tides,  now  oppose  each 

the  Roman  Empire  being  the  most  noted,  migrations  other,  now  act  in  conjunction, 
have  entailed  the  settling  of  a  highly  culturea  people        At  the  close  of  the  eighteenth  century  a  change  in 

among  those  of  a  lower  culture.    In  all  such  cases  of  the  attitude  of  the  principal  governments  resulted  in 

migration  en  masse  the  native  habitat  was  forever  greater  freedom  for  those  wno  wished  to  migrate, 

abandoned,  and   the  migrating  tribes,  thoroi^hly  During  the  first  half  of  the  nineteenth  century  the  laws 

ec^uipped,  entered  a  new  environment  and  yielded  en-  limiting  or  prohibiting  emigration  were  gradually 

tiiely  to  new  influences.    In  these  particulars  different  modified  or  repealed.    At  this  time  most  countries,  es- 

conoitions  now  obtain:  migration  is  effected  bv  fam-  pecially  those  of  the  Western  world,  favoured  immi- 

ilies  and  individuals.    These  so  from  dense  and  nighly  gration,  and  few  limitations  existed  checking  the  flow 

cultured  populations  where  free  opportunity  is  usu-  of  population;  free  action  was  thus  secured  to  social, 

ally  closed,  taking  few  possessions  with  them;  their  political,  and  economic  causes.    The  variations  in  the 

language  survives  during  their  own  generation,  and  flow  of  immigrants  to  the  United  States  illustrate  with 

in  tne  succeeding  one  is  exchanged  for  the  language  of  special  clearness  the  operation  of  these  causes.    From 

the  adopted  country,  though  they  usually  retain  their  1820  to  1833  the  number  of  immigrants  gradually 

religion.    They  must  fit  into  a  new  industrial  system,  increased,  but  as  hard  times  began  here.  cuEninating 

however,  unlike  their  own.    As  a  rule,  they  renoimce  in  the  panic  of  1837,  immigration  fell  off.    More 

their  natural  political  allegiance  and  assume  a  new  marked  still  were  the  effects  of  economic  conditions 

political  status,  abandoning  the  relations  attaching  to  from  1846  till  1857.    During  this  period  unusual  ac- 

their  fomer  status  and  assuming  new  political  and  tivity  showed  itself  in  the  United  States.    Under  the 

contractual  relations.    Such  migration  meann  to  the  influence  of  Clay's  tariff  measures,  manufactures  had 

emigrants  the  death  of  a  nation,  so  far  as  conoems  grown,  creating  an  enlaiged  demand  for  labour,  which 

them,  while  to  their  new  countiy  it  brings  a  serious  was  not  forthcoming  m>m  the  native  population, 

modification,  the  extent  of  which  depends  upon  the  The  opening  of  Western  lands  absorbed  much  of  the 

relative  virility  of  the  newly  added  national  element,  labour  that  otherwise  would  have  gone  into  industry. 

These  characteristics  of  modem  migrations  have  and  also  drew  on  f oreioi  sources  for  increased  supply, 
given  rise  to  a  threefold  movement.  In  certain  lands,  The  greatest  impulse,  nowever,  was  given  by  the  di»- 
as  Germany,  where  migration  to  America  means  a  loss  covery  of  gold  in  Cahfomia  in  1848.  Not  only  was 
to  German  citizenship,  attempts  have  been  made  to  there  a  great  demand  for  labour  on  the  Pacific  Uoast; 
colonhse,  and  thus  save  the  migrating  persons  to  Ger-  the  effects  of  the  discovery  of  gold  were  more  far- 
man  citizenship  and  culture.  Those  nations,  more-  reachixig.  Prices  were  high,  money  plentiful,  business, 
over,  which  they  enter  look  with  increasing  caution  so  sensitive  to  these  influences,  was  greatly  stimulated, 
and  suspicion  on  the  numbers  and  character  of  the  and  a  heavy  demand  for  labour  was  created.  By  an 
incoming    population.    When    once    admitted,    the  interesting  coincidence  European  economic  conditions 

Problem  presents  itself  of  granting  them  citizenship,  also  favoured  a  heavy  migration.  With  bad  crope 
'o  what  extent  shall  the  immigrant  assume  the  rights  and  sunless  summers  throughout  Europe,  the  climax 
and  duties  of  an  acquired  nationality?  The  problem  was  reached  in  the  potato  famine  of  1817  in  Ireland, 
of  migration  is  thus  inextricably  bound  up  with  a  This  destructive  calamity  occasioned  a  heavy  migra- 
political  one.  tion  from  Ireland  to  the  United  States,  where  abun- 
Causes  of  Migration. — The  primary  cause  of  the  dant  and  increasing  opportunity  was  to  be  found, 
migration  of  peoples  is  the  need  for  larger  food  sup-  At  the  same  time  certain  political  causes  operated  in 
plies.  From  the  time  when  nomadic  peoples  were  Europe.  Notable  among  these  causes  was  the  over- 
constantly  migrating  down  to  the  present  westward  throw  of  the  attempted  revolutions  in  the  German 
movements,  one  prmciple  has  been  uniformly  fol-  states,  especially  Prussia;  laige  numbers  of  the  Liberal 
lowed — they  have  gone  from  areas  of  low,  to  areas  Party  left  Germany.  The  results  of  the  Crimean  War 
of  high  food-supply.  This  has  been  a  constant  im-  are  less  easily  measured,  thou^  it  probably  sent  a 
pelling  and  expelling  power.  In  the  last  analysis,  certain  number  to  our  shores.  The  operation  of  these 
migration  results  when  tne  forces  of  increasing  popula-  causes  may  be  read  clearly  in  the  following  statistics: 
tion  and  decreasing  food  supply  are  not  in  equilibrium,  in  1844,  78,615  persons  came  to  our  shores;  in  1845, 
and  it  tends  to  equilibration  of  forces  among  societies  114,371 ;  in  1846, 154,416:  in  1847,  234,968;  in  1848. 
of  men:  equilibration  of  food  in  relation  to  population;  226,527;  in  1854  the  high-water  mark  was  reachea 
equilibration  of  rights  as  related  to  authoritv;  equili-  when  427,833  immigrants  landed  here, 
bration  of  industrial  eneigv  as  between  labour  and  Eoually  forceful  were  the  causes  of  immigration 
capital.  These  express  in  tne  most  general  temos  the  whicn  manifested  themselves  at  the  close  of  the  Civil 
meaning  of  migration.  First  came  the  tribal  migra-  War.  Checked  by  the  war,  industry  ad^^ced  b^ 
tions,  such  as  tne  exodus  of  Lot  and  Abraham  towards  leaps  and  boimds  at  its  conclusion,  and  men  and  capi- 
Zoar  and  their  subsequent  separation  in  search  of  tal  were  in  abnormal  demand.  Immigration  increased 
richer  pastures.  The  nomad  tribes  on  the  steppes  of  from  72,183  in  1862,  when  the  national  disaster  was 
Aaia  take  up  the  journey  to  the  waterway  to  find  at  its  worst,  to  459,403  in  1873.  During  the  mis- 
richer  pastures  for  their  herds.  The  migration  of  fortunes  following  the  panic  of  1873  the  number  fell 
Germans,  Slavs,  and  similar  nations  came  mter,  and,  (in  1878)  to  138,469.  In  the  eighties  bad  economic 
pushed  on  by  the  same  inexorable  necessity,  they  conditions  again  somewhat  influenced  mimtion  to 
moved  south  from  the  Caspian  and  Baltic  regions,  the  United  States,  when  it  fell  from  788,992  in  1882 
overrunning  Rcme,  and  taking  possession  of  Gaul  and  to  334,203  in  1886.    The  panic   of   1907  and  the 


lOClftAnOM  293  WGEATIOM 

lobsequent  hard  times  are  clearly  recorded  in  the  York  and  New  Jersejr.    A  few  Swedes  had  come  i% 

attenuated  immigration  to  this  coimti^  in   1908;  Delaware  and  a  sprmkling  of  Finns.    The  French 

whereas  in  1907  it  bad  received  nearly  a  million  and  a  were  represented  by  the  Huguenots  in  Georgia  and  in 

Quarter,  in  1908  and  1909  the  figures  amounted  to  only  the  Garolinas.  ^  It  has  been  estimated  that  the  popula- 

tnree  quarters  of  a  million.  tion  of  one  million  in  1750  had  developed  from  an 

Among  the  motives  other  than  economic  which  original  migration  of  80,000.  Additional  racial  modi- 
prompt  emi^pation  is  the  desire  to  escape  military  fication  resulted  from  the  annexation  of  new  terri- 
aervioe.  This  has  been  especially  operative  in  sucn  tories  of  alien  population.  In  1803,  by  the  treaty 
military  countries  as  Germany.  This  cause  is  much  with  France,  Louisiana  was  added,  with  some  acces- 
more  powerful  durins,  or  just  after,  a  war.  In  1872-  sion  of  population  and  a  consideraole  effect  upon  the 
73  there  were  10,000  processes  for  desertion  on  this  customs  and  ideas  of  the  nation  as  a  whole.  This  ad- 
account  alone  and  in  great  part  due  to  emi^tion.  dition  was  chiefly  French,  though  a  few  Spaniards  were 
Again  migration  because  of  religious  persecution  has  included.  The  acquisition  of  Florida  in  1821  brought 
b^  historically  of  great  importance.  In  past  cen-  a  few  Spaniards,  although  their  influence  is  negligiole. 
turies  thousands  went  from  the  Continent  to  England,  The  enlargement  westward,  from  1845,  when  Texas 
from  Ireland  and  Ekigland  to  the  Continent  and  to  the  was  admitted,  till  1848,  when  the  Mexican  Treaty 
New  World,  that  the^  might  enjoy  freedom  of  worship,  added  an  extensive  cession,  brought  a  number  ot 
In  recent  years  these  influences  nave  been  most  power-  Spaniards,  liexicans,  and  half-breeds.  Following 
ful  in  Russia  and  Turkey,  whence  persecutions  af-  upon  the  Spanish  War  of  1898,  which  resulted  in  an 
fecting  the  Jews  and  the  Greek  Christians  have  sent  accession  of  nearly  8,000^000  of  alien^  mainly  Far- 
laige  numbers  of  refugees,  especially  of  the  former  Eastern,  races,  the  extension  of  American  dominion 
class,  to  the  United  States.  Another  cause,  difficult  into  the  Pacific  has  vastly  complicated  the  problem  of 
to  measure,  but  of  great  influence,  is  the  solicitation  of  nationaliaation,  at  the  same  time  rendering  more  diffi- 
relatives  and  friends.  Once  in  the  new  country,  in  cult  the  control  of  immigration  from  the  OAent. 
many  instances  relatives  plan  to  bring  those  left  be-  The  beginning  of  migration  to  the  English  Colonies 
hind,  secure  places  for  them,  aid  them  in  coming,  and  in  America  was  the  Jamestown  settlement  of  1607.  In 
in  general  form  a  centre  of  attraction  in  the  new  land.  New  England  the  first  real  migration  of  any  extent 
drawing  powerfully  on  those  bevond  the  sea.  Along  was  the  company-  that  reached  Salem,  Biassachusetts, 
with  this  is  the  fear,  periodicallv  recurring  with  the  under  John  Endicott  in  1628.  Figures  on  the  subae- 
agitation  for  restriction,  that  further  immigration  ma^  ouent  arrivals^  while  not  certainly  accurate,  are  never- 
be  cut  off,  and  at  such  times  considerable  increase  is  tneless  very  interesting.  The  diversity  of  religion 
seen.  Thjs  was  particularly  noticeable  before  the  was  not  so  marked,  though  there  was  some  variation. 
American  legislation  61  1903.  The  early  German  immigrants  were  mostly  Protes- 

A  phase  ofthis  subject  which  cannot  be  overlooked  tants.    Maryland  was  settled  by  Catholics.    Into  the 

and  which  is  of  increasing  importance  in  the  United  South  drifted  a  large  number  of  Hu^enots.    In  New 

States  is  the  commercial.    On  the  one  hand  is  an  em-  England  there  was  a  strong  Separatist  element.    The 

ploying  class,  eager  for  cheap  foreign  labour;  on  the  formation  of  the  State  of  Pennsylvania  by  Quakers 

other  hand  are  various  agencies  whose  business  is  the  gave  them  a  stronghold  in  that  commonwealth, 
transportation  of  goods  uid  people.    As  the  main        The  beginning  of  immigration  into  the  United 

profits  of,  say,  the  steamship  companies  come  from  States  (i.  e.  of  post-Revolution  immigration)  dates 

the  immigrants  who  travel  in  the  steerage,  the  reason-  from  1789.    Before  that  time  it  is  more  proper  to 

ing  is  dear  to  the  line  of  action  which  they  follow,  speak  of  colonists  than  of  immig^:ants.    Statistics  aa 

Everjrwhere,  in  lands  where  migration  orif^inates,  is  the  to  the  aliens  coming  to,  or  returning  from,  the  United 

ubiquitous  immigration  agent.    His  business  is  to  in-  States  are  inaccurate  and  incomplete  from  1789  till 

duoe  people  to  migrate.    Exaggerated  rei>orts,  some-  1820.    Not  only  are  the  absolute  figures  unsatisfao- 

times  amounting  to  actual  misrepresentation,  are  too  torv,  but  no  distinction  was  made  between  newcomers 

c^ten  resorted  to.    On  this  legislation  has  had  its  im-  and  returning  Americans;  nor  was  any  attention  paid 

portant  bearing.    The  greatest  influence  exerted  by  to   the    returning   immigrant.    Roughly   speaking, 

the  employing  class  is  bv  means  of  contract  labour,  about  250,000  immigrants  landed  here  from  1789  to 

At  first  generally  desirable,  when  labour  was  scarce,  1820.    From  the  meagre  figures  recorded  any  analysis 

this  has  since  become  most  unpopular,  and  through  is  imperfect.    The  dominant  elements  were  English, 

law  and  adverse  popular  opinion  is  now  of  oompara-  Scotch,  and  Irish.    There  came  to  the  United  States 

tively  little  importance.  as  immigrants,  from  1820  to  1910,  a  grand  total  of  more 

iMiaoRATiON  TO  THE  UNITED  STATES. — The  many  than  28,000,000.    The  numbera  by  de(»des  were  as 

varied  problems  of  immigration  are  best  illustrated  by  follows: — 
its  history  in  the  United  States.    Perhaps  no  more        1821-1830  14^  4^9 

composite  nation  has  existed  since  the  Roman  Empire        1831-1840 ^09*125 

engulfed  the  various  nationalities  of  Western  Europe.        JSit  ;2|J; ,  Si?  ok? 

At   a   very    early    period    in   the   history   of   the        J«rig£X oWo?i 

American  Colonies,  the  Negro  was   introduced— a        i86i_i87o 2  S14  824 

race   so  remote,   anthropologically,  from  the  first        1871-1880 2  812  191 

Gol<mists  as  to  be  impossible  of  assimilation.    The        1881-1890 ^  24fi  fll^ 

American  Indians,  isolated  from  the  first,  have  ever        1891-1900 ?  682  8fi4 

sjnoe  been  tending  to  extinction,  and  hence  need  not        taXJ  iXVa q  oqq  ??a 

be  considered  as  a  possibility  m  the  [problem  of  na-        1W1-1»10 8,9J8,470 

ttouAl  and  social  composition.    As  time  pamed,  other        The  figures  given  for  the  last  decade  are,  of  course, 

races  came  to  still  further  complicate   the  prob-  partly  conjectural.    The  statistics  recently  issued  for 

lem.    Besides  these  distinct  racial  elements  must  be  the  }rear  ending  30  June,  1910,  give  a  total  of  1,041,570 

reckoned  an  infinite  number  and  variety  of  nationali-  immigrants  to  the  United  States  for  that  year:  736,- 

ties  marked  by  lesser  differences  and  capable  of  assimi-  038  males,  305,532  females.    These  included  192,673 

lation.  Italians;    128,348  Poles;    84,260  Jews;    71,380  Ger- 

The  settlera  of  the  original  Thirteen  Colonies,  while  mans;   53,498  English.    These  are  tbs  largest  num- 

fairly  homogeneous,  yet  presented  some  diversity,  bers  of  immigrants  known  for  any  year  so  far,  except 

There  were  English,  at  first  the  dominant  element,  the  vears  1907  (1,285,349)  and  1906  (1,100,735).    It 

Irish,  and  Scotch,  arid  persons  of  mixed  British  origin,  will  oe  seen,  too,  that  the  last  decade  shows  a  very  large 

There  were  a  goodly  number  of  Germans  in  Pennsyl-  number  of  immigrants  as  contrasted  with  any  previ- 

▼ania  and  remnants  of  the  Dutch  settlement  In  New  oob  decade.    These  figures  are  only  absolute.    It  is  in 


MZQAATION 


294 


WQEATION 


felative  statistics  that  meaning  lies.  From  the  stand- 
ooint  of  social  significance  the  relation  between  the 
influx  of  population  and  the  native  population  is  the 
important  concern.  This  is  true,  considered  from  the 
coimtry  giving  or  the  country  receiving  the  immi- 
grants. The  following  figures  show  the  percentages 
of  the  native  and  of  the  alien  population  for  a  series 
of  decades: — 


1850       native 

1860  " 

1870  " 

1880 

1890 

1900 


it 


90-3 
86-8 
85-6 
86-7 
85-2 
86-3 


alien 
it 

tt 

(C 

tt 
tt 


97 
13-2 
14-4 
13-3 
14-8 
13-7 


In  1890  there  were  17,314  foreign  bom  to  each 
100,000  native;  in  1900  the  proportion  was  15,886  to 
100,000.  The  largest  proportion  of  foreign-bom  is  in 
North  Dakota,  which  in  1890  had  42.7  per  cent;  in 
1900,  35.4  per  cent  foreign-bom.  In  1900  there  were 
seven  states  with  more  than  25  per  cent  foreign-bom. 
North  Carolina  had  in  1900  the  lowest  percentage  of 
foreigners,  two-tenths  of  one  per  pent,  the  average  in 
the  Southem  States  being  below  5  pier  cent.  From 
these  relative  figures  it  is  clear  that  the  effect  of  im- 
migration is  not  materially  changing. 

So  also  as  regards  emigration.  Not  the  absolute 
nimibers  leaving,  but  the  migration  relative  to  the 
total,  and  again  to  the  annual  excess  of  births  over 
deaths,  is  significant.  A  very  laige  mimition  from 
a  country  with  a  very  high  birth-rate  prooably  has  no 
effect,  or  only  a  slight  effect.  When  a  million  a  year 
leave  a  country  like  China,  it  merely  means  that  famine, 
disease,  infanticide,  etc.,  are  less  miportant  factors  in 
keeping  down  population;  the  greater  the  migration, 
the  less  burden  the  remaining  population  must  bear. 
In  many  Western  coimtries  this  is  not  the  case,  and 
when  heavy  emigration  takes  place  the  nation  may  be 
materially  weakened  either  for  war  or  peace.  The 
following  figures  illustrate  this  condition:  out  of  every 
1000  inhabitants  of  Italy  6*87  migrated  in  1888;  from 
Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  7*46;  from  Scotland  8*88; 
from  Irelimd  15*06;  from  Sweden  9*86;  from  Germany 
onlv  2*  10.  Most  remarkable  has  been  the  effect  upon 
Ireland,  where  so  great  has  been  the  emi^tion  smce 
the  potato  famine  that  the  population  is  now  little 
more  than  half  what  it  then  was,  this  being  about  the 
decrease  which  would  be  produced  by  an  emigration 
of  15  in  1000  during  a  generation. 

Statistics  require  analysis.  Inmiigration  statistics 
are  no  exception  to  the  rule,  and  much  meaning  may 
be  drawn  from  them  by  proper  analysis.  Immigrants 
are  not  merely  so  many  units,  so  many  hom<^neous 
things  to  be  blocked  off  in  columns  of  himdreds, 
thousands,  and  millions,  and  then  abandoned.  Immi- 
grants are  human  beings,  statistics  must  be  dealt  with 
m  the  light  of  that  fact,  and  careful  account  must  be 
taken  of  all  the  conditions  to  which  their  lives  are  sub- 
ject. These  cover  age,  sex,  training,  traditions,  and 
property.  Of  these  the  most  obvious  and  significant 
are  age  and  sex.  As  to  age,  immigration  to  the  United 
States  has  always  drawn  heavilv  upon  adult  life,  the 
mass  of  immigrants  coming  to  tne  United  States  dur- 
ing their  productive  period.  Of  German  immigrants 
up  to  1894,  upwards  of  60  per  cent  were  between 
the  ages  of  fifteen  and  forty-nve.  Of  all  immigrants 
to  the  United  States  in  1887,  70*51  per  cent  were  be- 
tween fifteen  and  forty.  In  1909,  out  of  751,786  im- 
migrants admitted,  624,876  were  between  14  and  44 
years  of  age;  88,393  were  under  14,  and  18,517  were  45 
or  over.  These  figures  indicate  about  the  normal  age 
conditions  of  immigrants  coming  to  the  United  States, 
serving  to  emphasize  the  lai^  amount  of  ready  labour 
brought  in,  and  the  large  aodition  to  the  labour  force 
of  the  coimtry  at  a  verv  slight  cost.  Caution  is 
needed,  however,  in  calculating  the  value  of  this  in- 
flux of  foreign  labour.    Some  have  taken  the  average 


eost  of  raising  a  labourer  to  the  productive  sta^; 
others  have  estimated  what  value  of  goods  this  foreign 
labour  would  produce.  The  better  wav  is  to  reckon 
the  profits  attributable  to  immigrant  laoour  in  excess 
of  their  expense  to  the  new  country ;  this  would  give 
the  actual  value  accruing  from  the  immigration. 

As  regards  sex  among  immigrants,  males  have  al- 
ways far  exceeded  females.  This  is  illustrated  by  the 
statistics  of  1909:  out  of  the  total  arrivals  of  751,786 
during  that  year,  519,969  were  males  and  231,817 
(somewhat  less  than  one-third)  were  females;  a^Eiin, 
in  1910,  out  of  1,041,570  immigrants,  736,038  were 
males.  This  tends  to  destroy  the  equilibrium  between 
the  sexes  in  the  coimtries  concerned.  It  leads  in 
many  instances  to  a  large  withdrawal  of  mone^  from 
the  United  States  to  the  home  land.  It  retains  the 
interest  of  the  immigrant  in  his  native  land,  and  leads 
many  to  return  to  families  from  which  they  have  only 
temporarily  separated.  It  increases  tliat  shifting 
population,  especially  in  the  large  cities,  and  greatlv 
augments  the  numbers  of  the  ''birds  of  passage  . 
On  the  whole,  the  results  are  unfortunate.  The  con- 
dition is  far  more  marked  with  certain  nationalities. 
The  characteristic  feature  of  Chinese  immigration  to 
the  United  States  has  been  the  absence  of  women.  The 
tendency  among  Italians  to  leave  their  families  at  home 
is  strong.  Of  165,248  immigrants  from  the  South  of 
Italy  in  1909,  there  were  135,080  males  and  30,168 
females.  From  Northern  Italy  the  proportion  was 
less  marked:  18,844  males  to  6,306  females.  From 
Ireland  came  15,785  males  and  15,400  females.  In 
the  case  of  the  Japanese  more  women  than  men  im- 
migrated to  the  United  States. 

Statistics  of  departing  emigrants  have  not  been 
kept  with  accuracy  and  completeness;  hence  it  is  difii- 
cult,  if  not  impossible,  to  know  just  how  many  foreign- 
ers actually  reside  in  the  United  States.  In  1908 
there  entered  the  country  782,870  immigrant  aliens. 
The  same  year  saw  395,072  depart.  These  figures  for 
that  year  show  a  net  ^in  of  387,797,  a  rather  small 
number.  Of  course,  this  number  of  departures  was 
exceptional — ^resulting  from  the  panic  of  l907.  Out  of 
a  total  of  751,786  landinjg  in  1909,  as  many  as  225,802 
departed,  leaving  a  net  increase  of  525,984. 

The  study  of  illiteracy  in  connexion  with  immigra- 
tion reveals  the  foreigners  to  us,  enlarges  our  knowl- 
edge of  the  countries  from  which  they  come,  and  helps 
to  explain  the  conditions  of  literacy  or  illiteracy  in  tne 
United  States.  Moreover,  as  it  is  strongljr  urged  that 
illiteracy  should  exclude  immigrants,  existing  condi- 
tions as  to  foreign  education  wul  help  to  set  the  limits 
to  this  form  of  regulation.  The  statistics  on  this 
phase  of  the  subject  are  kept  fairly  constant  by  the 
shifting  of  the  sources  of  migration  from  the  north  to 
the  south  of  Europe.  As  education  of  the  masses  has 
not  advanced  as  rapidly  in  the  coimtries  now  supply- 
ing the  immigrant  as  in  countries  farther  north,  so  unb 
percentage  of  illiteracy  does  not  fall  with  the  general 
advance  of  education.  In  1909,  out  of  a  totaiimmi- 
gration  of  751,786,  the  totally  illiterate  numbered 
191,049.  This  number  takes  m  only  those  over  14 
years  of  age ;  but,  as  the  great  majority  of  those  coming 
are  over  14,  and  those  imder  that  age  are,  probably, 
more  generally  educated,  they  may  be  n^lected. 
The  percentage  of  illiteracy  of  all  over  14  years  in  1909 
was  29 ;  in  1907  it  was  30 ;  in  1906  it  was  28.  There  is, 
then,  no  general  diminution  in  illiteracy  among  im- 
migrants to  the  United  States.  The  degree  of  iUiter- 
acv  among  those  from  Southem  Europe  is  consider- 
ably above  the  average;  among  those  from  northern 
Europe  a  good  deal  below. 

Migration  as  AFFEcnNO  Other  Cottntriis. — 
The  last  quarter  of  the  nineteenth  century  saw  a  larse 
migration  to  South  America.  The  Argentine  RepuD- 
lic  has  presented  interesting  phases  of  the  subject. 
For  half  a  century  immigration  has  been  an  object  of 
public  attention  and  statistical  record.    Thm  are 


BOGRATION                            295  BCGRATION 

about  200,000  immigrants  amiually,  and  about  80,000  teenth  century,  the  teaching  of  natural  rights  and  an 

emigrants.    In  1907  there  were  209,103  immigrants  insistence  upon  the  individual's  privilege  to  go  to,  and 

and  90,190  emigrants.    Of  the  immigrants  there  were  remain  in,  tnat  part  of  the  world  which  best  suited  hjs 

90,282  Italians,  86,606  Spaniards,  and  sprinklings  of  fancy.    Thus  was  a  condition  reached  when  limita- 

other  nationalities.    In  1909  there  entered  Argentina  tions  could  be  removed.    In  England,  in  1824,  the 

125,497  Spaniards  and  93,479  Italians,  with  small  law  limiting  emigration  was  repealed.    In  Continental 

numbers  of  Russians,  Germans,  etc.    Since  1857  the  countries  the  same  liberal  policy  has  obtained.    In 

balance  of  immigrants  against  emigrants  has  been  Russia,  in  European  Turkey,  and  in  certain  Oriental 

2,550,197.    There  have  migrated  to  Brazil  since  the  lands  the  old  policy  is  still  partially  prevalent,  though 

records  were  kept,  2,723,964.    In  1908  Brazil  received  in  these  countries  more  liberal  measures  are  being 

94,695  immigrants.    In  1909  there  migrated  from  the  adopted.    But,  generally,  there  is  no  longer  question 

German  Empire  24,921,  of  whom  19,930  came  to  the  of  prohibiting  emigration,   but  rather  of  encourag- 

United  States.    Italy  in  1908  lost  486,674  emigrants  ing  it,  and  always  of  making  regulations  for  the 

and  received  back  281,000.    Austriar-Himgary  sent  arrival  and  departure  of  emigrants.    European  gov- 

out  386,528  in  1907,  of  whom  352,983  went  to  the  emments  have  undertaken  this  control  partly  on 

United  States.    In  1902,  55,368  Russians  emigrated  their  own  account,  partly  in  co-operation  with  the 

to  the  United  States;  in  1903,  68,105;  in  1904,  80,892;  United  States.    The  fortunate  sentiment  constantly 

in  1905,  72,475;  in  1906,  112,764.  grows  stronger  that  joint  action  is  necessary  to  suc- 

Legai^  Control  of  Migration. — ^The  legal  control  cessful  regulation, 

of  migration  beean  when  it  ceased  to  be  collective  and  France  is  the  country  where  emigration  plays  the 

began  to  be  inoividual.    Laws  have  been  passed  pre-  smallest  part.    With  a  oirth-rate  in  some  years  above, 

venting  people  from  leaving  their  native  land,  and  in  others  slishtly  below,  the  death-rate,  she  has  no 

also,  by  the  country  of  destination,   forbidding  or  surplus  popiuation.    It  nas  been  truly  said  that  <xer- 

regulatmg  entrance  thereto.    Extensive  regulation  many  has  population  to  spare,  but  no  territory;  Eng- 

has  been  found  necessary  applying  to  transportation  land  has  an  excess  of  both  people  and  territory*  but 

companies  and  their  agents,  the  means  of  transports-  France  has  no  surplus  people  and  little  vacant  land, 

tion,  treatment  en  rotUe  and  at  terminal  points.    The  The  annual  emigration  from  France  is  6000.    The 

justification  of  public  interference  is  to  be  found  in  the  total  since  1860,  probably  not  more  than  300,000, 

right  of  a  nation  to  control  the  variations  of  its  own  The  regulations  in  France  deal  almost  exclusively 

population.    The  highest  necessity  is  that  arising  with  the  means  of  transportation,  the  condition  o) 

from  war:  on  this  ground  nations  almost  universally  ships,  waiting-room  inspection,  the  health  and  morah 

regulate  very  closely  the  movements  of  population,  of  the  emigrant,  etc.    There  are  no  general  legal  bar*- 

forbidding  emigration,  that  thejr  may  not  lose  their  riers  to  free  miction.    The  same  thing  may  be  said  of 

soldiers,  and  guarding  immigration  as  a  military  pre-  Belgium  and  Holland.    The  emigration  law  of  Italy  of 

caution.    Restrictive  measures  are  also  justified  on  1901  is  the  most  thorough  enactment  among  the  laws 


individual  to  emigrate  is  of  rather  recent  date.    The  under  14  years  may  not  leave  alone;  parents  and 

old  theory  was  that  a  man  may  not  leave  his  native  guardians  must  leave  their  children  or  wards  in  com- 

land  without  the  consent  of  the  ruler.    This  situation  petent  hands.    Strict  care  is  taken  that  persons  shall 

arose  from  a  variety  of  causes.    After  the  dissolution  not  take  passage  who  will  be  liable  to  return  under 

of  the  feudal  system,  the  population  carried  some  of  foreign  inmiigration  tests.    A  fund  has  been  created 

the  advantages  and  some  of  tne  incumbrances  of  that  with  which  to  care  for  those  who  are  forced  to  return, 

system  over  into  the  monarchic  state.    One  of  its  lead-  These  countries,  constantly  losing  population,  have 

ing  principles  was  the  fixedness  of  the  mass  of  the  peo-  so  far  had  few  problems  connected  with  immigration, 

pie  to  the  soil.    Again,  in  England,  after  the  ravages  Immigration  mto  them  is  practically  unrestricted, 

of  the  Great  Plague  in  1351,  laws  were  enacted  requir-  In  Germany,  on  the  contrary,  very  minute  and  effec- 

ing  people  to  remain  in  their  own  parish  or  town.    As  tive  control  is  exercised.    Besides  its  conformity  to 

time  passed,  and  the  industrial  revolution  brought  their  general  practice  of  close  public  regulation,  cer- 

its  changes,  this  legislation  still  farther  limited  free-  tain  special  conditions  iiree  sucn  a  counBe.    Germany 

dom  of  movement.    Furthermore,  when  the  patri-  is,  of  all  lands,  most  completely  organized  for  military 

archal  idea  of  the  State  gave  way  to  the  military,  the  purposes;  a  vigorous  attempt  is  constantly  made, 

personal  bond  of  national  imitv  yielded  to  the  im-  therefore,  to  prevent  desertion  from  the  military 

personal,  but  the  obligation  of  the  subject  as  a  mem-  forces,  wnether  with  the  colours  or  in  the  Reserves. 

Der  of  this  new  national  family  did  not  weaken,  the  Hence  their  laws  touching  the  emigration  of  eligibles 

presumption  being  that  no  one  could  abrogate  this  al-  are  very  strict,  and  treaty  rights  for  such  persons  who 

legianoe.    The  opposition  to  emigration  was  based  00  to  forei^  countries  are  very  uncertain  and  imper- 

upon  military  necessity,  upon  the  desire  to  maintain  feet.    Agam,  up  to  a  recent  date  Germany  has  been 

a  strong  industrial  population  at  home,  upon  the  of  all  lands  the  point  of  departure,  not  only  of  her 

jealousy  existing  among  the  nations,  and  upon  the  de-  own,  but  of  the  emigrants  of  other  European  states. 

sire  to  keep  the  nation  intact.          ^        ^  This  has  been  true,  not  merely  because,  geographically, 

Gradually  this  attitude  toward  migration  was  aban-  she  lies  in  the  pathway  of  commerce,  out  fuso  because 

doned.    The  Treaty  of  Westphalia  extended  the  right  for  a  long  time  the  traffic  went  out  from  German  ports 

to  migrate  for  religious  reasons.    The  great  migra-  and  over  German  steamship  lines.    Germany  has  oeen 

tUms  westward,  as  discovery  and  the  settlement  of  compelled  to  guard,  not  only  her  own  emigrants,  but. 

new  lands  became  a  dominant  interest,  did  much  to  what  has  perhaps  been  a  more  pressing  necessity  ana 

break  the  crust  of  conservatism  and  allow  life  to  op-  more  difficult  task,  the  inspection  of  the  alien  emi- 

erate  in  all  ways  more  freely.    The  development  of  ^rant.    The  many  trans-German  emigrants  are  sub* 

means  of  transportation  made  trans-oceanic  voya^  jected  to  two,  and  often  to  three,  inspections  before 

possible,  leading  immigrants  into  new  and  unoccupied  they  finally  embark.     Of  such  persons  the  Russians 

areas.    The  growth  of  a  colonial  system  under  wnich  are  the  most  rigorously  dealt  with:  they  must  have 

the  mother  country  reaped  large  profits  broke  down  Russian  passports  and  tickets  through  to  their  desti- 

the  narrow  policies  and  removed  the  old  prejudices,  nation  and  their  baggage  must  be  examined  and  dis- 

and  migration  to  the  colonies  was  encouraged — in  infected. 

some  instances  enforced.    Along  with  these  cnanged  In  the  United  States  immigration  problems  have 

•onditions  came  the  radical  philosophy  of  the  eigh-  developed,  demanding,  and  finally  receiving,  minute 


BnOEATIOM  296  WQEATION 

and  comprehensive  regulation.  As  the  subject  has  influence  and  other  favourable  oonditioDS  there  was  a 
such  important  international  bearinfpBi  the  treaties  vast  Increase  in  immigration  by  1866.  From  72,183 
covering  the  subject  demand  attention.  The  most  in  1862,  the  numbers  sprang  up  to  332,577  in  1866. 
noted  of  these,  dealing  with  the  immigration  of  In  the  early  seventies  sentiment  began  rapidly  to 
Chinese,  was  the  famous  Burlixij^mie  Treaty  of  1868,  form  against  certain  types  of  immigrant.  This  was 
between  the  United  States  and  unina.  In  this  treaty  partly  due  to  ^e  organisation  of  Vbe  labour  move- 
the  contracting  parties  freely  and  fully  recognize  the  ment.  It  was  more  largely  due  to  a  vast  increase  of 
inalienable  ngnt  of  people  everywhere  to  migrate.  Oriental  migration.  Acts  were  passed  prohibiting 
They  also  recognise  tnat  migration  should  be  volim-  the  equipping  of  sh^  to  carry  on  the  trade  in  coolies, 
taiy,  and  they  a^ree  to  allow  such  migration  to  their  A  system  of  coolie  labour  had  developed  amoimt- 
respective countries.  In  1880 a seconotreaty between  ing  i>ractically  to  slavery.  In  1875  any  person con- 
the  United  States  and  China  reversed  the  previous  tracting  for  coolie  labour  was  liable  to  mdictment 
policy,  and  allowed  each  country  at  its  option  to  pro-  for  felony.  ^  From  1877  on,  an  opposition,  centred 
nibit  further  immigration,  a  provision  upon  which  the  on  the  Pftdfic  Coast,  developed  against  the  further 
United  States  acted  in  1882.  The  last  treaty  ([upon  immigration  of  Chinese  labour,  and  this  first  took 
which  subsequent  legislation  touching  Chinese  immi-  shape  in  the  treatv  of  1880  mentioned  above.  On 
g^tion  has  been  bas^)  was  signed  in  1894.  A  treaty  6^  Hay,  1882,  an  Act  was  passed  by  Congress  for- 
similar  to  the  Burlingame  Treaty  was  concluded  b^  bidding  the  admission  of  Chinese  labour  for  ten  years, 
tween  the  United  States  and  Jfapan  in  1894.  This  This  Act,  with  certain  changes,  has  been  continued  to 
agreement  ^ves  to  the  subjects  of  either  contracting  the  present  day.  No  Chinese  labourer  may  now  enter 
power  the  nght  to  enter,  and  reside  in,  the  country  of  the  United  States.  No  Chinese  may  become  a  dtisen 
the  other  power.  A  treaty^  granting  privileges  of  im?-  unless  he  be  bom  here,  in  which  case  citlsenship  is 
migration  to  Italians  was  signed  by  the  United  States  secured  to  him  bv  the  Fourteenth  Amendment  of^the 
and  Italy  in  1871.  This  treaty  marks  the  beginning  Constitution.  These  restrictions,  both  as  to  entry 
of  extensive  emigration  from  that  country  to  the  and  naturalisation,  have  been  from  time  to  time  ex- 
United  States.  Thus,  through  treaties  a  certain  tended  till  they  now  apply  to  nearly  all  Orientals, 
amount  of  control  has  b€«n  exercised  over  immigra-  The  following  table  shows  the  growth  of  Chinese  im- 
tion.  But  the  problem  of  controlling  immigration  migration  to  the  United  Stat^  in  sixteen  typical 
into  the  United  States  has  been  complicated  oy  the  years: — 
dual  system  of  government,  state  and  national.    Un-        *om>j  a  mt%A    looi  1 1  oqa 

til  the  adoption  of  the  Constitution  of  1787  the  matter        JgSg S'jS    iggj So'sTO 

rested  entirely  with  the  state  governments.    In  that        jgeg 3*216    1885 22 

instrument  no  direct  grant  of  power  is  made  to  the        jggQ 6  117    1890 1  716 

Federal  Congress  for  the  exclusive  control  of  immi-        jg-g 3  702    1895 '975 

gration.    It  was  only  after  considerable  litigation,        ^Kjo 15*714    1900 1^7 

and  several  decisions  oy  the  Supreme  Court,  that  Con-        j g^e 16*437    1906 1  544 

gress  was,   in   1876,   given  exclusive    jurisdiction.        ^00^ *'«»    loin 1  '77ft 

Among  the  earlier  attempts  to  regulate  the  matter        *°^ ^'°^^    ^^^^ *»''" 

were  laws  passed  by  some  of  the  states,  particularlv        It  will  thus  be  seen  that  the  Chinese  Immigration 

New  York  and  Massachusetts.    In  1824  New  York  Law  has  been  fairly  successful  as  a  measure  of  exdu- 

passed  a  law  covering  many  details  of  registration,  sion. 

reports,  head  tax,  etc.  This  act  went  on  appeal  to  the  The  first  statute  covering  the  general  question  of 
Supreme  Court,  which  voided  the  law  as  conflicting  immigration  was  enacted  by  Congress  on  3  August, 
with  the  authority  of  Congress  to  control  intematiomu  1882.  The  purpose  of  this  and  subsequent  legislation 
relationships.  Other  acts  touching  certain  phases  of  has  been  tmneetold.  ^  It  was  necessary  to  provide  for 
immigration  were  all  declared  null  by  the  court,  and  a  more  effective  administration  of  matters  of  immigra- 
the  cccclusive  jurisdiction  lies  to-day  in  the  Federal  tion.  This  involved  the  concentration  of  authority  in 
Omeress.  federal  hands  and  the  creation  of  a  fund  for  this  pur- 
ine activity  of  the  Federal  Congress  dates  from  pose.  The  Act  of  1891  gave  the  control  6L  immi^a- 
1819,  and  was  called  forth,  not  by  any  desire  to  limit  tion  to  the  Federal  Government  exclusively,  doing 
the  quantitv  or  quality  of  the  immigration,  but  by  the  ftway  with  concurrent  administration.  The  Act  m 
necessity  of  checking  the  brutal  agencies  engaged  in  1882  had  begun  the  formation  of  a  fund  by  imposing  a 
transportation.  The  first  statute  covering  this  was  head-tax  of  50  cents  on  each  alien  immigrant  entering 
passed  by  Congress  in  1819.  It  limited  the  num-  a  port  of  the  United  States;  this  tax  was  afterwards 
Der  of  persons  any  one  ship  could  bring;  at  first  (1903)  raised  to  $2  per  head,  and  it  now  produces 
only  two  persons  per  ton,  and  later  only  one  per-  enou&b  to  carrv  on  the  department  and  leave  a  edight 
son  per  two  tons,  ot  the  ship's  displacement.  Suose-  surplus.  The  law  of  1891  created  the  office  of  super- 
quent  acts  made  provision  for  more  sanitary  ships,  intendent  of  immigration,  later  changed  to  commis- 
better  food ,  and  more  space  to  each  immigrant.  Diuv  sioner-genexal  of  immigration.  The  Act  of  1903  added 
ing  the  first  half  of  the  centuiy  no  serious  opposition  much  to  the  needed  control.  It  created  a  number  of 
arose  to  the  immigrant  as  such.  ^  Beginnmg  with  excluded  classes,  which  may  be  grouped  imder  three 
1844,  at  the  rise  of  the  Knownothing  Party,  a  new  general  heads:  those  physically,  those  mentally,  and 
attitude  was  taken  by  many.  This  party  grew  strong,  &ose  morally  diseased.  Under  the  general  head  of 
especially  in  the  South,  and  from  1844  to  1856  it  physical^  unsound  are  many  excluded  classes,  the 
carried  many  states.  It  elected  members  to  Congress  mosrt  strm^nt  rules  covering  those  having  loathsome 
and  to  local  assemblies^  and  governors  of  states.  One  and  contagious  diseases,  especially  trachoma  and  tu- 
of  its  tenets  was  opposition  to  immigration,  and  as  a  bercular  affections.  Idiots  and  lunatics  are  excluded, 
party  strong  in  tne  Southern  states  :i  did  much  to  Among  those  regarded  by  the  Act  as  moraUy  unfit,  or 
determine  that  antipathy  of  the  South  to  immigration  "the  anti-social  class",  are  Anarchists  and  those  ac- 
which  was  maintained  for  many  years.  The  close  of  cused  of  plotting  against  government,  all  criminals 
the  Civil  War  marks  a  new  attitude  towards  the  im-  and  fugitives  from  justice,  all  women  immigrating  for 
migrant.  It  was  a  period  of  rapidly  expanding  in-  immoral  purposes,  all  prostitutes  and^  procurers  of 
dustries  and  there  was  an  increased,  indeed  an  girls  or  women  for  purposes  of  prostitution.  There  is 
abnormal,  demand  for  labour.  An  Act  was  passed  provision  excluding  paupers  and  those  who  are  likely 
by  Congress,  in  1864,  which  greativ  encouraged  the  to  become  a  public  charge.  All  those  are  excluded 
importation  of  labour,  really  authorising  contract  who  have  come  under  contract  to  labour,  or  who  have 
labour*    This  Act  was  operative  till  1868,    Under  it9  tbeir  cxpexises  paid  by  afiQtb^r,  except  that  immi* 


MXOftinON 


297 


MIC^EATION 


grants'  relatives  may  send  mone^  to  aid  them.  Ger- 
taia  c^  these  cases  are  made  criQunal:  importation  of 
women  for  lewd  purposes^  prepaying  passages  under 
contract  to  labour,  promismg  emplo^onent  to  aliens 
through  advertising,  bringing  diseased  aliens  in  by 
other  than  regular  routes--aIl  these  are  constituted 
criminal  offences  asainst  the  United  States. 

The  Act  of  20  February,  1907,  is  the  latest  statute  of 
the  United  States  dealing  comprehensivelv  with  im- 
migration. It  constitutes  the  proceeds  of  the  head* 
tax  a  permanent  immigrant  fimd  (changed  by  the  Act 
of  1909),  formed  so  that  these  moneys  go  to  thie  general 
fund.  This  law  of  1907  still  fiuther  extends  the 
limits  of  the  excluded  classes.  It  makes  the  prohibi- 
tion of  contract  labour  stricter,  as  well  as  the  exclusion 
of  lewd  women  and  girls,  and  of  the  procurers  of  sudi. 
It  forbids  the  advertising  by  anyone  for  purposes  of 
securing  labour  to  come  to  this  coimtry :  limitmg  such 
advertisement  to  fumiahing  necessary  data  of  sailing, 
rates,  etc.  This  Act  also  reqmres  that  a  list  and  full 
descriptions  of  the  aliens  coming  with  each  ship  shall 
be  funodshed.  Provision  is  also  made  for  deporting 
such  persons  as  may  be  illegallv  landed,  the  time  for 
kgfil  deportation  beinf;  extended  from  one  year  to 
three  years.  The  Circiut  and  District  Courts  are  given 
full  jurisdiction  in  all  matters  arising  under  the  im- 
mi^tion  laws.  The  Act  furthermore  makes  pro- 
vision for  the  calling  of  an  international  conference  to 
discuss  matters  relatmg  to  immigration.  Some  details 
are  relegated  to  be  dealt  with  by  the  Department  of 
Commerce  and  Labor. 

Effxctb  of  Legislation  in  the  United  States. — 
Restrictive  legislation  shows  its  results  in  three  ways; 
the  number  of  immigrants  debarred  and  returned  im- 
mediately on  attempting  to  land;  the  number  sub- 
sequently apprehended  and  deported  ;*the  number  of 
those  stopped  at  the  port  of  departure.  Figures  are 
obtainable  on  the  first  and  second  of  these  classes; 
they  are  only  conjectured  as  to  the  last.  It  is,  how- 
ever, unfair  to  measure  the  effects  of  legislation  by 
these  tests  alone;  the  deterrent  influences  are  idso 
powerful.    During  the  past  seventeen  years  about  one 

Ser  cent  of  all  those  comine  to  the  ports  of  the  United 
tates  have  been  either  oebarrea  from  or  deported 
after,  entering.  The  following  table  shows  approx- 
imately the  percentage  of  immigrants  debarred  or  de- 
ported for  all  reasons  in  certain  typical  years  during 
that  period: — 


Tear 

OroH 

TmmigrAtlan 

DelMtfrad 

Deported 

Total 
Excluded 

Peroent- 
Exoluded 

1802 

570.663 

2.164 

637 

2.801 

•483 

1805 

258,536 

2.410 

177 

2.506 

1*004 

1000 

448.572 

4.246 

356 

4.602 

1-025 

1905 

1.026.400 

11.870 

845 

12.724 

1-230 

1006 

1.100.735 

12.432 

676 

13.108 

1100 

1007 

1.285.340 

13.064 

005 

14.050 

1-003 

1006 

782.870 

10.002 

2060 

12.071 

1-656 

1000 

751.786 

10.411 

2124 

12.535 

1-667 

Of  the  10,411  excluded  in  1909,  4401  were  likely  to 
become  public  chaiges;  2084  had  trachoma;  1172  were 
eoQtract  labourers,  while  402  were  sent  back  as  im- 
moral. Although  a  Uuger  number  of  Chinese  have 
been  admitted  m  Vecent  years,  a  larger  number  has 
also  been  deported.  There  are,  of  course,  many  ob- 
vious difficidties  in  the  way  of  enforcement.  Manv  of 
the  reasons  for  debarring  are  difficult  to  establisn— 
such  as  many  forms  of  aisease,  various  types  of  im- 
morality, and  weak  physical  condition  with  no  real 
dganic  ailment.  A^un,  the  contract  labour  law  is 
hud  to  enforce  because  of  so  many  effective  means  of 
evasion.  Among  these  the  most  serious  has  been  the 
increased  immimration  through  Canada,  which  results 
either  in  smuggimg  pure  and  simple — or  by  means  of  a 
year's  residence  in  Canada — in  tne  evasion  of  certain 
regulations — e.  g.  the  head-tax.  However,  the  laws 
as  at  present  administered,  especially  with  the  co- 
operation of  foreign  governments,  are  at  least  pointing 


in  the  right  direction  and  supplying  the  country  with 
a  better  selected  body  of  imnugrants. 

Distribution  of  Immiqrantb  in  tob  Unitxd 
States. — A.  As  to  Origin, — There  have  been  several 
changes  in  the  origin  of  migration  to  the  New  World. 
From  southern  Europe — Italy,  Spain,  and  Portug^il — 
it  began  when  the  Americas  were  new.  and  migration 
was  a  hardy  venture.  It  then  shifted  northward  till 
the  peoples  of  northern  countries  began  to  send  many 
colonists  out  to  America.  After  the  formation  of  the 
Republic,  its  immigrant  population  came  chiefly  from 
northern  Europe  and  so  continued  well  into  the  nine- 
teenth centunr.  One  of  the  most  strikinf;  features  of 
migration  to  America  has  been  the  latest  cnange  in  the 
sources  of  the  stream,  which  now  flows  more  strongly 
from  the  South  and  East.  This  change  has  been  very 
marked.  From  1841  to  1850  45-57  per  cent  of  the 
immigration  to  the  United  States  was  from  Ireland; 
from  1871  to  1880  only  15*1  per  cent.  From  Ger- 
many between  1841  and  1850  there  came  25*37  per 
cent;  from  1861  to  1870,  36*63  per  cent;  from  1871  to 
1880,  25*74  per  cent,  while  in  1909  Germany  furnished 
only  8-5  per  cent,  and  Ireland  4-3  per  cent  of  the  im- 
migration. From  1820  to  1902  Germany  sent  2i*98 
per  cent  of  all  the  immigrants,  and  Italy  had  sent 
66-6  per  cent;  in  1903  lUdy  sent  26-91  per  cent.  In 
1907  Italy  sent  285,731,  wmle  Germany,  Scandinavia, 
and  the  United  Elingdom  combined  sent  201,337.  In 
1910  Italy  sent  223,431  immigrants ;  Germany,  71,380 : 
Eng^d,  53,498;  there  were  also  128,348  Poles  and 
52,037  Scandinavians.  In  1880  Italy  and  Austria- 
Hungary  sent  11,765  immigrants;  in  1907  these  two 
countries  sent  624,184,  about  one-third  more  than  the 
total  immigration  in  1880.  From  1872  to  1890  there 
came  to  the  United  States  356,062  Italian  immigrants ; 
from  1890  to  1900,  655,888.  These  figures  illustrate 
what  miffht  be  much  further  amplified ;  the  change  in 
source  of  the  immigration  to  the  United  States  in  the 
last  few  decades.  Further  analvsis  would  show  many 
minor  divergencies.  From  Italy  come  two  different 
types:  northern  Italy  furnishes  one;  southern  Italy 
and  Sicily  another.  These  varv  widely  in  mental 
characteristics,  in  industrial  habits,  and  in  wealth. 
They  furnish  needed  elements  to  our  population,  lend- 
ing colour  and  vivacity  to  the  Amencan  nationality. 
Equally  clear  are  the  t3mes  of  Jews  now  coming  m 
such  numbers.  In  earner  times  there  were  the 
Spanish  and  Portuguese  Jews.  Later,  the  mjKration 
of  Jews  had  its  origin  in  Germany,  and  the  German 
Jew  was  the  rule.  The  ^reat  majority  of  Jews  who 
now  mimte  to  the  United  States  are  of  Russian 
origin.  T?here  has  also  been  a  change  in  the  Irish  im- 
migrant. At  first  the  Irish  migration  was  largely 
from  the  North,  contained  a  uiige  admixture  of 
Scotch  blood,  was  Protestant  in  reli^on,  and  agricul- 
tural in  pursuits.  The  centre  of  emigration  has  since 
then  shiited  to  the  South,  the  emigrants  are  more 
laigely  Catholic  in  religion,  and  they  settle  in  the 
cities. 

A  variety  of  causes  affecting  both  northern  and 
southern  Europe  help  to  explain  these  changes.  Dur- 
ing the  period  of  the  greatest  German  migration  the 
interests  of  that  nation  were  changing  from  agrarian 
to  industrial.  During  this  transition  a  laige  number 
of  persons  were  left  without  occupation,  as  the  older 
oroer  broke  up,  and  many  of  these  migrated.  The 
stream  of  migration  from  Ireland  was  necessarily 
checked  as  that  population  became  more  and  more  seri- 
ously depleted,  failing  to  about  one-half  its  number 
in  1846.  During  this  same  time  there  was  a  marked 
increase  of  population  in  the  southern  and  south- 
eastern countries,  and  owing  to  various  causes  a  high 
birth-rate  has  been  accompanied  by  a  low  death-rate. 
A  surplus  of  population  resulted,  and  migration  from 
those  countries  was  the  consequence.  Low  industrial 
organisation  there,  high  industrial  demand  here,  and 
labour  naturally  flowed  into  the  area  of  high  deniand. 


MinS                                298  MILAM 

A  feature  leaa  fuud&iueiital  is  the  development  of  the  the  other  hand,  the  important  mining  industriea  still 

means  of  transportation  to  and  from  southern  porta,  draw  veiy  beaviJy  on  the  immigrant  Tor  their  labour. 

In  interestinK  contrast  to  the  earlier  domination  of  The  tendency,  therefore,  is  for  an  ever-increasing  pei^ 

the  sea  by  the  Romance  nations  was  the  transfer  of  centage  of  the  immigrants  to  settle  in  the  large  cities. 

maritime  power  in  the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth  According  to  Professor  Smith,  in  1880  the  cities  took 

centuries  into  Dutch  and  English,  and.  later,   into  45percent  of  thelrishimmigrants;  38  per  cent  of  the 

German,  hands.    This  led  to  a  marked  neglect  of  German,  30  per  cent  of  the  iWliah  and  Scotch,  and  60 

BOuthem  ports,  and  not  till  a  generation  ago  did  the  per  cent  of  the  Italian.    In  Fall  River  80  per  cent  of 

merchantmen  begin  to  leoiganize  the  iinea  to  tap  the  population  are  foreigners;    New  Britain  showi 

BOuUwm  countries  and  call  at  southern  ports.    The  even  a  larger  percentage.    The  figures  for  New  York, 

Italian  lines  sailing  from  southern  porta  doubled  in  Boston,  Milwaukee,  and  Chicago  show  still  more  im- 

tonnage,  and  the  construction  of  ships  in  those  ports,  preasive  contrasts.     In  1900  ttie  total  populatioa  of 

for 'Italian  and  Austrian  trans- Atlantic  traific,  became  the  principal  cities  of  the  United  States  was  19,767,- 

a  flourishing  industry.     Gradually  the  southern  liar^  618,  leaving  in  the  remainder  of  the  country  56,541,- 

boura  became  active ina  trade  the  most  importantitem  769.     In  70  leading  cities  of  the  North  Atlantic  section 

of  which  was  the  transportation  of  immigrants  to  the  there  were  3,070,352  foreign-bom;  outside  these  cities 

United  States.     Typicalof  this  change  was  the  growth  were  1,685,544  foreign-bom,  or  305  per  cent  of  tiie 

of  the  cities  of  Genoa,   Naples,  and   Trieste.     The  aliens  were  in  the  cities,  and  15'4  per  cent  of  all  of  the 

growth  also  of  the  German  lines  must  also  be  consid-  foreign-bom  lived  outside  the  cities.     In  the  South 

ered.     These,  together  with  the  extension  of  railway  Atlantic  States  9'2  per  cent  of  the  urban  population 

lines  leading  to  the  harbours,  have  done  much  to  and  llper  cent  of  the  rural  were  foreign-bom;  in  the 

develop   the   migration   from    southern   and    south-  North  Central,  25'4  per  cent  of  the  urwin  and  12-9  per 

eastern   countries.     From   I8S0   to   1890,    Germany  cent  of  the  rural;  in  the  Wes(«m,  the  percentages  were 

sent  to  the  Unit«d  States  1,452,977  persons;  during  27-2  and  18'5  per  cent.     There  are  86  cities  in  which  at 

the  same  period  Italy  sent  but  307,309.     In  the  year  least  20  per  cent  of  the  population  is  foreign-bom  and 

1909  Germany  sent  58,534,  while  Italv  sent  190,498.  27  cities  In  which  they  fonn  more  than  one-third  of  the 

Germany  formerly  supplied  one-thiid  of  the  imroi-  total  population. 

gration  to  the  United  States;  now,  less  than  one-t«nth  The  attitude  of  the  United  States  at  the  present 

b  from  that  source.     Between   1860  and   1870,  the  time  (1910)  towards  foreign  immigration  is  one  of 

British  Isles,  Germany,  Scandinavia,  and  Canada  to-  caution.     Actual  and  projected  l^ialation  aims,  not 

gether  supplied  90  per  cent  of  the  total  immigration  at  exclusion,  but  at  selection.     It  is  lec^niied  that 

to  the  Umted  States;  between  1890  and  1900,  only  the  assimilative  power,  even  of  America,  has  its 

41  per  cent.     In  1869  Austria-Hungary,  Italy,   Po-  limits.     Legislation  must,  bv  the  application  of  ra- 

lana,  and  Russia  tc^tber  supplied  oniy  1  per  cent;  tional  principles,  eliminate  tnoae  incapable  of  assimi- 

in  1902,  the  same  group  of  countries  supplied  70  per  lation  to  the  general  culture  of  the  country.     Great 

cent.  care  is,  of  cour^,  necessary  in  determining  and  apply- 

B.  Ai  to  Daiinatum. — The  distribution  of  the  im-  ing  these  principles  of  selection:  an  educational  test, 

migrant  population  in  the  United  Stat«s  may  be  con-  for  instance,  while  it  would  exclude  much  iterance, 

aidered  (1)  Gec^raphicallv,  (2)  As  to  Occupation.  would  also  exclude  much  honesty,  frugaUty,  mdustry, 

(1)  GeoKraphically. — The  most  obvious  distinction  is  and  solid  worth.  It  is  probable  that  a  more  vigorous 
between  North  and  South.  From  the  beginning  of  the  sj^m  of  inspection  of^immigrants  at  ports  of  entry 
Republic  until  1866  there  was  practically  no  immigra-  will  be  put  in  force,  while  a  stricter  control  will  b« 
tion  into  the  southern  States.  While  slavery  existed,  exercised  over  the  steamship  companies.  At  the 
the  South  had  no  immigrant  problem,  the  only  for-  some  time,  the  co-operation  of  foreign  governments  is 
eignersentering  that  section  being  those  brought  in  by  needed,  if  the  exclusive  measures  designed  for  the 
the  Ulicit  stave  trade.  The  North  being  considered  as  protectionof  the  United  States  against  undesirable  im- 
the  home  of  the  immigrant,  the  North  Atlantic  States  migration  are  to  be  made  thoroughly  effective. 
Btood  firet  in  percentage  of  foieign-bom.      In   1903,  OfficuJSourceB.— D«mniiiIC«iuu»o/lA«[/nii«JSto(M, /7S0- 

m  the  North  Atlantic   Stales  were  aliens;  15-8  per  bioIm.- SjwciaJ  CmmJor ft«port,XXJt. 

cent  in  the  North  Central-  20-7  per  cent  in  the  West-  Uooffi                                                                       Ainmta 

em;  only  4-6  per  cent  in  the  South  Central  and  South  INbw  Yi                                                              iw  York. 

Atlantic.     In  1909,  more  than  50  per  cent  of  all  the  Jj^^'  %                                                                     J;  'gj^ 

aliena  in  the  country  resided  in  the  North  Atlantic  York.   1                                                                      w  York. 

States;  of  these,  New  York  was  the  choice  of  220,865;  JfOgl;  1                                                                      w  York, 

Pennsylvania  of  112,402;    Massachusetts  of  61,187;  b„2J^,                                                                       i.(!S^ 

New  Jersey  of  41,907.     New  York  received  75,988  rroOT/                                                                      he  Sbn 

Italians — somewhat  less  than  one-halt  their  total  num-  mwuim                                                                     Mtm  •/ 

ber;  Pennsylvania  took  33,000  Italians.    Themarked  »• '"""w™"  i""™". 'w»J-                _         Guthbi*. 

chuiges  in  percentages  since  1S50  are  in  the   North  '      '                ^ 

Atlantic  States,  which  received  69  per  cent  of  the  im-  Mijaa.    See  Mixx. 
migration  then  and  now  receive  about  50  per  cent;  and 

mthe  Western  States,  which  in  1850  had  1'2  per  cent,  Milan,    AacnniOCESB    or    (Hediol&nenbis),    In 

8-2  per  cent  in  1900,  and  in  1909  6-6  per  cent  of  all  the  Lombardy,  northem  Italy.    The  city  is  situated  on 

new  arrivals.     In  1900,  one-eighth  of  the  whole  popu-  the  Orona  River,  which,  with  three  canals,  the  Navi- 

lation  was  foreign-bom;  in  1909,  aliens  formed  one-  gho Grande  (1257-72),tneNaviglioMarteBana(1457), 

tenth  of  the  riual  and   one-fourth   of  the   urban  and  the Naviglio  diPavia  (1805-19), isthehighwayof 

population.  the  commerce  of  this  great  industrial  centre,  called  the 

(2)  As  to  Occupation. — The  rapid  development  of  moral  capital  of  Italy.  The  soil  isveryfertile  and  there 
induatrialiam  in  the  United  States  nas  a  marked  selec-  is  extensive  cattle-raising  and  manufacturing  through- 
tive  effect  on  a  population  that  is  unsettled.  That  it  out  the  province.  The  name  of  Milan  is  probably  de- 
should  act  with  increasing  power  on  a  drifting  immt-  rived  from  the  Celtic  m<j  Ian,  which  means  "in  the  middle 
grant  population  is  to  be  expected;  as  the  century  ad-  of  the  plain".  Theoitywaafonndedin396B.  c.  bythe 
vances,  the  effect  is  shown  in  a  great  increase  of  urban  Insubres,  on  the  site  of  the  ruined  Melpum,  and  be- 
inunigration.  A  corresponding  lessened  interest  in  came  the  chief  centre  of  the  Cisalpine  Gauls.  After 
agriculture  is  due  partly  to  the  growth  of  manufac-  the  defeat  of  the  Gauls  near  Clastidium,  Mediolaniun 
tuiWt  partly  to  the  changed  nature  of  population.    On  was  taken  by  the  consul  Lucius  Scipio  (221)  and  be- 


aaLAM  299  aOLAN 

• 

came  a  Roman  municipium.    In  45  b.  c.  it  obtained  Th»capilano  dd  popoh  was  hated  by  the  nobles,  and 

Roman  citizenship,  and  under  the  emperors  it  had  when  ragano  della  Torre  was  succeeded  (1247)  by  his 

famous  schools  and  was  a  flourishing  city,  the  Emperor  nephew  Martino,  imder  the  title  of  amiano  della  Cre- 

Adrian  having  made  it  the  seat  of  the  proBfectua  LiQwria  denza,  the  nobility  sought  the  assistance  of  Ezzelino  da 

and  Ck>nstantme,  of  the  vicarius  lUdias,    After  a.  d.  Romano;  but  Martino  overcame  the  resistance  of  the 

296  it  was  several  times  the  capital  of  the  emperors  nobles,  and  also  defeated  Ezzelino,  introduced  reforms 

of  the  West  (Maximian  Herculius,  Valentinian  I,  his  into  the  public  administration,  and  distributed  the 

son  Honorius,  and  later,  of  Ricimer  and  of  Odoacer).  public  offices  with  equity.    A  new  civil  war  was  pre- 

The  edict  of  toleration  of  Constantine  and  Licinius  vented  by  the  "peace  of  St.  Ambrose"  (1258),  at 

(313)  was  agreed  on  and  published  at  Milan.    In  452  which  the  equality  of  nobles  and  people  was  agreed 

the  town  was  besieged  by  Attila^  and  in  538  destro^ned  on.    As  conflicts  continued,  Martino  called  to  his  as- 

by  Uraia,  a  nephew  of  Vitiges,  King  of  the  Goths,  with  sistance  Oberto  Pelavicino,  a  well-known  soldier  with 

a  loss,  according  to  Procopius,  of  300,000  men.    Per-  whose  help  Martino  had  finally  vanquished  Ezzelino  da 

chance  for  this  reason  the  Lombard  kings  did  not  there-  Romano.  Id  1263  Filippo,  brother  of  Martino,  was  real 

after  select  MOan  for  their  capital,  thoi:^h  Bertarius  lord  of  Milan,  though  ne  carefully  avoided  any  such 

did  so  during  the  brief  division  of  the  kingdom  be-  title,  and  as  other  cities — Como,  Lodi,  Novara,  Ver- 

tween  the  sons  of  Gundobad  (661).    After  Charle-  oelli,  also  La  Valtellina,  were  subject  to  Milan,  he  may 

magne,  Milan  was  the  seat  of  counts,  whose  authority  be  called  the  founder  of  the  duchy.    His  nephew 

however,  was  overshadowed  bv  the  prestige  of  the  Napoleone,  imder  the  title  of  amiano  dd  popolo,  exer- 

archbishops,  foremost  amone  wnom  was  Ansperto  da  cised  supreme  power  (1265-77),  and  in  his  later  years 

Biassono  (869-81),  who  fortined  the  town  and  adorned  was  imperial  vicar  for  Italy,  notwithstanding  the  fact 

it  with  beautiful  buildings.     In  896-97  it  endured  a  thathewasaGuelph.  The  archbishop  OttoneVisconti, 

severe  si^e  by  the  Hungarians,  and  a  century  later  who  since   1262  had  been  prevented  from  taking 

Otto  II  transferred  the  title  of  count  to  the  arch-  possession  of  his  see,  organized  the  nobles  exiled  from 

bishops.    The  most  distinguished  of  these  was  Ari-  Milan,  and  after  several  battles,  succeeded  in  captur- 

berto  (1018^5),  who  induced  Conrad  II  to  take  the  ing  Napoleone  and  his  relatives,  whom  he  locked  up  in 

crown  of  Italy.    With  the  assistance  of  the  people  he  cages  at  Como. 

made  war  on  Pavia  and  Lodi  (1027),  on  which  account  The  archbishop  then  caused  himself  to  be  pro- 
he  incurred  the  enmitv  of  the  greater  feudal  lords  claimed  perpetual  lord,  thus  putting  an  end  to  the 
whom  he  exiled,  but  wno,  leagu^  together,  defeated  Repubh'c  of  Milan  and  founding  the  power  of  the  Vis- 
the  archbishop  at  Campo  Malo  (1035),  *and  return-  conti,  which  aimed  at  the  conquest  of  the  entire  penin- 
ing  to  the  city,  called  Conrad  to  their  assistance;  the  sula,  though  its  real  domain  was  limited  by  the  Alps, 
latter,  however,  besieged  Milan  in  vain  (1037) .  Though  the  river  Sesia,  and  the  Po,  while  the  east  extended  as 
the  stru^le  continued,  a  noble,  Lanzano,  and  no  farasBrescia,  conquered  in  1337.  From  1302  to  1311, 
lonser  Anberto,  headed  the  popular  party.  Finally,  the  della  Torre  were  again  in  power,  Guido  of  that 
nobles  and  burehers  entered  into  compacts,  and  this  family  having  driven  Matteo  I  Visconti  from  Milan, 
intermingling  of  the  classes  brought  the  commime  into  When  the  latter  returned,  he  was  made  imperial  vicai 
existence.  At  the  same  time  studies,  the  iadustries  by  Henry  VII,  and  devoted  himself  to  driving  the 
(especially  wool),  and  commerce  flourished.  leaders  of  the  uuelph  party  from  the  Lombard  cities. 
As  the  power  of  the  buighers  grew,  that  of  the  arch-  On  this  account  John  XXII  declared  war,  and  sent 
bishops  waned,  and  with  it  the  imperial  authority  Cardinal  BertrandduPoyet  against  Matteo.  Galeazzo, 
which  the  prelate  represented,  so  that  Milan  in  1110,  Matteo's  son,  continued  the  war  against  the  legate 
refused  to  pay  tribute  to  Heniy  V,  who  had  come  into  and  the  Guelphs,  and  adhered  to  the  party  of  Louis  of 
Italy.  In  1116  the  public  authority  passed  entirely  Bavaria.  His  son  Azzo  (1329-59)  contributed  to  the 
into  the  hands  of  consuls  elected  by  tne  people.  Milan  ruin  of  the  Scaligers,  obtained  Brescia,  and  was  sue- 
made  war  on  cities  faithful  to  the  empire:  Pavia,  Cre-  oeeded  by  his  sons  Luchino  (1339-49),  famous  for  the 
mona,  Lodi  (destroyed  1111),  and  Como  (destroyed  refinement  of  his  cruelty,  and  Giovanni  II  (1349-54), 
1 127)  •  Frederick  Barbarossa  wished  to  remedy  these  Archbishop  of  Milan,  who  obtained  possessLsn  of  Genoa 
evils,  and  in  1158  obliged  Milan  to  swear  allegiance  to  and  Bologna,  though  unable  to  hold  either  of  these 
him  and  to  receive  an  imperial  podestk.  This  officer  towns,  or  the  cities  of  Asti,  Parma,  and  Alexandria* 
was  soon  driven  from  the  city,  but  in  1162  after  a  long  At  the  death  of  Giovanni,  Milan  was  divided  between 
siege,  Milan  was  aeiin  reduced  to  obedience,  and  in  three  brothers,  his  nephews:  Matteo  11.  who  died  in 
part  destroyed.  The  battle  of  Legnano  (1176)  se-  1355;  Galeazzo  11(1354-78),  and  Bemab6  (1354-85) 
cured  their  rights  to  the  Lombard  cities,  and  to  Milan  all  patrons  of  literature  and  of  the  arts,  but  odious 
its  consular  government;  but  on  many  occasions  the  through  their  cruelty,  misgovemment,  and  exorbitant 
authority  of  a  foreign  podest^  was  substituted  for  the  taxes.  Accordingly,  a  strong  league  was  formed 
native  ccmsuls.  The  long  period  of  peace  was  favour-  against  them  in  1367,  by  Pope  Urbfui  V,  Charles  IV, 
able  to  agriculture  (greatfy  furthered  by  the  Cister-  the  towns  of  Florence,  Ferrara,  Mantua,  and  others, 
cians) ,  also  to  the  wool  and  the  silk  industries,  in  the  but  it  was  prevented,  by  fortuitous  drcumstanoes, 
former  of  which,  throughout  Milanese  territory,  60,000  from  destroying  the  power  of  the  Visconti.  Galeazzo 
men  were  employed,  wnile  the  silk  industry  supported  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Giovanni  Galeazzo,  who  was 
40,000  persons.  The  struggle  against  the  empire  was  forced  into  war,  with  his  uncle  Bemab6,  and  having 
renewed  imder  Frederick  Il/who  Ignored  the  riehts  won  taken  him  in  ambush,  cast  him  into  prison,  where  he 
at  the  peace  of  Constance.  A  second  Lombard  League  died  in  1385.  The  state  of  the  Visconti  was  thus  united 
was  formed,  which  Frederick  defeated  at  Cortenuova,  again  and  in  1395,  Giovanni  Galeazzo  received  the  title 
though  he  did  not  succeed  in.  his  ulterior  purpose,  of  duke.  In  1387  he  had  conquered  Verona  and  Vi- 
Theieaf  ter  Milan  entered  into  further  wars  with  Ghi-  oenza.  During  his  reign  the  duchy  of  Milan  was  at  the 
belline  cities,  especially  with  Pavia.  The  nobility  height  of  its  power,  and  contained  the  following  cities: 
remained  favourable  to  Frederick  and  to  his  successors,  Pavia,  Bergamo,  Brescia,  Cremona,  Como,  Novara, 
and  this  caused  internal  strife  in  Milan,  and  the  crea-  Vercelli,  Alexandria,  Valenza,  Tortona,  Piacenza, 
tion  of  a  new  office,  that  of  capUano  del  popoh.  The  Parma,  Reggio,  Verona,  Vicenza,  Bellimo,  Pisa,  Siena, 
first  to  hold  it  was  Pagano  della  Torre,  elected  in  1240  and  Perugia.  Giovanni  Galeazzo  was  eminent,  bothfor 
by  the  Credema  di  San  Ambrogw,  the  executive  good  and  evil;  the  Carthusian  monastery  of  Pavia  is  a 
branch  of  the  city  government,  composed  of  twelve  witness  of  his  religious  sentiments  and  of  his  taste  for 
members  representative  of  the  three  orders  of  citizens,  the  arts.  He  died  in  1402,  leaving  two  sons,  minors, 
The  Ic^lative  power  was  exercised  by  the  General  Giovanni  Maria  and  Filippo  Maria.  During  their 
Council,  the  number  of  whose  members  was  variable,  minority,  many  conquered  possessiona  were  lost;  but. 


300  MILAN 

Giovanni  liana  having  been  assassinated  in  1412,  wasattbeOouncQof  Rome  (313).    During  the  pen^ 

FiUppo  Maria  remained  sole  duke,  and  with  the  assist-  cutions  several  Christians  suflfered  martyrdom  at 

ance  of  Carmagnola,  retook  a  great  portion  of  the  lost  Milan;  among  them  Saints  Gervasius  and  Protasius 

territory.    The  offensive  proceeding  of  Filippo  Maria  (first  persecution  of  Diocletian),  St.  Victor  (304),  Sts. 

caused  the  house  of  Este,  the  Gonsagas,  and  Venice  Nabor  and  Felix,  and  Sts.   Nazarius  and  Celsus. 

to  form  a  league  against   him,  which   led    to   a  Among  its  bishops  should  be  named  St.  Eustorgius,  St. 

long  war;  in  the  course  of  it,  several  famous  battles  Protasius,  and  St.  Dionysius,  who  firmly  opposed  the 

were  fought,  among  them  that  of  Maclodio  (1427),  by  Arian  emperor  Constant ius,  and  was  exuea  to  Cappa- 

which  the  Duke  of  Milan  lost  Bergamo  and  Brescia,  and  doda  (355),  while  the  Arian  Auxentius  was  put  on  the 

the  naval  battle  of  Portofino  (1431)  disastrous  to  the  episcopal  throne  of  Milan.    But  the  people  remained 

Genoese  allies  of  Milan.    The  peace  concluded  in  faithful  to  the  Catholic  religion.    At  the  death  of  St. 

1433  was  favourable  to  Venice;  but  the  war  broke  out  Dionysius,  the  great  St.  Ambrose  was  elected  bishop 

again,  and  continued  until  the  death  of  Filippo  Maria,  (375-97),  vanquished  paganism  and  Arianism,  and 

in  1447,  when  the  Ambrosian  Republic  was  pro-  was  the  guide  of  those  good  princes  Gratian,  Valen- 

olaimed  (1447-50).  tinian  II,  and  Theodosius.    He  was  succeeded  by  St. 

For  military  reasons,  Francesco  Sforza  was  made  Simplidanus  (397),  and  Venerius  (400):     Lasarus 

eapUano  del  popolo,  and  succeeded  in  taking  pos-  (43&-49)  appears  to  have  amplified  the  Ambrosian  rite 

sessionof  the  fortress  and  in  having  himself  recognised  of  Milan;    Laurentius  (490-512)  presided  over  the 

duke  (1450).    This  event  led  to  a  new  war  with  Roman  councils  in  the  cause  of  Pope  Sjrmmachus;  St. 

Venice  and  the  King  of  Naples,  closed  by  the  peace  of  Datius  (530-52),  lived  almost  aJways  m  exile  at  Con- 

Lodi  in  1454.    Francesco  was  succeedeid  in  1466  by  stantinople,  on  account  of  the  Gotnic  War;  Vitalis 

his  son  Galeazzo  Maria,  who,  hated  by  his  subjects,  was  (552)  adhered  to  the  schism  caused  by  the  "Three 

stabbed  to  death  in  1476.    His  son  Giovanni  Galeazzo  Chapters",   but  Auxanus   (556)   re-established   the 

had  as  regent,  first  his  own  mother,  and  then  (1480).  union  of  the  diocese  with  Rome.    Honoratus  (568) 

his  ambitious  uncle  Ludovico  il  Moro,  who  succeeded  sought  refuge  in  Genoa,  with  a  great  number  of  his 

his  nephew,  at  the  latter's  death  in  1494.    Louis  XII,  clergy,  during  the  siege  of  Milan  by  the  Lombard  Al- 

who  pretended  to  rights  over  Milan,  entered  into  a  boin,  and  at  his  death  the  Milanese  at  Genoa  elected  to 

compact  with  Venice  for  the  division  of  the  duchy,  succeed  him  Laurentius  II,  while  Fronto  (elected  at 

Ludovico  il  Moro  attempted  to  resist  them,  but  was  Milan)  was  not  recognized.    When  Laurentius  died, 

constrained  to  seek  refuge  in  Germanv,  and  Milan  King  Agilulfus  wished  to  secure  the  election  of  an 

came  under  the  power  of  the  French.    In  1500,  Duke  Arian  bishc^,  in  which,  however,  he  was  thwarted  by 

Ludovico  returned  to  his  dominions  for  a  time,  but  the  vigilance  of  St.  Gregory  the  Great,  and  both  at 

other  French  troops  were  sent  against  him,  and  he  Genoa  and  at  Milan,  Constantius  was  elected  to  the 

died  a  prisoner  in  France.    The  expulsion  of  the  vacant  see;  under  him,  the  cathedral  of  Monza  was 

French  from  Italy  ensued  upon  the  death  of  Gaston  erected,  Agilulfus  became  a  Catholic,  and  the  conver- 

de  Foix,  the  victor  of  Ravenna  (1512),  and  Milan  was  sion  of  the  Lombards  to  the  Faith  was  begun,  while 

given  to  Maximilian  Sforza,  a  son  of  Ludovico  il  Moro,  the  episcopal  residence  was  again  taken  up  at  Milan, 

although  the  Spaniards  were  its  real  masters.    After  The  nrst  prelate  ol  this  diocese  who  bore  the  title  of 

the  battle  of  Marignano,   Maximilian   surrendered  archbishop  was  St.  Petrus  (784),  but  it  is  certain  that 

Milan  at  the  end  of  a  brief  siege,  and  remained  a  St.  Ambrose  had  already  exercised  metropolitanjuris- 

prisoner.    The  French  had  been  dennitively  excluded  diction  over  northern  Italy,  from  Bologna  to  Turin, 

from  the  peninsula  by  the  battle  of  Pavia.  when  and  that  the  Franldsh  king  Childebert  gave  to  Bishop 

Francis  II.  a  brother  of  Maximilian,  became  duke,  and  Laurentius  II  the  title  of  Patriarch.    St.  Petrus  estab- 

at  hisdeatn  Charles  V  took  the  Ducny  of  Milan  for  him-  lished  an  asylum  for  foundlings,  one  of  the  first  insti- 

self,  and  bequeathed  it  to  his  successors  on  the  Span-  tutions  of  its  kind  in  Europe.    Mention  has  been  made 

ish  throne.    The  peace  of  Utrecht  (1713)  gave  Blilan  above  of  Ansperto  da  Biassono. 

to  Austria,  which  power  had  occupied  the  duchy  since  In  980  Landolf  o,  a  son  of  the  imperial  vicar,  Bonizo, 

1706.    During  the  war  of  the  Austrian  succession,  became  archbishop  through  simony;  be  was  driven 

Austria's  dominion  over  Milan  was  interrupted  for  a  from  the  dtv  on  account  of  his  abuse  of  power,  but  was 

time  (1745),  and  France  even  offered  the  duchy  to  takepback  oy  the  emperor  Otto  II,  and  repaired  the 

Savoy.   Under  Maria  Theresa  and  Joseph  II  much  was  evil  that  he  had  done.    He  was  succeeded  by  Amolfo 

done  for  the  prosperity  of  the  Milanese,  and  dvil  and  II  (998)  and  Ariberto  d'Intimiano  (1018),  mentioned 

ecclesiastical  reforms  were  also  introduced.    In  1796  above.    The  latterwassuccteded  by  Guide  (1045).  also 

Milan  became  the  capital  of  the  Cispadan  Republic,  a  simoniac.    At  this  time  the  morals  of  the  clergy 

soon  transformed  into  the  Cisalpine  Repubhc,  ana  were  deplorable:    simony    and^  concubinage    were 

(1805)  into  the  Kingdom  of  Italy;  the  Cispadan  Re-  common,  and  out  of  these  conditions  develoi)ed  the 

public  was  supported  entirely  by  Freoich  arms,  which  famous  paUxria,  a  popular  movement  for  sooal  and 

checked  by  Austria  (1799),  returned  victorious,  after  ecclesiastical  reform,  headed  by  the  priest  Anselmoda 

Marengo.    In  1814  the  Austrian  domination  was  re-  Biaggio,  later  Bishop  of  Lucca,  and  by  the  cleric 

established,  and  lasted  until  1859.    Encouraged  by  Arialdo,  both  of  whom  used  force  to  compel  the  clergy 

the  revolution  of  Vienna  in  1848,  Milan  revolted,  in  an  to  observe  continence,  and  to  drive  its  members  from 

effort  to  throw  off  the  foreign  yoke;  and  the  five  days  benefices  obtained  by  simonv.    From  this  great  con- 

(18  to  22  March  of  that  year)  remain  famous;  a  pro-  fusion  ensued.    In  1059  Nicholas  II  sent  to  Milan  St. 

visional  committee  was  formed  and  the  Austnans  Peter  Damian  and  the  same  Anselmo,  at  which  the 

were  compelled  to  retreat;  but  the  consequent  war,  people  murmured,  demanding  that  the  church  of 

Piedmont  having  taken  up  the  cause  of  Italy,  was  Milan  be  not  subject  to  that  of  Rome.     Archbishop 

disastrous  to  the  insurgents;  and  Milan  (with  Lom-  Guido,  however,  promised  amendment,  and  accepted 

bardy)  again  became  subject  to  Austria.    The  war  of  the  conditions  imposed  upon  him,  but  soon  relapsed. 

1859,  however,  decided  the  &ial  annexation  of  Lom-  and  Arialdo,  with  whom  tne  noble  warrior  Eriembaldc 

bardv  to  the  Kingdom  of  Italy.  was  associated,  bef;an  again  to  agitate  the  {leople,  ip 

Milan  is  an  archiepiscopal  see.    According  to  an  consequence  of  which  he  was  brutally  assassinated  21 

eleventh-century  legend  the  Gospel  was  brought  there  June,  1066.    Erlembaldo  then  gave  a  military  organi- 

by  St.  Barnabas,  and  the  first  Bishop  of  Milan,  St.  zation  to  the  pataria^  and  Guido,  who  was  excom- 

Anathalon,  was  a  disciple  of  that  apostle.    But  a  dio-  municated,  was  compelled  to  leave  the  city.    While 

aese  cannot  have  been  established  there  before  200,  and  the  election  of  his  successor  was  being  discussed, 

possibly  not  till  much  later,  for  the  list  of  the  bishops  Guido  sold  the  arehiepisc<^  dignity  to  his  secretary, 

of  Milan  names  only  five  predecessors  oH  Merocles,  who  Until  1065  there  were  several  pretenders  to  the 


31 


MILAN                                  301  MILAN 

and  in  one  of  the  many  tumults  caused  1^  this  ooodi-  St.  Basil;  they  depended,  however,  on  a  similar  monas- 

tion  of  affaire  Erlembaldo  was  killed  (1074).    Under  teiy  in  Genoa,  and  had  no  relation  with  Armenia. 

Ansebn  III  order  was  re-established.  This  order,  which  used  the  so-called  Aquileian  rite, 

Unfortunately,  the  pataria  had  created  an  anti-  was  suppressed  in  1650. 

derical  sentiment  in  the  people,  and  had  prepared  Religious  Edifices. — The  wonderful  Italian  Gothic 

them  to  accept  the  doctrines  of  Manichaism.    In  fact,  cathedral  is  built  of  white  marble,  has  five  naves,  and 

the  Cathari  of  Italy  were  more  frequently  called  Pa-  is  486  feet  in  length;   it  is  surmounted  by  98  slen- 

tan,  and  in  Milan,  one  of  their  chief  centres,  they  main-  der  turrets,  on  the  principal  one  of  which  is  a  bronze- 

tained  a  kind  of  university.    Archbishop  Oberto  was  gilt  statue  of  the  Madonna;  there  are,  in  all,  6000 

exiled  by  Barbarossa  in  1162;  and  though  his  sue-  statues,  2000  of  which  are  on  the  exterior.    Thecathe- 

cessor,  St.  Galdino,  was  elected  at  Rome  by  the  eml-  drai  is  situated  on  the  site  of  the  ancient  basilica  of 

grated  Milanese,  he  was  able  to  take  possession  of  his  Santa  Maria  Maggiore  (fourth  or  fifth  century),  and 

see  in  1167;  he  reorganized  the  hospital  del  Broglio.  was  b^;un  in  1386  by  Giovanni  Galeazzo  Visconti. 

Archbishop  Uberto  Crivelli  became  Pope  Urban  III  The  tomb  of  St.  Charles  is  under  the  cupola.    The 

in   1185.    At  an  archiepisconal   election,  in  1263.  treasury  of  the  cathedral  contains,  among  other  valu- 

no  agreement  could  be  reacheo,  for  the  people  wanted  able  objects,  two  statues,  of  St.  Charles  and  of  St. 

Raimondo  della  Torre,  and  the  nobles  a  member  Ambrose,  made  of  sHver  and  set  with  precious  stones, 

of  the  family  of  Settala;  therefore  Urban  IV  ap-  the  gift  of  the  city.    The  high  altar  is  a  gift  of  Pius  IV. 

pointed  Ottone  Visconti,  who  was  prevented  by  the  The  church  of  St.  Ambrose,  built  bv  its  patron  saint 

Milanese  from  taking  possession  of  his  see  until  1277,  in  386,  and  often  restored,  especially  in  the  twelfth 

when  he  entered  Milan,  both  as  archbishop  and  as  lord,  century,  contains  the  tomb  of  the  Emperor  Louis  II ;  in 

Roberto  Visconti,  who  succeeded  John  m  1354,  was  the  chapel  of  St.  Satyrus  is  a  mosaic  that  dates,  prob- 

obliged  to  enter  mto  litigation  with  his  brothers  for  ablv,  from  the  fifth  oentury,  while  the  central  door, 

the  property  of  the  Church,  which  they  regarded  as  the  with  wood-carvings  representing  scenes  from  the  life 

Eersonal  property  of  their  uncle.    Among  other  arch-  of  David,  is  held,  on  seemingly  good  grounds,  to  be  of 

ishops  of  Milan  were  Pietro  Filargo  (1402),  who  be-  the  time  of  St.  Ambrose;  the  church  possesses  also  a 

came  Alexander  V;   Fra  Gabriele  Sforza  (1454),  an  golden  altai^front  (jxdlioUo)  of  Angilbert  (835).   The 

Augustinian,  brother  of  Duke  Francesco  and  founder  monastery  annexed  to  this  church  nad  a  fine  library, 

of  the  Oapeaale  Maggiore;  and  the  cardinals  Stefano  and  belonged  at  first  to  the  Benedictines,  later  to  the 

^T     ,.  ,  /*.«*v    r>,'          f    A    i    ,^  ij,   /*.-«v    ^  Cistercians ;  it  serves  now  as  a  military  hospital.    The 

church  of  St.  Eustorgius  contains  the  mausoleums  of 
Stefano  Visconti,  Marano  della  Torre,  and  others.  The 
ways  absent  from  his  diocese,  great  abuses  grew  up  church  of  St.  Stefano  Masgiore  is  of  the  fifth  cen- 
which  Giovanni  Angelo  Ardmboldo  (1550)  and  St.  tury;  that  of  San  Vittore  oTcorpo  is  the  Basilica  Por- 
Charles  Borromeo  (q.  v.)  sought  to  remedy  (1561).  tiana,  dating  from  before  the  time  of  St.  Ambrose;  it 
Here  it  is  enough  to  mention  the  latter's  zeal  for  the  contains  the  body  of  the  martyr  St.  Victor,  and  also 
reformation  of  morals,  his  earnestness  in  preserving  valuable  paintings.  San  Nazaro  Ma^ore  (382?^  has 
the  Ambroeian  Rite  and  extending  its  use  tnroughout  a  vestibule  by  Bramante,  and  contains  the  tomos  of 
the  archdiocese  (Monza  alone  retaining  the  Roman  the  Trivulzio  familv.  In  the  church  of  St.  Aquilinus 
rite)  2  and  his  foundation  of  the  Oblates  for  diocesan  there  is  a  beautiful  mosaic  and  the  sarcophagus  of  a 
missions.  His  work  was  continued  by  Gaspare  Vis-  lady  of  the  family  of  the  Emperor  Theodosius.  Santa 
conti  (1584)  and  by  a  nephew  of  St.  Charles,  Federi^o  Maria  delle  Grazie  is  a  church  in  the  style  of  the 
(1594-1631),  who  was  a  cardinal,  as  were  all  of  his  Renaiasance  (1465),  with  a  cupola  by  Bramante:  it  has 
successors,  to  Filippo  Visconti  (1784-1801),  whose  valuable  frescoes,  beautiful  carvings,  and  inlaid  work 
nomination  by  Joseph  II,  made  without  the  consent  of  in  the  choir;  in  the  ancient  monastenr,  which  formerly 
the  Holy  See,  nearly  brought  on  a  schism.  He  was  belonged  to  the  Dominicans,  is  the  famous  Last  Sup- 
followed  by  Cardinal  Caprara,  well-known  as  Apos-  per  of  Leonardo  da  Vinci.  On  the  site  of  the  principal 
tolic  l^te  to  the  court  of  Napoleon.  After  the  death  hall  of  the  baths  of  Maximian,  the  peristyles  of  which 
of  this  prelate  in  1811  the  See  of  Milan  remained  va-  remain,  is  built  the  church  of  San  Lorenzo,  containing 
cant  for  six  years;  the  next  archbishop,  Cardinal  Carlo  ancient  mosaics.  The  church  of  San  Marco  (1254)  has 
Gstano Gaisruck,  was  appointed  in  1818.  and  governed  a  beautiful  high  altar,  and  valuable  paintings ;  that  of 
the  diocese  until  1848  "more  as  a  soldier  than  as  a  San  Maurizio,  said  to  have  been  built  by  Queen  Theo- 

E relate ".    He  was  especially  opposed  to  the  re-estab-  delinda,  is  covered  with  frescoes  bv  Luini  between 

shment  of  the  religious  orders.    Archbishop  Paolo  1503  and  1509.    San  Satiro,  a  church  that  dates  from 

Angelo  Ballerini  (1859-67)  was  never  able  to  take  876,  was  restored  by  Bramante.    There  are  also  the 

possession  of  his  see,  because  the  Italian  Government  church  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre,  and  others, 

denied  him  the  exeqwUur;  and  his  auxiliary  bishop  Seculab  Edifices. — Among  these  are  the  Palazzo 

Dominioni  was  also  persecuted.  di  Corte  (1228),  restored  several  times ;  whose  garden 

Councils  were  held  at  Milan  m  343  and  347,  against  contains  the  Royal  Villa  (1790) ;  the  Bioletto  Nuovo, 

Photinus;  355,  in  the  cause  of  St.  Athanasius,  at  which  from  1228  to  1786  the  palace  of  the  commime;  the 

the  Emperor  Constans  menaced  the  bishops;    390,  Palazzo  della  Ragione  (1233) ;  the  Broletto  (1413-24), 

against  Jo vinian;  451,  against  the  Robber  Council  of  at  present  containing  public  offices;    the  Collegio 

Ephesus;  680,  against  the  Monothelites;   1060,  1098,  Elvetico,  founded  by  St.  Charles  Borromeo^d  now 

1117,  1287,  for  ecclesiastical  reforms.    The  diocesan  theseatof  the  Court  of  Assizes;  theVittorioEmanuele 

synods  of  St.  Charles  Borromeo  and  those  of  1636  and  ^lery  and  the  Castello  Sforzesco. 

d  1669  were  also  reform  s3mods.    Diocesan  synods  Schools,  etc. — There  are  two  episcopal  seminaries, 

were  held  in  1609  and  1850  respectively.    The  suffra-  and  the  Lombard  Seminary  for  foreign  missions;  the 

gan  bishops  of  Milan  were  wont  to  meet  each  year  at  Academy  of  Sciences  and  Letters ;  the  Technical  In- 

R6;  their  sees  are  Bergamo,  BresdaMIIomo,  Crema,  stitute;  the  Superior  Institute  of  Commerce;  3  royal 

C^mona,  Lodi,  Mantua,  and  Pavia.    The  archdiocese  and  Oprivate  gymnasia;  many  other  schools,  17  of  which 

has  788  parishes,  with  1.828,000  mhabitants,  27  reli-  are  under  religious  direction;  the  Verdi  Conservatory 

gioos  houses  of  men.  ana  of  women  nearly  80  in  the  of  Music;  the  Lombard  Institute  for  Sciences  and  Let- 

dtyand  220  througnout  the  diocese;  it  has  43  educa-  ters;  the  Royal  Pinacoteca  della  Brera,  formerly  a 

tional  establishments  for  boys  and  176  for  girls,  2  Jesuit  college,  rich  in  painting  of  the  old  Lombard 

Catholic  daily  papers,  and  many  important  periodi-  school,  and  possessine  a  valuable  numismatic  collec- 

Cflds.    In  the  Middle  Ages  there  was  a  monastery  at  tion.    In  the  Castello   Sforzesco  is  a  museum   of 

MJ3an,  St.  Cosmas^  for  Armenian  monks  of  the  Rule  of  ancient  and  medieval  art,  while  many  of  the  private 


MILDI 


302 


palaces,  such  as  those  of  the  Borromeos  and  of  the 
Trivulzios,  contain  valuable  collections  of  paintines. 
The  National  Library  in  the  Brera  (1770)  and  the 
Ambrosian  Library  are  famous.  Tne  latter  was 
founded  by  Cardinal  Federigo  Borromeo  (1609)  and 
contains  200,000  volumesi  brides  8300  manuscrints, 
126  of  which  are  illuminated  with  miniatures.  The 
State  and  the  municipal  archives  are  important;  so, 
also,  in  their  sphere,  are  the  astronomical  and  the 
meteorological  observatories.  Milan  has  14  theatres, 
of  which  the  Scala  is  world-famous.  There  are  17 
hospitals  and  5  polyclinics,  also  asvlums  for  the  insane, 
the  blind,  the  aeaf-mute,  etc.  There  are  nearly  5000 
industrial  establishments,  with  150,000  workmen;  the 
textile,  typographic,  and  pharmaceutic  industries  are 
especially  well  representea. 

Cappklletti,  Le  Chieae  d' Italia,  XI  (Venice,  1856);  Eusta- 
CHIIT8  A.  8.  Ubaldo,  De  metropoli  Mediolanenti  (Milan,  1690); 
histories  of  Milan  by  Rosmini  (4  voIb.,  Biilan,  1820);  Cantu, 
(2  vols.,  1865);  BoNFADZNiGiANEn(4  vols.,  1883-1904):  Adt, 
'"'an  under  the  Sforza  (London,  1907);  Saxiub,  ArcAiepw- 
trwn  Mediolanensium  series  (Milai^  1755);  the  periodioal 


U.  Benigni. 

Milde,  ViNZENZ  Editard,  Prince-Archbishop  of 
Vienna,  b.  at  BrQnn,  in  Moravia,  in  1777;  d.  at  Vienna 
in  1853.  The  admirable  monument  erected  to  him 
in  the  left  wing  of  St.  Catharine's  chapel  in  the  cathe- 
dral of  St.  Stephen  in  Vienna  portravs  a  catechist 
bending  over  two  children,  inscribed  '"Chari^",  to 
the  left,  a  priest  in  the  act  of  elevating  the  Blessed 
Sacrament,  attended  by  a  young  priest  and  a  clerk,  in- 
scribed "  and  Prayer  " .  Xfnder  these  two  inscriptions, 
and  extending  across  the  whole  length  of  the  monu- 
ment* are  the  words  ''link  together  the  inhabitants 
of  this  world  and  those  of  the  next".  The  monument 
thus  bears  witness  to  Milde's  distinction  as  a  catechist 
and  as  the  founder  of  a  seminary  for  priests  and 
teachers.  Towards  the  close  of  his  preparatorv 
studies,  Milde  felt  called  to  the  ecclesiastical  state  which 
his  stepfather  was  very  much  opposed  to  his  entering. 
His  mother  favoured  his  purpose,  however,  and  poor 
and  without  acquaintances,  he  entered  the  "  Alumnat " 
or  little  seminary  at  Viexma  in  1794.  Here  he  formed 
an  intimate  friendship  with  Vinzenz  Damaut,  the 
future  professor  of  church  history,  and  with  Jakob 
Print,  later  Bishop  of  St.  P6lten.  The  three  distin- 
guished men  were  a^ain  imited  as  court  chaplains, 
and  remained  firm  friends  for  the  remainder  of  their 
lives.  Meanwhile,  Milde  became  catechist  in  the 
Normal  High  School  and  successor  of  the  famous 
Augustin  Gruber,  and  occupied  also  the  chair  of 
pedagogics  at  the  university.  Later,  as  court  chap- 
lain at  SchOnbrunn,  Milde  spoke  so  comfortingly  to  the 
Eknperor  Francis  I,  inconsolable  after  a  battle  lost  to 
Napoleon,  that  the  emperor  replied :  *'  I  shall  never 
forget  this  hour,  dear  Milde.  ^'  Not  content  with 
words,  Uie  emperor  named  Milde  Bishop  of  Leitmeritz 
in  1823,  and  in  1831  Prince-Archbishop  of  Vienna, 
Milde  being  the  first  archbishop  named  from  the  ranks 
of  the  people  to  this  see,  which  had  hitherto  been 
always  occupied  by  a  nobleman.  His  farewell  ad- 
dress is  thoroughly  characteristic:  "The  bond  of  the 
sacred  ministry  is  broken,  but  the  bond  of  the  heart 
will  never  be  severed,  lliose  whom  I  have  loved,  I 
shall  love  to  the  end,  and,  though  separated  from  you, 
I  shall  remain  united  with  you  in  charity  and  prayer. 
Pray  our  heavenly  father  not  that  I  may  live  long, 
but  that  I  may  live  for  the  salvation  of  the  faithful 
and  for  my  own  salvation.  '*  Milde  thus  greeted  Uie 
people  of  Vienna:  "  Not  onlv  do  I  wish  to  be  united 
with  you  in  the  bonds  of  tne  sacred  ministry,  but  I 
wish  to  be  united  with  you  in  the  bonds  of  charity. 
Not  for  myself,  but  for  you  do  I  wish  to  live."  He 
kept  the  promise  which  he  made  to  his  flock,  and  was 
to  them  a  solicitous  and  loving  father. 

Nevertheless,  the  year  of  the  Revolution  (1848) 
brought  him  his  bitterest  enmities  and  his  most  severe 


illnesses.  He  was  between  two  fires.  On  13  Mareh 
the  storm  broke,  and  four  days  later  he  warned  his 
deiKyi  in  a  circular  letter,  not  to  overstep  the  bounds 
of  their  calling:  "Priests  are  not  intenaed  to  advise 
regarding  the  earthly  affairs  of  men,  nor  to  regulate 
them,  but  should  onlf  concern  themselves  with  in- 
terior matters  pertainmg  to  the  salvation  of  souls." 
But  the  revolution  soon  menaced  the  archbishop. 
Mock  serenades  were  held  repeatedly  outside  his 

Ealace  and  its  windows  were  broken.  On  the  other 
and,  a  portion  of  the  clergy  clamoured  that  he  should 
be  declared  incapable  of  managing  the  affairs  of  the 
diocese  and  expressed  the  hope  of  being  led  to  victory 
by  a  stronger  personality.  A  deputation  of  the  clergy 
represented  this  to  Milde,  who  complied  as  far  as 
possible  by  retiring  to  his  castle  ot  Kranichberg. 
When  the  draft  of  tne  fundamental  laws  of  the  Aus- 
trian constitution  was  discussed  by  the  assemblv  of 
the  States  of  the  Empire  at  Kremsier,  the  archbishop 
drew  up  an  address  to  the  assembly:  "The  under- 
signed bishops  declare  solemnlv  that  they,  as  true  citi- 
zens, promote  the  welfare  and  nold  sacred  liie  rights  of 
the  state,  but  it  is  the  duty  of  their  office  and  <h  tlkeir 
conscience  to  look  after  the  freedom  and  the  r^ts 
of  the  Catholic  Church,  to  oppose  encroachment  and 
restriction  on  the  part  of  the  state,  and  to  b^  for 
that  support  which  would  promote  the  true  interests 
of  the  state  and  the  successful  activity  of  the  Church." 
At  the  great  assembly  of  bishops  in  Vienna  (1849), 
Milde  was  chosen  one  of  a  committee  of  five  to 
continue  the  negotiations  with  the  state.  When 
finallv  in  1850  the  imperial  decisions  were  promul- 

fatea.  which  at  first  dealt  a  blow  to  the  existing 
osepnist  system,  Milde  published  a  pastoral  for  the 
purpose  of  stilling  the  tumult:  "The  uneasiness  is  in- 
deed in  great  part  the  result  of  misunderstanding, 
but  often  also  the  result  of  malicious  misrefjresenta- 
tion,  since,  throu^  some  newspapers  and  through 
speeches  made  by  certain  men  inimical  to  the  Churui. 
tne  words  of  the  atigust  decree  were  distorted,  and 
erroneous  representations  spread  abroad."  The 
words  of  Milde  in  "  My  last  will  '*  are  strikingly  beauti- 
ful. "Hope  softens  the  separation.  IjQose  who 
did  me  evil  I  do  not  think  wicked,  but  gladly  persuade 
myself  that  I  by  my  sensitiveness  have  in  many  cases 
been  more  deeply  wounded  than  the  occasion  war- 
ranted. During  the  last  years  I  have  had  to  bear 
many  bitter  misunderstanaings  and  shameful  calum- 
nies. I  have  kept  silence  through  it  all,  not  through 
apathy,  but  partly  that  the  malice  might  not  be 
excited  further,  and  partly  in  imitation  of  my  Re- 
deemer." 

Milde's  "Lehrbuch  der  allgemeinen  Erziehimgs- 
kunde"  is  famous,  and  even  yet  much  used  (Vol.  I: 
Von  der  Kultur  der  physischen  und  der  intellectuellen 
Anl^en;  Vol.11:  Von  der  Kultur  des  GefOhls-  und 
des  &gehrungsvermOgens,  Vienna,  1811-13,  3rd  ed., 
1843).  A  compendium  of  the  Erziehungskimde  was 
published  in  1821.  J.  Ginzel  edited  Mflde's  "Reli- 
quien"  (2nd  ed,,  Vienna,  1859),  which  contained 
various  discourses  and  addresses  which  he  delivered 
as  bishop  and  archbishop. 

Brunnxr,  Denk  Pfennige  tur  Erinnerww  an  Peraonen,  Zu- 
atAnde  und  Sriebniaee  vor,  xn  und  naeh  dem  Exploaionsjahre  18^8 
(Vienna  and  WQnbun,  1886);  Ginzel,  Ruiquien  von  MtUU 
(2nd  ed.,  Vienna,  18^);  ThuknwaijD,  MfUde  ale  Padaooge, 
with  portrait  of  Milde  (Vienna,  1877);  Wolfbgrubbr,  Dielt.  «. 
k.  HofburokapeUe  und  die  geietliche  HofkapeUe  (Vienna,  1004); 
WoTKK,  vinzenz  Eduard  MUde  aU  PAdoQoge  und  aein  VerhAUnia 
«u  denoeiatiqen  StrOmungen  aeiner  ZeU  C*ieDn^l902);  Wuas- 
BACB,  Biogr.Lexikandaa  Kaiaertuma  Oealerreieh,  XVIIl  (Vienna, 
1868),  301-8. 

C.  WOLFBOBUBKR. 

Miles,  George  Henry,  dramatist  and  man  of  let- 
ters, b.  in  Baltimore,  Maryland,  31  July,  1824;  d.  near 
Emznitsburg,  23  July,  1871.  He  graduated  from 
Mount  St.  Mary's  College,  Emmitsbuig,  in  1842,  and 
then  took  up  the  study  of  law,  commenoinff  to  prac- 
tise later  in  his  native  city.    But  the  prtnession  of 


MILETO                                303  MnJBTUS 

Isir  was  ill-euited  to  his  temper  of  thought  and  to  at  the  oonfluenoe  of  the  Macestus  and  the  Rhyndacus, 

his  literary  talents,  which  had  early  evinced  them-  west  of  Lake  Miletopolitis  Linme.    There  seems  to 

selves  in  a  tendency  to  turn  many  neat  verses.    His  have  been  a  tribe  there,  called  Milat®,  of  which  Mile- 

fint  apoearance   in   print   was  with  an   historical  topolis  was  the  chief  town  and  whose  name  was  hel- 

tale,  '*  Toe  Truce  of  God ".  whieh  appeared  serially  in  lenized  in  order  to  suggest  a  colony  from  Miletus. 

the   ''United  States  Catnolic  Magazine",   followed  Nothing  is  known  of  the  history  of  MiletopoUs  except 

shortly  by  **  The  Governess ",  and  m  1849,  by  "  Lor-  that  its  inhabitants  served  to  colonize  the  city  of 

etto'%  wmch  won  a  $50  prize  offered  bv  the  ''Catholic  Gargara.    It  has  been  identified  with  Bali-Kesser, 

Biirror".    The  following  year,  when  out  twentv-six  Manias,  Mikhail tch;  but  the  first  two  identifications 

years  of  age,  with  his  tragedy  of  "Mahommed   ,  he  are  certainly  erroneous  and  the  third  doubtful.    It 

won  the  $1000  prize  offered  by  Edwin  Forrest.    The  was  more  probably  located  at  Hammamli,  in  the 

law  was  now  definitely  abandoned  for  the  drama.    In  vilayet  of  Brusa,  where  the  remains  of  an  ancient 

1859  he  scored  his  first  success  with  the  tragedv  of  town  can  be  seen.    MiletopoUs  figures  in  the  "  Notitise 

"De  Soto",  produced  at  the  Broadway  Theatre,  New  episcopatuum"  among  the  suffragan  sees  of  C3rzicus 

York  City,  and  during  the  same  season  his  comedy,  tmtil  the  twelfth  or  thirteenth  centtuy;  toward  the 

"Miuy's  Birthday'',  was  performed.    In  1859  "  Sefior  end  of  the  twelfth  it  was  imited  with  Hie  See   of 

Valjente"  earned  the  distmction  of  being  presented  in  Lopadium,  as  an  archbishopric  and  later  as  metrop- 

New  York,  Boston,  and  Baltimore  on  the  same  night,  olis.    Le  Quien  (Orlens   Christ.,   I,  779)   gives  the 

During  the  season  1860-61  the  "Seven  Sisters",  based  names  of  some  twelve  bishops  of  MiletopoUs;  the 

on  the  theme  of  Secession,  was  produced  at  Laura  first  is  Philetus,  a  contemporaiy  of  St.  Parthenius, 

Keens's  Theatre,  New  York  City.    Other  dramatic  Bishop  of  Lampsacus,  bom  at  Miletopolis,  in  the  be- 

ventures  were  not  so  successful,  and  his  most  preten-  ginning  of  the  fourth  century. 

tious  effort,  "Cromwell,  a  Tragedy",  remains  Unfin-  Hamiltow.  Reaearchea,  I,  81;  II,  91;  Smtth,  Dictionary  oj 

ished.  In  1861  he  wasdespatchS  to  Spain  by  President  ^"**  °~*  ^""^  Oeooraphy.  s.  v.;  Rambat.  ^•^p^^'*' i|9- 

Fillmore  on  official  business.    He  was  again  in  Europe  d.  rETBi     s. 

in  1864  and,  on  his  return,  published  in  the  "  Catholic  Miletus,  a  titular  see  of  Asia  Minor,  suffragan  of 

World  "  a  series  of  charming  sketches,  "  Glimpses  of  Aphrodisias,  in  Caria.    Situated  on  the  western  coast 

Tuscany",  and,  in  1866,  "Cnristine:  a  Troubadour's  of  Caria  near  the  Latmio  Gulf  at  the  mouth  of  the 

Song",  and  a  volume  of  verse.  "Christian  Poems".  Mseander  and  the  terminus  of  several  of  the  great 

In  1859  he  had  been  appointea  professor  of  English  roads  of  Asia  Minor,  Miletus  was  for  a  long  period  one 

Literature  at  Mount  St.  Mary's,  in  which  year  he  of  the  most  prosperous  cities  of  the  ancient  world.    At 

niArried  Adaline  Tiers,  of  New  York,  and  moved  from  first  inhabited  by  the  Lel^es  and  called  Lelegeis  or 

Baltimore  to  Thombrook.  a  cottage  near  Emmitsburg,  Pityussa,  it  was  rebuilt  unoer  the  name  of  Miletus  by 

where  he  lived  until  bis  aeath.  the  Cretans  (Strabo,  XIV,  i,  3).    It  is  mentioned  by 

In  addition  to  works  of  creative  fancy,  Miles  de-  Homer  (Iliad,  II,  868).    About  the  tenth  century  b.  c. 

livered  in  1847  a  "  Discourse  in  Commemoration  of  the  the  lonians  occupied  it,  and  made  it  a  maritime  and 

Landing  of  the  Pilgrims  of  Maryland  "^  and.  shcnrtly  commercial  power  of  the  first  rank.    From  it  numer- 

before  his  death,  contemplated  a  series  of  critical  ous  colonies  were  founded  along  the  Hellespont,  the 

estimates  on  Shakespeare  s  characters.     Only  one,  Propontis,  and  the  Black  Sea,  among  others  Cyzicus 

that  upon  "Hamlet",  was  published  (in  the  "Southern  and  Sinope.    Miletus  also  had  its  period  of  literary 

Review"),  which  won  no  mean  measure  of  apprecia-  glory  with  the  philosophers  Thales,  Anaximander,  and 

tion  from  contemporary  scholars  in  England.  Anaximenes,  the  historians  Hecatseus  and  Cadmus,  the 

Aiticles  on  Mahommed  in  Southern  Quarterly  Review,  XVIII,  rhetorician  iEschines,  and  the  writer  of  tales,  Aristides. 

¥lsrTTT  ^A^  ''^^'  ^'  ^*^'  ^^  ^""'ff^^Ta^^i^.  ^^  After  the  sath  century  b.  c,  it  passed  successively 

'^™^"'  ^*^                                     JARvis  HEiLKY.  ^^^^  ^j^^  domination  of  the  Persians,  Alexander,  the 

mirii^*^  r^r.^-n^^  rx«  /tlt^t  «m«^aToN   ?«  PoioK«.;o   iw^  Selcucldes,  Bttd  thc  Romaus,  aud  fiually  lost  Its  splcu- 

f^^l^^i^^'f^^^A^l^^^  and  Romans  the  symbol  of  vanished  prosperity.    Itis, 

*^!i^^jllV^Y!f.^^^^^^^  nevertheless,  oftei  mentioned  by  ^tn.l5^  (^11,,  viii 


1906,  imd,  although  ma  lew  d^  Ephesus.    On  another  occasion,  doubtless  after  his 

^i^'^^If  Xl^^±^  ff  *S£,!l.?^  rfJi^  fi«t  captivity,  he  left  here  his  companion  Trophimus, 

"?f-.   ^^^  ^^J^X^^JFJ^^^R^^r^^fZ  who  WM  ill  (II  Tim.,  iv,  20).    IntheActsofSt.Thyrl 

^.IS  Tk  ,«7^t^?.1^^^  J^n  ^SJ^?^^Jh«  8US  and  his  compailioM,  martyred  at  Miletus  under 

cathedral,  ^uilt  by  Count  R^r,.w^^^  U^.       mention Tmade  of  a  Bishop  Ciesarius  who 

f  ^**^75L*^?3S!Lt?^  ftmity  and  St.  Michael  ^{^^^  ^^^^^  (^       gg    j„  j^*;    ^23).    Euse- 

!rL2^i>wJ^^  T'?^;?.^!  inH%iS.nT^«  Uf  bius.  Bishop  of  Milctus,  assisted  at  the  Souncil  of 

f '^♦I^  K^v,«  Q  J^^^  Th.  w  Wahon  w^  Ni«4a  (325) .    For  the  li^t  of  the  other  known  bishops 

ter  dMtroyed  by  the  Saracens^^  J^Z,^„^a^!^^^  see  Le  Quien  (I,  917-20)  and  Gams  (448).    Mention 

Amolfo|after  him  were  ^?^f^y.(i094),  imder  whom  ^"^^^  ^^ ^^  g^  Nicephorus  in  the  tenth  cen- 

the  see  be«ime  mmi«liate ly  8^^^  tu^ (Anal.  Bolland.,  XIV,  129-66).    Atfinitasuffn^ 

?^  ^^nv^'I^nqirtm  Vi^  e^^oi  Aphrodisias    MUetus  afterwards  became  an 

Apensi  (1411);  Antonio  Sorbd^^^^  lutocephalous  arehlliocese  and  even  a  metropolis, 

the  semmanr,  m  1440;  Feli^  Centm    (1611),  after-  Among  those  who  brought  fame  to  the  city  dJiring 

wards  a  cardinAl;  Gregono  Po^mni  a640),  ^  Byzantine  times  mustl*  mentioned  the  artshiteot 

with  a  mission  to  England  by                       Z^vII^  I^dore,  who,  with  Anthemius  of  TnUles,  built  St. 

entmcumtent(smcel898),M^^  Sophia  at  CcUtantmople.    The  ancient  city  is  now 

charitable  father  to  the  sufferers  from  the  re^nte^^^^  ^^^  under  the  alluviSm  of  the  Meander,  which  has 

3S?^     ^®  o'T^  ^  l^J^JTio^'y^J^  also  filled  up  the  Latmic  Gulf.    Near  its  site,  about 

220,000  souk ;  2  convents  of  men,  and  12  houses  o7  ^^^^  ^^  ^  ^^^  ^j,^  ^^^  ^^^        ^  ^y^^  ^.^  ^^^y^ 

'''^S^^^^Li%J^^i:Sl^.i^\^^  1870).  Bince  the  medieval  times  has^  been  called  Palatia  or 

\J,  Benigni.  Palatscha.    Recent   excavations   have   brought   to 

li^ht  other  ruins,  the  remains  of  a  temple  of  Apollo 

BSiletopoUs,  a  titular  see  of  Asia  Minor,  suffragan  Didymseus.    Greek  Christian  inscriptions  have  also 

of  Cyzicus-     MiletopoUs  was  a  town  north  of  Mysia,  been  found  there,  among  others  one  mentioning  the 


ttlUfiTtrS  304  iCtUTABT 

niaiiyr  Onedppus,  and  another,  probably  of  the  of  Milah  (Diehl, ''L'Afrique  byzantme''.  Parfa,  ldd6^ 

fourth  century,  containing  an  invocation  to  the  seven  603  sq.).    Two  councils  were  held  at  Milevum,  one  in 

archangels,  guardians  of  the  city  (Corp.  inscr.  gr.,  402  and  the  other  in  416;  the  second  appealed  to  Pope 

2892, 8847).  Innocent  I  for  the  repression  of  the  relagian  heresy. 

Lib  QyiisN,  OriejM/^nj^.  I.  917-20;  Ratwt  and  Thoicas.  Among  the  bishops  of  this  titular  see  were  Pollianus, 

M%Ut  el  le  golfe  Laimtoue  (Pana,  1877);  Tbxibr,  Aate  Mtneure  r^«aaor5  <k4-  *\^^  rw^^;!  ^f  n^^^^^ITzJ^ncc     "*p*""°» 

(Paris.  1882),  331-6:  Rambat.  Hitt.  Oeog.  of  Ana  Minor  (Lon-  present  at  the  Council  of  Carthage  in  265  and  mar- 
don,  1890),  37,  40,  58H0O.  62.  422;  Pxrrot  and  Chipiu,  Hiat,  tyred  two  years  later;  St.  Optatus,  noted  for  his  work 
d^loHdan* VantiqmU,  VIU  (Paris.  1904), 268-70.  against  the  Donatists,  d.  c.  385,  and  commemoi»ted 

S.  Salaville.  on  4  June  ;Honorius;Severus,  fellow-countryman  and 

Biiletiu  (originally  MOller),  Vitus,  CathoUc  theo-  !l®^l2L^^:iT^^r!i  ^'^enanus  (484) ;  Rejrtitutus, 

logian,  b.  at  GniQna,  Swabia,  1549;  I  at  Mains,  11  S^i^ j^^''^!^  *£?i^  •   CEcumemca^  Council  m  553 

Sept.,'  1615.    He  studied  at  the  German  CoUige,  JJ^TS^  ^T  J^"^'  "  %u^In^  ^^u  u??*!?^  ""l 

Ro^n^,  from  1567  to  1575;  on  28  Oct.,  1573,  as  dean  of  2^v^^'^%'^  ^^^™'  "S^^  ?^  mhabitants,  400  of 

the  students  he  gave  a  short  add^ss  before  Pope  ?^^;^  Europeans.    We  have  auite  a  number  of 

Gregory  XIII,  when  he  visited  the  newly  organist  ^^.  mscnptions  from  this  city  and  a  colossal  statue 

academy.    He  was  ordained  in  St.  John  Lateran  on      \^Jr""^  ^.        i.  j  »-^.       r  ^.         ^,     ...  ^   . 

Easter  Saturdav,  1575,  and  returned  to  Germany  in  ^^^l'^:^f^ogfnvhu^d€rAfh9ued^^ 

the  summer  of  that  3rear;  on  his  way  home  he  was  made  '  g.  Yaijm^ 

doctor  of  theology  at  Bologna  (11  June,  1575).    He 

was  summoned  to  Mainz  by  the  Elector  Daniel  Bren-        MiHc,  Jan,  a  pre-Hussite  reform  preacher  and  re- 


del  von  Homburg,  where  he  was  active  in  the  reform  ligious  enthusiast,  b.  at  Kremsier  in  Moravia,  d.  29 

of  the  clergy.    From  there  he  was  sent  by  the  elector  June,    1374,   at  Avignon.    From   1358-60  he  was 

to  Erfurt,^  to  assist  the  suflfragan  bishop  Nicolaus  El-  registrar  and  from  1360-2  corrector  at  the  imperial 

f,rd  m  his  efforts  for  the  restoration  of  Catholicism,  chancery  of  Charles  IV.  In  1363  he  was  priest  and 
IS  sermons  on  the  doctrme  of  the  Euchanst,  preached  canon,  probably  also  arohdeacon,  at  Prague  •  but  to- 
at  Erfurt  in  Lent,  1579,  involved  him  in  sharp  contro-  wards  the  end  of  the  same  year  he  renounced  all  his 
versy  with  the  Protestant  preachers.  He  was  sent  to  dignities,  began  a  life  of  extreme  austerity  and  fear- 
Rome  m  1582  to  brmg  the  pallium  for  the  new  arch-  lessly  denounced  the  vices  of  the  clergy  and  the  laity, 
bishop,  Wolfgang  von  Dalberg.  The  latter  brought  At  least  once  each  day  he  preached  at  St.  Nicholas's, 
him  back  agam  to  Mains,  and  employed  hun  on  impor-  later  at  St.  Egid's  in  Prague,  in  Latin  for  ecclesiastics 
tant  affairs,  notably  on  the  visitation  of  monasteries,  and  in  the  Csech  language  for  the  laity.  After  the 
Also  in  1601  and  1604  he  brought  from  Rome  the  death  of  Conrad  of  M^ldhausen  in  1369  he  preached 
confirmation  and  the  pallium  for  the  succeeding  arch-  daily  at  the  cathedral  in  German.  In  the  spring  of 
bishops,  Adam  von  Bicken,  and  Schweikart  von  Cro-  1367  he  went  to  Rome  where  he  was  imprisoned  by  the 
nenberg.  Under  all  these  archbishops,  the  last  of  Inquisition  because  he  had  declared  to  the  people  that 
whom  appointed  him  his  spiritual  counsellor,  he  was  Antichrist  had  arrived.  During  his  imprisonment  he 
tirelessly  engaged  in  defending  the  Catholic  Faith,  both  wrote  "  Libellus  de  Antichristo  ^,  which  he  submitted 
by  preachmg  and  wntmg,  imtil  his  death.  He  was  pro-  to  Pope  Urban  V,  who  upon  his  return  from  Avignon 
vost  of  St.  Morita,  dean  of  the  Liebfrauenstift.  canon  to  Rome  on  16  Oct.,  1367,  released  him.  In  1372  he 
of  St.  Victor's  and  St.  Peter's,  all  in  Mains;  and  canon  founded  at  Prague  a  home  for  fallen  women,  which 
of  St.  Severus'  at  Erfurt.  After  1575  he  also  had  a  he  called  "Jerusalem".  In  1373  the  mendicants  and 
canonry  in  the  cathedral  chapter  at  Breslau.    He  did  the  city  clergy  of  Prague  lod^  twelve  accusations 


elected  bishop.    His  polemical  and  apologetic  writ-  carcfinals.    There  are  extant  in  mani^ript  two  coUec- 

ings  are:—"  Ue  festo  Corporis  Christi  in  honorem  Jesu  tions  of  his  Latin  sermons,  entitled  "  Gratia  Dei"  and 

Christi"  (Mains,    1580);  "Augenschein  des  Jesuiter  "Abortivus".    His  "Libellus  de  Antichristo"  was 

Spiegels,  so  neuwlich  su  Erffurdt  in  truck  aussgangen  "  edited  by  Mencik  in  "  Sitsungsberichte  der  bObmi- 

(Cologne,  1582);  "De  sacramentis,  mille  sexcentier-  schen  Gesellschaft    der    Wissenschaften"    (Prague, 

rores,  vaniloquia  et  cavillationes  eorum,  qui  hoc  tem-  1890),  328-336. 

pore   ab   Ecclesia  secesserunt   catholica,    cum  brevi         ViUi  venonbaia  prtoSvteri  MUieii  jmOaH  eeduia  Pm^ 

eorum  refutatione;  plerique  collect!  ex  Kemnitio"  ed.  Emlbi^  in  Fa»rf«trm»mBoA«m.,  I  (1871),  401-36;  FALAorr, 

(Mainz,  1593);  "Brevis  dicussio  et  refutatio  sexcen-  KSSSfpJfe  uiI^Ja  (^l^t^^j^t^'  ^*""** 

torum  ^rum,  quos  duo  Pradicantes  Saxonid  Til©.  ^""^  ^~*^'  ™'  ^  **•  ^^^^*«^  1807).  178  «i. 
mannus  Heshusius  et  Joannes  Olearius  Pontificiis  hoc  Michael  utt. 


est  Christianis  Catholicis  vanissime  hactenus  attribu- 


MiUtary    (Men,    Thb.— Including    under    this 


erunt"  (Mainz,  1604).  ^  "^"^^  J^a^iI    Af  kZ^TcTS,*™'^*'^,  *°* 

Roth   in    WUrUembenfioche   VierteliahrMte  far  Landeta^  *®^  ®^7  !™°  ?!  brotherhood  of  Imighta,  secular  as 

achiehtef  new  series,  ninth  year  (1900),  S.  304-306;  Stbinhit-  well  as  religious,  historians  of  the  milltaiy  ordeiB  have 

BKR,  OMdii^  du  CoUmm  -Gennanicum  ^^^^oa^^cwn^  enumerated  as  many  as  a  hundred,  even  after  eliminat- 

Rom.,  I  (Fieibuig  im  Br.,  1806),  76, 96 sq.,  196, 197, 201-3, 303:  i„-  ^u-.  ««-w*-.^l»«i  ««#l  <.+:iiK^.^      Ti,:-  ^^^t  ^..^u^. 

iJmoHTn,Die  ETreaauer  OermaniJter  (Bfiuu,  1906).  a  2i-27  P8  ^?  apocrvphal  and  stillborn.    Thw  great  number 

FmoL  in  KirehenUx.,  2,  Aufl.,  VXII,  1616  f.  IS  explained  bv  the  eagerness  with  which  the  Middle 

Fbieobich  Lauchebt.  Ages  welcomed  an  institution  so  thoroughly  corre- 
sponding to  the  two  occupations  of  that  penod,  war 

IfiUevum,  a  titular  see  of  Numidia.    In  Ptolemv's  and  religion.    Royalty  afterwards  utilised  this  new 

"Geography",  IV,  iii,  7,  the  city  is  mentioned  under  idea  to  strengthen  its  own  position  or  to  reward  faith- 

the  name  of  Mileum  or  Mireon.    During  the  Roman  ful  nobles,  creating  secular  orders  of  loiighthood  until 

era  it  was  called  Colonia  Samensis  Milevitana,  after  there  was  no  country  without  its  royi3  or  princely 

the  River  Samus  in  Campania,  whence  the  colonists  order.  Even  private  individuals  entered  into  tne  busH 

had  emigrated.    This  name  is  often  found  in  the  in-  ness;  adventurers  attempted  to  exploit  the  vanity  of 

scriptions  of  the  city.    Together  with  Cirta,Collo,  and  the  noUesse  by  sham  insignia  of  knignthood  with  which 

Rusicade,  Milevum  fonned  the  confederation  known  they  decked  themselves,  and  whicn  they  distributed 

as  the  Four  Colonies,  the  territoiy  of  which  was  very  among  their  dupes  lavishly — though  not  gratuitou^y* 

extensive.    In  the  sixth  century  the  Emperor  Justin-  Hence  came  a  whole  category  of  oiden  justly  oonsid- 

ian  had  Milevum  enclosed  by  a  fortified  wall,  which  ered  afxicryphal.    In  the  seventeenth  centuiy  Marino 

still  stands  and  forms  a  rampart  for  the  Arabian  city  Caraocioli  (l624),  a  Neapolitan  nobleman,  succeeded  la 


(168 
Lkd; 


Mning  himself  off  H  Q»nd  Master  of  the  Order  of  Orden  of  St.  lAsarua  of  Jeruaalem  (q.  v.)  and  of 
Knighta  of  St.  George,  which  he  pretended  to  trace  the  Holy  Spirit  of  Montpellier  (q.  v.).  With  then 
to  do^Btautine  the  Great.  In  1632,  Balthuar  Giron,  may  be  connected  the  Oitier  of  Our  Lady  of  Rjuuom 
who  colled  himaelf  an  Abyssinian,  brouaht  to  Europe  (NiKttra  Setlora  de  Meretd,  also  called  Mercedariaoe), 
an  Older  no  less  anoient,  that  of  St.  Anthony  of  Ethio-  founded  (1218)  in  Aragon  by  St.  Peter  Nolaaco  for  the 
pia,  an  impoetuiB  almoat  immediately  unmasked  by  redemption  of  captives.  Including  religious  knighta 
another  Oriental,  the  learned  Abraham  Echelensis  as  well  as  religious  clerics,  it  was  orcginalTy  considered 
(1646).  At  the  court  at  Louis  XIV,  a  negro,  brought  a  military  order,  but  disBensions  arose  and  each  rank 
to  France  from  the  Gold  Coast,  posed  as  a  prince,  even  chose  its  own  grand  master.  John  XXII  (1317)  re- 
•ooiirino  t.ViA  honour  of  being  baptiied  by  Boaauet  served  the  grand-mastership  to  clerics,  with  the  result 
^„j,  _,,.  .^tttuted  Uie  Order  o!  the  Star  of  Our     of  a  general  exodus  of  knightB  into  the  newly  founded 

,^y  before  tetumiiig  to  his  alleged  dominions.  milituy  Order  of  Hontesa. 

A  regular  order  of  &iigbthood  means  a  brotherhood  II.  Ibb  Lesser  Reottlas  Orders. — There  is  men- 
or  ooafratemity  which  combines  with  the  insignia  of  tkm  in  the  twelfth  century,  in  Castile,  of  an  Order  of 
loiighthood  the  privileges  of  monks.  This  supposes 
recognition  on  the  part  of  both  Church  and  State;  to 
belong  to  the  regular  clergy,  they  needed  the  pope'a 
eonfirmation;  the^  could  not  wear  the  sword  of  knight- 
hood without  the  authorisation  of  the  prince.  Orders 
of  knighthood  lacking  this  official  recognition  should 
be  expunged  from  hiitorv,  even  though  they  figure  in 
the  pages  of  all  the  ola  hiatArians  of  the  military 
orders.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  more  than  one  rule  of 
this  kind,  scarcely  passing  beytmd  the  initial  stages, 
has  existed,  and  such  are  the  ordeis  which  may  be 
designated  stillborn.  No  trace  is  to  be  found  in 
the  Bullarium  romanum"  of  the  order  called  the 
Wing  of  St.  Michael,  attributed  to  King  Alfonso  I 
of  Portugal  (1176),  nor  of  the  Order  of  the  Ship, 
which  St.  Louis  was  supposed  to  have  founded  on  the 
eve  of  the  crusade  to  Tunis  where  he  died  (1270),  nor 
of  that  of  the  Argonauts  of  St .  Nicholas,  attributed  to 
Charles  III,  King  of  Naples.  1382 .  Philippe  de  Meii^ies, 
chancellor  of  the  Kins  of  C^rus,  diew  up  the  statutes 
of  an  Order  of  the  Passion  of  Christ  (1360)  the  text 
of  which  baa  recently  been  published,  but  wnich  wero 
never  enforced.  After  the  conquest  of  Lemnos  from 
the  Turka,  Pope  Pius  II  founded  an  order  of  Our 
l4>dy  of  Bethlehem,  intending  to  transfer  to  it  the 
possessions  of  older  ordera  which  no  longer  fulfilled 


Order    of    the    Christian    Militia,    projected 

(1615)  under  Paul  V ;   of  the  French  order  rf  The 

Ifagdalen  for  the  suppression  of  duelling  (1614):  of  „  _  „ 
thTConception  of  Oir  Lady,  the  statutes  of  which,  ^'"™  <"  ^'™'^  °»  8wo»»-b.a»™ 
drawn  upoy  the  Duke  of  Miutua  and  approved  by  Montjoie,  confirmed  by  Alexander  III  (1180),  but 
Urban  VIII  (1623),  have  remained  a  dead  letter,  difficult  to  distinguish  from  the  Order  of  Calatrsva, 
The  a^  of  the  crusades  bad  passed.  The  orders  of  with  which  it  was  soon  amal^mated.  In  1191,  after 
any  historical  existence  may  be  reduced  to  three  cat«-  the  siege  of  Acre,  Richard  I  of  England  founded  there 
Kories:  I.  The  Greater  R^g">ar  Orders;  II.  The  in  fulfilment  of  a  vow,  the  Order  of  St.  Thomas  of 
Lnser  Regular  Orders:  III.  The  Secular  Ciders.  C^terbu^,  an  order  of  hospitalleis  for  the  service  of 
I.  Thb  Greater  Reoi7lar  Orders. — The  great  English  pilgrims.  It  seems  to  have  been  made  de- 
military  orders  had  their  origin  in  the  crusades,  Irom  pendent  on  the  Hospitallers  of  St.  John,  whom  it  fol- 
which  they  retain  the  commcHk  badge  of  every  order  lowed  to  Cyprus  after  the  evacuation  of  Palestine.  Its 
of  knighthood,  the  cross  worn  on  the  breast.  The  existence  is  attested  by  the  Bullarium  of  Alexander 
oldest  of  these,  the  KnighU  Templata  (q.  v.),  has  IV  and  John  XXII ;  beyond  this  it  has  left  but  little 
served  as  a  model  for  all  the  others.  After  barely  a  trace  except  a  church  of  remarkable  architecture,  St. 
century  of  existence,  they  were  suppressed  by  Clement  Nicholas,  at  Nicosia  in  Cyprus.  Better  known  ia  the 
V;  but  two  remnants  remained  alter  the  fourteenth  history  of  the  SchwertzbrUder  (.Eruiferi,  or  Sword- 
oentury,  the  Order  of  Christ  (q.  v.)  in  Portugal,  and  bearers)  of  Livonia,  founded  W  Albert,  first  Biahop  of 
the  Order  of  Montesa  (q.  vT)  in  Spain.  In  the  Riga(1197)i  topropagate  the  Faithin  theBalticProv- 
twelfthcentury  Fortugalhadb<wiowed  theirrulefrom  ineea  and  to  protect   the    new   Chriatianitv  ther 


purely  militarv  orders,  othera  were  founded,  at  tine,  to  supply  their  place  with  a  permanent  order, 

once  military  and   nospitaller,  the  most  famous  of  Thia  order  aaop*cd  toe  statutes,   the  while  mantle 

which  were  the  Hospitallers  of  St.  John  of  Jerusalem  and  the  red  cross  of  the  Templars,  with  a  red  sword 

and  the  Teutonic  Knights,  modelled  on  the  former,  as  their  distinctive  badge,  whence  their  name  of 

both  still  in  existence.     In  the  same  category  should  Ensiferi.     The  order  was  approved  in  1202  by  a  Bull 

be  included   the   Order  of   Santiago   (q.    v.)    which  of  Innocent  III.     Thrown  open  to  all  sorts  of  peraons 

Eread    throughout    Caatile,    Leon,    and    Portugal,  without  distinction  of  birth,  overrun  by  aimleas  ad- 

iStly,  there  are  the  purely  hospitaller  orders  whose  venturers  whose  exces-ses  were  calculated  rather  to 

oommandera,  however,  claimed  the  rank  of  knights  exasperate  the  pagans  than  to  convert  them,  it  en- 

though  they  had  never  been  in  battle,  such  as  the  dured  but  a  short  time,  having  only  two  grand  nuft> 


WUTABT  306  MHITABT 

Ibr,  the  fiirt  of  whom,  Vinnon,  waa  munlaTed  bf  one  knighte,  exclusive  of  prinoes  of  the  blood  and  foiei^ 

of  his  fellows  in  1209,  while  the  Becond,  Volauin,  fell  princes,  with  St,  Geoive  as  its  patron  and  with  ita 

on  the  field  of  battle  in  1236,  with  four  hundred  and  chapel  in  Windsor  Castle  for  the  holding  of  chapt«ra- 

«ishty  loiights  of  the  order.    The  survivoiB  petitioned  This,  the  Order  of  the  Garter,  takes  its  name  from 

tobeallowedtoentertheTeutonicOrder,of  which  the  the  chaiacteristic  badse,  worn  on  the  left  knee.    The 

Knights  of  Livonia  thenceforwaid  formed  one  branch  choice  of  this  badge  Gas  given  r' 


under  a  provincial  master  of  their  own  (1238).  Their  dotea  of  doubtful  authenticity.  Nothing  is 
posseseiona,  acquired  by  conquest,  formed  a  principal-  known  of  the  original  object  of  the  "  '  ■.>.-< 
ity  under  Charles  V  (1525),  and  the  last  of  their  mas- 


tera,  Gottart  Keltler,  apostatized  and  converted  it  Heniy  IV  (1399).  A  third  order,  Scottish  by  origin, 
into  the  hereditary  Duchy  of  Courland  under  the  is  that  of  the  Order  of  the  Thistle,  dating  from  the 
auaeminty  of  the  kings  of  Poland  ('  '*''*  '  i^io^^f  Tom.™  v  nf  a~vti.r„i  l^'i1A\      in,»>»-i»_Mii) 

The  Gaudenti  of  Our  Lady  at  I 
by  Urban  IV  in  1262,  and  suppi 

XI  (1469),  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  founded  by  Henry  III 
(1570),  of  Our  Lady  of  Carmel,  amal^mated  by 
Henry  IV  with  that  of  St.  Laiarua  (q.  v.),  were  abso- 
lutely suppressed  bv  the  Revolution.  Austria  and 
Spain  now  dispute  tne  inheritance  from  the  House  of 
Burgundy  of  the  right  to  confer  the  Order  of  the 
Golden  I'leece,  founded  by  Duke  Philip  the  Good, 
approved  by  Eugene  IV  m  1433,  and  extended  by 
Leo  X  in  1516. 

In  Piedmont,  the  Order  of  the  Annunziata,  under 
ita  lat«r  form,  dates  only  from  Charles  III,  Duke  of 
Savoy,  in  1518,  but  its  first  dedication  to  the  Blessed 
Virgin  goes  back  to  Amadeus  VIII,  first  Duke  of 
Savoy,  antipope  under  the  name  of  Felix  V  (1434). 
There  had,  previously  to  this  dedication,  existed  in 
Savcy  an  Order  of  tne  Collar,  which  held  ita  chap- 
ter in  the  Cliart«rhouse  (founded  in  1392)  of  Pierre- 
Ch&tel  in  Bugey.  Here  also  the  Knights  of  the  An- 
nunriftta  kept  their  feast  of  the  Amiunciation,  so 
that  they  have  considered  themselves  as  successors 
of  the  Order  of  the  Collar.  After  the  cession  of 
Bugey  to  France,  th^  transferred  their  chapters  to 
the  newly  founded  Camaldolese  monastery  on  the 
Hountam  of  Turin  (1627).  In  the  Duchy  of  Mantua, 
Duke  Vincent  Gontaga,  on  the  marriage  of  his  son 
Francis  II,  instituted,  with  the  approbation  of  Paul 
V,  the  Knights  of  the  Precious  Blood,  a  relic  of  which 
18  venerated  in  that  capital.  Lastly  there  arc  a  num- 
ber of  pontifical  secular  orders,  the  oldest  of  which  is 
the  Onier  of  Christ,  contemporary  with  the  institu- 
Kmiobts  TBHTLAJia  tion  of  the  same  order  in  Portugal  in  1319.     In  at>- 

in  15S9,  were  not  so  much  a  militarv  order  as  an  t>rovins  the  latter  institution,  John  XXII  reserved  the 
association  of  gentlemen  who  undertook  to  maintain  rightofcreatingacertainnumberof  knights  by  patent, 
the  public  peace  in  those  turbulent  times.  An  order  and  it  is  now  used  to  reward  services  rendered  by  any 
of  St.  Geoige  of  Alfama,  m  Aragon,  approved  in  1363  person  whatsoever  without  distinction  of  bulh.  The 
by  Urban  V,  was  merged  in  the  Order  of  Montesa  in  same  is  to  be  said  of  the  Ordera  of  St.  Peter,  insti- 
1399.  The  Knights  of  St.  George,  in  Austria,  founded  tuted  by  Leo  X  in  1520,  of  St.  Paul,  founded  by 
by  the  EmperorFroderidt  III,  and  approved  by  Paul  Paul  III  in  1634,  of  Our  Lady  of  Loretto,  charged  b^ 
II  in  1468,  failing  to  perpetuate  their  existence,  owing  Sixtua  V  in  1558,  to  watch  over  and  preserve  that 
to  the  lack  of  territorial  possesaions,  gave  place  to  a  sanctuary.  These  distinctions  were  moetlyKmnted 
purely  secular conf rate mky.  TheOrderof  St.  Stephen  to  functionaries  of  the  pontifical  chancery.  There  has 
Pope  was  founded  in  Tuscany  by  the  Grand  Duke  been  some  question  as  to  the  Order  of  the  Holy  Sepul- 
Cosmo  I  and  approved  in  1561  by  Pius  IV,  being  chre  (q.  v.),  formerly  dependent  on  the  Patriarch  of 
placed  under  the  Benedictine  Rule.  It  had  ita  prin-  Jerusalem,  and  quite  recently  reorganiied  l^  the 
cipal  house  at  Pisa,  and  was  obliged  to  equip  a  certain  reigning  poi>e  (PiusX).  The  Kniehta  of  St.  Cathfr- 
number  of  galleys  to  fight  the  Turks  in  the  Mediter-  rine  of  Smni  fq.  v.)  are  not  an  order,  either  secular 
after  the  manner  of,  and  in  concert  with,  the     or  r^ular.     The  respective  particular  histories  of  the 

"   "     "" great  military  orders  have  been  tmced  in  the  various 

articles  devoted  '     "  "  '  '  ■     - 

„ , ^ ^ _.    .  explain  their  ge 

modelled  on  tne  great  regular  ordera ;  as  in  the  latter,  and  economic, 
we  find  in  these  secular  orders  a  patron,  a  vow  to  serve  (I)  Rdi^oua  Stale.— The  knights  of  the  great  vr- 
the  Churoh  and  the  sovereign,  statutes,  a  grand  mas-  ders  were  regarded  in  the  Church  oa  analogous  to 
ter  (usually  the  reigning  pnnce),  and  the  practice  of  monks,  whose  three  vowa  they  prafeaaed  and  whose 
certain  devotions.  Most  of  them  also  asked  for  the  immunities  they  shared.  They  were  answerable  to 
approbationof  the  Holy  See,  which,  on  theother  hand,  the  pope  alone;  they  had  their  chapels,  their  clerics, 
gmntedthemspiritual  favours— indulgences,  theprivi-  and  their  cemeteries,  all  exempted  from  the  jurisdie- 
fege  of  private  oratories,  dispensation  from  certain  tion  of  the  secular  clergy.  Their  landed  property  was 
fasts,  etc.  The  chief  of  thme  orriers.  classified  by  free  from  tithes.  They  were  not  subject  to  the  in- 
COuntrisB  areas  follows:— In  England,  Edward  III,  in  terdicts  which  the  bishopa  in  those  daya  employed  so 
mmnoiy  of  the  legendary  Knights  of  the  Round  Table,  freely.  They  did  not  all  follow  the  same  mooastk 
established  in  1349  a  brotnerhood  of    wenty-five    rule.    The  TemphuB  and  ardeis  derived  from  their 


rfi 


WLLENNnm  3( 

DAowed  tbe  (Sstercian  Reform.  The  HospitaUen 
follow«d  the  Rule  of  St.  Augustine.  Neverthelma,  in 
Muequenoe  of  tbe  relaxation  which  manifeeted  iUelf 
among  them  after  the  period  of  the  crusades,  the  Holy 
See  introduced  mItigationB  in  favour  of  the  non-clerical 
biethien.  For  theae  it  was  difficult  to  maintain  the 
rule  of  celibacy  in  all  its  rigour;  they  were  permitted, 
in  certain  orders,  b>  marry  once,  ana  that  only  with  a 
maiden.  Even  where  aecond  marriagee  were  tolei^ 
ated,  they  had  to  vow  conjugal  fidelity,  so  that  if  they 
violated  this  obluation  of  the  natural  law  they  sinned 
doubly.againBttne  law  and  against  their  vow.  Besides 
tbe  tluve  vows,  the  rule  bound  the  brethren  to  the  ex- 
tttaaea  of  tbe  monastic  life  sucb  aa  tbe  reaitatiOQ  of  the 


7  hulenhidm 

commander  and  subordinate,  these  ordeis  ■uipMsed, 
in  that  cohesiveneas  whicb  is  tbe  ideal  of  eveiy  mili' 
tary  organization,  the  most  famous  bodies  of  picked 
soldiery  known  to  history,  from  tbe  Maeadonian 
phalanx  to  the  Ottoman  Janissaries. 


(3)  Economic  Organiealuin, ^The  importance  ac- 
quired by  the  military  orders  during  the  course 
of  the  Middle  Ages  may  be  measured  by  the  extent  of 


Kmawn  or  Br.  John  or  JmDBUfti 
HouiB,  for  which,  in  the  case  of  illiterates,  a  fixed  num- 
ber of  Paters  was  substituted.  It  also  prescribed  their 
dress  and  their  food,  and  their  feast,  abstinence,  and 
Cast  days.  Lastly,  the  rule  imposed  detailed  obliRa- 
tiona  in  regard  to  the  election  of  dignitaries  and  the 
admission  of  member  to  the  two  canKs  of  combatants 
— knigbts  and  men-at-arms— and  the  two  of  non- 
combatants — chaplains,  to  whom  all  sacerdotal  func- 
tions were  reserved,  and  eaaaHert,  or  tenants,  who 
were  charged  with  the  management  of  temporal  af- 

(2)  AfilUaxyOrganiialian». — Tbe  military  organiza- 
tion of  the  orders  was  uniform,  explained  by  that  law 
of  WOT  which  compels  the  belli^rent  to  maintain  his 
military  apparatus  on  a  level  with  those  of  his  adver> 
MkiTi  on  pam  of  defeat.  Tbe  strength  of  an  army  was 
in  Aa  cavalry,  and  to  this  type  the  armament,  mount- 
^«,  and  tactics  of  tbe  military  orders  conformed. 
Tbe  knights-brethren  were  the  heavy  cavalry;  the 
men-at-arms-brethren,  the  light  cavalry.  The  foi^ 
mer  were  entitled  to  three  horses  apiece ;  tne  latter  had 
to  be  content  with  one.  Among  the  former,  only 
knights  of  tried  prowess  were  admitted,  or,  in  default 
of  this  qualification,  sons  of  knights,  because  in  suck 
families  the  warlike  spirit  and  military  training  were 
bereditary.  The  conserjuence  was  that  the  knights, 
properly  so-called,  were  never  very  numerous;  they 
formed  a  corpi  iFilUe  which  carried  the  great  mass 
(rf  the  crusaders.  Gathered  in  convents  which  were 
also  barracks,  combiningwiththepassiveobedience  of 
the  soldier,  the  spontaneous  submission  of  the  re- 
ligioua,  living  shoulder  to  shoulder  in  brotherly  union, 


their  territorial  possessions,  scattered  throughout 
Europe,  In  the  thirteenth  century  nine  thousand 
manors  formed  the  portion  of  the  Templars;  thirteen 
thousand  that  of  the  Hospitallers.  These  temporali- 
ties were  an  integral  part  of  the  ecclesiastical  domain, 
and  as  such  had  a  sacred  character  which  placed  them 
beyond  liability  to  profane  uses  or  to  secular  imposts. 
Tney  differed  from  the  tempoialities  of  other  monastic 
Institutions  only  in  the  centralized  system  of  their  ad- 
ministration, while  within  each  of  the  other  religious 
institutes  every  abbey  was  autonomous,  all  the 
houses  of  a  mihtary  order  were  bound  to  contribute 
their  revenues,  after  deducting  expenses,  to  a  cen- 
tral treasury.  As  a  result  of  this  enormous  circula- 
tion of  capital  controlled  by  the  orders,  their  wealth 
could  be  applied  to  financial  operations  which  made 
Ibem  veritable  credit  and  deposit  banks.  Their  per- 
fect good  taith  earned  for  them  the  impUcit  confi- 
dence of  the  Church  and  of  temporal  rulers.  Tbe 
papacy  employed  them  to  collect  contributions  for  tbe 
crusades;  princes  did  not  hesitato  to  entrust  to  them 
their  personal  property.  In  this  respect,  again,  the 
miUtary  orders  were  model  institutions. 

HirjCtta,  Qrigine  det  ehevaiiers  tt  ordreM  mHitairea  (Antwerp, 
IBOB);  Favtn,  HitUnn  dn  ordra  de  chtvalrrit  (2  vola.,  Paris. 
1620):  BiiLENrELD,  GaehicMi  und  Verfa—ung  oiler  RiUtT~ 
ordtn  [Weimar,  1841);  CAPPELum,  Sloria  drgli ordini  catmUtre- 
lelii  (Leghorn,  10041:  Clarke,  C'sncin  Hutory  of  KnitlUliood. 
II  (LoDdon.  1S84);  DiasT,  7*^  Broad  Slant  oS Honour  (Lon- 
don. I87&-77):  LAWKEKCE-AHcaiu,  The  Ordtri  of  Chivairti 
(LondoD.  1887):  He  'Iki  bibliographiei  attached  to  ipadol 
articles  on  tbs  Hvsrol  gnst  orden. 

Ch.  Moeller. 

wniiHuniiim  ftnd  Mi  Ilenaiianiam.— The  funda- 
mental idea  of  millenarianism,  as  underatood  by  Chris- 
tian writers,  may  be  set  forth  as  follows;  At  the 
end  of  time  Christ  will  return  in  all  His  splendour 
to  gather  together  the    just,   to  aimihilate   hostile 

rers,  and  to  found  a  glorious  kingdom  on  earth 
the  enjoyment  of  the  highest  spiritual  and  mate- 
rial blessings;  He  Himself  will  reign  as  its  king,  and 
all  the  just,  including  the  saints  recalled  to  life,  will 
participate  in  it.  At  the  close  of  this  kingdom  the 
saints  will  enter  heaven  with  Christ,  while  the  wicked, 
who  have  also  i>een  resuscitated,  will  be  condemned 
to  et«ma]  damnation.  The  duration  of  this  glorious 
reign  of  Christ  and  His  saints  on  earth,  is  fi^ 
quently  given  as  one  thousand  yeara.  Hence  it  is 
commonly  known  as  the  "millennium",  while  the  be- 
lief in  the  future  realization  of  the  kingdom  is  called 
"millenarianism"   (chiliasm,  from  the  Greek  x^^"! 

BCil.  *T1)}. 

This  term  of  one  thousand  years,  however,  is  by 
no  means  an  essential  element  of  the  millennium 
as  conceived  by  its  adherents.  The  extent,  details  of 
the  realization,conditions,the  place,  of  the  millennium 
variously  described.     Essential  are  the  following 


points:  The  early  return  of  Christ  in  all  His  power  and 
glory,  the  establishment  of  an  earthly  kingdom  with 
the  just,  the  resuscitation  of  the  deceased  saints  and 


their  participation  in  the  glorious  reign,  the  destruc- 
tion of  the  powers  hostile  to  God,  and,  at  the  end 
of  the  kingdom,  the  universal  resurrection  with  the 
final  judgment,  after  whicb  the  just  will  enter  heaven, 
while  the  wicked  will  be  consigned  to  tbe  eternal  fire  of 
hell. 

The  roots  of  tbe  belief  in  a  glorious  kingdom,  partly 
natural  partly  supernatural,  are  found  m  the  hopes 
of  tbe  Jews  for  a  temporal  Messiah  and  in  the  Jewish 
apocalyptic.    Under  tne  galling  pressure  of  their  polit- 


lITTiTilBNUIUM  808  HXLUOXlXrOM 

ioal  droumgtanoesi  the  ttroeetation  of  a  Bfeniah  who  aaints  too  would  enjoT  a  superabundanoe  of  eaitlih^ 

would  free  the  people  of  God  had,  in  the  Jewish  mind,  pleasures.    There  will  be  days  in  which  vines  win 

assumed  a  chaiaoter  that  was  to  a  g^t  extent  earthly;  grow,  each  with  10,000  branches,  and  on  each  branch 

the  Jews  longed  above  all  for  a  saviour  who  would  free  l0|000  twigs,  and  on  each  twie  10,000  shoots,  and  on 

them  from  their  oppressors  and  restore  the  former  each  shoot  10,000  dusters,  ana  on  each  cluster  10,000 

splendour  of  Israel.    These  expectations  generally  in-  giapes,  and  each  grape  will  produce  216  gallons  of 

eluded  the  belief  that  Jehovah  would  conquer  all  wine  etc. 

powers  hostile  to  Himself  and  to  His  chosen  people.        Millenarian  ideas  are  found  by  most  commenta- 

and  that  He  would  set  up  a  final,  ^orious  kuujdom  oi  tors  in  the  Epistle  of  St.  Barnabas,  m  the  passage  treats 

Israel.    The  apocalyptic  books,  prindpally  the  book  ing  of  the  Jewish  sabbath;  for  the  restmg  oTGod  on 

of  Henoch  ana  the  fourth  book  of  Elsdras,  indicate  the  seventh  day  after  the  creation  is  explained  in  the 

various  details  of  the  arrival  of  the  Messiah,  the  defeat  following  manner.    After  the  Son  of  God  has  come 

of  the  nations  hostile  to  Israel,  and  the  union  of  all  the  and  put  an  end  to  the  era  of  the  wicked  and  judged 

Israelites  in  the  Messianic  kingdom  followed  by  the  them,  and  after  the  sun,  the  moon,  and  tibe  stan  have 

renovation  of  the  world  and  the  universal  resurrection,  been  changed,  then  He  will  rest  in  glory  on  the  seventh 

The  natural  and  the  supernatural  are  mingled  in  day.  The  author  had  premised,  S  it  is  saki  that  God 
this  conception  of  a  Messianic  kingdom  as  t&  dos-  created  all  things  in  six  days,  this  means  that  God  will 
ing  act  of  the  world's  history.  The  Jewish  hopes  of  a  complete  all  thmgs  in  six  millenniums,  for  one  day 
Messiah,  and  the  descriptions  of  apocalyptic  writers  represents  one  thousand  years.  It  is  certain  that  the 
were  blended;  it  was  between  the  close  of  the  present  writer  advocates  the  tenet  of  a  re-formation  of  the 
world-order  and  the  commencement  of  the  new  that  world  through  the  second  advent  of  Christ,  but  it  is  not 
this  sublime  kingdom  of  the  chosen  people  was  to  find  clear  from  tne  indications  whether  the  author  of  the 
its  place.  That  many  details  of  these  conceptions  letter  was  a  millenarian  in  the  strict  sense  of  the  word, 
should  remain  indistinct  and  confused  was  but  natu-  St.IreniBUsof  Lyons,  a  native  of  Asia  Minor,  influenced 
ral,  but  the  Messianic  kingdom  is  always  pictured  as  by  the  companions  of  St.  Polycarp,  adopted  millena- 
something  miraculous,  thouch  the  colours  are  at  times  nan  ideas,  aiscussing  and  defending  them  in  his  work 
earthly  and  sensuous.  Tne  evangelkal  accoimts  against  the  Gnostics  (Adv.  Hsreses,  V,  32).  He  de- 
dearly  prove  how  fervently  the  Jews  at  the  time  of  veloped  this  doctrine  mainly  in  opposition  to  the 
Christ  expected  an  earthly  Messianic  kingdom,  but  the  Gnostics,  who  rejected  all  hopes  of  the  Christians  in  a 
Savioxir  came  to  proclaim  the  spiritual  kingdom  of  happy  future  life,  and  discerned  in  the  glorioxis  king* 
God  for  the  deliverance  of  man  from  his  sins  and  for  his  dom  of  Christ  on  earth  principally  the  prelude  to  the 
sanctification.  a  kingdom  which  actually  b^an  with  final,  spiritual  kingdom  of  God,  the  realm  of  eternal 
His  birth.  There  is  no  trace  of  chiliasm  to  be  f  oimd  in  bliss.  St.  Justin  of  Rome,  the  martyr,  opposes  to 
the  Gospels  or  in  the  Epistles  of  St.  Paul;  everything  the  Jews  in  his  Dialo^e  with  Tryphon  (en.  80-81) 
movds  in  the  spiritual  and  religious  sphere;  even  the  the  tenet  of  a  millennium  and  asserts  that  he  and 
descriptions  of  the  end  of  the  world  and  of  the  last  the  Christians  whose  belief  is  correct  in  every 
judgment  bear  this  stamp.  The  victozy  over  the  point  know  that  there  will  be  a  resurrection  of  tlie 
syxnbolical  beast  (the  enemy  of  God  and  of  the  saints)  body  and  that  the  newly  built  and  enlaiged  Jem- 
and  over  Antichnst,  as  well  as  the  triumph  of  Christ  salem  will  last  for  the  space  of  a  thousand  years, 
and  His  saints,  are  described  in  the  Apocalypse  of  but  he  adds  that  there  are  many  who,  thougn  ad- 
St.  John  (Apoc.,  20-21),  in  pictures  that  resemble  hering  to  the  pure  and  pious  teachings  of  Christ,  do 
those  of  the  Jewish  apocalyptic  writers,  especially  not  believe  in  it.  A  witness  for  the  continued  belief 
of  Daniel  and  Henocn.  Satan  is  chained  in  the  in  millenarianism  in  the  province  of  Asia  is  St.  Melito, 
abyss  for  a  thousand  years,  the  martyrs  and  the  just  Bishop  of  Sardes  in  the  second  centunr.  He  developes 
rise  from  the  dead  and  share  in  the  priesthood  and  the  same  train  of  thought  as  did  St.  Iren»us. 
kingship  of  Christ.  Though  it  is  difficult  to  focus  The  Montanistic  movement  had  its  origin  in  Asia 
sharply  the  pictures  used  in  the  Apocalypse  and  the  Minor.  The  expectation  of  an  eariy  advent  of  the 
things  expressed  by  them,  yet  there  can  be  no  doubt  celestial  Jerusalem  upon  earthy  which,  it  was  thought, 
that  the  whole  description  refers  to  the  spiritual  com-  would  appear  in  Phry^,  was  mtimatdy  joined  in  the 
bat  between  Christ  and  the  Church  on  the  one  hand  minds  of  the  Montanists  with  the  idea  of  the  millen- 
and  the  malignant  powers  of  hell  and  the  world  on  the  nium.  TertuUian,  the  protagonist  of  Montanism,  ex- 
other.  Nevertheless,  a  large  number  of  Christians  of  pounds  the  doctrine  (  in  his  work  now  lost,  "De  Spe 
the  post- Apostolic  era,  ptoticularly  in  Asia  Minor,  Fidelium"  and  in  "Adv.  Marcionem",  iy)thatattne 
yielded  so  far  to  Jewish  apocalyptic  as  to  put  a  literal  end  of  time  the  neat  kin^om  of  promise,  the  new 
meaning  into  these  descriptions  of  St.  John's  Apoca-  Jerusalem,  would  oe  established  ana  last  for  the  space 
lypse ;  tne  result  was  that  millenarianism  spread  and  of  one  thousand  years.  All  these  millenarian  authors 
gained  staunch  advocates  not  only  among  the  heretics  appeal  to  various  passaoes  in  the  prophetic  books  of 
but  among  the  Catholic  Christians  as  well.  tne  Old  Testament,  to  a  few  passages  in  the  Letters  of 

One  of  the  heretics,  the  Gnostic  Cerinthus,  who  flour-  St.  Paul  and  to  the  Apocalypee  of  St.  John.  Though 
ished  towards  the  end  of  the  first  century,  proclaimed  millenarianism  had  found  numerous  adherents  amon^ 
a  splendid  kingdom  of  Christ  on  earth  which  He  would  the  Christians  and  had  been  uphdd  by  several  ecdesi- 
establish  with  the  risen  saints  upon  His  second  advent,  astical  theologians,  neither  in  the  post-Apostolic  period 
and  pictured  the  pleasures  of  this  one  thousand  years  nor  in  the  course  of  the  second  century,  does  it  appear 
in  gross,  sensual  colours  (Caius  in  Eusebius,  "Hist,  as  a  universal  doctrine  of  the  Church  or  as  a  part  of  the 
Ecd.",  Ill,  28;  Dionysius  Alex,  in  Eusebius,  ibid.,  Apostolus  tradition.  The  primitive  Apostolic  sjrmbcrf 
VII,  25).  Later  among  Catholics,  Bishop  Papias  of  mentions  indeed  the  resurrection  of  the  body  and  the 
Hiersmolis,  a  disciple  ofSt.  John,  appeared  as  an  advo-  return  of  Christ  to  judge  the  living  and  the  d^sd,  but  it 
cate  of  millenarianism.  He  claimed  to  have  received  says  not  a  word  of  the  millennium.  It  was  the  second 
his  doctrine  from  contpemporaries  of  the  Apostles,  and  century  that  produced  not  only  defendere  of  the 
Irenseus  narrates  that  other  "Presbyteri'',  who  had  millennium  but  pronounced  adversaries  of  the  chili- 
seen  and  heard  the  disciple  John,  learned  from  him  the  astic  ideas.  Gnosticism  rejected  millenarianism.  In 
belief  in  millenarianism  as  part  of  the  Lord's  doctrine.  Asia  Minor,  the  principal  seat  of  millenarian  teachings, 
According  to  Eusebius  (Hist.  EccL,  III,  39)  Papias  in  the  so-called  Alogi  rose  up  against  millenarianiimi  as 
his  book  asserted  that  the  resurrection  of  the  dead  well  as  against  Montanism,  but  they  went  too  far  in 
would  be  followed  by  one  thousand  years  of  a  visible,  their  opposition,  rejecting  not  only  the  Apocalypse 

florious  earthly  kingdom  of  Christ,  and  according  to  of  St.  John,  alleging  Cennthus  as  its  author,  but 

renasus  (Adv*  Hsreses,  V,  33),  he  Uiight  that  the  his  Qospd  also,     Hie  opposition  to  millenarianism 


BOLLEHNIUM                           309  MILLENNnJM 

b^gftmfl  more  general  towards  the  end  of  the  second  describes  it  in  his  work  De  Civitate  Dei.  In  the  same 
eentuiy,  going  hand  in  hand  with  the  stru^e  against  book  he  gives  us  an  allesorical  explanation  of  Chap.  20 
Montanism.  The  Roman  presb^r  Caius  (end  of  the  of  the  Apocalypse,  The  first  resurrection,  of  which 
second  and  beginning  of  tne  third  century)  attacked  this  chapter  treats,  he  tells  us,  refers  to  the  spiritual 
the  millenarians.  On  the  other  hand,  Hippolytus  of  rebirth  in  baptism;  the  sabbath  of  one  thousand  years 
Rome  defended  them  and  attempted  a  proof,  basing  after  the  six  thousand  years  of  history,  is  the  whole  of 
bis  axgimients  on  the  cdlegorical  explanation  of  the  six  eternal  life;  or,  in  other  words,  the  number  one  thou- 
days  oi  creation  as  six  thousand  years,  as  he  had  been  sand  is  intended  to  express  perfection,  and  the  last 
taught  bv  tradition.  The  most  powerful  adversaiy  of  space  of  one  thousand  years  must  be  imderstood  as 
miifenananism  was  Origen  of  Alexandria.  In  view  of  referring  to  the  end  of  the  world;  at  all  events,  the 
the  Neo-Platonism  on  which  his  doctrines  were  founded  kingdom  of  Christ,  of  which  the  Apocalypse  speaks, 
and  of  his  spiritual-allegorical  method  of  explaining  can  only  be  applied  to  the  Church  (De  Civitate  Dei, 
the  Holy  Scriptures,  he  could  not  side  with  the  millen-  XX,  5-7,  in  Migne,  ''Patr.  Lat.",  XLI,  607  sqq.). 
arians.  He  combatted  them  expressly,  and,  owing  This  explanation  of  the  illustrious  Doctor  was  adopted 
to  the  great  influence  which  his  writings  exerted  on  by  succeeding  Western  theologians,  and  millenarian- 
ecclesiastical  theolocy  especially  in  Oriental  countries,  ism  in  its  eanier  shape  no  longer  received  support, 
millenarianism  gradually  disappeared  from  the  ideas  Cerinthus  and  the  Ebionites  are  mentioned  in  later 
of  Oriental  Christians.  Only  a  few  later  advocates  are  writing  against  the  heretics  as  defenders  of  the  millen- 
known  to  us,  principallv  theological  adversaries  of  nium,  it  is  true,  but  as  cut-off  from  the  Chiuch.  More- 
Origen.  About  the  middle  of  the  ^lird  century  Nepos,  over,  the  attitude  of  the  Church  towards  the  secular 
bishop  in  G^ypt,  who  entered  the  lists  against  the  alle-  power  had  imdergone  a  change  with  closer  connexion 
gorism  of  Ongen.abo  propounded  millenarian  ideas  and  between  her  and  the  Roman  empire.  There  is  no 
gained  some  adnerents  in  the  vicinity  of  Arsinoe.  A  doubt  that  this  turn  of  events  did  much  towards  wean- 
achism  threatened ;  but  the  prudent  and  moderate  pol-  ing  the  Christians  from  the  old  millenarianism,  which 
icy  of  Diony^sius,  Bishop  of  Alexandria,  preserved  during  the  time  of  persecution  had  been  the  expression 
unity;  the  ohiliasts  abandoned  their  views  TEusebius,  of  their  hopes  that  Christ  would  soon  reappear  and 
"  Hist.  Ecd.",  VII,  14).  E^ypt  seems  to  have  har-  overthrow  the  foes  of  His  elect.  Chiliastic  views  dis- 
boured  adherents  of  millenarianism  in  still  later  times,  appeared  all  the  more  rapidly,  because,  as  was  re- 
MetbcKlius,  Bishop  of  Olympus,  one  of  the  principal  op-  marked  above,  in  spite  of  their  wide  diffusion  even 
ponents  of  Orisen  at  the  beginning  of  the  fourth  cen-  among  sincere  Christians,  and  in  spite  of  their  defence 
tuiy,  upheld  cniliasm  in  his  Symposion  (IX,  1,  5,  in  by  prominent  Fathers  of  the  early  (Jhurch,  millenarian- 
Migne,  "  Patr.  Grsec.  '\  XVIII,  178  sqq.).  In  the  sec-  ism  was  never  held  in  the  universal  Church  as  an  arti- 
oxiahalf  of  the  fourth  century,  these  doctrines  found  de  of  faith  based  on  Apostolic  traditions. 
their  last  defender  in  Apollinaris,  Bishop  of  Laodicea  The  Mfddle  Ages  were  never  tainted  with  millenar- 
and  founder  of  Apollinarism  (q.  v.).  His  writings  on  ianism;  it  was  foreign  both  to  the  theology  of  that 
this  subject  have  been  lost;  but  St.  Basil  of  Csesarea  period  and  to  the  reUgious  ideas  of  the  people.  The 
(Epist.  CCLXIII,  4,  in  Mime,  "  Patr.  Grsec.",  XXXII,  fantastic  views  of  the  apocalyptic  writers  (Joachim 
dSO),  Epiphanius  (Hseres.  jLXX,  36,  in  Miene  loc.  cit.,  of  Floris,  the  Franciscan-Spirituals,  the  Apostolici), 
XLII,  696)  and  Jerome  (In  Isai.  XVIII,  in  Migne,  referred  only  to  a  particular  form  of  spiritual  renova- 
"  Patr.  Lat. "  XXIV,  627)  testify  to  his  having  been  a  tion  of  the  Church,  but  did  not  include  a  second 
chiliad.  Jerome  also  adds  that  many  Christians  of  advent  of  Christ.  The  **  emperor  myths,"  which 
that  time  shared  the  same  beliefs;  but  after  that  mil-  prophesied  the  establishment  of  a  happy,  universal 
lenarianism  found  no  outspoken  champion  among  the  kingdom  by  the  great  emperor  of  the  future,  contain 
theologians  of  the  Greek  (;hurch.  indeed  descriptions  that  remind  one  of  the  ancient 
In  the  West,  the  millenarian  expectations  of  a  glori-  Sybilline  and  millenarian  writings,  but  an  essential 
ous  kingdom  of  Christ  and  His  just,  found  adherents  tmit  is  again  missine,  the  return  m  Christ  and  the  con- 
for  a  long  time.  The  poet  Commodian  (Instructiones,  nexion  of  the  blissful  reign  with  the  resurrection  of  the 
41,  42.  44,  in  Migne,  ''Patr.  Lat."  V,  231  sqq.)  just.  Hence  the  millennium  proper  is  unknown  to 
as  well  as  Lactantius  (Institutiones,  VlII,  Migne,  them.  The  Protestantism  of  the  sixteenth  century 
"Patr.  Lat.",  VI,  739  sqa.)  proclaim  the  millennial  ushered  in  a  new  epoch  of  millenarian  doctrines.  Prot- 
lealm  and  describe  its  splendour,  partly  drawing  on  the  estant  fanatics  of  the  earlier  years,  particularly  the 
earlier  chiliasts  and  the  Sybilline  prophecies,  partly  Anabaptists,  believed  in  a  new,  golden  age  xmder  the 
bonowiog  their  colours  from  the  ''golden  age"  of  the  sceptre  of  Christ,  after  the  overtnrow  of  the  papacy 
pagan  poets;  but  the  idea  of  the  six  thousana  years  for  ana  secular  empires.  In  1534  the  Anabaptists  set  up 
the  duration  of  the  world  is  ever  conspicuous.  Vic-  in  Mttnster  (Westphalia)  the  new  Kingdom  of  Zion, 
torinus  of  Pettau  also  was  a  millenarian  though  in  the  which  advocated  snaring  property  and  women  in  com- 
extant  copy  of  his  commentary  on  the  Apocalypse  no  mon,  as  a  prelude  to  the  new  kingdom  of  Christ.  Their 
aUusions  to  it  can  be  detected.  St.  Jerome,  himself  a  excesses  were  opposed  and  their  millenarianism  dis- 
decided  opponent  of  the  mUlenial  ideas,  brands  Sul-  owned  bv  both  the  Auesbure  (art.  17)  and  the  Helye- 
picius  Severus  as  adhering  to  them,  but  in  the  writings  tian  Confession  (ch.  11),  so  that  it  found  no  admission 
of  this  author  in  their  present  form  nothing  can  be  found  into  the  Lutheran  and  Reformed  theologies.  Ne  ver- 
to  support  this  charge.  St.  Ambrose  indeed  teaches  theless,  the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth  centuries  pro- 
a  twofold  resurrection,  but  millenarian  doctrines  do  not  duced  new  apocalyptic  fanatics  and  mystics  who 
stand  out  clearly.  On  the  other  hand,  St.  Augustine  expected  the  millennium  in  one  form  or  another:  inGer- 
was  for  a  time,  as  he  himself  testifies  (De  Civitate  Dei,  many,  the  Bohemian  and  Moravian  Brethren  (Com&- 
XX,  7),  a  pronounced  champion  of  millenarianism;  nius);  in  France,  Pierre  Jurien  (L'Accomplissement 
but  ne  places  the  millennium  after  the  universal  resur-  des  Prophdties,  1686) ;  in  England  at  the  time  of  Crom- 
rection  and  regards  it  in  a  more  spiritual  light  (Sermo,  well,  the  Independents  and  Jane  Leade.  A  new  phase 
(X3LIX,  in  Migne,  "Patr.  Lat.  ,  XXXVlII,  1197)  in  the  development  of  millenarian  views  amonk  the 
When,  however,  he  accepted  the  doctrine  of  only  one  uni-  Protestants  commenced  with  Pietism.  One  of  the 
▼ersal  resurrection  and  a  final  judgment  immediately  chief  champions  of  the  millennium  in  Germany  was  I. 
following,  he  could  no  longer  cling  to  the  principal  A.  Bengel  and  his  disciple  Cruslus,  who  were  after- 
tenet  of  early  chUiasm.  St.  Augustine  finally  held  to  wards  joined  by  Rothe,  Volch,  Thiersch,  Lange  and 
the  conviction  that  there  will  be  no  millennium.  The  others.  Protestants  from  Wurtemberg  emigrated  to 
stniffgle  between  Christ  and  His  saints  on  the  one  Palestine  ^Temple  Commimities)  in  order  to  be 
hanScmd  the  wicked  world  and  Satan  on  the  other,  is  closer  to  Christ  at  His  second  advent.  Certain 
waged  in  the  Church  an  earth;  so  the  great  Doctor  fantastical  sects  of  England  and  North  America, 


MITiTiint                                  310  BULLET 

Bi  the  Irvingites,  Monnoos,  Adventista,  adopted  both  Bodety,  and  procured  himself  s  home  eepedally  for  tba 

apocalyptic  and  miUenMian  views,  expecting  the  re-  social  intercourae  of  artists  and  art  craftsmen.    Ths 

turn  of  Christ  and  the  establishment  of  Hia  kingdom  result  was  an  unexpected  rise  of  the  art  industries, 
at  an  early  dat«.  Some  Catholic  theologians  of  the  Ferdinand  Mill"''  junior  followed  in  his  father's  foot- 
nineteenth  century  championed  a  moderate,  modified  steps,  and  is  Iccown  in  America  hy  the  figures  on 
millenarianism,  especially  in  connexion  with  their  the  Sinton  fountun  in  Cincinnati  (at  the  unveiling 
explanations  of  the  Apocalypse;  as  Pagani  (The  End  of  which  he  was  much  honoured),  as  well  aa  by  the 
of  the  World,  1856),  Schneider  (Die  chiliastische  Dok-  statues  of  Shakespeare  and  von  Humboldt  in  St. 
trin,  1859),  Rohling  (Erkla.runK  der  Apofcolypee  des  Louis,  and  finally  by  the  war  memorial  at  Charleston, 
hi.  lohannes,  1895:  Aui  nacb  Sion,  1901),  RougeTron  Ftcar.OeKh.  dtr Ui.nc),tnrr Kank (,Muixich,iS8S)-.liti.LMn, 
Chabauty  (Avonir  de  l-Eglise  cathdique  selon  le  Plan  f^^aw"^^  "" U^«a,k  o«(«ft« KunMiau lor  iBfiO. 
Divin,  1890).  "        "                                            G.  Gietiunn. 

CoHRODI.  KritinA 

17B4);  Atiberoih  BQUbt,  WiLUAK  J.    See  Tbanbtaal,  Vicabutb 

trc^Ji^t^"^^  Apobtouc  of. 

1896):  Chiapblu.  Hillet,  jEAN-FRANfoia,  French   painter;   b.    at 

a^^olJ^i^'  Gruchy,    near   Cherbourg,   4    October,   1814;   d.   at 

dtmataorwmtttfo  Barbiion,  20  January,  1875.    This  great  pointer  of 

"•"^  In  rAtSpac*  peasants  was  a  son  of  peasants:   he  himself  b^an 

S^J^SwSS^  P  as  a  tiller  of  the  soil  and  he  never  lost  touch  witJi 

pTophiticCmpTtnct  it.    But  though  a  family^  of  rustics,  the  Millets  wei« 

Oad  and  Ihi&nt  Tit  far  removed  from  rusticity  of  mannera:  they    were 

j^riTb*  vfa^^^Ti?  serious  folks,  profoundly  pious,  a  strange  stock  of 

1877);  yoN  ^csiire  Catholic  Puritans  whose  stem  sentiments  of  religioB, 

afJuuiClviM.lliL  handed  down  from  generation  to  generation,  gave 
them  something  like  an  aristocratic  character;  tbejr 
were  incapable  of  mean  ideas.     The  grandmother — 

Uiller,  Ferdinand  ton,  b.  at  FGrstenfeldbnick,  the  soul  <u  that  household — was  an  assiduous  reader 

1813;  d.  at  Munich,  1887.     He  laboured  for  the  de-  of   Pascal,    Bossuet,    Nicole,    and   Chamm.     Young 

velopment   of   the   bronze   founders'   craft  and   the  Jean-Frongois  was  reared  by  the  parish  priest  in  the 

uplifting  of  the  artistic  profession,  far  beyond  the  cult  of  Vergil  and  the  Bible ;  the  "  Georgics "  and  the 

borders  of  Bavaria.     After  a  sojourn  at  the  academy  Psalms,  which  he  read  in  Latin,  were  his  favourites. 

and  a  prehminary  engagement  at  the  (oyal  brass  Later  on   he   became   acquainted   with    Bums   and 

foundry,  he  went  to  Paris  in  1833,  where  ne  leamt  Theocritus,  whom  ho  preferred  even  to  Vergil,     Hia 

from  Soyer  and  Blus  the  varied  technique  necessary  imagination  never  lost  these  majestic  impressions, 

to  lum  in  the  manipulation  of  bronze.    He  alao  vis-  Nature  and  poetry,  the  open  country  and  Holy  Scrip- 

ited  England  and  the  Netherlands,  and  after  bis  return  ture,  shared  equally  in  the  shaping  of  hia  genius, 

worked  under  his  teacher  and  uncle  Stiglmayr,  whom  Of  that  genius  the  young  ploughman  gave  tlie   first 

tlw  Crown  Prince  Ludwig  had  induced  to  devote  him-  signs  at  the  a^  of  eighteen.     He  studied  at  Cherbourg 

self  to  bronze  foundry  work  and  to  the  establishment  under  Langloa,  apupilof  Baron  Gros,  and  theMunici- 

of  the  Munichfoundryasastate  institution.  Miller  soon  pal  Couneilgave  him  a  pension  of  600  francs  to  go  and 

tookhisuncle'splace,  and  upon  the  death  of  the  latter  finish  his  studies  in   Paris.     There  he  entered  the 

was  appointed  mspcctor  of  the  workshop.     He  soon  atelier  of  Delaroche  in  1 837 ;  but  he  spent  moet  of  his 

won  tor  it  a  world-wide  reputation,  and  for  himself  time  in  the  Louvre,  with  the  masters  of  bygone  ages. 

a  fortune  and  position  of  intiuence.     He  was  a  gifted  The  primitives  of  Italy  erjaptured  him  by  their 

artist,  a  quiet  worker,  skilful  in  negotiation  and  en-  fervour:  Fra  Angelico  filled  him  with  visions.     The 

tirely  a  self-made  man.     The  casting  of  the  Bavaria,  colourists  wete  little  to  his  taste;  he  remained  un- 

one  of  the  world's  gieatest  representations  in  bronze  moved  in  the  presence  of  Velazquez.     But  then  again, 

(1844-55),  especialljr  brought himgreat  fame.     Com-  he   liked   Ribeia's   vigour   ana   Miuillo's   homespun 

missions  came  to  lum  from  far  and  near.     Thus  he  grace.     Among  the   Frenchmen,  the   beautv  of   Le 

cast  not  merely  the  statues  of  Herder,  Goethe   and  Sueur's  sentiment  touched  him,  LeBrun  and  Jouvenet 

Schiller  for  Weimar,   but  also  the  figures  of  Duke  be  thought  "strong  men".     But  his  favourite  maa- 

Eberhard   in  Stuttgart,   of  Berzelius  in  Stockholm  ters  were  the  masters  of  "  stvle " — Man tegna,  Michel- 

and  two  Washington  monuments  by  Mills  and  Craw-  angelo,  and  Foussin:  they  haunted  him  all  his  life, 

ford   in   Boston   and   Richmond.     The   gat*   of  the  Poussin's  "Letters"  were  his  everyday  food,  and  "I 

capital  in  Washington  is  alao  by  him.     The  Munich  could  look  at  Poussin's  pictures  forever  and  ever",  he 

exhibition  of  art  and  the  art  crafts  in  the  ^r  1876,  writes,    "and   alwaya   learn   something".     His   con- 

whioh  resulted  so  successfully  for  the  art  industries  temporaries,  Delacroixexcepted,nioveahim  but  little 

in  Germany,  was  largely  MiUer's  work.    Two  years  and  for  the  most  part  to  indication.     Millet's  eariy 

before  he  had  been  elected  to  the  directorate  (a  the  works — those  of  his  Paris  period  (1837-50) — are  ei- 

society  of  art  industriea.     He  understood  not  only  trcmely  different  from  those  which  made  him  famous, 

how  to  interest  the   influential   claases  in  the   pro-  Theyarenowveryrare.  but  ought  not  tobetorgotten; 

ductions  of  rising  arts  and  crafts,  but  also  to  win  from  the  point  oi  view  of  art,  they  are  probably  hia 

over  artists  to  a  general  exhibition  of  German   art  most  pleasing  and  felicitous  productions;  in  them  the 

in   alliance    with    the    art    handicrafts.     When    he  painter's _  temperament  voices   itself  moat  naturally 

had  brought  architects,  sculptors  and  painters  into  before  his  "conversion",  without  method,  without 

harmony  with  the  lesser  arts  he  found  it  possible  to  ulterior    purpose.     They    are    generally    idylls— eo- 

bring  about  an  exhibition  on  an  entirely  new  plan.  Ifwues — thoroughly  rural  in  feeling,   with   a  frank. 

Drawing   rooms,    cabinets,   boudoirs,   sitting   rooms  noble   sensuality,   the   artist's  Vcrgilian   inspiration 

ondchapelswerearranniedsoastoformlntheirgroup-  finding   expression   in   little   pagan   scenes,   antique 

ing  an  harmonious  whole  by  having  art  and  trade  baa-reliefs,  and   neutral   subjects,  such   as  "Women 

appliancesput  into  the  place  for  whirfi  they  were  in-  bathing",  "Nymphs",  "Offerings  to  Pan",  and  so  on 

tended.     Where  this  waa  not  possible,  a  partition  or  —thoughts  but  slightly  defined  in  forms  as  definite 

a  wall  would  be  placed  with  picturesque  effect  in  some  as  sculpture. 

adjoining  room.     As  a  result  art  became,  especially  Some  of  these  pieces  are  the  most  PouseineBquo 


Common  feeling  for  grace  that  v 
entirely  lacldug  m  his  latest  worli 


a  tree"  (1855):  "Gleaners 
(1857);  "The  Angelua" 
(1859}.  To  be  sure,  these 
admirable  achievements  did 
not  always  meet  with  diapai^ 
agement:  Victor  Hugo  nad 
written  in  one  of  hislainous 
poems;  " Le  geat«  auguste  du 
semeur"  (The  sower  b  noble 
altitude).  The  leading  crit- 
ics, Th6ophile  Gautier  and 
Paul  de  Saint-Viotor,  agreed 
t«cogniiing  the  epic  power 


irely  lacldng 

powerfuUy  expresBea  tae  joy  or  nvutg  as  n  migni  oe  large  lamuy  (ne  naa  lour  sons  ana  nve  aaugnreraj, 

known  to  a  soul  like  his — serious  ana  robust,  and  al-  knew  what  it  was  to  want  for  bread,  for  firewood,  for 

ways  veiled  in  melancholy.     His  palette  is  brif^ter  the  most  indispeosable  necessities  of  life.     The  baker 

and   less  embarrassed   than   it  afterwards   became;  cut  off  his  credit,  the  tailor  sent  bim  summonses. 

indeed,  the  colour  is  sometimes  even  a  Eittle  florid,  aa  The  poor  artist  lived  in  agonies  of  hunger,  tormented 

in  the  graceful  portrait  of  Mile  Feuardent.     On  the  by  bailiffs,  by  distraint  warrants,  and  by  humiliation. 

otherhand,  the  severity  of  the  modelling  always  saves  It  is  impossible  to  read  the  story  of  his  sufferings 

his  work  from  anything  like  carelessness  or  lack  of  without  shedding  tears. 

dignity.     Some — like  the  charming  pastel  of  "  Daph-  And  yet  it  was  just  ithen  that  Millet,  disgraced  and 

nis  and  Chloe"  in  the  Boston  Museum — are  frankly  baffled,  shut  out  of  the  Salon,  unable  to  sell  his  pio- 

teminiBcent  of  Puvis  de  Chavannes.     But  the  beauty  tures,  was  at  the  height  of  his  genius.    From  these 

of  theae  pastorals  had  not  been  very  well  appreciatect.  ten  or  twelve  years  date  the  following  immortal  works: 

Tomakealiving,  Millet  was  obliged  to  undertake  base  "The  Sower     and  "Haymakeis"  (1350);  "Harvest* 

"  " ' —  ' .-L--.-     — ..    ..^1- <- >.   (ig53j.  "Peasant  f 

taken  down  from  the  ti^", 
a  study  of  the  nude  which 
excels  as  a  piece  of  virtuosity 
and  an  impreeeion  of  savage 
wildnees,  rather  shocked  and 
aston^ed  the  public  than 
won  admiratiob. 

His  difflcultiea  increased 
more  and  mote:  having  lost 
his  first  wife,  he  married  a^un 
in  1M5,  and  with  children 
came  want.     Matters  were 

precipitated  by  the  Revolu-  ,_  ^ „_ 

tion  of  1848.    At  first  the  But  the  public  stfll  resisted: 

Republican  Qoverament  took  lepelled  by  the  abrupt  pi«- 

au  interest  in  the  artist,  and  sentment,  the  rugged  execu- 

be  received  some  help  from  tion,  the  fierce  poesy,  they 

it;    but   the   events    of    the  insisted   on  seeing   in  these 

month  of  June  and  the  dis-  works  pleas  for  democracy, 

orders  of  ihe  following  year  socialistic    manifestos,    and 

frightened  Millet  and  inspired  appeals  to  the  mob.    In  vain 

him  with  an  unconqueiable  did    the    painter   protest: 

dislike  of  Paris.    He  was  be-  whether  he  liked  it  or  not, 

sinning  at  last  to  understand  many  made  of  him  a  revolu- 

nia  own  nature;  he  turned  tionary,  ademag<^e,  atrib- 

bis  back  forever  on  the  friv-  ime  c^  the  people.    In  the 

olous.  woridiy  public.  With-  Prance  of  that  day  no  one 

out  disowning  his  earlier  wasable  to  understand  what 

works,  he  addressed  himself                            ,        p_  u                                      depth  of  religion  was  here — to 

to  another,  newer  and  more                                  Bl^eif  """  recc^ise  in  this  sombre  and 

human,  method  of  interpret-                                    '  nmiMi  pessimistic  art  the  only  Chris- 

ing  the  thin^  of  the  earth  and  the  life  of  the  rustic,  tian  art  of  our  time.  The  only  peasants  then  known  to 

In  the  summer  of  1849  he  went  to  Barbizon,  a  little  painting  were  comic-opera  peasants — the  rude  buf- 

village  about  rate  league  from  Chailly,  on  the  borders  loona   of   Ostade   and   Teniera,    or   the   berihboned 

of  the  Forest  of  Fontainebleau.     He  only  meant  to  ninnies  of  Watteau  and  Greuie.     They  were  always 

spend  a  few  weeks  there;  but  remained  for  the  test  of  tmveatied  in  the  interests  of  romance  or  of  caricature, 

his  life — twenty-seven  yeata.    From  that  time  Millet  burlesque  or  preciosity.     No  one  had  ever  ventured 

was  Millet,  the  punter  of  peasanU.     It  is  impossiMa  to  show  them  in  the  true  character  of  their  oocupa- 

torecount  in  detail  all  his  ufe  during  the  ten  or  fifteen  tions — the  rou^h  beauty  of  the  labour  from  which 

yeara  foUowing  his  exodua  into  the  country,  until  they  derive  their  dignity. 

his  final  triumph — to  trace  the  long  course  of  effort  The  whole  of  MiOet's  worit  is  but  a  paraphrase  or 

and  of  heroic  sacrifice,  through  which  the  name  (tf  a  an  illuatration  of  the  Divine  Sentence;     In  the  sweat 

littleobecurehamletoi thelle-de-Frftnoebythetenao-  of  thy  brow  shalt  thou  cat  thy  bread".     "Every 

ity  of  a  small  group  of  painters  was  made  one  of  the  man' ,  he  writes,  "is  doomed  to  bodily  pain".     And 

most  famous  names  in  tne  art  of  all  ages.  again,  "  It  is  not  always  the  joyous  side  that  shows 

It  was  at  Barbiion  that  Millet  foundliousseau,  who  itself  to  me.    The  greatest  happiness  I  know  is  calm 

had  been  settled  there  for  some  fifteen  years,  and  with  and  silence".     But  at  the  same  time,  this  harsh  law 

whom  he  became  united  in  a  truly  memoraole  friend-  of  labour,  because  it  ia  God's  law,  is  the  condition 

ship.     Other  painters — Aligny  and   Diai^-also   tre-  of  our  nobility  and  our  dignity.     Millet  is  quite  the 

quented  the  village  and  the  now  historic  auberge  of  opposite  of  a  Utopian  or  an  insurgent.    To  nim  the 

P^  Gaune.    The  Uttle  band  o!  pariahs  lived  in  this  chimeraa  of  Socialism  and  the  wholesale  regulation  of 

wildemess  like  anchorites  of  nature  and  art-     Nothins  the  good  thin^  of  life  are  impious,  childish,  and  dia- 

could  be  more  ori^nal  thaJt  this  modem  Thebald!  graceful.    "I  have  no  wish  to  suppress  sorrow", 

BO  curiously  analogous  to  die  Port-Royal  colony  of  he  proudly  exclaims:  "it  is  sorrow  tnat  gives  most 

solitaries  or  the  English  Lake  School.     As  a  matter  strength  to  an  artist's  utterance  ".     In  his  aubsequent 

of    fact.    Englishmen    and    Americana — a    William  work,  moreover,  aa  if  challenging  the  world,  he  accen- 

Hunt  or  a  Richard  Heam,    a  Babcock  or  a  Wheel-  tuated  still  further  the  ruggedness  of  hia  painting  and 

Wright — had  the  honour  of  being  the  first  to  oompre-  the  haishness  of  his  sentiment.     The  year  1803  marks 

he^  this  new  art  and  to  form  an  admiring  circle  of  the  lowest  pomt  of  this  depressed  and  misanthropic 

neophytes  and  disdples  about  ita  misunderstood  ex-  mood.    Nothing   ever  exceeded    his   "Winter"   in 


312  MILLET 

desolateness^  or  his  "Man  with  the  Hoe''  and  "Vine-  being  the  most  religioiis  painter  of  our  times.    His 

dresser  resting"  in  sense  of  utter  exhaustion.    The  "Return  to  the  Farm"  irresistibly  suggests  the  Flight 

impression  of  ph^rsical  fatigue  reaches  the  point  of  into  Egypt;  his  "Repast"  of  hsurvesters,  or  of  ^ean- 

stupefaction  and  insensibility.    The  figures  seem  so  ers,  e>nokes  the  Biblical  poetnr  of  Ruth  and  Boos, 

thoroughly  emptied  of  their  vital  energy  as  to  be  On  the  river  where  his  "Washerwomen"  come  and 

petrified.    The  nard  look  is  congealed  into  a  grimace,  beat  their  linen,  one  would  think  the  cradle  of  Moses 

Nowhere  has  his  effort,  the  forcing  of  his  individual  was  floating.    The  greatness  of  his  soul  has  set  in 

style  to  its  utmost  limit,  brought  the  great  artist  to  relief  before  our  eyes  the  dignity  of  our  nature;  he 

results  more  hiush,  more  grandiose,  or  more  bar-  has  shown  us  how  the  triviid  can  be  made  to  serve 

barous.  in  the  expression  of  the  sublime,  and  how  the  Infinite 

But  things  were  getting  quieter  and  easier  for  him.  and  the  Divine  can  be  discerned  in  the  humblest 

His  extraordinary  personality,   his  eloquence,   the  existence.  ^ 

strong  conviction  of  this  " Danubian  peasant ",  were  «  Sbnmbr, Lame Hjetuvre deJ,-F. Mma (Pmm.  1881) ;  Ipxii. 

aU  making.  the^D^elves  felt.    TTie  worltr^Tteginnm*  f',SSJS'jJSl^.;Srr*<S£Sjl?^i,£:'^^^^^^ 

to  appreciate  the  loftmess  of  view  and  the  moral  wmaBT.RteoUeeHofu  of  Millet  mAaantkMafiUihi(.Qept.,iS7e); 

grandeur  of  this  man  of  the  fields  with  the  lion's  mane  Burtt,  Af  attrw  ^etiu-Mattre*  (Par»,  1877} ;  Hutsmans.  Crr- 

and  the  head  of  a  "Jupiter  m  wooden  shoes".    A  ffiS.2^*iJ5«»J^;S3SS."^f£i..'^^):^!SSvi^i: 


LOTTIB  GiLLET. 

Legion  of  Honour — at  fifty  years  of  age.    In  1870  he 

was  elected  a  member  of  the  jury.    But  the  gre&t  Bflillet  (or  Milet),  Pierre,  a  celebrated    eariy 

war,  the  death  of  his  sister  and  of  his  dear  friend  Jesuit  missionary  in  New  York  State,  b.  at  Bouiges, 

Rousseau,   finally  wrecked   a  constitution  akeady  France,  19  November,  1635  (al.  1631);  d.  at  Quebec, 

injured  by  hard  work  and  privation.    During  the  31  December,   1708.    Havinig  graduated  Master  of 

German  invasion  he  and  his  familv  took  refuge  at  Arts,  he  entered  the  Society  ofJesus  at  Paris  on  3 

Cherbourg  near  his  native  home.    After  that  time  he  October,    1655,   studied   philosophy  at   La   Fldche 


mere  landscapes,  with  the  human  figure  entirely  ab-  After  a  four  years'  course  in  theology  at  the  Coll^ 
sent.  Thenceforward  he  preferred  simpler,  more  di-  of  Louis-le-Grand  in  Paris  (1664-^),  he  was  sent  to 
rect  processes  to  that  of  oaintmg,  usios  the  pencil  Canada,  and  had  already  been  chosen  to  help  Father 
or  pastel — ^like  the  great  idealists,  who  alwim  ended  Allouez  in  the  west,  when,  quite  unexpectedly,  his 
by  simplifying  or  minimizing  the  material  medium  and  destination  was  chan^d.  Tne  Onondaga  ambassa- 
contenting  themselves  with  etching,  as  did  Rem-  dors  had  received  the  answer  to  their  aodress,  on  27 
brandt,  with  drawing,  as  Michelangelo,  or  with  the  Au^:ust,  1668,  and  Fathers  Millet  and  de  Carheil  were 
piano,  as  Beethoven.  These  last  works  of  Millet's  assigned  them  as  missionaries.  In  an  incredibly  short 
are  among  his  finest  and  most  precious.  His  colour-  time  Millet  picked  up  enough  of  the  language  to  en- 
ing,  formerly  heavy  and  sad,  often  rusty  and  im-  able  him  to  preside  at  public  prayers  and  to  his  still 
pleasing,  or  sticky  and  muddy,  is  here  more  delicate  greater  satisfaction,  to  teach  catechism.  This  joy, 
than  ever  before.  Nowhere  does  one  feel  the  touching  however,  was  soon  turned  to  sadness  and  pity  at  the 
beauty  of  this  artistic  soul,  and  its  masculine  but  ten-  sigjit,  new  to  him,  of  some  captive  Andastes,  Drougjht 
der  eloquence,  more  perfectljr  than  in  his  studies  and  in  by  a  war  party  to  be  burnt  at  the  stake.  His  feel- 
sketches.  The  finest  collections  of  them  are  in  the  ings  may  be  gathered  from  what  he  wrote  on  this 
possession  of  M.  A.  Rouart,  in  Paris,  and  of  Mr.  Shaw,  occasion:  "  I  am  at  a  loss  to  know  how  to  interpret 
m  Boston.  Millet  passed  away  at  the  age  of  sixty  this  presage.  Would  to  God  that  it  might  betoken 
years  and  four  months.  that  X  was  to  make  of  these  tribes  captives  of  Jesus 
He  was  one  of  the  noblest  figures  in  contemporary  Christ  and  prevent  their  burning  throughout  eternity, 
art,  one  of  those  men  who  in  our  day  have  done  most  What  happiness  for  me  if  it  foreshadowed  that  one 
credit  to  mankind.  As  a  painter  he  was  not  without  day  I  also  might  be  s.  captive  to  be  burnt  for  Jesus 
his  faults — somewhat  clumsy  in  technique,  not  pleas-  Christ." 

ing  in  colour,  while  emotion,  with  him,  does  not  always  *His  method  of  evangelizing  the  Onondagas  may  be 
keep  clear  of  declamation.  These  faults  are  most  judged  from  a  letter  written  from  the  mission  of  St. 
palpable  in  his  most  famous  works,  such  as  "The  Jean  Baptiste,  15  June,  1670  (Rel.  1670,  vii).  In 
Sower"  and  "The  Angelus".  But  on  the  other  hand,  1671  he  made  his  solemn  nrofession  of  the  four  vows, 
so  many  others  are  perfect  gems — ^marvels  of  execution  and  received  from  liie  Onondaga  nation  the  name 
and  poetic  sentiment,  Uke  "The  Morsel  in  the  Beak"  of  Teahronhiagannra,  that  is  "The  Lookei^up  to 
(La  Becqu^) , "  Maternal  solicitude  " ,  and  "  The  Sheep-  Heaven  ".  In  1672  he  was  appointed  missionary  of  the 
fold  ".  Other  painters  have  had  more  influence  than  Oneidas  (q.  v.), "  the  most  arrogant  and  least  tractable 
Millet.  Courbet,  for  example,  surpassed  him  in  scope  of  all  the  Iroquois"  (Rel.  1672,  iii),  and  laboured 
and  in  prodigious  sense  of  life:  Corot,  with  just  as  among  them  imtil  1685  with  marvelous  success, 
much  poetiy,  has  in  a  hi^er  a^ree  the  grace,  the  He  was  ttiea  recalled  to  act  as  interpreter  at  the 
charm,  the  exauisite  gift  of  hannony.  But  who  shall  Grand  Council  of  Peace  to  be  held  at  Catarakouy 
say  that  Millet's  ruffied  gravity  was  not  the  condition,  (now  Kingston,  Ontario).  Both  he  and  the  other 
the  outward  sign,  of  the  deep  import  of  his  message?  missionaries  were  shametuUy  duped  bjr  the  governor 
No  one  has  done  more  than  he  to  make  us  feel  the  and  used  to  lure  the  Iroquois  into  the  pitfall  prepared 
sanctity  of  life  and  the  mystic  grandeur  of  man's  for  them  (see  Missions,  Indian;  Chanevoix,  I,  510). 
mission  upon  the  earth.  His  peasants,  rooted  to  the  Late  in  1687  or  early  in  1688  Millet  was  sent  as  chap- 
soil  and  as  if  fixed  there  for  eternity,  seem  to  be  per-  lain  at  Fort  Niagara.  Here,  as  at  Catarakouy, 
forming  the  rites  of  a  sacred  mystery.  One  is  con-  scurvy  was  decimating  the  troops,  affording  ample 
scious  of  something  permanent  in  them,  one  feels  scope  for  Millet's  chanty  and  zeal.  To  invoke  God's 
how  intimately  they  are  united  with  the  great  whole,  merey  in  behalf  of  the  stricken  garrison,  a  cross 
their  fraternal  solidarity  with  the  rest  of  mankind  eighteen  feet  higji  was  erected  in  the  fort  by  the 
and  with  the  cosmic  ends.  Though  he  never  handled  omcere  and  blessed  by  Father  Biillet  on  Good  Friday, 
professedly  religious  subjects,  Millet  succeeded  in  16  April,  1688.    On  15  Sept.,  1688,  however^  the 


ICILLIT 


313 


MILLET 


lenmants  of  the  garruon  were  inf onned  the  fort  wa^  to 
be  evacuated,  and  all  were  to  embark  for  Catarakouy. 

Millet  was  still  engaged  at  Catarakouy  in  the  or- 
dinaiy  routine  of  a  military  chaplain,  when  about  30 
July,  1689,  a  party  of  Iroquois  presented  themselves 
at  Fort  Frontenac  and  asked  for  an  interview.  They 
professed  to  be  on  tiieir  way  home  from  Montreal 
whither  they  had  gone  witli  propositions  of  peace. 
They  needed  a  sujreeon,  they  saia,  for  some  of  their 
chiefs  who  were  sick  and  Father  Millet's  services  for 
one  who  was  dyins,  while  the  elders  wished  also  to 
consult  with  him  (Millet's  letter  in  Rels.,  Cleveland 
ed.,  LXIV,  64).  The  story  looked  suspicious,  but 
as  there  was  question  of  a  soul  to  save,  Millet  un- 
dertook the  nsk,  and  St.  Armand.  a  surgeon,  ac- 
companied him.  Both  were  immediately  set  upon 
and  bound 2  his  captors  first  took  Millets  breviary, 
and  were  divesting  him  of  all  he  carried,  when  Man- 
chot,  an  Oneida  chief,  interposed  on  his  behalf,  and 
recommended  him  to  the  care  of  the  other  cniefs. 
But,  when  Manchot  left  to  join  the  three  hundred 
Iroquois  who  were  lying  in  wait  to  attack  Fort  Fron- 
tenac, the  maltreatment  recommenced.  Having 
8tripi>ed  him  almost  naked,  the  Indians  bitterly  re- 
proached him  for  all  that  their  countrymen  had  suf- 
teied  from  the  French;  they  then  threw  him  into  the 
water  and  trampled  him  under  foot  (ibid.,  69) .  When 
the  other  Indians  returned  after  their  failure  to  sur- 
prise Fort  Frontenac,  he  was  escorted  to  an  island 
two  leagues  below  the  fort,  where  the  main  body 
of  1400  Iroquois  warriors  were  encamped.  Derisive 
shouts  and  yells  went  up  at  his  approacn.  According 
to  custom,  he  was  made  sins  his  death-song,  the  words 
which  came  first  to  his  mind  being  Ongienaa  Kehasak^ 
choua  (I  have  been  made  a  prisoner  by  my  children). 
For  all  thanks  a  Seneca  Indian  struck  him  a  brutal 
blow  in  the  face  with  his  fist  in  such  a  way  that  the  nails 
cut  him  to  the  bone.  He  was  then  led  to  the  cabins 
of  the  Oneidas  where  he  was  protected  from  further 
insult.  That  same  evening  tne  whole  force  moved 
down  the  river  eight  leagues  from  the  fort,  and  there 
halted  three  days. 

On  a  hilltop  on  what  is  now  Grenadier  Island 
a  great  oouncu  was  held,  the  war-kettle  swung,  and 
all  that  remained  was  to  choose  a  fitting  vic- 
tim to  cast  into  it.  The  final  decision  was  left  to 
the  Ononda^EM,  and  no  doubt  the  lot  would  have 
fallen  on  Millet,  whose  death  at  the  hands  of  the 
Iroquois  would  have  set  the  seal  to  an  undying  enmity 
and  an  unrelenting  war,  such  as  they  seemed  to  de- 
sire with  the  French,  but  for  an  apparently  insignifi- 
cant detail  which  had  been  overlooked.  To  make  the 
proceedings  l^^l  according  to  their  code,  all  the 
prisoners  should  have  been  present,  whereas  only  the 
8ui]geon  and  Father  Millet  stood  before  the  council 
(ibid.,  73).  The  captors  of  the  other  prisoners  had 
scattered  in  hunting  parties  and  had  taken  them  along. 
An  elderiy  Cayuga  sachem  blocked  all  proceedings 
with  the  simple  announcement:  "All  are  not  present 
at  this  assembly",  and  then  bade  Millet  to  pray  to 
God.  Informed  tnat  it  was  not  in  preparation  for 
death,  MiUet  rose  and  prayed  aloud  m  Iroquois, 
especially  for  all  those  assembled.  He  was  then  told 
to  resume  his  seat,  one  of  his  hands  was  imboimd,  and 
he  was  sent  to  the  camp  of  the  Oneidas.  There  he  was 
acclaimed  with  ioy  by  several  of  their  leading  men, 
wh^  to  forestall  further  molestation,  determined  to 
send  him  to  Oneida.  The  next  day  (about  2  August, 
1689),  thirty  warriors  were  told  oft  imder  two  diiefs, 
of  whom  one  was  the  friendly  Manchot,  to  conduct  him 
thither;  from  one  of  Millet's  letters  (ibid.,  87,  91), 
it  is  certain  that  the  main  body  of  Indians  th^ 
were  leaving  was  the  identical  band  of  Iroquois 
who,  about  4  August,  crossed  during  the  night  to  the 
north  side  of  Lake  St.  Louis,  fired  the  houses  for 
several  leagues  along  the  lake  shore  from  St.  Anne's 
tQ  lAdiine,  and  butdier^d  men,  wpmen,  and  children 


as  they  fled  from  their  burning  homes.  Two  hundred 
in  all  were  massacred,  and  ninety  carried  off  to  be 
burnt  at  the  stake.  Charlevoix's  statement  (Hist., 
I,  549)  that  this  occurrence  took  place  on  25  August  is 
erroneous;  the  contemporaneous  reports  of  de  Denon- 
ville,  de  Champigny,  and  de  Frontenac  (Archives 
Colon.  Paris.  Cor.  Gen.  Can.  X)  give  the  correct  date 
as  4  and  5  August.  1689^.  The  surgeon  St.  Amand, 
whom  the  Iroquois  nad  brought  with  them  to  Lachine, 
there  made  his  escape  (CoUec.  MSS.  Quebec,  I,  57l). 

On  the  journey  to  Oiieida,  Father  Millet  was  not 
badly  treated ;  he  was  unencumbered  by  any  burden 
until  they  were  nearins;  their  last  night's  sleeping 
place,  ten  leaeues  from  uieir  destination,  when  one  of 
the  friendly  oiiefs,  probably  to  keep  up  appearances, 
cave  him  a  light  sack  to  carry.  On  9  August,  two 
leagues  from  their  destination,  they  met  Manchot's 
wife  and  daughter,  belozigine  to  the  first  nobility  of 
Oneida,  both  of  whom  Father  Millet  had  formeriy 
baptized  on  the  same  day  as  Manchot  himself.  Man- 
chot had  left  the  army  at  Otoniata  for  the  sole  purpose 
of  protecting  Millet  on  the  way  to  Oneida,  and  nad 
gone  ahead  two  days  before  to  notify  his  wife  of  his 
approach.  These  good  Christians  brought  with  them 
an  abundance  of  provisions  and  refresnments;  they 
took  the  rope  from  Millet's  neck,  unbound  his  arms, 
and  gave  him  clean  clothing.  Greatly  moved  bv  this 
kUidness  and  scarcely  realizing  what  he  saw,  Millet 
asked  if  t^eir  intention  was  to  deck  out  the  victim, 
and  if,  on  his  arrival,  he  was  to  die.  The  Christian 
matron  answered  that  nothing  had  yet  been  settled, 
and  that  the  Council  of  Oneida  would  decide.  Clothed 
with  what  he  had  just  received  and  in  a  close-fitting 
jerkin  which  a  sympathizing  warrior  had  lent  him  at 
Otoniata,  Millet  made  his  approach  to  the  town^  wear- 
ing the  hvery  of  l^e  two  most  important  families  of 
the  tribe,  that  of  the  Bear  and  that  of  the  Tortoise. 
Warned  of  his  near  arrival  the  aged  sachems  marched 
out  to  meet  him,  and  kindled  a  fire  in  readiness  for 
what  might  occur,  for  they  did  not  all  entertain  the 
same  benevolent  feeling  towards  him.  He  was  made 
sit  down  near  the  elders,  and  Manchot  presented  him 
to  tills  preliminar^r  council,  declaring  that  he  had 
come,  not  as  a  captive,  but  as  a  missionary  returning 
to  visit  his  flock ;  tnat  it  was  the  will  of  the  other  chiefs 
and  himself  that  the  father  should  be  placed  at  the 
disposal  of  those  who  decided  the  affairs  of  the  nation, 
ana  not  be  given  over  to  the  soldiery  or  populace. 
A  sachem  of  the  Bear  Clan,  a  great  friend  of  the  Eng- 
lish, then  proceeded  to  denounce  Millet  as  a  partisan 
of  ihe  Governor  of  Canada,  who  was  bent  on  over- 
throwing the  great  Iroquois  lodge  (i.  e.  the  Iroquois 
Confederacy),  and  haa  burned  the  Seneca  towns. 
The  orator  was  so  violent  at  the  beginnine  of  his 
speech,  that  it  looked  as  if  Millet  would  be  condemned : 
but  towards  the  close  he  crew  milder,  and  admittea 
that  since  such  was  the  wiU  of  the  chiefs,  the  prisoner 
should  be  led  to  the  ooundl  lodge  which  was  a  privi- 
leged cabin. 

Crowds  of  drunken  Indian  braves  and  squaws, 
shouting  and  yelling,  followed  him  to  the  council  lod^, 
where  he  was  cordially  welcomed  by  Manchot's  wife 
(ibid.,  81).  He  had,  however,  to  be  hidden  from  the 
mob  of  drunken  Indians,  who  stoned  the  cabin, 
threatened  to  batter  it  down  or  set  it  on  fire,  heapea 
abuse  on  those  who  were  sheltering  him,  and  vowed 
that,  since  war  had  begun,  they  would  not  be  cheated 
out  of  its  first  fruits.  Two  days  after,  when  the  fury 
of  the  dnmken  rabble  had  somewhat  abated,  the 
friends  of  the  captive  missionary  thou^t  it  wiser 
to  have  his  case  adjudicated  without  further  delay,  as 
the  popular  feeling  might  be  embittered  should  the 
army  retumine  from  Montreal  have  to  deplore  the 
loss  of  some  of  its  braves.  But  once  again  he  was 
placed  in  a  state  of  suspense  as  to  his  rate,  the  as- 
sembled chiefs  deciding  tnat  they  must  wait  tne  return 
pf  th^  warriors  and  leara  what  tbeir  intentions  wer^. 


ICILLIT                                314  lOLLIT 

Three  more  weeks  dragged  on  thus,  but.  apart  from  the  hostility  of  the  drunkards  among  the  tribe  and  of 
the  importunities  and  threats  of  the  dnmkards,  Millet  the  Englii^  who  have  done  their  best  to  have  this 
was  left  in  comparative  ^uiet.  That  he  was  walking  saintly  missionary  handed  over  to  their  keeping, 
in  the  shadow  of  death,  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  he  Thev  cannot  brook  the  presence  of  a  Jesuit  there. ' 
was  mven  the  name  of  Genherontatie,  i.  e.  "The  Dead  Dablon  had  already  in  the  same  montii  and  year, 
(or  Dying)  Man  who  walks*'.  His  everyday  work  written  to  Rome  that  the  father,  a  captive  among  the 
as  pastor  served  to  console  him,  the  faithful  nocking  Iroquois,  was  most  assiduous  in  opening  the  wav  to 
to  him  in  their  spiritual  necessities,  even  to  the  remote  heaven  for  many  little  children  by  baptism,  and  for 
lurking  places  where  he  had  frequently  to  be  hidden,  dying  adults  and  old  men  by  a  careful  preparation 
and  his  bodily  wants  were  amply  supplied.  When  and  tne  administration  of  the  sacraments  (Letters  to 
the  Iroquois  returned  after  their  blood v  foray  against  the  Gen.,  MS.  copy  45, 48).  Father  Jean  de  Lamber- 
Lachine  and  other  settlements  near  Montreal,  it  was  ville  writing  from  Paris  on  3  Jan.,  1695,  says:  "They 
found  that  the  Oneidas  had  left  three  dead  warriors  [his  friends  amone  the  Oneidas]  made  a  diapel  of  their 
behind  in  the  enemy's  country,  including  a  leading  dwelling,  where  the  Father  performed  his  functions  of 
war-chief.  The  exasperated  braves  considered  the  missionary,  with  the  result  that  in  the  midst  of  these 
death  and  torture  of  tne  number  of  prisoners  they  had  hostile  barbarians  he  maintained  the  worship  of  God 
brought  back  insufficient  to  atone  for  this  loss,  and  and  there  converted  many  Iroquois.  After  having 
demanded  that  Millet  should  be  added  to  the  number,  been  five  years  amon^  Ihem,  assisting  in  Iheir  death 
Fearing  lest  this  bloodthirsty  faction  should,  by  cut-  throes  the  French  prisoners  who  were  burned,  and 
ting  off  a  finger  or  by  some  similar  mutilation,  set  the  interceding  successfully  for  the  life  of  others,  he  was 
mark  of  death  upon  their  missionary,  the  Christian  brought  back  to  Quebec  with  fifteen  Frendb  captives" 
Indians  were  more  careful  than  ever  to  keep  him  out  (Rels.,  LXIV,  245).  Belmont  (Hist,  du  Can.,  p.  36) 
of  sight  (ibid.,  87).  He  was  made  pass  the  night  is  certainly  astray  in  giving  1697  as  the  date  of  Millet's 
sometimes  in  one  cabin,  sometimes  in  another,  and  delivery.  Most  authors  state  that  the  captive  mis- 
more  than  once  under  the  starlight,  anywhere  in  fact  sionary  was  brou^t  back  to  Quebec  in  1694.  Golden 
where  a  drunken  Indian  was  not  likely  to  find  him.  Qlistory  of  the  Five  Nations,  I,  210-30)  states  that 
His  protectress  added  foresi^t  to  ner  zeal,  and  the  return  took  place  towards  the  end  of  August; 
secured  the  support  of  her  relatives,  the  most  influen-  Charlevoix,  however,  states  very  positively  (II,  143) 
tial  warriors  of  the  tribe,  towards  saving  Millet.  that  Father  Millet  was  brought  to  Montreal  towards 

The  day  when  the  filial  sentence  was  to  be  pro-  the  end  of  October  (1694). 
nounced  arrived  at  last.  Millet  had  time  to  hear  the  Millet  passed  the  year  1695  at  Quebec  College 
confessions  of  his  fellow-prisoners,  two  of  whom  and  in  1696  was  sent  to  Lorette  to  assist  Father 
eventually  died  by  fire.  As  for  himself,  he  could  Michel  Germain  de  Convert  with  the  Hurons,  and,  to 
only  commend  himself  to  the  providence  and  the  the  ordinary  duties  of  missionary  to  the  Hurons, 
mercy  of  God.  His  case  was  a  knotty  one  for  the  thoae  of  parish  priest  of  Lorette  were  added  in  1697. 
assembled  chiefs  to  decide:  on  the  one  hand,  he  was  In  1698  he  is  marked  in  the  catalogues  of  the  Society 
resided  by  the  Iroquois  as  a  great  criminal  and  de-  as  missionary  at  Sault-St- Louis  (Uaughnawaga),  but 
ceiver,  being  held  responsible  tor  the  seizure  of  their  in  all  probability  he  went  there  in  uie  summer  of 
fellow-countrymen  at  Catarakouy  (ibid.,  89) ;  but,  1697.  For,  on  15  February  of  Ihat  year,  thirty-three 
on  the  other,  he  was  protected  by  the  Christians,  Oneidas  came  to  Montreal.  They  came,  they  said,  to 
among  whom  were  the  most  influential  and  distin-  fulfil  a  promise  they  had  made  their  Father  to  throw 
guish^  members  of  the  nation,  and  thus  could  not  be  in  their  lot  with  his  children  and  that  their  fellow- 
put  to  death  without  incurring  their  displeasure.  The  countrymen  wished  to  assure  him  that  they  also 
result  was  that  he  was  sent  to  and  fro  from  one  special  would  nave  followed  if  the  Mohawks  and  Onondagas, 
tribunal  to  another,  his  face  smeared  with  black  and  between  whose  cantons  they  dwelt,  had  not  held  them 
red  to  brand  him  as  a  victim  of  the  god  of  war  and  of  back  (Charlevoix,  "Hist.",  II,  199).  From  1697  to 
the  wrath  of  the  Iroquois.  At  this  critical  juncture  1703  inclusively,  he  remained  as  missionary  at  Sault^ 
the  family  which  had  befriended  him  so  often  assem-  St-Louis.  During  this  period  he  wrote  at  least  once 
bled  anew,  and  infl»niously  turned  the  difficulty  in  to  Rome  (10  August.  1700)  a  mild  and  submissive 
Millet's  favour  by  offering  him  as  a  substitute — ^not  for  complaint  that  he  had  not  yet  obtained  the  favour  of 
one  of  the  braves  killed  by  the  French  at  Lachine,  nor  returning  to  the  Iroquois  cantons :  through  feelings 
for  any  made  prisoner  at  Fort  Frontenac,  but — for  of  gratitude  he  begs  the  Father  General  to  give  a 
a  captain  named  Otasset^,  who  had  died  long  since  a  diiare  in  the  prayers  of  the  Society  to  Tarsha  the  chief 
natural  death,  and  whose  name  was  famous  as  that  of  and  Suzanne  his  sister  at  Oneida,  both  of  whom  had 
one  of  the  founders  of  the  Iroquois  Confederation,  acted  as  hosts  to  the  Father  auring  his  captivity. 
By  this  presentation  C!hief  Gannassatiron  became  Although  peace  had  been  concluded  with  the  Five 
the  sole  arbiter  of  Millet's  life  or  death.  He  consulted  Nations  on  8  September,  the  missions  were  not  yet  re- 
only  the  warriors  of  his  family,  and,  these  having  established  when  Father  Bouvart  wrote  to  Ilome  5 
witnout  hesitation  pronounced  in  favour  of  life,  he  October,  1700.  The  catalogue  of  1704  places  Father 
approached  the  father  and  in  the  set  formula  addressed  Millet  at  the  college  in  Quebec  as  a  valetudinarian, 
him:  " Satonnheton  Szaksi"  (My  elder  brother,  you  though  he  himself  desirea  to  return  to  Ihe  Iroquois 
are  resuscitated).  A  few  days  afterwards  the  no-  mission  and  continue  till  the  end '' to  fight  like  a  good 
tables  of  Oneida  were  invited  to  a  grand  banquet,  and  soldier  the  battles  of  the  Lord".  In  1705  he  is  de- 
at  the  ceremony  the  name  of  Otasset^  was  given  Mil-  scribed  as  imder  treatment  for  broken-down  health, 
let  to  make  it  manifest  to  all  that  the  Oneidas  had  He  lingered  on  for  three  years  more,  always  in  the 
adopted  him  into  their  nation  and  naturalized  him  an  hope  of  going  back  to  the  scenes  of  his  captivity, 
Iroquois.    Everything  that  had  been  taken  from  him  but,  on  the  last  day  of  1708,  he  died. 

was  restored.  Thwaitbs.  Jesuit  Relations  and  Allied  Docs,,  XVII,  242; 

Father  Millet  turned  his  long  captivity  among  the  JXIV,  66-107,  119,  133,  275,  276:   (j^^Lam^ivillels  letter) 

Oneidas  to  good  account.     Father  Bru^s  writes  to  ^38,  259;  LXV.  27.  261;  LVI.  43;  1^1,  134  1 61;  O-Calla- 

!v     ^           1  '^   VTt  ^*'^Y"*"     *  "        „  Zrr    /               ^^     J  OBAN,  Docs.  rdottve  to  Colonud  Hist,  of  New  York,  111,  621, 714, 

the  General  on  21  October,  1693:    "We  have  received  732,  783;  IV,  24.  41-65,  60-3,  78-07.  120,  169.  170,  349,  659; 

letters  from  Father  Millet,  a  captive  among  the  Iro-  JX.  241. 254. 287, 387-9, 466. 499. 618,  531. 633, 566. 682. 605. 

quo^  for  the  last  six  years. ....  He  performs^th  happy  fJJiJ^f ;  ^Jf-^To^^lfi^SifSSr  S«  kTS^^^J^"^ 

results  all  the  offices  of  a  missionary.    He  stands  m  u.  5.,  I  (New  York,  I886),  286,  288. 302.  332-6;  Idem.  Hist, 

need  of  one  thing  only,  an  altar  outfit  (a  chalice,  vest-  of  Ca^.  Missions  among  <J«  Indians  (1855}.  260-1,  276-^1.  319. 

mente,  etc.  so  as  to  say  Mass) ;  but  he  thinks  that  the  \'i^:i^',3Xr^J^'^M^f*c^-  iJoT^-  SS^ 

time  to  send  him  this  has  not  yet  Oome  on  aOOount  of  Ipguss  of  Soc.  of  Jesus,  MSS.;  Letters  to  ths  Osnenl^  oopiei 


(Marfiii):B<la(ioiM(l«/^nni«(QusbiK,  ise8),B<i.iMB,  10,3  the  defect  of  unceaains  asperity  of  lansuase,  bo  that 

4fl,  M,  I7i,  239-56;  11,  11, 38^08. 187;  Gibouabd  In  Procetd.  <«  Catholic  laymen,   elected   first   in   1782,   and   re- 

Ray.  Sac  Can..  V,  Mrmotri,  87-101:  Ch*hlivoii,  Hiti.  tie  la  elcctedfive  vearsIaterwerethecentreofBuchopinionB, 

flif TS'r  i*j"v  'i™^:  n®,\52Ul?A™'-^™fr''?'i;  and  towards  the  end  three  eccleaiaatics  were  added, 


to  A'  -Prana,  III,  186-200:  Maroki.  D&auMKu  eto  V  zs  38-  two  of  whom  (James  Talbot  and  Charies  Benngton) 
CoUM.dcDoa.riliaifiAlaff.-Fnmtc.1, 21, 239,3iS.*BS,SS2-3,  were  bishopa.  The  object  Of  the  committee  waa  to 
Srfi;S\«5H'^r^liJ';^"(p2ri.'''l'6^)m«^'"''  ■^'^  *^'P  **  '"^  '''^"*  Catholic  emancipation.  With 
AttTHOE  Edwaed"  JoNM.  ^is,end  |n  view,  in  1789  they  issued  a  "  Protestation  ", 
«>Tii  ««■>  »  II  r.  T  n  disclaimme  some  of  the  more  objectionable  doctnoes 
BDU  Hill  Ooltop.  See  Joseph,  SooiETr  of  with  whicE  they  we«,  popularly  credited,  including 
Saint,  for  Foheign  Misbionb.  the  deposing  power  anJ  papal  ki fallibility.  DespitS 
Hilnar,  JoHit,  b.  in  London,  14  October,  1752;  d.  the  Cisalpine  tone  of  the  document,  it  was  signed  by 
at  Wolverhampton,  19  April,  1826,  At  the  age  of  nearty  1500  Catholics,  includmg  all  the  vicars  Apo»- 
tweivehe  went  to  Sedgley  Park  School,  but  the  foTlow'  tolic,  though  the  signatures  of  two  were  afterwards 
log  year  he  was  sent  by  the  venerable  Bishop  Chal-  withdrawn.  Pitt  whowas  then  Prime  Minister  [V(KD- 
loner  to  the  English  Collie  at  Douai,  France,  to  study  iaed  to  introduce  a 
for  the  priesthood.  He  remained  twelve  vears,  but  bill  of  Catholic  re- 
he  doee  not  seem  to  have  distinguished  himself  in  lief;  but  when  it 
any  special  manner  there.  On  his  ordination  in  1777  wasdrafted.itwas 
he  returned  to  England.  Two  years  later  he  was  found  to  contain 
sent  to  Winchester  to  assist  the  French  prisoners  in  an  oath  which  all 
that  city,  among  whom  a  fever  liad  broken  out;  and  Catholics  weie  to 
when  the  pastor.  Rev.  Mr.  Nolan,  fell  a  victim  to  the  be  called  upon  to 
fever,  Milner  waa  pennanently  appointed  inhia  place,  take,  baned  on 
Winchester  waa  then  one  of  tne  tew  towns  in  the  south  the  "protfsta- 
of  England  where  a  Catholic  chapel  was  openly  sup-  tion,  but    in 

Krte<r     Its  existence  waa  indeed  illegal,  for  the  penal  stronger  language, 

ra  were  still  in  full  force^  but  practically  there  waa  and       containing 

not  much  prospect  of  ita  bemg  interfered  with.    Milner  doctrine  to  which 

remained  there  twenty-thiee  ^eara,  during  which  time  no  good  Catholic 

he  devot«d  himaelf  to  missionary  work,  rebuilt  the  could  set  his  name; 

chapel,  and  eatabtiahed  a  achool.     The  Catholic  religion  while    the    Cath- 

in  England  waa  at  the  time  going  through  a  double  olics     throughout 

crisis,  partly  by  the  action  of  its  own  membera,  and  were  called  by  the 

partly  by  the  influence  from  without,  due  to  the  French  absurd   title    of 

Revolution.     Some  thousands  of  French  priests  took  "Protesting  Catb' 

refugeinEogland,  and  were  supported  by  the  Govern-  olio    Dissenters".  Jons  MimiR 

ment.     Some  700  were  lodged  in  the  old  unfinished  The  four  vicara  Apostolic  met  at  Hammersmitb,  in 

king's  house  outside  Winchest«r,  where  they  formed  October,  17S9,  Milneratteoding  as  theologicaladviser. 

tlremsetves  into  a  large  religious  community.     Milner,  They  unai  '  •  -    -    j-         f.i.         .i.        ,  ., 

who  was  brought  into  daily  contact  with  tnem,  spoke  appellatioi 


themselves  into  a  large  religious  community.     Milner,     They  unanimouBlj^  condemned  the  oath  and  the  n 
'lo  was  brought  into  daily  contact  with  tnem,  spoke     appellation.     During  the  following  year  the  Bishops  of 
high  terms  of  the  extraordinary  edification  of  their     the  Northern  and  London  Districla  died.     A  great 


dailv  hves.     The  same  events  on  the  Continent  led  to  effort  was  made  by  the  comraittee  to 

the  Dreaking  up  of  the  English  ciHi vents  in  France  and  feience  of  Bishop  Charles  Berington  to  the  London 

the  Low  Countries,  and  the  nuns  fled  for  refuge  to  District.     This  would  have  been  a  triumph  for  the 

their  own  country,  where  they  arrived  penniless  and  Ciaolpines;  but  fortunately  it  did  not  succeed.    Rome, 

helpless.     A  great  effort  was  made  to  asaiat  them,  being  warned,  appointed  Dr.  Douglass,  a  Yorkahire- 

Hilner  took  his  share  in  the  movement  by  establish-  man,  who  had  been  outside  the  late  disputes. 
ing  in  his  mission  the  Bendictine  nuns,  formerly  of         The  committee  now  suggested  some  modification  of 

Brussels,  with  whom  he  ever  afterwards  maintained  the  oath ;  but  it  was  not  sufficient  to  free  it  from  ob- 

eordial  relations.    The  Franciscans  from  Bruges  like-  jection,  and  three  out  of  the  four  vicars  Apostolic 

wise  settled  at  Winchester.  joined  in  condemning  it  a  second  time.     When  the 

During  succeeding  years,  Milner  began  to  make  his  Relief  Bill  was  broueht  forward  in  February,  1791, 

name  OS  a  writer  and  controversialist.     His  "History  the  bishops  called  Milner  to  their  assistance.     By 

of  Winchester  "  appeared  in  1798,  and  showed  remark-  means  of  his  vigorous  action  an  impression  was  made 

aiite  power  and  learning.     It  led  to  a  controversy  with  on  the  Govenunent  and  the  oath  was  further  modified; 

Dr.  Stuiges,  a  prebendary  of  the  cathedral,  which  but  the  situation  was  really  saved  after  his  return  to 

brought  forth   two   of    Milner's  beet^known  works,  Winchester,  when  the  House  of  Lords,  at  the  instiga- 

"Letterstoa  Prebendary"  and  "The  End  of  ReliKious  tion  of  the  Protestant  Bishop  of  St.  David's,  substi- 

Controversy",    In  deference  to  the  wishes  of  his  tuted  a  totally  different  oath  for  the  one  objected  to; 

bishop,  however,  the  last-named  work  was  withheld  and  in  this  form  the  Bill  waa  pasaed.     It  abolished  the 

for  the  aake  of  peace,  and  it  did  not  see  the  lieht  until  penal  laws  properly  so-calleo  and  legalised  the  cele- 

nearly  twenty  years  later.     It  was  during  Dis  resi-  bration  of  Mass;    out  Catholics  continued  liable  to 

denoe  at  Winchester  that  Milner  was  firat  brought  into  numerousdiaabilitiea  for  many  years  afterwards.  After 

contact  with  the  public  afiairs  of  Catholica,  which  this  the  Catholic  Committee  dissolved;  but  the  chief 

formed  the  other  aspect  of  the  crisis  in  that  body,  members  re-formed  themselves  into  an  aaaociation  to 

The  Cisalpine  or  antipapal  movement  among  the  laity  which  they  gave  the  name  of  the  Cisalpine  Club  and 

was  b^inning.  the  moving  spirit  bemg  Charks  Butler,  which  last«d  for  many  years.    Milner  continued  to 

nephew  of  Alban  Butler,  a  lawyer  of  eminence  and  write  and  speak  in  opposition  to  them.     The  clergy 

reputation,  and  the  lifelong  opponent  of  Milner.     The  who   were   supporters   of  the   Cisalpine   spirit   were 

movement  also  affected  some  of  the  clergy,  the  well-  chiefly  in  the  Midland  District,  one  group  who  had 

known  writer.  Rev.  Joseph  Berinffton.  bemg  the  most  acted    t<«ether   beii^   known   as   the   Staffordshire 

notable  exstmple.    Milner,  who  had  a  keen  sense  of  Clergy.    By  a  strange  fate  it  was  this  very  district 

orthodoxy  and  loyalty  to  the  Holy  See,  directed  all  over  which  Milner  was  called  to  rule  in  1803,  when  he 

his  endeavoun  to  combating  this  movement.     His  was  conseeratAd  Bishop  of  Castabala,  and  appointed 

-»m:_~.  w__  ..„..,.»»„^2Q(j  pg,,Q^„l.  buttheyhad  Viear  Apostolk:  of  the  Midland  District.    Itaoiedit- 


MILMXE 


316 


MILMBB 


able  both  to  them  and  to  Mibier  himself  that  the 
resulting  state  of  tension  was  of  short  duration.  The 
deigy  learned  to  value  the  great  <][ualities  of  their  new 
bishop,  and  conceived  an  admiration  of  him,  the  tradi- 
tion of  which  has  lasted  to  the  present  day. 

Milner,  however,  was  not  satisfieKi  with  his  position 
in  the  Midlands.  He  had  formed  an  alliance  with  the 
Irish  bishops,  and  with  their  co-operation,  a  deter- 
mined attempt  was  made  to  have  him  transferred  to 
London  as  coadjutor  with  rieht  of  succession.  This 
scheme  was  opposed  by  Bishop  Douglass,  and  ulti- 
mately defeated,  though  the  pope  consented  that  Mil- 
ner  shoidd  become  parliamentary  agent  to  the  Irish 
bishops  in  their  struggle  to  procure  Catholic  emancipa- 
tion, and  that  for  this  purpose  he  should  be  permitted 
to  go  to  London  as  often  as  necessary.  This  unfor- 
tunate disagreement  with  his  colleagues  led  to  regret- 
table residts.  Milner  found  faidt  with  the  manner  in 
which  the  London  District  was  governed,  and  was  not 
afraid  to  say  so  publicly,  in  numerous  pamphlets  and 
other  publications,  ana  even  in  his  pastorals.  The 
subjects  of  contention  were  several;  but  two  espe- 
cially may  be  mentioned.  One  was  the  well-known 
"  Veto"  question,  which  first  came  into  prominence  in 
the  year  1808.  By  this  it  was  intended  to  concede  to 
the  Crown  a  negative  voice  in  the  election  of  Catholic 
bishops,  by  conferring  a  right  to  veto  any  candidate 
whose  loyalty  was  open  to  question.  The  chief  Irish 
bishops  had  agreed  to  the  measure  in  1799 ;  but  since 
then,  owing  to  the  postponement  of  emancipation, 
the  scheme  had  dropped.  Milner  revived  it,  and  was 
for  a  time  the  warm  advocate  of  the  veto.  He  found 
himself  in  opposition  to  most  of  the  Irish  bishops.  He 
visited  Ireland,  and  i^terwards  wrote  his  "  Letter  to  a 
Parish  Priest"  (who  was  really  an  Irish  bishop)  in  de- 
fence of  his  position.  The  Irish  bishops,  however, 
condemned  the  Veto  in  1808.  A  vear  later  Milner 
was  converted  to  their  way  of  thinking,  and  became 
as  vigorous  in  opposition  to  it  as  he  had  been  before 
in  its  favour.  Aoout  this  time  the  English  Catholics, 
in  presenting  a  petition  to  Parliament,  embodied 
what  was  known  as  their  "Fifth  Resolution",  offer- 
ing a  "grateful  concurrence"  to  a  BUI  which  would 
give  them  emancipation,  accompanied  by  any  "  ai> 
rangements"  for  the  safe-guarding  of  the  Estab- 
lished Church  which  should  not  be  mconsistent  with 
their  religion.  Milner  declared — contrary  to  the  as- 
sertions of  the  framers  of  the  Resolution — ^that  the 
"arrangements"  intended,  included  the  Veto,  and  he 
denounced  those  who  signed  the  petition,  including  all 
the  other  vicars  Apostolic  of  England.  In  this  he 
received  the  support  of  the  Irish  bishops.  Another 
source  of  criticism  was  the  want  of  vigour  which  he 
alleged  against  the  London  Vicar  in  combating  the 
Blanchardist  schism  among  the  French  emigrant 
dere^,  especially  the  restoration  of  one  of  them,  Abb^ 
de  Irevaux,  to  spiritual  faculties  without  a  public 
retractation.  In  this  matter  also  he  was  supported  by 
the  Irish  bishops. 

A  crisis  occurred  in  1813,  Dr.  Poynter  being  then 
Vicar  Apostolic  of  the  London  District.  A  Bill  for  the 
full  emancipation  of  Catholics  was  introduced  into  the 
House  of  Commons  by  Grattan;  but  Lord  Castlereagh 
and  Mr.  Canning  introduced  amending  clauses  giving 
ike  Crown  a  veto  on  the  appointment  of  bishops,  to  be 
exercised  only  on  the  recommendation  of  a  com- 
mittee consisting  chiefly  of  Catholic  Peers.  Milner 
and  the  Irish  bishops  maintained  that  no  Catholic 
could  assent  to  this  without  incurring  schism.  The 
other  vicars  Apostolic  did  uotgo  so  far  as  this,  though 
they  opposed  the  clauses.  The  leading  members  of 
the  Catholic  Board,  consisting  chiefly  of  ]a3rmen,  were 
in  favour  of  accepting  them  as  the  necessary  price  to 
pay  for  emancipation.  Milner,  however,  used  all  his 
influence  to  |)rocure  the  rejection  of  the  Bill.  He 
printed  a  **  Brief  Memorial"  m  this  sense,  and  distrib- 
uted it  among  members  of  Parliament.    The  Bill 


passed  its  second  reading,  but  in  committee  the  clause 
admitting;  Catholics  to  Parliament  was  defeated  by  a 
small  majority  of  four  votes,  and  the  Bill  was  aban* 
doned.  Milner  took  to  himself  the  credit  of  having 
been  the  cause  of  its  defeat,  and  tiie  laymen  were  so 
angry  with  him  that,  to  their  permanent  disgrace,  they 

gubhcly  expelled  him  from  the  committee  of  the 
atholic  Board.  In  the  meantime  "Dr.  Poynter  ap- 
pealed to  Rome  for  guidance  in  the  expected  event  of 
the  re-introduction  of  the  Bill.  The  pope  was  at  that 
time  the  prisoner  of  Bonaparte,  and  the  cardinals  were 
dispersea.  In  their  absence  Mgr.  Quarantotti,  Secre* 
tanr  of  Propaganda,  using  the  powers  wiUi  which  he 
had  been  provisionally  invested,  issued  a  Rescript, 
dated  February,  1814,  approving  of  ^e  Bill  as  it  stood. 
Milner  did  not  fail  to  see  the  serious  results  which 
would  follow  from  this  and  decided  immediately  to 
appeal  to  the  pope,  who  having  been  liberated  from 
captivity,  was  on  his  way  back  to  Rome.  His  journey 
was  so  far  successful  that  the  Quarantotti  R^cript  was 
recalled,  and  the  pope  ordered  the  whole  matter  to  be 
examined  afresh.  In  the  end  a  decision  was  promul- 
gated in  the  shape  of  a  letter  from  Cardinal  Litt^,  Pre- 
fect of  Propaganda,  to  Dr.  Poynter,  who  had  also 
come  to  Rome.  The  provisions  of  the  late  Bill  were 
condemned;  but  on  the  general  question  of  the  veto, 
apiut  from  the  Lay  Committees,  the  decision  was 
against  Milner;  subject  to  certain  safeguards,  Catho- 
lics were  empowered  to  concede  a  veto  to  the  Crown, 
provided  this  negative  power  was  so  limited  as  not  to 
be  allowed  to  grow  into  a  positive  nomination.  This 
led  to  further  agitation  in  Ireland,  and  another  deputa- 
tion was  sent  to  Rome;  but  the  English  Catholics,  in- 
cluding Milner  himself,  accepted  the  decision  without 
question.  The  Englii^  vicars  Apostolic  were,  how- 
ever, naturally  opposed  to  the  veto,  and  in  the  event 
it  never  became  necessary  to  utilise  the  permission 
granted. 

On  his  return  from  Rome  Milner  continued  to  write 
controversially^,  the  new  "Orthodox  Journal"  being  a 
frequent  medium  for  his  communications,  ffis  lan- 
guage was  as  harsh  as  ever,  and  unbecoming  in  a 
bishop,  until  at  length  an  appeal  was  made  to  Rome, 
and  Cfardinal  Fontana,  who  was  then  Prefect  of  Propa- 
ganda, forbade  him  to  write  in  it  any  more.  Diumg 
the  last  years  of  his  life  Milner  withdrew  to  a  great  ex- 
tent from  public  politics.  He  ceased  to  act  on  behalf 
of  the  Irisn  bishops,  and  though  he  did  not  hold  any 
intercourse  with  tne  other  vicars  Apostolic,  he  ceased 
to  write  against  them.  He  devoted  himself  to  literaiy 
work.  In  1818  his  *'  End  of  Controversy  ",  perhaps  the 
best  known  of  all  his  books,  at  length  appeared,  and  it 
was  followed  by  a  war  of  pamphlets  and  replies  whidi 
went  on  for  several  years.  Feeling  his  health  failing, 
he  applied  for  a  coadiutor,  and  Rev.  Thomas  Wal£, 
President  of  Oscott  College,  was  appointed.  He  was 
consecrated  in  1825  when  all  the  bishops  of  England 
met,  and  a  reconciliation  was  effected.  Milner  sur- 
vived less  than  a  year,  his  death  taking  place  at  his 
house  at  Wolverhampton  on  19  April,  l^o.  He  left 
behind  him  a  record  of  a  life  marked  by  whole-hearted 
devotion  to  religion,  and  of  eminent  services  rendered 
to  the  cause,  both  as  a  writer  and  a  man  of  action.  In 
both  capacities  his  work  was  marred  by  the  asperity 
of  his  language,  and  his  intolerance  of  any  views  differ- 
ing from  his  own.  This  made  him  many  enemies 
through  life,  and  cut  him  off  from  his  brotlier  bishops 
during  the  greater  part  of  his  episcopate.  But  his  lot 
was  cast  at  a  diflScult  time,  and  he  succeeded  in  com- 
bating difficulties  which  few  other  men  would  have 
faced.  He  had  the  advantage  of  a  strong  constitution- 
his  vigour  and  activity  were  phenomenal,  and,  added 
to  his  devotion  to  the  Holy  See,  earned  for  mm  the 
title  of  the  English  Athanasius. 

There  are  many  portraits  of  Milner:  (1)  sketch,  age 
about  25;  (2)  miniature,  as  a  bishop  about  1803;  (3) 
miniature  by  Keman   (1808 — eonsidered   the   best 


lutmot                   dl?  aototoTAisos 

fikaiMK); 

■    TkoU,  .    ,,   .  „   .. 

.  to  be  the  most  like,  but  it  is  in  Gothic  veetmente  Tbia  Wden^  enabled  him  to  render  vsluabie  « 

and  mitre^ having   been  painted  bug  after  Hihier's  totheotherCatholicprisoneraand tointroduoepriestt 

death.     Cnkeee  are  all  at  Oacott.)     (6)  Paintinz  of  to  administer  the  sacraments.     Soon,  extending  the 

Hihier  as  a  prieat,  age  about  45,  at  the  convent,  East  sphere  oi'  his  charitable  activity,  he  acted  as  escort 

Berghoh.     (7)  Painting  at  the  presbytery,  Norwich,  &st  to  Fattier  Thomas  Stanney,  and  later  to  his  suo- 

Tery  similar  to  (5).     (8)  Engraving  in  "  Laity's  Direo-  cessor  at  Winchester,  Father  Roger  Dicconson,  con- 

tory",  1S27,  from  a  painting  by  R&dcliffe  (Orth.  Jour.,  ducting  them  to  the  different  villages  to  minister  to 

I,   173).     (9)   Bust,  by  Clsjlm  sen.  of  Birmiagham:  the  spiritual  needs  of  the  scattered  and  persecuted 

many  copies  to  be  met  with.     (1),  (2),  and  (0)  repro-  flock.     Finally  seized  vith  Father  Dicconson,  MJlner 

duoedinthe"DBwn  of  the  Catholic  Revival";  (8)  in  was  with  him  placed  under  close  confinement  in  Win- 

Hisa  Harting's  "Catholic  London  Uission";    (4)  in  chester  jail  pending  the  approaching  sessions-    Prob- 

"Cbtholio  London  a  Century  ago";  (5)  in  the  pcnnv  ably  moved  with  compassion  for  the  aged  man,  the 

"life  of  Hilner,"  by  Rev.  E.  Burton  (Catholic  Trutn  judgeurgedHilnertoattendeven  onoetheProteatont 

Society).     His  chief  works  are:   "Funeral  Discourse  ohurcb  and  thus  escape  the  gallows.     The  latter  19. 

on   Bishop  Challoner"    (1781);    "The  ClcMyman's  fused,  however,  "toembrace  acounselaodisagreeable 

Answer  to  the  Layman's  Letter"  (1790);  "Pastoral  tothemaximsof  tbeGogier',and  beganimmediately 

oi  ibe  Bishop  of  L6on"  (translated,  17911;    "Dis-  to  prepare  for  death.    Every  effort  was  made  to  per- 

ooune  at  Consecration  of  Bishop  Gibson     (1791);  suade  him  to  change  his  purpose  and  renounce  the 

"Divine  Rights  of  Episcopacy"  (1791);  "Audi  Ai-  Faith,and, whenbe wasapproachingthegallowswitb 

tersm  Partem"  (1702);    "Ecclesiastical  Democracy  Father  Dicconstui,  his  chudren  were  conducted  to 

detected"  (1793);  "Repl:rtaCiaalpineaub"  (1795);  him  in  the  hope  that  he  misht  even  then  relent. 

"  Serious  Ktpostulation  with  Rev.  Joseph  Berington  Unshaken  in  hia  resolution,  Uuner  gave  his  children 

S97);  "Huitoiy  of  Winchester"  (1798);  ''^Brief  hislastblessing.declared that "hecouU wish themno 
B  of  Challoner  (1798);  "Letters  to  a  Prebendary"  greater  happiness  than  to  die  for  the  like  cause",  and 
(1800);  "Case  of  Conscience  solved"  (1801);  "Eluci-  then  met  his  death  with  the  utmost  couraee  and  calm, 
dation  of  the  Conduct  of  Pius  VII"  (1802):  "Argu-  CHiij.™«i 
ments  oeainst  Cathohc  PetiUon"  (1806);  ''Cure  of  SSLx'tT^i',- 
Winefride  White"  (1805);  "Letter  to  a  Parish  ^'  '  Tbomab  Kimnkdt. 
Prie8t"(1808);"Letter8tromIreland"(180S);  "Pas-  mUo.  See  Bira,  Diocmb  of. 
toral  Letter  on  Blanchardists  ,  Sequel  ,  Supple-  _,„  ,  ,  .  ,  ^  ..  . 
mcnt",  and  "Appendix"  (1808-9);  ^'Appeal  to  the  Milo  OrlBpIn,  monk,  and  cantor  of  the  Benedictme 
Catholics  of  Ireland"  (1809);  "Disoourse  at  Funeral  Abbey  of  Bee,  wrote  the  lives  of  five  of  its  abbots: 
of  Sir  WiUiam  Jemingiiam''  (1809):  "Treatise  on  Lantranc,  Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  Guliehnua  de 
Ecclesiastical  Architecture"  (1810);  "Instructions  Bellomontc,Bo80,ThBobaldua,andLetarduB.  Hislife 
for  Catholics  of  Midland  Countiee"  (1811):  "Letter  to  "i  Lanf nine  is  printed  in  the  "  Acta  Sanctorum"  of  the 
Prelate  of  Ireland"  (1811);  "^lanation  with  Bollandista  (May  28).  The  other  four  (thoae  of  Theo- 
Bishop  Poynter"  (1812);  "  Pastoral  on  Jurisdiction  of  baldus  and  Letardus  being  mete  summanes)  are  in- 
Church",  I,  II,  and  III  (1812-3);  "Brief  Memorial  on  eluded  in  P.  L.  (Vol.  CL.).  MUo  must  have  been  an 
Catholic  Bill"  (1813);  "Multum  in  Parvo"  (1813);  old  man  when  he  wrote  them,  for  m  the  last  chapter 
"EncycUcal  Letter"  (1813);  "Inquisition.  A  letter  of  hia  life  of  Lanfrano  he  relates  something  wMcE  he 
toSir  John  Cox  ffipplsley"  (1816);  "Humble  Remon-  himself  heaid  St,  Anselm  say.  As  St.  Anselm  died  in 
strBQce  to  House  of  Commons"  (1816);  "Memoir  of  l"^.  •""*  Letardus  did  not  die  till  1149,  Milo  Crispin 
Bishop  Homyold"  (Directory,  1818);  "End  of  Re-  showa  here  incidentally  that  his  own  religious  life  had 
lipous  Controvermr"  (18181;  "Supplementary  Mem-  lasted  more  than  forty  years.  He  came  of  the  noble 
o5s  of  Fngliih  Catholics''  (1820,  and  "Additional  r«»  "^  Crispin  descended  from  the  Neuatrian,  Gisle- 
NoteBto"inl821);  "Devotion  to  the  Sacred  Heart"  bert,whofirstreceived  thenameCrispinbecauseof  his 
(1821);  "Vindication  of  the  End  of  Controversy"  erect  curly  hair.  All  Gislebert's  sons  distinguished 
(1822);  "Eipoeer  exposed "  (1824);  "Parting  Word  themselvea,  and  the  family  proved  generous  bene- 

■  - "-  '"•-I"'! 'lon-^      rn. 1_.^  !■_.  __^  TT__  factors  to  the  Abbey  of  Bee.    Two  of  his  descendants 

I  subsequently  became    monks  there — Gilbert,   after- 
wards Abbot  of  Westminster,  who  wrote  the  life  of  St. 

•  Herluin,  founder  and  first  Abbot  of  Bee,  and  Milo 

'  himself-     No  details  of  the  latter's  career  hare  been 
preserved,  nor  is  it  known  when  he  died. 

I  FABHtcinB,  BiblMluea   Latina  mid.  aiatit,  V    (Hunburs, 

I  1736):    SEViBTiiit,    Did.    PaUoL   III    (Pari*.  I8m),  1343-1; 

1  Hardt,  Dttcriplive  tat^oma  of  doaimmtt  iUuitratuu  BriluS 

I  HiMoTV  (LoBdon.  1862-711!   MroNi,  P.  t.,  CL  {Puu,  1880); 
714;    HDHTKB,  NomtnebOoT  Uunnut,  H  (Luubruck,  189B), 

I  108. 

DBBRAAU    riAiu).  EoWIK  BUHTON. 

BUtiur,  RaIiPK,  Vkniibablx,  layman  and  martyr,  2Dlapot«moB,  a  titular  see  of  Crete,  suffragan  of 

b  at  Flaosted,  Hants,  England,  early  in  the  sixteenth  Candia.    Certain  historians  and  geographers  identify 

century;   suffered  at  Winchester,  7  July,  1591.     The  tUslocalitywiththe  oncientPantomatnonmentioned 

greaterportofbislifewaeprobablypassedinhisnative  by  Stephanus  of  Bysantium  by  Ptolemy  (III,  xv, 

village,  where,  being  practically  illiterate,  he  sup[>orted  5),  who  piacea  it  betwe«i  RhetJiymnoB  and  the  promon- 

his  wife  and  ei^t  children  by  manual  labour.    He  tory  of  Dium,  and  by  Pliny  ^V,  xx,  3),  who  places 

was  brought  up  an  Anglican,  but,  struck  by  the  it  elsewhere.    If  Hilopotamoe  is  identical  with  Avlo- 

contiaat  between  the  lives  of  Catholics  and  Protes-  potamos,  this  Greek  see  is  alluded  to  for  the  first  time 

t«nts  of  hia  acquaintance,  he  determined  to  embraoe  towards   1170   (Parth^,    "Hietoelis  Synecdemus", 

the  old  religion,  and,  after  the  uaual  course  of  instruo-  118);it  is  spoken  of  again  in  another  undated  "Notitia 

tioo,  was  received  into  the  Church.    On  the  very  day  episcopatuum"    (Gelier,   "Ungedruckte  .  .  .  Texts 

of  his  first  C'ommunioD,  however,  he  was  arrested  for  derNotitiffiepiaoop. ",  627).    As  to  the  Latin  resident 

ehanpng  his  leligioQ  and  committed  to  Winchester  tial  see,  its  first  titular,  Matthew,  is  mentioned  about 

jail.    Here  bis  good  behaviour  during  the  years  of  his  1212,  shortly  after  the  conquest  of  thp  island  bv  the 

rniprisonmeut  won  him  the  jailer's  nmfidenoe  to  such  Venetians.    From  1533  to  1549  the  Diooese  of  Cher- 


lOLTIADKS 


318 


lOLTIZ 


onesus  was  Joined  to  it ;  on  the  other  hand,  in  1641,  the 

Diooese  of  Milopotamos  was  united  with  Rhethymnos 

and  after  the  conquest  of  the  island  by  the  Turks  in 

1670,  became  merely  titular.    We  know  the  names  of 

about  twenty  residential  Latin  bishops.    Among  the 

schismatic  Greeks  the  See  of  Aulopotamos  is  united 

with  that  of  Rhethymnos.    The  rums  of  the  city  may 

be  seen  along  the  seanshore  at  Castel  Mylopotamo, 

about  twelve  miles  from  Rhethymnos. 

Lb  Quien,  Oriens  ehriatiantu.  III,  93&-038;  Cornbuub, 
Creta  aaera,  II  (Venioe,  1765),  173-180;  Qaub,  Series  epieco- 
porum,40Qi  Eubbl,  Hterarchia  catholica  tnedii  avi,  1, 367;  II, 
212;  in,  261. 

8.  Vailh6. 

Miltiades,  Saint,  Pope. — The  year  of  his  birth  is  not 
known;  he  was  elected  pope  in  either  310  or  311 ;  died 
10  or  1 1  January,  314.  After  the  banishment  of  Pope 
Eusebius  (q.  v.)  the  Roman  See  was  vacant  for  some 
time,  probably  because  of  the  complications  which 
had  arisen  on  account  of  the  apostates  {lapsi),  and 
which  were  not  cleared  up  by  the  banishment  of 
Eusebius  and  Heraclius.  On  2  July,  310  or  311, 
Miltiades  (the  name  is  also  written  MelchiadesV  a 
native  of  Africa,  was  elevated  to  the  papacy.  There 
is  some  imcertainty  as  to  the  exact  year,  as  the  **  Li- 
berian  Catalogue  of  the  Popes"  (Duchesne,  "Liber 
Pontificalis",  I,  9)  gives  2  July,  311.  as  the  date  of 
the  consecration  of  the  new  pope  (ex  die  VI  non. 
iul.  a  cons.  Maximiliano  VIII  solo,  <}uod  fuit  mense 
septembri  Volusiano  et  Rufino) ;  but  m  contradiction 
to  this  the  death  of  the  pope  is  said  to  have  occurred 
on  2  January.  314,  and  tne  duration  of  the  pontificate 
is  given  as  three  years,  six  months  and  eight  days; 
possiblv  owing  to  the  mistake  of  a  copyist,  we  ought 
to  reaa  "ann.  II"  instead  of  "ann.  Ill";  and  there- 
fore the  year  of  his  elevation  to  the  papacy  was  most 
probably  311.  About  this  time  (311  or  310),  an  edict 
of  toleration  signed  by  the  Emperors  Galerius,  Licinius, 
and  Constantine,  put  an  end  to  the  great  persecution 
of  the  Christians,  and  they  were  permittea  to  live  as 
such,  and  also  to  reconstruct  their  places  of  religious 
worship  (Eusebius,  "Hist.  Eccl.",  VIII,  xvii;  Lactan- 
tius,  "De  mortibus  persecutorum",  xxxiv).  Only  in 
those  countries  of  the  Orient  which  were  imder  the 
sway  of  Maximinus  Daia  did  the  Christians  continue 
to  lie  persecuted.  The  emperor  now  gave  Pope  Mil- 
tiades in  Rome  the  right  to  receive  back,  through  the 
prefect  of  the  city,  all  ecclesiastical  buildings  and  pos- 
sessions which  had  been  confiscated  during  the  per- 
secutions. The  two  Roman  deacons,  Strato  and 
Cassianus,  were  ordered  by  the  pope  to  discuss  this 
matter  with  the  prefect,  and  to  take  over  the  church 
properties  (Au^ustinus,  "Breviculus  collationis  cum 
Donatistis",  iii,  34);  it  thus  became  possible  to  re- 
organize thoroughly  the  ecclesiastical  administration 
and  the  religious  life  of  the  Christians  in  Rome. 

Miltiades  caused  the  remains  of  his  predecessor, 
Eusebius,  to  be  brought  back  from  Sicily  to  Rome, 
and  had  them  interred  in  a  crsrpt  in  the  Catacombs 
of  St.  Callistus.  In  the  followixie  year  the  pope 
witnessed  the  final  triumph  of  the  Cross,  through  the 
defeat  of  Maxentius,  and  the  entry  into  Rome  of  the 
Emperor  Constantine  (now  converted  to  Christianity), 
after  the  victorv  at  the  MUvian  Bridge  (27  October, 
312).  Later  the  emperor  presentea  the  Roman 
Church  with  the  Lateran  Palace,  which  then  became 
the  residence  of  the  pope,  and  consequently  also  the 
seat  of  the  central  aolninistration  of  the  Roman 
Church.  The  basilica  which  adjoined  the  palace  or 
was  afterwards  built  there  became  the  principal 
church  of  Rome.  In  313  the  Donatists  (q.  v.)  came 
to  Constantine  with  a  request  to  nominate  bishops 
from  Gaul  as  judges  in  the  controversy  of  the  African 
episcopate  regarding  the  consecration  in  Carthage  of 
the  two  bishops,  Csecilian  and  Majorinus.  Constan- 
tine wrote  about  this  to  Miltiades,  and  also  to  Marcus, 
requesting  the  pope  with  three  bishops  from  Gaul  to 


give  a  hearing  in  Rome,  to  Csecilian  and  his  opponent, 
and  to  decide  the  case.  On  2  October,  313,  there  as- 
sembled in  the  Lateran  Palace,  tmder  the  presidency 
of  Miltiades,  a  synod  of  eighteen  bishops  from  Gaul 
and  Italy,  which,  after  thoroughly  considering  the 
Donatist  controversv  for  three  days,  decided  in  favour 
of  Csecilian,  whose  election  and  consecration  as  Bishop 
of  Carthage  was  declared  to  be  legitimate.  In  the 
biography  of  Miltiades,  in  the  "Liher  Pontificalis ". 
it  is  stated  that  at  that  time  Msuiichseans  were  found 
in  Rome;  this  was  quite  possible  as  Manichseism 
begsm  to  spread  in  the  West  in  the  fourth  century. 
The  same  source  attributes  to  this  pope  a  decree  which 
absolutely  forbade  the  Christians  to  fast  on  Sundays 
or  on  Thursdays,  "because  these  days  were  observed 
by  the  heathen  as  a  holy  fast".  This  reason  is  re- 
markable ;  it  comes  most  likely  from  the  author  of  the 
"Liber  Pontificalis"  who  with  this  alleged  decree 
traces  back  a  Roman  custom  of  his  own  time  to  an  or- 
dinance of  Miltiades.  The  "Liber  Pontificalis"  is 
probably  no  less  arbitrary  in  crediting  this  pope  with  a 
decree  to  the  effect  that  the  Oblation  consecrated  at 
the  Solemn  Mass  of  the  pope  (by  which  is  meant  the 
Eucharistic  Bread)  should  be  taken  to  the  different 
churches  of  Rome.  Such  a  custom  actually  existed  in 
Rome  (Duchesne,  "Christian  Worship,"  London,  1903, 
185) ;  but  there  is  nothing  definite  to  show  that  it  was 
introduced  by  Miltiades,  as  the  "Liber  Pontificalis" 
asserts. 

After  his  death,  on  10  or  11  January  (the  "  Liberian 
Catalogue"  gives  it  as  III  id.  Jan.;  the  "Depositio 
Episcoporum"  as  IIII  id.  ian.),  314,  Miltiades  was  laid 
to  rest  in  the  Catacomb  of  St.  Callistus  and  he  was 
venerated  as  a  saint.  De  Rossi  regards  as  highly 
probable  his  location  of  this  pope's  burial-chamber 
(Roma  Sotterranea,  II,  188  sq.).  His  feast  was  cele- 
brated in  the  fourth  century,  on  10  January,  according  to 
the  "  Martyrologium  Hieronymianum  ".  In  the  present 
"Roman  Martyrology"  it  occurs  on  10  Decemoer. 

Liber  PontifiaUiet  ed.  Duchesne,  I,  168-196:  Urbaik.  J!?tfi 
Martyrologium  der  ehrisU.  Oemeinde  gu  Rom  (Leipzig,  1901), 
118-119;    Langbn,    Oeschichte  der  rOmisehen  Kirehe,   I,  328 

Siq.;  AiXARD,  Histoiredeaper8ictUum»ty f 200,203;  Ducbksnb, 
ietoire  ancimne  do  VEgliee,  II,  96,  97,  110-112. 

J.  P.  KiBBCH. 

Miltii,  Karl  von,  papal  chamberlain  suid  nuncio, 
b.  about  1480,  the  son  of  oigismund  von  Miltix, "  Land- 
vo^"  of  Meissen,  drowns  in  the  Main  near  Gross 
Steinheim,  20  November,  1529.  He  received  his 
humanistic  and  theological  education  at  Mains, 
Trier,  and  Meissen  and  went  to  Rome  in  1514  or  1515, 
where  he  was  made  papal  chamberlain  and  notary, 
and  acted  as  agent  of  Frederic,  Elector  of  Saxony. 
and  of  Duke  Geoige  the  Bearded.  He  obtained 
for  the  latter  the  permission  to  transport  some  of 
the  earth  of  the  Campo  Santo  in  Rome,  which  orig- 
inally had  been  brought  from  Jerusalem,  to  Anna- 
berg,  Saxony,  where  it  was  used  in  the  cemetery. 
After  the  endeavours  of  Cardinal  Cajetan  to  silence 
Luther  had  failed,  Miltiz  appeared  to  be  the  person 
most  suited  to  bring  the  negotiations  to  a  successful 
ending.  To  have  some  pretence  for  the  journey  to 
Germany,  he  was  to  deliver  to  his  elector  the  papal 
golden  rose,  which  the  latter  had  coveted  in  vam  for 
three  years.  He  went  first  to  Altenbuig  where  he  bad 
his  first  conversation  with  Luther.  Living  aside  all 
discussion  of  a  promise  of  retraction,  he  and  Luther 
agreed  to  remain  silent  for  the  present,  and  to  let  the 
learned  Archbishop  Richard  of  Trier  conduct  the 
examination.  Luther  even  promised  to  write  an 
humble  letter  to  the  pope.  Miltiz  then  journeyed  to 
Leipzig  and  covered  Tetzel  with  mortifying,  wholly 
unnecessary  reproaches.  But  the  movement  started 
and  fanned  by  Luther,  had  progressed  too  far  to  be 
halted  by  mere  conclaves  and  conversations,  and  for 
this  reason  two  further  meetings  between  Luther  and 
Miltiz  at  Liebenwerda  (9  Oct.,  1519)  and  Licbt«nbuig 


MILWAUKEE 


319 


lOLWAUKEE 


COetwy  1 520)  were  without  success.  After  a  short  stay 
fci  Rome  he  returned  to  Germany  in  1522,  where  he 
died.    He  was  buried  in  the  cathedral  of  Mainz. 

SuDKiCAinr,  Karl  von  M^iz,  eine  chronoloffische  Unterauchimq 
(Dresden,  1844) ;  Creutzberg,  Karl  von  MtUiz,  sein  L^>en  una 
amn^o^tddehiUcKe  Bedeutung  (Freiburg.  1907). 

Patricius  Schlaqbr. 

Milwaukee,  Abchdigcese  of  (Milwaukiensis), 
established  as  a  diocese,  28  Nov.,  1843;  became  an 
archbishopric,  12  February,  1875,  comprises  seventeen 
counties  of  the  State  of  Wisconsm:  Columbia,  Dane, 
Dodge,  Fond  du  Lac,  Green,  Green  Lake,  JefTerson, 
Kenosha,  Marquette,  Milwaukee,  Ozaukee,  Racine, 
Rock,  Sheboygan,  Walworth,  Washington,  Waukesha, 
an  area  of  9321  square  miles.  The  metropolitan  city 
of  Milwaukee  is  picturesquely  situated  on  Milwaukee 
Bay,  on  the  eastern  shore  of  Lake  Michigan.  Its  name 
IS  derived  from  the  Algonquin  famil3r  of  Indian  dia- 
lects and  means  Good  Landf.  In  the  history  of  Catho- 
licism it  is  first  mentioned  in  the  "  Catholic  Almanac  " 
of  1840:  "  Milvakie,  Rev.  Mr.  Kelly  who  visits  alter- 
nately Racine,  Rochester,  Burlmgton,  Southpost 
(Kenosha),  etc."  The  first  Mass,  however,  was  cele- 
brated in  Milwaukee  as  early  as  1837  by  Rev.  J. 
Bonduel.  a  missionary  from  Green  Bay,  in  the  home 
of  the  "  founder  of  Milwaukee  ".  Solomon  Juneau.  In 
the  same  ^ar  Rev.  Patrick  Keller  came  to  the  city  and 
held  services  in  the  court-house  till,  in  1S39,  he  erected 
the  first  Catholic  church,  dedicated  to  St.  Peter,  for 
several  years  the  bishop  s  cathedral.  It  was  after- 
wanis  removed  to  its  present  site  near  St.  Peter  and 
Paul's  Church  by  Mgr.  Leonard  Batz,  V.  G.  North- 
west territory,  of  which  the  present  State  of  Wisconsin 
forms  a  part,  belonged  to  tne  Diocese  of  Quebec  and 
afterwards  to  Bardstown,  Ky.,  till  it  was  affiliated  to 
the  newly  created  See  of  Cincinnati  in  1821.  In  1833, 
when  Detroit  was  made  a  see,  it  became  a  dependency 
Off  that  see.  It  was  in  1841  that  the  first  bishop  visited 
Milwaukee  in  the  person  of  Rt.  Rev.  P.  Lefevre  of 
Detroit,  accompamed  by  one  of  his  zealous  priests, 
Rev.  Martin  Kundig,  later  vicar-general,  whose  name 
is  inseparably  linked  with  the  early  histoxy  and  subse- 
Guent  growth  of  the  diocese.  In  1843,  the  Fathers  of 
tne  Fifth  Provincial  Council  of  Baltimore  petitioned 
the  Holy  See  to  make  Milwaukee  a  see  and  to  appoint 
the  Rev.  John  Martin  Henni  as  its  first  bishop. 

Episcopal  Succession, — John  Martin  Henni,  ^  first 
Bishop  ot  Bfilwaukee,  was  bom  at  Obersaxen,  Switzer- 
land, 13  June,  1805.  He  studied  philosopliy  and  the- 
olo^  in  Rome,  where  he  met  the  Very  Rev.  Frederic 
R4£,  Vicar-General  of  Cincinnati  (later  Bishop  of 
Detroit),  who  had  come  there  in  quest  of  priests  for 
the  American  missions.  Together  with  hie  fellow- 
student  M.  Kundig,  he  landed  in  New  York,  In  1828. 
Having  been  ordioned  priest  at  Cincinnati,  2  Feb., 
1829,  be  laboured  with  tne  zeal  and  enthusiasm  oi  an 
apostle  for  the  scattered  Catholics  of  Ohio,  traversing 
tne  state  in  all  directions,  baptizing,  preaching,  and 
building  churches.    Later  on  he  was  appointed  vicar- 

fneral  of  the  diocese  and  pastor  of  the  church  of  the 
olv  Trinity.  He  also  was  the  founder  of  the  Catholic 
weekly, "  Der  Wahrheitsf reund  **,  for  some  time  the  only 
German  Catholic  papier  in  the  United  States.  On 
19  March,  1844,  Henni  was  consecrated  Bishop  of  Mil- 
waukee by  Bishop  Purcell  of  Cincinnati,  and  soon  after 
started  for  his  new  field  of  labour.  He  came  accom- 
panied by  the  Rev.  Michael  Heiss,  who  for  some  time 
acted  as  his  secretary.  The  prospects  of  the  new  dio- 
cese were  far  from  encouraging.  He  found  only  four 
priests  in  the  whole  extent  of  his  diocese,  a  few  Catho- 
ties  scattered  over  the  territory,  and  .a  small  frame 
ehurch  encumbered  with  a  heavy  debt.  But  un- 
daunted by  these  difficulties  the  youthful  bishop  set 
to  work  with  apostolic  zeal,  and,  thanks  to  his  untiring 
efforte,  the  number  of  Catholics,  mostly  immigrants 
from  Germany  and  Ireland,  increased  from  year  to 
Year,  so  that  after  three  years  the  number  of  priests 


had  risea  rrom  four  to  thirty.  But  a  rich  share  of  this 
phenomenal  progress  is  due  to  the  arduous  labours  and 
sacrificing  spirit  of  his  priests,  the  pioneers  of  the 
North-west,  men  like  MazucheUi,  the  founder  of  Sin- 
sinawa,  Morrissey,  C.  Rehrl.  Wisbauer,  Beitter,  Inama, 
Gaertner,  Gembauer,  Holznauer,  Conrad,  and  others. 

In  1847  there  arrived  from  Austria  Dr.  Joseph  Salz- 
mann,  founder  of  St.  Francis  Seminary  ^Salesianum). 
In  the  same  year  Henni  laid  the  foundation  of  his  new 
cathedral,  dedicated  to  St.  John  the  Evangelist.  To 
raise  funds  for  the  building,  he  made  extensive  jour- 
neys to  Cuba  and  Mexico.  The  cathedral  was  conse- 
crated by  Archbishop  (afterwards  Cardinal)  Bedini, 
31  July,  1853.  Owing  to  the  large  influx  of  Germans 
at  that  time,  St.  Mary's  church,  for  the  spiritual  wants 
of  the  German  Catholics,  was  erected  in  1846.  In  the 
same  year  the  first  hospital  was  opened  under  Catholic 
auspices  in  charge  of  tne  Sisters  of  Charity  of  St.  Vin- 
cent de  Paul.  In  1856  the  Seminary  of  St.  Francis  of 
Sales,  destined  to  become  the  fertile  nursery  of  priests 
for  the  North-west,  was  erected  and  in  the  course  of 
years  became  one  of  the  most  flourishing  institutions 
of  the  country.  Its  first  rector  was  the  Rev.  Michael 
Heiss,  while  its  founder,  the  Rev.  Dr.  Salzmann,  acted 
as  procurator.  On  the  elevation  of  Father  Heiss  to  the 
episcopal  dignity,  Salzmann  was  appomted  his  suo- 
cessor,  a  position  which  he  held  to  the  time  of  his 
death  which  occurred  17  January,  1874.  Salzmann 
was  also  the  founder  of  the  first  Catholic  normal 
school  in  the  United  States  and  of  the  Pio  Nono  Col- 
lege. Both  institutions  were  opened  in  1871,  and  have 
to  this  day  faithfully  carried  out  the  intentions  of  their 
founder.  In  1866  two  new  dioceses  were  established 
in  Wisconsin  with  episcopal  sees  in  La  Crosse  and 
Green  Bay.  In  1875  Milwaukee  was  made  an  arch- 
episcopal  see,  with  Mgr.  Henni  as  first  archbishop. 
During  the  last  years  oi  his  administration  his  burden 
was  considerably  lightened  by  the  appointment  of  Rt. 
Rev.  M.  Heiss  as  coadjutor,  with  the  right  of  succes- 
sion, and  titular  Archbishop  of  Adrianople.  Arch- 
bishop Henni  who  is  rightly  called  the  Patriarch  of  the 
North-west,  was  called  to  his  reward  7  Sept.,  1881. 

Michael  Heiss  was  bom  at  Pfahldorf,  Bavaria,  12 
April,  1818.  Having  finished  his  theological  studies  at 
the  famous  University  of  Munich,^  he  spent  l^e  first 
two  years  of  his  priesthood  in  ms  home  diocese  of 
Eichst^tt^  and  then  offered  his  services  to  the  Amer- 
ican mission.  He  first  had  charge  of  St.  Mary's  church 
in  Covington,  Ky.,  where  he  remained  till  1844,  when 
he  consented  to  accompany  Bishop  Henni  of  Milwau- 
kee to  his  new  see.  Having  filled  tne  office  of  secretaiy 
for  some  years,  he  was  appointed  pastor  of  St.  Mary's 
church,  Milwaukee.  In  1856  he  was  appointed  first 
rector  of  St.  Francis  Seminary,  an  office  which  he  held 
till  his  elevation  to  the  episcopal  dignity  as  first  Bishop 
of  La^  Crosse,  in  1868.  On  the  death  of  Archbishop 
Hennij  in  1881,  he  succeeded  him  as  archbishop. 
Archbishop  Heiss  was  known  and  esteemed  as  one  of 
the  most  learned  theologians  of  the  country,  a  reputa- 
tion which  secured  to  him  a  place  among  the  members 
of  the  dogmatic  commission  at  the  Vatican  Council. 
His  works  "De  Matrimonio"  (Munich,  1861)  and 
"The  Four  Gospels  Examined  and  Vindicated"  (Mil- 
waukee, 1863),  nold  a  prominent  place  in  theological 
literature.    In  1883  he  was  invited  to  Rome  to  take 

Part  in  the  deliberations  preparatory  to  the  Third 
lenary  Council  of  Baltimore,  which  he  also  attended 
in  1884.  In  1886  he  convoked  the  First  Provincial 
Council  of  Milwaukee,  which  opened  its  sessions  on  23 
May,  in  St.  John's  cathedral.  Bishops  Flasch  of  La 
Crosse,  Ireland  of  St.  Paul,  Seidenbusch  of  St.  Cloud, 
Marty,  Vicar  Apostolic  of  Dakota,  and  Katzer,  admin- 
istrator of  Green  Bay,  took  part  in  its  deliberations. 

During  the  last  years  of  Archbishop  Heiss's  wise  and 
peaceful  administration,  the  ecclesiastical  horizon  was 
somewhat  darkened  by  the  plot  of  the  American  Pro- 
tective Association,  a  new  phase  of  defunct  Know^ 


MILWAUKEE                            320  lOLWAUXBE 

nothingjsm  (q.  v.).  In  their  bisotry  and  hatred  of  lonciiur  to  rdkious  orders  ought  not  to  be  forgotten, 
eveiything  Cathoko.  they  aimed  their  first  blovr  at  the  In  1867  the  &st  Capuchin  convent  was  erected  at 
Catholic  schools  by  tne  "Bennett  Law",  which  seriously  Mount  Calvary,  Wisconsin.  It  has  been  asserted,  not 
interfered  with  the  rights  of  Catholic  parents.  But  the  without  reason,  that  the  foundation  of  the  Calvary 
timely  and  imited  action  of  the  bishops'of  Wisconsin^  Province  is  a  fact  unprecedented  in  the  history  of  the 
and  their  vigorous  protest,  by  whicn  they  branded  Catholic  Church  in  tms  countrv,  in  as  far  as  the  order 
the  bill  as  "  unnecessary,  offensive,  and  unjust",  effeo-  of  Capuchins  was  introduced  mto  Wisconsin,  not  by 
tively  defeated  the  imquitous  scheme.  In  1888  the  religious,  but  by  two  secular  priests.  Rev.  Francis 
Diocese  of  St.  Paul  was  separated  from  Milwaukee  and  Haas  and  Rev.  Bonaventure  Frev.  The  opposition 
made  an  archbishopric.  Three  suffragan  sees  were  which  they  met  on  all  sides,  the  trials  which  tney  had 
thenceforth  subject  to  Milwaukee:  I^  Crosse  and  to  endure,  and  the  undaunted  courage  with  which 
Green  Bay  in  the  State  of  Wisconsin  and  Marquette  they  met  them,  border  on  the  miracmous.  To-day 
in  Upper  Michigan.  The  Diocese  of  Superior  was  added  the  order  possesses  a  flourishing  community  with  con- 
in  1905.  Archbishop  Heiss  died  at  St.  Francis  Hospi-  vent  and  college  at  Calvary,  a  convent  and  two  par- 
tal,  La  Crosse.  26  March,  1890.  His  mortal  remama  ishes  in  Milwaukee,  not  to  speak  of  the  numerous  reli- 
rest  beneath  tne  sanctuanr  of  the  seminary  chapel  at  gious  houses  and  communities  in  other  dioceses.  The 
8t.  Francis,  at  the  side  of  his  faithful  friend  and  co-  Society  of  Jesus  was  established  in  Milwaukee  in  1856, 
labourer,  Joseph  Salzmann.  and  St.  Gall's  church,  erected  in  1849,  was  placed  in 

Frederic  XavierKatzer  was  bom  at  Ebensee,  Upper  charge  of  the  Society.    In  1880  the  Jesmt  coUege 

Austria,  7  February,  1844.    His  preparatory  studies  known  as  Marauette  College  was  opened,  and  has 

he  completed  at  Linz,  the  capital  of  Upper  Austria,  lately  developea  into  the  flourishing  Marquette  Uni- 

under  tne  direction  of  the  Jesmt  Fathers.   He  came  to  versitv.    The  Jesuits  also  have  charge  or  the  Gestl 

America  in  1864.     Having  finished  his  theological  chiuch,  one  of  tiie  finest  religious  edifices  in  the  North* 

studies  at  the  Salesianum,  ne  was  ordained  priest  21  west.    The  Fathers  of  the  Holy  Croes  conduct  the 

December,  1866.   After  his  ordination  he  remained  at  College  of  the  Sacred  Heart  at  Watertown ;  the  Sravite 

the  seminary  where  he  taught  mathematics  and,  later  Fathers,  a  monastery  and  novitiate  at  Granville  Cetx^ 

on,  philosophv  and  dogmatic  theology.    In  1875  he  ter;  ana  the  Discalced  Carmelites,  lately  arrived  from 

followed  f>.  Krautbauer,  the  newly  appointed  Bishop  Ratisbon,  Bavaria,  attend  to  the  chapel  on  "Holy 

of  Green  Bay,  to  his  see,  where  he  acted  as  secretary.  HiU".  a  well  known  place  of  pilgrim^, 

and  afterwards  as  vicar-general.    Upon  the  death  of  Orders  of  Women. — ^The  School  Sisters  of  Notre 

Bi^op  Krautbauer,  in  1885,  he  was  appointed  admin-  Dame  came  to  Milwaukee  in  1855,  on  the  invitation 

istrator  of  the  diocese;  and  on  31  May,  1886,  he  was  of  Bishop  Henni,  who  showed  hiniself  their  generous 

chosen  Bishop  of  Green  Bay  and  consecrated  in  St.  friend  and  protector,  especially  during  the  fint  years 

Francis  Xavier's  cathedral,  21  September  of  the  same  when  they  nad  to  stnmle  with  poverty  and  violent 

year.    After  the  dealii  of  Archbishop  Heiss  he  was  opposition.  To  Mother  Caroline^  who  brought  the  first 

promoted  to  the  archiepiscopal  dignity  as  third  Arch-  band  of  sisters  from  Munich  to  Milwaukee,  and  who  for 

bishop  of  Milwaukee  in  December,  1890.   Archbishop  forty-two  years  stood  at  the  hehn,  is  principally  due 

Katzer  was  a  man  of  profound  learning  and  a  thorougn  the  present  flourishing  condition  of  the  community, 

theologian.  His  poetical  talent  is  evidenced  by  an  alio-  The  sisters  have  their  mother-house  and  novitiate  m 

fforiciu  drama,  entitled  "  Der  Eampf  der  Gegenwart"  Milwaukee.    In  1876  the  conununity  was  divided  into 

(The  Combat  of  the  Present  Age) .  His  administration  two  provinces,  with  the  second  mother-house  in  Balti- 

was  marked  by  a  uniform  r^rd  for  justice  and  strict  more;  and  in  1895  a  third  province  was  formed  with  a 

adherence  to  tne  laws  of  the  Church.   He  died  at  Fond  mother-house  at  St.  Louis,  Mo.    The  Sisters  of  St. 

du  Lac,  4  Aiurust,  1903.  on  the  same  day  on  which  the  Francis  have  two  mother-houses  in  the  diocese,  one  at 

great  pontiff  Leo  XIII  oreathed  his  last.   His  earthly  St.  Francis,  where  they  built  their  firot  convent  in 

remains  found  their  last  resting  place  in  the  little  cem-  1847,  near  tne  present  site  of  St.  Frands  Seminary,  the 

etery  near  the  "  chapel  in  the  woods  "  at  St.  Francis.  other  in  Milwaukee  (St.  Joseph's  Convent  and  the  S»- 

Sebastian  Crebhard  Messmer  was  bom  at  Goldach,  cred  Heart  Sanatorium).  The  Sisters  of  St.  Agnes  have 
Switzerland,  29  August,  1847.  Having  finished  his  their  mother-house  at  Fond  du  Lac,  where  they  also 
theological  studies  at  the  University  of  Innsbruck  he  have  charge  of  a  hospital,  a  home  for  the  ased,  and  an 
was  ordcdned  priest  in  the  same  city,  23  July.  1871.  academy.  The  Sisters  of  St.  Dominic  nave  their 
In  the  same  year  he  came  to  the  United  States,  where  he  mother-nouse  at  Racine,  and  an  academy  at  Corliss, 
joined  ^e  Diocese  of  Newark.  For  several  years  he  The  sisters  of  these  communities  teach  in  the  numer- 
taught  canon  law.  Scripture,  and  dogmatic  theology  in  ous  parochial  schools  of  Wisconsin  and  other  states. 
Seton  Hall.  For  a  short  time  he  cuso  had  charge  of  The  Sisters  of  Mercy,  too,  have  a  mother-house  in 
8t.  Peter's,  Newark,  N.  J.  In  1889  he  was  called  to  the  Milwaukee.  Other  communities  which  have  no 
chair  of  canon  law  in  the  Catholic  University  at  Wash-  mother-house  in  the  diocese,  but  are  in  charge  of  some 
ington,  but  first  went  to  Ronoe  to  study  Roman  civil  charitable  or  educational  establishment  are:  the  Sis- 
law.  After  his  return  he  entered  upon  his  duties  as  ters  of  Charity  of  St.  Vincent  of  Pkul,  Sisters  of  Char- 
professor  and  kept  this  position  till  his  elevation  to  the  ity  of  the  Blessed  Virgin  Mary,  Franciscan  Sisters  of 
episcopaJ  dignity.  On  27  March,  1892,  he  was  conse-  St.  Louis,  Mo.,  Polish  Sisters  of  St.  Joseph,  Hospital 
crated  Bishop  of  Green  Bay  in  St.  Peter's  Chiuch.  Sistersof  St.  Francis,  Little  Sisters  of  the  Poor,  Society 
Newark,  by  his  former  classmate,  Bi^op  Zardetti  of  of  the  Divine  Saviour,  Dominican  Sisters  of  the  Per* 
St.  Ooud.  On  the  death  of  Archbishop  lutzer  he  sue-  petual  Rosary,  Sisters  of  the  Third  Order  of  St.  Dom- 
ceeded  him  as  archbishop,  28  November,  1903.  Arch-  mio  (Sinsinawa),  Sisters  of  the  (xood  Shepherd,  Feli- 
bishop  Messmer  is  honourably  known  as  a  very  able  dan  Sisters,  and  Sisters  de  Misericorde. 
and  prolific  contributor  to  Catholic  literature,  and  his  StaHsHcM.— The  official  rei>orts  for  1910  give  the 
name  is  intimately  linked  with  the  principal  religious  following  figures:  There  are  in  the  ardidioceae  377 
movements  in  the  country.  Together  with  Bishop  priests  (303  secular  and  74  regulars).  The  city  of  Mil- 
McFaul  of  Trenton  he  has  been  chiefly  instrumental  waukee  counts  38  churches;  outside  of  Milwaukee 
in  inaugurating  the  American  Federation  of  Catholic  there  are  169.  Besides  there  are  65  mission  diurehes 
Societies.  without  a  resident  priest  and  41  chapels.    In  the  aemi- 

Rdigioua  Orders  in  the  Dioceee.— Orders  of  Men. —  nary  of  St.  Francis  de  Sales  there  are  160  students  of 

The  rapid,  almost  miraculous  growth  of  Catholicism  philosophy  and  theology  studyinff  for  the  di£Ferentdio- 

in  the  State  of  Wisconsin  is  chiefly  due  to  the  apostolic  ceses  of  the  province  and  other  cuoceses.   There  is  one 

seal  of  the  pioneer  priests  of  the  secular  pri^thood;  university,  one  Catholic  normal  school,  and  five  ool- 

but  the  labours  and  trials  of  the  early  misaionaries  be-  l^ies  witii  770  students;    six  academies  for  young 


MIND 


321 


ladifls;  142  parish  schools  with  33,279  pupils,  four 

orphan  asylums  with  401  orphans,  one  iniknt  asylum, 

one  industrial  school  for  girts,  one  deaf-mute  asylum, 

one  home  for  boys,  one  Bonool  for  feeble-minded,  nine 

hospitals  and  sanatoriums,  two  homes  for  aeed  poor, 

ana  one  home  for  girls.    The  Catholic  popmation  of 

the  archdiocese  is  estimated  at  about  238,000. 

Thm  Metropolitan  Catholic  Almanac  and  Laity* b  DirecUny 
CBaltimoxe);  Wxltsxus.  Catholic  Directory  (Milwaukee);  The 
CathoUe  Churdi  in  Wiaconnn  (Milwaukee,  1896);  Memoir*  of 
MHwattkot  Countu  (Madison,  1909);  Marty.  Johann  Martin 
Henni,  enUr  Biaehojvnd  ErsUnachoJ von  Miltcattkee  (New  York, 
1888) ;  Rainbr,  A  Noble  Priest.  Joseph  Salzmann^  Founder  of 
the  Sateaianumi  tr.  from  the  Oennan  by  Bbro  (Milwaukee* 
19C0);  Abbeubn,  Die  Bhrtnterdige  Mutter  Caroline  Fries  (St. 
LcMiia,  1892). 

J.  Rainbb. 

BGnd  (Gk.  voOt;  Lat.  mena;  Ger.  0ei3t,  Seele;  Fr. 
Ame,  esprit). — The  word  mind  has  been  used  in  a 
variety  of  meanings  in  English,  and  we  find  a  similar 
want  of  fixity  in  the  connotation  of  the  corresponding 
terms  in  otner  languages.  Aristotle  tells  us  that 
Anaxagoras,  as  compared  with  other  early  Greek 
philosophers,  appeared  like  one  sober  among  drunken 
men  in  that  he  introduced  Mvt,  mind,  as  efficient 
cause  of  the  general  order  in  the  universe.  In  treating 
of  the  soul,  Aristotle  himself  identifies  ifoOs  with  the 
intellectual  faculty,  which  he  conceives  as  partly 
active,  partly  passive  (see  Intellect).  It  js  the 
thinlcifig  principle,  the  lushest  and  most  spiritual 
enei^gy  of  the  soul,  separable  from  the  body,  and  im- 
mortal. The  Latin  word,  menSf  was  employed  in  much 
the  same  sense.  St.  Thomas,  who  represents  the  gen- 
eral scholastic  usage,  derives  mens  from  metior  (to 
measure).  He  identifies  mens  with  the  human  soul 
viewed  as  intellectual  and  abstracting  from  lower  or- 
ganic faculties.  Angels,  orpure  spirits,  may  thus  be 
oflJled  minds  (De  Veritate,  A,  &•  1)  *  For  Descartes  the 
human  soul  is  simply  menSf  res  cogitanSf  mind.  It 
stands  in  complete  opposition  to  the  body  and  to 
matter  in  eeneral.  The  vegetative  faculties  all<3ltted 
to  tiie  soul  oy  Aristotle  and  the  Schoolmen  are  rejected 
by  him,  and  those  vital  functions  are  explained  by  him 
mechanically.  The  lower  animals  do  not  possess  minds 
in  any  sense;  they  are  for  him  mere  machines.  An 
early  usage  in  English  connects  the  word  mind  closely 
with  memory,  as  m  the  sentence  "  to  bear  in  mind  . 
A^in  it  has  been  associated  with  the  volitional  side  of 
our  nature,  as  in  the  phrases  "  to  mind  "  and  **  to  have 
a  mind  to  effect  something  ".  Still  when  restricted  to 
a  particular  faculty  the  general  tendency  has  been  to 
identify  mind  with  the  cognitive  and  more  especially 
with  the  intellectual  powers.  In  this  usa^e  it  more 
eloeely  corresponds  to  the  primary  meanmg  of  the 
Latin  mens,  understood  as  the  thinking  or  judging 
principle.  Mind  is  also  conceived  as  a  substantia 
being,  equivalent  to  the  scholastic  mens,  partly  identi- 
fied with,  partly  distinguished  from  the  soul.  If  we 
define  the  soul  as  the  principle  within  me,  by  which  I 
feel,  think,  wiU,  and  by  which  my  body  is  animated, 
we  may  provide  a  dennition  of  mind  of  fairly  wide 
acceptance  by  merely  omitting  the  last  clause.  That 
is,  in  this  usage  mind  designates  the  soul  as  the  source 
of  conscious  life,  feeling,  thought,  and  volition,  ab- 
straction being  made  from  the  vegetative  functions. 
On  the  other  hand  the  term  soul  emphasizes  the 
note  of  substantiality  and  the  property  of  animating 
principle. 

In  the  English  psychological  literature  of  the  last 
century  there  has  indeed  been  exhibited  a  most  re- 
markable timidity  in  regard  to  the  use  of  the  term 
"soul".  Whilst  in  (jierman  at  all  events  the  word 
Seele  has  been  in  general  acceptance  among  psycholo- 
gists, the  great  majority  of  Emglish  writers  on  mental 
fife  completely  shun  the  use  of  tne  corresponding  Eng- 
lish word,  as  seemingly  perilous  to  their  philosophical 
reputation.  Even  the  most  orthodox  repi^esentatives 
jf  the  Scotch  school  rigorously  boycottea  the  word,  so 
X.— 21 


that "  the  nature  and  attributes  of  the  Human  Mind  ", 
came  to  be  recognised  as  the  proper  designation  of  the 
subject-matter  of  psychology,  even  amongst  those  who 
believed  in  the  reality  of  an  immaterial  principle,  as 
the  source  of  man's  conscious  life.  However,  the 
spread  of  the  positivist  or  phenomenaUst  view  of  the 
science  of  psychology  has  resulted  in  a  very  widely 
adopted  identification  of  mind  merely  with  the  con- 
scious states,  ignoring  any  principle  or  subject  to 
which  these  states  belong.  Tne  mind  in  this  sense  is 
only  the  sum  of  the  conscious  processes  or  activities  of 
the  individual  with  their  special  modes  of  operating. 
This,  however,  is  a  quite  inadequate  conception  of  the 
mind.  It  may,  of  course,  be  convenient  and  quite 
legitimate  for  some  purposes  to  investigate  certain 
activities  or  operations  of  this  mind  or  soul,  without 
raising  the  ultimate  question  of  the  metaphysical 
nature  of  the  principle  or  substance  which  is  tne  basis 
and  source  of  these  phenomena;  and  it  may  also  serve 
as  a  useful  economy  of  language  to  employ  the  term 
mind,  merely  to  desimate  mental  life  as  a  stream  of 
consciousness.  But  the  adoption  of  this  phraseology 
must  not  cause  us  to  lose  sight  of  the  fact  that  along 
with  the  action  there  is  the  agent,  that  underlying  the 
forms  of  mental  behaviour  there  is  the  being  which 
behaves.  The  connexion  of  our  abidins  personal 
identity,  nay  the  simplest  exercise  of  self-conscious 
memory,  compels  us  to  acknowledge  the  reality  of  a 
permanent  prmciple,  the  subject  and  connecting  bond 
of  the  transitory  states.  Mind  adequately  conceived 
must  thus  be  held  to  include  the  subject  or  agent  along 
with  states  or  activities,  and  it  shomd  be  the  business 
of  a  complete  science  of  mind  to  investigate  both. 

AH  our  rational  knowledge  of  the  nature  of  the  mind 
must  be  derived  from  the  study  of  its  operations. 
Conseouently  metaphysical  or  rational  psychology 
lexically  follows  empirical  or  phenomenal  psychology. 
The  careful  observation,  description,  and  analysis  of 
the  activities  of  the  mind  lead  up  to  our  philosophical 
conclusions  as  to  the  inner  nature  of  the  subject  and 
the  source  of  those  activities.  The  chief  propositions 
in  regard  to  the  human  mind  viewed  as  a  substantial 
principle  which  Catholic  philosophers  claim  to  estab- 
lish by  the  light  of  reason  are,  its  abiding  unity,  its 
individuality,  its  freedom,  its  simplicity,  and  its  spirit- 
uality (see  Consciousness;  Individualitt;  Intei#- 
lbct;  Soul). 

Mind  and  Consciousness. — ^In  connexion  with  the 
investigation  of  our  mental  operations  there  arises  the 
question,  whether  these  are  to  be  deemed  coextensive 
with  consciousness.  Are  there  unconscious  mental 
processes?  The  problem  under  different  forms  has 
occupied  the  attention  of  philosophers  from  Leibnlts 
to  J.  S.  Mill,  whilst  in  recent  years  the  phenomena 
of  hypnotism,  "multiple  personality",  and  abnormal 
forms  of  mental  life  have  Drought  the  question  of  the 
relation  between  the  unconscious  and  the  conscious 
processes  in  the  human  organism  into  greater  promi* 
nence.  That  all  forms  of  mental  lite,  perception, 
thought,  feeling,  and  volition  are  profoundly  anected 
in  character  by  nervous  processes  and  by  vital  activi- 
ties, which  do  not  emerge  into  the  strata  of  conscious 
life,  seems  to  be  indisputably  established.  Whether, 
however,  imconscious  processes  which  affect  conclu- 
sions of  the  intellect  and  resolutions  of  the  will,  but 
are  in  themselves  quite  unconscious,  should  be  called 
mental  states,  or  conceived  as  acts  of  the  mind,  has 
been  keenly  disputed.  In  favour  of  the  doctrine  of 
unconscious  mental  processes  have  been  urged  the  fact 
that  many  of  our  oniinary  sensations  arise  out  of  an 
aggregate  of  impressions  mdividually  too  faint  to  be 
separately  perceivable,  the  fact  that  attention  may 
reveal  to  us  experiences  previously  unnoticed,  the  fact 
that  unobserved  trains  of  thought  may  result  in  sud- 
den reminiscences,  and  that  in  abnormal  mental  con- 
ditions hypnotized,  somnambulistic,  and  hysterical 
patients  often  accomplish  difficult  intellectual  feats 


MIND  322 

i^hflst  remaining  utterly  unaware  of  the  rational  inter-  find  unity  in  the  seeming  multiplicity  of  experience 

mediate  steps  leading  up  to  the  final  results.    On  the  has  led  many  thinkers  to  accept  a  monistic  explana- 

other  side  it  is  urgea  that  most  of  those  phenomena  tion,  in  which  the  apparent  duahty  of  mind  and  matter 

can  be  accounted  for  by  merely  subconscious  processes  is  reduced  to  a  single  underlying  principle  or  sub- 

which  escape  attention  and  are  foigotten;  or,  at  all  stratum.     Materialism  considers  matter  itself,  body, 

events,  by  unconscious  cerebration, — the  working  out  material  substance,  as  this  principle.  For  the  material- 

of  purely  physical  nervous  processes  without  any  con-  ist,  mind,  feelings,  thougnts,  and  volitions  are  but 

comitant  mental  state  till  the  final  cerebral  situation  "functions''  or  "'aspects    of  matter;  mental  life  is  an 

is  reached,  when  the  corresponding  mental  act  is  epiphenomenorit  a  by-product  in  the  working  of  the 

evoked.    The  dispute  is  probably,  at  least  in  part,  Universe,  which  can  in  no  v/ay  interfere  with  the 

grounded  on  differences  of  definition.    If,  however,  course  of  physical  chan^  or  modify  the  movement  of 

the  mind  be  identified  with  the  soul,  and  if  the  latter  any  particle  of  matter  m  the  world;  indeed,  in  strict 

be  allowed  to  be  the  principle  of  vegetative  life,  there  consistency  it  should  be  held  that  successive  mental 

can  be  no  valid  reason  for  denying  that  the  principle  acts  do  not  influence  or  condition  each  other,  but  that 

of  our  mental  life  may  be  also  the  subject  of  uncon-  thoughts  and  volitions  are  mere  incidental  appendages 

scious  activities.    But  if  we  confine  the  term  mind  to  of  certain  nerve  processes  in  the  brain;  and  these  lat- 

the  soul,  viewed  as  conscious,  or  as  the  subject  of  ter  are  determmed  exclusively  and  completely  by 

intellectual  operations,  then  by  definition  we  exclude  antecedent  material  processes.    In  other  words,  the 

imconscious  states  from  the  sphere  of  mind.     Still  materialistic  theory,  when  consistently  thought  out, 

whatever  terminolo^  we  may  find  it  convenient  to  leads  invariably  to  the  startling  conclusion  that  the 

adopt,  the  fact  remains,  that  our  most  purely  intellec-  human  mind  has  had  no  real  influence  on  the  history 

tual  operations  are  profoundly  influenced  by  changes  of  the  human  race, 

which  take  place  below  the  surface  of  consciousness.  On  the  other  hand,  the  idealistic  monist  denies  alto- 

ChtiQiN  OF  Mental  Life. — ^A  related  question  is  gether  the  existence  of  any  extra-mental,  independent 
that  of  the  simple  or  composite  character  of  conscious-  material  world.  So  far  from  mind  being  a  mere  aa- 
ness.  Is  mind,  or  conscious  life,  an  amalgam  or  prod-  pect  or  epipkenomenan  attached  to  matter,  the  mate- 
uct  of  imits  which  are  not  conscious?  One  response  is  rial  imiverse  is  a  creation  of  the  mind  and  entirely  de- 
offered  in  the  "mind-stuff"  or  "mind-dust"  theory,  pendent  on  it.  Its  esse  is  percipi.  It  exists  only  in 
This  is  a  necessary  deduction  from  the  extreme  mate-  and  for  the  mind.  Our  ideas  are  the  only  thin^  of 
riaListic  evolutionist  hypothesis  when  it  seeks  to  ex-  which  we  can  be  truly  certain.  And,  indeed,  if  we 
plain  the  ori^  of  human  minds  in  this  universe,  were  compelled  to  embrace  monism,  it  seems  to  us 
According  to  W.  K.  Clifford,  who  invented  the  term  there  can  be  little  doubt  as  to  the  lo^cal  superiority  of 
"mind-stuff",  those  who  accept  evolution  must,  for  the  idealistic  position.  But  there  is  no  philosophical 
the  sake  of  consistency,  assume  that  there  is  attached  compulsion  to  adopt  either  a  materialistic  or  an  ideal- 
to  every  particle  of  matter  in  the  imiverse  a  bit  of  istic  monism.  The  conviction  of  the  coinmon  sense 
rudimentary  feeling  or  intelligence,  and  "  when  the  of  mankind,  and  the  assumptioii  of  physical  science 
material  molecules  are  so  combined  as  to  form  the  that  there  are  two  orders  of  being  in  the  universe, 
film  on  the  under-side  of  a  jelly  fish,  the  elements  of  mind  and  matter,  distinct  from  each  other  yet  inter- 
mindnstuff  which  ^o  alon^  with  them  are  so  combined  acting  and  influencing  each  other,  and  t^e  assurance 
as  to  form  the  famt  begmnings  of  sentience.  When  that  the  human  mind  can  obtain  a  limited  yet  true 
the  matter  takes  the  complex  form  of  the  living  human  knowledge  of  the  material  world  which  really  exists 
brain,  the  corresponding  mind-stuff  takes  the  form  of  outside  and  independently  of  it  occupying  a  space  of 
human  consciousness,  oaving  intelligence  and  voli-  three  dimensions,  this  view,  which  is  the  common 
tion"  (Lectures  and  Essays,  284).  Spencer  and  other  teaching  of  the  Scholastic  philosophy  and  Catholic 
thorough-going  evolutionists  are  driven  to  a  similar  thinkers,  can  be  abimdantly  justined  (see  Duausm; 
conclusion.    But  the  true  inference  is  rather,  that  the  Energy,  Conservation  of). 

incredibility  of  the  conclusion  proves  the  untenable-  Mind  and  Mechanisu. — ^Mind  is  also  contrasted 
ness  of  the  materialistic  form  of  evolution  which  these  with  mechanical  theories  as  cause  or  explanation  of 
writers  adopt.  There  is  no  evidence  whatever  of  this  the  order  of  the  world.  The  affirmation  of  mind  in 
universal  mmdnstuff  which  they  postulate.  It  is  of  an  this  connexion  is  equivalent  to  teleologism,  or  ideal- 
inconceivable  character.  As  Frofessor  James  says,  to  ism  in  the  sense  of  there  being  intellijgence  and  pur- 
call  it  "nascent"  consciousness  is  merely  a  verbal  pose  governing  the  working  of  the  universe.  Thisb 
qidbble  which  explains  nothing.  No  multiplicity  and  the  meaning  of  the  word  in  Bacon's  well-known  state- 
no  grouping  or  fusing  of  unconscious  elements  can  be  ment :  *'  I  haa  rather  believe  all  the  fables  in  the  Legend 
oonceiv^  as  constituting  an  act  of  conscious  intelli-  and  the  Alcoran  than  that  this  universal  frame  is  with- 
gence.  The  unity  and  simplicity  which  characterize  out  a  mind"  (Essays:  Of  Atheism).  It  is,  in  fact,  the 
the  simplest  acts  of  the  mind  are  incompatible  with  doctrine  of  theism.  The  world  as  given  demands  a  ra- 
Buch  a  theory.  tional  account  of  its  present  character.    The  proxi- 

Mind  and  Matter. — ^The  opposition  of  mind  and  mate  explanations  of  much,  especially  in  the  inorganic 
matter  brings  us  face  to  face  with  the  great  contro-  and  non-living  portion  of  it.  can  be  furnished  by  ma- 
versy  of  Dualism  and  Monism.  Are  there  two  forms  terial  energies  acting  according  to  known  laws.  But 
of  being  in  the  universe  ultimately  and  radically  dis-  reason  demands  an  accoimt  ofall  the  contents  of  the 
tinct?  or  are  they  merely  diverse  phases  or  aspects  of  universe — ^living  and  conscious  beings  as  well  as  life- 
one  common  imderlying  substratum?  Our  experi-  less  matter;  and,  moreover,  it  insists  on  carrying  the 
ence  at  all  events  appears  to  reveal  to  us  two  funda-  inquiry  back  until  it  reaches  an  ultimate  explanation, 
mentally  contrasted  forms  of  reality.  On  the  one  For  this.  Mind,  an  Intelligent  Cause,  is  necessary, 
side,  there  is  facing  us  matter  occupying  space,  sub-  Even  if  the  present  universe  could  be  traced  back  to  a 
ject  to  motion,  possessed  of  inertia  and  resistance,  collection  ofmaterial  atoms,  the  particular  collocation 
permanent,  indestructible,  and  seemingly  independent  of  these  atoms  from  which  the  present  cosmos  re- 
ef our  observation.  On  the  other,  there  is  our  own  suited,  would  have  to  be  accounted  for;  because  in  the 
mind,  immediately  revealing  itself  to  us  in  simple  un-  mechanical  or  materialistic  theory  of  evolution,  that 
extended  acts  of  consciousness,  which  seem  to  be  bom  original  collocation  contained  tms  universe  and  no 
and  then  annihilated.  Through  these  conscious  acts  other,  and  that  particular  collocation  clamours  for  a 
we  apprehend  the  material  world.  Ail  our  knowledge  sufficient  reason  just  as  inevitably  as  does  the  present 
of  it  is  dependent  on  them,  and  in  the  last  resort,  complex  result.  If  we  are  told  that  the  explann- 
limited  by  them.  By  analogy  we  ascribe  to  other  tion  of  a  page  of  a  newspaper  is  to  be  found  in  th€ 
human  ongranisms  minds  like  our  own.    A  craving  to  contact  of  the  paper  with  a  plate  of  set  types,  we  are 


BUNINCK  3^ 

Btni  compelled  to  ask  bow  the  particular  amngemeiit 
<rf  the  t^)es  came  about,  and  we  are  cutain  tuat  the 
sufficient  explanation  ultimately  reeta  in  the  action  of 
mind  or  intelligent  being. 

jAjm.  PrinciplM  o/  Pti/dialooa  (New  York  nnd  London. 
1890):  LiDD.  PtvcAolom.  Detcriplivi  and  ExplaaaUrv  (N.  V. 
ud  London,  ISM);  lasM.  Pkilaiaph^  et MiTuiiS.  Y,  nnd  Lon- 

Ar^      MiaK\'      MmrD       Ptu^hnln^,      ^TriiniW^f    ajui    Rolionat    (7th 

,  Let  oriffinet  de  ta 
ud  Lou  vain,  1608). 


___■.  18B51;    Mi.    _  .  .    . 
ed..  N.  Y.  nnd  London,  ISIU); 
ptydtiOio^  corMmpomint  (2ad  i 
(See  Conscioeibheh;    Iktelle< 


I,  DiOCGSE  O 

Hinden  on  the 
Weeer  ia  first  heard 
of  in  798,  and  in  803 
in  the  Treaty  of 
Sail,  made  with  the 
Saxona,  it  is  spoken 
of  as  a  sec.  'Hie 
first  bishop  was 
Erkambert  (Her- 
umbert),  probably 
a  Saxon,  who  was 
appointed  in  TSO 
and  died  in  S13. 
The  third  bishop, 
Dietrich  I  (853-80\ 
fell  in  battle  against 
the  Northmen;  the 
fifth,  DroRO  (887- 
902},  founded  a  con- 
vent at  Mallen- 
beck.  The  diocese 
gradually  devel- 
oped  until  it  ex- 
tended on  the  east 
across  the  Aller  to 
Celle,  on  the  west  to 
Hunte,  embracing 
the  districts  of  Lid- 
bekegowe,  Enteri- 
gowe,  Loingo,  Mi 


HCCHAEL   MaAER. 

,  a  former  see  of  Westphalia 


(1037-55)  were  in  the  emperor's  favour  and  conae- 
quently  added  to  their  church  propert,y.  During  the 
reign  of  Henry  IV  the  bishops  were  caught  in  the  In- 
vestitures conflict,  and  more  than  once  papal  and  im- 
erial  sympathizets  contended  for  the  see.  After  the 
ncordat  of  Worms  the  bishopric  under  Sigward 
(1120-40)  and  Heinrich  I  (1140-63)  made  greatstrides. 
Werner  (1153-70)  and  Anno  (1170-85)  guided  the  see 
safely  through  the  stru^le  between  I  rederick  Bar- 
barossa  and  the  Haxon  Uuke  Henry  the  Lion.  The 
overthrow  of  the  duke  removed  the  last  remnant  of 
episcopal  dependence  on  the  ducal  power,  and  the  prel- 
ates of  Minden  were 
henceforth  subject 
to  the  emperor- 
Continuous  con- 
flict with  encroach- 
ing nobles  brought 
a  load  of  debt  and 
forced  many  bish- 


stem,    Buki 


Tilithi.  From  the 
b^inning  the  bish- 
ops of  Hmden  were 
suffragans  of  Co- 
logne. The  later 
estates  of  the  bish- 
ops oomprisedabou  t 
a  fourtii  of  the  dio- 
cese ;  it  extended 
from  Porta  Westfai- 
ica,  □□  both  sides 
of  the  river,  to 
SchlQsselbuiv,  and 
on  the  north-west 
acroM  to  Hunte. 
The  most  impo  rtant 

E'sces  wereMinden, 
Qbbecke,  Petere- 
hagen,  SchlQsBelbuig,  Reineberg,  and  RahdeD.  The 
Bee  suffered  in  the  tenth  century  from  the  Hungarians, 
but  b^an  to  flourish  under  the  Saxon  dynasty. 

Bishop  Landward  (956-69)  obtained  from  Otto  I 
immunity  from  all  foreign  jurisdiction,  and  also  ob- 
tained the  revenues  derived  from  the  administration 
of  justice;  Milo  (969-96)  on  account  of  his  loyaltv  to 
Otto  II  received  important  privileges,  among  others 
the  ri^t  to  elect  the  bailiff  who  represented  the 
bishop  in  the  imperial  court,  in  977  penal  jurisdiction, 
the  Weser  loll,  the  right  of  coinage  and  of  conducting 
a  cattle  market.  The  bishop  became  so  imnortatit 
that  he  was  almost  an  independent  prince.  ITie  ca- 
thedral canons  obtained  in  961  the  rieht  to  choose  tlie 
bUtop,  provided  a  worthy  man  was  chosen.  Bishops 
Dietiidt  II  (1002-22),  Sigebert  (1022-36),  and  Bruno 


the  d 


sell 


tates.  The  town  of 
Minden  profited  by 
the  financial  embar- 
rassment of  its  epis- 
copal lords,  grsldu- 
ally  acquired  more 
rights,  and  partially 
freed  itself  from  the 
rlordship  of  the 


biahoi 


.  the 


other  hand,  the  a 
thority  of  the  bish- 
op was  restricted 
by  the  cathedral 
chapter  which,  in 
Minden  as  in  other 
dioceses,  acquired 
the  right  of  choos- 
ing the  provost  and 
dean,  and  made  all 
important  matters 
of  administration 
subject  to  its  con- 
sent. Bishop  Gott- 
fried von  Waldeck 
(1304-24),  to  evade 
the  oppression  of  the 


his  residence  to  the 
castle  of  Peters- 
hagen.     With    the 

epal  nomination  of 
uisof  Brunswick 
(1324^6)  began  the 
unedifying  and  det- 
rimental series  of 
conflicts  between 
pope  and  chapter  aa 
to  the  nomination 
to  the  see.  Louis  involved  the  see  in  the  feuds  of 
neighbouring  nobles.  The  town  acquired  the  ad- 
ministration of  justice,  the  right  to  levy  customs 
duties,  and  the  right  of  coinage.  Some  eneraetic 
bbhops  followed:  Gerhard  I  (1346-53);  Gerha^  II 
von  Schauenburg  (1301-66) ;  Wedekind  vom  Beree 
(1369-83);  Otto  III  (1384-97). 

In  the  fifteenth  century  mors  than  one  double  elec- 
tion took  place.  Wulbrand,  (iiunt  of  Hallermund 
(1406-30),  endeavoured  to  bring  order  out  of  confu- 
sion ;  his  Bucceaaor,  Albert  II  yon  Hoya,  as  coadjutor 
and  as  bishop  (1436-73),  was  involved  in  a  long  dis- 

futc  with  OsnabrUck  and  the  Duke  of  Brunswick, 
lis  successor  Heinrich  III  von  Schauenburg  (1473- 
1608),  sought  better  relations  with  his  nei^boura,  but 
episcopal  authority  was  so  weakened  that  a  return  to 


HINQ  3S 

fbrmer  conditioiu  was  impossible.    The  power  of  the 
bishop  vBM  now  so  restricted  hy  the  (ihapter  and  the 
town,  that  he  waa  imable  to  lake  any  important  step 
without  their  consent ;  indeed,  a  complete  co-regency 
of  the  chapter  waa  eet  up.    Almost  all  the  castles 
were  in  the  hands  of  the  aristocratic  canons,  and  the 
revenues  of  the  bishop  were  extremely  limited.    The 
livee  of  the  clerRy  did  not  in  many  cases  conform  to 
the  canonical  nuea;  concubinage  was  quite  general, 
monastio  discipline  bad  relaxed,  and  the  faith  of  the 
laityhad  grown  cold.     For  these  reasons  the  Reforma- 
Uon  spread  rapidly  in  the  town  and  the  diocese  under 
Bishop  Frani  I  of  Brunswick- Wolf enbUttel  (J508-29), 
who  involved  thesee  in  the  Hildesheim  chapter  feuds, 
and  di«d  as  the  result  of  his  excesses.    His  successor. 
Frans  II  von  Waldeck,  also  Bishop  of  MUnater  and 
OsnabrUck  from 
1632,  led  a  dissolute 
life,  and  waa  an  ad- 
herent of  the   new 
njigious  teachings, 
which  he  privately 
furthered  with   aU 
fail  power.   In  1553 
he  was  forced  to  re- 
sign  in  favour  of 
Jul  iuB  of  Bruns- 
wick-WolfenbUttel 
(1663-64),  who  soon 
resigned  in  favour 
of  his  uncle,  Georg 
(1664-66). 

Under  his  auo 
ceasor  Hermann  von 
Schauenberg  (1567- 
82),  Protestantism 
spread  rapidly ;  Her- 
maim  accepted  the 
Council  of  Trent,  it 


Jrince.  Heiniich 
uliUB  of  Bruns- 
wick-WolfenbUttd 
(16S2-85)  declared 

the    ConfespioB    of 
Augsburg  the  only 
autnoriz»l  creed  in 
his    dioeeae.     Otto 
von  Schauenberg 
(1587-99)  was  a  de- 
voted Catholic, but, 
owing    to    disputes 
with  the  cathedral 
chapter  and  the  es- 
tates, accomplished  „        „ 
little    for  datholi-  BootoW^ofthi 
oism.    The  last  bishop  but  one.  Christian  of  Bruns- 
wick   (1599-1633,   a    Protestant)^   troubled   himself 
little  about  his  dk)cese,  and  ruied  it  from  bis  paternal 
estates.    By  the  terms  of  his  election  he  had  to  allow 
the  free  exercise  of  both  creeds.     The  attempt  of 
the   cathedral  chapter  to  turn  over  the  chureh  of 
St.  John  at  Hinden  to  the  Jesuits  (1604)  was  frus- 
trated by  the  opposition  of  the  citizens.    By  the 
Edict  of  Restitution  (1629)  the  Catholics  of  Minden 
obtained  the  churches  of  St.  Martin  and  St.  Simeon; 
the   FranciscauB  in  1630  established   themselves  in 
the  cathedral  until  1651,  and  even  the  Jesuits,  though 
for  only  a  short  time,  were   welcomed  to  the  city. 
Emm  von  Wartenbcrg  (1633-*8)  last  Bishop  of  Min- 
den, endeavoured  to  restore  the  Catholic  faith  in  his 
Sees  of  Minden,  Osnabnlck,  and  Verden ;  but  in  1633 
he  was  obliged  to  flee  before  the  Swedes,  and  after 
the  Treaty  of  Praeue  (1635)  was  unable  to  return. 

By  the  Peace  of  Westphalia  the  diocese  was  sup- 
pressed, Fnuu  Wilhdm  retained  the  title  of  Bishop  of 


HZHG 


Hinden,  but  its  temporal  p , „ 

than  twenty-two  square  miles,  were  awarded  to  the 
Electorate  of  Branaenbuiv.  It  was  only  in  1649  that 
Brandenburg  was  able  to  obtain  possession;  in  1660  the 
Elector  Frederick  William  received  the  oath  of  alle- 
gjance  from  the  town  and  the  nobility  at  the  episcopal 
castle  of  Peterahagen.  The  "  principality  "ofMinden 
remained  at  first  a  special  jurisdiction,  until  in  1729  it 
was  united  to  the  Countship  of  Ravensberg.  The 
Catholics  retained  only  the  cathedral  with  eleven  ca- 
nonries,  all  of  which  were  suppressed  early  in  the  nine- 
teenth century;  but  the  cathedral  is  still  in  Catholic 
hands.  After  the  suppression  of  the  see,  its  territory  , 
was  administered  for  ecclesiastical  purposes  by  the 
Northern  Mission.  In  1821  most  of  it  ^11  to  Pader^ 
born,  and  a  small  remnant  to  Hildesheim. 

Chroniam      Epitcp- 

PwTOBiu"    Smplorei 
Ill    (Ratiaboii,    17Z6>. 

EOT-41:        CuL^MJkHH. 

MindiKM      Orxkichlm 
(MiDclen,     1717-4B); 


Sifitrmaliim  in  Wttt- 
(alen  (MiudsQ.  1BS3). 
Protesluit  Btuidpoizit ; 
WeMfaliKhtt  Vr*taf 
dmbuch,    VI:  Du   Vr~ 

Mindtv,  ItOt-ISOO,  cd. 

HoonEWEO  (Hflutcr, 
ISeS):  Die  Bav  iwi 
Kunitimkmaltt  dtt 
KtHki  Uindm  (Mon- 
ster. 1802);  Frii.  Dh 
Uniwickltmff  dtr  La^^- 
deahoheit  der  Uindaixr 
BitchnI,  (MaDitcr. 
IBOX);  Zeiitelir.  dtt 
AuC.  Virant  /£r  Ni- 
dtrtacMttn  (hOoiinirK, 
1835-). 

I        Joseph  Lins. 


Mingi  JoBM,  phi- 
losopher and  writer, 
b.  at  Gyswyl,  Unter- 
walden,  Switser- 
'  land,  20  Sept., 
1838;  d.  at  Brook- 
lyn, Ohio,  U.  S.  A., 
17  June,  1910.  He 
was  educated  at  the 
BcniedictiDeCollege, 
>UTg,  Switserland,  and  entered  the  German  Jesuit 
_ite  in  1856.  He  studied  philosophy  at  Aachen 
(1861-64),  and  theology  at  Maria-I^acb  (1865-69). 
After  a  year's  tertianship  in  Westphalia  he  was  sent  to 
KreuBberg,  near  Bonn,  as  a  preacher,  and  [n  1871  be- 
came lecturer  in  theology  at  Gdn,  Austria.  In  1872 
he  came  to  the  United  States  where,  after  two  ye*rs 
devoted  to  pastoral  ministry,  he  professed  theology  at 
Milwaukee.  He  was  transferred  two  years  later  to 
Spring  Hill,  Alabama,  where  he  tau^t  philoeophy,  in 
which  work  he  was  afterwards  engaged  for  twenty-one 
years,  mainly  at  Buffalo,  Prairie  du  Cbien,  and  St. 
Louis.  When  once  he  had  acquired  Ekifslish,  Fatbw 
Ming  began  to  write  for  the  leading  Catholic  magaaines, 
especially  the  "Messenger  "  and  the  "  American  Catho- 
lic Quarterly  Review  ,  in  which  his  first  article  ap- 
peared in  1879.  His  contributions  deal  mainly  witlt 
evolution  and  socialism,  the  two  most  important  ques- 
tions confronting  Catholics  in  the  United  States  in  his 
day.    After  the  publication  of  a  short  but  instructive 


CiTauisiL,  Mini 


Mnnxa                      325  HDma 

treattMOD  the  "Temponl  Power  of  (lie  Pope",  he  un-  U&ckcord.    "nie  moKMOa  of  the  capuc«  reaches  below 

dertook  a  more  ambitious  work  in  his  "Data  of  Modem  the  cord,  almost  in  the  form  of  a  soapulaj'.    To  ensure 

Ethics  Examined".     The  prominence  of  the  labour  the  stricter  observance  of  tbc  rules  of  the  first  and 

question  ted  him  to  engage  in  a  deep  study  of  that  second  orders,  Francis  of  Paula  drew  up  a  "  Cortec- 

problem.     To  this  we  owe  "The  Characteristics  and  torium",  consisting  of  ten  chapters  corresponding  to 

the  Rel^on  of  Modem  Socialism",  and  "The  Moral-  the  number  of  chapters  in  the  rule,  which  determmea 

ity  of  Modem  Socialism".     These  two  works  supply  the  penance  to  be  inflicted  on  those  who  transgress 

Catholic  atudeaU  with  not  only  an  unprejudiced  ex-  its  precepts.    This  "  Correctorium"  was  approved  by 

positionof  the  Socialistic  movement  OS  propounded  by  Julius  it  in   1506  and  by  I«o  X  in  1517  (Digestum, 

itB  leading  advocates,  but  a  critical  refutation  of  the  see  below,  I,  55). 

theories  on  which  it  is  based.  II.    Propagation  and  Activitiks. — The  Order  of 

Iswrtoo,  III(2July,  1010).  307-3(^  the  Minims,  propagated  at  first  in  Italy  was  intro- 

A.  A,  MacErlean.  duced  by  special  royal  favour  into  France,  whither  the 
holy  founder  was  called  in  1482.    There  the  earliest 

_  _    .          ,   r  UtNiUs)  are  the  niemberB  of  the  re-  convents  were   at 

UgioiK  order  founded  by  St,  Francis  of  Paula.    The  Plesais-les -Tours. 

— De  is  an  allusion  to  triar  Minor,  or  to  Matt.,  sxv,  Amboise,     and 

"  Quamdiu  fecistis  uni  ex  his  fratribus  meis  minimia.  Nigeon.near  Paris. 

i  fecistis",  and  suggests,  as  Leo  X  in  the  Bull  oi  On    i 


caaoniaation  of  the  holy  founder  says,  the  great  humil-  their  great  sim- 
ity  which  should  characterise  the  religious  of  this  plicity  the  Minims 
order,  and  by  reason  of  which,  they  ought  to  consider  in  France  re- 
tbemscives  as  the  least  of  all  religious.  With  the  fii^t  ceived  the  appel- 
Order  of  the  Minims  are  connected  a  second  and  a  lation  of  ^uni 
tliird  order.  In  this  article  we  are  concerned  princi-  hommes.  In  1495 
pally  with  the  first.  _  Charles  VIII  of 
I.  OwaiN  AND  RcL«. — St.  Francis  of  Paula,  having  France  founded 
in  hia  youth  lived  one  year  in  a  Franciscan  convent  at  in  Rome  the  con- 
S.  Marco  (Calabria),  dedicated  himself  to  solitary  life  vent  of  TrinitA  del 
in  a  hermitage  near  Paula.  In  1435  some  disciples  Monti,  which,  by 
joined  him,  and  after  a  tew  years  he  founded  convents  Bull  of  Innocent 
at  Patemo,  1444,  and  at  Milazto  in  Sicily,  1469.  The  X  (1645),  was  ex- 
new  society  was  called  "Hermits  of  St.  Francis  of  clusivelv  reserved 
Assisi".  The  Archbishop  of  Cosenia  granted  them  of  to  the  l^rench  fa- 
tUs  own  accord,  in  1471,  exemption  from  his  iurisdic-  thers.  From 
tion  (I«novius,  "Builariiim",9),  which  privilege  was  France  the  Minims 
confirmedbySixtusIV,1473(Lanovius,''Bull.'',  U).  spread  to  Spain, 
TTwHamepontilTgavethemtheprivilegesof mendicant  where  they  Were 
friars  (q.  v.).  For  67  years  (1435-9.1)  the  new  foun-  called  "Fathers 
dation  nad  no  written  rule,  but  in  1493  the  first  rule,  of  the  Victory", 
containing  13  chapters,  which  was  almost  a  faithful  owing  to  the  vic- 
oopy  of  that  of  St.  Francis  of  Assisi,  was  confirmed  by  tory  of  King  Fer- 
Akxander  VI.  (See  text  Lanovius,  ad  ann.  1493,  and  dinand  over  the 
Bull.  Rom.,  V,  352.)  A  second  version  of  the  rule  Moors  of  Malaga, 
in  10  chapters,  which  showed  more  independence  of  In  1497  the  Em- 
tbe  Rule  of  St,  Francis,  was  approved  by  Alexander  peror'  Maximilian 
VI  in  1501,  Here  the  fourth  solemn  vow  of  vila  introduced  the 
quadragenmalii  appears,  which  forms  the  distinctive  new  order  into 
character  of  the  ftunima.  In  the  sanie  Bull  of  con-  Germany  (Bohe- 
firmation  is  inserted  the  rule  of  the  third  order  in  7  .  mia).  At  the 
ehaptera,  for  seculars  of  both  sexes.  (Text  lanovius  death  of  St.  Fran- 
ad  «nn.  1501;  Bull.  Rom.,  V,  385.)  HardW  differ-  cis  of  Paula,  1507,  A  Mmm  Friar 
ent  from  this  second  version  is  the  rule  confirmed  in  there  existed  five  provinces  spread  over  Italy,  Frsnoe 
ISOZ.     (UnoviuB,  ad  ann.  1502.)    Finally  a  third  defi-  Spain,  and  Germany. 

nite  text  of  the  rule  of  the  first  order,  which  is  still  ob-  A  little  later  the  order  counted  450  convents      In 

■erved  by  the  Minims,  was  confirmed  by  Julius  II,  1623  Dony  d'AtUchi  gives  the  number  of  members 

"Dudum  ad  sacrum  ordinem  ",  28  July,  1500.     (Bull,  as  6430,  oonvenlfi  359,and  provinces  30,  distributed  in 

Rom.,  V,  421.)     The  rule  of  the  second  order,  which  the  principal  Catholic  countries  of  Europe,     Lanovius 

ia  for  wstera  and  which  originated  in  Spoin,  appears  in  1635  adds  to  the  number  of  provinces  three  com- 

for  the  first  time  in  the  same  Bull.      It  is  almost  missariatea.  of  which  one  was  in  the  West  Indies.     Iq 

a  literal  adoption  of  the  rule  of  the  first  order,  while  1648  the  Propaganda  approved  the  foundation  of  a 

the  rule  of  the  third  order  here  inserted  is  the  same  mission  in  Canada,  but  it  is  not  known  if  this  plan 

as  that  confirmed  in  1501.      The  spirit  which  per-  was  ever  carried  out  (Roberti,  II,  688).     In  England 

meatea  these  rules,  especially  those  of  the  first  and  the  Minims  seem  not  to  have  had  any  convents,  stiD 

second  orderB,isthatof  great  penanceandabnegation.  some  illustrious  English  members  are  recorded,  as 

The  fourth  vow  imposes  perpetual  abstinence  from  all  Thomas    Felton,   martyred    in    1588,    Henry   More, 

flesh  and  white  meats,  and  only  in  case  of  grave  sick-  nephew  of  the  chancellor,  Blessed  Thomas  More,  d.  at 

neM  by  order  of  the  physician  may  it  be  dispensed  Reims,  1587;  AndrcwFolere,  d.at  Soissons,  1594.  The 

with.     The  Order  of  Minims  is  founded  on  the  same  second  order  was  never  very  widely  propagated.     In 

principle  of  organiiation  as  that  of  all  mendicants.  1623  there  existed  11  conventswith  360  sisters.     Tlie 

The  superiors  are  called  correctors.     At  the  head  is  third  order,  on  the  contrary,  found  many  adherents 

the  corrector  eeneral,  who  formerly  was  elected  every  among  the  faithful  in  the  countries  where  convents  of 

tJiree  years,  hut  since    1605   every  six  years.     The  the  first  order  existed. 

corrector  provincial  is  elected  for  three  years,  while  To  give  some  indication  of  its  activity  we  mention 

the  local  superior  is  elected  by  each  convent  for  only  ■omeofitsmostdistinguishedmembers.   Thefirsttobe 

one  year.    The  habit  of  the  Minims  is  made  of  coarse  named  is  Bernard  Boil  (see  BniL,  Bbrnaudo),  the  first 

blEMsk  wool,  has  broad  sleeves,  and  is  girded  by  a  thin  vicar  Apostolic  in  America,  appointed  1493,  who,  ai 


mNZSTEB  326  MIHNB80TA 

the  documents  published  by  Fita  certainly  indicate,  views;  but  it  is  still  the  ordinary  appellation  of  one 

belonged  at  that  time  to  the  Minims,  althou^  the  appointed  to  spiritual  office  in  any  non-Episcopal  com- 

papal  Bull  of  appointment  (see  reproduction  m  this  munion,  especially  of  one  having  a  pastoral  charge". 
£nctclopedia,  I,  414)  used  the  words  ardinis  Mitir        As  regards  Catholic  use,  minister  is  the  title  of  cer- 

orum.    See  Roberti,  op.  cit.  below,  I,  89-102.    Di&-  tain  superiors  in  various  religious  orders.    The  head 

tin^ished  theologians  were:  Lalemandet,  d.  1647;  of  the  Franciscan  Order  is  known  as  the  minister  gen- 

Sailer,  d.  1707;  Boucat,  d.  1718;  Palanco,  d.  1720;  eral,  and  the  superior  of  the  different  provinces  of  the 

Perrimezzi,  d.   1740;   historians   (see  bibliography),  various  branches  is  called  minister  provincial.    The 

Giiy,  d.  1688;  Marin,  d.  1767;  mathematicians,  Maig-  same  is  true  of  the  Order  of  the  Trinitarians  for  the 

nan,  d.  1676;  Mersenne,  d.  1648;  philosophers,  Sa-  Redemption  of  Captives  and  of  some  other  orders.    In 

guens,  d.  about  1718,  and  some  of  the  previously  the  Society  of  Jesus  the  second  in  command  in  each 

mentioned    theological    authors.    For  the   bishops  house,  who  is  usually  charged  with  the  internal  dis- 

chosen  from  this  order  see  Roberti  (op.  cit.  below,  I,  cipline,  the  commissariat,  etc.,  is  called  minister. 

377,  II,  681).    The  cause  for  beatincation  of  two  Tne  statement  made  in  Addis  and  Arnold's  "Catholic 

Minims  has  been  introduced.  Dictionary"  and  thence  incorporated  into  the  great 

III.  Present  State. — Since  the  French  Revolution  Hist.  £ng.  Dictionary  that  each  of  the  five  assist- 

the  Minims  are  greatly  reduced  in  number.    At  present  ants  of  the  General  of  the  Jesuits  is  called  minister  is 

there  are  19  convents  with  about  330  friars.    There  without  foundation. 

are  15  convents  in  Italy,  2  in  Sicily,  1  in  Sardinia,  Herbert  Thurston. 

and  1  in  Spain.    Hie  corrector  general  resides  at  St. 

Andrea  delle  Fratte,  Rome.  There  are  two  other  Minkftlurs,  Jean-Pierre,  inventor  of  illuminating 
convents  at  Rome,  S.  Francesco  di  Paola  and  S.  Maria  gas;  b.  at  Maastricht,  Holland,  1748;  d.  there  4  July, 
della  Luce.  The  second  order  is  spread  especially  in  1824.  At  the  age  of  sixteen,  in  1764,  he  went  to  Lou- 
Spain,  where  it  has  10  convents.  There  are  single  con-  vain,  where  he  studied  theology  and  philosophy  at  the 
vents  at  Marseilles,  Rome,  and  Todi.  The  third  order  Coll^  du  Faucon,  in  which  he  became  professor  of 
is  spread  in  Latin  countries  and  also  in  South  America,  natural  philosophy  in  1 772.  At  this  time  the  question 
where  secular  priests  are  delegated  and  authorized  to  of  aerostats  and  Montgolfiers  was  occupying  the  mind 
receive  membere.  of  scientists,  and  the  Due  d'Arenberg,  a  Maecenas  of 

RoBER-n  (p.  Minim.),  Diugno  dorio  delV  Ordine  de*  Minimi  Science  and  art,  engaged  a  committee  to  examine  into 

dalla  morte  del  wanto  IrutUutore  fino  ai   noatri  tempi,  I,  1607-  the   question  of  the   best  gas  for  balloon   purposes. 

iffOO  (Rome.  1902),  11,160^1700  (Rome.  1909);  Francib-  Minkelera  was  on  this  committee,  and  published  in  1784, 

CD8l*^oviU8(p.Mmim.),CAronuwi»meroteOrdtnvi'-f»ntwu>-  „*x^.  •«•«„  «^.w.«:«,««*-    -  «.J«i,  »«4^ui.wl  ^iULAr^^i^ 


rum  . 
IV  ad 


.  .  aceedit  Remetrum  Pontificium  seu  BuUarium  a  Sixto  "^r  many  experiments,  a  work  entitled     M^mou^ 

«r   ^  Urbanum  VIII  (Paris.  1335);   Dony  d'Attichi  (O.  sur  lair  inflammable  tir6  de  din^rentes  substances, 

Hfl?]?^V^"'**"T^^'~^^*''^"''"*^'^*'**'^*^^,X°^^^*'^  r6dig6  par  M.  Minkelers,  professeur  de  philosophic  au 

1624);  Jacobus  Ladore-Franc.  a  Longobardxs  (O.  Mmim.),  ^^iia~^i,,  i?«,,«^^   „«i,.««L:*x  j«  T^,.„«T«»»  nfi^^^y^:^ 

DioeUum  Sapientia  Minimitana  trxpartitum,  compUctene  regu-  JSS^?®     .  FaUCOn,  university  de  Louvain      (Louvam, 

2m  iS.  FrancUci  de  Paula,  Statuta  CapitiUorum  Generalium  .  .  .  1784).     As  an  appendix  tO  this  memoir  there  was  a 

8  pta.  (Rome.  1664):  ToscANo  (p.  Mmim.),  Delia  vUa  di  5.  "Table  de  gravit^s  sp6cifiques  des  diflf^rentes  espdces 

FraneeMO  dt  Paola  (Vemce,  1691).     The  nilea  of  the  three  j »«:«»»  Ktt'P  t?  T^iroKr,<^^  ^  r^^^^v^r.  ^f  *\^^  f»^n>w^U*,^ 

oTden  alao  in  IIolbtbkiub.  Codex  Regulanum,  ed.  Brockib.  Ill  d  air   ,  by  T.  F.  lliysbaert,  a  member  of  the  committee. 


Minim.),  Cr&nica  oeneral  de  la  Orden  de  loe  Mintmoe  de  S.  Fran-  barrel  of  a  gUn  and  heating  it  in  a  forge.  Under  action 

eUco  de  Paula  (Madrid.  1619);  Aknibali  da  Latbra  (p.  of  the  heat  the  oil  dissolved  and  gave  place  to  a  remark- 

Mmim.),  Compendto  delta  Stona  deglx  Ordxnx  regolan  eaulerUt,  „ui„  i:«ux  ««„    u«„;««  ^4-k^.  «^.rtt»^«i»w«..«.  r^,«»i:*:^« 

pt.  II.  vol.  n  (Rome.  1791),  351]  Heimbdchbr.  Die  Ordek  ably  light  gas,  having  other  advantageous  aualities. 

ttnd  Konareffotionen  der  kalholiechen  Kirche,  2nd  ed..  II  (Pader-  Having  proved  that  Oil  gas  was  the  best  for  balloons, 

bom.  1907),  627.  For  fuU  bibliography  see  Roberti.  I.  17-22.  Minkelers  used  it  for  many  balloons  which  rose  rapidly 

2a"ro^^TiX"wJ*SiS£^  and  travelled  great  distances  in  the  neighbom-hoSd.of 

generaL  Louvam.     As  we  learn  from  his  pupil  von  Hulstoin, 

LiVARiUB  Oliger.  who  was  in  his  class  in  1785,  Minkelers  at  times  used 

this  same  gas  to  light  his  workshop.  Moreover,  the 
Minister. — The  term  minister  has  long  been  ap- '  drift  of  his  memoir  proves  clearly  that  in  its  inventor's 
propriated  in  a  distmctive  way  to  the  clergy.  The  eyes  the  ^at  combustibility  of  the  gss  was  one 
Unguage  of  I  Cor.,  iv,  1-2:  Heb.,  viii,  2;  Matt.,  xx,  26,  of  its  leading  qualities.  Wlien  Joseph  II,  in  1788, 
etc.  must  have  helped  to  familiarize  the  thought  that  transferred  the  University  of  Louvain  to  Brussels, 
those  charged  with  spiritual  functions  in  the  c5hrLstian  Minkelers  continued  as  professor,  but  when  it  was  re- 
Church  wers  called  upon  to  be  the  servants  (ministri)  moved  back  to  Louvain  he  refused  to  return.  He  re- 
of  their  brethren.  Even  before  the  Reformation  the  signed  in  1794  and  was  appoint^  professor  of  phyacs 
word  minister  was  occasionally  used  in  English  to  *»d  chemistry  at  the  Central  School  of  Maastricht, 
describe  those  of  the  clergy  actually  taking  part  in  a  ^  July,  1824.  „  .   .  ^         .^.  ..  <  ^    ..^._    . 

fnnotinn    or  thp  o.plf»hrant  aa  HiqfincyniqhPfT  fmm  th**         Minkelers,  Mfmoxre  »ur  Vair  %njlammable  ttri  de  dtffamt''9 

lunction,  or  tne  ceieorant  as  aistmguisneu  irom  tne  gyi,guincee  (Louvain,  1784);  De  Rab.  HietoHxh  Venlao  owr  J. 

assistants,  but  It  was  not  then  used  sine  aadito  to  deng-  p.  MinkeUre  (MaaBtricht,  1897):    Vcrhaegkm.  Lea  Hnquarjf 


of  the  sacred  o'lice.    These  Calvinistic  views  had 

some  influence  in  England.    In  the  Book  of  Common  Minnesota,  one  of  the  North  Central  States  of  the 

Prayer  the  word  minister  occurs  frequently  in  the  sense  American  Union,  lies  about  midway  between  the 

of  tne  ofHciant  at  a  service,  and  in  the  thirty-second  eastern  and  western  shores  of  the  continent,  and  about 

oftheCanons  Ecclesiastical  (1603)  we  read  "no  bishop  midway  between  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  ana  Hudson's 

shall  make  a  person  deacon  and  minister  l)oth  upon  Bay. 

one  day",  where  clearly  minister  stands  as  the  equiva-  Geography. — Minnesota  extends  from  43®  Z(f  to 
lent  of  priest.  As  rcganls  modem  usage  the  Hist.  49°  N.  lat.  and  from  89°  39'  to  97®  5'  W.  long.  It* 
En^.  Dictionary  says:  "The  use  of  minister  as  the  length  from  north  to  south  is  about  400  miles,  and  it* 
desi^ation  of  an  Anglican  clergyman  (formerly  ex-  greatest  breailth  about  354  miles.  Of  its  total  area  of 
tensively  current,  sometimes  with  more  specific  appli-  84,287  sq.  miles,  no  less  than  5637  are  water  surface, 
oation  to  a  beneficed  clergyman)  has  latterly  become  owing  to  the  great  number  of  inland  lakes  (number- 
Tare,  and  is  now  chiefly  associated  with  Low  Chureh  ing  about  ten  thousand)  and  watercourses,  large  and 


KINNESOTA  327  BONNESOTA 

man.    Hinnesota  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  CanadEi,        Nahe. — The  oame  of  the  state  is  derived  from  the 

oo  the  east  by  I^e  Superior  &nd  Wisconsin,  on  the  Dakota  language.     Before  the  white  men  came  to 

south  by  Iowa,  and  on  tne  west  by  North  and  South  their  hunting  grounds,  the  Dakotas  called  the  river 

Dalcota.  Within  the  wide  domain  of  the  State  origi-  which  rises  on  the  western  border  of  the  state  and 
nat«  the  three  principal  water  systems  of  North  Amer-  flows  into  the  Mississippi  near  the  site  of  St.  Paul  tlie 
ica:  those  of  tlie  Mississippi  and  the  Red  River  of  the  Minisolah  (mini,  wat*r;  solah,  sky-coloured),  and, 
North,  and  tlie  St.  Lawrence  system  beginning  with  when  the  region  between  the  western  border  of  Wis- 
the  St.  Louis  River,  which  rises  in  the  north-eastem  consin  and  the  Missouri  River  was  organized  by  Con- 
part  of  Hinnesota  and  flows  into  the  west«rn  end  gress  into  a  territory,  it  was  ^ven  the  name  of  this 
(rf  LAke  Superior.  river  in  a  slightly  modified  form —  the  name  which  the 

Son.  AND  Geoloot. — A  large  portion  of  the  state  state  bears  at  present. 
ma  originally  prairie,  but  along  the  riven  a  dense         UiSTOitr. — At  the  time  when  the  explorations  of 

growth  of  trees  has  always  extended,  while,  between  white  men  began,  the  region  now  known  as  Minnesota 

the  Hinnesota  River  and  the  Hississippi  and  extend-  was  inhabitea  by  people  of  two  great  divisions  of  the 

ing  north-westerly,  almost  to  the  Red  River,  is  the  American  race.     From  the  southern  boundary  of  the 

great  forest  of  hardwood  trees,  eonunonly  known  as  state  as  far  north  as  lat.  46°  SO",  the  laud  was  in- 

the  "Big  Woods".     The  northern  part  of  the  state  habited   by  the  Dakotas,  while  the  shore  of  LaJce 

was  formerlv  covered  with  a  dense  growth  of  pine,  and  Superior  and  the  northern  portion  of  the  state  were 

has  supplied  a  iat«e  portion  of  the  white  pine  utilized  occupied     by     the 

throughout  the  United  States  in  various  industries.  Oiibways.      Many 

Aside  from  the  districts  originally  covered  by  pine  places'in  Minnesota 

and  the  rocky  ridges  near  Lake  Superior,  the  state  bear  Indian  names, 

possesses  a  warm,  daric  soil  of  great  fertility.     Its  geo-  and    those  derived 

Ic^eaJ  formations  varv  from  the  Laurentian  trap-  from  the  respective 

rock,  granite,  and  basalt  along  the  shore  of  Lake  Su-  languages  oi  these  J 

perior  and  the  banks  of  the  St.  Croix,  with  outcrops  of  two  aboriginal  na-  | 

Bimilar  formations  in  various  other  portions  of  the  tions   show  very  I 

state,  to  the  soft  limestone  of  a  later  period.     The  clearly  at  the  pres-  1 

granite  is  of  various  colours,  ranging  from  dark  brown  ent  tmie  the  areas 

to  light  grey,  and  is  highly  valued  for  building  pur-  which  they  respect- 

poees.     Another  excellent  building  material  is  the  ively  occupied. 

Eaaota  limestone,  which  has  been  largely  used  in  the  The  French    came 

cfKistruction  of  the  new  and  magnificent  state  capitol.  into   contact,    first 

In  the  north-eastern,  and  to  a  considerable  extent  with  the   Oiibways 

throughout  the  entire  northern  part  of  the  state,  are  and   other   tindred  8bai  o»  Mihiiisota 

found  extensive  beds  of  iron  ore  of  cxcelient  quality.  Indian  nations  of  the  Algonquin  family,  who  in  their 

Shipments  of  this  ore  have  been  so  great  during  recent  language   designated  the   Dakotas  the  Nadouetstonx 

years  as  to  render  Minnesota  the  greatest  iron  pro-  (Ojibway  for     enemies").     The  French  soon  abbre- 

dudng  state  of  the  Federal  Union.     No  less  than  150,-  viated  this  long  word  into  its  final  syllable,  and  called 

000,000  tons  of  ore  have  been  mined  and  shipped,  and  the  Dakotas  the  Siouz,  under  which  title  they  have 

the  amount  still  underground  is  estimated  at  fully  one  been  commonly  known  since  the  days  of  Marquette 

thousand  million  tons,  a  supply  that  will  not  be  ex-  and  Allouez. 
hausted  for  fifty  years.  The  real  history  of  the  state  may  be  said  to  begin  in 

SxjsTACS  ANB  CLIMATE.— The  fact  that  the  state  is  1680  with  the  visit  to  the  Falls  of  St.  Anthony  and  ad- 

the  source  of  three  continental  river  systems  suggests  jaceitt  regions  made  by  Rev.  Louis  Hennepin  and  his 

hs  high  elevation.     The  Mississippi,   which  has  its  companions,  Accault  and  Augelle.     Dunng  the  same 

chief  source  in  Lake  Itasca  at  an  elevation  of  1466  year  Sieur  Daniel  Greyolson  Du  Lhut  explored  the 

feet,  leaves  the  state  at  620  feet  above  sea-level.     The  northern  part  of  the  state,  and,  in  July,  joined  Father 

Red  River  of  the  North  rises  near  Itasca  Lake  at  an  Hennepin  at  or  near  the  lake  now  known  as  Mille  Lacs, 

altitude  of  1600  feet,  and,  after  a  circuitous  route  Late  in  the  autumn  Du  Lhut  and  Hennepin  departed 

south  and  west  to  Breckenridge  in  Wilkin   County,  from  the  land  of  the  Dakotas  and  retumfd  to  £^tem 

turns  north  and  entera  Canada  at  an  elevation  of  750  Canada.     From  the  time  of  these  e^Iorations  to  the 

feet.     The   Minnesota  shore  of  Lake  Superior  is  602  English  conquest  of  Canada  in  1760,  France  held  sway 

feet  above  sea-level.     The  average  elevation  of  the  over  the  Upper  Mississippi  region.     Formal  assertion 

state  is  given  as  about  127.')  feet,  the  highest  elevation  of  sovereignty  was  mode  in  1689,  as  appears  from  a 

being  the  Misouah  Hills  in  Cook  County  (2230  feet),  document  drawn  up  at  Green  Bay  on  the  western 

Its  elevation  above  the  sea,  its  fine  drainage,  and  the  shore  of  Lake  Michigan,  in  which  Nicholas  Perrot, 

dnmess  of  its  atmosphere  ^ve  Minnesota  an  unusually  commandbig  for  the  king  at  that  post  and  holding  a 

salubrious  and   most  agreeable  cliniat«.    The  mean  commis.sion  fro-i  Marquis  Denonville,  Governor  of 

annual  temperature  is  44°;   the  mean   summer  tem-  New  France,  issued  a  declaration  in  these  words: 
perature  70°.     Owing  to  its  higher  latitude,  Minne-         "We  this  day,  the  Sth  day  of  May,  1689,  do  in  the 

sota  enjoys  correspondingly  longer  days  in  summer  presence  of  Reverend  Father  Marcst  of  the  Societv  of 

than  states  farther  south,  and  during  the  growing  sea-  Jesus,  Missionary  among  the  Nadoueasioux ;   of  Mon- 

son  there  are  two  and  a  half  hours  more  sunshine  than  sieur  de  Bori^iiJlot,  commanding  the  French  in  the 

(e.  g.)  in  Cincinnati.     This  fact,  taken  in  connexion  neighbourhooa  of  the  Ouiakonche  on  the  Mississippi; 

with  the  abundant  r^nfall  of  early  summer,  accounts  Augustine    Legardeur,    Sieur   dc   Caumont,   and   of 

for  the  rapid  and  vigorous  growth  of  crops  in  Minne-  Messieurs  Le  Sueur,  Hebert  Lemire,  and  Blein: 
sota  and  their  early  maturity.     The  winter  climate         "  Declare  Ui  all  whom  it  m^  concern,  that,  being 

is  one  o!  the  attractive  features  of  the  state.    Its  come  to  the  Bay  des  Puants  FGreen  BavJ,  and  to  the 

wufomiity,  its  general  freedom  from  thaws,  excessive  Lake  of  Ouiskonches,  and  to  the  River  MLSsissippi,  we 

periods  trf  cold,  severe  weather,  or  heavy  snowstorms,  did  transport  ourselves  to  the  country  of  the  Naooiies- 

■nditadryness,  together  with  the  bright  sunshine  and  sioux,  on  the  border  of  the  Rivet  St.  Croix,  and  to  the 

a  full  supply  of  ozone  in  the  atmosphere,  all  lend  to  mouth  of  the  River  St.  Pierre,  on  the  bank  of  which 

make  the  winters  of  Minnesota  very  delightful.     It  is  wore  the  Mantantans;  and  further  up  to  the  interior 

serted  by  labourers  from  abroad  that  they  can  work  Ui  the  north-east  of  the  Mississippi,  as  far  as  the  Men- 


MINNESOTA                             328  MINNESOTA 

north-east  of  the  Mississippi,  to  take  possession  for,  some  very  beautiful  rockets  were  shot  off  and  the  aii 

and  in  the  name  of,  the  Kin^.  of  the  countries  and  was  made  to  resound  with  a  hundred  shouts  of  '  Vive 

rivers  inhabited  by  the  said  tnbes,  and  of  which  they  le  Roy'  and  'Vive  Charles   de  Beauhamois'.   .  .  . 

are  the  proprietors.    The  present  act  done  in  our  pres-  What  contributed  very  much  to  the  merry-making  was 

ence,  and  simed  with  our  hand  and  subscribed.''  the  fright  of  some  Indians.    When  these  poor  people 

Without  delay,  practical  measures  were  taken  to  saw  fireworks  in  the  air  and  the  stars  falling  from 

ensure  the  rights  of  France.    A  map  of  the  year  1700  the  sky,  the  women  and  children  fi^  and  the  more 

shows  a  fort  on  the  west  side  of  Lake  Pepin.    In  1695  courageous  of  the  men  cried  for  mercy,  and  earnestly 

a  second  post  was  established  bv  Le  Sueur  on  an  begged  that  we  should  stop  the  astonishing  play  of 

island  above  the  lake.    Thus,  in  the  beginning  of  the  the  terrible  medicine."    It  may  be  stated  in  expla- 

eighteenth  century  what  was  officially  term^  "La  nation  that,  among  all  the  American  Indians,  any 

Bave  Department",  consisting  of  a  line  of  military  phenomenon   which   exerted   a  powerful   influence 

and  tradmg  posts,  was  organized  to  command  the  upon  the  physical  and  nervous  system  was  desig- 

waterway  from  Green  Bay  to  the  Falls  of  St.  Anthony,  nated  by  a  term  corresponding  to  the  word  medicine 

Not  until   1727.  however,  were  systematic  efforts  in  other  languages. 

made  to  establisn  permanent  military  garrisons  north  In  a  report  made  in  October,  1728,  by  the  Governor 

of  the  mouth  of  the  Wisconsin  River.  of  Canada  to  the  Government  of  France,  Fort  Beau- 

In  the  spring  of  1685  Governor  De  La  Barre  of  New  hamois  was  said  to  be  badly  situated  on  account  of 
France  sent  from  Quebec  to  the  west  twenty  men  freshets^'and,  therefore,"  as  the  report  says, 'Hhis  fort 
under  the  commancf  of  Nicholas  Perrot  to  establish  could  be  removed  four  or  five  arpents  from  the  lake 
friendly  alliances  with  the  Dakotas.  Proceeding  to  shore  without  prejudice  to  the  views  entertained  in 
the  Mississippi,  he  established  a  post  near  the  outlet  of  building  it  on  its  present  site."  The  report  declares 
Lake  Pepin,  which  was  known  as  Fort  Perrot.  War  that  the  interests  of  religion,  of  the  service,  and  of  the 
having  baen  declared  in  1687  between  the  French  and  colony  demand  that  the  fort  on  the  bank  of  Lake 
the  Indians,  Perrot  and  his  followers  left  the  Missis-  Pepin  be  permanently  maintained.  In  September, 
sippi  River  and  repaired  to  Mackinac.  Early  in  1689,  1730,  Fort  Beauhamois  was  rebuilt  on  a  plot  of  higher 
however,  he  returned  with  a  party  of  forty  men  to  his  ground  near  the  old  establishment.  Upon  this  lofty 
post  on  Lake  Pepin,  and  re-established  trade  with  the  site,  surroimded  by  some  of  the  most  beautiful  scenery 
Dakotas.  On  a  map  published  in  1700  this  post  is  in  America,  now  stands  the  Ursuline  Convent,  Villa 
denominated  Fort  Bon  Secours;  three  years  later  it  Maria.  The  convent  chapel  very  properly  bears  the 
was  marked  Fort  Le  Sueur,  but  was  in  that  year  aban-  same  name  as  its  historic  predecessor,  St.  Michael  the 
doned.  In  a  much  later  map  it  is  correctly  called  Fort  Archangel.  Sieur  Linctot  was  made  commandant  of 
Perrot.  In  1700,  acting  upon  the  recommendation  of  the  new  fort  in  June,  1731,  and  in  1735  was  succeeded 
the  Governor  of  Louisiana,  Pierre  Le  Sueur,  a  native  by  St.  Pierre.  The  Dakotas  having  shown  a  very  hos- 
of  Artois,  France,  came  to  the  re^on  now  known  as  tile  spirit,  St.  Pierre  decided  to  aSandon  Fort  Beau- 
Minnesota  with  an  intelligent  ship  carpenter  named  hamois,  and  accordingly  on  13  May,  1737,  the  post 
Penicaut  and  about  twenty  others,  in  search  of  cop-  was  burned.  In  1743,  and  again  in  1746,  representa- 
per  which,  according  to  earlier  ejrolorers,  existed  m  tive  chiefs  of  the  Dakota  nation  made  a  journey  to 
the  Sioux  country.  Le  Sueur  and  his  party  spent  the  Quebec  and  presented  to  the  Government  of  New 
winter  of  that  year  in  the  neighbourhood  of  tne  great  France  a  petition  for  the  re-establishment  of  the  fort 
bend  of  the  Minisotah,  and  there  gathered  a  hirge  and  for  the  restoration  of  trade  relations.  Their  le- 
quantity  of  green  earth  which  was  supposed  to  con-  quest  was  not  granted  imtil  1750,  when  Pierre  Marin 
tain  copper  in  the  crude  state.  From  the  circum-  was  commissioned  to  rebuild  the  little  fortress.  Fort 
stance  that  this  earth  is  sometimes  de^ribed  by  Le  Beauhamois  was  retained  until  the  outbreak  of  the 
Sueur  and  his  contemporaries  as  "  blue  earth  ",  that  war  between  the  English  and  French,  but  it  was  never 
name  has  been  given  to  the  tributary  of  the  Minnesota  occupied  after  the  surrender  which  followed  the  defeat 
River  at  the  mouth  of  which  Le  Sueur  spent  a  winter  of  M!ontcalm  in  the  famous  battle  of  Quebec  (1759). 
and  built  a  fort,  and  also  to  the  ^counUr*  within  which  About  one-third  of  the  state,  comprising  its  north- 
the  site  of  this  old  fort  is  situated.  The  Dakota  word  eastern  part  to  the  east  of  the  Mississippi,  was  in- 
MahkaJUo  means  blue  or  green  earth,  and  that  word,  eluded  in  the  territory  surrendered  by  Great  Britain 
corrupted  in  the  course  of  time  to  Mankato,  is  the  under  the  treaty  of  1783,  at  the  end  of  the  War  of 
name  of  the  coimty  seat  of  Blue  Earth  Coimty .  Independence ;  tne  greater  portion  (about  two-thirds) 

A  trading  company,  formed  in  Montreal  to  carry  on  of  the  territory  emoraced  within  the  boundaries  of 
traffic  in  furs  witn  the  Indians  of  the  La  Baye  Depart-  Minnesota,  however,  was  included  in  the  Louisiana 
ment,  dispatched  on  16  June,  1727,  an  expedition  un-  Purchase,  ceded  to  the  United  States  by  France  in 
der  Ren6  Boucher  to  the  land  of  the  Sioux.  The  ex-  1803.  In  1805  a  grant  of  land  nine  miles  square,  at 
pedition  arrived  at  its  destination  on  the  shore  of  Lake  the  confluence  of  the  Mississippi  and  St.  Peter  (now 
Pepin  on  17  September.  Two  Jesuit  missionaries.  Minnesota)  Rivers,  was  obtained  from  the  Sioux  In- 
Bfichel  Guignas  and  Nicholas  de  Gonnor,  accompaniea  dians.  A  military  post  was  established  on  the  grant 
Boucher  and  his  small  command.  Before  the  end  of  in  1819,  and  in  1820  arrangements  were  made  for  tlM 
October  a  small  fort,  called  Beauhamois  as  a  compli-  erection  of  a  fort,  which  was  completed  in  1822  and 
ment  to  the  Governor  of  New  France,  was  built  on  the  named,  at  first  Fort  St.  Anthony,  but  later  Fort 
low  lands  opposite  the  towering  cliff  which  now  bears  Snelling  after  the  commanding  officer.  The  mnt  has 
the  name  of  Maiden  Rock.  A  chapel  was  erected  ever  since  been  known  as  the  Fort  Snelling  Keserva- 
within  the  enclosure  of  Fort  Beauhamois,  and  was  tion.  In  1823  the  first  steamboat  ascended  the  Mis- 
dedicated  to  St.  Michael  the  Archangel.  This  was  the  sissippi  as  far  as  Fort  Snellins,  and  annually  thereafter 
first  Christian  temple  to  cast  its  beneficent  shadow  one  or  two  trips  were  made  by  steamboats  to  this 
upon  the  soil  of  Minnesota.  The  first  ceremony  o(  isolate  post  for  a  number  of  years, 
note  in  the  new  chapel  was  the  celebration  of  the  feast  From  the  date  of  the  English  victory  over  the 
of  St.  Charles  of  which  Father  Guignas  writes:  French  until  the  establishment  of  Fort  St.  Anthony 
"We  did  not  fomt  that  the  4th  day  of  the  month  by  the  Government  of  the  United  States,  conditions 
[November]  was  tne  saint's  day  of  the  general.  Holy  were  unfavourable  for  the  maintenance  of  Catholic 
Mass  was  said  for  him  in  the  moming,  and  we  were  missions  in  the  Upper  Mississippi  country.  However, 
well  prepared  to  celebrate  the  event  m  the  evening,  some  colonists  from  Switzerland,  who  possessed  the 
but  tne  slowness  of  the  pyrotechnists  and  the  variable-  true  Faith  and  spoke  the  French  language,  having 
ness  of  the  weather  led  to  the  postponement  of  the  migrated  from  their  original  settlements  near  Fort 
celebration  to  the  14th  of  the  same  month,  when  Garry  in  Canada  to  a  place  seven  or  eight  miles  below 


MINNESOTA 


329 


MINNESOTA 


tlie  Falls  of  St.  Anthony,  Bishop  Mathias  Loias  of 
Dubuque,  whose  diocese  included  the  entire  region 
now  called  Minnesota,  visited  Fort  Snelling  and  the 
adjacent  Swiss  settlement  in  1839,  and  in  the  following 
year  sent  a  missionary  to  Minnesota,  Father  Lucien 
Galtier.  The  latter  established  himself  upon  the 
present  site  of  the  metropolitan  city  of  St.  Paul,  and 
in  the  foUowizig  year  built  a  log  chapel  which  he  called 
by  the  name  oftne  great  Apostle  of  the  Gentiles.  The 
gradual  increase  of  population  about  the  chapel,  the 
development  of  the  community  into  a  village  and 
finally  into  a  laige  city  under  the  name  of  St.  Paul, 
constitute  an  imposing  material  monument  to  the 
missionary  seal  of  Father  Galtier,  and  for  ever  associ- 
ate the  name  and  fame  of  the  capital  city  of  Minnesota 
with  the  glories  of  the  Catholic  Faith.  Minnesota  was 
oiganiseof  as  a  Federal  territoiy  by  Act  of  Congress 
of  1849,  and,  on  11  May,  1858,  its  territorial  existence 
terminated  and  it  became  a  state. 

Population. — The  population  of  the  state  has 
shown  a  rapid  increase.  According  to  the  successive 
census  returns  the  population  was:  172,023  in  1860; 
250,099  in  1865;  439,706  in  1870;  780,773  in  1880; 
1,117,798  in  1885;  1,301,826  in  1890;  1,997,912  in 
1905.  In  that  year,  the  population  of  the  five  largest 
cities  was:  Minneapolis,  261,874;  St.  Paul,  197,023; 
Duluth,  64,942;  Winona,  20,334;  Stillwater,  12,435. 
The  population  of  Minnesota  according  to  nationali- 
ties was  thus  classified  by  the  census  of  the  year  1905: 

Native  bom   366,767 

Minnesota  bom   1,057,566 

Germany 119,868 

Sweden  126,283 

Norway 111,611 

Canada   47,211 

Ireland    19,531 

Denmark 16,266 

England    11,598 

Bohemia 8,403 

Poland 7,881 

Finland 19,847 

Austria   14,403 

Russia 8,835 

Scotland  4,651 

France 1,277 

Wales    1,035 

All  other  Cotmtries 18,345 

rhjs  makes  a  total  foreign  bom  population  of  537,041. 
The  inmates  of  state  institutions,  and  the  10,225  In- 
dians in  the  state  at  the  time  of  taking  the  census,  are 
not  included  in  the  above  figures. 

The  progress  of  the  Catholic  Faith  in  Minnesota 
has  been  marvellous.  In  1841  the  mission  of  Father 
Galtier  included  some  twenty  families,  and  in  1851, 
when  Father  Joseph  Cretin  (q.  v.)  was  named  first 
Bishop  of  St.  Paul,  the  number  of  Catholics  in  Minne- 
sota is  estimated  to  have  been  about  1000.  In  1888 
the  See  of  St.  Paul  was  raised  to  archiepiscopal  rank, 
the  dioceses  of  St.  Cloud,  Winona,  Duluth,  Fargo, 
Sioux  Falls,  and  Lead  becoming  later  its  suffragans.  As 
each  of  these  dioceses  is  treated  in  a  special  article,  it 
will  be  sufficient  to  quote  here  some  general  statistics 
for  the  State  of  Minnesota,  which  includes  the  Arch- 
diocese of  St.  Paul  and  the  first  three  of  the  above- 
named  suffragans:  1  archbishop ;  4  bishops;  602  priests 
(476  secular) ;  406  churches  with  resident  priests;  168 
missions  with  churches ;  67  missions  without  churches ; 
67  chapels;  1  university;  6  orphan  asylums;  14  hospi- 
tals; 32,426  children  in  parochial  schools;  427,027 
Catholics.  The  recently  established  Diocese  of  Crooks- 
ton,  separated  from  Duluth,  will  constitute  an  addi- 
tional suffragan  of  St.  Paul. 

LiBERTT  OF  Conscience. — The  Constitution  pro- 
Hdes  expressly  for  religious  liberty  by  declaring  that 
*'  the  right  of  every  man  to  worship  Uod  according  to 
tbe  dictates  of  his  own  conscience  shall  never  be  in- 


fringed nor  shall  any  man  be  compelled  to  attend, 
erect  or  support  any  place  of  worship,  or  to  maintain 
any  religious  or  ecclesiastical  ministiy ,  against  his  con- 
sent, nor  shall  any  control  of  or  interference  with  the 
rights  of  conscience  be  permitted  or  any  preference  be 
given  by  law  to  any  religious  establishment  or  mode  of 
worahip."  It  further  provides:  "  No  religious  test  or 
amount  of  property  shall  ever  be  required  as  a  qualifi- 
cation for  any  office  of  public  trust  imder  the  State. 
No  religious  test  or  amount  of  property  shall  ever  be 
required  as  a  qualification  of  any  voter  at  any  election 
in  this  state;  nor  shall  any  person  be  rendered  incom- 
petent to  give  evidence  in  any  court  of  law  or  equity  in 
conseauence  of  his  opinion  upon  the  subject  of  re- 
ligion." This  Constitution  has  been  interpreted  by 
the  legislature  in  the  most  liberal  manner,  and  Minne- 
sota luLs  led  all  of  the  other  states  in  the  Union  in  pro- 
viding liberty  of  conscience  and  the  free  exercise  of  re- 
ligion in  favom*  of  the  inmates  of  penal,  correctional, 
and  eleemosynary  institutions.  The  general  statutes 
now  in  force  contain  these  provisions:  ''Religious  In- 
stmction. — Said  Board  [The  State  Board  of  Control] 
shall  provide  at  least  one  hour,  on  the  first  day  of  eacn 
week,  between  nine  o'clock  a.  m.  and  five  o'clock  p.  m., 
for  religious  instruction  to  inmates  of  all  prisons  and  re- 
formatories imder  its  control,  during  which  clergymen 
of  good  standing  ia  any  church  or  denomination 
may  freely  administer  and  impart  religious  rites  and 
instruction  to  those  desiring  the  same.  It  shall  provide 
a  private  room  where  such  instruction  can  be  given  by 
clergymen  of  the  denomination  desired  by  the  inmate, 
or  in  case  of  minors,  by  the  parents  or  guardian,  and, 
in  case  of  sickness,  some  otner  day  or  hour  may  be 
designated ;  but  all  sectarian  practices  are  prohibited, 
and  no  officer  or  employee  of  the  institution  shall  at- 
tempt to  influence  the  religious  belief  of  any  inmate, 
and  none  shall  be  required  to  attend  religious  services 
against  his  will ''  (Revised  Laws,  1905,  chap.  25,  sec. 
1003).  As  to  the  state  prison,  the  laws  provide: 
"  Visitors. — Fees. — The  members  of  the  state  board  of 
control,  the  governor,  lieutenant  governor,  members  of 
the  legislature,  state  officers,  anaregularly  authorised 
ministers  of  the  Gospel  may  visit  the  prisoners  at 
pleasure,  but  no  other  persons,  without  special  pei^ 
mission  of  the  warden,  under  rules  prescribed  by  said 
board.  A  moderate  fee  may  be  required  of  visitors, 
other  than  those  allowed  to  visit  at  pleasure.  Such 
fees  shall  be  used  to  defray  the  expenses  of  ushers  for 
conducting  such  visitors,  for  the  maintenance  of  the 
prison  library,  the  prison  band,  and  other  entertain- 
ments of  the  inmates''  (Chap.  105,  sec.  5434). 

Regulations  Concerning  Property. — The  Con- 
stitution of  Minnesota  provides  security  for  private 
rights  in  the  declaration  that  '*  every  person  is  entitled 
to  a  certain  remedy  in  the  laws  for  all  injuries  or 
wrongs  which  he  may  receive  in  his  person,  property 
or  character;  he  ought  to  obtain  iustice  freelv  and* 
without  purchase;  completely  ana  without  denial; 
promptly  and  without  delay ;  conformably  to  the  laws", 
and  by  the  further  provision  that,  "  private  property 
shall  not  be  taken,  destroyed  or  damaged  for  pub- 
lic use,  without  compensation  therefor  first  paid  or 
secured".  To  prevent  any  revival  of  abuses  and 
monopolies  such  as  grew  up  under  the  feudal  svstem, 
the  Constitution  contained  this  provision:  ''All  lands 
within  this  State  are  declared  to  be  allodial,  and  feudal 
tenures  of  every  description,  with  all  their  incidents, 
are  prohibited.  Leases  and  grants  of  agricultural 
land  for  a  longer  period  than  twenty-one  years,  heee- 
af  ter  made,  in  which  shall  be  reserved  any  rent  or  ser- 
vice of  any  kind,  shall  be  void." 

The  statutes  of  Minnesota  provide  for  the  free  and 
untrammelled  acquisition  of  real  property,  and  also 
for  abundant  security  to  its  possessor.  Estates  in 
lands  are  divided  by  sl^tute  into  estates  of  inheritance, 
estates  for  life,  estates  for  jrears,  and  estates  at  will  and 
by  sufferance.    The  decisions  of  the  Supreme  Court 


lONKBSOTA 


330 


MINNESOTA 


establish  the  principle  that  tenancies  from  year  to 
year  are  estates  at  will.  The  laws  further  provide 
that  every  estate  of  inheritance  shall  continue  to  be 
termed  a  fee  simple,  or  fee ;  and  everv  6uch  estate  when 
not  defeasible  or  conditional,  shaU  be  a  fee  simple 
absolute.  All  estates  which  would  at  conmion  law  be 
considered  as  estates  tail  are  deemed  and  adjudged  to 
be  fee  simple  estates  in  the  person  who  would,  other- 
wise, be  seized  thereof  in  fee  tail.  Every  future  estate 
is  void  in  its  creation,  which  suspends  the  absolute 
power  of  alienation  by  any  limitation  for  a  longer 
period  than  during  the  continuance  of  two  lives  in 
being  at  the  creation  of  the  estate,  except  that  a  con- 
tingent remainder  in  fee  may  be  created  on  a  prior 
remainder  in  fee,  to  take  effect  in  the  event  that  the 
persons,  to  whom  the  first  remainder  is  limited,  die 
under  the  age  of  twenty-one  years,  or  upon  any  other 
contingency  by  which  the  estate  of  such  persons  may 
be  determined  before  thev  attain  their  full  a||e.  The 
rule  in  Shelley's  case  has  been  abolished.  With  a  few 
express  exceptions,  no  corporation,  unless  organised 
for  the  construction  or  operation  of  a  railway,  canal,  or 
turnpike,  may  acquire  more  than  five  thousand  (5000) 
acres  of  land.  Uses  and  trusts,  with  a  few  exceptions, 
have  been  abolished. 

Religious  Corporations. — In  furtherance  of  the 
liberal  principles  regarding  the  exercise  of  religion 
contained  in  the  state  Constitution,  the  laws  of  Minne- 
sota provide  for  the  creation  of  religious  coiporations 
and  special  statutory  provisions  enable  a  bishop  of 
the  Catholic  Church,  m  association  with  the  vicar- 

fsneral  and  the  chancellor  of  his  diocese,  to  create  such 
iocese  a  corporate  body.  The  bishop  and  vicar- 
general,  in  association  with  the  pastor  of  any  parish, 
are  likewise  authorized  to  create  parochial  corpora- 
tions. These  corporations  have  the  right  to  acquire 
and  to  hold  land  to  the  same  extent  as  have  individu- 
als. Every  person  (and  the  term  includes  married 
women)  may  dispose  of  his  estate,  real  and  personal, 
or  any  part  thereof,  or  right  or  interest  therein,  by 
a  last  will  and  testament,  in  writing.  There  is  no 
limitation  on  religious  bequests,  ana  full  force  and 
effect  have  been  given  thereto  by  the  decisioios  of 
the  courts. 

Charitable  Societies  and  iNSTrrtrnoNa. — The 
laws  of  Minnesota  contain  the  most  liberal  provisions 
for  the  founding  and  incorporation  of  charitable 
societies.  Under  these  provisions,  many  Catholic 
hospitals,  orphanages,  refuges,  and  reformatories  have 
been  established.  The  public  charitable  institutions 
of  the  state  are  various  and  manifold.  Provision  is 
made  for  the  care  and  treatment  of  all  insane  persons, 
not  onl]^  in  great  general  hospitals,  but  also  in  various 
institutions  equipped  with  buildings  on  the  "cottage 
group"  plan  for  the  custody  of  the  harmless  and  in- 
curaole  insane.  The  state  prison  is  situated  at  Still- 
water and  is  a  most  admirably  conducted  penitentiary. 
The  state  reformatory  is  at  St.  Cloud  and  receives 
for  correction,  rather  than  for  punishment,  offenders 
whose  ages  range  from  sixteen  to  thirty  years.  This 
institution  is  managed  upon  the  benevolent  plan  of  in- 
struction of  the  mind  and  the  rehabilitation  of  charac- 
ter. For  boys  of  wayward  tendencies  who  have  re- 
peatedly violated  the  laws  of  the  state,  is  provided  the 
state  training  school,  at  Red  Wing,  which  is  not  only  a 
school  of  moral  and  mental  discipline,  but  also  a 
manual  training  school.  Wayward  girls  are  accom- 
modated and  placed  under  moral  restraint  at  a  similar 
institution.  Each  coimty  provides  for  paupers  in  a 
eounty  alms-house,  and  also  distributes  out-door  re- 
lief to  the  poor.  AU  public  charitable  institutions 
and  agencies  are  imder  the  watchful  care  of  the  state 
board  of  control,  consistii^  of  three  members  ap- 
pointed by  the  governor.  The  board  of  control  not 
only  has  visitorial  powers,  but  is  also  invested  with 
administrative  functions.  It  has  proved  highly 
efficient.     The  public   charities  of  Minnesota  are 


famous  throughout  the  world  for  their  advanced 
humanitarianism  and  general  excellence. 

Marriage  and  Divorce. — The  statutes  of  Minne- 
sota declare  that  marriage,  so  far  as  its  vtJidity  in  law 
is  concerned,  is  a  civil  contract,  to  which  the  consent 
of  the  parties  capable  in  law  of  contracting  is  essential. 
Every  male  person  who  has  attained  t!ie  full  age  of 
eighteen  years,  and  every  female  person  who  has  at- 
tamed  the  full  age  of  fifteen  shears,  is  capable  in  law 
of  contracting  marriage,  if  otherwise  competent.  No 
marriage  may  be  contracted  while  either  of  the  parties 
has  a  husband  or  wife  living;  nor  within  six  months 
after  either  has  been  divorced  from  a  former  spouse; 
nor  between  parties  who  are  nearer  of  kin  than  first 
cousin,  whether  of  the  half  or  full  blood,  computed  by 
the  rules  of  the  civil  law;  nor  between  persons  either 
one  of  whom  is  epileptic,  imbecile,  feeble-minded,  or 
insane.  Marriace  may  be  solemnized  by  any  justice 
of  the  peace  in  the  cotmty  in  which  he  is  elected,  and 
throughout  the  state  by  anv  judge  of  a  court  of  record, 
the  superintendent  of  the  aepartment  for  the  deaf  ana 
dumb  (in  the  state  school  for  the  deaf  and  dumb),  or 
by  any  licensed  or  ordained  minister  of  the  gospel  in 
regular  communion  with  a  reli^ous  society.  Before 
any  persons  are  joined  in  marriage,  a  license  must  be 
obtamed  from  the  clerk  of  the  district  court  of  the 
county  in  which  the  woman  resides,  or,  if  not  a  resident 
of  the  state,  then  from  such  clerk  in  the  county  where 
the  marriage  is  to  take  place. 

The  statutes  of  Minnesota  are  liberal  in  regard  to 
divorce.  A  divorce  from  the  bonds  of  matrimony  may 
be  adjudged  by  the  district  court  for  any  of  the  follow- 
ing causes:  (1)  adultery;  (2)  impotency;  (3)  cruel  and 
inhuman  treatment;  (4)  sentence  to  imprisonment  in 
any  state  prison  or  state  reformatory  subsequent  to 
the  marria^,  and  in  such  case  a  pardon  will  not  restore 
conjugal  nghts;  (5)  wilful  desertion  for  one  year  next 
preceding  the  filing  of  the  complaint;  (6)  habitual 
drunkenness  for  one  year  immediately  preceding  the 
filing  of  the  complaint.  Limited  divorces,  extending 
to  a  separation  a  mensa  et  taro  permanently  or  for  a 
limitea  time,  may  be  adjudged  by  the  district  court, 
on  the  complaint  of  a  married  woman,  between  any 
husband  and  wife  who  are  inhabitants  of  the  state,  or 
in  cases  where  the  marriage  has  taken  place  within  the 
state  and  the  wife  is  an  actual  resident  at  the  time  of 
filing  her  complaint;  or  in  cases  where  the  marriage  has 
taken  place  outside  the  state  and  the  parties  have  heea 
inhabitants  of  the  state  at  least  one  year,  and  the  wife 
shall  be  an  actual  resident  at  the  time  of  the  filing  of 
her  complaint.  The  grounds  upon  which  limited 
divorces  may  be  granted  are:  (1)  cruel  and  inhuman 
treatment  by  the  nusband ;  (2)  such  conduct  on  the 
part  of  a  husband  toward  his  wife  as  may  render  it 
unsafe  and  improper  for  her  to  cohabit  with  him*  (3) 
the  abuidonment  of  the  wife  by  the  husband  ana  his 
refusal  or  neglect  to  provide  for  her. 

Public  Education. — ^The  public  property  of  the 
state  consists  of  realty  used  in  connexion  with  the 
various  public  institutions,  and  also  of  a  large  public 
domain  consisting  of  lands  granted  to  the  State  Gov- 
ernment by  the  General  Government  of  the  United 
States  at  the  time  when  the  State  of  Minnesota  was 
admitted  to  the  Union ;  such  grants  having  been  made 
for  the  benefit  of  the  state  university,  for  the  support 
of  the  common  school  S3rstem,  and  for  the  purpose  of 
miJcing  internal  improvements.  The  title  to  such 
lands  is  vested  in  the  State  of  Minnesota,  and  the  care 
and  contrM  of  such  lands  is  vested  in  the  auditor  of  the 
st&te,  who  is  e::  officio  Land  Commissioner  of  Minne- 
sota. The  portion  of  the  grant  assigned  to  the  support 
of  public  education  has  been  estimated  by  competent 
authority  to  be  sufficient  to  yield  ultimately  a  fund  of 
$250,000,000.  The  educational  system  of  the  state 
is  organized  as  follov.s:  School  districts  are  divided 
into  common,  independent,  and  special.  Among 
schools  are  distinguished  state  rural  schools,  state 


MINOB 


331 


MINOB 


semi-eraded  schools,  state  graded  schools,  state  high 
schoob,  nonnal  schools,  and  university.  A  common 
school  district  is  controlled  by  a  board  of  three  mem- 
bers ;  an  independent,  by  one  of  six  members ;  a  special, 
by  a  board  of  six  or  more  members.  Common  schools 
are  supervised  b;^  a  county  superintendent;  inde- 
pendent and  special  districts  have  their  own  superin- 
tendents, and  in  the  main  are  not  subject  to  the  countv 
superintendents.  The  state  eradea  and  state  hign 
schools  are  subject  to  a  board  of  five  members;  the 
president  of  the  state  university,  the  superintendent  of 
public  instruction^  and  the  president  of  normal  school 
Doard  are  ex-officio  members,  a  city  superintendent  or 
high  school  principal  and  a  fifth  member  are  appointed 
by  the  governor.  The  normal  schools  are  controlled 
b^  a  board  of  nine  members;  five  of  these  are  resident 
directors;  three  are  appointed  for  the  state  at  laige, 
and  one,  the  superintendent  of  public  instruction, 
serves  ex-officio.  The  state  university  is  situated  in 
Minneapolis  and  is  in  a  most  flourishing  condition.  Its 
enrollment  for  the  year  1909-10  includes  5000  students. 
The  university  is  controlled  by  a  board  of  twelve  re- 
gents ;  the  governor,  the  president  of  the  university  and 
the  superintendent  of  public  instruction  are  ex-olficio 
members,  and  nine  are  appointed  by  the  governor. 

The  public  schools  of  the  state  are  supported  by  a 
direct  tax  upon  the  property  of  the  school  districts,  by 
a  county  one-mill  ($-001)  tax,  by  a  state  mill  tax.  and 
by  the  income  from  the  permanent  school  funa,  to- 
gether with  small  fines  that  are  accredited  to  this  fund. 
No  religious  school  receives  any  subsidy  direct  or  in- 
direct. The  educational  institutions  established  by 
the  Catholic  Church  have  exhibited  wonderful  vitality 
and  increase.  The  Seminary  of  St.  Paul,  a  monument 
to  the  seal  of  Archbishop  Ireland,  is  the  leading  in- 
stitution of  theological  instruction  in  the  North- 
west. A  university  is  conducted  by  the  Benedic- 
tines at  CoUegeville,  in  the  Diocese  of  St.  Cloud, 
Minnesota,  ana  is  well  supplied  with  all  the  facilities 
for  modem  education,  including  laboratoiy  equipment 
and  scientific  collections.  The  College  of  St.  Tnomas 
at  St.  Paul  has  not  only  acquired  a  reputation  as  a  seat 
of  learning  and  soimd  instruction  in  the  classics,  but 
also  as  a  military  school  of  the  first  rank.  It  is  at- 
tended bv  six  hundred. cadets  and  is  constantly  ex- 
panding ooth  in  educational  facilities  and  in  attend- 
ance. The  College  of  St.  Catherine  at  St.  Paul  is  the 
leading  Catholic  institution  for  the  education  of 
women,  but  the  education  of  eirb  and  women  is  pro- 
vided for  in  many  other  excellent  institutions  in  the 
Archdiocese  of  St.  Paul  and  other  parts  of  the  state. 

Bakcroit,  Hiti,  of  the  U.  S.  A.,  II  (Bonton,  1879);  Nrill. 
HiM.  of  MinnemAa  (Minneapolis.  1882);  Diocete  of  St.  Paul, 
OoUUn  JvbiUe  (St.  Paul.  1901);  Shra.  Hennepin's  Deacription 
of  Louinana;  JeauU  ReUUionSt  LXVIII,  207;  AnnaU  of  the 
Faith  (Dublin,  1840);  Memoin  of  Rev.  A.  Ravoux  (St.  Paul. 

1900).  John  W.  Willis. 

Minor  (Lat.  minor),  that  which  is  less,  or  inferior  in 
comparison  with  another,  the  term  being  employed  as 
well  of  things  as  of  persons.  To  glance  rapidly  at  its 
application  to  thin^,  we  may  mention  causce  minoreSf 
matters  of  lesser  importance,  as  opposed  to  causcB 
majores.  those  more  important;  minor  benefices  as 
opposea  to  the  major  benefices,  which  imply  jurisdic- 
tion and  are  confirmed  in  papal  consistory;  minor 
churches  or  those  of  inferior  rank;  the  minor  excom- 
munication (now  out  of  use),  as  opposed  to  the  major 
excommunication.  In  reference  to  persons,  certain 
uses  of  the  word  minor  mav  also  be  mentioned  which 
depend  upon  usase  rather  than  upon  law:  the  younger 
of  two  persons  of  the  same  name  is  sometimes  called 
minor  (or  "  the  less")  as  St.  James  the  Less.  Through 
humilitv  St.  Francis  of  Asslsi  gave  his  religious  the 
name  of  *'  Friars  Minor  ",  that  is,  less  than  other  friars. 

But  in  its  most  frequent  and  most  strictly  judicial 
acceptation^  the  word  designates  a  person  who,  having 
passed  his  mfancy,  has  not  yet  reached  the  age  re- 


ouired  by  law  for  the  performance  of  certain  acts  of 
tne  exercise  of  certain  rights;  in  practice  the  utmost 
Umit  is  considered,  and  beyond  it  there  exists  no 
restriction;  those  are  called  minors  who  have  not  yet 
reached  the  age  at  which  the  law  makes  them  capable 
of  performing  all  civil  acts  whatever,  especially  the 
administration  of  their  property.  This  age  being  fixed 
by  most  modem  laws  at  twenty-one  years,  everyone 
is  a  minor  until  the  age  of  twenty-one,  or  whatever 
may  be  the  legal  age  of  majori^.  As  the  matter  is 
primarily  one  of  civu  rights,  the  Church  leaves  distinc- 
tions to  the  civil  law.  In  what  concerns  canon  law  and 
Christian  acts,  no  uniform  limit  of  minority  has  ever 
been  established;  for  given  acts  and  rights  the  canon 
law  and  ecclesiastical  usage  haveestabli&bed  the  neces- 
sary and  sufficient  age.  In  the  first  place  children  are 
not  considered  as  minors;  h  is  presumed  that  until  the 
age  of  reason,  legally  fixed  at  seven  years,  a  child  pos- 
sesses neither  the  intelligence  nor  the  experience  to 
commit  sin  or  to  exercise  any  rights  whatsoever. 
When  no  longer  a  child  a  person  Incomes  a  minor. 
Minors  are  either  under  or  over  the  age  of  puberty, 
which  is  fixed  by  the  Roman  law  at  fourteen  full  years 
for  boys  and  twelve  full  years  for  girls;  between  the 
age  of  seven  years  and  that  of  puberty  they  are  said  to 
be  nearer,  or  less  near  to  infancy  or  puberty,  as  the 
case  may  be.  For  those  under  puberty,  there  begins 
with  the  age  of  reason  the  obligation  of  observing  the 
moral  law  and  those  precepts  of  the  Church  from 
which  they  are  not  exempt  by  their  age,  notably  the 
obligation  to  receive  the  Sacraments;  such  minors 
therefore  are  capable  of  sinning  although  their  respon- 
sibility is  less  in  proportion  as  they  are  nearer  cnild- 
hood;  for  this  reason  they  are  not  liable  to  the  pen- 
alties of  the  forum  externum,  except  where  this  is 
specially  provided.  It  is  presumed  tnat  with  puberty 
the  Christian  begins  to  enjoy  the  plenitude  of  his  intel- 
ligence and  liberty  in  spiritual  matters  and  purely 
personal  rights:  the  minor  of  the  a^  of  puberty  can 
contract  marriage,  he  can  receive  mmor  orders,  and  be 
nominated  to  and  administrate  a  benefice  (Cone.  Trid., 
Sess.  XXIII,  c.  vi, "  De  ref. ";  c.  iii,  " De  judic. ",  in  6). 
There  are,  however,  acts  binding  his  future  which  he 
cannot  perform  until  at  a  more  advanced  age ;  he  cannot 
make  a  religious  profession  until  the  age  of  sixteen  is 
completed  (CJonc.  Trid.,  Sess.  XXV.  " Be  regular",  c. 
xv);  he  cannot  receive  the  sub-diaconate  TOfore  nis 
twenty-first  year  (Sess.  XXIII.  c.  vii).  At  the  age  of 
twenty-one,  too,  he  begins  to  be  subject  to  the  law  of 
fasting.  (For  more  ample  developments  see  Agb, 
Canonical.) 

A  leading  characteristic  in  all  legislation  on  minora 
is  the  protection  afforded  them  in  regard  to  the  admin- 
btration  of  property  and  the  obligations  which  they 
can  assume  m  reference  to  third  partic  s.  As  a  geneiul 
rule  the  liberty  of  minors  is  unrestrained  as  to  con- 
tracts which  are  to  their  advantage,  but  they  cannot 
make  any  contracts  which  are  buraensome  to  them- 
selves except  under  certain  determined  formalities, 
and  with  the  required  authorisation.  Still  more,  if 
they  consider  themselves  as  suffering  by  such  con- 
tracts they  may,  by  the  terms  of  the  Roman  Law  C'  De 
minorib.,  xxv,  ann."  ff.,  IV,  iv),  for  four  years  after 
their  majority  of  twenty-five  years,  obtain  the  "resti- 
tutio in  integrum",  i.  e.  a  judicial  decree  restored  the 
condition  of  things  which  existed  before  the  contract 
by  which  the  minor  suffered.  These  provisions  have 
been  more  or  less  completely  embodied  in  the  modem 
laws  of  various  countries,  the  discussion  of  which 
would  be  out  of  place  here.  It  is  enough  to  say  that 
the  canon  law  has  accepted  them  (Decret.,  lib.  I,  tit 
xli,  "De  in  integrum  restitutione"),  and  applied  them 
to  churches  and  other  juridical  entities  which  it  was 
expedient  _  to  protect  against  maladministration, 
when  it  is  said  that  churches  are  assimilated  to 
minors  (c.  vii,  3j  8,  "De  in  integrum  restit.")  the 
meaning  is  that,  in  respect  to  buroensome  contracts. 


MmOBCA 


332 


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churches  and  other  ecclesiastical  establishments  are 
subject  to  the  same  protective  measures,  and  enjoy 
the  same  privileges,  as  minors. 

D'Annibalb,  Summtda^  I,  n.  33;  Fbrrarib,  Prompta  Bibli- 
otheoa,  a.  v.  ^Uu;  the  Canonists  on  lib.  I,  Decret,  tit.  bd.  See 
also  bibliosraphy  to  Age,  Canonical. 

A.  BOUDINHON. 

Iffinorca,  Diocese  of  (Minoricensis),  suffragan 
of  Valencia,  comprises  the  Island  of  Minorca,  the  sec- 
ond in  size  of  the  Balearic  Islands^  which  are  posses- 
sions of  Spain.  The  civil  ^pital  is  Port  Mahon ;  the 
ecclesiastical,  Ciudadela.  Tne  origin  of  the  Diocese 
of  Minorca  is  not  known,  but  it  certainly  existed  in  the 
fifth  century,  as  its  bishop,  Macarius,  together  with 
Elias  and  OpUio,  Bishops  of  Majorca  and  Iviza,  came 
to  Carthage  in  484  to  make  profession  of  his  faith. 
Baronius  published  from  a  Vatican  MS.,  a  letter  of 
Severus,  Bishop  of  Minorca  in  the  fifth  century.  Da- 
meto  translates  and  inserts  it.  The  learned  Antonio 
Roig,  a  native  of  Minorca,  rector  of  Felanitx,  pub- 
lished in  1787  a  Latin  treatise  commenting  upon  it  and 
defending  its  authenticity.  But  the  account  of  the 
expedition  imdertaken,  imder  the  direction  of  a  cer- 
tam  Theodore,  to  convert  the  Jews  who  were  in  pos- 
session of  Minorca,  and  the  events  therein  related,  are 
of  a  legendaiy  character. 

The  Vandals  took  possession  of  Minorca,  as  well  as 
of  Corsica,  Sardinia,  and  Sicily,  and  during  their  do- 
minion the  Diocese  of  Minorca  was  under  the  jurisdic- 
tion of  tiie  metropolitan  See  of  Sardinia.  The  Bull  of 
Pope  Romanus,  dated  897^  in  which  among  other  tei^ 
ritories  assign^  to  the  Bishop  of  Gerona  we  find  the 
islands  of  Majorca  and  Minorca,  shows  that  the  inva- 
sion of  Spain  by  the  Mohammedans  brought  the  exist- 
ence of  tne  Diocese  of  Minorca  to  an  end.  It  was  not 
re-established  until  the  eighteenth  century.  When 
Minorca  was  recovered,  in  1783,  from  the  English, 
who  obtained  possession  of  it  in  tne  War  of  the  Span- 
ish Succession  (1701-14),  the  re-establishment  of  the 
diocese  was  considered.  Pius  VI  by  the  Bull  of  23 
July,  1795,  erected  the  new  Diocese  of  Minorca.  Its 
first  bishop,  Antonio  Vila,  a  native  of  Minorca,  took 
possession  of  tiie  see  on  2  September,  1798.  He  was  a 
man  of  learning,  and  the  author  of  ^'El  noble  bien 
educado''  (Madrid,  1776),  "Vida  y  Virtudes  del  in- 
victo  mdrtir  .  .  .  S.  Juan  Nepomuceno"  (Madrid, 
1777),  and  "El  VasaUo  instruido"  (Madrid,  1792). 
Tlie  last-named  won  for  its  author  his  canonry  in  the 
cathedral  of  Minorca.  He  also  worked  on  an  ency- 
clopedic dictionary  of  which  twenty  volumes  in  folio 
are  still  preserved  in  the  cathedral  of  Albarracfn.  On 
25  July,  1802,  Bishop  Vila  was  transferred  to  the  Dio- 
cese of  Albarracln,  where  he  died  30  October,  1809. 
D.  Pedro  Antonio  «luano  was  appointed  to  succeed  him 
in  1814,  and  was  followed  by  the  famous  D.  Jaime 
Creus  y  Martf,  canon  of  Ui^l,  president  of  the  Junta 
Suprema  of  Catalonia  during  the  War  of  Independ- 
ence, deputy  in  the  Cortes  of  Cadiz,  and  a  member  of 
the  Koyal  Coimcil.  Having  been  raised  to  the  dig- 
nity of  Archbishop  of  Tarragona,  he  was  succeeded  by 
D.  Antonio  de  Ceruelo  and  the  Dominican  Fray  An- 
tonio Diaz  Merino,  who,  since  1825,  had  been  an  active 
collaborator  in  the  "Biblioteca  de  Religi6n".  In 
1837  Fray  Antonio  was  exiled  first  to  Cadiz  and  then 
to  France,  and  died  at  Marseilles  in  1844.  His  succes- 
sor, D.  Mateo  Jaume  was  present  at  the  Vatican  Coun- 
cil .  Since  then  the  see  has  been  filled  in  succession  by 
D.  Manuel  Mercador  (1875-90),  D.  Juan  Comes  y  Vidal, 
founder  of  the  Academia  de  la  Juventud  Cat61ica  (26 
July,  1906),  D.  Salvador  Castellote  y  Pinazo  (1901-6), 
and  D.  Juan  Torres  y  Ribas,  the  present  bishop. 

The  capital.  Port  Mahon,  which  has  a  population  of 
18,445,  is  on  tne  east  coast  and  has  the  best  port  in  the 
Mediterranean.  The  saying,  '' Junio,  Julio,  Agosto  y 
Puerto  Mah6n,  Los  mejores  puertos  del  Mediterraneo 
son ''  (June,  July,  August,  and  Port  Mahon  are  the  best 
V  arbours  in  the  Mediterranean),  is  attributed  to  tiie 


famous  Andrea  Doria.  At  the  entranoe  stand  the  foi  • 
tresses  of  San  Felipe,  built  by  Philip  II,  la  Mola,  and 
Isabel  II.  The  Isla  del  Rey  (Island  of  the  King),  so 
called  from  the  fact  that  Alfonso  III  landed  there  wnen 
he  visited  Minorca  in  1287,  is  in  the  centre.  In  the  thir- 
teenth century  the  famous  military  hospital  was  built 
on  this  island .  Port  Mahon  has  a  school  for  seoondaiy 
instruction  and  a  custom-house  of  the  first  order. 

Among  the  public  buildings  the  most  noteworthy 
are  the  court-house  and  the  parish  church  built  by 
order  of  Alfonso  III.  The  latter  has  a  magnificent  or- 
gan. A  handsome  facade  ornaments  the  entrance  to 
the  cemetery.  Ciudadela.  the  episcopal  city,  is  be- 
lieved to  be  the  Jamnona  oi  the  Carthagmians,  foimded 
by  their  captain  Jamna,  or  Jama.  Many  traces  of  an 
earlier  Celtic  civilization  are  to  be  found  here,  among 
which  may  be  mentioned  the  talayota  (Cyclopean  con- 
structions of  huge  blocks  of  stone  in  the  shape  of  a 
tower  with  a  hi^  entrance),  obelisks,  dolmens,  cov- 
ered galleries,  and  comeillons,  or  Celtic  cemeteries. 
Many  Roman  inscriptions,  vases,  and  coins  are  also  to 
be  found.  The  city  is  fairly  well  laid  out  and  well 
kept,  and  has  a  population  of  8,000.  It  has  a  fortress 
and  other  defensive  works.  On  the  Paseo  del  Borne 
there  is  an  obelisk  about  72  feet  in  height,  erected  to 
the  memory  of  the  heroes  of  9  July,  1558,  when  the 
Turks  attacked  Ciudadela.  The  defenders  of  the  city 
on  this  occasion  were  commanded  by  Negrete  y  Ar- 
q^uimbau,  and  the  monument  was  erected  on  the  initia- 
tive of  the  Franciscan,  Jos^  Niu,  who  died  caring  for 
the  victims  of  the  cholera  epidemic  of  1865. 

The  cathedral  of  Minorca  had,  from  the  time  of  its 
foundation  in  1287,  all  the  magnificence  requisite  for 
the  only  parish  church  of  Ciudadela,  then  the  capital 
of  the  island.  A  memorial  tablet  of  the  year  1362 
says  that  Juan  Corca  held  a  benefice  in  this  church. 
Constructed  in  the  Gothic  style  of  architecture,  with 
a  single  nave,  it  presents  an  imposing  appearance. 
The  belfry  is  square,  finished  with  an  octagonal  spire. 
In  the  beginning  of  the  last  centunr  the  main  entranoe 
was  enriched  with  a  mass  of  Grseco-Roman  architecture, 
but  the  original  Gothic  portal  is  still  preserved  behind 
this.  When  the  Turks  attacked  the  city  they  fired 
the  church .  Bishop  Comes  y  Vidal  restored  it,  adding 
numerous  small  windows,  and  restoring  the  main  al- 
tar. Other  church  buildings  of  note  are  the  chapel  of 
the  convent  of  the  Poor  Clares  (ogival  style)  and  the 
church  of  San  Agustfn,  very  spacious  and  elegant. 
The  latter  has  two  towers  on  each  side  of  the  portico, 
colossal  frescoes,  now  in  a  bad  state  of  preservation, 
and  rich  gildings ;  it  is  used  at  present  for  the  chapel  ot 
the  diocesan  seminary  which  was  installed  by  Bishop 
Jaume  in  the  ancient  convent  del  Socorro.  This  sem- 
inary (San  Ildefonso)  was  foimded  by  the  learned 
Franciscan  Niu,  in  1858.  Lastly,  there  may  be  men- 
tioned the  church  of  San  Francisco,  in  the  Gothic 

style. 

Crdnica  ocneral  de  Espaila;  Fuloobio,  Cr^nioa  de  lot  ieiaa 
BcUearea  (Madrid,  1867);  Biografia  ecUmdetiea  eompUta  (Ma- 
drid, 184S-68);  DE  LA  FuBNTE,  Sidoria  edeeidetica  de  EapaAa 
(Barcelona,  1855),  III:  PirsRRER  and  Cuadrado,  Bapafla,  eu9 
fnonumenioa  y  artee:  lauu  BofoorM  (Barcelona,  1888). 

Ham6n  Ruiz  Amado. 

BSinor  Olerks  Regular.    See  Francis  CARACCiOLOy 

Saint. 

MinoiiteB.  See  Franciscan  Ordbr;  Fbiabs 
Minor. 

Iffinor  Orders  (Lat.  Ordines  Minores), — ^The  lower 
degrees  of  the  hierarchy  are  designated  bv  the  name 
of  minor  orders,  in  opposition  to  the  *'^major"  or 
''  sacred  "  orders.  At  tne  present  time  the  ranks  of 
the  cler^  are  entered  by  the  tonsure  (q.  v.),  after 
which  ail  the  orders  without  omission  are  received 
in  succession.  Moreover,  ecclesiastics,  as  a  ejeneral 
rule,  no  longer  remain  in  the  lower  orders,  the  Titurei- 
cal  functions  of  which  are  discharged  either  by  the 
clergy  in  the  higher  orders,  as  in  exorcism,  or  by  the 


333 


Uuty,  as  in  singii^  and  serving  at  the  altar.  Formerly 
one  entered  the  clergy  by  being  appointed  to  dischargn 
any  of  the  functions  reserved  to  ecclesiastics.  Such 
functions  were  of  two  kinds.  The  liturgical  ones  con- 
8titut«xl  ordersi  though  of  a  lower  rank;  by  ordination 
the  recipients  of  the  minor  orders  received  official 
authority  to  perform  these  functions.  The  other 
ecclesiastical  fimctions  were  rather  offices  entrusted 
to  clerics,  whether  ordained  or  not.  Thus  in  the  first 
centuries  there  figured  in  the  ranks  of  the  clergy  no- 
taries, defenaores  ecdeaicBi  aconomi,  catechists,  cantors. 
fossorea  (for  the  cemeteries),  etc.,  to  say  nothing  oi 
deaconesses.  But  these  various  offices  did  not  con- 
stitute orders,  and  those  who  filled  them  formed 
part  of  the  clergy  without  having  been  ordained,  like 
tonsured  clerics  and  lay-brothers  of  to-day.  As  to  the 
lituiigical  functions  attached  to  the  various  minor  or- 
ders, they  are  really  but  a  participation,  originally 
rather  indefinite,  in  the  litui^cal  ministry  formerly 
confided  entirely  to  the  deacons.  This  explains  why 
minor  orders  differ  in  the  Latin  Church  and  in  the 
▼arious  Eastern  Churches. 

In  the  East,  though  at  an  early  date  we  hear  of  por- 
ters and  exorcists  (never  of  acolytes),  after  the  Trullan 
^mod  in  692,  in  accordance  with  its  sixth  canon,  only 
lectors  and  cantors  are  known,  and  often  even  these 
orders  coalesce,  or  are  conferred  at  the  same  time ;  the 
three  other  minor  orders  of  the  Latin  Church  (porter, 
exorcist,  acoWte)  are  held  to  be  included  in  the  sub- 
diaconate.  La  the  East,  moreover,  the  subdiaconate 
has  remained  a  minor  oider;  in  the  West  it  was  grad- 
ually detached  from  the  minor  orders,  on  account 
of  its  higher  liturgical  functions  and  also  because  of 
the  vow  of  oelibacv  it  called  for.  Finally,  Innocent  III 
definitively  included  it  in  the  major  oraers,  and  made 
the  subdeacon,  as  well  as  the  deacon  and  priest,  eligi- 
ble for  the  episcopate  (c.  9,  **  De  setate  et  qualit.  ",1, 
tit.  14,  an.  1207).  There  are,  then,  in  the  Western 
Church  four  minor  orders:  porter,  lector,  exorcist,  and 
acolyte ;  the  cantors  merely  exercise  an  office  and  are 
not  an  order.  These  four  orders  are  all  mentioned 
about  the  year  252  in  the  famous  letter  of  Pope  Cor- 
nelius to  Fabius  of  Antioch  (Euseb.,  **  Hist.  Eccl. ",  I, 
▼i,  43) :  "  He  (Novatian)  knew  that  there  were  in  this 
Church  (of  Rome)  46  priests,  7  deacons,  7  subdeacons, 
42  acolytes,  and  52  exorcists,  lectors,  and  porters." 
This  quotation  shows  that  besides  the  acolytes,  who 
were  enumerated  separately  and  were  at  Rome  almost 
assimilated  with  the  subdeacons,  there  was  a  kind  of 
indefinite  class  formed  by  the  clerics  of  the  three  latter 
orders.  This  seems  to  indicate  that  all  clerics  did  not 
necessarily  pass  through  the  four  lower  orders;  as  a 
matter  of  fact  the  Council  of  Sardica  (can.  xiii)  men- 
tions only  the  lectorate  as  obligatorv  before  receiving 
the  diaeonate.  Pope  Siricius  (Ad  Himerium,  nn. 
9-10)  and  Pope  Zosimus  (Ad  Hesychium,  nn.  1  and  3) 
describe  for  us  the  ordinary  career  of  Roman  clerics: 
from  boyhood  or  youth  they  are  lectors;  about  the 
age  of  twenty,  acolytes  or  subdeacons;  those  who 
enter  the  clergy  when  already  |[rown  up  are  first 
exorcists  or  lectors,  after  a  certam  time  acolytes  or 
subdeacons.  Briefly,  it  appears  that  the  obligation 
of  receiving  all  the  minor  orders  without  exception 
is  a  law  dating  from  the  time  when  the  minor  orders 
ceased  to  be  exercised  in  the  original  way.  Moreover, 
there  is  no  longer  any  fixed  age  at  which  the  minor 
orders  may  be  received.  Canon  law  \s  silent  on  the 
subject.  Canonists,  including  Benedict  XIV  (Consti- 
tution, "Eo  auamvis",  4  May,  1745),  admit  that  minor 
orders  may  be  conferred  not  only  on  those  who  have 
reached  tlie  age  of  puberty,  but  on  boys  over  seven 
years.  In  fact,  minor  orders  are  usually  conferred  on 
ecclesiastical  students  during  their  seminary  studies. 
The  Council  of  Trent  requires  merely  that  the  candi- 
dates understand  Latin  (Sess.  XXIII,  c.  xii). 

Although  several  medieval  theolop:ians  regarded 
minor  orders  as  sacramental,  this  opinion  is  no  longer 


held,  for  the  fundamental  reason  that  minor  orders, 
also  the  subdiaconate,  are  not  of  Divine  or  Apostolic 
origin.  The  rites  by  which  they  are  conferred  are 
quite  different  from  ordination  to  holy  orders.  Minor 
orders  are  conferred  by  the  presentation  to  the  can- 
didate of  the  appropriate  instruments,  in  accord- 
ance with  the  ritual  given  in  the  **  Statuta  Ecclesise 
antiqua'',  a  document  which  originated  in  Gaul  about 
the  year  500.  We  do  not  know  now  even  in  Rome  the 
porters  and  exorcists  were  ordained  in  former  times. 
Lectors  received  a  simple  benediction;  acolvtes  were 
created  by  handing  them  the  linen  bag  in  which  they 
carried  the  Euchanst ;  subdeacons  by  the  reception  of 
the  chalice.  Moreover,  while  deacons  and  priests 
could  be  ordained  only  on  the  four  Ember  Saturdavs 
and  on  two  Saturdays  in  Lent,  minor  orders  could  oe 
conferred  on  any  day.  Even  at  the  present  time  the 
latter  may  be  conferred,  apart  from  general  ordina- 
tions, on  all  Sundays  ana  on  Holy  Days  of  obligation, 
not  necessarilv  at  Mass.  The  usual  minister  of  these 
orders,  as  of  the  others,  is  a  bishop ;  but  regular  abbots 
who  have  received  episcopal  benediction  may  give  the 
tonsure  and  minor  orders  to  their  subjects  in  religion. 
By  papal  privilege  several  prelates  NiUliiLa  (i.  e.,  ex- 
empt) can  confer  tnese  orders.  It  is  an  almost  universal 
custom  now  to  confer  the  four  minor  orders  at  one 
time,  and  the  Coimcil  of  Trent  (loc.  cit.)  leaves  the 
bishop  quite  free  to  dispense  with  the  interstices 
(qv.). 

Clerics  in  minor  orders  enjoy  all  ecclesiastical  privi- 
leges. They  may  be  nominated  to  all  benefices  not 
major,  but  must  receive  within  a  year  the  major  orders 
necessary  for  certain  benefices.  On  the  other  hand, 
they  are  not  bound  to  celibacy,  and  may  lawfully 
marry.  Marriage,  however,  causes  them  at  once  to 
forfeit  every  benefice.  Formerly  it  did  not  exclude 
them  from  the  ranks  of  the  clergy,  and  they  retained 
all  clerical  privileges,  provided  they  contracted  only 
one  marriage  and  that  with  a  virgin,  and  wore  clerical 
costume  and  the  tonsure  (c.  unic,  ''de  cler.  conjug." 
in  VP) ;  they  might  even  be  appointed  to  the  service  of 
a  church  by  the  bishop  (Cone.  Trid.,  Sess  XXIII, 
c.  vi).  This  earlier  discipline,  however,  is  no  longer 
in  accordance  with  mcxiem  custom  and  law.  A 
minor  cleric  who  marries  is  regarded  as  having  for- 
feited his  clerical  privileges.  (See Orders;  Acolttb; 
Exorcist;  Lector;  Porter;  Subdeacon;  Abbot; 
Tonsure.) 

Many,  Prtxleet.  de  tacra  ordinatione  (Paris.  1905),  20, 127, 265, 
etc.;  Qabparrx,  De  aacra  ordinatione  (Paris,  1893);  Fbrrarib, 
Prompta  bibliotheca,  s.  v.  Ordo,  See  also  commentaries  of 
various  canonists  on  the  Decretals,  De  clerieiB  oonjuoaiiM,  I,  tit. 
11-14;  III,  tit.  3. 

A.  BOUDINHON. 

Blinsk,  Diocese  OF  (Minscensis),  suffragan  of  Mo- 
hileff,  in  Western  Russia.  The  city  of  Minsk  is  situ- 
ated on  the  Swislotsch,  a  tributary  of  the  Beresina, 
which,  again,  flows  into  the  Dnieper.  In  1879  it  num- 
bered 91,500  inhabitants,  of  whom  27,280  were  Catho- 
lics. It  is  the  nominal  see  of  a  Roman  Catholic,  a 
GrsBCo-Ruthenian  Uniat,  and  a  Russian  Orthodox 
bishop.  After  the  suppression  of  the  Sees  of  Smo- 
lensk and  Li  viand,  Catherine  II  sought  and  obtained 
from  the  pope  the  establishment  of  the  metropolitan 
See  of  Monilew,  at  the  same  time  arbitrarily  abolishing 
the  See  of  Kieff.  To  make  amends  for  this  sup- 
pression, Paul  I,  with  the  concurrence  of  Pius  Vl. 
established,  17  Nov.,  1798,  the  Latin  See  of  Minsk,  ana 
placed  it  under  the  Metropolitan  of  Mohileff.  The 
first  bishop  was  Jacob  Ignatius  Dederko,  formeriy  a 
canon  of  Wilna  (d.  1829).  After  his  resignation 
(1816),  the  see  remained  vacant  until  1831.  In  1839 
Pope  Gregory  XVI  appointed  Mathias  Lipski,  after 
whose  death  the  see  again  remained  for  some  time 
without  an  occupant,  the  pope  and  the  Russian  Gov- 
enunent  being  unable  to  agree  as  to  a  successor.  Like 
the  other  dioceses  of  Western  Russia  and  of  Poland, 


MINT 


334 


MINT 


Minsk  suffered  much  from  the  violent  attempts  at 
proselytism  on  the  part  of  Emperors  Nicholas  I  and 
Alexander  II,  by  wnom  the  Uniat  Lithuanians  and 
Huthenians  were  driven  out.  After  the  death  of 
Bishop  Hermann  Woitkiewicz  (1852-69)  no  successor 
was  appointed,  owing  to  governmental  opposition, 
and  since  then  the  diocese  Has  been  administered  by 
ihe  Archbishop  of  Mohileff .  According  to  the  census 
of  the  Archdiocese  of  Mohileff  for  1910,  the  Diocese  of 
Minsk  contained  51  parishes,  with  77  priests  and  262,- 
374  faithful.  The  Uniat  Ruthenian  See  of  Minsk  was 
erected  by  Pius  VI,  9  August,  1798,  but  has  been  left 
vacant  on  account  of  the  opposition  of  the  Russian 
Government.    (See  Russia.; 

Joseph  Lins. 


tf  Papal. — ^The  right  to  coin  money  being  a 
sovereign  prerogative,  there  can  be  no  papal  coins  of 
earlier  date  than  that  of  the  temporal  power  of  the 
popes.  Nevertheless,  there  are  coins  ot  Pope  Zach- 
anas  (741-52),  of  Gregory  III  (Ficoroni,  "Museo 
Kircheriano")»  a^d»  possibly,  of  Gregory  II  (715-741). 
There  is  no  doubt  that  these  pieces,  two  of  which  are  of 
silver,  are  true  coins,  and  not  merely  a  species  of 
medals,  like  those  which  were  distributed  as  "  presby- 
tcrium  "  at  the  coronation  of  the  popes  since  tne  time 
of  Valentine  (827).  Their  stamp  resembles  that  of 
the  Byzantine  and  Merovingian  coins  of  the  seventh 
and  eighth  centuries,  and  their  square  shape  is  also 
fotmd  m  Byzantine  pieces.  Those  that  bear  the  in- 
scription GREii  PAPE — SCI  PTR  (Gregorii  Papae — 
Sancti  Petri)  cannot  be  attributed  to  Pope  Gregory  IV 
(827-44),  because  of  the  peculiarity  of  minting.  The 
existence  of  these  coins,  while  the  popes  yet  recognized 
the  Byzantine  domination,  is  explained  by  Hartmann 
(Das  Kdnigreich  Italien,  Vol.  Ill),  who  believes 
that,  in  the  eighth  century,  the  popes  received  from 
the  emperors  the  attributes  of  "Praefectus  Urbis". 
Under  the  empire,  coins  that  were  struck  In  the 
provinces  bore  the  name  of  some  local  magistrate, 
and  those  coins  of  Gregory  and  of  Zacharias  are  simply 
imperial  Byzantine  pieces,  bearing  the  name  of  the 
first  civil  magistrate  of  the  City  of  Rome.  There  are 
no  coins  of  Stephen  III  or  of  Paul  I,  who  reigned  when 
the  Duchy  of  Rome  was  iJready  independent  of  the 
Eastern  Empire;  the  first  true  papal  coins  are  those 
of  Adrian  I,  from  whose  time  until  the  reign  of  John 
XIV  (984)  the  popes  coined  money  at  Rome. 

There  is  no  pontifical  money  of  a  date  between  the 
last-named  year  and  1305;  this  is  explained,  in  part, 
by  the  fact  that  the  Senate  of  Rome,  which  sought 
to  replace  the  papacy  in  the  temporal  government 
of  the  city,  took  over  the  mint  in  1143.  On  the  other 
hand,  Prince  Alberic  had  already  coined  money  in 
his  own  name.  The  coins  of  the  Senate  of  Rome 
usually  bear  the  inscription  "roma  caput  mundi", 
or,  s.  p.  Q.  R.,  or  both,  with  or  without  emblems.  In 
1188  the  mint  was  restored  to  the  pope  (Clement 
III),  with  the  agreement,  however,  that  half  of  its 
profits  should  be  assigned  to  the  sindaco,  or  mayor. 
The  Senate,  meanwhile,  continued  to  coin  money,  and 
there  is  no  reference,  on  the  coins  of  that  time,  to 
the  papal  authority.  In  the  thirteenth  century  the 
Sindaco  caused  his  own  name  to  be  stamped  upon  the 
coins,  and,  consequently,  we  have  coins  of  Branca- 
leone,  of  Charles  I  of  Ajdjou,  of  Francesco  Anguillara, 
viceroy  of  Robert  of  Naples,  etc. ;  so,  also,  did  King 
Ladislao.  Cola  di  Rienzi,  during  his  brief  tribunate, 
likewise  struck  coins,  with  the  inscription:  N.  tribun. 
ADonsT.:  ROMA  CAPir.  MU.  Papal  coins  reappeared 
with  the  removal  of  the  pontifical  Court  to  Avignon, 
although  there  exists  a  smgle  coin  that  is  referred  to 
Benedict  XI  (1303-4),  with  the  legend  coitat.  vena- 
sin;  as,  however,  this  pope  never  resided  in  Venaissin, 
which  had  belong^  to  the  Holy  See  since  1274,  the 
coin  should  be  referred  to  Benedict  XII.  There  are 
coins  of  all  the  popes  from  John  XXII  to  Pius  IX. 


The  popes,  and  also  the  Senate  when  it  coinec 
money,  appear  to  have  used  the  imperial  mint  of 
Rome,  which  was  on  the  slope  of  the  Campidoglio, 
not  far  from  the  Arch  of  Septimius  Severus ;  but,  in  the 
fifteenth  century,  the  mint  was  near  the  bank  of 
Santo  Spirito.  Finally,  in  1665,  Alexander  VII 
moved  it  to  the  rear  of  the  apse  of  St.  Peter's,  where 
it  is  at  present.  Bernini  invented  for  it  a  machine 
to  do  the  work  more  rapidly,  and  Francesco  Girardini 
furnished  a  very  sensitive  balance ;  so  that  the  mint  of 
Rome  was  technically  the  most  perfect  one  of  those 
times.  In  1845  Pius  IX  eouipped  it  with  the  most 
modem  appliances.  The  aammistration  of  the  mint 
was  at  first  entrusted  to  the  cardinal  camerlenso; 
direct  supervision,  however,  was  exercised  by  the 
senate,  from  the  time  at  least  when  that  body  took 
possession  of  the  mint,  imtii  the  reign  of  Martin  V. 
The  sindaco  and  the  conservators  of  the  Camera 
CapitoHna  appointed  the  masters  of  the  mint,  while 
the  mintine  was  witnessed  by  the  heads  of  the  guild 
of  goldsmitns  and  silversmiths.  In  1322  John  XXII 
created  the  office  of  treasurer  for  the  mint  of  Avignon, 
and  its  incumbent,  little  by  little,  made  himself  in- 
dependent of  the  camcrlengo.  Later,  the  office  of 
prelate  president  of  the  mint  was  created.  According 
to  Lunadori  (Relaz.  della  Corte  di  Roma,  1646),  the 
establishments  for  the  coining  of  money  were  in 
charge  of  a  congregation  of  cardinals. 

Rome  was  not  the  only  city  of  the  Pontifical  States 
that  had  a  mint:  prior  to  the  year  1000,  there  existed 
at  Ravenna  the  former  imperial  mint,  which  was  ceded 
in  996  to  Archbishop  Gerberto  by  Gregory  V;  there 
were  mints  also  at  Spoleto  and  at  Benevento,  former 
residences  of  Lombard  dukes.  The  Archbishop  of 
Ravenna,  who  was  a  feudatory  of  the  emperor  rather 
than  of  the  pope,  coined  money  as  long  as  his  temporal 
power  over  that  city  and  its  territory  lasted.  The 
mint  of  the  Emperor  Henry  VI  was  established  at 
Bologna  in  1194,  and  nearly  all  of  the  coins  struck 
there  bear  the  motto  bononia  docet,  or  bononia 
MATER  STUDioRUM.  The  haxocchx  of  Bologna  were 
called  bologninif  while  the  gold  bolognino  was  equiva- 
lent to  a  gold  sequin.  The  lira,  also  a  Bolognese  coin, 
was  worth  20  bolognini.  These  coins  were  struck  in 
the  name  of  the  commune;  it  is  only  from  the  time 
when  Boloena  was  recovered  by  the  Holy  See,  under 
Clement  VI,  that  Bolognese  coins  may  be  regarded 
as  papal. 

Other  cities  had  mints  because  they  were  the  capi- 
tals of  principalities  subject  to  the  Holy  See,  or  in 
virtue  of  a  privilege  granted  them  by  some  prince; 
and  when  these  feudal  states  fell  to  the  Holy  See,  the^ 
retained  the  mints  as  papal  establishments.  This 
was  so  in  the  case  of  Camerino  (from  Leo  X  to  Paul 
III),  Urbino,  Pesaro  and  Gubbio  (under  Julius  II, 
Leo  X,  and  Clement  XI),  Ferrara  (from  Clement 
VIII),  Parma  and  Piacenza  (from  Julius  II  to  Paul 
III).  There  were  other  cities  to  which  the  popes 
granted  a  mint  for  limited  periods  of  time,  as  Ancona 
(from  Sixtus  IV  to  Pius  Vl),  Aquila  (I486,  when 
that  city  rebelled  against  Ferdinand  I  of  Naples  and 
gave  its  allegiance  to  Innocent  VIII ;  its  coins,  which 
are  very  rare,  bear  the  inscription  aquilana  liber- 
TAs),  Ascoli  (from  Martin  V  to  Pius  VI),  Avignon 
(from  Clement  V  on),  Carpentras  (under  Clement 
VIII),  Venaissin  (from  Boniface  VIII),  Fabriano 
(under  Leo  X),  Fano  (from  Innocent  VIII  to  Clement 
VIII),  Fermo  (from  Boniface  IX,  1390,  to  Leo  X), 
The  Marches  (from  Boniface  IX  to  Gregory  XIII), 
Macerata  (from  Boniface  IX  to  Gr^ry  XIV), 
Modena  (under  Leo  X  and  Clement  VII),  Montalto 
(under  Sixtus  V),  Orvieto  (under  Julius  II),  the 
"Patrimony"  (from  Benedict  XI  to  Benedict  XII), 
Perugia  (from  Julius  II  to  Julius  III),  Ravenna  (from 
Leo  X  to  Paul  III,  and  under  Benedict  XIV), 
Recanati  (under  Nicholas  V),  Reggio  (from  Julius 
II  to  Adrian  VI),  Spoleto  (under  Paul  II),  Duchy  of 


335  Bmrr 

Spoleto,  PROTiNCiJB  DUCATU8  (under  Paul  V),  Viterfoo  the  engp^avers,  also,  put  their  ciphers  on  the  ccms*, 

(uDder  Urban  VI  and  Sixtus  IV).    Pius  VI,  being  amon^  these  engravers  may  be  named  Benvenuto 

obliged  to  coin  a  great  deal  of  copper  money,  gave  the  Ceilim,  Francesco  Raibolini,  called  11  Francia  (Bolo- 

minting  of  it  to  a  great  manv  cities  of  the  Patrimony,  gna),  the  four  Hamerani,  Giulio  Romano  (trident), 

of  Umbria,  and  of  the  Marches,  which,  together  wim  CavfiJiere  Lucenti,  Andrea  Perpenti,  etc.     Until  the 

those  already  named,  oontinuea  to  strDce  these  coins;  time  of  Pius  VI,  the  dies  for  the  mint  remained  the 

among  them  were  Civitavecchia.  Gubbio.  Matelica,  property  of  the  engravers. 

Roncdglione  (the  coins  of  1799  snowing  tne  burning        The  Bj^zantine  monetary  system  is  followed  in  the 

of  this  city  are  famous),  Temi,  and  Tivoli.    Pius  VII  papal  comage  imtil  the  reien  of  Leo  III,  after  which 

suppressed  ail  the  mints  except  those  of  Rome  and  of  the  system  of  the  Frankish  Empire  obtains.    John 

Bologna.  XXII  adopted  the  Florentine  system,  and  coined 

As  far  back  as  1370  there  were  coins  struck  during  gold  florins;  the  weight  of  this  com,  however,  varied 

the  vacancies  of  the  Holy  See,  by  authority  of  the  from  22  carats  to  30,  until  Gregory  XI  reduced  it  to 

cardinal  camerlen^,  who,  after  the  fifteenth  century  the  original  24  carats;  but  deterioration  came  again, 

at  least,  caused  his  name  and  his  coat  of  arms  to  bie  and  then  there  were  two  kinds  of  florins,  the  papal 

stamped  on  the  reverse  of  the  coin,  the  obverse  bearing  florin,  which  maintained  the  old  weight,  and  the  florin 

thewords^'SEDEVACANTE^' and  the  date,  surrounding  di  Camera,  the  two  being  in  the  ratio  of  69  papal 

the  crossed  ke^  surmounted  by  the  pavilion.    All  florins  =  100  florins  di  Camera  =  1  gold  pound  ==  10 

papal  coins,  with  rare  exceptions,  bear  the  name  of  carlini.    The  ducat  was  coined  in  the  papal  mint 

the  pope,  preceded  (until  the  time  of  Paul  II)  by  a  from  the  year  1432;  it  was  a  coin  of  Venetian  origin 

Greek  cross,  and  nearly  all  of  the  more  ancient  ones  that  circulated  with  the  florin,  which,  in  1531,  was 

Yyear,  either  on  the  obverse  or  on  the  reverse,  the  succeeded  by  the  scudo,  a  piece  of  French  orisin  that 

words  8.  PBTRUS,  and  some  of  them,  the  words  s.  remained  the  monetary  unit  of  the  Pontificar States. 

PAULua  also.    From  Leo  III  to  the  Ottos,  the  coins  At  the  same  time,  there  appeared  the  zecckino.    The 

bear  the  name  of  the  emperor  as  well  as  that  of  the  ancient  papal  florin  was  equal  to  2  scudi  and  11 

pope.    After  the  sixteenth  century  the  coat  of  arms  baiocchi  (1  oaiocco  =  0*01  scudi) ;  one  ducat  was  equal 

of  Uie  pope  alone  frequently  appears  on  pontifical  to  one  scudo  and  9  baiocchi.    The  scudo  also  unaer- 

coins,    lliere  are  also  found  images  of  the  Saviour,  or  went  fluctuations,  in  the  market  and  in  its  weight: 

of  saints,  svmbolical  figures  of  men  or  of  animals,  the  so  called  scudo  delle  atampe  (1595)  was  worth 

the  keys  (which  appear  for  the  first  time  on  the  coins  184-2  baiocchi,  that  is,  a  little  less  than  2  scudi. 

of  Benevento),  etc.    From  the  sixteenth  century  to  Benedict  XIII  re-established  the  good  quality  of  the 

the  eighteenth.  Biblical  or  moral  phrases  are  added,  alloy,  but  under  Pius  VI  it  again  deteriorated.     In 

in  allusion  to  the  saint  or  to  the  symbol  that  is  1835  Gregory  XVI  regulated  the  monetary  system  of 

stamped  upon  the  coin,  as,  for  example,  monstra  tb  the  Pontifical  States,  establishing  the  scudo  as  the 

ESSE  MATREM,  SPES  NOSTRA,  BUB  TUUM  PRiESiDiuM,  Unit,  and  dividing  it  into  100  baiocchi,  while  the 

TOTA  FULCHRA,  SUPRA  FiRMAM  PETRAM,  DA  RECTA  baiooco  was  divided  into  5  quattrini  (the  quattrino, 

SAPERE  (during  the  Conclave),  ubi  thesaurus  ibi  until  1591,  had  been  equal  to  ^  of  a  baiocco).    The 

COR,  CRESCENTBU  SEQurruR  CURA  PECUNiAM,  HiLAREM  scudo  was  coiucd  both  in  golci  and  in  silver;  there 

DATOREM  DiLiorr  DEUS,  PRO  pRETio  ANiMiE,  FERRO  werc  picccs  of  10  scudi.  Called  Gregorine;  and  pieces 

NOCENTTOB  AURUM,  IN  SUDORE  vuLTus,  coNSERVATiB  of  5  scudi,  and  of  2}  scudl  wcrc  also  coined.    The 

PEBEUNT,  TOLLE  ET  PROUCE,  ctc.    Somctimcs  allusiou  scudo  of  the  eighteenth  century  was  equal  to  1*65 

is  made  to  an  historical  event,  as  the  acquisition  of  scudi  of  Pius  VII,  which  last  was  adopted  by  Gregory 

Ferrara,  or  the  deliverance  of  Vienna  (1683),  or  to  XVI;  the  zecchino  was  worth  2*2  scudi.    The  scudo 

some  concession  of  the  pope  to  his  subjects,  or  to  is  equal  to  5*3  lire  in  the  monetary  system  of  the 

a  jubilee.    From  the  time  of  Gement  A  the  coins  Latin  Union.    The  fractional  silver  coins  were  the  half 

struck  at  Rome  bear  a  minute  representation  of  the  scudo,  and  the  of^io,  called  abo  paolo,  which  was 

coat  of  anns  of  the  prelate  in  charge  of  the  mint,  equal  to  0-1  scudi.    The  latter  coin  was  created  by 

a  custom  that  obtained  until  1817.    The  only  in-  Julius  II  in  order  to  put  the  caWini  of  Charles  of  Anjou 

stance  of  a  cardinal  camerlengo  stamping  his  coat  of  out  of  circulation,  these  coins  being  of  bad  alloy. 

anns  on  the  coins  during  the  lifetime  of  the  pope  is  There  were  pieces  of  2  giulii  that  were  called  pavetti, 

that  of  Cardinal  Armellini,  under  Adrian  VI,  in  the  at  Rome,  and  lire  at  Bologna,  a  name  Uiat  was  later 

case  of  four  grossi.  given  to  them  officially.    A  groaao,  introduced  in 

The  mints  outside  of  Rome   stamped  the  coins  1736,  was  equal  to  half  a  giulio  (25  baiocchi) ;  there 

with  the  arms  of  their  respective  cities,  or  with  those  were  also  the  mezzogrosso,  and  the  testone  s=  30  giulii. 

of  the  cardinal  legate,  of  the  vice-legate,  or  of  the  The  copper  coins  were  the  baiocco  or  soldo  (which 

govemorj  thus,  Cardinal  Scipione  Borghese  in  1612  was  called  bolognino,  at  Bolc^a)  and  the  2  baiocchi 

struck  coins  at  Avignon  with  nis  own  name  and  arms,  piece.    The  name  baiocco  is  derived  from  that  of  the 

omitting  the  name  of  the  pope,  an  example  that  was  city  of  Bayeux. 

followed  a  year  later  by  the   pro-legate  Cardinal        Other  coins  that  were  used  at  various  times  in  the 

FUonardi.    The  city  ver^  of tenplaced  the  image  of  its  Pontifical  States  were  the  haiocchella  s=  1  baiocco, 

patron  saint  on  its  coins.    Tne  date  came  to  be  a  copper  piece  with  a  silver  surface,  and  therefore 

stamped  on  coins  that  were  struck  during  the  vacan-  smaller  than  the  copper  baiocco;  there  were  coins 

cies  of  the  Holy  See,  occasionally  at  first,  and  later  made  of  the  two  metals  of  the  values,  respectively, 

as  a  rule;  it  rarely  appears  on  other  coins  before  1550;  of  2, 4,  6, 8, 12,  and  16  baiocchi;  the  copper  madannina 

the  practice  became  general  in  the  seventeenth  cen-  (Bologna)  s=  5  baiocchi;  the  sampietrino  (Pius  VI) 

tury,  the  year  of  the  Christian  era  or  that  of  the  pon-  =  2^  oaiocchi;  the  pcUudella  was  a  soldo,  made  of  an 

tificate  bemg  used ;  and  Gregory  XVI  established  it  by  alloy  of  copper  ana  silver,  established  b^  Pius  VI 

Law,  as  also  the  requirement  that  each  coin  should  as  a  more  easily  portable  specie  with  which  to  pay 

tMsar  upon  it  an  expression  of  its  value.    At  Bologna  the  workmen  of  the  Pontine  Marshes ;  the  eesino  =  0*4 

as  CAriy  as  the  seventeenth  century,  the  value  of  gold  of  a  baiocco  =;  2  quattrini;  the  lamina  (Leo  XII) 

or  silver  coins  was  usually  indicated  with  the  figures  =  4*4  Gregorian  scudi;  the  doblone  =  2  old  scudi 

20,  40,  80,  etc.,  i.  e.  so  many  bolognini  or  baiocchi;  =  3*3  scudi  of  the  nineteenth  century;  there  were 

at  Rome,  in  the  eighteenth  century,  nearly  all  the  dobloni  of  the  relative  values  of  4,  8,  and  16  scudi; 

copper  coins  bore  an  indication  of  their  value.    The  the  doppio  was  worth  a  little  less  than  the  doblone, 

rim  of  papal  coins  rarely  bore  an  inscription ;  at  most,  that  is,   3-21  scudi  of  the  nineteenth  century;  at 

the  monogram  of  the  city  in  which  the  coin  was  struck  Bologna  there  were  also  coined  scudi  of  80  baiocchi, 

was  stamped  upqn  it.     From  the  sixteenth  century,  and  naif -scudi  of  40  baiocchi ;  the  gabella  was  a  Bolo- 


BilNUCroS                            336  BONUCIUS 

gnese  coin,  equivalent  to  a  carlino  or  giulio;  the  Cyprian  (De  Viris,  Iviii).    Fronto  (d.  about  170) 

gabellone  was  equivalent  to  26  boiognini  (baiocohi);  is  mentioned  by  Minucius.    If  the  treatise  ''Quod 

the  franco,   in   the   fifteenth    centiuy,   was   worth  idola  non  dii  sint"  is  by  St.  Cyprian  (d.  about  258) 

12  baiocohi  at   Bologna,  but   only  10  baiocchi  at  there  is  no  need  of  going  beyond  that  date,  for  this 

Rome;  the  aXbereUi  was  a  two-baiocco  piece  that  was  treatise  is  based  on  the     Octavius".     It  is  true  that 

coined  b^  the  Roman  Republic  (1798-99).  the  attribution  of  the  aforesaid  treatise  to  St.  Cyprian 

No  ofhcial  collection  of  the  papal  coins  was  made  has  been  contested,  but  without  serious  reason.    If 

before  the  time  of  Benedict  XIV,  who  acquired  from  this  be  rejected  there  is  no  period  ante  qwm  before 

Cardinal  Passionei  the  valuable  collection  of  Scilla  Lactantius. 

which  was  enriched  later  by  other  acquisitions;  in  The  birthplace  of  the  author  is  believed  to  be 

1809,  however,  it  was  taken  to  Paris,  and  was  never  Africa.    This  is  not  proved  by  Minucius's  imitation 

recovered.    In  the  nineteenth  century  the  Holy  See  of  African  authors,  any  more  tiian  it  is  by  the  resem- 

obtained  possession  of  the  fine  collection  of  Belli,  blance  between  Minucius  and  Tertullian.    At  this 

besun  in  the  previous  century  bv  Luigi  Tommasini,  period  the  principal  writers  were  Africans,  and  it 

and  tiiis  collection  became  the  basis  of  the  Numis-  was  natural  that  a  Latin,  of  whatever  province  he 

matlo  Cabinet,  which  is  under  the  direction  of  the  pre-  might  be,  would  read  and  imitate  them.    The  allu- 

f ect  of  the  Vatican  Library  and  has  a  special  custodian,  sious  to  the  customs  and  belief  of  Africa  are  numerous, 

l^ce  the  loss  of  the  temporal  power,  the  pope  has  not  but  this  may  be  explained  bv  the  African  ori^  of  the 

coined  money;  each  year,  however,  he  strikes  the  champion  of  paganism.    The  "Octavius"  is  a  dia- 

customary  medal  for  the  feast  of  Saint  Peter,  which  logue  of  which  Ostia  is  the  scene.    Csecilius  Natalis 

is  given  to  cardinals  and  to  the  employees  of  the  upholds  the  cause  of  paganism,  Octavius  Januarius 

Roman  Curia.  that  of  Christianity;  the  author  himself  is  the  judge 

CmAou,Irefiu>riete(2e»pa}HdMenM«tn(aiwl«nnott{i;A0(Fermo,  of  the  debate.    Csecillus  Natalis  was  a  native  of 

1848):  Bblli,  Cimelioteca  delU  monete  pontificie  del  doU.  Cav.  CirtiL'  hft    HvaH    At    Dnmn   tmd    Aff/^nfivAlv   fnllmmrl 

BeUi  (Rome.  1836);  Floravantbs.  Atuiqui  romanorum  poruifi-  ^>fta»  .^6  /ivea  at  Kome  ana  attentively  toiiowea 

eum  denani  a  Benedido  IX  ad  Paulum  III  (2  vols..  Rome.  MmuciUS  m  his  activity  as  an  advocate.     OctaviUB 

1738);  pROMis,  Moneu  dei  romani  porUefid  avanti  U  1000  had  just  arrived  from  a  foreign  country  where  he  had 

&;i«J^i'iS;5S?V^"'SrS£e.r5^?r^'rr^  >«**  tis  famUy.    Minucius  Uv«l  at  Rome     All  tibree 

Gapobianchi.  Orioine  deUa  tecca  del  Senato  romano  nel  aecolo  Were  advocates.     The  name  Mmucius  Felix  has  been 

XII  (pBrne^o,  1S83);  KuBnoBoiA,  AUanHno  dimorietepapali  found    On    inscriptions   at    Tebessa   and    Carthage 

'S^^i:r^%^.^^'i^^^JSl!^C..^^cZS^  (Cf-  Inscnp.  Lat.  VIII    1964  jmd  1249?) ;  that  of 

poLi.  Qarahpi.  DiAMiLLA.  PiLA.  Caroni.  VxTALiNi.  Grbooro-  Octavius  Jauuanus  at  Saldae   (Bougie;  ib.,  8962); 

VIU8.  etc.     Orfkr.  De  veteria  numigmatia  pote^Me  ejuaque  that  of  Caecilius  at  Cirta  itself  (ib.,  7097-7098,  6996). 

;:^S1!ji;2«^^S'SS^^^iif?'^^'"™'"'  ^''""''  ""-  Th«  M.  C^ciUus.  Natali.  of  the  inscriptions  di^«g«i 

U.  Benioni.  important  municipal  duties  and  gave  pagan  festivals 

with  memorable  prodigality.    He  may  have  belon^d 

BSinnciiiB  Felix,  Christian   apologist,  flourished  to  the  same  family  as  the  interlocutor  of  the  dialogue, 

between  160  and  300;  the  exact  date  is  not  known.  Attempts  have  been  made  to  make  them  identical 

His    "Octavius"  has   numerous   points   of   i^ree-  or  to  establish  family  relationship  between  them, 

ment    with    the    ''Apologeticum"    of    Tertullian,  These  are  pure  hypotheses  subordinate  to  the  opinion 

similarities  that  have  been  explained  by  the  theory  of  entertained  regaraing  the  date  of  the  dialogue, 

a  common  source — ^an  apology  written  in  liatin,  and  The  persons  are  real.    The  dialogue  may  likewise 

whidi  is  supposed  to  have  disappeared  without  leav-  be  so,  despite  the  fact  that  Minucius  has  transfonned 

ing  any  trace,  not  even  in  the  name  of  its  author,  into  an  almost  judicial  debate  what  must  have  been  a 

This  hypothesis  is  now  generally  abandoned.    It  mere  conversation  or  series  of  conversations.     Owing 

seems  improbable  that  such  a  work,  from  which  to  the  adjournment  of  the  courts  during  the  vintage 

Miaucius  and  Tertullian  might  have  drawn,  would  time,  the  three  friends  went  for  rest  to  Ostia.    Here 

have  so  thoroughly  disappeared.     Lactantius  (Diu.  they  walked  on  the  sea-shore,  and  when  they  passed 

Inst.,  V,  i,  21)  enumerates  the  apologists  who  pre-  before  a  statue  of  Serapis,  Csecilius  saluted  it  with  the 

ceded  him  and  does  not  even  suspect  the  existence  customary  kiss.    Octavius  thereupon  expressed  his 

of  such  a  writer.    The  most  natural  supposition  is  indignation  that  Minucius  should  allow  his  dail^ 

that  one  of  the  two  writers,  Minucius  or  Tertullian,  companion  to  fall  into  idolatry.    They  resume  their 

IB    directly    dependent    on    the    other.    Formerly,  walk  while  Octavius  gives  an  accoimt  of  his  voyage; 

Minucius  was  regarded  as  posterior  to  Tertullian.  they  go  to  and  fro  on  the  shore  and  the  qu£^;  they 

The  first  doubts  in  this  respect  were  expressed  in  watch  children  jumping  about  in  the  sea.    Txiis  be- 

France  by  Blondel  in  1641,  by  Dallsus  in  1660,  and  ginning  is  charming;  it  is  the  most  perfect  portion  of 

in  England  by  Dodwell.    The  theory  of  the  priority  the  work.    During  the  walk  Csecilius,  silenced  by  the 

of  Minucius  was  defended  by  van  Hoven  in  the  second  words  of  Octavius,  has  not  spoken.    He  now  explains 

edition  of  Lindner  in  1773.    In  modem  times  it  was  himself  and  it  is  agreed  to  settle  the  debate.    They 

most  ably  defended  by  Ebert.    The  priority  of  Ter-  seat  themselves  on  a  lonely  pier;  Minucius  seated  in 

tuUian  has  been  chiefly  defended  by  Aa.  Hamack,  who  the  centre  is  to  be  the  arbitrator.    Thereupon  C»- 

has  been  refuted  by  A.  Krueger.    M.  Waltzing,  the  cilius  begins  by  attacking  Christianity;  Minucius  says 

scholar  best  acquainted  with  Minucius  Felix  and  a  few  words,  and  then  Octavius  replies.    At  the  end 

what  has  been  written  about  him,  is  inclined  to  think  Minucius  and  Csecilius  express  their  admiration  and 

him  anterior  to  Tertullian.    The  aiguments  in  favour  the  latter  declares  that  ne  surrenders.    Fuller  ex- 

of  one  or  the  other  of  these  theories  are  not  decisive,  planations  of  the  new  religion  are  postponed  until  the 

However,  it  may  be  said  that  in  the  passages  taken  next  day.    The  distlogue  therefore  consists  of  two 

from  the  ancient  authors,  such  as  Seneca,  Varro,  and  discourses,  the  attack  of  Csecilius  and  the  refutation 

especic^y  Cicero,  Minucius  seems  to  be  more  exact  of  Octavius. 

and  closer  to  the  original;  consequently  he  seems  to  The  discussion  bears  on  a  small  number  of  points: 

be  iatermediary  between  them  and  Tertullian.    The  the  possibiliti  of  man  arriving  at  the  truth,  creation, 

ecclesiastical  authors  were  probably  not  better  in-  Providence,  the  unitv  of  God,  the  necessity  of  keeping 

formed  than  we  are  with  regard  to  Minucius.    Lactan-  the  religion  of  one^s  ancestors  and  especially  the 

tins  puts  him  before  Tertullian  (Diu.  Inst.,  I,  xi,  55 ;  V,  i,  advantage  to  the  Romans  of  the  worship  of  the  gods, 


21),  and  St.  Jerome  after;  but  St.  Jerome  contradicts  the  low  character  of  Christians,  their  tendency  to 

himself  by  putting  him  after  St.  Cyprian  (Ep.  Ixx,  ceal  themselves,  their  crimes  (incest,  worship  of  an  ass's 

Oxxxiii);  v;  Ix;  xlviii;  "In  Isaiam",  VlII,  praef.),  and  head,  the  adoration  of  the  generative  organs  of  the 

ekewhere  putting  him  between  Tertullian  and  St.  priest,  prayers  addressed  to  a  criminal,  sacrifice  of 


MIEABILIA 


337 


Tyrn^AiiTT.TA 


ihfldren)  their  impious  and  absurd  oonoeption  of  the 
Divinity,  their  doctrine  of  the  end  of  the  world  and  the 
lemirrection  of  the  dead,  the  hardships  of  their  life, 
threatened,  and  eiroosed  without  remedy  to  all  sorts 
of  duigers,  cut  off  from  the  joys  of  fife.  In  this 
debate  the  conception  of  Christianity  is  very  limited, 
and  is  reduced  almost  solely  to  the  unity  of  God, 
Providence,  the  resurrection,  and  reward  after  death. 
The  name  of  Christ  does  not  appear;  among  the 
apolojnsts  of  the  second  century  Anstides,  St.  Justin, 
and  T^rtullian  are  the  only  ones  who  pronounced  it. 
But  Minucius  omits  the  characteristic  points  of 
Christianity  in  dogma  and  worship ;  this  is  not  because 
he  is  bound  to  silence  by  the  discipline  of  the  secret, 
for  St.  Justin  and  Tertullian  do  not  fear  to  enter 
into  these  details.  Moreover  in  the  discussion  itself 
Oetavins  ends  abruptly.  To  the  accusation  of  ador- 
ing a  criminal  he  contents  himself  with  replving  that 
the  Crucified  One  was  neither  a  man  nor  guilty  (xxix, 
2)  and  he  is  silent  with  regard  to  the  mysteries  of  the 
Trinity,  the  Incarnation,  and  the  Redemption  which 
would  have  made  clear  his  reply.  He  merely  repels 
the  accusation  of  incest  and  infanticide  without 
describing  the  agape  or  the  Eucharist  (xxx  and  xxxi). 
He  does  not  quote  Scripture,  or  at  least  very  little  ; 
and  he  does  not  mention  the  fulfilment  of  the  prophe- 
cies. On  the  other  hand  he  makes  only  a  brief  allusion 
to  the  manner  of  proceeding  against  the  Christians 
(xxiii,  3).  He  does  not  speak  of  the  loyalty  of  the 
Christians  towards  the  state  and  the  emperors. 
Political  and  judicial  considerations,  which  are  given 
so  much  space  in  Tertullian,  are  almost  entirely 
absent  here.  These  omissions  are  explained  bv  a 
voluntary  limitation  of  the  subject.  Minucius  wisncd 
only  to  remove  the  prejudices  of  the  pagans,  to  pre- 
possess his  readers  by  a  pleasant  discussion,  and  to 
show  ^em  the  possibility  of  Christianity.  He  h  imself 
indicated  this  intention  by  putting  off  until  the  next 
day  a  more  profound  discussion  (xl,  2) .  He  addressed 
himself  chiefly  to  the  learned,  to  sceptics,  and  to  the 
cultured ;  and  wished  to  prove  to  them  that  there  was 
nothing  in  the  new  religion  that  was  incompatible 
with  the  resources  of  dialectics  and  the  ornaments  of 
ifaetoric.  In  a  word  his  work  is  an  introduction  to 
Christianity,  a  Protrepticon. 

It  is  a  mosaic  of  miitations,  especially  of  Cicero, 
Seneca,  and  Viifi;il.  The  plan  itself  is  that  of  the  "  De 
natura  deorum''  of  Cicero,  and  Csecilius  here  plays 
the  r61e  of  Cotta.  However  the  personages  have  their 
peculiar  characteristics.  Csecilius  is  a  young  man, 
presumptuous,  somewhat  vain,  sensitive,  yielding  to 
nis  first  impression.  Octavius  is  more  sedate,  out 
provincial  me  seems  to  have  made  him  more  intoler- 
ant; his  pleading  is  hot  and  emotional.  Minucius  is 
more  inoul^nt  and  calm.  These  learned  men  are 
charming  fnendbs.  The  dialogue  itself  is  a  monument 
of  frien^hip.  Minucius  wrote  it  in  memory  of  his 
dear  Octavius,  recently  deceased.  In  reading  it  one 
thinks  of  Pliny  the  Younger  and  his  friends.  These 
minds  exhibited  the  same  delicacy  and  culture.  The 
style  is  composite,  being  a  harmonious  combination 
of  the  Ciceronian  period  with  the  brilliant  and  short 
sentences  of  the  new  school.  It  sometimes  assumes 
poetic  tints,  but  the  dominating  colour  is  that  of 
Cicero.  By  the  choice  of  subjects  treated,  his  ease  in 
reconciling  very  different  ideas  and  styles,  the  art  of 
combinations  in  ideas  as  well  as  in  language,  Minucius 
Felix  belong  to  the  first  rank  of  Latin  writers  whose 
talent  consisted  in  blending  heterogeneous  elements 
and  in  proving  themselves  individual  and  original 

in  imitation. 

MxKucars  Fkux,  OdaviuB,  ed.  Walteino  (Louvain,  1903); 
WAtrTsnfO.  Studio  minuciana,  I  and  II  (Louvain,  1906);  Idem, 
Odantu  de  Minucitu  Feliae,  introduction,  texte,  commentaire, 
traduBtion,  langue  et  syntaxe,  appendiee  critique  (2  vols.,  Bruges, 
liWO);  Idbii,  Lexicon  Minucianum  in  Bib.  de  la  faculU  de  phi- 
Imhie  et  lettrea  de  VUniversiU  de  LO^ge.  faac.  iii  (I4^l;e  and  Paris, 
1969).  A  complete  bibliography  will  be  found  in  the  first  three 
workfpWith  analvaes  and  discussion.     Recently  Eltbk  in  his 


ProUoomena  tu  Minuciua  Felix  (Bonn,  1909),  has  Attempted  tc 
show  the  Oetaviite  to  be  a  "consolation"  intended  exduaively 
for  Christian  readers;  this  theory  ia  without  probability. 

Paul  Lejat. 

BSirabilia  TTrbis  Romsdi  the  title  of  a  medieval 
Latin  description  of  the  city  of  Rome,  dating  from 
about  1150.  Unhampered  by  any  very  accurate 
knowledge  of  the  historical  continuity  of  the  city,  the 
unknown  author  has  described  the  monuments  of 
Rome,  displaying  a  considerable  amount  of  inventive 
faculty.  From  the  pontificate  of  Boniface  VIII 
(1294-1303)  to  that  of  John  XXII  (1316-34)  it  was 
revised  and  attained  unquestioned  authority,  despite 
the  increase  in  the  already  large  number  of  miscon- 
ceptions and  errors.  Attention  was  first  called  to 
these  different  recensions  by  de  Rossi  in  the  first 
volume  of  his  "Roma  Sotterranea"  (158  sqq.).  Al- 
most simultaneously  appeared  two  editions  of  the 
text,  by  Parthey  ('*  Mirabilia  Romas  e  codicibus  Vati- 
canis  emendata",  Berlin,  1869)  and  by  Jordan  ("To* 
pographie  der  Stadt  Rom  im  Altertum",  II,  Berlin, 
1871,  605-43),  respectively.  In  the  third  section  Jor- 
dan discusses  at  some  length  the  Mirabilia  and  its 
redactions  (357  sqq.),  in  the  fourth,  the  earlier  divisions 
of  the  work  (401  sqq.),  and  in  the  fifth,  the  topography 
of  the  Mirabilia  (421  sqq.),  presenting  most  valuable 
information,  the  result  of  much  research  on  all  the 

Suestions  involved.  The  latest  edition  is  that  of 
Duchesne  in  the  "Liber  (3ensuum  de  I'Eglise  Ro- 
maine'*  (I,  Paris,  1905,  262-73),  being  the  text  of  the 
original  of  Cencius  Camerarius  with  the  variants  of 
four  other  manuscripts.  Especially  valuable  for  a 
proper  conception  of  the  Mirabilia  are  the  125  notes 
appended  by  Duchesne  on  pp.  273-^3,  many  of  them 
ot  considerable  length.  (Tne  concordance  with  the 
text  in  the  "Excerta  politic!  a  presbitero  Benedicto 
compositi  de  ordinibus  Romanis  et  dignitatibus  Urbis 
et  Sacri  Palatii"  may  be  foimd  in  the  "Liber  Cen- 
suum",  vol.  II,  91, 92,  n.  5.)  A  critical  edition  of  the 
"Mirabilia  Urbis"  is  still  lacking.  The  contents  of 
the  Mirabilia  fall  ihto  the  following  sections,  the  titles 
being  taken  from  the  ''Liber  Censuum":  (1)  De  muro 
urbis  (concerning  the  wall  of  the  city);  (2)  De  portis 
urbis  (the  gates  of  the  city);  (3)  De  miliaribus  (the 
milestones) ;  (4)  Nomina  portarum  (the  names  of  the 
gates);  (5)  Quot  porte  sunt  Transtibcrim  (how  many 
gates  are  beyond  the  Tiber) ;  (6)  De  arcubus  (the 
arches);  (7)  De  montibus  (the  hills);  (8)  De  termis 
(the  baths);  (9)  De  palatiis  (the  palaces);  (10)  De 
theatris  (the  theatres);  (11)  De  locis  qui  inveniimtur 
in  sanctorum  passionibus  (the  places  mentioned  in  the 
"passions"  of  the  saints);  (12)  De  pontibus  (the 
bridges);  (13)  De  cimiteriis  (the  cemeteries);  (14)  De 
iussione  Octaviani  imperatoris  et  responsione  Sibille 
(the  demand  of  the  Emperor  Octavian  and  the  Sibyl's 
response);  (15)  Quare  facti  sunt  caballi  marmorei 
(why  the  marble  horses  were  made);  (16)  De  nomini- 
bus  iudicum  et  eorum  instructionibus  (the  names  of 
the  judges  and  their  instructions);  (17)  De  columna 
Antonii  et  Trajani  (the  column  of  Antony  and  Tra- 
jan); (18)  Quare  factus  sit  equus  qui  dicitur  Constan- 
tinus  (why  the  horse  was  made,  which  is  called  of 
Constant ine) ;  (19)  Quare  factum  sit  Pantheon  et 
postmodum  oratio  B.  (why  the  pantheon  was  built 
and  later  oration  B.) ;  (20)  Quare  Octavianus  vocatus 
sit  Augustus  et  quare  dicatur  ecclesia  Sancti  Petri 
ad  vincula  (Why  Octavianus  was  called  Augustus, 
and  why  the  church  of  St.  Peter  ad  Vincula  was  so 
called);  (21)  De  vaticanoet  Agulio;  (22)  Quot  sunt 
templa  trans  Tiberim  (how  many  temples  are  beyond 
the  Tiber) ;  (23)  Predicatio  sanctorum  (the  preaching 
of  the  saints). 

The  reader  may  consult  in  addition  to  the  above-mentioned 
authors,  the  MonatsheHchte  of  the  Berlin  Academy  (1869), 
681  sag.;  Grasse.  Beitrflge  zur  Litteraiur  und  Sage  dee  Mittelal- 
tere;  [NibbyI,  Effemeridi  iHterarie  di  Roma  (1820).  63  sqq. 
part  of  this  was  reprinted  without  alteration  under  tno  title  of 
Mirabilia  ossia  le  rose  maraviglioee  di  Roma  (Rome,  1884).  lo 
editing  the  second  of  the  two  recensions  mentioned  above 


MIRACLE  338  BSnUCLE 

loRDAN  (II,  33. 357).  calls  attention  to  the  Sant'  laidoro  manu-    exceeds  the  power  of  natural  forces,  or  it  takes  place 

Bonpt,  in  the  collection  of  Cardinal  Nichoma  of  Aragon  (1356-     inafjmfAnooiiolv    withnnt    iht»    mt^sLna    or    nmM»QflA« 

62),  on  which  are  baaed  the  GmoAiaaurttvuK^Aoma  edited     uwtaptaneousiy   witnout   tne    means   Or   proce^ 
^y  OzANAM,  and  the  Chronicle  of  Martinub  Polonds.  Notwith-    which  nature  employs.    In  illustration  we  have  the 

standing  the  learned  notes  of  DucBEBNS  and  the  comprahenBive     multiplication   of     loaves  by   Jesus    (John,    vi),    the 

SJe'RSS^St^L^T'ia-.  f.'^^i'^?^  S.<S^i^n5'o'3*J2    changing  of  water  into  wine  at  Cana  (John  ii)-for 

the  moisture  of  the  air  by  natural  and  artificial  pro- 


the  text  of  the  If  trodt/ia  still  remain  to  lie  deared  up  or  are  stiu  cesses  is  changed  into  wine — or  the  sudden  healing 

in  disputo.     The  authorship  of  the  MirahUia,  which  had  never  „f  ^  |«rD»»  pt^ti+  of  Hiflpjuimi  tinfiiip  hv  a  rlraimhf  nf 

been  discussed  by  any  recognised  authority,  is  treated  in  a  most  "'  *  *^T^  extent  OI  Qiseasea  tissue  oy  a  araugnt  01 

satisfactory  manner  by  Ducheine  in  the  sixth  fascicule  of  the  water.    A  miracle  IS  said  to  be  contrary  to  nature, 

LAber  Cenauwn  (97-104),  which  has  just  appeared.    He  ad-  when  the  effect  produced  is  contrary  to  the  natural 

duces  numerous  argtmients  to  prove  that  the  above-mentioned  t%m^Tati  nf  *\\inaa 

Benedict  (Canonicua  Sancti  Petri  de  Urbe,  cantor  Roman»  *'"}S^  "*  uim^.                          ,.      ^,      j.       ^ 

Ecclesiie,  the  compiler  of  the  Ordo  Romantu)  was  also  the  author  1  ne  teim  miracle  here  implies  the  direct  opposition 

of  the  MirabUia,  "Who,  if  not  the  indulgent  author,  would  of  the  effect  actually  produced  to  the  natural  causes 

have  Wished  to  create  a  future  for  It  by  mcorporatmg  it  with  the  «*  wnrlc    AnH   Ha  imnprfiv»t  iinHprsfAnrlincr  hsm  mvon 

Liber  Cmauumr\     Duchesne's  theory  also  explains  the  curious  *?  y^OTK,  ana  Its  unpertect  unaerstanaing  has  given 

fact  that  the  Mirubilia  should  be  found  in  the  Liber  Cenmum,  nse  tO  much  confusion  m  modem  thought.     Thus 

with  which  it  is  in  no  way  connected.  Spinoza  calls  a  miracle  a  violation  of  the  order  of 

Paul  Maria  Baumoarten.  nature  (prceverti,  "Tract.  Theol.  Polit.",  vi).    Hume 

says  it  is  a  "  violation ''  or  an  "  infraction  " :  and  manv 

Bfiracla  (Lat.  mtroctiZum,  from  mirari,  "to  won-  writers — e.  g..  Martensen,  Hodge,  Baaen-Powell, 
der"). — In  general,  a  wonderful  thin^,  the  word  Theodore  Parker — use  the  term  for  miracles  as  a 
being  so  used  in  classical  Latin;  in  a  specific  sense,  the  whole.  But  every  miracle  is  not  of  necessity  con- 
Latin  Vulgate  designates  by  miraciua  wonders  of  a  traiy  to  nature;  for  there  are  miracles  above  or  outside 
peculiar  kind,  expressed  more  clearly  ia  the  Greek  nature.  Again,  the  term  contrary  to  nature  does  not 
text  by  the  terms  ripara,  Svvdfuit,  aiffuiid,  i.  e.,  mean  "  unnatural "  in  the  sense  of  producing  discord 
wonders  performed  by  supernatural  power  as  signs  of  and  confusion.  The  forces  of  nature  differ  in  power 
some  special  mission  or  gift  and  explicitly  ascribed  to  and  are  in  constant  interaction.  This  produces  inter- 
God.  These  terms  are  used  habitually  in  the  New  ferences  and  counteractions  of  forces.  This  is  true  of 
Testament  and  express  the  meaning  of  miraculum  mechanical,  chemical,  and  biological  forces.  So. 
of  the  Vu^te.  Inus  St.  Peter  in  his  first  sermon  also,  at  every  moment  of  the  day  I  interfere  with  ana 
speaks  of  Christ  as  approved  of  God,  dvvdttMaiw,  xal  counteract  natural  forces  about  me.  I  study  the 
T4paffip  Kal  aiifutots  f Acts,  ii,  22)  and  St.  Paul  says  properties  of  natural  forces  with  a  view  to  obtain 
that  the  signs  of  nis  Apostleship  were  wrought,  conscious  control  by  intelligent  counteractions  of  one 
atifutoit  re  Kal  rfyoffiv  koX  ivpdfiwiw  (II  Ck>r.,  xii,  12).  force  against  another.  Intelligent  counteraction 
Their  imited  meaning  ]s  found  in  the  term  Hpya  marks  progress  in  chemistry,  in  physics — e.  g.,  steam 
i.  e.,  works,  the  word  constantly  eniploved  in  the  locomotion,  aviation — and  in  the  prescriptions  of  the 
Gospels  to  designate  the  miracles  of  Christ.  The  physician.  Man  controls  nature,  nay,  can  live  only 
analysis  of  these  terms  therefore  gives  the  nature  and  oy  the  counteraction  of  natural  forces.  Though  all 
scope  of  the  miracle.  this  goes  on  around  us,  we  never  speak  of  natural 

I,  Nature.  A.  The  word  ripara  literally  means  forces  violated.  These  forces  are  still  working  after 
"wonders'',  in  reference  to  feelings  of  amazement  ex-  their  kind,  and  no  force  is  destroyed,  nor  is  any  law 
cited  by  their  occurrence;  hence  effects  produced  ia  broken,  nor  does  confusion  result.  The  introduction 
the  material  creation  appealing  to,  and  grasped  by,  of  human  will  may  bring  about  a  displacement  of  the 
the  senses,  usually  by  tne  sense  of  sight,  at  times  by  ph3rsical  forces,  but  no  infraction  of  physical  pro- 
hearing,  e.  g^  the  baptism  of  Jesus,  the  conversion  of  cesses.  Now  ia  a  miracle  God's  action  relative  to 
St.  Paul.  Thus,  though  the  works  of  Divine  grace,  its  bearing  on  natural  forces  is  analogous  to  the  action 
such  as  the  Sacramental  Presence,  are  above  the  of  human  personality.  Thus,  e.  g.,  it  is  a^inst  the 
power  of  nature,  and  due  to  God  alone,  they  may  be  nature  of  iron  to  float,  but  the  action  of  Eliseus  in 
called  miraculous  only  in  the  wide  meaning  of  the  raising  the  axe-head  to  the  surface  of  the  water  (IV 
term,  i.  e.,  as  supernatural  effects,  but  they  are  not  Kings,  vi)  is  no  more  a  violation,  or  a  transgression, 
miracles  in  the  sense  here  understood,  for  miracles  in  or  an  infraction,  of  natural  laws  than  if  he  raised  it 
the  strict  sense  are  apparent.  The  miracle  falls  under  with  his  hand.  Again,  it  is  of  the  nature  of  fire  to 
the  grasp  of  the  senses,  either  in  the  work  itself  (e.  g.,  bum,  but  when,  e.  g.,  the  Three  Children  were  pre- 
raising  tne  dead  to  life)  or  in  its  effects  (e.  g.,  the  gin»  served  untouched  in  the  fiery  furnace  (Dan.,  iii)  there 
of  infused  knowledge  with  the  Apostles).  In  like  was  nothing  unnatural  in  the  act,  as  these  writers  use 
manner  the  justification  of  a  soul  in  itself  is  miracu-  the  word,  any  more  than  there  would  be  in  erecting  a 
lous,  but  is  not  a  miracle  properly  so  called,  unless  it  dwelling  absolutely  fire-proof.  In  the  one  case,  as 
takes  place  in  a  sensible  manner,  as,  e.  g..  In  the  case  in  the  other,  there  was  no  paralysis  of  natural  forces 
of  St.  Paul.    The  wonder  of  the  miracle  is  due  to  the  and  no  consequent  disorder. 

fact  that  its  cause  is  hidden,  and  an  effect  is  expected  The  extraordinary  element  in  the  miracle — ^i.  e., 

other  than  what  actually  takes  place.    Hence,  by  an  event  apart  from  the  ordinary  course  of  thin^ — 

comparison  with  the  ordinary  course  of  things,  the  enables  us  to  understand  the  teaching  of  theologians 

miracle  is  called  extraordinary.     In  analyzing  the  that  events  which  ordinarily  take  place  in  the  natural 

difference  between  the  extraordinary  character  of  the  or  supernatural  course  of  Divine  rrovidence  are  not 

miracle  and  the  ordinary  course  of  nature,  the  Fathers  miracles,  although  they  are  beyond  the  efficiency  of 

of  the  Church  and  theologians  employ  the  terms  abovef  natural  forces.    Thus,  e.  g.,  the  creation  of  the  soul 

contrary  tOj  and  outside  nature.    These  terms  express  is  not  a  miracle,  for  it  takes  place  in  the  ordinary 

the  manner  in  which  the  miracle  is  extraordinary.  course  of  nature.    Again,  the  justification  of  the  sin- 

A  miracle  is  said  to  be  above  nature  when  the  effect  ner,  the  Eucharistic  Presence,  the  sacramental  effects, 

produced  is  above  the  native  powers  and  forces  in  are  not  miracles  for  two  reasons:  they  are  beyond  the 

creatures  of  which  the  known  laws  of  nature  are  the  grasp  of  the  senses  and  they  have  place  in  the  ordinary 

expression,  as  raising  a  dead  man  to  life,  e.  g.,  Lazarus  course  of  God's  supernatural  Providence. 

(John,  xi),  the  widow's  son  (III  Kings,  xvii).     A  mir-  B.  The  word  Si^vafus,  "power"  is  used  in  the  New 

acle  is  said  to  be  outside,  or  beside,  nature  when  Testament  to  signify:  (a)  the  power  of  working  mir- 

natund  forces  may  have  the  power  to  produce  the  aclcs,  (ip  dvvdfjuei  atiftMluw — Rom.,  xv,  19) ;  (b)  mighty 

effect,  at  least  in  part,  but  could  not  of  themselves  works  as  the  effects  of  this  power,  i.  e.,  miracles 

alone  have  produced  it  in  the  way  it  was  actually  themselves  (ol  TXeco-rai  Svvdfuts  a&roO — Matt.,  xi,  20) 

brought  about.    Thus  the  effect  m  abundance  far  and  expresses  the  efficient  cause  of  the  miracle,  i.  e., 


MIBACLE  339  MIRACLE 

Divine  power.  Hence  the  miracle  is  called  supernat-  the  laising  of  Lazarus  (John,  xi):  and  the  fivaiunliBt 
ml,  because  the  efifect  is  beyond  the  productive  says  that  Jesusi  in  working  His  nrst  miracle  at  Gana, 
power  of  nature  and  implies  supematund  agency,  "manifested  his  glory"  (John,  ii»  11).  Therefore  the 
Thus  St.  Thomas  teaches:  "Those  effects  are  rightly  miracle  must  be  worthy  the  holiness,  goodness,  and 
to  be  termed  miracles  which  are  wrought  by  Divine  justice  of  God,  and  conducive  to  the  true  good  of 
power  apart  from  the  order  usually  observed  in  men.  Hence  they  are  not  performed  by  God  to  repair 
nature"  (Contra  Gent.,  Ill,  cii),  and  they  are  apart  physical  defects  in  His  creation;  nor  are  they  intended 
from  the  natural  order  because  they  are  ' 'beyond  the  to  produce,  nor  do  they  produce,  disorder  or  discord ; 
order  or  laws  of  the  whole  created  nature"  (Summa  nor  do  they  contain  any  element  which  is  wicked, 
Theol.,  I,  Q.  cii,  a.  4).  Hence  d6vafus  adds  to  the  ridiculous,  useless,  or  unmeaning.  Hence  they  are 
meaning  of  ripara  by  pointing  out  the  efficient  cause,  not  on  the  same  plane  with  mere  wonders,  tricks. 
For  this  reason  miracles  in  Scripture  are  called  "the  works  of  ingenuity,  or  magic.  The  efficacy,  useful- 
finger  of  God"  (Exod.,  viii,  19;  Luke,  xi,  20),  "the  ness,  purpose  of  the  work  and  the  manner  of  perform- 
hand  of  the  Lord  "  (I  Kings,  v,  6),  "  the  hand  of  our  ing  it  clearly  show  that  it  must  be  ascribed  to  Divine 
God  "  (I  Esdras,  viii,  31).  In  referring  the  miracle  to  power.  This  high  standing  and  dignity  of  the  miracle 
God  as  its  efficient  cause,  the  answer  is  given  to  the  is  shown,  e.  g.,  in  the  miracles  of  Moses  (Exod.,  vii-x), 
objection  that  the  miracle  is  unnatural,  i.  e.,  an  im-  of  Elias  (III  Kings,  xviii,  21-38), of  Eliseus  (IV  Kings, 
caused  event  without  meaning  or  place  in  nature,  v).  The  multitudes  glorified  God  at  the  cure  of 
With  God  as  the  cause,  the  miracle  has  a  place  m  the  the  paralytic  (Matt.,  ix,  8),  of  the  blind  man  (Luke, 
designs  of  God's  Providence  (Contra  Gent.,  Ill,  xviii,  43),  at  the  miracles  of  Christ  ia  general  (Matt., 
xcviii).  In  this  sense — i.  e.,  relatively  to  God — St.  xv,  31 ;  Luke,  xix,  37),  as  at  the  cure  of  the  lame  man 
Augustine  speaks  of  the  miracle  as  natural  (De  Civit.  bv  St.  Peter  (Acts,  iv,  21).  Hence  miracles  are  ai^poB 
Dei,  XXI,  viii,  n.  2).  of  the  supernatural  world  and  oiur  connexion  with  it. 

An  event  is  above  the  course  of  nature  and  beyond        In  miracles  we  can  always  distingui^  secondary 

its  productive  powers:  (a)  with  regard  to  its  substan-  ends,  subordinate,  however,   to  the  primary  ends, 

tial  nature,  i.  e.,  when  the  effect  is  of  such  a  kind  that  Thus  (1)  they  are  evidences  attesting  and  confirming 

no  natural  power  could  bring  it  to  pass  in  any  manner  the  truth  of  a  Divine  mission,  or  of  a  doctrine  m 

or  form  whatsoever,  as,  e.  g.,  the  raising  to  life  of  the  faith  or  morals,  e.  g.,  Moses  (Exod.,  iv),  Elias  (III 

widow's  son  (Luke,  vii),  or  the  cure  of  the  man  bom  Kings,  xvii,  24).    For  this  reason  the  Jews  see  in 

blind  (John,  ix).    These  miracles  are  called  miracles  Christ  "the  prophet"  (John,  vi,  14),  in  whom  "God 

as  to  substance  {quoad  substantiam),     (b)  With  re-  hath    visited  his  people"   (Luke,  vii,  16).     Hence 

pard  to  the  manner  in  which  the  effect  is  produced,  the  disciples  believed  m  Him  (Jolm.  ii,  11)  and  Nico- 

1.  e.,  where  there  may  be  forces  in  nature  ntted  and  demus  (John,  iii,  2)  and  the  man  oom  blind  (John, 

capable  of  producing  the  effect  considered  in  itself,  ix,  38),  and  the  many  who  had  seen  the  raising  of 

yet  the  effect  is  produced  in  a  manner  whollv  different  Lazarus  (John,  xi,  45).    Jesus  constantly  appealed  to 

from  the  manner  in  which  it  should  naturally  be  per-  His  "works"  to  prove  that  He  was  sent  by  God  and 

formed,  i.  e.,  instantaneously,  by  a  word,  e.  g.,  the  that  He  is  the  Son  of  God,  e.  g.,  to  the  Disciples  of 

cure  of  the  leper  (Luke,  v).    These  are  called  miracles  John  (Matt.,  xi,  4),  to  the  Jews  (John,  x^  37).     He 

as  to  the  manner  of  their  production  (ouoad  modum),  claims  that  His  miracles  are  a  greater  testimony  than 

God's  power  is  shown  m  the  miracle:  (a)  directly  the  testimony  of  John  (John,  v,  36),  condemns  those 

through  His  own  immediate  action  or  (b)  mediately,  who  will  not  believe  (John,  xv.  24),  as  He  praises 

throush  creatures  as  means  or  instruments.     In  this  those  who  do  (John,  xvii,  8),  ana  exhibits  miracles  as 

case  tne  effects  must  be  ascribed  to  God,  for  He  works  the  signs  of  the  True  Faith    (Mark,  xvi,  17).    Tbe 

in  and   through  the  instruments —  "Ipso  Deo  in  Apostles  appeal  to  miracles  as  the  confirmation  of 

Ulis  operante"  (Augustine,  "De  Civit.  Dei'\  X,  xii).  Christ's  Divmity  and  mission  (John,  xx,  31;  Acts,  x, 

Henoe  God  works  miracles  through  the  instrumen-  38),  and  St.  Paul  coimts  them  as  the  signs  of  his 

tality  (1)  of  angels,  e.  g.,  the  Three  Children  in  the  Apostleship    (II  Cor.,   xii,    12).      (2)  Miracles   are 

fiery  furnace  (Dan.,  iii),  the  deliverance  of  St.  Peter  wrought  to  attest  true  sanctity.    Thus,  e.  g.,  God 

from  prison  (Acts,  xii);  (2)  of  men,  e.  g.,  Moses  and  defends   Moses   (Num.,   xii),   Elias   (IV   Kings,   i), 

Aaron  (Exod.,  vii),  Elias  (III  Kin^,  xvii)    Eliseus  Eliseus  (IV  Kings,  xiii).    Hence  the  testimony  of  the 

ilV  Kings,  V),  the  Apostles  (Acts,  li,  43),  St.  Peter  man  bom  blind  (John,  ix,  30  sqq.)  and  the  official 

Acts,  iii,  ix),  St.  Paul  (Acts,  xix),  the  early  Christians  processes  in  the  canonisation  of  saints.     (3)  As  ben- 

(Galat.,  iii,  5).     (3)  In  the  Bible  also,  as  in  church  efits  either  spiritual   or  temporal.    The   temporal 

history,  we  learn  that  inanimate  things  are  instru-  favouis  are  always  subordinate  to  spiritual  ends,  for 

ments  of  Divine  power,  not  because  they  have  any  theyarearewardorapledgeof  virtue,  e.g.,  the  widow 

excellence  in  themselves,  but  through  a  special  re-  of  Sarephta  (III  Kings,  xvii),  the  Three  Children  in  the 

Lation  to  God.    Thus  we  distinguish  holy  relics,  e.  g.,  fiery  furnace  (Dan.,  iii),  the  preservation  of  Daniel 

the  mantle  of  Elias  (IV  Kings,  ii),  the  body  of  Eliseus  (Dan.,  v),  the  deliverance  of  St.  Peter  from  prison 

(IV  Kings,  xiii),  the  hem  of  Christ's  garment  (Mat-  (Acts,  xii),  of  St.  Paul  from  shipwreck  (Acts,  xxvii). 

thew,ix),  the  handkerchiefs  of  St.  Paul  (Acts,  xix,  12);  Thus  aij/utop,  i.  e.,  "sign",  completes  the  meaning 

holy  images,  e.  g.,  the  brazen  serpent  (Num.,  xxi):  of  SOvafut,  L  e.,  "[Divine]  power".    It  reveals  the 

holy  things,  e.  g.,  the  Ark  of  the  Covenant,  the  sacrea  miracle  as  an  act  of  God's  supernatural  Providence 

vessels  of  the  Temple  (Dan.,  v) ;  holy  places,  e.  g.,  the  over  men.     It  gives  a  positive  content  to  Wpoi,  i.  e., 

Temple  of  Jerusalem  (II  Par.,  '/i,  vii),  the  waters  of  "wonder",  for,  whereas  the  wonder  shows  the  miracle 

the  Jordan  (IV  Kings,  v),  the  Pool  of  Bethsaida  as  a  deviation  from  the  ordinary  course  of  nature,  the 

(John,  v).    Hence  the  contention  of  some  modem  sign  gives  the  purpose  of  the  deviation, 
writers,  that  a  miracle  requires  an  immediate  action  of        This  analysis  shows  that  (1)  the  miracle  is  essen- 

Divine  power,  is  not  true.     It  is  sufficient  that  the  mir-  tially  an  appeal  to  knowledge.    Therefore  miracles 

acle  be  due  to  the  intervention  of  God,  and  its  nature  can  be  distinguished  from  purely  natural  occurrences, 

is  revealed  bv  the  utter  lack  of  proportion  between  A  miracle  is  a  fact  m  material  creation,  and  falls 

the  effect  and  what  are  called  means  or  instruments,  under  the  observation  of  the  senses  or  comes  to 

The  word   ^/utow  means  "sign",  an  appeal  to  us  through   testimony,  like  any  natural  fact.    Its 

intelligence,  and  expresses  the  purpose  or  final  cause  miraculous    character    is    known:    (a)    from   posi- 

of  the  miracle.    A  miracle  is  a  factor  in  the  Provi-  tive  knowledge  of  natural  forces,  e.  g.,   the  law 

dence  of  God  over  men.    Hence  the  glory  of  God  and  of  gravity,  the  law  that  fire  bums.    To  say  that 

the  good  of  men  are  the  primary  or  supreme  ends  of  we  do  not  know  all  the  laws  of  nature,  and  there- 

every  miracle.    This  is  clearly  expressed  by  Christ  in  fore  cannot  know  a  miracle  (Rousseau,  "Lett.de 


MIBACLB 


340 


MIBACU 


(a  Moot.",  let.  iii),  is  beside  the  question,  for  it 
would  make  the  miracle  an  appeal  to  ignorance.  I 
may  not  know  all  the  laws  of  the  penal  code,  but  I 
can  know  with  certainty  that  in  a  particular  instance 
a  person  violates  one  definite  law.     (b)  From  our 

?06itive  knowledge  of  the  limits  of  natural  forces, 
'hus,  e.  g.,  we  mav  not  know  the  strength  of  a  man, 
but  we  do  know  that  he  cannot  by  himself  move  a 
mountain.  In  enlarging  our  knowledge  of  natural 
forces,  the  prepress  of  science  has  curtailed  their 
sphere  and  demied  their  limits,  as  in  the  law  of 
abiogenesis.  Hence,  as  soon  as  we  have  reason  to 
suspect  that  any  event,  however  imcommon  or  rare 
it  appear,  may  arise  from  natural  causes  or  be  con- 
formable to  the  usual  course  of  nature,  we  immedi- 
ately lose  the  conviction  of  its  being  a  miracle.  A 
miracle  is  a  manifestation  of  God's  power;  so  long  as 
this  is  not  clear,  we  should  reject  it  as  such. 

(2)  Miracles  are  signs  of  God's  Providence  over 
men;  hence  they  are  of  high  moral  character,  simple 
and  obvious  in  the  forces  at  work,  in  the  circumstances 
of  their  working,  and  in  their  aim  and  purpose.  Now 
philosophy  indicates  the  possibility,  and  Revelation 
teaches  the  fact,  that  spiritual  beings,  both  good  and 
bad,  exist,  and  possess  greater  power  than  man 
possesses.  Apart  from  the  speculative  question  as 
to  the  native  power  of  these  beings,  we  are  certain  (a) 
that  God  alone  can  perform  those  effects  which  are 
called  substantial  miracles,  e.  g.,  raising  the  dead  to 
life;  (b)  that  miracles  performed  by  the  angels,  as 
recorded  in  the  Bible,  are  always  ascribed  to  God,  and 
Holy  Scripture  gives  Divine  authority  to  no  miracles 
less  than  Divine;  (c)  that  Holy  Scripture  shows  the 
power  of  evil  spirits  as  strictly  conditioned,  e.  g., 
testimony  of  the  f^gyptian  magicians  (Exod.,  viii,  19), 
the  story  of  Job,  evil  spirits  aclaiowledging  the  power 
of  Christ  (Matt.,  viii,  31),  the  express  testimony  of 
Christ  himself  (Matt.,  xxiv,  24)  ana  of  the  Apocalypse 
(Apoc.,  ix.  14).  Granting  that  these  spirits  may  p>er- 
form  prodigies — i.  e.,  works  of  skill  and  ingenuity 
which,  relatively  to  our  powers,  may  seem  to  be  mirac- 
ulous— ^yet  these  works  lack  the  meaning  and  purpose 
which  would  stamp  them  as  the  language  of  God  to  men. 
II.  Errors. — Deists  reject  miracles,  for  they  deny 
the  Providence  of  God.  Agnostics,  also,  and  Posi- 
tivists  reject  them:  Comte  regarded  miracles  as  the 
fruit  of  the  theological  imagination.  Modem  Pan- 
theism has  no  place  for  miracles.  Thus  Spinoza  held 
creation  to  be  the  aspect  of  the  one  substance,  1.  e., 
God,  and,  as  he  taught  that  miracles  were  a  violation 
of  nature,  they  would  therefore  be  a  violation  of  God. 
The  answer  is,  first  that  Spinoza's  conception  of  God 
and  nature  is  false  and,  secondly,  that  in  fact  miracles 
are  not  a  violation  of  nature.  To  Hegel  creation  is  the 
evolutive  manifestation  of  the  one  AMolute  Idea,  i.  e., 
God,  and  to  the  neo-Hegelians  (e.  g.,  Thos.  Green) 
consciousness  is  identified  with  God ;  therefore  to  both 
a  miracle  has  no  meaning.  Erroneous  definitions  of 
tlie  supernatural  lead  to  erroneous  definitions  of  the 
miracle.  Thus  (a)  Bushnell  defines  the  natural  to  be 
what  is  necessary,  the  supernatural  to  be  what  is  free; 
therefore  the  material  world  is  what  we  call  nature, 
the  world  of  man's  life  is  supernatural.  So  also  Dr. 
Strong  ("  Baptist  Rev.",  vol.  1, 1879),  Rev.  C.  A.  Row 
("Supemat.  in  the  New  Test.",  London,  1875).  In 
this  sense  every  free  volition  of  man  is  a  supernatural 
act  and  a  miracle,     (b)  The  natural  supematuralism 

Sroposed  by  Carlyle,  Theodore  Parker,  Prof.  Pflei- 
erer,  and,  more  recently,  Prof.  Everett  f"The 
Psychologic  Elem.  of  Relig.  Faith  ",  London  ana  New 
York,  1902),  Prof.  Bowne  ("Immanence  of  God", 
Boston  and  New  York,  1905),  Hastings  ("Diction,  of 
Christ  and  the  Gospels  ",  s.  v.  "  Miracles  ") .  Thus  the 
natural  and  the  supernatural  are  in  reality  one:  the 
natural  is  its  aspect  to  man,  the  supernatural  is  its 
aspect  to  God.  (c)  The  "Immediate  theory",  that 
God  acts  immediately  without  second  causes)  or  that 


second  causes,  or  laws  of  nature,  must  be  defined  a£ 
the  regular  methods  of  God's  acting.  This  teaehing  is 
combined  with  the  doctrine  of  evolution. 

(d)  The  "relative"  theory  of  miracles  is  by  far  the 
most  popular  with  non-Catholic  writers.  Tnis  view 
was  onginally  proposed  to  hold  Christian  miracles  and 
at  the  same  time  hold  belief  in  the  uniformity  of 
nature.  Its  main  forms  are:  (1)  the  mechanical  view 
of  Babbage  (Bridgewater  Treatises),  later  advanced  b^ 
the  Duke  of  Argyll  (Reign  of  Law).  Thus  nature  is 
presented  as  a  vast  mechanism  woimd  up  in  the  be- 
ginning and  containing  in  itself  the  capacity  to  deviate 
at  stal^  times  from  its  ordinary  course.  The  theory 
is  ingenious,  but  it  makes  the  miracle  a  natural  event. 
It  admits  the  assumption  of  opponents  of  miracles, 
viz.,  that  physical  effects  must  nave  physical  causes, 
but  this  assumption  is  contradicted  by  common  facts 
of  experience,  e.  g.,  will  acts  on  matter.  (2)  Tlie 
"  unknown  "  law  of  Spinoza,  who  taught  that  the  term 
miracle  should  be  understood  with  reference  to  the 
opinions  of  men,  and  that  it  means  simply  an  event 
which  we  are  unable  to  explain  by  other  events  famil- 
iar to  our  experience.  Lockc,  Kant,  Eichhom,  Paulus, 
Renan  hold  the  same  view.  Thus  Prof.  Cooper  writes 
''  The  miracle  of  one  age  becomes  the  ordinary  working 
of  nature  in  the  next"  ("Ref.  Ch.  R.",  July,  1900). 
Hence  a  miracle  never  happened  in  fact,  and  is  only 
a  name  to  cover  our  ignorance.  Thus  Matthew  Ar- 
nold could  claim  that  all  Biblical  miracles  will  dis- 
appear with  the  progress  of  science  (Lit.  and  Bible) 
and  M.  Miiller  that  "the  miraculous  is  reduced  to 
mere  seeming"  (n.  Rel.,  pref.,  p.  10).  The  advocates 
of  this  theory  assume  that,  miracles  are  an  appeal  to 
ignorance.  (3)  The  "highei^law"  theory  of  Argyll 
of  "Unseen  Universe",  Trench,  Lange  (on  Matt., 
p.  153),  Gore  (Bampton  Lect.,  p.  36)  proposed  to  re- 
fute Spinoza's  claim  that  miracles  are  unnatural  and 
productive  of  disorder.  Thus  with  them  the  miracle 
is  quite  natural  because  it  takes  place  in  accordance 
witn  laws  of  a  higher  nature.  Others— e.  g.,  Schleier- 
macher  and  Ritschl — ^mean  by  higher  law,  subjective 
religious  feeling.  Thus,  to  them  a  miracle  is  not 
different  from  any  other  natural  event;  it  becomes  a 
miracle  by  relation  to  the  religious  feeling.  A  writer 
in  "The  Biblical  World"  (Oct.,  1908)  hdds  that  the 
miracle  consists  in  the  religious  significance  of  the 
natural  event  in  its  relation  to  the  religious  apprecia- 
tion as  a  sign  of  Divine  favour.  Others  explain  nigger 
law  as  a  moral  law,  or  law  of  the  spirit.  Thus  the 
miracles  of  Christ  are  understood  as  illustrations  of  a 
higher,  erander,  more  comprehensive  law  than  men 
hi^  yet  Known,  the  incoming  of  a  new  life,  of  higher 
forces  acting  according  to  higher  laws  as  manifesta- 
tions of  the  spirit  in  the  hi^er  stages  of  its  develop- 
ment. Tlie  criticism  of  this  theory  is  that  miracles 
would  cease  to  be  miracles:  they  would  not  be  ex- 
traordinary, for  they  would  take  place  \mder  the  same 
conditions.  To  bring  miracles  under  a  law  not  yet 
understood  is  to  deny  their  existence.  Thus,  when 
Trench  defines  a  miracle  as  "  an  extraordinary  event 
which  beholders  can  reduce  to  no  law  with  which  they 
are  acquainted",  the  definition  includes  hypnotism 
and  clairvoyance.  If  by  higher  law  we  mean  the 
high  law  of  God's  holiness,  then  a  miracle  can  be  re- 
ferred to  this  law,  but  the  higher  law  in  this  case  ii 
God  Himself  and  the  use  of  the  term  is  apt  to  create 
confusion. 

III.  Antecedent  iMPROBABiLmr. — ^The  great 
problem  of  modem  theology  is  the  place  and  value  of 
miracles.  In  the  opinion  of  certain  writers,  their 
antecedent  improbability,  based  on  the  universal  reign 
of  law,  is  so  great  that  they  are  not  worthy  of  serious 
consideration.  Thus  his  conviction  of  the  unifonnity 
of  nature  led  Hume  to  deny  testimony  for  miracles  in 
general,  as  it  led  Baur,  Strauss,  and  Renan  to  explain 
the  miracles  of  Christ  on  natural  grounds.  The 
fundamental  principle  is  that  whatever  bappena  is 


MIR40LB 


341 


MIR4GLB 


natural,  and  what  is  not  natural  does  not  happen. 
On  belief  in  the  unifonnity  of  nature  is  based  the 
profound  conviction  of  the  organic  unity  of  the  uni- 
verse, a  characteristic  trait  of  nineteenth-century 
thought.  It  has  dominated  a  certain  school  of  lit- 
erature, and,  with  George  Eliot,  Hall  Caine,  and 
Thomas  Hardy,  the  natural  agencies  of  heredity, 
environment,  and  necessary  law  rule  the  world  of 
human  life.  It  is  the  basic  principle  in  modem 
treatises  on  sociology.  Its  chief  exponent  is  science- 
philosophy,  a  continuation  of  the  Deism  of  the  eigh- 
teenth century  without  the  idea  of  God,  and  the  view 
herein  presented,  of  an  evolving  universe  working  out 
its  own  destiny  under  the  rigid  sway  of  inherent 
natural  laws,  finds  but  a  thin  disguise  in  the  Panthe- 
istic conception,  so  prevalent  among  non-Catholic  the- 
ologians, of  an  immanent  God,  who  is  the  active 
ground  of  the  world-development  according  to  natural 
law — ^i.  e..  Monism  of  mind  or  will.  This  belief  is  the 
gulf  between  the  old  and  the  modem  school  of  theol- 
ogy, according  to  Delitzsch  ("  Deep  Gulf  between  the 
Old  and  the  Modem  Theology",  1890;  Principal  Fair- 
bairn,  "Studies  in  the  Philos.  of  Hist,  and  Religion''). 
Max  MdUer  finds  the  kernel  of  the  modem  conception 
of  the  world  in  the  idea  that ''  there  is  a  law  and  order 
in  everything,  and  that  an  unbroken  chain  of  causes 
and  efiFects  holds  the  whole  universe  together"  ("  An- 
throp.  Relig.",  pref.,  p.  10).  Throughout  the  uni- 
verse there  is  a  mechsuiism  of  nature  and  of  human 
life,  presenting  a  necessary  chain,  or  sequence,  of 
cause  and  effect,  which  is  not,  and  cannot  be,  broken 
by  an  interference  from  without,  as  is  assiuncd  in  the 
case  of  a  miracle.  This  view  is  the  ground  of  modem 
objections  to  Christianity,  the  source  of  modem 
scepticism,  and  the  reason  for  a  prevailing  disposition 
among  Christian  thinkers  to  deny  miracles  a  place  in 
Christian  evidences,  and  to  base  the  proof  for  Chris- 
tianity on  internal  evidences  alone. 

Criticism.  (1)  This  view  ultimately  rests  upon  the 
assumption  that  the  material  universe  alone  exists. 
It  is  refuted:  (a)  by  proving  that  in  man  there  is  a 
spiritual  soul  totally  distinct  from  organic  and  inor- 
ganic existence,  and  that  this  soul  reveals  an  intel- 
tectual  and  moral  order  totally  distinct  from  the 
ph3rsical  order;  (b)  by  inferring  the  existence  of  God 
from  the  phenomena  of  the  intellectual,  the  moral, 
and  the  physical  order.  (2)  This  view  is  also  based 
on  an  erroneous  meaning  of  the  term  naJture.  Kant 
made  a  distinction  between  the  noumenon  and  the 
phenomenon  of  a  thing;  he  denied  that  we  can  know 
the  noumenon,  i.  e.,  the  thing  in  itself;  all  we  know  is 
the  phenomenon^  i.  e.,  the  appearance  of  the  thing. 
This  distinction  has  profounaly  influenced  modem 
thought.  As  a  Transcendental  Idealist,  Kant  denied 
that  we  know  the  real  phenomenon;  to  him  only  the 
ideed  appearance  is  the  object  of  the  mind.  Thus 
knowledge  is  a  succession  of  ideal  appearances,  and 
a  miracle  would  be  an  interruption  of  that  succession. 
Others,  i.  e.,  the  Sense-School  (Hume,  Mill,  Bain, 
Spencer,  and  others),  teach  that,  while  we  cannot 
know  the  substance  or  essences  of  things,  we  can  and 
do  grasp  the  real  phenomena.  To  them  the  world  is  a 
phenomenal  world  and  is  a  piue  coexistence  and  suc- 
cession of  phenomena;  the  antecedent  determines  the 
consequent.  In  this  view  a  miracle  would  be  an  un- 
explained break  in  the  (so-called)  invariable  law  of 
sequence,  on  which  law  Mill  based  his  Logic.  Now  we 
reply  that  the  real  meaning  of  the  word  nature  in- 
cludes both  the  phenomenon  and  the  noumenon.  We 
have  the  idea  of  substance  with  an  objective  content. 
In  reality  the  progress  of  science  consists  in  the  obser- 
vation of,  ana  experimentation  upon,  things  with  a 
view  to  find  out  their  properties  or  potencies,  which 
fai  turn  enable  us  to  know  the  physical  essences  of  the 
various  substances.  (3)  Through  the  erroneous  con- 
ception of  nature,  the  principle  of  causality  is  con- 
founded with  the  law  of  the  uniformity  of  nature. 


But  they  are  absolutely  different  things.  The  formei 
is  a  primary  conviction  which  has  its  source  in  our  in- 
ner consciousness.  The  latter  is  an  induction  based 
upon  a  long  and  careful  observation  of  facts:  it  is  not 
a  self-evident  truth,  nor  is  it  a  universal  and  necessary 
principle,  as  Mill  himself  has  shown  (Logic,  IV,  xxi). 
In  fact  uniformity  of  nature  is  the  result  of  the  princi- 
ple of  causation. 

(4)  The  main  contention,  that  the  uniformity  of 
nature  rules  miracles  out  of  consideration,  because  they 
would  implv  a  break  in  the  uniformity  and  a  violation 
of  natural  law,  is  not  true.  The  laws  of  nature  are 
the  observed  modes  or  processes  in  which  natural 
forces  act.  These  forces  are  the  properties  or  poten- 
cies of  the  essences  of  natural  things.  Our  experience 
of  causation  is  not  the  experience  of  a  mere  sequence 
but  of  a  sequence  due  to  the  necessary  operation  of 
essences  viewed  as  principles  or  sources  of  action. 
Now  essences  are  necessarily  what  they  are  and  un- 
changeable; therefore  their  properties,  or  potencies,  or 
forces,  under  given  circumstances,  act  m  the  same 
way.  On  this.  Scholastic  philosophy  bases  the 
truth  that  nature  is  untform  m  its  action,  yet  holds 
that  constancy  of  succession  is  not  an  absolute  law, 
for  the  succession  is  only  constant  so  long  as  the  nou- 
menal  relations  remain  the  same.  Thus  Scholastic 
philosophy,  in  defending  miracles,  accepts  the  uni- 
versal reign  of  law  in  this  sense,  and  its  teaching  is  in 
absolute  accord  with  the  methods  actually  pursued  by 
modem  science  in  scientific  investigations.  Hence  it 
teaches  the  order  of  nature  and  the  reign  of  law,  and 
openly  declares  that,  if  there  were  no  order,  there 
would  be  no  miracle.  It  is  significant  that  the  Bible 
appeals  constantly  to  the  reign  of  law  in  nature,  while 
it  attests  the  actual  occurrence  of  miracles.  Now 
human  will,  in  acting  on  material  forces,  interferes 
with  the  regular  seauences,  but  does  not  paralyze  the 
natural  forces  or  destroy  their  innate  tendency  to 
act  in  a  uniform  manner.  Thus  a  boy,  by  throwing 
a  stone  into  the  air,  does  not  disarrange  tne  order  or 
nature  or  do  away  with  the  law  of  gravity.  A  new 
force  only  is  brougnt  in  and  counteracts  the  tendencies 
of  the  natural  forces,  just  as  the  natural  forces  interact 
and  counteract  among  themselves,  as  is  shown  in  the 
well-known  truths  of  the  parallelogram  of  forces  and 
the  distinction  between  kinetic  and  potential  enei*gy. 
The  anal(^y  from  man's  act  to  God's  act  is  complete 
as  far  as  concerns  a  break  in  the  uniformity  of  nature 
or  a  violation  of  its  laws.  The  extent  of  the  power  ex- 
erted does  not  affect  the  point  at  issue.  Hence  physical 
nature  is  presented  as  a  system  of  physical  causes  pro- 
ducing uniform  results,  and  yet  permits  the  interposi- 
tion of  personal  agency  without  affecting  its  stability. 

(5)  The  tmth  of  this  position  is  so  manifest  that 
Mill  admits  Hume's  argument  against  miracles  to  be 
valid  only  on  the  supposition  that  God  does  not  exist, 
for,  he  says,  "  a  miracle  is  a  new  effect  supposed  to  be 
produced  by  the  introduction  of  a  new  cause  ...  of 
the  adequacy  of  that  cause,  if  present,  there  can  be  no 
doubt "  (Logic,  III,  xxv).  Hence,  admitting  the  exist- 
ence of  God,  Hume's  "uniform  sequence"  does  not  hold 
as  an  objection  to  miracles.  Huxley  also  denies  that 
physicists  withhold  belief  in  miracles  because  miracles 
are  in  violation  of  natural  laws,  and  he  rejects  the 
whole  of  this  line  of  argument  ('*  Some  Controverted 
questions ",  209; "  Life  of  Hume",  132),  and  holds  that 
a  miracle  is  a  question  of  evidence  pure  and  simple. 
Hence  the  objection  to  miracles  on  the  ground  of  their 
antece<lent  improbability  has  been  abandoned .  "  The 
Biblical  World"  (Oct.,  1908)  says  "The  old  rigid  sys- 
tem of  *  Laws  of  Nature '  is  being  broken  up  by  modem 
science.  There  are  many  events  which  scientists 
recognize  to  be  inexplicable  by  any  known  law.  But 
this  inability  to  furnish  a  scientific  explanation  is  no 
reason  for  denying  the  existence  of  any  event,  if  it  is 
adequately  attested.  Thus  the  old  a  priori  argument 
against  miracles  is  gone."    Thus  in  modem  thought 


MIR40LB  342  MIR40LB 

the  question  of  the  miracle  is  simply  a  question  of  Geoige  Fisher — ^piish  the  Christian  view  to  the  ez- 

fact.  treme,  and  say  that  miracles  are  necessary  to  attest 

IV.    Plage  AND  Value  OF  Miracles  IN  THE  Chris-  revelation.    Catholic  theologians,  however,  take  a 

TiAN  View  of  the  World. — As  the  great  objection  to  broader  view.    They  hold  (ij  that  the  great  primary 

miracles  really  rests  on  narrow  and  false  philosophical  ends  of  miracles  are  the  manifestation  of  Goers  glory 

views  of  the  universe,  so  the  true  world-view  is  neces-  and  the  good  of  men;  that  the  particular  or  secondary 

sary  to  grasp  their  place  and  value.    Christianity  ends,  subordinate  to  the  former,  are  to  confirm  the 

teaches  that  God  created  and  governs  the  world.    This  truth  of  a  mission  or  a  doctrine  of  faith  or  morals,  to 

government  is  His  Providence.     It  is  shown  in  the  attest  the  sanctity  of  God's  servants,  to  confer  hene- 

elicate  adjustment  and  subordination  of  the  tenden-  fits  and  vindicate  Divine  justice.     (2)     Hence  they 

cies  proper  to  material  things,  resulting  in  the  marvel-  teach  that  the  attestation  of  Revelation  is  not  the 

lous  stability  and  harmony  which  prevail  throughout  primary  end  of  the  miracle,  but  its  main  secondary 

the  physical  creation,  ana  in  the  moral  order,  which  end,  though  not  the  only  one.     (3)  They  say  that  the 

through  conscience,  is  to  guide  and  control  the  ten-  miracles  of  Christ  were  not  necessary  but ''most  fitting 

dencies  of  man's  nature  to  a  complete  harmony  in  and  altogether  in  accord  with  His  mission"  {decentiM' 

human  life.     Man  is  a  personal  being,  with  intelligence  Hmum  et  marimopere  conveniens  " — Bened.  XIV,  IV, 

and  free-will,  capable  of  knowing  and  serving  God,  p.  1,  c.  2,  n.  3;  Summa,  III,  Q.  xliii)  as  a  means  to  at- 

and  created  for  that  purpose.    To  him  nature  is  the  test  its  truth.    At  the  same  time  they  place  miracles 

book  of  God's  work  revealing  the  Creator  throueh  the  among  the  strongest  and  most  certain  evidences  of 

design  visible  in  the  material  order  and  throu^  con-  Divine  revelation.     (4)  Yet  they  teach  that,  as  evi- 

science,  the  voice  of  the  moral  order  based  in  the  very  dences,  miracles  have  not  a  physical  force,  i.  e., 

constitution  of  his  own  being.     Hence  the  relation  oif  absolutely  compelling  assent,  but  only  a  moral  force, 

man  to  God  is  a  personal  one.     God's  Providence  is  i.  e.,  they  do  no  violence  to  free  will,  though  their 

not  confined  to  the  revelation  of  Himself  through  His  ftPP^  to  the  assent  is  of  the  strongest  kind.     (5) 

works.    He  has  manifested  Himself  in  a  supernatural  That,  as  evidences,  they  are  not  wrought  to  show  Uie 

manner  throwing  a  flood  of  light  on  the  relations  which  internal  truth  of  the  doctrines,  but  only  to  give  mani* 

should  exist  between  man  and  Himself.    The  Bible  fest  reasons  why  we  should  accept  the  doctrines, 

contains  this  revelation,  and  is  called  the  Book  of  Hence  the  distinction:  not  evidenler  vera,  but  evidenter 

God's  Word.    It  gives  the  record  of  God's  supemat-  credibilia.    For  the  Revelation,  which  miracles  attest, 

ural  Providence  leading  up  to  the  Redemption  and  contains  supernatural  doctrines  above  the  compre- 

the  founding  of  the  Christian  Church.     Here  we  are  hension  of  tne  mind  and  positive  institutions  in  God's 

told  that  beyond  the  sphere  of  nature  there  is  another  supernatural  Providence  over  men.    Thus  the  opinion 

realm  of  existence,   the  supernatural,  peopled   by  of  Locke,  Trench,  Mill,  Mozley,  and  Cox,  that  the 

spiritual  beings  and  departed  souls.     Both  spheres,  doctrine  proves  the  miracle,  not  the  miracle  the  doo- 

tne  natural  and  the  supernatural,  are  under  the  over-  trine,  is  not  true.     (6)  Finally,  they  maiotainthat  the 

ruling  Providence  of  God.    Thus  God  and  man  are  miracles  of  Scripture  and  the  power  in  the  Church  of 

two  great  facts.      The   relation  of  the  soul  to  its  workii^  miracles  are  of  Divine  faith,  not,  however, 

Maker  is  religion.  the  miracles  of  church  history  themselves.     Hence 

Religion  is  the  knowledge,  love,  and  service  of  God;  they  teach  that  the  former  are  both  evidences  of  faith 

its  expression  is  called  worship,  and  the  essence  of  anci  objects  of  faith ;  that  the  latter  are  evidences  of 

worship  is  prayer.    Thus  between  man  and  God  there  the  purpose  for  which  they  are  wrought,  not,  however 

is  constant  intercourse,  and  in  God's  Providence  the  objects  of  Divine  faith.    Hence  this  teaching  guardt 

appointed  means  of  this  intercourse  is  prayer.     By  against  the  other  exaggerated  view  recently  proposed 

prayer  man  speaks  to  God  in  acts  of  faith,  hope,  by  non-Catholic  writers,  who  hold  that  miracles  are 

love,   and  contrition,   and   implores   His  aid.     In  now  considered  not  as  evidences,  but  as  objects  of 

answer  to  prayer  God  acts  on  the  soul  by  His  faith. 

grace   and,   in   special   circumstances,   by  working        V.  Testimont. — ^A  miracle,  like  any  natural  event, 

miracles.    Hence  the  great  fact  of  prayer,  as  the  is  known  either  from  personal  observation  or  from  the 

connecting  link  of  man  to  God,  implies  a  constant  testimony  of  others.    In  the  miracle  we  have  the  fact 

interference  of  God  in  the  life  of  man.    Therefore,  itself  as  an  external  occurrence  and  its  miraculous 

in  the  Christian  view  of  the  world,  miracles  have  a  character.     The   miraculous  character  of  the  fact 

place  and  a  meaning.    They  arise  out  of  the  personal  consists  in  this:  that  its  nature  and  the  surrounding 

relation  between  G^  and  man.    llie  conviction  that  circumstances  are  of  such  a  kind  that  we  are  forced  to 

the  pure  of  heart  are  pleasing  to  God,  in  some  myst^  admit  natural  forces  alone  could  not  have  produced  it, 

nous  way,  is  world-wide;  even  among  the  heathens  and  the  only  rational  explanation  is  to  be  had  in  the 

pure  offerings  only  are  prepared  for  the  sacrifice.    This  interference  of  Divine  agency.    The  perception  of  its 

mtimate  sense  of  God's  presence  may  account  for  the  miraculous  character  is  a  rational  act  of  the  mind,  and 

universal  tendency  to  refer  all  striking  phenomena  to  is  simply  the  application  of  the  principle  of  causality 

supernatural  causes.    Error  and  exaggeration  do  not  with  the  methods  of  induction.    The  general  rules 

chan^  the  nature  of  the  belief  found^  in  the  abiding  governing   the   acceptance   of   testimony  apply   to 

conviction  of  the  Providence  of  God.    ^o  this  belie?  miracles  as  to  other  tacts  of  history.    If  we  Imve  cer- 

St.  Paul  appealed  in  his  discourse  to  the  Athenians  tain  evidence  for  the  fact,  we  are  bound  to  accept  it. 

(Acts,  xvii).    In  the  miracle,  therefore,  God  sub-  The  evidence  for  miracles,  as  for  historical  facts  in 

ordinates  physical  nature  to  a  higher  purpose,  and  general,  depends  on  the  knowledge  and  veracity  of  the 

this  higher  purpose  is  identical  with  the  highest  moral  narrators,  i.e.,  they  who  testify  to  the  occurrence  of  the 

aims  of  existence.    The  mechanical  view  of  the  world  events  must  know  what  *they  tell  and  tell  the  truth, 

is  in  harmony  with  the  teleological,  and  when  pur-  The  extraordinary  nature  of  the  miracle  requires  more 

pose  exists,  no  event  is  isolated  or  unmeaning.    Man  is  complete  and   accurate   investigation.     Such   testi- 

created  for  God,  and  a  miracle  is  the  proof  and  pledge  mony  we  are  not  free  to  reject;  otherwise  we  must 

of  His  supernatural  Providence.     Hence  we  can  under-  deny  all  history  whatsoever.    We  have  no  more  rar 

stand  how,  in  devout  minds,  there  is  even  a  presump-  tional  warrant  for  rejecting  miracles  than  for  rejecting 

tion  for  and  an  expectation  of  miracles.    They  show  accounts  of  stellar  eclipses.    Hence,  the^  who  deny 

the  subordination  of  the  lower  world  to  the  higher;  miracles  have  concentrated  their  efforts  with  the  pur- 

they  are  the  breaking  in  of  the  higher  world  on  the  pose  of  destroying  the  historical  evidence  for  all  mir- 

lower  ("C.  Gent.",  Ill,  xcviii,  xcix;   Benedict  XIV,  acles  whatsoever  and  especially  the  evidence  for  the 

1,  c;  1,  rV,  p.  1,  c.  I).  miracles  of  the  Gospel. 
Some  writers — e.  g.,  Paley,  Mansel,  Mozley,  Dr.        Hume  held  that  no  testimony  could  prove 


MIR4GLB  343  MIR4GI.E 

for  it  is  more  probable  that  the  testimony  is  false  than  tional  interpretation  of  commonplace  events.  Tlie^ 
that  the  miracles  are  true.  But  (1)  his  contention  claim  that  the  facts  which  occurred  were  substan- 
that  "  a  uniform  experience  **,  which  is  ''  a  direct  and  tially  historical,  but  in  the  narrating  were  covered  over 
full  proof",  is  against  miracles,  is  denied  by  Mill,  pro-  with  the  interpretations  of  the  writers.  Hence,  they 
vided  an  adequate  cause — i.  e.,  God — exists.  (2)  say  that,  in  studying  the  Gospels,  we  must  distin- 
Hume's  "experience"  may  mean:  (a)  the  experience  guish  between  the  facts  as  they  actually  took  place 
of  the  individual,  and  his  argument  is  made  absurd  and  the  subjective  emotions  of  those  who  witnessed 
(e.  g.,  historic  doubts  about  Napoleon)  or  (b)  the  ex-  them,  their  strong  excitement,  tendency  to  exaggera- 
perience  of  the  race,  which  has  become  common  prop-  tion,  and  vivid  imagination.  Thus  they  appeal  not 
erty  and  the  type  of  what  may  be  expected.  Now  m  to  the  "fallacies  of  testimony"  so  much  as  to  the 
fact  we  get  thk  by  testimony;  many  supernatural  "fallacies  of  the  senses".  But  this  attempt  to  trans- 
facts  are  part  of  this  race  experience ;  this  supernatural  form  the  Apostles  into  nervous  visionaries  cannot  be 
part  Hume  prejudges,  arbitrarily  declares  it  untrue,  held  by  an  unbiased  mind.  St.  Peter  clearly  dis- 
which  is  the  point  to  be  provea,  and  assumes  that  tinguished  between  a  vision  (Acts,  x,  17)  and  a  reality 
miraculous  is  synonymous  with  absurd.  The  past,  so  (Acts,  xii),  and  St.  Paul  mentions  two  cases  of  visions 
expurgated,  is  made  the  test  of  the  future,  and  should  (Acts,  xxii,  17;  II  Cor.,  xii),  the  latter  by  way  of 
prevent  the  consistent  advocates  of  Hume  from  ac-  contrast  with  his  ordinary  missionary  life  of  labours 
cepting  the  discoveries  of  science.  (3)  Hard-pressed,  and  sufferings  (II  Cor.,  xi).  Renan  even  goes  so  far 
Hume  is  forced  to  make  the  distinction  between  testi-  as  to  present  the  glarine  inconsistency  of  a  Christ  re- 
mony  contrary  to  experience  and  testimony  not  con-  markable,  as  he  says,  for  moral  beauty  of  life  and 
formable  to  experience,  and  holds  that  the  latter  may  doctrine,  who  nevertheless  is  euilty  of  conscious  de- 
be  accepted — e.  g.,  testimony  of  ice  to  the  Indian  ception,  as,  e.  g.,  in  the  make-believe  raising  of  Las- 
prinoe.  But  this  admission  is  fatal  to  his  position,  arus.  This  teaching  is  in  reality  a  denial  of  testi- 
(4)  Himie  proceeds  on  the  supposition  that,  for  practi-  mony.  The  miracles  of  Christ  must  be  taken  as  a 
cal  purposes,  all  the  laws  of  nature  are  known,  yet  ex-  whole,  and  in  the  Gospel  setting  where  they  are  pre- 
perience  shows  that  this  is  not  true.  (5)  His  whole  sentea  as  a  part  of  his  teaching  and  his  life.  On  the 
azgument  rests  upon  the  rejected  philosophical  prin-  ground  of  evidence  there  is  no  reason  to  make  a  dis- 
ciple that  external  experience  is  the  sole  source  of  tinction  among  them  or  to  interpret  them  so  that  they 
Imowledge,.  rests  upon  the  discredited  basis  that  become  other  than  they  are.  The  real  reason  is  pre- 
miracles  are  opposea  to  the  uniformity  of  nature  as  judgment  on  false  philosophical  grounds  with  a  view 
violations  of  natural  laws,  and  was  advanced  throu^  to  get  rid  of  the  supernatural  element.  In  fact,  the 
prejudice  gainst  Christianity.  Hence  later  sceptics  conjectures  and  hypotheses  proposed  are  far  more  im- 
have  receded  from  Hume's  extreme  position  and  prooable  than  the  miracles  themselves.  Again,  how 
teach,  not  that  miracles  cannot  be  provea,  but  that  as  thus  explain  the  great  miracle  that  the  hero  of  a  base- 
a  matter  of  fact  they  are  not  proved.  less  legend,  the  impotent  and  deceitful  Christ,  could  be- 

The  attack  by  Hume  on  miracles  in  general  has  been  come  the  founder  of  the  Christian  Church  and  of  Chris- 
applied  to  the  miracles  of  the  Bible,  and  has  received  tian  civilization?  Finally,  this  method  violates  the  first 
added  weight  from  the  denial  of  Divine  inspiration,  principles  of  interpretation;  for  the  New-Testament 
Varying  in  form,  its  basic  principle  is  the  same,  viz.,  writers  are  not  allowed  to  speak  their  own  language, 
the  humanism  of  the  Renaissance  applied  to  the-  (2)  The  theory  of  Biblical  Humanism. — ^Ine  fun- 
ology.  Thus  we  have:  (1)  The  old  rationalism  of  damental  idea  of  HegePs  metaphysic  (viz.,  that  ex- 
Sexnler,  Eichhom,  de  Wette,  and  Paulus,  who  held  the  isting  things  are  the  progressive  manifestation  of  the 
credibility  of  the  Bible  records,  but  contended  that  idea,  i.  e.,  the  absolute)  gave  a  philosophical  basis 
they  were  a  collection  of  writings  composed  by  natural  for  the  organic  conception  of  the  universe,  i.  e.,  the 
intelligence  alone,  and  to  be  treated  on  the  same  plane  Divine  as  organic  to  tne  human.  Thus  revelation  is 
witii  other  natural  productions  of  the  human  mind,  presented  as  a  human  process,  and  history—e.  g.,  the 
They  got  rid  of  the  supernatural  by  a  bold  interpreta-  Bible — is  a  record  of  human  experience,  the  product  of 
tion  of  miracles  as  purely  natural  facts.  Tnis  is  a  human  life.  This  philosophy  of  history  was  applied 
called  the  "  interpretation "  theory,  and  appears  to-  to  explain  the  miraculous  in  the  Gospels  and  appears 
day  under  two  forms:  (a)  modified  rationalism,  which  imder  two  forms:  (a)  the  Tubingen  School.  Baur 
teaches  that  we  are  warranted  in  accepting  a  very  regards  the  Hegelian  process  in  its  objective  aspect, 
considerable  portion  of  the  Gospel  narratives  as  sub-  i.  e.,  the  facts  as  things.  He  held  the  books  ot  the 
stantially  historical,  without  being  compelled  to  be-  New  Testament  to  be  states  through  which  the  human 
lieve  in  any  miracles.  Hence  they  give  credence  to  the  life  and  thought  of  early  Christianity  had  passed.  He 
accounts  of  the  demoniacs  and  healing,  but  allege  attempted  to  do  with  reference  to  the  origin  what 
that  these  wonders  were  wrought  by,  or  m  accordance  Gibbon  tried  with  reference  to  the  spread  of  Chris- 
with,  natural  law.  Thus  we  have  tne  electric  theory  of  tianity —  i.  e.,  get  rid  of  the  supernatural  by  the  tacit 
M.Corelli,  the  appeal  to  "moral  therapeutics  "by  Mat-  assumption  that  there  were  no  miracles  and  by  the 
thew  Arnold,  and  the  psychological  theory  advanced  enumeration  of  natural  causes,  chief  of  which  was  the 
by  Prof.  Bousset  of  Gottingen,  in  which  he  claims  Messianic  idea  to  which  Jesus  accommodated  Himself, 
that  Christ  performed  miracles  by  natural  mental  The  evolution  element  in  Baur's  Humanism,  however, 
powers  of  a  superior  kind  (cf.  ''N.  World",  Mareh,  constrained  him  to  deny  that  we  possess  contempo- 
1896) .  But  the  attempt  to  explain  the  miracles  of  the  raneous  documents  of  our  Lord's  life,  to  hold  that  the 
Gospel  either  by  the  natural  powers  of  Christ,  i.  e.,  New-Testament  literature  was  the  result  of  warring 
mental  or  moral  superiority,  or  by  peculiar  states  of  factions  among  the  early  Christians,  and  therefore 
liie  recipient,  faith  cure,  and  allied  psychic  phenomena,  of  a  much  later  date  than  tradition  ascribes  to  it,  and 
is  arbitrary  and  not  true  to  facts.  In  many  of  the  that  Christ  was  only  the  occasional  cause  of  Chris- 
miracles  faith  is  not  required,  and  is  in  fact  absent;  tianity.  He  accepted  as  ^nuine  only  the  Epistles 
this  is  shown,  in  the  miracles  of  power,  by  the  ex-  to  the  Galatians,  Komans,  I  and  II  Corinthians,  and 
pressed  fear  of  the  Apostles,  e.  g.,  at  Christ  stilling  the  the  Apocaljrpse.  But  the  Epistles  admitted  by  Baur 
tempest  (Mark,  iv,  40),  at  Christ  on  the  waters  (Mark,  show  that  St.  Paul  believed  in  miracles  and  asserted 
vi,  51),  at  the  draught  of  fishes  (Luke,  V,  8),  and  in  the  the  actual  occurrence  of  them  as  well-known  facts 
miracles  of  expelling  demons.  In  some  miracles  Christ  both  in  regard  to  Christ  and  in  regard  to  himself  and 
reqtiires  faith,  but  the  faith  is  not  the  cause  of  the  the  other  Apastles  (e.  g.,  Rom.,  xv,  IS;  I  Cor.,  i,  22; 
miracle,  only  the  condition  of  His  exercising  the  power,  xii,  10;  II  Cor.,  xii,  12;  Gal.,  iii,  5,  especially  his  re- 

(b)  Others,  like  Holstein,  Renan,  and  Huxley,  fol-  peated  references  to  the  Resurrection  of  Christ,  I 

low  de  Wette,  who  explains  the  miracles  as  the  emo-  Cor.,  xv).    The  basis  on  which  the  Tubingen  School 


MIR40LB                             344  MXBACLB 

rests,  viz.,  that  we  possess  no  contemporaneous  records  alting  the  supernatural  character  of  the  Bible,  so  the 
of  Christ's  life,  and  that  the  New-Testament  writings  new  Keformation  aimed  at  removing  the  supernatural 
belong  to  the  second  century,  has  been  proved  to  be  element  from  the  Bible  and  resting  faith  in  Christian- 
false  by  the  higher  criticisms.  Hence  Huxley  admits  ity  on  the  high  moral  character  of  Jesus  and  the  ex- 
that  this  position  is  no  longer  tenable  (The  Nineteenth  cellence  of  His  moral  teaching.  It  is  in  close  sym- 
Century,  Feb.,  1889),  and  in  fact  there  is  no  longer  a  pathy  with  some  writers  on  the  science  of  religion, 
Tubingen  School  at  Tubingen.  Hamack  says:  ''As  who  see  in  Christianity  a  natural  religion,  though 
regards  the  criticisms  of  the  sources  of  Christianity,  superior  to  other  forms.  In  describing  their  position 
we  stand  unquestionablv  in  a  movement  of  return  to  as  ''a  revolt  against  miraculous  belief  ,  its  acTherents 
tradition.  Iiie  chronological  framework  in  which  yet  profess  great  reverence  for  Jesus  as  "  that  friend 
tradition  set  the  earliest  documents  is  to  be  hence-  of  God  and  Man,  in  whom,  through  all  human  frailty 
forth  accepted  in  its  main  outlines"  (The  Nineteenth  and  necessary  imperfection,  they  see  the  natural 
Cent.,  Oct.,  1899).  Hence  Romanes  said  that  the  head  of  their  mmost  life,  the  symbol  of  those  religious 
outcome  of  the  battle  on  the  Bible  documents  is  forces  in  man  which  are  primitive,  essential  and  uni- 
a  signal  victory  for  Christianity  (Thoughts  on  Reli-  versal"  ("The  Nineteenth  Cent.",  Mar.,  1889).  By 
gion,  p.  165).  Dr.  Emil  Reich  speaks  of  the  bank-  way  of  criticism  it  may  be  said  that  this  school  has  its 
ruptcy  of  the  higher  criticism  0'  Contemp.  Rev.",  source  in  the  philosophical  assumption  that  the  uni- 
April,  1905).  formity  of  nature  has  made  the  miracle  imthinkable 
(b)  The  "Mythical"  School. — Strauss  regarded  the  — an  assumption  now  discarded.  Again,  it  has  its 
Hegelian  process  in  its  subjective  aspect.  The  facts  basis  in  the  Tubingen  School,  which  has  been  proved 
as  matters  of  consciousness  with  the  early  Christians  false,  and  it  requires  a  mutilation  of  the  Gospels  so 
concerned  him  exclusively.  Hence  he  regarded  Christ  radical  and  wholesale  that  nearly  every  sentence  has 
within  the  Christian  consciousness  of  l£e  time,  and  to  be  excised  or  rewritten.  The  miracles  of  Jesus  are 
held  that  Christ  of  the  New  Testament  was  the  out-  too  essential  a  part  of  His  life  and  teaching  to  be  thus 
come  of  this  consciousness.  He  did  not  deny  a  rela-  removed.  We  might  as  well  expurgate  the  records  of 
tively  small  nucleus  of  historical  reality,  but  contended  military  achievements  from  the  Lives  of  Alexander 
that  the  Gospels,  as  we  possess  them,  are  mythical  orof  Csesar.  Strauss  exposed  the  inconsistencies  of 
inventions  or  fabulous  and  fanciful  embellisnments  this  position,  which  he  once  held  (Old  Faith  and  the 
and  are  to  be  regarded  only  as  symbols  for  spiritual  New),  and  von  Hartmann  considered  the  Liberal  theo- 
ideas,  e.  g.,  the  Messianic  idea.  Strauss  thus  at-  logians  as  causing  the  disintef^ration  of  Christianity 
tempted  to  remove  the  miraculous — or  what  he  con-  (" Selbstersetzung  des  Christ",  1888). 
sidered  the  unhistorical  matter — from  the  text.  But  (b)  In  its  recent  form,  it  has  been  advocated  by 
this  view  was  too  fanciful  long  to  hold  currency  after  a  the  exponents  of  the  psychological  theory.  Hence, 
careful  study  of  the  truthful,  matter-of-fact  character  where  the  old  school  followed  an  objective,  this  pur- 
of  the  New-Testament  writings,  and  a  comparison  of  sues  a  subjective  method.  This  theory  combines 
them  with  the  Apocrsrpha.  Hence  it  has  been  rejected,  the  basic  teaching  of  Hegel,  Schleiermacher,  and 
and  Strauss  himself  confessed  to  disappointment  at  Ritschl.  Hegel  taught  that  religious  truths  are  the 
the  result  of  his  labours  (The  Old  and  New  Faith).  figurative  representation  of  Tational  ideas;  Schleier- 

(3)  The  Critical  Agnostic  School. — Its  basis  is  the  macher  taught  that  propositions  of  faith  are  the  pious 
organic  idea  of  tiie  universe,  but  it  views  the  world-  states  of  the  heart  expressed  in  language;  Rit«chl, 
process  apart  from  God,  because  reason  cannot  prove  that  the  evidence  of  Christian  doctrine  is  in  the 
the  existence  of  God,  and  therefore,  to  the  Agnostic,  "value- judgment",  i.  e.,  the  religious  effect  on  the 
He  does  not  exist  (e.  g.,  Huxley);  or  to  the  Christian  mind.  On  this  basis  Prof.  Gardner  ("A  Historical 
Agnostic,  His  existence  is  accepted  on  Faith  (e.  g.,  View  of  the  New  Test.",  London,  1904)  holds  that  no 
Baden-Powell).  To  both  there  is  no  miracle,  for  we  reasonable  man  would  profess  to  disprove  the  Chris- 
have  no  way  of  knowing  it.  Thus  Huxley  admits  the  tian  miracles  historically;  that  in  historical  studies  we 
facts  of  miracles  in  the  New  Testament*  but  says  that  must  accept  the  principle  of  continuity  as  set  forth 
the  testimony  as  to  their  miraculous  character  may  be  by  evolution,  that  the  statements  of  the  New  Testa- 
worthless,  and  strives  to  explain  it  hy  the  subjective  ment  are  based  mainly  on  Christian  experience,  in 
mental  conditions  of  the  writers  ( ''  The  Nineteenth  which  there  is  always  an  element  of  false  theory;  that 
Cent.",  Mar.,  1889).  Baden-Powell  (in  "  Essays  and  we  must  distinguish  between  the  true  underijin^  fact 
Reviews"),  Holtzmann  (Die  synoptischen  Evange-  and  its  defective  outward  expression;  that  this  ex- 
lien),  and  Hamack  (The  Essence  of  Christianity)  ad-  pression  is  conditioned  by  the  mtellectual  atmosphere 
mit  the  miracles  as  recorded  in  the  Gospels,  but  hold  of  the  time,  and  passes  away  to  give  place  to  a  higher 
that  their  miraculous  character  is  beyond  the  scope  and  better  expression.  Hence  the  outward  expression 
of  historical  proof,  and  depends  on  the  mental  as-  of  Christianity  should  be  different  now  from  what  it 
sumptions  of  the  readers.— -Criticism:  The  real  prob-  was  in  other  days.  Hence,  while  miracles  may  have 
lem  of  the  historian  is  to  state  well-authenticated  had  their  value  for  the  early  Christians,  they  have  no 
facts  and  give  an  explanation  of  the  testimony.  He  value  for  us,  for  our  experience  is  different  from  theire. 
should  show  how  such  events  must  have  taken  place  Thus  M.  Rdville  ("Liberal  Christianity",  London, 
and  how  such  a  theory  only  can  explain  them.  He  1903)  says:  "The  faith  of  a  liberal  Protestant  does  not 
takes  cognizance  of  all  that  is  said  about  these  events  depend  upon  the  solution  of  a  problem  of  historical 
by  competent  witnesses,  and  from  their  testimony  he  criticism.  It  is  founded  upon  his  own  experience  of 
draws  the  conclusion.  To  admit  the  facts  and  to  the  value  and  power  of  the  Gospel  of  Cnrist",  and 
deny  an  explanation  is  to  furnish  very  great  evidence  "The  Gospel  of  Jesus  is  indepenaent  of  its  local  and 
for  their  historical  truth,  and  to  show  qualities  not  temporary  forms"  (pp.  64,  58). — All  this,  however,  is 
consistent  with  the  scientific  historian.  philosophy,  not  history;   it  is  not  Christianity,  but 

(4)  The  theory  of  liberal  Protestantism. — (a)  In  Rationalism ;  it  inverts  the  true  standard  of  historical 
its  older  form,  this  was  advocated  by  Carlyle  (Froude's  criticism — viz.,  we  should  study  past  events  in  the 
"Life  of  Carlyle"),  Martineau  (Seal  of  Authority  in  light  of  their  own  surroundings,  and  not  from  the 
Religion),  Rathbone  Greg  (Creed  of  Christendom),  subjective  feeling  on  the  part  of  the  historian  of  what 
Prof.  Wm.  H.  Green  (Works,  III,  pp.  230,  253),  pro-  mignt,  could,  or  would  have  occurred.  There  is  no 
posed  as  a  religious  creed  under  the  title  of  the  "new  reason  to  restrict  these  principles  to  questions  of  relig- 
Reformation"  ("The  Nineteenth  Cent.",  Mar.,  1889)  ious  history;  and  if  extended  to  embrace  the  whole 
and  popularized  by  Mrs.  Humphry  Ward  in  "  Robert  of  past  hwtory,  they  would  lead  to  absolute  scepticism. 
Elsmere".  As  the  old  Reformation  was  a  movement  VI.  The  Fact. — ^The  Bible  shows  that  at  all  times 
to  destroy  the  Divine  authority  of  the  Church  by  ex-  God  has  wrought  miracles  to  attest  the  Revelatioc 


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o£  His  will.  (1)  The  miracles  of  the  Old  Testament 
leveal  the  Providence  of  God  over  His  chosen  people. 
Hiey  are  convincing  proof  for  the  commission  of  Moses 
(Exod.,  iii,  iv),  manifest  to  the  people  that  Jehovah  is 
Sovereign  Lord  (Exod.,  x,  2;  Deut.,  v,  25),  and  are 
represented  as  the  "finger  of  God"  and  'Hhe  hand  of 
God."  God  punishes  Pharaoh  for  refusing  to  obey 
His  conmiands  given  by  Moses  and  attested  by  mira- 
cles, and  is  displeased  with  the  infidelity  of  the  Jews 
for  whom  He  worked  many  miracles  (Num.,  xiv). 
Miracles  convinced  the  widow  of  Sarephta  that  Elias 
was  "a  man  of  God"  (III  Kings,  xvii,  24),  made  the 
people  cry  out  in  the  dispute  between  Elias  and  the 
prophets  of  Baal,  **  the  Lord  he  is  God  "  (III  Kings, 
xviii,  39),  caused  Naaman  to  confess  that  "there  is  no 
other  God  in  all  the  earth,  but  only  in  Israel"  (IV 
Kings,  V,  15),  led  Nabuchodonosor  to  issue  a  public 
decree  in  honour  of  God  upon  the  escape  of  the  Three 
Children  from  the  fiery  furnace  (Dan.,  ill),  and  Darius 
to  issue  a  like  decree  on  the  escape  of  Daniel  (Dan.,  v). 
Tlie  ethical  element  is  conspicuous  in  the  miracles 
and  is  in  consonance  with  the  exalted  ethical  charac- 
ter of  Jehovah,  "  a  king  of  absolute  justice,  whose  love 
for  his  people  was  conditioned  by  a  law  of  absolute 
righteousness,  as  foreign  to  Semitic  as  to  Aryan 
tradition  ",  writes  Dr.  Robertson  Smith  ("  Religion  of 
the  Semites",  p.  74;  cf.  Kuenen,  Hibbert  Lect.,  p. 
124).  Hence  tne  tendency  among  recent  writers  on 
the  history  of  religion  to  postulate  the  direct  inter- 
vention of  God  through  revelation  as  the  only  ex- 
planation for  the  exalted  conception  of  the  Deity 
set  forth  by  Moses  and  the  prophets  (R.  Kettel, 
"Geschichte  der  Hebrfter",  1889-92). 

(2)  The  Old  Testament  reveals  a  high  ethical  con- 
ception of  God  who  works  miracles  for  high  ethical 
purposes,  and  unfolds  a  dispensation  of  prophecy 
leaaing  up  to  Christ.  In  fulfilment  of  this  prophecy 
Christ  works  miracles.  His  answer  to  the  messengers 
of  John  the  Baptist  was  that  they  should  go  and  tell 
John  what  they  had  seen  (Luke,  vii,  22;  cf.  Isa.,  xxxv, 
5).  Thus  the  Fathers  of  the  Church,  in  proving  the 
truth  of  the  Christian  religion  from  the  miracles  of 
Christ,  join  them  with  prophecy  (Origen,  "C.  Celsum  ", 
I,  ii;  Irenseus,  Adv.  naer.  L,  ii,  32;  St.  Augustine, 
"  C.  Faustum  " ,  XII) .  Jesus  openly  professed  to  work 
miracles.  He  appeals  repeatedly  to  His  "works"  as 
most  authentic  and  decisive  proof  of  His  Divine  Son- 
ship  (John,  V,  18-36;  x,  24^37)  and  of  His  mission 
(Jonn,  xiv,  12),  and  for  this  reason  condemns  the 
obstinacy  of  the  Jews  as  inexcusable  (John,  xv,  22, 24) . 
He  worked  miracles  to  establish  the  Kingdom  of  God 
(Matt.,  xli;  Luke,  xi),  gave  to  the  Apostles  (Matt.,  x, 
S)  and  disciples  (Luke,  x,  9,  19)  the  power  of  working 
miracles,  thereby  instructing  them  to  follow  the  same 
method,  and  promised  that  the  gift  of  miracles  should 
persist  in  the  Church  (Mark,  xvi,  17).  At  the  sight  of 
His  marvellous  works,  the  Jews  fMatt.,  ix,  8),  Nico- 
demus  (John,  iii,  2),  and  the  man  bom  blind  (john,  ix, 
33)  confess  that  they  must  be  ascribed  to  Divine  power. 
Pfleiderer  accepts  the  second  Gospel  as  the  authentic 
work  of  St.  Mark,  and  this  Gospel  is  a  compact  account 
of  miracles  wrought  by  Christ.  Ewald  and  Weiss 
speak  of  the  miracles  of  Christ  as  a  daily  task.  Mir^ 
acles  are  not  accidental  or  external  to  the  Christ  of  the 
Gospels;  they  are  inseparably  bound  up  with  His 
supernatural  doctrine  and  supernatural  life — a  life 
and  doctrine  which  Is  the  fulfilment  of  prophecy  and 
the  source  of  Christian  civilization.  Miracles  form 
the  very  substance  of  the  Gospel  narratives,  so  that, 
if  removed,  there  would  remain  no  recognizable  plan 
of  work  and  no  intelligent  portrait  of  the  worker. 
We  have  the  same  evidence  for  miracles  that  we  have 
for  Christ.  Dr.  Holtzmann  says  that  the  very  traits 
whose  astonishing  combination  in  one  person  presents 
the  highest  kind  of  historical  evidence  for  His  exist- 
ence are  indissolubly  connected  with  miracles.  Un- 
we  accept  miracles,  we  have  no  Gospel  history. 


Admit  that  Christ  wrought  many  miracles,  or  confess 
that  we  do  not  know  Him  at  all — in  fact,  that  He  never 
existed.  The  historical  Christ  of  the  Gospels  stands 
before  us  remarkable  in  the  charm  of  personality,  ex- 
traordinary in  the  elevation  of  life  and  beauty  of 
doctrine,  strikingly  consistent  in  tenor  of  life,  exercis- 
ing Divine  power  in  varied  ways  and  at  every  turn. 
He  rises  supreme  over,  and  apart  from.  His  surround- 
ings and  cannot  be  r^arded  as  the  fruit  of  individual 
invention  or  as  the  product  of  the  age.  The  simplest, 
clearest,  only  explanation  is  that  the  testimony  is  true. 
They  who  deny  have  yet  to  offer  an  explanation  strong 
enough  to  withstand  the  criticism  of  the  sceptics 
themselves. 

(3)  The  testimony  of  the  Apostles  to  miracles  is 
twofold:  (a^  They  preached  the  miracles  of  Christ, 
especially  tne  Resurrection.  Thus  St.  Peter  speaks 
of  the  **  miracles,  and  wonders,  and  signs  "  which  Jesus 
did  as  a  fact  well-known  to  the  Jews  (Acts,  ii,  22),  and 
as  published  through  Galilee  and  Judea  (Acts,  x, 
37).  The  Apostles  profess  themselves  witnesses  of  the 
Resurrection  (Acts,  ii,  32),  they  say  that  the  char- 
acteristic of  an  Apostle  is  that  he  be  a  witness  of  the 
Resurrection  (Acts,  i,  22),  and  upon  the  Resurrec- 
tion base  their  preaching  in  Jerusalem  (Acts,  iii,  15; 
iv,  10;  V,  30;  X,  40),  at  Antioch  (Acts,  xiii,  30  sqq.),  at 
Athens  (Acts,  xvii,  31),  at  Corinth  (I  Cor.,  xv),  at 
Rome  (Rom.,  vi,  4),  and  in  Thessalonica  (I  Thess., 
i,  10).  (b)  They  worked  miracles  themselves,  won- 
ders and  signs  in  Jerusalem  <Acts,  ii,  43),  cure  the 
lame  (Acts,  iii,  xiv),  heal  the  sick,  and  drive  out 
demons  (Acts,  viii,  7,  8),  raise  the  dead  (Acts,  xx,  10 
sqq.).  St.  Paul  calls  the  attention  of  the  Christians 
at  Rome  to  his  own  miracles  (Rom.,  xv,  18, 19),  refers 
to  the  well-known  miracles  performed  in  Galatia 
(Gal.,  iii,  5),  calls  the  Christians  of  Corinth  to  witness 
the  miracles  he  worked  among  them  as  the  signs  of 
his  apostleship  (II  Cor.,  xii,  12),  and  gives  to  the 
working  of  miracles  a  place  in  the  economy  of  the 
Christian  Faith  (I  Cor.,  xii).  Thus  the  Apostles 
worked  miracles  in  their  missionary  journeys  in  virtue 
of  the  power  given  them  by  Christ  (Mark,  iii,  15)  and 
confirm^  after  His  Resurrection  (Mark,  xvi,  17). 

(4)  Dr.  Middleton  holds  that  all  miracles  ceased 
with  the  Apostles.  Mozley  and  Milman  ascribe  later 
miracles  to  pious  myths,  fraud,  and  forgery.  Trench 
admits  that  few  points  present  greater  difficulty  than 
the  attempt  to  determine  the  exact  period  when  the 
power  of  working  miracles  was  withdrawn  from  the 
Chiu*ch.  This  position  is  one  of  polemical  bias  against 
the  Catholic  Church,  just  as  presumptions  of  various 
kinds  are  behind  all  attacks  on  the  miracles  of  script- 
ure. Now  we  are  not  obliged  to  accept  every  miracle 
alleged  as  such.  The  evidence  of  testimony  is  our 
warrant,  and  for  miracles  of  church  history  we  have 
testimony  of  the  most  complete  kind.  If  it  should 
happen  that,  after  careful  investigation,  a  supposed 
miracle  should  turn  out  to  be  no  miracle  at  all,  a 
distinct  service  to  truth  would  be  rendered.  Through- 
out the  course  of  church  history  there  are  miracles 
so  well  authenticated  that  their  truth  cannot  be 
denied.  Thus  St.  Clement  of  Rome  and  St.  Ignatius 
of  Antioch  speak  of  the  miracles  wrought  in  their 
time.  Origen  says  he  has  seen  examples  of  demons 
expelled,  many  cures  effected,  and  prophecies  fulfilled 
("C.  Celsum",  I,  II,  III,  VII).  Irenaeus  taunts  the 
magic-workers  of  his  day  that  **  they  cannot  give  sight 
to  the  blind  nor  hearing  to  the  deaf,  nor  put  to  flight 
demons;  and  they  are  so  far  from  raisixig  the  dead, 
as  Our  Lord  did,  and  the  Apostles,  by  prayer,  and  as 
is  most  frequently  done  among  the  brethren,  that 
they  even  think  it  impossible"  (Adv.  hser.,  II).  St. 
Athanasius  writes  the  life  of  St.  Anthony  from  what  he 
himself  saw  and  heard  from  one  who  had  long  been  in 
attendance  on  the  saint.  St.  Justin  in  his  second 
apology  to  the  Roman  Senate  appeals  to  miracles 
wrought   in  Rome  and  well   attested.     Tertullian 


MIR40LB 


346 


MIR40LB 


challenges  the  heathen  magistrates  to  work  the  mira- 
cles which  the  Christians  perform  (Apol.,  xxiii) ;  St. 
Paulinus,  in  the  life  of  St.  Ambrose,  narrates  what 
he  has  seen.  St.  Augustine  gives  a  long  list  of  ex- 
traordinary miracles  wrought  before  his  own  eyes, 
mentions  names  and  particulars,  describes  them  as 
well  known,  and  says  tney  happened  within  two  years 
before  he  published  the  written  account  (De  civit. 
Dei.,  XXII,  viii;  Retract.,  I,  xiii).  St.  Jerome  wrote 
a  book  to  confute  Vigilantius  and  prove  that  rel- 
ics should  be  venerated,  by  citing  miracles  wrought 
through  them.  Theodoret  published  the  life  of  St. 
Simon  Stylites  while  t^e  saint  was  living,  and  thou- 
sands were  alive  who  had  been  eye-witnesses  of  what 
had  happened.  St.  Victor,  Bishop  of  Vita,  wrote  the 
history  of  the  African  confessors  whose  tongues  had 
been  cut  out  by  command  of  Hunneric,  and  who  yet  re- 
tained the  power  of  speech,  and  challenges  the  reader 
to  go  to  Reparatus,  one  of  them  then  living  at  the  palace 
of  the  Emperor  Zeno.  From  his  own  experience 
Sulpicius  Severus  wrote  the  life  of  St.  Martin  of  Tours. 
St.  Gregory  the  Great  writes  to  St.  Augustine  of  Can- 
terbury not  to  be  elated  by  the  many  miracles  God 
was  pleased  to  work  through  his  hands  for  the  con- 
version of  the  people  of  Britain.  Hence  Gibbon 
says,  "The  Christian  Church,  from  the  time  of  the 
Apostles  and  their  disciples,  has  claimed  an  uninter- 
rupted succession  of  miraculous  powers,  the  gift  of 
tongues,  of  visions,  and  of  prophecv,  the  power  of 
expelling  demons,  of  healing  the  sick  and  of  raising 
the  dead"  (Decline  and  FaU,  I,  pp.  264,  288);  thus 
miracles  are  so  interwoven  with  our  religion,  so  con- 
nected with  its  origin,  its  promulgation,  its  progress 
and  whole  histoiy,  that  it  is  impossible  to  separate 
xhem  from  it.  The  existence  of  the  Church,  the 
kingdom  of  God  on  earth,  in  which  Christ  ana  His 
Holy  Spirit  abide,  rendered  illustrious  by  the  mirac- 
ulous lives  of  saints  of  all  countries  and  all  times,  is  a 
perpetual  standing  witness  for  the  realityof  miracles 
(Bellar.,  "De  notw  eccl.",  LIV,  xiv).  The  well-at- 
tested records  are  to  be  found  in  the  official  process^ 
for  the  canonization  of  saints.  Mozlev  held  that  an 
enormous  distinction  exists  between  tne  miracles  of 
the  Gospel  and  those  of  church  history,  through  the 
false  notion  that  the  sole  purpose  of  miracles  was  the 
attestation  of  revealed  truth:  Newman  denies  the 
contention  and  shows  that  both  are  of  the  same  type 
and  as  well-authenticated  by  historical  evidence. 

VII.  Place  and  Value  of  the  Gospel  Miracles. 
— In  studying  the  Gospel  miracles  we  are  impressed 
by  the  accounts  given  of  their  multitude,  and  by  the 
fact  that  only  a  very  small  proportion  of  them  is  re- 
lated by  the  Evangelists  in  detail;  the  Gospels  speak 
only  in  the  most  general  terms  of  the  miracles  Cnrist 
performed  in  the  great  missionary  journeys  through 
Galilee  and  Judea.  We  read  that  the  people,  seeing 
the  things  which  He  did,  followed  Him  in  crowds 
(Matt.,  iv.,  25),  to  the  number  of  5000  (Luke,  ix,  14), 
so  that  He  could  not  enter  the  cities,  and  His  fame 
spread  from  Jerusalem  through  Syria  (Matt.,  iv,  24). 
His  reputation  was  so  great  that  the  chief  priests  in 
council  speak  of  Him  as  one  who  "  doth  many  mira- 
cles" (John,  xi,  47),  the  disciples  at  Emmaus  as  the 
^  prophet,  mightv  in  work  and  word  before  God  and  all 
the  people"  (Luke,  xxiv,  19),  and  St.  Peter  describes 
Him  to  Cornelius  as  the  wonder-working  preacher 
(Acts,  X,  38).  Out  of  the  great  mass  of  miraculous 
events  surrounding  our  Lord's  person,  the  Evangelists 
made  a  selection.  True,  it  was  impossible  to  narrate 
all  (John,  XX,  30).  Yet  we  can  see  in  the  narrated 
miracles  a  twofold  reason  for  the  selection. 

(1)  The  great  purpose  of  the  Redemption  was  the 
manifestation  of  God's  glory  in  the  salvation  of  man 
through  the  life  and  work  of  His  Incarnate  Son .  Thus 
it  ranks  supreme  among  the  works  of  God's  Providence 
over  men.  This  explains  the  life  and  teaching  of 
Christ ;  it  enables  us  to  grasp  the  scope  and  plan  of  His 


miracles.  They  can  be  considered  in  relation  to  the 
office  and  person  of  Christ  as  Redeemer.  ThuB  (a) 
they  have  their  source  in  the  hypostatic  union  and 
follow  on  the  relation  of  Christ  to  men  as  Redeemer. 
In  them  we  can  see  references  to  the  great  redemp- 
tion work  He  came  to  accomplish.  Hence  the  £van- 
gelists  conceive  Christ's  miraculous  power  as  an  in- 
uence  radiating  from  Him  (Mark,  v,  30;  Luke,  vi, 
19),  and  theologians  call  the  miracles  of  Christ  the- 
andrical  works  (Bellar,  "Controv.",  I,  lib.  V,  c.  vii). 
(b)  Their  aim  is  the  glory  of  God  in  the  manifestation 
of  Christ's  glory  and  in  the  salvation  of  men,  as  e.  g. 
in  the  miracle  of  Cana  (John,  ii,  11),  in  the  Transfig- 
uration (Matt.,  xvii),  the  Resurrection  of  Laxarus 
(John,  xi,  15).  Christ's  last  prayer  for  the  Apostles 
(John,  xvii),  the  Resurrection  of  Christ  (Acts,  x,  40). 
St.  John  opens  his  Gospel  with  the  Incarnation  of  Uie 
Eternal  Word,  and  adds,  *'we  saw  his  glorv"  (John, 
i,  14).  Hence  Irexueus  (Adv.  h^er.,  V)  and  Athana- 
sius  (Incam.)  teach  that  the  works  of  Christ  were  the 
manifestations  of  the  Divine  Word  who  in  the  '^ean- 
ning  made  all  things  and  who  in  the  Incamatic^  dis- 
played His  power  over  nature  and  man,  as  a  manifes- 
tation of  the  new  life  imparted  to  man  and  a  revelation 
of  the  character  and  purposes  of  God.  The  repeated 
references  in  the  Acts  and  in  the  Epistles  to  the 
"  glory  of  Christ "  have  relation  to  His  miracles.  The 
source  and  purpose  of  the  miracles  of  Christ  is  the 
reason  for  their  intimate  ccmnexion.with  His  life  and 
teaching.    A  saving  and  redeeming  mission  was  Uie 

{)urpose  of  the  miracles,  as  it  was  of  the  doctrine  and 
ife  of  the  eternal  Son  of  God.  (c)  Their  motive  was 
merey.  Most  of  Christ's  miracles  were  works  of 
merev.  They  were  performed  not  with  a  view  to  awe 
men  oy  the  feeling  of  omnipotence,  but  to  show  com- 
passion for  sinful  and  suffering  humanity.  They  are 
not  to  be  regarded  as  isolated  or  transitorv  acts  <^ 
sympathy,  but  as  prompted  by  a  deep  and  abiding 
mercy  which  characterixes  the  office  of  Saviour. 
The  Redemption  is  a  work  of  merey,  and  the  miracles 
reveal  the  merey  of  God  in  the  works  of  His  Incarnate 
Son  (Acts,  X,  38).  (d)  Hence  we  can  see  in  them  a 
symbolical  character.  They  were  signs,  and  in  a  special 
sense  they  signified  by  the  typical  luigua^B  of  external 
facts,  the  inward  renewal  of  the  soul.  Inus,  in  com- 
menting on  the  miracle  of  the  widow's  son  at  Nairn, 
St.  Augustine  says  that  Christ  raised  three  from  the 
death  of  the  body,  but  thousands  from  the  death  of 
sin  to  the  life  of  Divine  grace  (Senn.  de  verbis  Dom., 
xcviii,  al.  xliv). 

The  relief  which  C^hrist  brought  to  the  body  rep- 
resented the  deliverance  He  was  working  on  souls. 
His  miracles  of  cures  and  healings  were  the  visible 
picture  of  His  spiritual  work  in  the  warfare  with  evil. 
These  miracles,  summarized  in  the  answer  of  Jesus  to 
the  messengers  of  John  (Matt.,  xi,  5),  are  explained 
bv  the  Fathers  of  the  Church  witli  reference  to  the 
ills  of  the  soul  (Summa,  III,  Q.  xliv).  The  motive 
and  meaning  of  the  miracles  explain  the  moderaticm 
Christ  showed  in  the  use  of  His  infinite  power.  Re- 
pose in  strength  is  a  sublime  trait  in  the  character  of 
Jesus ;  it  comes  from  the  conscious  possession  of  power 
to  be  used  for  the  good  of  men.  Rousseau  confesses, 
**  All  the  miracles  of  Jesus  were  useful  without  pomp 
or  display,  but  simple  as  His  words.  His  life,  His 
whole  conduct"  (Lettr.  de  la  Montag.,  pt.  I,  lett.  iii). 
He  does  not  perform  them  for  the  sake  of  being  a  mere 
worker  of  miracles.  Everything  He  does  has  a  mean- 
ing when  viewed  in  the  relation  Christ  holds  to  men. 
In  the  class  known  as  miracles  of  power  Jesus  does  not 
show  a  mere  mental  and  moral  superiority  over  ordi- 
nary men.  In  virtue  of  His  redeeming  mission  He 
proves  that  He  is  Lord  and  Master  of  the  forces  of 
nature.  Thus  by  a  word  He  stills  the  tempest,  by  a 
word  He  multiplied  a  few  loaves  and  fishes  so  that 
thousands  feasted  and  were  filled,  by  a  word  He  healed 
lepers,  drove  out  demons,  raised  the  dead  to  life,  and 


MIR4CLB                              347  MIR4CLB 

finally  set  the  great  seal  upon  His  mission  by  rising  ment,  their  own  prophetic  character  as  fulfilled  inth'. 

from  death,  as  He  had  explicitly  foretold.    Thus  development  of  His  Kingdom  on  earth. 

Renan  admits  that  "  even  the  marvellous  in  the  Gos-  VIIi.  Special  Providences. — Prayer  is  a  great 

pels  is  but  sober  good  sense  compared  with  that  which  fact,  which  finds  expression  in  a  persistent  manner, 

we  meet  in  the  Jewish  apocrsfphal  writings  or  the  and  enters  intimately  into  the  life  of  humanity.     So 

Hindu  or  European  mythologies"  (Stud,  in  Hist,  of  imiversal  is  the  act  of  prayer  that  it  seems  an  instinct 

Relig.,  pp.  177,  203).  and  part  of  our  being.     It  is  the  fundamental  fact  of 

(e)  Hence  the  miracles  of  Christ  have  a  doctrinal  religion,  and  religion  is  a  imiversal  phenomenon  of  the 

import.    They  have  a  vital  connexion  with  His  teach-  human  race.    Christian  philosophy  teaches  that  in 

inp  and  mission,  illustrate  the  nature  and  purpose  of  his  spiritual  nature  man  is  maae  to  the  image  and 

His  kingdom,  and  show  a  connexion  with  some  of  the  likeness  of  God,  therefore  his  soul  instinctively  turns 

greatest  doctrines  and  principles  of  His  Church.    Its  to  his  Maker  in  aspirations  of  worship,  of  hope,  and  of 

catholicity  is  shown  in  the  miracles  of  the  centurion's  intercession.    The  real  value  of  prayer  has  been  a 

servant  (Matt.,  viii)  and  the  Syro-phenician  woman  vital  subject  for  discussion  in  moaem  times.     Some, 

(Blark,  vii).     The  Sabbatical  miracles  reveal  its  pui^  like  O.  B.  Frothringham  (Recollections  and  Impres- 

pose,  i.  e.,  the  salvation  of  men,  and  show  that  Christ's  sions,  p.   296),  Drobisch   and    Hcrbart   (Pfieicierer, 

kingdom  marks  the  passing  of  the  Old  Dispensation.  "Phil,  of  Religion",  II,  p.  296),  hold  that  its  value 

His  miracles  teach  the  power  of  faith  and  the  answer  lies  only  in  its  being  a  factor  in  the  culture  of  the  moral 

given  to  prayer.    The  central  truth  of  His  teaching  life,  by  giving  tone  and  strength  to  character.    Thus 

was  life.     He  came  to  give  life  to  men,  and  this  teach-  Professor  Tyndall,  in  his  famous  Belfast  address,  pro- 

ing  is  emphasized  by  raising  the  dead  to  life,  especially  posed  this  view,  maintaining  that  modem  science  has 

in  the  case  of  Lazarus  and  His  own  Resurrection .    Th  e  proved  the  physical  value  of  prayer  to  be  unbelievable 

sacramental  teaching  of  the  miracles  is  manifested  in  (Fragments  of  Science).   He  based  his  contention  on 

the  miracle  of  Cana  (John,  ii),  in  the  cure  of  the  para-  the  uniformity  of  nature.     But  this  basis  is  now  no 

lytic,  to  show  he  had  the  power  to  forgive  sins  [and  longer  held  as  an  obstacle  to  prayer  for  physical  bene- 

he  used  this  power  (Matt.,  ix)  and  gave  it  to  the  fits.     Others,  like  Baden- Powell  (Order  of  Nature), 

Apostles  (John,  xx,  23)  ],  in  the  multiplication  of  the  admit  that  God  answers  prayer  for  spiritual  favours, 

loaves  (John,  vi)  and  in  raising  the  dead.     Finally,  the  but  denies  its  value  for  physical  effects.     But  his 

prophetic  element  of  the  fortunes  of  the  individual  basis  is  the  same  as  that  of  Tyndall,  and  besides  an 

and  of  the  Church  is  shown  in  the  miracles  of  stilling  answer  for  spiritual  benefits  is  in  fact  an  interference 

the  tempest,  of  Christ  on  the  waters,  of  the  draught  on  the  part  of  God  in  nature.     Now  Christian  philos- 

of  fishes,  of  the  didrachma  and  the  barren  fig-tree,  ophy  teaches  that  God,  in  answer  to  prayer,  confers 

Jesus  makes  the  miracle  of  Lazarus  the  type  of  the  not  only  spiritual  favours  but  at  times  interferes  with 

General  Resurrection,  just  as  the  Apostles  take  the  the  ordinary  course  of  physical  phenomena,  so  that, 

Resurrection  of  Christ  to  signify  the  rising  of  the  as  a  result,  particular  events  happen  otherwise  than 

soul  from  the  death  of  sin  to  the  life  of  grace,  and  to  thevshoula.   This  interference  takes  place  in  miracles 

be  a  pledge  and  prophecy  of  the  victory  over  sin  and  and  special  providences, 

death  and  of  the  final  resurrection  (I  Tness.,  iv).  When  we  kneel  to  pray  we  do  not  always  beg  God 

(2)  The  miracles  of  Christ  have  an  evidential  value,  to  work  miracles  or  that  our  lives  shall  be  constant 
This  aspect  naturally  follows  from  the  above  consid-  prodigies  of  His  power.  The  sense  of  our  littleness 
erations.  In  the  first  miracle  at  Cana  He  **  manifested  gives  an  humble  and  reverential  spirit  to  our  prayer. 
His  glorjr",  therefore  the  disciples  "believed  in  Him"  We  trust  that  God,  through  His  Infinite  Imowledge 
(John,  li,  11).  Jesus  constantly  appealed  to  His  and  power,  will  in  some  way  best  known  to  Him  bring 
"  works  "  as  evidences  of  His  mission  and  His  divinity,  about  what  we  ask.  Hence,  by  special  providences 
He  declares  that  His  miracles  have  greater  evidential  we  mean  events  which  happen  in  the  course  of  nature 
vaiue  than  the  testimony  of  John  the  Baptist  ^John,  and  of  life  through  the  instrumentality  of  natural 
V,  36) ;  their  Ic^cal  and  theological  force  as  evidences  laws.  We  cannot  discern  either  in  the  event  itself  or 
is  expressed  by  Nicodemus  (John,  iii,  2).  And  to  the  in  the  manner  of  its  happening  any  deviation  from 
ndracles  Jesus  adds  the  Evidence  of  prophecy  (John,  the  known  course  of  things.  What  we  do  know,  how- 
V,  31).  Now  their  value  as  evidences  for  the  people  ever,  is  that  events  shape  themselves  in  response  to 
then  living  is  found  not  only  in  the  display  of  onmip-  our  prayer.  The  laws  of  nature  are  invariable,  yet 
otence  in  His  redeeming  mission  but  also  in  the  one  important  factor  must  not  be  forgotten:  that  the 
multitude  of  His  works.  Thus  the  unrecorded  miracles  laws  of  nature  may  produce  an  effect,  the  same  con- 
had  an  evidential  bearing  on  His  mission.  So  we  ditions  must  be  present.  If  the  conditions  vary,  then 
can  see  an  evidential  reason  for  the  selection  of  the  the  effects  also  vary.  By  altering  the  conditions, 
miracles  as  narrated  in  the  Gospels.  other  tendencies  of  nature  are  made  predominant, 

(a)  This  selection  was  guided  by  a  purpose  to  make  and  the  forces  which  otherwise  would  work  out  their 

clear  the  main  events  in  Christ's  life  leadmg  up  to  the  effects  yield  to  stronger  forces.     In  this  way  our  will 

Crucifixion  and  to  show  that  certain  definite  miracles  interferes  with  the  workings  of  natural  forces  and  with 

(e.  g.,  the  cure  of  the  lepers,  the  casting  out  of  demons  human  tendencies,  as  is  shown  in  our  intercourse  with 

in  a  manner  marvellously  superior  to  the  exorcisms  of  men  and  in  the  science  of  government.    Now,  if  such 

the  Jews,  the  Sabbatical  miracles,  the  raising  of  Laz-  power  rests  with  men,  can  God  do  less?    Can  we  not 

anis)  caused  the  rulers  of  the  Synagogue  to  conspire  believe  that,  at  our  prayer,  God  may  cause  the  oondi- 

and  put  Him  to  death,     (b)  A  second  reason  for  the  tions  of  natural  pnenomena  so  to  combine  that, 

selection  was  the  expressed  purpose  to  prove  that  through  His  special  agency,  we  may  obtain  our  heart's 

Jesus  was  the  Son  of  God  (John,  xx,  31).    Thus,  for  desire,  and  yet  so  that,  to  the  ordinary  observer,  the 

us,  who  depend  on  the  Gospel  narratives,  the  evi-  event  happens  in  its  ordinary  place  and  time.    To  the 

dential  value  of  Christ's  miracles  comes  from  a  com-  devout  soul,  however,  all  is  different.    He  recc^izes 

paratively  small  number  related  in  detail,  though  of  a  God's  favour  and  is  devoutly  thankful  for  the  faUierly 

most  stupendous  and  clearly  supernatural  kind,  some  care.     He  knows  that  God  has  brought  the  event 

of  which  were  performed  almost  in  private  and  fol-  about  in  some  way.    When,  therefore,  we  pray  for 

lowed  by  the  strictest  injunctions  not  to  publish  them,  rain,  or  to  avert  a  calamity,  or  to  prevent  the  ravages 

In  considering  them  as  evidences  in  relation  to  us  now  of  plague,  we  beg  not  so  much  for  miracles  or  signs  of 

living,  we  may  add  to  them  the  constant  reference  to  omnipotence:  we  ask  that  He  who  holds  the  heavens 

the  multitude  of  miracles  unrecorded  in  detail,  their  in  His  hands  and  who  searches  the  abyss  will  listen 

intimate  connexion  with  our  Lord's  teaching  and  to  our  petitions  and,  in  His  own  good  way,  bring 

life,  their  relation  to  the  prophecies  of  the  Old  Testa-  about  the  answer  we  need. 


MIR40LB  348  MIR40LB 

Sr.  Teomab,  Contra  gentea.  III,  zoviii-cvU;  Idbm,  Summa»  I,  Q.  o  his  play  in  the  Elast,  and  mingles  with  heroic  episodee 

M^^:  lll,Q.xlm-xlv;  BbnbdictX]^^  of  the  cFusades  realistic  pictures  taken  from  taverns. 

(Rome.  1884);  Lb  Camub.  tr.  Hickbt.  The  Life  of  Chriti  (New  His  drama  concludes  With  a  gmieral  convcision  of 

York,  1906) ;  CoLBBmoB,  The  Public  Life  of  Our  Lord  (London,  the  Mussulmans  secured  throush  a  miracle  of  St. 

JfJS^  S^^'  r**  P«*"'««  of  Miradee  Explained  (New  York.  Nicholas.     Rutebeuf,  who  flourished  in  the  second 

1873):  Nbwman,  Essaua  on  Mxractes  (New  York  and  London,  i ir^r^i aU'_^   -.   ^u^   * u-.       •    m.       _> 

1890):  Law-Wilson.  The  Theology  of  Modem  Thought  (Edin-  half  Of  the  thirteenth  century,  was  bom  m  Champagne, 

burgh,  1899);  Tburston in  Brif.  AfeJ.  Jour.  (London,  Aug..  1910);  but  lived  in  Paris.     Though  at  first  a  gambler  and 

9*^^^  *bid,:RiiicH,  Failure  of  the  u^  jjl^y  y^^  gg^^^g  ^^  ^iAve  ended  his  days  in  a  cloister. 

hV:^f&ii::;iy:^'J!l  ti^I^^r^^^S^^^B^r^Y!^^^::.  His  miracle  depicts  the  legend,  so  famous  in  the 

tr.  QiBBs  (London.  1908);  BBNBON.LourdM  in  Ave  JMana.LX VII:  Middle  Ages,  of  Theophilus,  the  aconomxia  of  the 

John  Rickabt.  «xpiano/io»  of  Miradee  by  Unknown  Natural  Church  of  Adana  in  Cilicia,  who  on  losing  his  office 

Foreee  in  The  Month  (London,  Jan.,  1877);  Hooan.  The  Mxraeur  k««*«««^  u:«  «^.,i  ♦^  ■»v.«,i»,,:i  *^-  :♦»  ..»^x>,r«.2rr  K..*  u«.. 

hue  in  Church  Hietory  in  Amer,  Caih.  Quart.  (Philadelphia.  April,  bartered  his  soul  to  the  devil  for  lU  recovery,  but,  hav- 

1898);Callan,  Nature  and  Poeeibility  of  Miradee  in  irieh  TheoL  in^  repented,  obtained  from  the  Blessed  Virgin  the 

Quart,  (Dublin,  Oct.,  1910).  m  r\  miraculous  return  of  the  nefarious  contract. 

John  1.  Dbiscoll.  Miracles  op  Our  Lady.— Save  for  the  play  of 

Griseldis,  whose  heroine,  a  poor  shepherdess,  married 

Bfiiracle  Plays  and  Mysteries. — These  two  names  to  the  Marauis  de  Saluces,  is  subjected  to  cruel  trials 
are  used  to  designate  the  religious  drama  which  devel-  by  her  husoand,  and  through  the  protection  of  St. 
oi)ed  amone  Christian  nations  at  the  end  of  the  Middle  Agnes  triumphs  over  all  obstacles,  the  entire  dramatic 
Ages*  It  should  be  noted  that  the  word  "mystery"  activity  of  the  fourteenth  century  was  devoted  to  the 
ha^  often  been  applied  to  all  Christian  dramas  prior  to  miracles  of  Our  Lady.  Fortv-two  specimens  of  Uiis 
the  sixteenth  century,  whereas  it  should  be  coDnned  to  style  of  drama  are  extant.  Herein  the  Blessed  Virgin 
those  of  the  fifteenth  century,  which  represent  the  saves  or  consoles  through  marvellous  intervention 
great  dramatic  effort  anterior  to  the  Renaissance.  Be-  those  who  are  guiltlass  and  unfortunate  and  some- 
fore  this  period  dramatic  pieces  were  called  "plays "  times  great  sinners  who  have  confidence  in  her.  The 
or  "miracles".  The  emoryonic  representations,  at  autiior  or  authors  of  these  works  are  unknown, 
first  given  in  the  interior  of  the  churches,  have  been  The  Mysteries. — The  fifteenth  century  is  the  cen- 
designated  as  liturgical  dramas.  tury  of  the  "mysteries".    The  word  is  doubtless  de- 

Liturgical  Drama. — ^The  origin  of  the  medieval  rived  from  the  Latin  ministerium  and  means  "act", 

drama  was  in  religion.    It  is  true  that  the  Church  for-  In  the  Middle  Ages  sacred  dramas  were  also  called 

bade  the  faithful  during  the  early  centuries  to  attend  bv  other  names ;  in  ItaXv  fumionCf  in  Spain  autos  (acts), 

the  licentious  representations  of  decadent  paganism.  Even  to-day  we  say  "arama",  a  word  of  analogous 

But  once  this  immoral  theatre  had  disappeared,  the  signification.     But  the  dramatic  and  the  dogmatic 

Church  allowed  and  itself  contributed  to  the  gradual  mysteries  were  soon  confused,  and  it  was  thought  that 

development  of  a  new  drama,  which  was  not  only  the  former  derived  their  name  from  the  latter  becaus3 

moral,    but  also  edifying   and    pious.     On  certain  the  plays  frequently  took  for  subject  the  mysteries  of 

solemn  feasts,  such  as  Easter  and  Christmas,  the  Christian  belief.     However,  the  mysteries  were  often 

Office  was  interrupted,  and  the  priests  represented,  in  devoted  tc  a  saint,  and,  in  exceptional  cases,  even 

the  presence  of  those  assisting,  the  religious  event  represented  matters  which  were  not  religious.    Thus 

whi<m  was  being  celebrated.    At  first  the  text  of  this  we  have  the  "Mystery  of  the  Siege  of  Orleans",  and 

liturgical  drama  was  very  brief,  and  was  taken  solely  even  the  "Mystery  of  the  Destruction  of  Troy",  the 

from  the  Gospel  or  the  Office  of  the  day.     It  was  in  only  two  profane  mysteries  which  have  been  pre- 

prose  and  in  Latin.  But  by  degrees  versification  crept  served.    Tlie  mysteries  may  be  grouped  under  three 

m.    The  earliest  of  such  dramatic  "tropes"  (q.  v.)  of  cycles,  that  of  the  Old  Testament,  tnat  of  the  New 

the  Easter  service  are  from  England  and  date  from  the  Testament,  and  that  of  the  saints.     It  must  be  borne 

tenth    century.    Soon    verse    pervaded    the    entire  in  mind  that  in  all  these  the  authors  mingled  truth 

drama,  prose  became  the  exception,  and  the  vemacu-  and  legend  without  distinction.    The  most  celebrated 

lar  appeared  beside   Latin.    Thus,   in  the  French  of  these  were  the  passion  plays,  by  which  must  be 

drama  of  the  "  Wise  Viigins  "  (first  half  of  the  twelfth  understood  not  only  the  plays  devoted  to  the  Passion 

century),  which  does  little  more  than  depict  the  Gospel  properly  so  called,  but  also  those  which  set  forth  the 

parable  of  the  wise  and  foolish  virgins,  the  chorus  em-  complete  history  of  the  Saviour.     From  1400  to  1550 

ploys  Latin,  while  Christ  and  the  viigins  use  both  the  authors  were  numerous;  about  a  hundred  of  them 

Latin  and  French,  and  the  angel  speaks  only  in  are  known,  many  of  them  priests. 
French.    When  the  vernacular  had  completely  sup-        At  first  somewhat  short,  the  dramas  eventually 

planted  the  Latin,  and  individual  inventiveness  had  became  veiy  long.    Thus  Arnoul  Greban,  canon  of  the 

at  the  same  time  asserted  itself,  the  drama  left  the  church  of  Le  Mans,  wrote  about  1450  a  "Passion" 

precincts  of  the  Church  and  ceased  to  be  lituigical,  consisting  of  about  35,000  verses.    This  play  was  still 

without,  however,  losing  its  religious  character.  This  further  cleveloped  more  than  thirty  years  later  by  a 

evolution  seems  to  have  been  accomplished  in  the  physician  of  Angers,  Jean  Michel,  whose  work  was  the 

twelfth  century.    With  the  appearance  of  the  ver-  most  famous  and  the  best  of  its  kind.    The  same 

nacular  a  development  of  the  drama  along  national  Greban  and  his  brother  Simon,  a  monk  of  St.  Riquier, 

lines  became  possible.    Let  us  first  trace  this  devel-  composed  together  an  enormous  mystery  of  the    Acts 

opment  in  France.  of  the  Apostles",  consisting  of  nearly  62,000  verses, 

PiiAYs  AND  Miracles  of  the  Twelfth  and  Thir-  which  was  played  in  its  entirety  at  Bouiges,  the  per- 
TEENTH  Centuries. — ^The  first  French  drama  offered  formance  lasting  forty  days.  The  numl^r  of  verses 
by  the  twelfth  century  is  called  "Adam",  and  was  of  mysteries  still  extant  exceeds  1,000,000,  and  an 
written  by  an  Anglo-Norman  author  whose  name  is  equally  large  number  may  have  been  lost.  Tliese 
unknown.  The  subject  extends  from  the  Fall  in  the  pieces  were  not  played  by  professional  actors,  but  by 
terrestrial  Paradise  to  the  time  of  the  Prophets  who  dramatic  associations  whicn  were  formed  in  all  large 
foretell  the  Redeemer,  relating  in  passing  the  history  towns  for  the  purpose  of  representing  them.  Some 
of  Cain  and  Abel.  It  is  written  in  French,  though  the  were  permanent,  such  as  the  "  Confririe  de  la  Pas- 
directions  to  the  actors  are  in  Latin.  It  was  flayed  sion",  which  in  1402  secured  the  monopoly  of  the 
before  the  gate  of  the  churcdi.  From  the  thirteenth  representations  in  Paris.  For  the  people  of  the 
century  we  nave  the  "  Play  of  St.  Nicholas  "  by  Jean  middle  classes,  artisans,  and  priests  (all  ranks  in  this 
Bodel,  and  the  "  Miracle  of  Theophilus  "  by  Rutebeuf.  matter  being  equal),  it  was  an  enviable  honour  to  take 
Jean  Bodel  was  a  native  of  Arras,  and  followed  St.  part  in  this  religious  performance.  To  play  it  tbe> 
Louis  on  the  crusade  to  Egypt.     He  lays  the  scene  of  condemned  themselves  to  a  labour  to  which  few  of  our 


MIR4CLB 


349 


MIRACLB 


•TontempoTaries  would  care  to  submit.  In  some  **  pas* 
sioDs"  the  actor  who  represented  Christ  had  to  recite 
nearly  4000  lines.  Moreover,  the  scene  of  the  cruci- 
fixion had  to  last  as  long  as  it  did  in  reality.  It  is  re- 
lated that  in  1437  the  cur6  NicoUe,  who  was  playing 
the  part  of  Christ  at  Metz,  was  on  the  point  of  dy- 
ing on  the  cross,  and  had  to  be  revived  in  haste. 
Durii^  ^e  same  representation  another  priest,  Jehan 
de  Missey,  who  was  playing  the  part  of  Judas,  re- 
mained hanging  for  so  long  that  his  heart  failed  and 
he  had  to  be  cut  down  and  borne  away. 

As  lesards  the  sesthetic  side  of  this  drama,  modem 
standaids  should  not  be  applied.  This  theatre  does 
not  even  offer  unity  of  action,  for  the  scenes  are  not 
derived  from  one  another:  they  succeed  one  another 
without  any  other  unity  than  the  interest  which  at- 
taches to  the  chief  personage  and  the  general  idea  of 
eternal  salvation,  whether  of  a  single  man  or  of  hu- 
manity, which  constitutes  the  common  foundation  of 
the  picture.  Moreover,  side  by  side  with  pathetic  and 
exalted  scenes  are  foimd  others  which  savour  of 
buffoonery.  The  plays  used  as  many  as  one,  two,  and 
even  five  hundred  characters,  not  coimting  the  chorus. 
and  they  were  so  lon^  that  they  could  not  be  played 
on  one  occasion.  This  is  true  at  least  of  the  mysteries 
dating  from  the  middle  of  the  fifteenth  century;  on  the 
other  nand,  tihe  oldest  of  them  and  the  miracles  were 
rather  short.  Two  faults  have  at  every  period  char- 
acterised this  dramatic  style,  viz.  weakness  and  wordi- 
ness. Tlie  poets  said  things  as  they  occurred  to  them, 
without  display  of  selection,  gradation,  or  taste.  Thev 
had  facility,  but  they  abus^  it  and  never  amendea. 
Furthermore,  in  the  drawing  of  character  there  was 
no  art  whatever.  The  dramas  of  the  Middle  Ages  are 
simply  grand  and  animated  spectacles.  Doubtless 
their  autnors  sometimes,  though  rarely,  succeeded  in 
fittingly  depicting  the  patience  and  meekness  of  the 
august  Victim  <m  the  Passion.  In  this  they  were 
assisted  by  recollections  of  the  Gospel.  More  often 
they  succeeded  in  attractively  interpreting  the  com- 
plex emotions  experienced  by  the  soul  of  the  Blessed 
Virgin,  but  as  a  defimite  object  the  analysis  of  the  soul 
did  not  occupy  them  at  all. 

A  few  woras  may  be  said  as  to  the  manner  of  repre- 
sentation and  technic.  Places  were  indicated  by  vast 
scenery,  rather  than  really  represented .  Two  or  three 
trees,  for  example,  represented  a  forest,  and  although 
the  action  often  changed  from  place  to  place  the  sce- 
nery did  not  change,  for  it  showed  simultaneously  all 
the  various  localities  where  the  characters  succes- 
sively appeared  in  the  course  of  the  drama,  and  which 
were  thus  in  close  proximity,  even  though  in  reality 
they  were  often  far  removed  from  each  other.  For 
the  rest  nothing  was  neglected  to  attract  the  eye.  If 
the  scenery  was  immovable,  it  was  very  rich  and 
secrets  of  theoretical  mechanism  often  produced  sur- 
prising and  fairy-like  effects.  The  actors  were  richly 
dressed;  each  defrayed  the  cost  of  his  own  costume, 
and  looked  more  for  beauty  than  for  truth.  The  sub- 
ject-matter admitted  of  the  marvellous  and  was  bor- 
rowed from  religion.  For  the  rest  there  was  some 
difference  between  the  miracles  and  the  mysteries. 
Tlie  miracles  emphasized  the  supernatural  interven- 
tion of  a  saint  or  the  Blessed  Virgin ;  the  events  might 
be  infinitely  varied,  and  this  afforded  the  authors  a 
wide  field  of  which,  however,  they  did  not  take  full 
advantage,  though  they  incidentally  supply  us  a  host 
of  details  regarding  the  manners  of  the  times  which  are 
not  found  elsewhere. 

The  mysteries,  at  least  in  the  Old  and  New  Testa- 
ment cycles,  followed  a  previously  traced  out  path, 
from  wnidi  they  could  with  difficulty  depart  since  the 
foundation  was  borrowed  from  Holy  Scripture.  The 
traditional  doctrine  and  the  august  characters  of  the 
diief  personages  had  to  be  respected.  But,  to  offset 
this  handicap,  what  exalted,  dramatic,  and  affecting 
mibjects  were  theirs  1    These  poets  recalled  not  only 


the  events  of  this  world,  but  depicted  before  their 
audience  the  terrors  and  the  hopes  of  the  next.  They 
set  forth  at  the  same  time  heaven,  earth,  and  hell,  and 
this  enormous  subject  gave  occasion  for  scenes  of 
powerful  interest.  The  scenes  of  the  Passion  are 
surely  the  most  wonderful,  the  most  moving,  and  the 
most  beautiful  that  can  be  enacted  on  earth.  The 
poet  lacked  art,  but  he  was  saved  by  his  subject,  as 
Sainte-Beuve  himself  has  observed,  and  from  time  to 
time  he  became  sublime  despite  himself.  And  what 
the  spectator  saw  representea  was  not  fiction,  but  the 
holy  realities  which  trom  his  childhood  he  had  learned 
to  venerate.  What  was  put  before  his  eyes  was  most 
calculated  to  affect  him,  the  doctrines  of  his  faith, 
the  consolations  it  afforded  in  the  sorrows  of  this  life, 
and  the  immortal  joys  it  promised  in  the  next.  Hence 
the  great  success  of  these  religious  performances. 
The  greatest  celebration  a  city  could  indulge  in  on  a 
solemn  occasion  was  to  play  the  Passion.  On  this 
occasion  the  entire  populace  crowded  into  the  enor- 
mous theatre,  the  city  was  deserted,  and  it  was  neces- 
sary to  organize  bands  of  armed  citizens  to  protect  the 
deserted  nouses  against  robbery.  This  custom  en- 
dured imtil  1548,  when  the  Parliament  of  Paris  forbade 
the  Confreres  de  la  Passion  to  play  thenceforth  ''the 
Sacred  mysteries".  The  prohioition  was  due  to  the 
opposition  of  the  Protestants  against  the  mixing  of 
comedy  and  fabulous  traditions  with  Biblical  teach- 
ings. These  attacks  aroused  the  scruples  of  some 
Catholics,  and  the  judiciary  considered  it  time  to  inter- 
fere. The  mysteries  perished-  for  the  example  of 
Paris,  where  they  were  forbidden  to  be  played,  was 
by  degrees  followed  by  the  provinces.  Thus  the  re- 
ligious drama  of  the  Middle  Ages  disappeared  in 
France  at  the  height  of  its  success. 

Georges  Bertrik. 

England. — ^There  is  no  record  of  any  religious 
drama  in  England  previous  to  the  Norman  Conquest. 
About  the  beginning  of  the  twelfth  century  we  hear  of 
a  play  of  St.  Catharine  performed  at  Dunstable  by 
Geoff roy,  later  abbot  of  St.  Albans,  and  a  passage  in 
Fitzstephen's  "  Life  of  Becket "  shows  that  such  plays 
were  common  in  London  about  1170.  These  were 
evidently  "miracle  plays",  though  for  England  the 
distinction  between  miracles  and  mysteries  is  of  no 
importance,  all  religious  plays  being  called  **  miracles  ". 
Of  miracle  plays  in  the  strict  sense  of  the  word  nothing 
is  preserved  in  English  literature.  The  earliest  re- 
ligious plays  were  undoubtedly  in  Latin  and  French. 
The  oldest  extant  miracle  in  English  is  the  "  Harrow- 
ing of  Hell"  (thirteenth  century).  Its  subject  is  the 
apocryphal  descent  of  Christ  to  the  hell  of  the  damned, 
and  it  belongs  to  the  cycle  of  Easter-plays.  From  the 
fourteenth  century  dates  the  play  of  *'  Abraham  and 
Isaac".  A  great  impetus  was  again  given  to  the  re- 
ligious drama  in  England  as  elsewhere  by  the  institu- 
tion of  the  festival  of  Corpus  Christi  (1264;  generally 
observed  since  1311)  with  its  solemn  processions. 
Presently  the  Eastern  and  Christmas  cycles  were 
joined  into  one  great  cycle  representing  the  whole 
course  of  sacred  history  from  the  Creation  to  the  Last 
Judgment.  Thus  arose  the  four  great  cycles  still 
extant  and  known  as  the  Towneley,  Chester,  York, 
and  Coventry  plays,  the  last  three  designated  from  the 
place  of  their  performance.  The  Towneley  mysteries 
owe  their  name  to  the  fact  that  the  single  MS.  in  which 
they  are  preserved  was  long  in  the  possession  of  the 
Towneley  family.  They  were  performed,  it  seems, 
at  Woodkirk,  near  Wakefield.  These  cycles  are  very 
heterogeneous  in  character,  the  plays  being  by  differ- 
ent authors.  In  their  present  form  the  number  of 
?lays  in  the  cycles  is:  Towneley  30  (or  31),  Chester  24, 
^ork  48,  Coventry  42.  Four  other  plays  are  also 
preserved  in  the  Digby  codex  at  Oxford.  The  so- 
called  "moralities"  (q.  v.)  are  a  later  offshoot  of  the 
"miracles".    These  aim  at  the  inculcation  of  ethical 


MIRACLKS 


350 


MIR4CU8 


truths  and  the  dramatis  persoruB  are  abstract  person- 
ifications, such  as  Virtue,  Justice,  the  Seven  Deadly 
Sins,  etc.  The  character  called  ''the  Vice''  is  es- 
pecially interesting  as  being  the  precursor  of  Shake- 
speare's fool.  Aner  the  Reformation  the  miracle 
plays  declined,  though  performances  in  some  places 
are  on  record  as  late  as  the  seventeenth  century. 

Germany. — In  Germany  the  religious  drama  does 
not  show  a  development  on  as  grand  a  scale  as  in 
France  or  England.  The  oldest  extant  plays  hail  from 
Freisingen  and  date  from  the  eleventh  century.  They 
are  in  Latin  and  belong  to  the  Christmas  cycle.  R^ 
ligious  dramas  were  eany  taken  up  by  the  schools  and 
performed  by  travelling  scholars,  and  this  tended  to 
secularize  them.  Tlie  great  Te^emsee  play  of  ''An- 
tichrist'' (about  1160)  shows  this  influence.  It  is  in 
Latin,  but  is  pervaaed  by  strong  national  feeling 
and  devoted  to  the  glorification  of  Uie  German  impe- 
rial power.  German  songs  interspersed  in  the  Latin 
text  are  found  in  a  Passion  play  preserved  in  a  MS. 
of  the  thirteenth  century  from  Benedictbeuren.  The 
oldest  Eastei^play  wholly  in  German  dates  from  the 
beginning  of  the  thirteenth  century  and  hails  from 
Muri,  Switzerland.  Unfortunately,  it  is  preserved 
onlv  in  fraementaiy  form.  During  the  fourteenth 
and  fifteentn  centuries  the  religious  drama  flourished 
greatly,  and  specimens  are  extant  from  all  parts  of 
German  territory,  in  High  as  well  as  Low  German 
dialects.  We  also  meet  with  attempts  at  a  compre- 
hensive representation  of  the  whole  of  sacred  history 
in  the  manner  of  the  great  English  cycles— e.  g.,  in  the 
Corpus  Christi  plays  of  Eger  and  Kdnzelsau  in 
Bwabia  (both  from  fifteenth  century).  Subjects 
taken  from  Old  Testament  history  are  not  frequently 
met  with.  Of  dramatic  versions  of  New  Testament 
parables  the  "Play  of  the  Wise  and  Foolish  Vii^gins", 
performed  at  Eisenach  in  1322,  is  particiilarly  famous 
on  account  of  its  tragic  outcome.  Landgrave  Fred- 
erick of  Thuringia,  who  was  a  spectator,  was  plunged 
into  despair  over  the  failure  of  the  Blessed  Vii^pin  to 
save  the  foolish  virgins,  and  brooding  over  this  is  said 
to  have  brought  on  a  stroke  of  apoplexy,  to  which  he 
succumbed  in  1324.  Of  German  miracles  dealing  with 
legend  few  are  preserved.  Of  miracles  in  praise  of 
Our  Blessed  Lady  we  have  a  Low  German  play  of 
Theophilus  and  the  well-known  play  of  "  Frau  Jutten" 
(1480)  by  a  cleric  of  MQlhausen  named  Theoderich 
Schembeig.  It  is  the  story  of  an  ambitious  woman 
who  assumes  man's  disguise  and  attains  to  high 
ecclesiastical  oflice,  finally  to  the  papacy  itself;  but 
her  crimes  are  at  last  discovered,  whereupon  she  sub- 
mits to  the  most  rigorous  penance  and  is  ultimately 
saved  through  the  intercession  of  the  Blessed  Virgin. 
In  Germany,  as  in  England  and  France,  the  Reforma- 
tion sapped  the  life  of  the  medieval  religious  drama. 
Plays  continued  to  be  produced,  but  the  drama  was 
often  used  for  polemical  purposes.  In  Catholic  parts 
of  the  country  the  traditional  performances  of  passion- 
plays  have  l>een  kept  up  even  to  the  present.  (See 
article  on  Passion  Flats.) 

Netherlands. — Of  miracle  plays  and  mysteries 
in  the  Netherlands  few  have  been  preserved.  One  of 
the  best-known  is  the  miracle  "Van  Sinte  Trudo", 
written  about  1550  by  Christian  Fastraets.  The  per- 
formance of  such  pla^  in  the  Netherlands  was  un- 
dertaken by  associations  formed  for  that  purpose, 
especially  the  Rederijkerakamera  (Rederijker  corrupted 
from  Rhetorica),  which  sprang  into  existence  at  the 
end  of  the  fourteenth  century.  Besides  the  mysteries 
and  miracles,  the  Netherlands  also  have  "  Spelen  van 
Simie",  symbolical  plays  corresponding  to  the 
moralities. 

EnmoNS  or  Texts. — (A)  French:  Monmerqu6  et 
Michel,  "Le  ThMtre  fran^ais  au  moyen  fige"  (Paris, 
1839);  de  Montaiglon,  "Ancien  th^tre  fran^ais" 
(3  vols.,  Paris,  1854) ;  Foumier,  "  Le  th^iltre  franyais 
avant  la  Renaissance"  (Paris,  1872);  G.  Paris  et  U. 


Robert,  "Miracles  de  Notre-Dame"  (8  vols.,  Paris, 
1876-93);  Rotschild  et  Picot,  "Le  Mist^re  du  Vieil 
Testament"  (6  vols.,  Paris,  1888-91);  Paris  et  Ray- 
naud, "Le  Myst^re  de  la  Passion  d'A.  Greban" 
(Paris,  1878).  (B)  Enaliah:  Towneley  plays,  edited 
by  Paine  and  Gordon  (London,  1836) ;  Coventry,  ed. 
by  Halliwell  (London,  1841) ;  Chester,  by  WriAt  (2 
vols.,  London,  1843-47) ;  York  Plays,  by  L.  T.  Smith 
(Oxford,  1885).  Selections  in  Manlv,  "Specimens  of 
Preshakespearean  Drama"  (3  vols.,  Boston  and 
London,  1900),  and  Pollard,  "English  Miracle  FUys, 
Moralities  and  Interiudes"  (Oxfoid,  1895).  (C) 
German:  Mone,  "Altdeutsche  Schauspiele"  (Qued- 
linbure-Leipzig,  1841)  and  "Schauspiele  des  Mittel- 
alters^  (Karlsruhe,  1846);  Froning,  "Das  Drama  des 
Mittelalters"  in  KQrschner's  "Deutsche  Naticxud- 
literatur",  XIV  (Stuttgart,  1891). 

On  the  relisiouB  drama  of  the  Middle  Ages  in  moeral  conmilt 
Crsisenach,  Oe$eh,  dea  neueren  DranuUt  I,  MiUdalter  tmo 
PrUkrenaUtanee  (Halle,  1894,  1903);  de  Juleville,  Let  MvUtm 
(2  vols..  Paris,  1880) ;  Hasb,  Daa  geiaU.  Schavapiel  (Leipsis.  1858), 
tr.  Jackson  (1880);  Sbpet,  Lea  originea  ceUhoHq^€a  du  tMAtra 
modeme  (Paris,  1901).  For  the  history  of  the  French  drama  see 
DE  JvLEViLLE,  Le  Thidtre  en  Prance  (4th  ed.,  Paris,  1897) ;  Idem, 
Hiat.  de  la  lan(nt€  el  de  ta  litUrcUure  frangaiae  (Paris,  1895-^),  II, 
399  sqa.;  Lintilhac,  Le  thidtre  airieux  du  moyen  6ge  in  Hiat.  gi- 
nSrale  du  thidtre  en  France,  I  (Paris.  1905) ;  GbOber  in  Grundriaa 
der  romantachen  Philologies  II.  712  sqq.,  977  sqq.,  1197  sqo.  For 
the  English  drama  see  Pollard,  op.  cU.,  introduction;  Wabo, 
Hiai,  ojEngliah  Dramatic  Lit.  to  the  Death  of  Queen  Anne  (2  voJs., 
London.  1899) :  ten  Brink.  Hiat.  o/Bngliah  Lil.,  tr.  Robinson  (New 
York.  1893),  II,  i,  234-310;  Bates,  Engliah  Religioua  Drama 
(New  York,  1902).  For  the  German  drama  see  Wilkbn,  Geaeh. 
der  geiatL  Sjride  in  Deutachland  (Gfittingen.  1872):  HBINSB^ 
Beackreihung  dea  geiatl.  Schauapiela  im  deutachen  Mittetalter  (Ham- 
bur^-Leipsig.  1898) ;  consult  also  the  introduction  to  Fbonxko*b 
edition  mentioned  above. 

Abthur  F.  J.  Remt. 

Miracles,  Gift  of. — ^The  gift  of  Tniracles  is  one  of 
those  mentioned  by  St.  Paul  in  his  First  Epistle  to 
the  Corinthians  (xii,  9,  10),  among  the  extraordinary 
graces  of  the  Holy  Ghost.  These  have  to  be  di»- 
tinguished  from  the  seven  gifts  of  the  Holy  Ghost 
enumerated  by  the  Prophet  Isaias  (xi,  2  sq.)  and  from 
the  fruits  of  the  Spirit  given  by  St.  Paul  in  his  Epistle 
to  the  Galatians  (v,  22).  The  seven  gifts  ana  the 
twelve  fruits  of  the  Holy  Ghost  are  always  infused 
with  sanctifying  grace  mto  the  souls  of  the  just. 
They  belong  to  ordinary  sanctity  and  are  within  the 
reach  of  every  Christian.  The  gifts  mentioned  in  the 
Epistle  to  the  Corinthians  ar&  not  necessarily  con- 
nected with  sanctity  of  life.  They  are  special  and 
extraordinary  powers  vouchsafed  by  God  only  to  a 
few,  and  primarily  for  the  spiritual  good  of  others 
rather  than  of  the  recipient.  In  Greek  they  are  caUcKl 
Xo^Urftaraf  which  name  has  been  adopted  by  Latin 
authors;  they  are  also  designated  m  theological 
technical  lan^age  as  gratia  aratis  data  (graces 
gratuitously  given)  to  distinguish  them  from  gratia 
gratum  facienteSf  which  means  sanctifying  grace  or 
any  actual  grace  granted  for  the  salvation  of  the 
recipient. 

Tne  gift  of  miracles,  as  one  of  these  charismatay  was 
expressly  promised  by  Christ  to  His  disciples  (John, 
xiv,  12;  Mark,  xvi,  17,  IS),  and  St.  Paul  mentions  it  as 
abiding  in  the  Church :  "  To  another  [is  given]  the  grace 
of  healing  ...  To  another,  the  working  of  miracles  '* — 
(I  Cor.,  xii,  9,  10).  Christ  imparts  this  sift  to  chosen 
servants  as  He  did  to  the  Apostles  and  disciples,  that 
His  doctrine  may  become  credible  and  that  Christians 
may  be  confirmed  in  their  faith,  and  this  the  Vatican 
Council  has  declared  in  chaptei*  iii,  "De  Fide". 
This  gift  is  not  given  to  any  created  being  as  a  per- 
manent habit  or  quality  of  the  soul.  The  power  of 
effecting  supernatural  works  such  as  mimdes  is  the 
Divine  Omnipotence,  which  cannot  be  communicated 
to  either  men  or  an|;els.  The  greatest  thaumaturgus 
that  ever  appeared  m  this  world  could  not  work  mira- 
cles at  will,  neither  had  he  any  permanent  gift  of  the 
kind  abiding  in  his  soul.  The  Apostles  once  asked 
concerning  a  cure  of  demoniacal  possession:    ''Why 


MIBJSU8 


351 


HXRANDOIiA 


oould  we  not  cast  him  out?"  Christ  replied,  ''this 
kind  is  not  cast  out  but  by  prayer  and  fasting'*  (Matt., 
xvii,  18  sqq.)'  £liseus  could  not  raise  to  life  the  son 
of  the  Sunamitess  with  his  staff. 

The  grace  of  miracles  is  therefore  onlv  a  transient 
gift  by  which  God  moves  a  person  to  ao  something 
which  issues  in  a  wonderful  work.  Sometimes  God 
makes  use  instrumentally  of  contact  with  the  relics 
of  the  saints,  or  visits  to  sacred  shrines  for  this  pur- 
pose. The  miraculous  work  is  always  the  effect  of 
Omnipotence;  nevertheless,  men  and  angels  may  be 
said  to  work  miracles  in  a  threefold  way  (1)  by  their 
prayers  invoking  a  miraculous  effect ;  (2)  by  disposing 
or  accommodatmg  the  materials,  as  it  is  said  of  the 
angels  that  thev  will  in  the  resurrection  collect  the 
dust  of  the  dead  bodies  that  these  may  be  re-animated 
by  the  Divine  power;  (3)  by  performing  some  other 
act  in  co-operation  with  the  Divine  agency,  as  in  the 
case  of  the  application  of  relics,  or  of  visits  to  holy 
places  which  God  has  marked  out  for  special  and  ex- 
traordinary favours  of  this  kind.  To  Uhrist  even  as 
man,  or  to  His  humanity,  was  granted  a  perpetual 
and  constant  power  of  miracles.  He  was  able  of  His 
free  will  to  work  them  as  often  as  He  judged  it  ex- 
pedient. For  this  He  had  the  ever-ready  concur- 
rence of  His  Divinity,  although  there  was  in  His 
Humanity  no  permanent  quality  which  could  be 
the  physical  cause  of  miracles. 

Benedict  XIV  tells  us  sufficient  with  regard  to 
miracles  in  their  relation  to  sanctity  of  life  when  ex- 
plaining their  estimate  in  the  cause  of  the  beatifica- 
tion and  canonization  of  the  saints.  He  says:  ''It 
is  l^e  common  opinion  of  theologians  that  the  grace  of 
miracles  is  a  grace  aratis  data,  and  therefore  that  it  is 
given,  not  only  to  the  just  but  also  to  sinners  (though 
only  rarely).  Christ  says  that  He  knows  not  those 
who  have  done  evil,  though  they  may  have  prophesied 
in  His  name,  cast  out  devils  in  His  name,  and  done 
many  wonderful  works.  And  the  Apostle  said  that 
without  charity  he  was  nothing,  though  he  might 
have  faith  to  remove  mountains.  On  this  passage 
of  the  Apostle,  Esiius  remarks:  'For  as  it  oners  no 
contradiction  to  the  Apostle  that  a  man  should  have 
the  gift  of  tongues  or  prophecy,  or  knowledge  of 
mysteries,  and  excel  in  knowlcage,  which  are  first. 
spoken  of;  or  be  liberal  to  the  poor,  or  give  his  body 
to  be  burned  for  the  name  of  Cliriit,  which  are  after- 
wards spoken  of  and  ^et  not  have  charity ;  so  also  there 
is  no  contradiction  m  a  man  having  faith  to  remove 
mountains,  and  being  without  charity'  "  (Treatise  on 
Heroic  Virtue,  III,  130). 

These  graces  manifest  themselves  in  two  wa3r8: 
one  way  as  dwelling  in  the  Church,  teaching  and 
sanctifying  her,  as,  for  example,  when  even  a  sinner  in 
whom  the  Holy  Ghost  does  not  abide  works  miracles 
to  show  that  the  faith  of  the  Church  which  he 
preaches  is  true.  Hence  the  Apostle  writes:  "God 
also  bearing  them  witness  by  signs,  and  wonders,  and 
divers  mirades,  and  distributions  of  the  Holy  Ghost, 
according  to  his  own  will ' '  (Heb.,  ii,  4) .  In  another  way, 
the  manifestation  is  made  by  the  graces  of  the  Holy 
Ghost  as  belonging  to  him  who  performs  the  works. 
Hence  in  Acts  it  is  said  that  St.  Stephen,  "full  of 
grace  and  fortitude,  did  great  wonders  and  signs 
among  the  people"  (Acts,  vi,  8).  Here  we  have 
a  distmction  clearly  drawn  out  as  to  the  manner  in 
which  gratia  gratis  daicB  may  be  to  the  advantage 
of  the  person  receiving  them  as  well  as  to  the  utility 
of  others,  and  how  it  is  that  by  these  graces  persons 
without  sanctifying  grace  may  perform  signs  and 
wonders  for  the  good  of  others.  But  these  arc  rare 
and  exceptional  cases,  and  real  miracles  can  never  be 
performed  by  a  sinner  in  proof  of  his  own  personal 
sanctity  or  in  proof  of  error,  because  that  would  be 
a  deception  andderogatory  to  the  sanctity  of  God  Who 
alone  can  perform  miracles. 

BcifBDicr  XIV.  Heroic  Virtus  (London  Oratorian  Series. 


1851);  Dbvinb,  Manual  of  Myatieal  Theotoou  (London.  1003)«, 
DoTLE,  Principles  of  Relicfiotut  Life  (London.  — ) ;  Rzbet,  La 
Myatique  Divine  (Paris,  1803):  Scrram,  Theologia  Myatica; 
SxLvius,  In  II-IID.  Thomaet  clxxviii,  a.  1. 

A.  Devine. 

MirfiBixs  (Le  Mire),  Aubert,  ecclesiastical  histo- 
rian, b.  at  Brussels,  30  Nov.,  1573;  d.  at  Antwerp,  19 
Oct.,  1640.  After  studying  at  Douai  and  Louvam  he 
was  made  canon  of  the  cathedral  of  Antwerp  in  1608 
and  secretary  to  his  uncle,  John  Mineus,  who  was  then 
Bishop  of  Antwerp.  In  1611  he  was  appointed  al- 
moner and  librarian  to  Archduke  Albert  of  Austria, 
then  viceroy  of  the  Netherlands,  and  in  1624  he  be- 
came dean  of  the  cathedral  of  Antwerp  and  vicar- 
general  of  the  diocese.  He  wai  an  indeiatigable  his- 
torical writer,  as  is  attested  by  the  thirty-nine  works 
on  profane,  ecclesiastical,  and  monastic  history  which 
he  nas  given  to  the  world.  On  the  whole  he  is  a  relia- 
ble historian,  though  some  of  his  works  are  wanting  in 
thoroughness  and  accuracy. 

His  chief  literary  productions  are:  (1)  "Rerum  toto 
orbe  gestarum  chronica  a  Christo  nato  ad  hsc  usque 
tempora  ",  Antwerp,  1633  (containing  the  chronicles  of 
Eusebius,  St.  Jerome,  Sigebert  of  Gemblours,  Anselm 
of  Gemblours,  and  others  up  to  the  year  12()0,  and  a 
continuation  of  these  chronicles  by  Mirssus  up  to 
1008);  (2)  "Notitia  episcooatuum  orbis  imiversi", 
Antwerp,  1611, 1613;  (3)  "  Politia  ecdesiastica,  sivede 
statu  religionis  Christian®  per  totum  orbem", 
Cologne,  1633,  Lyons,  1620;  (4)  "Geographica  Eo- 
clesiastica ",  Lyons,  1620;  (5)  "Notitia  eccleslarum 
Belgii ",  Antwerp,  1630  (this  work,  together  with  other 
works  of  Mirxus  on  the  ecclesiastical  history  of  the 
Netherlands,  was  re-edited  by  Foppens.  under  the 
title  of  "Miraei  ooera  diploma tica  et  Historica",  4 
vols.,  Brussels,  172j-48);  (6)  "  Bibliotheca  ecclesias- 
tica",  2  vols.,  Antwerp,  163(>-49  (a  compilation  of 
short  sketches  on  ecclesiastical  writers  written  by 
St.  Jerome,  Gennadius,  St.  Isidore,  St.  Ildephonsus, 
Honorius  Aut^stodunensis,  Sigebert  of  Gemblours, 
and  Henry  of  Ghent,  and  is  furnished  with  notes  by 
Miraeus);  (7)  "Vita  Justi  Lipsii",  Antwerp,  1609 
TMirsDus  had  Justus  Li psius  as  teacher  at  Louvain); 
(8) "  Originum  monasticarum  libri  IV  ",  Cologne,  1620. 

He  had  previously  published  in  separate  volumes  the 
beginnin<;s  of  the  Benedictines  (Antwerp,  1608),  of  the 
Carthusians  (Cologne,  1609),  of  the  Military  Orders 
(Antwerp,  1603),  of  the  Carmelites  (Antwerp,  1610), 
of  the  Augustinians,  in  French  (Antwerp,  1611),  of  the 
Canons  Re^lar  (Cologne,  1614),  of  the  Sisters  of  the 
Annunciation  (Antwerp,  1618).  Some  of  his  letters 
were  published  by  Burbure  in  "  Messager  des  Sciences 
Historiques  de  Belgique"  (1859). 

Db  Rii)nEi,  Attbert  Le  Mire,  aa  vie,  »e»  fcriU,  mimoire  hitio* 
ruiue  et  critinue  (Paris,  1S65);  Wauterb  in  Biographie  NationaU 
de  Belgique  (Bnusela,  1S0O-O1),  XIV,  8Si-Q5. 

Michael  Ott. 

Mirandaf  Bartolom^  db.  See  Carranza,  Bar- 
tolom£. 

Mirandola,  Giovanni  Francesco  Pico  della, 
Italian  philosopher,  nephew  of  Mirandola,  Giovanni 
Pico  della  (see  next  article),  b.  about  1469;  d. 
1533.  Though  very  gentle  and  pious  he  was  drawn 
into  the  bitter  feuds  of  his  familv  and  fell  at  the 
foot  of  the  crucifix  with  his  son  Aloert,  killed  by  his 
nephew  Galeotto  II,  who  had  just  seized  the  Castle  of 
Mirandola.  His  wife  and  the  children  of  his  other  son 
were  shut  up  in  dreadful  dungeons.  At  Rome  he  de- 
fended the  eclectic  Latin  style  against  the  Ciceronian 
Bembo.  Like  his  uncle  he  devoted  himself  chiefly  to 
philosophy,  bub  made  it  subject  to  the  Bible,  though 
in  his  treatises,  ''De  studio  divinss  et  humanie  sa- 
pientite "  and  particularly  in  the  six  books  entitled 
''  Examen  doctrinse  unitatis  gentium",  he  depreciates 
the  authority  of  the  philosophers,  above  all  of  Aris- 
totle. He  wrote  a  detailed  biography  of  his  uncle  and 
another  of  Savonarola.    Having  observed  the  danizens 


lOBANDOLA                             352  ^<rTyt«i^»i^« 

to  which  Italian  society  was  exposed  at  the  time,  he  ("  Disputationes  adversus  astroloeiam  divinatricem", 

sounded  a  warning  on  the  occasion  of  the  Lateran  Bologna,  1495).    Because  of  this  book  and  his  contio- 

Council :  **  Joannis  Francisci  Pici  oratio  ad  Leonem  X  versy  again::.t  astrology,  Pico  marks  an  era  and  a  deci- 

et  concilium   Lateranense  de  reformandis  Ecclesiae  sive  progressive  movement  in  ideas.    He  died  two 

Moribus''   (Hagenau,   1512,  dedicated   to   Pi|t;khei-  montns  after  his  intimate  friend  Politian,  on  the  day 

mer).     He  was  discussing  funerals  and  tombs  with  Charles  VIII  of  France  entered  Florence.    He  was 

Lillio  Giraldi  when  the  catastrophe  occurred  which  interred  at  San  Marco,  and  Savonarola  delivered  the 

carried  him  olT.     Giraldi  conmiemorated  the  tragic  funeral  oration. 

event  in  a  touching  postscript  to  the  **  De  sepulcris  "  Besides  the  writings  already  mentioned,  see  his  com- 

(in  his  works,  Basle,  1580,  1,  640).  plete  works  (Bologna,  1496;  Venice,  1498;  Strasburg, 

NicfcROhf.  Mdmoirea.  ???iy ^  Tiraboschi.  5<ona  cfeflo  Uu^  1504 ;  Basle,  1557, 1573, 1601).    He  wrote  in  Italian  an 

TfUura  Ilaitana,  VII,  part  I,  397;  Sandys,  A  History  of  Classical  :,*,;♦«♦:«•»  ^i  Ti\^*Ji>€»  «  Tla««^«.^4^>>      li:«.  \^4^*^w^  /"  a....%^ 

Scholarship.  II  (Cambridge.  1908).  113.    His^Jbrks  are  ap-  imitetion  of  Plato  8    Banquet  .    His  letters  (  Aure» 

pended  to  thoae  of  hia  uncle  in  the  ed.  of  Basle.  1601.  ad  familiares  epistolse  ",  Pans,  1499)  are  miportant 

Paul  Lejat.  for  the  history  of  contemporary  thought.    The  many 

editions  of  his  entire  works  in  the  sixteenth  centuiy 

Mirandola,  Giovanki  Pico  della,  Italian  phi-  sufficiently  prove  his  influence, 

losopher  and  scholar,  b.  24  February,  1463;  d.    17  Nic±ROft,  M(Smoire3.XXXI\ ;  Tin abobcbi,  Bibliot«ia  M^ 

November  1494     He  belonged  to  a/amay  tW  had  SSSa'SjaS'ie&T^^att  vff'SIJl  f.  ^P'i^^I 

long  dwelt  m   the  Castle   of  Mirandola   (Duchy  of  History  of  ClaancalScholarahip,  II  (PamhTidBe,l9(»),  82, 

Mouena),  which   had    become   independent   in   the  Paul  Lbjat. 
fourteenth  century  and  had  received  in  1414  from  the 

Emperor  Sigismund  the  fief  of  Concordia.  To  devote  Mlridite.  Abbey  op  (Miriditarum,  or  Sancti  Alex- 
himself  wholly  to  study,  he  left  his  share  of  the  an-  andri  de  Oroshi),  the  name  of  an  abbatia  nuUiits  in 
cestral  principality  to  hig  two  brothers,  and  in  his  Albania,  where  there  formerly  stood  a  Benedictine 
fourteenth  year  went  to  Bologna  to  study  canon  law  abbey,  now  destroyed,  dedicated  to  St.  Alexander^ 
and  fit  himself  for  the  ecclesiastical  career.  Repelled,  martyr.  By  decree  of  25  October,  1888,  this  abbey  with 
however,  by  the  purely  positive  science  of  law,  he  de-  i^s  *wo  affiliated  parishes,  together  with  five  other  par- 
voted  himself  to  the  stucly  of  philosophy  and  theology,  ishes  in  the  Diocese  of  Ljes  (Alessio,  or  Alise),  were  r&" 
and  spent  seven  years  wandering  through  the  chief  moved  from  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Bishop  of  Ljes.  In 
universities  of  Italy  and  France,  studying  also  Greek,  1890  three  parishes  from  the  Diocese  ot  Sappa  were 
Latin,  Hebrew,  Syriac,  and  Arabic.  An  impostor  added,  and  in  1894  five  from  Ljes.  The  country  fonns 
sold  him  sixty  Hebrew  manuscripts,  asserting  posi-  part  of  the  Turkish  dominions  in  Europe  and  is  inhab- 
tively  that  they  were  written  by  order  of  Esdras,  and  ited  by  Mohammedans,  Greek  Schismatics,  and  Catho- 
contained  the  secrets  of  nature  and  religion.  For  lies.  The  Catholics  number  16,550,  and  are  imder  the 
many  years  he  believed  in  the  Kabbala  and  interwove  care  of  secular  and  regular  clergy.  The  abbot  is  chosen 
its  fancies  in  his  philosophical  theories.  His  aim  was  from  among  the  secular  clergy.  The  present  abbot, 
to  conciliate  religion  and  philosophy.  Like  his  Mgr.  Primus  Docchi,  who  resides  at  Oroshi  was  bom 
teacher,  Marsilius  Ficinus,  he  based  hig  views  chiefly  at  Bulgri,  7  Feb.,  1846,  and  studied  at  the  Propa- 
on  Plato,  in  opposition  to  Aristotle  the  doctor  of  ganda  College,  Rome.  The  Franciscans  have  a  pansh 
scholasticism  at  its  decline.  But  Pico  was  constitu-  and  a  hospital  at  Gomsice. 
tionally  an  eclectic,  and  in  some  respects  he  represented  .  Roukis,  Ethnographischeund  suuistischeMittheatmQen  ^ 

-.  ««„«*;^,>  «««:..«4.  \\.r.  ^^^ «-«+;iL«  ^t  «  .JT  u AWamen  m  Petermann  a  Mttthetlunom  (1884).  367  sqq.;  Afi*- 

a  reaction  agamst  the  exaggerations  of  pure  human-  giones  Catholics;  Mihacbvic,  SeroAtuki  PmVo/.  XXIII  (iivno- 

ism.    According  to  him,  we  should  study  the  Hebrew  Sarajevo,  1909).  126.                            A.  L.  Gancevi<$. 
and  Talmudic  sources,  while  the  best  products  of 

scholasticism  should  be  retained.  His  "Heptaplus",  Miserere,  the  first  word  of  the  Vulgate  text  oC 
a  mystico-allegorical  exposition  of  the  creation  accord-  Psalm  1  (Hebrew,  li).  Two  other  Psalms  (Iv  and  Ivi) 
ing  to  the  seven  Biblical  senses,  follows  this  idea  begin  with  the  same  word,  and  all  three  continue  with 
(Florence,  about  14S0) ;  to  the  same  period  belongs  the  met,  Deus  (Have  mercv  on  me,  O  God).  In  alpha- 
''De  ente  et  uno",  with  its  explanations  of  several  betical  indexes  to  the  (Latin)  Psalms  they  are  inter- 
passages  in  Moses,  Plato,  and  Aristotle;  also  an  oration  distinguished  by  the  fourth  word,  which  in  Ps.  1  is 
on  the  Dignity  of  Man  (published  among  the  ''Com-  secundum;  Ps.  Iv,  qiumiam;  in  Ps.  Ivi,  miserere:  so 
mentationes").  that  Ps.  1  will  appear  as  "Miserere  .  .  .  secundum". 
With  bewildering  attainments  due  to  his  brilliant  So  liturgically  and  musically  pre-eminent  is  Ps.  1, 
and  tenacious  memory,  he  returned  to  Rome  in  1486  however,  that  it  is  commonly  referred  to  aa  the  Mis- 
and  undertook  to  maintain  900  theses  on  all  possible  erere,  without  further  qualification.  The  psabn  has  a 
subjects  ("Conclusiones  philosophical,  cabalasticae  et  title  which  is  one  of  the  best  authenticated  of  lUl,  as  it 
theologicse  ",  Rome,  1486,  in  fol.)>  He  offered  to  pay  is  foimd  in  the  Hebrew,  the  Greek,  and  the  Latin,  and 
the  expenses  of  those  who  came  from  a  distance  to  en-  which  in  the  Vulgate  reads : "  In  finem,  Psalmua  David, 
gage  with  him  in  public  discussion.  Innocent  VIII  Cum  venit  ad  eum  Nathan  propheta,  quando  intravit 
was  made  to  believe  that  at  least  thirteen  of  these  ad  Bethsabee."  This  title  forms  w.  1  and  2  of  Uie 
theses  were  heretical,  though  in  reality  they  merely  psalm,  and  refers  to  the  sin  of  David  (II  Kings,  xi) 
revealed  the  shallowness  of  the  learning  of  that  epoch,  and  to  the  reproaches  and  warnings  of  the  prophet 
Even  such  a  mind  as  Pico's  showed  too  much  creclulity  Nathan  (II  Kings,  xii).  Some  commentators  tnink 
in  nonsensical  beliefs,  and  too  great  a  liking  for  childisn  that  the  last  two  verses  of  the  psalm  were  added  in  the 
and  unsolvable  problems.  The  proposed  disputation  time  of  the  Captivity.  Delitzsch  nevertheless  ooo« 
was  prohibited  and  the  book  containmg  the  theses  was  siders  them  quite  admissible  in  the  mouth  of  David, 
interdicted,  notwithstanding  the  author's  defence  in  arguing  that  the  Hebrew  word  for  "build"  means 
^Apologia  J.  Pici  Mirandolani,  Concordiae  comitis"  not  oi3y  "to  rebuild",  but  "to  complete  what  is 
(1489).  One  of  his  detractors  had  maintained  that  being  built'',  and  that  Solomon's  wall  (III  Kings,  iii, 
Kabbala  was  the  name  of  an  impious  writer  against  1)  can  be  regarded  as  a  fulfilment  of  David's  praver 
Jesus  Christ.  Despite  all  efforts  Pico  was  condemned,  "  that  the  walls  of  Jerusalem  may  be  built  up  ".  ^. 
and  he  decided  to  travel,  visiting  France  first,  but  he  the  appended  bibliography,  which  gives  the  suffrages 
afterwards  returned  to  Florence.  He  destroyed  his  of  some  recent  Catholic  commentators  to  the  tradi- 
poetical  works,  gave  up  profane  science,  and  deter-  tional  ascription,  in  addition  to  the  opiniona  of 
mined  to  devote  his  old  age  to  a  defence  of  Christianity  several  of  the  more  recent  non-Catholic  oonmientik 
against  Jews,  Mohammedans,  and  astrologers.  A  por-  tors.) 
tion  of    this  work  was    published  after  his  death  The  Miserere  has  a  most  prominent  plaef^  m  the  Di- 


353 

vine  OflSoe  and  in  various  ceremonies.    It  is  the  first  searching  verses,  for  the  preces  of  Prime  in  the  Divine 

psalm  at  Lauds  in  all  the  ferial  (week-day)  Offices  Office;  in  the  verse  "Domine  labia  mea  aperies",  etc.. 

throughout  the  year,  outside  of  Paschal  Time,  and  in  with  which  the  Office  commonly  opens  at  Matins  and 

the  Sundajr  Offices  trom  Septuagesima  to  Palm  Sun-  Prime ;  in  the  use  of  the  antiphon  **  Aspeiges  ",  and  the 

day  inclusive.    It  holds  the  same  place  in  the  Office  veree  *' Miserere"  in  the  Conmiunion  of  the  Sick,  and 

of  the  Dead.    It  is  the  jpsalm  chosen  for  ihevreceafer-'  of  the  antiphon  alone  at  Extreme  Unction  (de  Herdt, 

iale8  at  Vespers  for  all  the  weekdays  in  Lent  with  "  Praxis") ;  in  the  selection  of  various  verses  for  use  as 

the  exception  of  the  triduum  of  Holy  Week,  for  those  antiphons  in  the  Office,  and  for  an  Offertoiv,  a  Gom- 

in  Advent,  for  the  ember-days  except  those  of  the  munion,  and  an  Alleluia-verse  at  Mass.    Tne  partial 

Pentecostal  season,  and  for  all  vi^,  except  those  of  use  made  of  it  at  Mass  and  Office  has  been  mmutely 

Christmas,  Epiphanv,  the  Ascension,  and  Pentecost,  detailed  in  Bishop  Marbach's  exceedingly  elaborate 

In  addition  it  is  saicT  just  before  the  ©ratio,  or  prayer,  work,  "Carmina  Scripturarum"   (Strasburg,  1907), 

in  all  the  Canonical  Hours  in  the  triduum  of  Holy  134-36. 

Week,  except  the  Vespers  and  Compline  of  Holy  Sat-  As  remarked  above,  the  Miserere  is  not  only  the  first 
urday.  As  it  is  also  the  fourth  in  order  of  the  seven  psalm  at  Lauds  in  the  ferial  Office,  but  is  also  re- 
penitential  psalms  (q.  v.),  its  times  of  recitation  will  peated  just  before  the  oratio  at  the  end  of  Lauds  in  the 
be  governed  by  the  appropriate  rubric  in  the  Brevi-  triduum  of  Holy  Week.  The  thought  of  giving  to  this 
aiy.  It  (or,  as  alternative,  Ps.  cxvi,  ''  Laudato  .  .  .  second  Miserere  a  musical  treatment  more  eCiborate 
onmes")  is  said  daily  in  the  prayeraafter  dinner  (post  than  the  ordinary  nlain-song  used  for  the  psalms  in 
prandium),  except  on  days  when  only  one  meal  is  general,  and  of  nnuring  it  serve  as  a  climax  to  the 
taken  (in  which  case  the  prayers  are  those  stvled  post  dramatic  ceremonial  of  the  Tenebre,  is  probably 
eananif  "after  supper")  and  also  except  the  times  due  to  Leo  X.  In  1514  the  Miserere  was  sung  to  a 
from  Christmas  to  the  ()ctave  of  the  Epiphanv,  from  falaobordone.  The  oldest  example  extant  is  tioat  of 
Holy  Saturday  until  Low  Sunday  exclusively,  and  Costanzo  Festa  (1517),  which  alternated  verses  in 
from  Ascension  Thursday  to  the  Octave  of  Pentecost  plain-song  with  verses  in  falsibordoni  of  four  and 
exclusively.  It  is  very  prominent  in  the  ceremony  of  five  voices.  This  interestingly  contrasted  setting  or 
the  Asperges  (q.  v.),  during  which  the  choir  sings  the  method  of  treatment  formed  the  type  for  imitation 
antiphon  ^Asperges  me,  Domine,  hyssopo",  etc.  (i.  e.  ever  since. 

Ps.  1,  verse  8;  Vute.,  9),  then  the  verse  '^Miserere  mei.  The  musical  settings  of  the  Miserere  are  very  many. 
Deus",  etc.  (i.  e.Ts.  1,  1;  Vulg.,  3),  then  the  Gloria  Three  of  them  (Baini^s  on  Wednesday,  Bai's  on  Thurs- 
Patri,  and  finally  the  antiphon  "  Aspeiges  me",  the  day,  and  Allegri's  on  Friday  afternoons)  are  especially 
celebrant  meanwhile  reciting,  either  alone  or  alter-  famous  because  of  their  yearly  repetiti(Hi  in  the  pope's 
nately  with  the  sacred  ministers,  the  entire  Miserere,  chapel  during  the  Tenebre.  Among  the  numerous 
On  Passion  and  Pahn  Sundays  the  Gloria  Patri  is  estimates  recorded  by  musicians  and  travellers  on 
omitted,  and  during  Paschal  Time  the  antiphon  and  these  three  settings,  mention  may  be  made  of  Men- 
psalm  are  "Vidi  aquam"  and  "Confitemini"  (Ps.  delssohn's.  Cardinal  Wiseman's,  Madame  de  Stafil's 
cxvii)  respectively.  (in  "Corinne"),  Mr.  Rockstro's  (in  Grove,  Diction- 
The  Miserere  is  found  in  many  other  ceremonial  ary  of  Music),  and  especially  of  the  youns  Mozart's 
functions;  at  the  Burial  of  the  Dead,  with  the  anti-  sincerest  tribute  in  the  famous  copy  of  it  made 
phoQ  "  Exultabunt  Domino  ossa  huzniliata",  taken  by  him  at  one  hearing  of  Allegri's  Miserere  (with  cor- 
from  the  9th  (Vulg.,  10th)  verse  of  the  psahn:  at  the  ructions  made  at  a  subsequent  hearing).  In  the 
episcopal  visitation  of  parishes;  the  blessing  of  a  bell ;  second  of  his  " Four  Lectures  on  the  Offices  and  Cere- 
tne  consecration  of  an  altar«tone;  the  laying  of  the  monies  of  Holy  Week",  Cardinal  Wiseman  gives  a 
cornerstone  of  a  church ;  the  blessing  of  a  church,  of  a  comparative  estimate  of  these  settings  and,  in  accord 
cemetery,  of  a  house,  of  concretions,  and  fields ;  the  with  all  who  have  heard  them,  awards  the  palm  of  su- 
reconciliation  of  a  profanea  church  (whether  conse-  preniacy  to  AUegri's.  His  description  is  slowing  and 
crated  or  merely  blessed)  or  of  a  profaned  cemetery.  It  vivid;  but  that  of  Mr.  Rockstro  is  equally  apprecia- 
is  especially  prominent  in  the  consecration  of  a  church,  tive  and  musically  more  precise  and  detailed  in  re- 
when  it  is  first  said  like  other  psahns,  and  afterwards  spect  of  Allegri's  Miserere,  of  which  he  gives  many 
in  a  more  solemn  manner,  with  the  antiphon  "As-  iUustratioDS,  and  which  he  defends  against  certain 
peri^"  repeated  after  each  group  of  three  verses,  criticisms.  (Cf.  in  the  same  dictionary  articles  on 
during  the  sprinkling  of  the  altars  with  holy  water.  Bai,  Baini.) 

It  is  said  by  the  pemtent  who  is  to  be  absolved  from  M'Swinet,  lyandation  of  the  Paalms  and  CanHcUt  with  Comr 

excommunication  {in  faro  externa),  and  by  the  ab-  »»«titarw  (St.  I>>uw,  1901),  186^,  givwabi-oc^^ 

•»i.*:»<.  •««:a<.4^  :•«  *\^^^^L».  ^f  «  a^^^^^^Ia  ^«>^^JC«»..«.j«a4^«.  tion  from  the  Vulgate  and  the  Hebrew  Maaaoretictext,  186-190: 

serving  pnest  m  the  case  of  a  deceased  excommimicate  ?.  ^.^,j  ^^  exception  of  the  two  last  venwi.  probably  added  to 

who  had  given  some  sign  of  contntion  before  death,  the  Psalm  during  the  Babylonian  captivity,  there  la  no  valid 

the  ceremony  entitling  to  ecclesiastical  burial.     At  reason  for  aasignuig  tWa  Pealm  to  a  poet  of  a  later  age,  who 

4^u^  iTi^Ut^^i^wi  ^  «i%A  cE.L'  4Ua  «v*:a«4^  «««A<.r  oa«.  4U^  ufi^  undettook  to  set  forth  the  thoughts  and  emotions  of  David,  on 

the  Visitation  Of  the  Sick  the  pnest  may  say  the  Mis-  {he  J^ion  mentioned  in  the  title".    D'Etragues.  Let 

erere  or  any  other  of  the  first  three  pemtential  psalms.  Pmnmes  traduUa  de  rhibreu  (Paris,  1904),  146-51,  ascribes  it  to 

While  carrying  the  Blessed  Sacrament  to  the  sick,  the  David:  "Veraes  20-21  were  doubtless  added  after  the  return 

nriMt  ifl  t^  hav  thp  MiJiPwrP  ^"  whfob  la  t>i«  hp«f  miif/iH  '^om  captivity  m  the  tune  of  Esdras  when  be  again  raised  tho 

pnest  IS  to  say  tne  Aliserere  ^  wmcn  is  tne  oest  SUitM  ^^^^  of  the   temple.     The  congregation  sing  the   venes." 

for  Obtauiing  divme  mercy  for  the  sick" — de  Herdt,  Vioouroux  praises  the  work  as  one  of  irreproachable  learning. 

"  Praxis  ")  and  other  psalms  and  prayers.    In  monas-  Aiainst  the  uayidic  authoreWp:  Cheyne.  The  Book  of  PmdmM 

tertehissaiddurrngtScustonuSyi^disciplme''     It  E:JS^^]^S!;^i\fpSS^''ciei%'^^i^A:^^ 

figured  prommently  m  the  ancient  cerem^y  of  the  "Ps.  51  is  a  penitential  prayer  of  the  congregation  in  the  time  of 

Reconciliation   of   Penitents   on   Maundy  Thursday,  Nehemiah."— Neutral:    Kxrkpatrick,    The    Book   of  Paalnu 

»vi*>i  All  fttiP  ftf  f>iA  flPvPn  r>Anif/>nfm1  Tvutlma  Kwtfjvl  hv  (Cambridge,  1901),  bks.  II.  III.  284-95,  briefly  disposes  of  some 

tJOtn  as  one  Ot  tne  seven  penitential  psalms  recited  by  Objections  to  the  Davidic  authorship  and  allows  weight  to  othem: 

the  bishop  m  the  sanctuaiy,  and  as  one  of  the  three  Lbs»:trb.  Le  Livre  de  Paaumea  (Paris.  1883).  a  very  extended 

psahns  commencing  with  Miserere  during  the  prostra-  commentary;  Kenrick.  T%e  Paalms,  etc.  (Baltimore.  1861), 

f ion  of  cipnrv  adH  lAitv  rinnliirlincr  f h<>  npnif^nfja^       Vnr  very  condensed,  but  satisfactorv;  Wolter,  P«W/»te  Sapxenter 

uon  Of  ciercy  ana  laity  ^mciuamg  tne  penitents;,    j*  or  (p^,^^^  ^^we)  (Freiburg  im  Br..  1905),  II.  294-331.  an  ex- 

an  mteresting  descnption  of  this  ancient  function,  cf .  tensive  account  of  the  mystical  and  Utui]eical  uses  of  the  Mlse- 

the  volume  entitled  "  Passiontide  and  Holy  Week  ",  of  rere.— Metrical    translations    into   English:    Baoshawe,    The 

ClnAruntit^u  "  T  if  iiiwnal  Voa^r  **  Pealma  and  Cantidea  m  English  Verse  (St.  Louis,  1903).  pro- 

UUerangers     l^liurpcai  Y^r.  ^^  ^^^  ^^  ^^  metrical  veraions  of  the  Psalms  by  Catholics 

In  some  Jewisn  ntualS   the   Miserere  is  recited  on  and  gives  (106)  his  metrical  version  of  Ps.  1;   MiLBOURNE.  The 

the  Day  of  Atonement.     It  is  also  found  in  the  Angli-  Paalma  of  David  in  English   MHre  (London.  1698),  105-08. 

c«  Commm.tion  Service  In  a  fragmentao^form  it  fa  f  H/SS  ^^ISS^  ^Sr^oYZ-pIS^'^io'':^^ 

ftlflO  promment,  m  the  selection  of  some  of  its  most  mime  (Dublin,  1880),  08. — Latin  metrical  venions:QBORon  Bu- 


laSEBICORDE                            354  IQSSAL 

cHANAKi  Soon,  Paraphrenia  Paalmorvm  Davidia  PoHioa  (Edin-  established  the  Orphan  Asylum  and  Kindersaiten  ol 

bui;sh.  1737),  161-63,  a  vereion  in  nineteen  Sapphic  stansas;  o*   Ufarv'H  nf  th«i  Anoxia   at  HiLri»Hjdi»  with  aSfiPrB  Ift- 

Foetarum  Scotmum  Muaa  Sacrce  (Edinburgh,  1739),  44.  a  ver-  ^}-  ^5^  f  °'^j?®  Angela,  at  nartSOaie  Wlin  SlSten,  lU  . 

Bion  into  thirty-nine  elegiac  couplets.— Mathbson,  The  Paalm-  attendants,  20;   average  number  Of  children  during 

we  and  theSctefUU  (New  York,  1894),  253-«9.  takes  Ps.  1  to  the  year,  150.    In  Green  Bay,  Wis.,  a  house  was  es- 

repreeent     the  Psalmist  8  view  of  sin    as  bemg    infranatural   ,  ♦«ki;oK*wI  :«  iQiv\«,^*k  o;«4«,«,   i«>.  nii«<.Ao   ic.  A,Mk»«»<^ 

••a  life  of  disorder  existing  in  the  midst  of  order".    Taylor,  tablished  m  1900  With  sistera,  13;  nuFses,  15;  average 

Davidj  Kino  of  Israel  (New  York,  1874).  272-73,  argues  for  the  number  of  patients  and  children  during  the  year,  450. 

sinoenty  of  the  Psalmist  and  includes  the  anecdote  of  Voltaire's  In  Oak  ParK,  III.,  a  hospital  was  founded  in  1905  with 

^^\*Se^r^^%^T?:'o\%^:r^^S:!Tii;i^^^^  '^^rs,  U-,  patiente.  712.    The  establishment  at  Mfl- 

the  ceremonial  and  rubrical  details  of  many  functionsm  which  waukee  contains  accommodations  for  sistetB,  9;   p»- 

the  Miserere  ii  used:  Sinobnbbroer.  Ouidi  toCatMie  Church  tients,  112.                                  SiSTEB  St.  BSiiTSICE. 

Afumc  (St.  Francis,  Wis.,  1905),  ovea  (202)  author,  voices,  and  ' 

jrradeoUwenty;fouraettog8for;Burua»pftheDMd.and(200-  Miaeiicordia.    See  BuBiAL,  sub-tttle  Burial  Con- 

5l)  of  twenty-eight  settings  for  Lauds  of  Ho^  ^^^j^^^  fratemiiiu. 

Miahna.    See  Talmud. 

Hia«rieorde.  Conobegation  of  the  Sisters  of,  jcocco  and  Oalaaca,  Prefectore  Apoitolic  of 

a  congregation  of  women  founded  16  January,  1848.  (Mesaucin^  et  CKU^ck),  in  the  canton  of  Grisons, 

for  the  purpose  of  procuring  spiritual  and  corporal  ^^jt^erland,  comprises  the  valley  of  the  Moesa,  whid^ 

aMistance  for  poor  mothere  and  unfortunate  girls,  starts  at  the  pass  of  San  Bemai^no  and  flows  ilito  the 

Tlie  foundress,  Mad^e  Rosalie  Jett4,  m  religion  Ticino,  and  also  tfle  valley  of  Calanca,  thiou^  whiA 

Mother  Iteiy  of  the  Nativity  declmmK  to  serve  as  j^e  CiLlasanca  flows.     The  population  is  6027,  of 

supenor.  Sister  St.  Jane  de  Chanty  held  that  office.  ^^^^  ^^^  ^^  Catholic  (594S  Italians).     For  ad- 

The  institution  waa  approved  byPius  IX,  7  June.  n,instrative  purposes  the  prefecture  is  divided  into 

1867.  and  the  constitutions,  revised  according  to  the  twochapters.botWwhicharesubjectto  an  episcopal 

latest  rules  of  the  Rotiwi  CongH^ations,  receiv^  the  yicar  of  the  See  of  Chur.    In  the  chapter  of  &iao6^, 

approbation  of  Pius  X.  21  March,  1905^    The  order  is  ^^ich  embraces  the  valley  of  Moesa.  ^ere  are  8  par^ 

governed  by  a  supenor  general,  assisted  by  four  coun-  ^      5  Capuchins  and  4  secular  priests.    In  the  cfiap- 

cUlore.  a  secretary.  anJ  a  bursar,  who  reside  at  the  ^j.  J  Calanca  there  are  11  paristes,  with  5  Capuchiis 

mothe^house.  Montreal  (Canada.    All  branch  houses  ^^^  3  seculars.    At  Miso^  (M^cco  in  Italian) 

we  under  the  control  of  the  general  administration,  ^^ere  is  a  canonry  with  a  prior  and  six  canons  of 

Each  house  is  governed  by  a  local  supenor  and  two  ^^om  three  resiae  in  Mi^cco  and   three  in  San 

aMistants  fonnmg  her  councJ;  in  each  a  bm^r  has  vittore.    At  Roveredo  there  is  a  Catholic  Institute 

chaige  of  temporal  inatters.  but  is  controlled  by  the  ^j  g^  j^      ^^^^  ^^  Fj^thera  of  the  "  PiccoU  Om 

TOuncd.    There  is  only  one  novitiate,  at  Montreal,  al-  ^^y^  Providenia".    The  prefecture  was  established 

tiiough  the  mles  authorae  more  if  necessarv     Can-  -^  jggj  ^^  ^y^^  suggestion  of  Bishop  Joseph  Mohr 

didates  are  received  frwm  all  parts  of  the  world.    The  „f  f^       ^^  whosTinstance  the  Propa^da  sent 

novitiate  lasts  a  year,  dunng  which  the  novice  is  m-  cJapuchi^  missionaries  to  the  Italian-ep^Bng  inhabi- 

stnicted  in  the  constitutions  of  the  order  and  other  ^^^^s  of  Grisons  valleys  of  MisoccTanTbalanca. 

inatters  of  the  religious  life ;  a  siMiplementanr  novice-  Capuchins  from  Milan  were  the  firet  missionaries; 

ship  of  SIX  months^  m  which  to  become  familiar  with  f^^  1790-1802  Novara  and  then  until  1850  Pavia 

the  work  of  the  order,  IS  given  before  taking  the  vows,  Capuchins  had  chaige;  since  then  the  mission  has 

renewed  annuaUy  during  a  {lenod  of  five  jeaxs  and  j^^  administered  by  the  Capuchins  of  Ticino.    The 

then  made  perpetual.    The  sisters  also  conduct  Mag-  vice -prefect.   Father  Hilarin    Odelino,   resides  at 

dalen  asylums.    In  receiving  patients  no  discnmina-  Qama 

tion  is  made  in  regard  to  religion,  colour,  or  national-  bochi.  Die  kaihoK*ch»  Kinht  in  der  Sehwei*  (Huaieh.  1002): 

ity.    After  their  convalescence,  those  who  desire  to  Dadcoort,  Ltt  tuchfi  tuiua  (Fribouig,  1901);  ili—ioMM 

remain  in  the  home  are  placed  under  a  special  sister  C«iAoJj«.  (Rome,   i»07).   105;  Otoanv^n  Lexicon  in 

andareknowna8"DaughtewofSt.Maigai^'.    They  5«A"~ (NcuenburH902-08).                 Joseph  Lins. 

follow  a  certain  rule  of  life  but  contract  no  religious  lAiaaal  (Latin  Mi»9aU  from  Miua^  Mass) ,  the  book 

obligations.    Should  they  desire  to  remain  in  the  con-  which  contains  the  prayers  said  bv  the  priest  at  the 

vent,  after  a  period  of  probation,  they  are  allowed  to  altar  as  well  as  all  that  is  officially  reaa  or  sung  in 

become  Magdalens  ana  eventually  make  the  vows  of  connexion  with  the  offering  of  the  holy  Sacrifice  of  the 

the  Magdalen  order.    The  congregation  celebrated  its  Mass  throughout  the  ecclesiastical  year, 

fiftieth  anniversary  16  January,  1898.  The  Present  Roman  Missal,  now  almost  uni- 

At  present  the  congregation  numbers  professed  versally  used  in  the  Catholic  Ghureh  wherever  the 
sisters,   189;  novices,   23;  candidates,    10.     Branch  Latin  Rite  prevails,  consists  essentiallv  of  two  parts  of  > 
houses  have  been  established  throughout  Canada  and  very  unequal  length.    The  smaller  of  these  divisions 
the  United  States.    The  mother-house  contains  60  containing  that  portion  of  the  liturgy  which  is  said  in 
sisters ;  with  this  is  associated  an  Orphan  Asylum  eveiy  Masis,  the  ''  Ordo  Misss ''  with  the  prefaces  and 
with  sisters,  7;  infants,  525;  also  a  hospital  with  5  the  Canon,  is  placed,  probably  with  a  view  to  the  more 
sisters  and  accommodations  for  175  patients.     At  convenient  opening  of  the  book,  near  the  centre  of 
Sault-au-Recollet,  P.  Q.,  the  sisters  conduct  a  home  the  volume  immediately  before  the  proper  Mass  for^ 
for  aged  and  retired  priests  and  an  Orphan  Asvlum  Easter  Sunday.    The  remainder  of  the  book  is  de-| 
with  sisters,  10;  attendants,  15;  priests,  5;  orphans,  voted  to  those  portions  of  the  liturgy  which  varyj 
40.    The  hospital  at  Ottawa,  founded  in  1879,  was  from  day  to  day  according  to   feast  and  season.^ 
destroyed  by  fire  in  1900.    The  new  building,  com-  Each  Mass  consists  usually  of  Introit,  Collect,  Epis- 
pleted  in  1904,  accommodates  sisters,  10;  nurses,  5;  tie,  Gradual  and  Alleluia  or  Tract,  Gospel,  Offertory, 
patients,  100.     A  house  was  established  at  Winni-  Secret,  Communion,  and  Post-Communion,  the  pas- 
peg,  Man.,  in  1898,  of  which  a  branch  was  founded  sages  or  prayers  corresponding  to  each  of  these  titles 
at  St.  Norbert,  Man.,  in  1904.    The  two  houses  have  being  commonlynrinted  in  full.    The  beginning  of  the 
sisters,  19 ;  trained  nurses,  15 ;  attendants,  25 ;  average  volume  to  the  "  Ordo  Missee  "  is  devoted  to  the  Masses 
number  of  patients  and  children  during  the  year,  700.  of  the  season  (Proprium  de  Tempore)  from  Advent 
In  1900  a  house  was  opened  at  Edmonton,  Alberta,  to  the  end  of  Lent,  including  the  Christmas  cycle. 
with  sisters,  12;  trained  nurses,  6;  average  number  After  the  "Ordo  Missae"  and  Canon  follow  inunediatcly 
of  patients  during  the  year,  300.    In  the  United  the  Masses  of  the  season  from  Easter  to  the  last  Sun- 
States  the  sisters  have  a  large  hospital  in  New  York  day  after  Pentecost.    Then  come  the  proper  Masses 
City,  containing  sisters,  19 ;   average  number  of  pan  of  the  separate  festivals  (Proprium  Sanctorum)  for  the 
tients  during  the  year,  496.    From  this,  in  1901,  was  ecclesiastical  year;  while  these  are  gften  printed  in  full. 


355  XSISSAL 

it  nuf  also  happen  that  only  a  reference  is  pven,  present  day,  reprodu^g  in  aubstance  the  manuscript 
indicatinK  that  tlte  larger  portion  of  each  Mass  (some-  forms  of  tne  latter  part  of  the  Middle  Ages,  has  re- 
tiiiiea  ereiything  except  the  collect)  ia  to  be  aought  in  mlted  from  the  amalgamation  of  a  number  of  separate 
the  Common  of  Saints  (Communt  SancUmtm),  printed  service  books.  In  the  early  centuries,  owing  to  the 
at  the  ctmclusion  of  the  Proprium  Sanctorum  (Proper  lack  of  competent  scribes,  the  scarcity  of  writing 
of  Saints).  This  is  supplemented  by  a  certain  materials,  and  various  other  causes,  economv  had 
number  of  votive  Masses,  among  the  rest  Masses  for  greatly  to  be  studied  in  the  production  of  fcooks. 
the  dead,  and  a  collection  of  seta  of  collects,  secrets,  Thebookusedby  the  priest  at  the  altar  For  the  piayera 
and  post-comm unions  for  special  occasions.  Here  of  the  Mass  usually  contained  no  more  than  it  be- 
also  are  inserted  certain  benedictions  and  other  mis-  longed  to  him  to  say.  It  was  known  commonly  aa  a 
xUaneous  matter,  while  appendixes  of  varying  bulk  "Saciamentary"  (SacramtrUarium) ,  because  all  ite 
wpply  a  number  of  Masses  conceded  for  use  in  certain  contents  centred  round  the  great  act  of  the  c< 


localities  or  in  certain  religious  orders,  and  arr&nged  tion  of  the  sacrifice.  On  tbe  other  hand  thoaeportiom 
according  to  the  order  of  the  calendar.  To  the  whole  oF  the  service  which,  like  tbe  Introit  and  the  Gradual., 
book  is  prefixed  an  elaborate  calendar  and  a  sys-  theOfTertory  and  the  Communion,  were  rendered  b^ 
tematizea  collection  of  rubrics  for  the  guidance  of  the  choir,  were  inscribed  in  a  separate  book,  the"  Anti- 
priests  in  high  and  low  Mass,  as  also  prayers  for  the  phonarium  Misste"  or  "  Graduate"  (q.  v.).  So  again 
private  use  of  tbe  celebrant  in  making  his  preparation  the  passages  to  be  read  to  the  people  by  the  deacons  or 
and  thanksgiving.  It  may  be  mentioned  here  once  lectors  in  the  ambo  (pulpit) — the  Epiatle  and  Gospel, 
for  all  that  tbe  collection  of  rubrics  now  printed  under  with  lessons  from  the  Old  Testament  on  particular 
tbe  respectivebeadings"RubricffigeneralesMissalis",  occasions — were  collected  in  the  " Epiatolarium "  or 
"RituscelebrandiMissam",and  "De  Defectibus  circa  "Apostolus",  the"  Evangeliarium", and  other  lectiona- 
Hissam  occurrentibua  "  are  founded  upon  a  tmctate  ries(q.v.).  Besides  this  an  "Ordo"  or  "Directorium" 
entitled  "  Ordo  Missre  "  by  John  Burchard,  master  of  (q.  v!)  was  required  to  determine  the  proper  service 
oeremodiea  to  Innocent  VIII  and  Alexander  VI,  at  Only  by  a  alow  process  of  development  were  the  cwi- 
tbe  close  of  the  fifteenth  century.  They  are  conse-  tentsoFthesacrameDtary,thegrtidual, tbevarioualeo- 
quently  absent  from  the  first  printed  edition  of  the  tianarieB,and the"Oido  amalgamatedsothatallthat 
UiasaleRomaDum"  (1474),  was  needed  for  tbe  celebration  of  Mass  was  to  be 
Osiam  or  the  Mikbal. — The  printed  Missal  of  the  found  within  the  Coverf  of  one  volume.    Tbe  first 


MISSAL  356  MISSAL 

step  in  this  evolution  seems  to  have  been  furnished  by  centuries  which  may  be  referred  in  partieular  to  two 
the  introduction  of  certain  smaller  volumes  called  distinct  types.  In  the  first  place  tne  sacramentary, 
*'LibelIi  Misss"  intended  for  the  private  celebration  lectionary,  and  antiphonary  were  sometimes  simply 
of  Masses  of  devotion  on  ordinary  days.  In  these  bound  up  together  in  one  volume  as  a  matter  of  con- 
only  one,  orat  most  two  or  three  Maisses,  were  written;  venience.  Codex  101  in  the  library  of  Monxa  ofiFers 
but  as  they  were  not  used  with  choir  and  sacred  min-  an  example  of  this  kind  in  which  the  three  component 
isters,  all  the  service  had  to  be  said  by  the  priest  and  elements  are  all  of  the  ninth  or  tenth  century,  but 
all  was  consequently  included  in  the  one  small  booklet,  even  earlier  than  this  in  an  extant  notice  of  the 
A  t3rpical  example  of  such  a  volume  is  probably  fur-  visitation  of  the  Church  of  Vicus  (Vieil-St-Remy)  in 
nished  by  the  famous  "Stowe  Missal'.  This  little  859  by  Bishop  Hincmar  of  Reims  we  find  mention  of  a 
book  of  Irish  origin  of  which  the  leaves  measure  only  ''Missalecumevangeliisetlectionibusseuantiphonario 
five  and  a  half  by  four  inches,  is  nevertheless  one  of  our  volumen  1 ".  As  a  rule,  however,  the  fuflion  oetween 
most  priceless  hturgical  treasiires.  The  greater  part  the  original  sacramentary  and  the  books  used  by  the 
is  devoted  to  a  single  Mass  of  the  Blessed  Sacrament,  readers  and  the  choir  was  of  a  more  intrinsic  nature, 
in  which  the  Epistle  and  Gospel  are  inserted  entire  as  and  the  process  of  amalgamation  was  a  very  gradual 
well  as  a  number  of  communion  anthems,  the  private  one.  Sometimes  we  find  sacramentaries  in  which  a 
preparation  of  the  priest,  and  other  matter  including  later  hand  has  added  in  the  margin,  or  on  an^  avail- 
rubrical  directions  m  Irisn.  Thus,  so  far  as  Mass  was  able  blank  space,  the  bare  indication,  consisting  of  a 
concerned ,  it  was  in  itself  a  complete  book  and  is  prob-  few  initial  words,  of  the  Antiphons,  tne  Epistles,  and 
ably  the  type  of  numberless  others — fragments  of  the  Gospels  belonging  to  the  particular  Mass.  oome- 
similar  Irish  "libelli  Missse"  are  preserved  among  the  times  tne  "Commune  Sanctorum"  and  the  votive 
manuscripts  of  St.  Gall — ^which  were  used  by  mis-  Masses  have  from  the  beginning  included  the  passages 
sionaries  in  their  journeys  among  peoples  as  yet  only  to  be  sung  and  read  written  out  in  full,  though  the 
half  christianized.  ''Proprium  de  Tempore"  and  "de  Sanctis"  show 
The  convenience  of  such  books  for  the  private  cele-  nothing  but  the  Mass  prayers.  Sometimes  again,  as 
bration  of  Mass  where  sacred  ministers  and  choir  were  in  the  case  of  the  celebrated  Leofric  Missal  in  the  Bod* 
wanting,  must  soon  have  made  itself  felt.  When  one  leian,  the  original  sacramentary  has  had  extensive 
thinks  of  the  many  hundreds  and  even  thousands  of  later  supplements  bound  up  with  it  containing  new 
Masses  which  in  the  eighth  and  ninth  centuries  every  Masses  which  include  the  parts  to  be  read  and  sung, 
large  monastery  was  called  upon  to  say  for  deceased  In  one  remarkable  example,  the  Canterbury  Missal 
brethren  in  virtue  of  its  compacts  with  other  abbeys  (MS.  270  of  Corpus  Christi,  Cambridge),  a  number  of 

Se   details   in   Ebner,  '' Gebets-VerbrQdemugen ",  the  old  prefaces  of  the  Gregorian  type  have  been 

tisbon,  1890),  it  appears  obvious  that  there  must  erased  throughout  the  volume  and  upon  the  blank 

have  been  great  need  of  private  Mass-books.    Conse-  spaces  thus  created  the  proper  Antipnons  from  the 

quently  it  soon  became  common  to  adapt  even  the  uraduale.  and  sometimes  also  the  Epistles  and  Gospels 

larger  sacramentaries  to  the  use  of  priests  oelebratiag  for  each  Mass,  have  been  written  entire.    In  not  a  few 

privately  by  inserting  in  some  of  the  "  missse  quo-  instances  the  Gospels  may  be  found  included  in  the 

tidiame  votivse  et  diversse ",  or  sometimes  again  in  Mass-book  but  not  the  Epistles,  the  reason  probably 

the  ''commune  sanctorum"  such  extracts  from  the  being  that  the  latter  could  be  read  by  any  cferk, 

"Graduale",    "  Epistolare  ".   and    "  EvangeHarium  "  whereas  a  properly  ordained  deacon  was  not  alwa3r8 

as  made  these  particular  Masses  complete  in  them-  available,  m  which  case  the  priest  at  the  altar  had 

selves.    Examples  of  Sacramentaries  thus  adapted  himself  to  read  the  Gospel.    Kegarding  however  ibia 

may  be  found  as  early  as  the  ninth  century.    Eoner  development  as  a  whole  it  may  be  said  that  nearly  all 

for  instance,  appeals  to  a  manuscript  of  this  date  in  the  the  Mass-books  written  from  the  latter  half  of  the 

capitular  Horary  of  Verona  (No.  86)  where  in  the  thirteenth  century  onwards  were  in  the  strict  sense 

**Mis8<B  voUwB  et  diverscB*'  the  dioral  passages  are  MUsalia  plenaria  conforming  to  our  modem  type. 

written  as  well  as  the  prayers.    Whether  the  word  The  determining  influence  which  established  the  ar- 

Missalis  liber  was  specially  employed  for  service  rangement  of  parts^  the  selection  of  Masses,  etc.,  with 

books  thus  completed  fot  private  use  there  seems  no  which  we  are  familiar  in  the  "Missale  Romanum" 

evidence  to  determine.    Alcuin  writing  in  801  cer-  to-day,  seems  to  have  been  the  book  produced  during 

tainly  seems  to  contrast  the  term  ''Missalis  libellus"  the  latter  half  of  the  thirteenth  century  under  Fran- 

with  what  he  calls  "  libelli  sacratorii "  and  with  **  sacra-  ciscan  auspices  and  soon  made  popular  m  Italy  under 

mentaria  maiora  "  (see  Mon.  Germ.  Hist.  Epist..  IV,  the  name  "  Missale  secundum  consuetudinem  Rbmanae 

370) ;  but  the  phrase  was  older  than  Alcuin,  for  Arch-  curiae  "  (see  Radulphus  de  Rivo,  "  De  Canonum  Obser- 

bishop  Egbert  of  York  in  his  "  Dialogus  "  speaks  of  the  vatione  ",  in  La  Bigne,  "  Bib.  Max.  PP.",  XI.  455). 
dispositions  made  by  St.  Gregory  for  the  observance        Varietibs  of  Mibbals. — ^Although  the  "Missale 

of  the  ember-days  in  '' Antiphonaria  cum  missahbus  secundum  consuetudinem  Romanic  curiae"  obtained 

suis"  which  he  had  consulted  at  Rome  (Haddan  and  great  vogue  and  was  destined  eventually  to  be  ofB- 

Stubbs,  ''Councils",  III,  421),  where  certainly  the  daUy  adopted  and  to  supplant  all  others,  throughout 

language  used  seems  to  suggest  that  the  "  Missalia "  the  Middle  Ages  every  province,  indeed  almost  every 

and  "  Antiphonaria "  were  companion  volumes  sep-  diocese,  had  its  local  use,  and  while  the  Canon  of  the 

arately  incomplete.    Certainly  it  may  be  affirmed  Mass  was  everywhere  the  same,  the  prayers  in  the 

with  confidence  that  what  was  afterwards  known  as  "Ordo  Missse",  and  still  more  tne  "Iroprium  Sane- 

the  "  Missale  plenum  "^  a  book  like  our  present  Missal,  torum  "  and  the  **  Proprium  de  Tempore  ",  were  apt  to 

containing  all  the  Epistles^  Gospels,  and  the  choral  differ  widely  in  the  service  books.    In  England  espe- 

antiphons  as  well  as  the  Mass  prayers,  did  not  come  cially  the  Uses  of  Sarum  and  York  showed  many  oia- 

into  existence  before  the  year  900.    Dr.  Adalbert  tinctive  characteristics,  and  the  Ordinary  of  the  Mass  in 

Ebner,  who  spent  immense  labour  in  examining  the  its  external  features  resembled  more  the  rite  at  present 

liturgical  manuscripts  of  the  libraries  of  Italy,  reports  followed  by  the  Dominicans  than  that  of  Rome.   After 

that  the  earliest  example  known  to  him  was  one  of  the  the  invention  of  printing  a  great  number  of  Missals  were 

tenth  century  in  the  Ambrosian  Library  at  Milan ;  but  produced  both  in  England  itself  and  especially  at  Pari* 

although  such  books  are  of  more  frequent  occurrence  and  other  French  cities  for  use  in  Ensdand.    Of  the 

from  the  eleventh  century  onwards,  the  majority  of  Sarum  Missal  alone  nearly  seventy  different  editions 

the  Mass-books  met  with  at  this  period  have  still  only  were  issued  between  that  of  1487  (printed  for  Caxton 

an  imperfect  claim  to  be  regarded  as  "  Missalia  plena  .  in  Paris),  and  that  of  1557  (London).    After  Elixa- 

We  find  instead  a  great  variety  of  transition  forms  beth's  accession  no  more  Missals  were  published,  but  a 

belonging  to  the  eleventh,  twelfth,  and  thirteenth  little  bode  entitled  "  Missak  parvum  pro  Saoerdoti* 


FRAGMENTS  OF  AN  EGYPTIAN  LITURGY  OF  THE  SEVENTH  OR  EIGHTH  CENTURY 

AFTER    A   COPT    BT   WALTER   CRUM,    WHO    RECOGNIBBD  THEIR   LITITROICAI.   CHARACTER 


IPSBXON 


357 


BOSSION 


bus  in  Ani^,  Scotia,  et  Ibernia  itinerantibus''  was 
printed  two  or  three  times  towards  the  beginning  of 
the  seventeenth  century  for  the  use  of  missionary 
priests.  Its  size  allowed  it  to  be  carried  about  easily 
wiUiout  attracting  observation,  and  as  it  contained 
relatively  few  Masses,  only  those  for  the  Sundays 
and  the  principal  feasts,  it  recalled  in  a  measure  the 
"  libelli  Missse  "  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  and  Irish  mission- 
aries nine  centuries  earlier.  Even  at  this  date  the 
peculiarities  of  the  Sarum  Rite  were  not  retained  and 
the  Oanon  and  Masses  of  this  "Missale  parvum" 
were  aH  Roman  with  the  exception  of  one  special 
Mass  of  the  Holy  Name  of  Jesus  which  is  described 
in  the  1616  edition  as  ''taken  from  the  Miasal  accord- 
ing to  the  Use  of  Sarum".  Moreover^  just  as  the 
Roman  liturgy  came  in  this  way  to  prevail  m  England, 
so  in  France  and  throughout  the  rest  of  Europe  the 
local  uses  have  for  the  most  i>art  been  surrendered  by 
degrees,  two  of  the  principal  influences  at  work  being 
no  doubt  the  advantage  of  uniformity  and  the  author- 
ity and  relative  purity  of  the  Roman  Missal,  as  author- 
itatively revisea  and  improved  after  the  Council  of 
Trent. 

The  first  printed  edition  of  the  "  Missale  Romanum  " 
lately  republished  by  the  Henry  Bradshaw  Society  in 
two  volumes  (1899  and  1907),  was  produced  at  Milan 
in  1474.  Numerous  editions  followed,  but  nothing 
authoritative  appeared  until  the  Council  of  Trent  left 
in  the  hands  of  the  pope  the  charge  of  seeing  to  the 
revision  of  a  Catechism,  Breviaiy,  and  Missal.  This 
last,  committed  to  the  care  of  Cardinals  Scotti  and 
Sirlet  with  Thomas  Qoldwell  (an  Englishman,  Bishop 
of  St.  Asaph,  deprived  of  his  see  upon  the  accession  of 
Elisabeth),  and  Julius  Poggio,  was  published  in  1570. 
St.  Pius  y  published  a  Bull  on  the  occasion,  still 
printed  at  the  beginning  of  the  Missal,  in  whidi  he 
enjoined  that  all  dioceses  and  religious  orders  of  the 
Latin  Rite  should  use  the  new  revision  and  no  other, 
excepting  only  such  bodies  as  oould  prove  a  prescrip- 
tion of  two  hundred  yeara.  In  this  way  tne  older 
orders  like  the  Carthusians  and  the  Dominicans  were 
enabled  to  retain  their  ancient  liturgical  usages,  but 
the  new  book  was  accepted  throughout  the  greater 
rart  of  Europe.  A  revised  edition  of  the  "Missale 
Komanum  "  appeared  in  1604  accompanied  by  a  brief 
of  Clement  VlII  in  which  the  pontiff  complained 
among  other  things  that  the  vetua  Itala  version  of  the 
Scripture  which  had  been  retained  in  the  antiphonid 
passages  of  the  Plan  Missal  had  been  replaced,  through 
the  unauthorized  action  of  certain  printers,  by  the 
text  of  the  newly  edited  Vulgate.  Another  revision 
bearing  more  especially  upon  the  rubrics  followed 
under  Urban  VIiI  in  1634.  In  the  early  part  of  the 
nineteenth  century,  owing  largely  to  the  exertions  of 
Dom  Gu^ranger,  the  Benedictine  Uturgist,  a  number 
of  the  dioceses  of  France  which  had  up  to  this  per- 
sistently adhered  to  their  own  distinctive  uses  upon  a 
more  or  less  valid  plea  of  immemorial  antiquity,  made 
a  sacrifice  to  uniformity  and  accepted  the  ''^Missale 
Romanum".  The  last  authoritative  revision  of  the 
Missal  took  place  in  1884  under  Leo  XIII.  It  should 
be  noticed  nnally  that  the  term  Missal  has  been  ap- 
plied by  a  loose  popular  usage  to  a  number  of  books 
which,  strictly  speaking,  have  no  right  to  the  name. 
The  "Missale  Francorum",  the  "Missale  Gothicum", 
the  "Missal  of  Robert  of  Jumidges",  etc.,  are  aU, 
properly  speaking,  Sacramentaries. 

Tlie  most  important  contribution  to  the  subject  is  Ebner, 
QuelUn  tmd  Poraehttngen  gur  Oeach.  tmd  Kunatgeaeh.  dea  MisaaU 
Komanum  in  MitUlaUer  (FreibuiiK,  1896),  a  monograph  in 
which  special  attention  is  paid  to  the  peculiarities  of  Uie  pictorial 
decoration  of  ancient  Missals.  Another  valuable  work  which 
has  at  least  an  indirect  bearing  on  early  missals  is  Delzslb, 
Mtmoirt  aur  Ua  aneima  Sacramentairea  (Paris,  1886);  Schrod 
in  Kirehenlex.t  s.  v.  Miaaale;  Klbznschmidt  in  Theoloffiach-' 
prakHaehe  Quartalaekr.  (Lins,  1007);  Lxppb  and  Lego,  The 
MinaU  Romantan  of  1474,  III  (2  vols.,  Heniy  Bradshaw  Society. 
1907).  To  give  a  list  of  the  more  famous  published  Missals  such 
as  the  MtMola  ad  uaum  eeeUaicB Sarum  (London,  1861,  etc.).  the 
T«rk  MUmd,  the  Ambrovian  Miaaal,  the    MogaraHc   Miaaal, 


etc..  would  be  superfluous.  On  the  rubrics  of  the  Missal  the 
reader  may  be  rnerred,  besides  such  Catholic  works  as  Mbrcatc, 
Qavanti  and  Van  der  Stappen,  to  Wii^khau  Lego,  TraeU  on 
the  Maaa  (Henxy  Bradshaw  Society.  1904). 

Herbert  Thurston. 

IflOflsion,  (Congregation  of  Priests  of  the. — ^A  con- 
gremtion  of  secular  priests  with  religious  vows  founded 
By  St.  Vincent  de  Paul.  The  members  add  the  let- 
ters CM.  to  their  name.  As  with  many  other  com- 
munities, an  appellation  from  the  founder  or  the  place 
they  dwell  in  has  superseded  the  original  title.  Thus 
in  France  and  in  almost  all  countries  they  are  called 
Lazarists,  because  it  was  in  the  Priory  of  St.  Lazare  in 
Paris  that  St.  Vincent  de  Paul. dwelt  and  that  he 
established  his  principal  works.  In  the  Irish  prov- 
ince, which  includes  practically  all  English  speaking 
countries  except  the  United  States,  thev  are  called 
Vincentians,  and  this  name  is  gradually  replacing 
that  of  Lazarists  in  the  United  States.  In  coimtries 
whose  language  is  Spanish  they  are  called  Paules. 
This  appeUation,  like  the  preceding,  is  obviously  de- 
rived from  the  name  of  the  founder.  The  name  Con- 
gregation of  the  Mission  indicates  their  first  and  chief 
object. 

.1.  Origin  of  the  CSongreqation. — In  the  bediming 
of  ^e  year  1617,  Vincent  de  Paul  was  at  the  (%&teau 
de  FoUeville  in  Picardy  with  the  family  of  M.  de 
Gondy,  Obunt  de  Joigny,  General  of  the  Galleys  of 
France,  and  had  charge  of  the  education  of  M.  de 
(jiondy's  sons,  one  of  whom  became  the  celebrated 
Cardinal  de  Retz,  Coadjutor  of  Paris.  Vincent  had 
opportunities  of  observmg  the  ignorance  of  religion 
of  the  peasants  of  the  nei^bourhood.  As  the  result 
of  a  sermon  which  he  preached  on  the  25  Jan.,  1617, 
in  the  church  of  FoUeville,  Vincent,  with  two  Jesuit 
Fathers,  began,  at  Mme  de  (jondy's  reG|ue8t,  to  preach 
to  and  instruct  the  people  of  tne  neighbouring  vil- 
lages on  her  estates.  Thus  began  the  work  which  was 
to  oecome  eight  years  later,  in  1625,  the  Congregation 
of  the  Mission.  Mme  de  CSondy  wished  to  make  a 
foundation  that  would  secure  a  mission  every  five 
years  for  the  rural  population  of  her  extensive  estates. 
The  Oratorians  and  Jesuits  being  unable  to  imder- 
take  this  work,  she  urged  Vincent  to  gather  together 
some  zealous  priests  and  organize  missions  for  the 
poor  country  people  at  that  time  so  little  in  touch 
with  the  clerey.  Ecclesiastical  authorization  was 
easily  obtainea  from  John  Francis  de  (jiondy,  then 
ArchDishop  of  Paris,  brother  of  the  Clreneral  of  the 
Galleys.  He  also  handed  over  to  Vincent  the  owner- 
^p  and  all  the  rights  of  an  old  college  in  Paris,  called 
"des  Bons  Enfants".  Vincent  de  Paul  took  posses- 
sion throudi  his  first  disciple  and  oo-labourer  Anthony 
Portail,  6  March,  1624.  The  next  year  a  contract 
confirming  the  previous  promises  was  signed  by  the 
de  Gondy  family  in  favour  of  Vincent  and  his  com- 
panions united  ''  under  the  name  of  Company,  Con- 
Segation  or  Confraternity  of  Fathers  or  Priests  of  the 
ission".    This  took  place  on  17  April,  1625. 

Edified  by  the  success  of  their  labours,  the  Arch- 
bishop of  Paris  gave  his  official  approval  a  year  later, 
24  April,  1626.  to  the  contract  of  foundation^  and  on 
4  Sept.,  1626,  oefore  two  notaries  of  Chdtelet  m  Paris. 
Vincent  and  his  first  companions  declared  that  they  haa 
joined  together  "to  live  in  a  community  or  confra- 
ternity and  to  devote  themselves  to  the  salvation  of 
the  poor  country  people  "•  Only  three  priests  siened 
this  declaration  with  Vincent  de  Paul:  Du  Couoray, 
Portail,  and  de  la  Salle.  Very  soon  afterwards  four  other 

E nests  joined  the  little  company:  John  B^u,  of  the 
tiocese  of  Amiens;  Anthony  Lucas,  of  Paris;  John 
Brunet,  of  the  Diocese  of  Clermont;  and  John  d'Hor- 

Sy,  of  the  Diocese  of  Noyon.  The  King  of  France, 
luJs  XIII.  added  the  seal  of  his  royal  authority  to 
the  act  of  foundation  already  approved  by  ecclesias- 
tical authority  the  preceding  year.  In  May,  1627,  he 
issued  letters  patent,  allowing  the  missionaries  to  form 


BOSSION  358  mssiON 

a  congregation,  to  live  in  oommunitv,  and  to  devote  nonaries  as  to  their  manner  of  b'fe  and  their  woik. 

themselves  with  the  consent  of  the  bishops  to  works  Tlius  he  was  82  years  old  when,  17  Mav,  1658,  he 

of  charity.    Community  life  being  established,  St.  distributed  to  the  community  the  Uttie  book  of 

Vincent  could  no  longer  hold  as  his  own  property  tiie  "Common   Rules   or   Constitutions".    From   these 

College  des  Bons  Emants,  which  was  amiexed  to  the  rules  can  be  seen  the  elements  of  which  the  oongreea- 

mission  by  a  decree  of  the  Archbishop  of  Paris  granted  tion  is  made  up,  the  life  it  leads,  its  spirit,  and  the 

8  June,  1627.    The  court  of  the  Parlement  ordered  works  to  which  its  energies  are  directed.    The  ele- 

the  registration  of  the  letters  patent  of  1627  which  the  ments,  or  members,  of  which  it  is  composed  are  ac- 

opposition  of  certain  pastors  of  Paris  had  ddaved,  and  cording  to  the  "Common  Rules  ",  ecclesiastics  and 

pontifical  authorization  was  granted  by  uie  Bull  laymen.    The  ecclesiastics  are,  in  imitation  of  Christ 

"Salvatoris  Nostri"  of  Urban  VIII,  12  Jan.,  1632.  and  His  disciples,  to  preach  and  break  the  bread 

In  1632  an  important  change  took  place  in  the  in-  of  the  Word  of  God,  to  recall  sinners  to  a  Chria- 

stallation  of  the  new  community.    On  8  January,  tian  life,  to  give  themselves  up  to  various  apostolic 

Vincent  took  possession  of  the  house  of  St.  Lazare,  works  which  zeal   for   God's   ^ory   may  call   for 

then  in  the  outskirts  of  Paris.    It  was  an  immense  among  the  people  and  the  clergv.    Tlie  laymen, 

priory  where  only  eight  regular  canons  of  St.  Victor  or  coadjutoi^brothers,    have  for  their  work,  while 

remamed  and  which  Prior  Adrian  Le  Bon,  seeing  the  labouring  also  at  their  personal  sanctification,  the 

great  good  that  Vincent  de  Paul  and  his  missionaries  care   of   temporal    concerns,    and   the   practice  of 

were  accomplishing,  had  resolved  in  concert  with  his  prayer  and  mortification  to  obtain  the  olessing  of 

religious  to  transfer  to  him.    An  agreement  was  en-  God  upon  the  labours  of  the  missionaries.    The  life 

tered  into  between  Adrian  Le  Bon  and  his  religious  prescnoed  by  the  rule  is  that  which  was  led  by  Jesuf 

on  one  side,  and  Vincent  de  Paul  acting  in  the  name  of  Christ  and  His  disci^es.     It  does  not  prescribe  any 

his  community  on  the  other,  on  7  Jan.,  1632,  and  the  special  austerities.    But  as  Collet,  one  of  the  discK 

next  day  the  Archbishop  of  Paris  granted  the  transfer  pies  of  St.  Vincent  de  Paul,  says,  although  the  life 

of  the  house  of  St.  Lazare,  and  came  himself  to  intro-  prescribed  has  nothing  very  extraordinary  about  it. 

duce  Vincent.    Vincent  left  some  of  his  priests  at  the  nothine  even  which  the  Sacred  Canons  have  not  al- 

Coll^ge  des  Bons  Enfants,  which  was  destined  to  be-  ready  laid  down  as  a  law  for  ecclesiastics  who  live  id 

come  a  seminary  under  the  name  of  St.  Fi/min.    The  community,  the  servant  of  God  knew  that  he  must 

house  of  St.  Lazare  became  the  headquarters  of  the  adopt  special  means  to  sustain  human  weakness  in 

Congregation  of  the  Mission.  so  regular  and  laborious  a  life.  For  this  purpose  he 

The  Congregation  of  the  Mission,  according  to  the  prescribed  to  his  followers  the  daily  exercises  of  piety 
desire  of  its  foimder  and  from  a  canonical  standpoint,  which  every  priest  who  is  desirous  of  his  own  perfec- 
ts a  "congregation  of  secular  clergjrmen";  this  is  the  tion  should  impose  on  himself.  As  to  their  daily  inter- 
term  the  Sovereign  Pontiffs  use ;  for  instance,  Benedict  course,  he  especially  recommends  charity  among  his 
XIII  in  the  Bull  of  the  Beatification  of  St.  Vincent  de  followers,  urging  them  in  particular  not  to  speak  evil 
Paul  calls  him  ''Congresationis  presbyterorum  ssec-  of  any  one,  aoove  all  of  other  communities,  and  never 
ularium  Missionis  fundator"  (13  August,  1729^.  to  decry  other  nations  or  countries.  So  far  as  inter- 
To  ensure  its  permanency  St.  Vincent  surrounded  his  course  with  the  outside  worid  ia  concerned,  he  pre- 
work  with  safeguards  including  vows,  but  on  the  scribes  dependence  on  superiors,  which  is  a  g^rantee 
ot^er  hand,  for  many  reasons,  was  careful  to  prevent  of  prudence  and  regulates  whatever  unwisdom  mi^t 
its  becoming  a  religious  order.  Meanwhile  the  mis-  be  found  in  even  the  best  intentioned  zeal.  If,  in  the 
sionaries  extended  their  labours  over  France  and  in  words  of  Abelly,  Bishop  of  Rodez  and  first  biographer 
foreign  lands.  They  undertook  labours  of  various  of  St.  Vincent  de  Paul,  the  man  of  God  made  it  his 
kinds.  But  the  exact  form  of  the  congregation  had  rule  never  to  anticipate  Providence,  in  the  woids  of 
not  yet  been  determined.  Vincent  saw  communities  another  Bishop  of  Kodez,  Cardinal  Bourret,  in  the 
around  him,  which  he  used  to  say,  people  entered  and  nineteenth  century,  it  is  not  less  true  to  say  that  St. 
left  like  a  well  conducted  hotel.  In  1642  and  1651  he  Vincent  de  Paul  has  always  followed  closely  in  the 
held  two  assemblies  of  the  priests  who  had  been  long-  footsteps  of  Providence.  Asylums  for  foundlings,  for 
est  with  him.  They  decided  at  first  on  a  vow  of  old  people,  the  institution  of  tne  Daughters  of  Charity, 
stability,  and  afterwards  on  the  three  ordinary  vows  retreats  in  preparation  for  ordination,  seminaries,  the 
of  poverty,  chastity,  and  obedience,  without  meaning  apostolate  of  loreim  missions  among  the  infidds  of 
to  torm  a  religious  order,  though  they  had  due  respect  Madagascar  and  fiarbary,  all  show  the  z^  of  St. 
for  the  religious  state.  Almost  immediately  after  his  Vincent  de  Paul,  and  this  zeal  he  urged  his  sons  not 
election  Alexander  VII  completed  the  work  of  Ur-  to  allow  to  be  extinguished  among  them  after  his 
ban  VIII,  confirming  the  transfer  of  St.  Lazare  to  the  death.  FinaUy,  according  to  the  rules,  the  works 
Congregation  of  the  Mission,  and  authorizing  on  22  that  form  the  special  object  of  tiie  oongr^ation 
Sept.,  by  the  Brief  " Exoommisso  Nobis'',  the  oonsti-  founded  by  St.  Vmcent  de  Paul  are  thus  determined: 
tution  of  the  community.  The  Brief  declares  that  at  besides  devoting  himself  to  his  own  perfection,  each 
the  end  of  two  years  of  probation,  simple  vows  are  to  one  shall  be  employed  in  preachhig  the  Gospel  to  the 
be  taken,  but  t^iat  nevertheless  the  community  be-  poor,  especially  to  poor  country  people^  and  m  helping 
longs  to  the  secular  clergy.  That  there  might  be  no  ecclesiastics  to  the  knowledge  and  virtues  requisite 
question  of  changing  the  nature  of  his  institute,  Vin-  for  their  state. 

cent  did  not  establisn  a  novitiate  for  the  aspirants  to        During  the  life  of  the  founder,  establishments  were 

his  community,  but  a  seminary,  which  is  known  as  in-  made  not  only  in  France  but  also  in  Poland  and  in 

temal,  to  distinguish  it  from  the  diocesan  or  external  Italy.    Tlie  congregation  undertook  mission  woric  in 

seminaries.    He  also  made  it  a  rule  that  his  mission-  the  North,  in  the  Hebrides,  in  the  Tropics,  in  BaiiMiry 

aries  wear  the  dress  of  secular  priests;  in  a  word  that  and  Madagascar.    It  was  under  Vincent  (in  1642) 

they  should  be  distineuished,  m  the  exercise  of  the  that  the  houses  of  the  congregation  were  grouped  in 

apostolic  functions,  only  by  their  organized  effort  to  provinces,  each  havine  at  its  head  a  provincial  supe- 

save  souls  (cf.  Maynara,  "St.  Vincent  de  Paul",  I,  rior  called  visitor.    Tnesame  year  a  rule  was  intro- 

p.  253,  ed.  1886).    Such  is  the  canonical  status  of  the  duced  for  the  holding  of  general  assemblies,  for  the 

Congregation  of  the  Mission.  election  of  the  superior  genera],  for  the  nominatmn 

II.  Rule  and  Government. — ^There  was,  moreover,  of  his  advisers  under  the  name  of  assistants,  and  for 

need  of  rules  according  to  which  the  society  he  had  other  matters  of  importance.    The  following  estab- 

just  constituted  should  perform  its  functions.  Vincent  lishments  were  founded  in  St.  Vincent's  lifetime:  in 

de  Paul  wished  to  test  first,  by  experience,  what  cir-  Paris:  Bons  Enfans  (1625)  and  St.  Lazare  (1632); 

fsumstances  might  gradually  require  among  the  mis-  Toul:  seminary  and  mission  centre  (1635);  Notrt 


359  MISSION 

Dame    de   la    Rose:   missions    (1637);   Richelieu:  selectee",  discussed  in  the  general  assembly  of  1668 

paridi  and  missions  (1638) ;  Annecy:  seminary  and  and  approved  by  it,  has  been  submitted  to  the  author- 

miasioii    (1639);   Cr6cy:    missions    (1641);   Cahors:  ity  oi  the  Holy  See.    The  text  was  examined  and 

eeminaiy,  paruh,  and  missions   (1643) ;   Marseilles:  changed  in  some  points  by  the  examiners  appointed 

mission  (1643);    Sedan:    parish  and  mission  (1643)  by  the  pope.    In  this  form  it  has  been  citea  in  its 

Saintes:  seminary  and  mission  (1643);  Montmirail:  entirety  in  the  Brief '' Ex  Injun cto  Nobis"  of  Clement 

missions  (1644) :  Le  Mans:  seminary  and  missions  X  of  2  June,  1670.    This  is  the  chief  act  of  internal 

(1645)  ;   Saint  Mten:    missions    (1645);    Paris:    St.  legislation  for  the  Lazarists.     It  has  been  published 

Qiaries  Seminary  (1645);    Treguier:  seminary  and  in  the  "Acta  apostolica  in  gratiam  Cbneregationis 

missions  (1648) ;  Agen:  seminary  and  missions  (1648) ;  Missionis"  TParis,  1876).     Alm^ras  secured  the  draw- 

Montauban :  seminary    and    missions   (1652) ;    also  ing  up  of  tne  rules  for  the  offices,  which  were  sent 

foundations  in  Rome  (1642),  Genoa  (1645),  Turin  to  all  the  houses  in  1670.    Edmund  Jolly  completed 

(1654),  Warsaw  (1651),  Tunis  (1645),  Alters  (1646),  this  work. 

Ifadagascar  (1648).    At   the   aeath  of  its  founder  Bonnet^  elected  in  1711,  had  the  longest  and  fullest 

the  congregation  numbered  500  members.  generalship  of  all  the  superiors  general  before  the 

The  ^vemment  of  ^e  congr^ation  is  very  simple.  Revolution.    He  had   keen  intelligence  and   great 

It  consists  of  the  superior  general,  and  four  assistants,  capacity  for  work.    A  brief  sketch  of  his  life  and 

aided  by  the  procurator  general  and  secretary  general,  character  is  given  in  the  preface  to  a  collection  of 

All  these  officials  are  chosen  by  a  majority  vote  of  a  meditations  which  he  composed  and  Collet  published. 

Sneral  assembly,  which  is  composed  of  the  visitors  of  He  had  to  pass  with  his  community  throu^  the 

e  several  provinces  and  two  delegates  from  each  difficult  period  of  Jansenism.    His  congregation  in 

province,  elected  by  secret  ballot  in  the  provincial  charge  of  a  great  number  of  seminaries,  and  hence 

assemblies.    Each  house  in  domestic  assembly  selects  in  close  contact  with  a  great  number  of  bishops 

also  by  secret  ballot,  a  delegate  to  accompany  the  whose  tendencies  were  very  doubtful,  was  indeed  in  a 

superior  to  the  provincial  assembly.    The  provmcial  delicate  position.     Rome  condemned  Jansenism,  and 

government  is  made  up  of  a  visitor  appointed  by  the  Bonnet^  regardless  of  the  inconveniences  his  commu- 

superior  genersJ  and  of  consultors  approved  by  him.  nity  might  suffer,  here  and  there,  as  a  consequence. 

Usually  for  the  appointment  of  a  visitor  three  names  held  firmly  the  course  marked  out  by  the  pope.    He 

are  sdected  by  l£e  provincial  council,  and  presented  expelled  from  the  congregation  men  otherwise  most 

to  the  superior  general  who  chooses  one  to  govern  the  distinguished  such  as  Hinibert  and  Philopald.    After 

province.    Local  superiors  also  are  appointed  by  the  him,  Couty  and  Debras  showed  themselves  equally 

superior  general,  witn  the  advice  of  the  visitor  and  his  faithful  and  courageous  in  the  doctrinal  difficulties 

council.    A  general  assembly  is  held  ever^  twelve  which    still    continued.    The    Congre^tion    of   the 

years  to  legislate  for  the  congregation.    This  is  the  Lazarists  had  sometimes  to  suffer  for  this  fidelity:  for 

only  l^Lslative  body  in  the  congregation.  instance  at  Auxerre  all  the  directors  of  the  seminary 

An  assembly  is  held  every  six  years  made  up  of  the  were  placed  under  interdict  by  de  Caylus,  an  im- 

general  officers  of  the  congregation,  and  of  one  dele-  perious  bishop,  a  friend  of  the  Jansenists,  but  they 

gate  from  each  province.    Tnis  body  may  elect  to  were  reinstated  by  de  Condoreet,  his  successor  (see 

vacancies  among  the  superior  general  %  assistants  and  Migne,    '' Dictionnaire   des   Ordres   Religieux",    II, 

may  also  decide  minor  matters  of  discipline.    Decrees  766) .    The  Lazarists  held  firmly  to  the  side  of  Rome, 
of  general  assemblies 
gation.    Their  " 

general  and  his  council.    The  office  of  superior  ^neral 

is  held  for  life,  or  until  his  resignation.    Provision  is  almost  in  its  entirety  into  the  work  of  Abb^,  after- 

however,  made  in  the  "Constitutions ''for  his  removal  wards  Cardinal,  Vilfecourt,  on  "Tlie  Rights  of  the 

from  office  for  crime,  or  perpetual  inability  to  govern.  Holy  See  ".    Another  Lazarist,  Peter  Collet,  produced 

Visitors  remain  in  office  at  tne  discretion  of  the  supe-  among   other  works,   a  theology  of  merit,  which 

rior  general.    In  like  manner  local  superiors  are  re-  made  nim  the  butt  of  various  attacks.    In  1764  ap- 

movable,  for  cause,  by  the  visitor,  whose  action,  how-  peared  a  "Denunciation''  of  the  theology  of  Peter 

ever,  must  be  approved  by  the  superior  general,  who  Collet  addressed  to  the  Bishop  of  Troyes  oy  a  great 

alone  has  the  ngnt  to  appoint  ana  remove  superiors,  number  of  ecclesiastics  of  his  diocese  (120  pp.  duo- 

III.  History. — From  Ist.  Vincent  untU  the  Kevolu-  decimo,  1764).    The  clerg5rmen  who  signed  it  num- 

Hon. — ^From  St.  Vincent's  death  until  the  Revolution  bered  one  hundred  and  nine  says  an  anonymous  note. 

there  were  nine  superiors  general,  whose  part  was  to  They  accuse  Collet  of  inclining  scandalously  towards 

complete  the  organization  of  the  new  society  and  io  a  lax  morality.    The  period  of  the  French  Revolu- 

forward  the  various  works  for  which  it  was  instituted,  tion  was  approaching.  -  The  superior  ^neral  since 

These  superiors  general  were:  Ren6  Alm^ras  (1661),  1788  was  Felix  Cayla,  a  man  of  great  ability.     Elected 

Edmund  Jolly  (1673),  Nicholas  Pierron  (1697),  Francis  as  the  first  alternate  for  the  deputation  of  the  clergy 

Watel  (1703),  John  Bonnet  (1711),  John  Couty  (1736),  of  the  National  Assembly,  he  had  in  fact  to  take  part 

Louis  Debras  (1747),  Antome  Jacquier  (1762-1788).  in  it  because  of  the  departure  of  one  of  the  ecclesi- 

Felix  Ca^  was  at  the  head  of  the  congregation  dur-  astical  deputies,  and  he  refused  at  the  tribunal  of  the 

in^  the  French  Revolution.  It  was  during  tne  general-  assembly  the  oath  for  the  civil  constitution  in  1791. 

ship  of  Rend  Almdras.  especially,  that,  m  1668,  what  He  was  immediately  sent  into  exile. 

are  sometimes  called  tne  "Great  Constitutions"  were  When  St.  Vincent  de  Paul  died  in  1660  the  secular 

drawn  up.    They  were  discussed  and  accepted  bv  the  clergy  of  Paris  had  a  solemn  service  at  which  the 

fneral  assembly  held  that  year  from  15  July  to  preacher,  Heniy  de  Maupas  du  Tour,  Bishop  of  Puy, 

Sept.,  and  were  approved  in  October  following  bv  who  had  been  for  many  years  in  very  close  intimacy 

the  Archbishop  of  Paris,  Harduin  de  P4r6fixe,with  with  Vincent  did  not  hesitate  to  take  as  his  text; 

authoritv  granted  him  by  the  Bull  of  Urban  VIII,  in  "Whose  praise  is  through  all  the  churches"  (II  Cor., 

1632.    The  title  is  "Constitutions  which  concern  the  viii,   18).    Abelly,  Bishop   of   Rodez,  writing   only 

superior  general  and  the  government  of  the  whole  four  years  later,  declared  that  the  work  founded  by 

Congregation  of  the  Mission".    These  are  the  general  this  humble  priest  had  already  extended  most  widely 

constitutions  in  force  at  the  present  day.    Alm^ras  is  and  through  his  congregation  would  spread  still  more. 

responsible  for  the  compilation  of  an  abridgment  of  (1)  Missions. — The  end  of  the  sixteenth  and  the  be- 

these  constitutions  whlcn  has  a  still  greater  authority  ginning  of  the  seventeenth  century  was  for  France  a 

in  the  sense  that  this  condensed  edition  under  the  half  century  of  political  and  religious  anarchy.    The 

lUme  of  ^Summary",  or,  in  lAtin  "Con^titutionee  clergy  of  the  large  cities,  where  there  were  universities. 


MI8BI0N  360  MISSION 

were  cultured^  but  the  rural  dergy  were  ignorant  and  number  of  those  given  by  the  miasionaries  in  various 

neglected  their  flocks,  who,  in  face  of  the  disorders  dioceses  of  France  cannot  be  reckoned, 
created  by  the  conflict  between  the  Protestant  Refor-        (2)  Parishes  and  Chapels. — It  is  only  with  r^^ret 

mation  and  Catholicism,  not  knowing  which  to  be-  that  the  Lazarist  Missionaries  accept  chapels  and 

lieve,  lost  all  interest  in  religion.     To  remedy  this  parishes.    For  they  wish  to  be  free  to  go  nere  and 

indifference  and  this  ignorance^  was  what  Vmcent  there  on  missions  to  give  the  help  peculiar  to  their 

de  Paul  chiefly  sou|^t.    The  nrst  missions  of  the  ministry,  and  by  preaching  and  hearing  confessions 

Lazarists  were  in  the  suburbs  of  Paris  and  in  Picardy  to  revive  if  need  be  or  maintain  the  good  effects  of  the 

and  Champagne.    The  method  and  rule  mven  bv  St.  work  of  the  parish  priests.    They  accepted  the  charge 

Vincent  de  Paul  has  been  preserved  for  us  Dy  Abelly,  a  of  parishes  and  chapels  only  in  two  circumstances: 

contemporary  of  the  samt.    It  is  in  all  essentials  when  they  could  make  of  tiiese  parishes  a  residence 

identical  with  the  s3rBtem  used  by  his  missionaries  and  for  other  missionaries  who  would  go  out  preaching 

in  fact  by  all  modem  missionanes.    "There  was  one  missions,  or  when  circumstances  made  it  impossible 

thing  that  Mr.  Vincent  observed  on  the  missions",  to  refuse.    An  example  of  tibese  circtimstances  is  the 

sa^   Abell^r,   his   contemporary   biographer,    "ana  parish  of  Richelieu  founded  by  the  Cardinal  of  that 

which  he  wished  his  spiritual  sons  to  observe  most  name,  minister  of  Louis  XIII,  and  the  parii^  of  Sedan, 

faithfully;  to  give  all  the  instructions  and  render  all  In  1638  Cardinal  Richelieu  wished  to  establish  the 

services  gratuitously  without  being  in  any  way  a  Lazarists  not  only  in  the  city  of  his  ducal  title  but  also 


ly  observed.  It  was  for  this  reason  that  Vm-  Vmcent  seven  priests 
cent  de  Paul  would  not  agree  to  the  establishment  of  in  the  following  February,  and  to  whom  three  others 
a  mission  house  unless  it  nad  a  sufficient  foundation  should  be  added  within  two  years.  Four  of  these  the 
to  allow  the  missions  to  be  given  gratuitously.  In  act  declares  '' shall  remain  at  Richelieu  to  perform  the 
the  United  States  indeed  where  there  are  no  founda-  functions  of  the  mission.  The  three  others  shall  be 
tions  it  has  been  the  custom  of  St.  Vincent's  mission-  sent  every  five  years  for  the  same  puipose,  to  every 
aries  to  accept  whatever  offering  mi^t  be  made  them,  town  and  village  of  the  duchy,  and  while  awaiting  the 
but  this  usage  is  confined  to  ErigJish  speaking  coun-  time  to  begin  tneir  rounds  a^in  they  shall  give  mis- 
tries,  elsewhere  this  most  disinterested  custom  is  in  sions  in  the  Diocese  of  Poitiers,  or  other  places  in 
full  vigour.  The  fruits  of  these  missions  were  vei^  the  adjacent  country  as  it  shall  please  His  Eminence 
marked  and  many  bishops  desired  to  procure  this  to  arrange.  The  three  remaining  priests  shall  be  sent 
blessing  for  their  dioceses.  Soon  after  the  establish-  to  Lu^on  for  the  same  purpose  and  all  shall  go  to  the 
ment  of  the  congregation,  while  he  was  at  the  College  counti^  four  times  a  vear  at  the  period  most  suited 
des  Bons  Enfants,  that  is  to  say  from  1625  to  1632,  for  this  work,  and  labour  there  tor  six  weeks  eadi 
St  Vincent  himself  gave  one  hundred  and  forty  time.  One  of  the  four  priests  living  at  Richelieu  shall 
missions.  act  as  pastor  with  as  manv  assistants  as  shall  be 
In  1638  Louis  XIII  wished  Vincent  to  have  his  deemed  expedient.  In  the  nouse  of  Richelieu  shall 
missionaries  give  a  mission  at  St.  Germain-en-La^  be  received  gratuitously  and  for  twelve  da^  those 
near  Paris,  where  he  then  was  with  all  the  court.  Vm-  who  are  to  be  ordained  for  the  Diocese  of  Poitiers  at 
cent  offered  many  excuses  but  to  no  avail.  He  the  four  seasons  of  the  year,  and  for  fifteen  days  such 
recommended  his  missionaries  to  preach  as  simply  at  priests  of  the  diocese  as  the  Bishop  of  Poitiers  shall 
court  as  they  did  in  the  rural  districts,  having  nothing  in  send  to  make  the  exercises  of  the  spiritual  retreat", 
view  but  the  good  of  souls.    The  mission  was  a  com-  On  his  part  the  cardinal  agrees  to  have  erected  and 

flete  success  and  Anne  of  Austria  a  few  years  later,  to  furnish  a  suitable  house  and  to  obtain  the  annexa- 
641,  asked  for  another  in  the  same  place  and  under  tion  of  the  parish  to  the  Congregation  of  the  Mission 
the  same  circumstances.  Mission  preaching  has  becoi  and  to  procure  for  it  the  necessary  revenues, 
employed  in  every  age  of  the  Churai ;  but  systematic  Sometimes  special  spiritual  needs  have  caused  the 
parish  missions  as  now  understood  were  commenced  Lazarists  to  accept  a  parish.  Hardly  was  Louis 
Dv  St.  Vincent  de  Paul  (American  Eccles.  Rev.,  XI,  XIII  in  possession  of  Sedan  when  he  desired  Vincent 
90),  and  the  wonderful  influence  of  the  modem  form  to  send  his  priests  there.  The  needs  of  religion  were 
of  thisjnneat  work  of  zeal  dates  from  the  firet  missions  verv  pressing  for,  through  their  continual  intercourse 
of  St.  Vincent  and  his  companions  in  the  infant  Con-  with  the  Huguenots,  the  number  of  Catholics  was 
gregation  of  the  Mission.  St.  Vincent  cites  instances:  daily  diminishing  and  the  true  faith  almost  extin- 
'^  A  mission  was  given  among  the  banditti  and  these  guisned.  The  parish  of  Sedan  was  at  first  transferred 
wretched  people  were  converted  by  the  grace  of  God."  to  the  Mission  by  the  Archbishop  with  the  consent  of 
Elsewhere  he  generalizes:  ''Of  aU  the  means  which  the  Abbot  Mouzon  and  the  religious  of  the  abbey,  and 
the  Almi^ty  has  left  to  mankind  for  the  correcting  Louis  XIII  gave  an  annual  income  of  2.500  livres  for 
of  their  lives  there  is  none  that  has  produced  effects  the  administration  of  the  parish  and  the  support  of 
more  striking,  more  multiplied  and  more  marvelous  the  missions.  Besides  a  priest  to  officiate  at  Balan, 
than  the  exercises  of  a  mission."  What  the  spiritual  there  were  to  be  at  Sedan  a  parish  priest,  seven  other 
exercises  of  St.  Ignatius  have  done  for  religious  and  priests,  and  two  brothers.  At  least  four  of  the  priests 
the  clergy  and  for  individuals  among  tiie  udty,  the  were  to  remain  in  charge  of  the  work  of  the  parish  and 
missions  as  organized  by  the  Lazarists  have  done  for  four  others  were  to  preach  missions  to  the  people  of 
t^e  people  at  large.  Vincent  fully  appreciated  the  the  surrounding  country.  Three  more  priests  were 
^ue  ot  retreats  and  his  house  ana  the  houses  of  his  added  in  1680,  because  since  its  foundation  in  1644 
sons  have  always  been  open  to  laymen  and  clerics  for  the  number  of  communicants  had  increased  by  two- 
retreat.  From  their  foundation  to  tiie  present  time  thirds.  Soon,  of  more  than  10,000  inhabitants  amone 
innumerable  missions  have  been  given  throughout  the  whom  at  first  not  more  than  1,500  Catholics  could 
Catholic  world  and  the  pioneers  in  the  field  have  done  be  counted,  hardly  a  third  part  remained  heretics.  It 
a  goodly  share  of  the  work.  It  has  been,  however,  was  by  means  of^the  pacinc  method  always  recom- 
eamestly  pursued  by  almost  all  the  active  orders  and,  mended  by  St.  Vincent,  that  the  Lazarists  thus 
especially  in  recent  years,  by  zealous  members  of  the  diminished  the  number  ot  Protestants  and  increased 
diocesan  priesthood.  St.  Vincent  always  insisted  that  so  wonderfully  the  number  of  Catholics.  Instead  of 
this  is  the  chief  work  of  his  commimity  and  should  be  controversies  which  often  embitter  hearts,  they  pre- 
held  in  the  highest  esteem  by  all  its  members.  ferred  the  explanatory  syrtem  which  gave  solid  and 
From  1652  to  1660  more  than  seven  hundred  missions  practical  instruction  to  Catholics  and  Protestants 
were  given  from  the  house  of  St.  Lazare  alone.    The  alike.    At  the  same  tun^  they  extended  their  laboun 


MISSION                             361  MISSION 

to  the  districts  surrounding  Sedan  almost  depopu-  vais  (1679)  ;TouT8,Cfaartre6,Toul,  and  Auzerre  (1680); 

lated  by  war  and  they  helped  the  people  by  exhorta^  Poitiers,  Boulogne,  and  Ch&lons  (1681);  Bayeux  and 

tions   and  alms.    Their  charity  thus  helped   their  Bordeaux  (1682);  Sarlat  (1683);  Pau  (1684);  Ma- 

1>reaching  and  gained  the  hearts  of  those  that  were  nosque ( 1685)  ;Saint-Pol-de-L^n (1689);  Notre-Dame- 

east  disposed.    At  Sedan  as  elsewhere  they  aided  the  de-la-Ddlivrande  (1692) ;  Vannes  (1701);  Angouldme 

Protestants  as  well  as  the  Catholics  as  Brother  Sirven  (1704) ;    Avignon    (1705) ;    Notre-Dame-de%uglose 

testifies  whose  eulogium  Vincent  wrote  in  a  letter  to  (1706);  Toulouse  (1707) ;  Poitiers  (1710);Saint-Servan 

Laudin  in  Mans,  7  Aug.,  1660:  "The  whole  city  and  (1712);  Pamiera  and  Tours  (1715);  Momant  (1717); 

surroundinff  country  regret  him,  even  the  heretics  who  Chartres  (1719) ;  Villefranche  .(1723) ;  Figeac  (1735) ; 

were  edifieaby  his  modesty  and  aided  by  his  charity. "  Aries  (1752);  Lurs  (1753);  La  Bochelle  and  Metz 

(3)  The  Seminaries.— The  Congregation  of  the  Mis-  (1763) ;  Rodez  (1767) ;  Lu^on  (1771) ;  Cambrai  (1772) ; 
sion  founded  bv  St.  Vincent  has  for  its  chief  object  Albiri774^;  Nancy  (1780);  Soissons(1786);  finally,  Cas- 
together  with  the  missions  devotion  to  the  service  of  tres  (1 788) ,  the  last  seminary  that  was  given  to  the  Con- 
ecclesiastics.  In  France  in  his  day  there  were  in  gr^tion  before  the  Revolution.  In  all  43  theoloocal 
the  cities  a  certain  number  of  weU  educated  and  ancr9preparatoryseminaiies(Maynaid,II,p.234).The 
distinguished  clergymen,  but  the  ereat  majority  Lazansts  soon  spread  outside  of  France.  In  Italy, 
especially  in  the  countiy  places  had  no  practical  in  1641,  a  papal  Bull  authorized  an  establishment  m 
means  of  formation.  Manv  zealous  oriests  of  this  Rome,  ana  the  Duchess  of  Aiguillon  gave  them  a  dona- 
period,  Condren  and  Berulle  of  the  Oratoty,  Bour-  tion  to  devote  their  time  to  missions  for  the  rural  popula- 
doiae  of  St.  Nicholas,  above  all  Oiler  of  St.  Sulpice  tion,  to  labour  for  the  clergy,  the  spiritual  retreats  for 
were  preoccupied  witn  the  matter.  Vincent  used  to  those  to  be  ordained,  etc.  In  1697  the  pope  soive 
say,  as  it  is  of  the  utmost  importance  for  a  military  them  the  house  and  church  of  Sts.  John  and  Paul 
commander  after  he  has  conquered  a  country  to  leave  on  the  Coelian  Hill,  but  this  has  been  exchanged  for 
behind  him  garrisons  to  maintain  his  conquest,  so  St.  Svlvester's  on  the  Quirinal.  In  1645  they  were 
when  apostohc  men  have  led  the  people  to  God,  or  called,  to  Genoa,  to  Turin  in  1655,  to  Naples  in  1668. 
brought  them  back  to  Him,  it  is  a  vital  matter  to  In  St.  Vincent's  time  they  went  to  preach  in  Ireland 
preserve  this  conquest,  by  procuring  worthy  and  and  in  the  Hebrides;  later  Charles  il  called  them  to 
zealous  priests  to  labour  among  them.  He  arranged  London  for  his  chapel  as  Louis  XIV  had  done  in 
with  the  Bishop  of  Beauvais  as  earlv  as  1628  for  a  re-  France  for  his  chapef  at  Versailles.  In  Poland,  in  the 
treat  for  those  to  be  ordained  in  tnat  city.  Durine  time  of  John  Casimir  and  his  queen  Louise  Marie  de 
the  days  preceding  ordination  they  were  assembled  Gonzaga,  they  were  called  to  Warsaw  in  1651,  to 
for  exercises  of  piet^  and  for  immediate  preparations  Krakow  in  1656,  to  Culm  in  1677.  to  Vilna  in  1687, 
for  the  pastoral  ministry.  These  exercises  were  estab-  and  to  many  oUier  cities,  so  that  before  the  Revolu- 
li^ed  at  the  house  des  Bons  Enfants,  afterwards  at  tion  Poland  was  one  of  the  most  flourishing  provinces. 
St.  Lazare  for  the  Diocese  of  Paris.  The  archbishop  In  Spain  thev  were  established  in  Barcelona  and  from 
made  them  obligator]^  for  all  who  received  orders  in  there  settled  in  several  other  cities.  They  reached 
Paris.  At  Rome,  enjoined  by  the  pope,  they  have  Portugal  in  1718  though  not  recognized  by  the  kin^, 
been  held  at  the  house  of  the  Lazarists  at  Montecitorio  John  v,  who  up  to  this  time  was  opposed  to  their 
up  to  the  present  day.  At  Paris  in  the  house  des  Bons  dependence  upon  the  superior  general  in  Paris,  but 
imfants  in  February,  1642  Vincent  de  Paul  established  who  afterwards  favourea  them  and  built  them  the 
an  ecclesiastical  seminary  and  gave  it  a  rule  for  the  magnificent  house  of  Rilhafolles  in  the  suburbs  of 
exercise  of  piety  and  for  the  order  of  studies.  It  is  no  Lisbon,  a  house  which  was  confiscated  by  the  Revolu- 
doubt  the  same  that  was  put  in  practice  by  the  Laza-  tion.  At  the  Revolution  of  1834  there  were  six  estab- 
lists  when  they  began  tne  theological  seminary  at  lishments  of  the  Portuguese  tongue. 
Annecy  in  1641,  and  in  the  seminary^  at  Alet.  It  was  (4)  Foreign  Missions  among  the  Infidels. — ^Foreign 
in  substance  that  which  is  in  vogue  in  the  seminaries  missions  had  a  place  in  the  schedule  of  apostolic  worKs 
of  France  at  the  present  dav.  The  rule,  as  given  in  drawn  up  by  St.  Vincent  de  Paul,  and  although  this 
Maynard  (op.  cit.,  II,  211).  exhibits  an  excellent  sort  of  labour  did  not  develop  among  his  sons  before 
compromise  oetween  the  secular  and  the  cloistered  life  the  Revolution  to  so  great  an  extent  as  it  did  in  the 
and  a  wise  mingling  of  study,  piety,  and  discipline,  nineteenth  centuiy,  yet  from  the  beginning  they  gave 
The  object  is  to  fit  uie  cleric  for  his  sacred  functions,  themselves  to  this  work.  In  1645  the  missionaries 
In  the  seminary  as  conceived  and  actually  established  set  out  for  Barbary,  as  they  then  called  it.  The 
by  St.  Vincent  students  of  classics  were  separated  from  regencies  of  Tunis  and  Algiers  in  the  power  of  the 
students  of  theology.  He  withdrew  the  former  pupils  Turks  were  a  den  of  pirates  where  a  great  number 
at  Bons  Enfants  and  placed  them  in  a  separate  estab-  of  Christians  taken  prisoners  by  Turkish  Corsairs  were 
lishment  at  St.  Lazare,  in  what  constituted  the  pre-  held  captives.  The  Lazarists  did  mission  work  there, 
paratoryseminaryof  St.Charies.  The  beneficial  effect  and  from  time  to  time  they  even  fulfilled  the  duties 
was  immediately  apparent.  of  consul,  when  it  was  too  difficult  to  find  a  layman 

As  eariy  as  1647,  Vincent  de  Paul  could  write  what  for  this  office.  Some  were  imprisoned  by  the  Deys  of 
he  afterwaid  embodied  in  his  ''Constitutions":  "Our  Algiers,  some  were  put  to  death  at  the  cannon's  mouth 
institute  has  but  two  chief  ends,  the  instruction  as  John  Le  Vacher  and  Francillon.  They  kept  this 
of  the  poor  country  people  and  the  seminaries."  duty  till,  finally,  in  1830,  France  destroyed  that 
After  the  first  successes  of  Vincent  and  Olier  there  stronghold  of  pirates.  The  Lazarists  of  the  seven- 
was  a  rivalry  among  the  bishops  to  endow  their  dio-  teenth  century  also  preached  the  Gospel  in  the  Island 
ceses  with  these  most  useful  establishments.  In  of  Madamscar,  and  in  the  eighteenth  century  in 
1643  the  Lazarists  were  entrusted  b^  Alain  de  Solmin-  Bourbon  Island  and  the  Isle  de  France.  They  passed 
hac,  Bishop  of  Cahors,  with  a  mission  house  and  the  over  into  China,  at  first  one  by  one,  like  Appiani  and 
direction  of  the  seminaiv  of  that  city.  In  1644  the  Pedrini  during  tne  nunciature  of  Cardinal  de  Toumon. 
Bishop  of  Saintes  placed,  them  in  charge  of  his  semi-  and  like  Mullener  who  became  Vicar  Apostolic  ot 
nary;  m  1645  those  of  Mans,  of  St.  Malo  and  St.  Mden  Se-Tchuen.  They  were  called  to  Macao,  a  possession 
were  confided  to  them;  that  of  Agen  in  1650,  and  of  of  the  Portuguese,  by  the  Portuguese  Government  in 
Montaubon  in  1660.  After  the  death  of  the  saint  until  1784,  and  directed  many  houses  of  education  there, 
the  time  of  the  Revolution  the  following  seminaries  After  the  suppression  of  the  Society  of  Jesus  and  de- 
were  directed  by  the  Lazarists:  Narbonne  and  Metz  spite  the  refusal  of  the  superior  general  because  of  the 
(1661);  Amiens,  Troves,  and  Noyon  (1662);  Saint-  inadequate  number  of  subjects,  through  an  agree- 
Brieuc  (1666) ;  Marseilles  (1672) ;  Saint-Flour  (1674) ;  ment  between  the  King  of  France  and  the  Propaganda 
Sen8(1675);  Arras(1677);  B^ziersand  Alet (1678); Beau-  at  Rome,  the  Lasarists  were  charged  with  the  duty  of 


MISSION  362  MISSION 

taking  the  places,  so  far  as  they  could,  which  had  been  Rome.    Some  of  these  martyrs  were  Francois  and 

held  by  the  Jesuits  in  the  Levant  and  in  China  (1782-  Gruyer,  massacred  at  St.  Firmin  in  Paris,  Matthew 

1783).    Father  Viguier,  a  Lazarist,  took  possession  Caron,  John  Colin  and  John  Gallois  at  VersailleB. 

of  the  mission  at  Constantinople  and  8  May,  1785,  Many  perished  on  the  scaffold:  Francis  Bergon  at 

another  Lazarist,  Father  Raux,  took  possession  of  the  Cahors,   John  Guibaud  at  Mans,   Louis  Haver  at 

mission  of  Pekin.  At  the  outbreak  of  the  French  Rev-  Niort,  Francis  Martelet  at  Besancon.    In  aclaition. 

olution  there  were  in  France,  Spain,  Portu|;al,  and  the  several  succumbed  in  prison:  Nicholas  Bailly,  Pam 

Palatinate  along  with  the  missions  outside  Europe  Brochois,  Victor  Julienne,  and  An^us  Bernard  La- 

about  one  hundred  and  fifty  Lazarist  establishments,  mourette,  nephew  of  the  Constitutional  bic^op,  or  on 

Under  the  Revolution, — Even  before  the  Revolution  the  prison-ships  of  Rochefort  and  at  the  Isle  liadame, 

in  France  many  nations  had  been  the  prey  of  internal  as  John  Janet  and  Nicholas  Parisot;  or  at  Sinnamari, 

dissensions.    In  the  first  place  must  be  mentioned  as  Claude  Cuin. 
Poland  whose  discords  were  leading  it  to  dismembei^        Such  is  the  tribute  which  the  Congregation  of  the 


ment  and  ruin.  In  1772,  in  the  first  partition  of  Mission  paid  during  the  bloody  Revolution.  Asa_. 
Poland,  twelve  houses  of  the  Lazarists  passed  under  suit  of  the  legislation  concerning  the  Constitutional 
foreign  dominion,  Austrian,  Prussian,  or  Kussian.  The  Church  and  the  decrees  of  suppression  of  religiouB 
Polish  houses  which  became  Austrian  disappeared  orders.all  the  establishments  of  the  Lazarists  in  France 
before  the  exactions  of  Joseph  II  of  Austria.  The  were  aestroyed.  At  that  time  they  had  in  France 
King  of  Prussia,  who  when  taking  his  share  of  Poland  provinces  comprising  78  houses  with  824  members, 
had  promised  to  respect  religious  institutions,  soon  Obliged  to  flee,  the  superior  general,  Cayla,  took 
began  confiscating  ecclesiastical  property.  Neverthe-  refuge  in  Rome,  where  ne  dieal2  February,  1800. 
less,  in  1789  the  Polish  province  of  the  Lazarists  still  His  death  at  a  period  when  the  scattered  members  of 
numbered  twenty-two  houses.  A  second  and  a  third  the  oongreeation  could  not  come  together  to  elect  his 
division  took  place  in  1793  and  in  1795,  among  Aus-  successor,  oe^n  an  interregnum  which  was  full  of 
tria,  Prussia,  and  Russia,  leaving  nothing  of  unhappy  difiiculties.  There  were  vicars-general ;  ordinarily  two 
Poland.  In  the  part  that  fell  to  Russia  the  Polish  vicars-general  governed  simultaneously,  one  for  the 
Lazarists  constituted  a  new  province  called  the  Lith-  Lazarists  in  France  and  the  foreign  missions  and  as 
uanian,  remaining  as  far  as  possible  in  communication  superior  of  the  Daughters  of  Charity,  the  other  had 
with  the  superior  general  m  Paris.  The  Polish  up-  authority  over  the  Lazarists  of  other  countries, 
rising  of  1830  and  1863  drew  down  upon  the  Catholics  This  provisional  organization  lasted  untfl  1^27,  when 
the  rigours  of  the  Prussian  and  Russian  Governments,  a  superior  general  was  finally  named.  During  these 
The  Lazarist  houses  at  Culm.  Gnesen,  and  Posen  were  twenty-seven  years  the  vicars  general  were  as  mUows. 
suppressed  by  the  laws  ot  1836.  The  houses  in  On  the  death  of  the  superior  general^  Felix  Cayla,  in 
Russia,  much  more  numerous,  were  destroyed  by  the  1800.  Francis  Brunet,  his  companion  m  exile  at  Rome 
Government  in  1842  and  1864.  It  was  onlv  later,  un-  and  nis  assistant,  was  appointed  vicar-general.  Re- 
der  the  Austrian  dominion,  that  the  Polish  Lazarists  turning  to  France  in  1804  Brunet  lod^dat  the  house 
could  reorganize.  ^  They  have  establishments  on  of  the  Dau^ters  of  Charity  and  died  there  in  1806. 
Austrian  territoiy  in  Galicia  and  Bukowina.  In  the  Claude  Placiard,  his  successor,  who  seemed  destined 
different  states  of  Ital^,  where  the  princes  of  the  House  for  a  longer  career,  died  the  next  vear  after  an  illness 
of  Bourbon  reigned,  life  was  no  longer  an  easy  matter  of  three  days.  He  was  succeeded  by  Dominic  Hanon. 
for  religious  communities.  In  the  Kingdom  of  Naples  The  zeal  with  which  the  latter  strove  to  maintain  the 
they  were  forced  under  penalty  of  suppression  to  stop  authority  which  the  superior  general  used  to  exercise 
^1  mteroourse  with  the  houses  of  the  community  in  over  the  Daughters  of  Cuarity  drew  upon  him  the  ani- 
foreign  states  and  especially  with  the  superior  general,  mosity  of  the  imperial  power  and  he  was  imprisoned 
This  state  of  affairs  contmued  from  1790  tm  1815.  in  the  fortress  ot  Fenestrelle.  He  did  not  regain  his 
About  1789  the  houses  of  the  congregation  in  Italy  liberty  until  1814  when  he  returned  to  Paris  where  he 
were  divided  into  two  provinces:  the  province  of  died  m  1816.  The  next  year  he  had  as  his  successor 
Rome  with  twelve  houses  and  the  province  of  Lom-  Charies  VerberL  who  lived  till  1819.  On  his  death 
bardy  with  fifteen  houses  which  included  the  founda-  Charles  Boujard  was  invested  with  the  vicar-general- 
tions  at  Barcelona,  Palma,  and  Barbastro  in  Spain,  ship,  like  his  four  predecessors,  and  it  was  under  his 
In  Paris  on  the  day  after  the  taking  of  the  Bastille  government,  lasting  about  eig^t  years,  that  the  con- 
the  mob  made  an  attack  upon  the  house  of  St.  Lazare  ^regation  succeedea  in  reorganizmg,  and  noticeably 
which  was  one  of  the  chief  religious  establishments  in  mcreased.  These  five  vicar-generais  were  French 
Paris.  The  furniture  was  broken  and  thrown  out  of  and  resided  in  Paris.  The  Italian  vicars-general 
the  windows,  the  priests  and  students  were  obliged  residing  in  Rome  were  Dominic  Sicardi  from  1804 
to  disperse.  The  missionaries  returned  and  banded  to  1818  and  Antony  Baccari  from  1819  to  1827.  Even 
together  there  some  days  afterwards,  but  they  had  to  under  the  provisional  r^me  of  the  vicars-general,  the 
separate  again  in  1792,  and  to  abandon  this  house  work  of  preaching,  of  the  seminaries,  and  of  the 
in  which  St.  Vincent  had  lived  and  died,  and  which  foreign  mission  was  mdually  re-established.  In 
was  the  central  house  of  the  congregation.  The  other  France  as  eariy  as  1819  Verbert  saw  gatiiered  around 
house  of  the  Lazarists  in  Paris,  the  old  College  des  him  a  considerable  body  of  young  men  and  of  ecclesia»- 
Bons  Enfants,  became  the  scene  of  still  more  dramatic  tics  already  formed  and  could  state  that  the  Lazarists 
events  in  1792.  On  the  second  and  third  of  Septem-  had  houses  at  Amiens,  Soissons,  Sariat,  Montauban, 
ber  of  this  year  massacres  occurred  in  different  estab-  Vannes,  Valfleury,  St.  Etienne  (Circular  letters.  II, 
lishments  m  Paris  in  which  the  Revolutionists  had  351).  At  the  same  period  some  of  the  houses  in  Italy 
locked  in  the  priests.  The  Abbey,  Carmel,  and  St.  that  were  suppressed  by  Ihe  Revolution  reopened. 
Firmin  served  as  prisons.  In  the  last  house  more  than  There  were  six  houses  in  Spain,  six  idso  in  Portugal, 
seventy  priests  were  cruelly  massacred,  among  others  counting  the  college  at  Macao  which  was  a  Portuguese 
the  Lazarist  superior  of  the  establishment,  Father  possession.  The  province  of  Poland  or  of  Warsaw 
Louis  Joseph  Francois  and  his  confrere,  Henry  Gruyer.  numbered  twelve  nouses.  The  Lithuanian  province 
The  superior  general  of  St.  Lazare,  Cayla,  at  the  because  of  political  circumstances  had  but  little 
Assembly,  refused  the  oath  of  the  Civil  Constitution  intercourse  with  the  superiors  of  the  congregation, 
of  the  clergy.  Among  the  members  of  his  oongrega-  The  foreign  missions  had  to  suffer  too  from  the  critical 
tion  several  published  learned  protests  against  it  conditions  brought  about  by  the  Revolution  in  those 
and  all  refused  it  except  a  few,  three  of  whom  after-  countries  whence  they  drew  their  supply  of  mission- 
wards  became  Constitutional  bishops.  A  goodly  aries.  This  period  of  expectation  was  K>llowed  by  a 
number  died  martyrs  to  their  fidelity  to  the  Church  of  period  of  expansion. 


MI8BI0N  363  MISSION 

After  the  French  Revolution, — ^After  the  sanguinary  for   scientific    training.    The    Congr^ation   of    iihfl 

erifiis   of  Uie   Revolution,    the   way   was   gradually.  Mission  had  then  to  adapt  itself  to  the  new  order  of 

paved  for  the  restoration  of  the  congregation.    1 1  '  ' 
not  until  1827,  howeveri  that  its  abnormal  situa- 


thin^.     Finally,  as  to   the  foreign  missions,  new 
facilities  of  travel  and  communication,  and  new  means 


tjon  ceased  when  the  two  vicars-general  Boniard  in  of  influence  and  of  intercourse  with  pagan  or  savage 
France  and  Boccari  in  Rome  having  resignea.  Pope  peoples  have  given  a  new  character  to  the  work  of 
Leo  XII,  by  a  Brief  of  16  Jan.,  1827,  nominated  Peter  evangelization,  requiring  missionary  bodies  to  change 
Dewailly  superior  general.  In  1804  an  imperial  de-  their  methods  to  meet  these  changed  conditions. 
cree  dated  27  May  re-established  the  Congregation  IV.  Literary  and  Scientific  Activity. — Teaching, 
of  the  Lazarists;  in  1816,  under  the  Government  of  — ^The  method  of  teaching  which  prevails  in  Lazarist 
the  Restoration  a  royal  ordinance  recognized  it  in  the  colleges  and  seminaries,  is  that  of  explaining  a  well 
condition  in  which  it  had  been  placed  by  the  Act  of  chosen  text  of  some  approved  author  from  w'lose 
1804.  It  was  especially  on  the  basis  of  these  two  opinions  even  the  professor  is  not  allowed  to  depart, 
decrees  that  the  Council  of  State  of  16  Jan.,  1901,  except  by  the  express  permission  of^his  superiors. 
considered  the  Congregation  of  St.  Lazare  as  legidly  Such  a  text  is  placed  in  the  hands  of  the  pupus,  who 
recognized  in  France.  Tlie  old  house  of  St.  Lazare  learn  a  portion  of  it,  and  receive  explanations  and 
having  been  transferred  by  the  State  to  the  public  comments  from  the  professor.  Indiviaual  research  is 
service,  the  Government  handed  over  to  the  use  of  the  encouraged  but  within  limits  suggested  by  the  practi- 
congregation  a  piece  of  property  situated  at  Rue  de  cal  character  of  Lazarist  college  and  seminary  train- 
Sevres  95,  the  H6tel  des  Lorges,  and  here  Verbert,  the  ing.  Conformably  to  the  commands  and  recommen- 
vicar-general,  entered  with  his  community  still  small  dations  of  Leo  XIII  and  Pius  X,  philosophy  and 
in  number,  19  Nov.,  1817.  Some  adjoining  ground  theology  are  taught  in  accord  with  tne  doctrines  of 
on  the  Rue  de  Sevres  was  bought  partly  by  King  St.  Thomas  and  of  his  most  authorized  interpreters. 
Charles  X  for  the  building  of  a  chapel,  which  was  Novelties  in  doctrine  are  distinctly  discouraged,  while 
blessed  by  Mgr.  de  Qudlen,  Archbishop  of  Paris,  1  Nov..  professors  are  bidden  to  make  themselves  acquainted 
1827.  Tne  following  is  a  list  of  the  superiors  general  with  modem  errors,  for  refutation.  Writing8. — ^The 
who  have  been  elected  by  the  general  assemblies  life  of  Lazarists  is  above  all,  an  active  life,  in  colle^, 
held  in  Paris  down  to  1910.  After  Peter  Dewailly  in  the  seminary,  and  on  the  missions,  hence  their  wnt- 
died,  23  Oct.,  1828,  the  general  assembly  of  15  May,  ings  have  been  called  forth  for  some  practical  utility, 
1829,  selected  as  his  successor  Dominic  Salhorgne.  or  as  a  result  of  their  scientific  explorations  and  their 
He  had  the  consolation  of  seeing  the  relics  of  St.  journeys  as  missionaries.  The  lollowing  are  note- 
Vincent  which  had  to  be  hidden  during  the  Revolu-  worthv  as  writers:  (1)  Theology. — Collet,  Peter,  a 
tion  brought  back  in  solemn  state  to  his  rdigious  family  Frenchman  (b.  1693;  d.  1770),  professed  theologv 
in  1830.  Under  the  weight  of  age  and  infirmities  he  with  success  m  Paris.  When  Toumely  died  ^17^ 
resigned  in  1835.  The  general  assembly  named  as  leaving  unfinished  a  course  of  theologv  whicn  the 
his  successor  John  Baptist  Nozo  who  was  succeeded  imiversity  and  the  seminaries  held  in  nigh  esteem, 
in  1843  bv  John  Baptist  Etienne  whose  long  and  most  Cardinal  Fleury,  then  prime  minister,  invited  Collet 
successfufgeneralship  continued  until  his  death  in  1874.  whose  talents  he  knew,  to  continue  and  complete  the 
Then  Eugene  Bot6  was  elected,  a  man  well  known  work,  which  Collet  did  with  much  success,  publishing 
in  the  worid  of  literature  and  science.  Death  claimed  ''Continuatio  Prselectionum  Theologicarum  Horatii 
him  after  four  years,  and  in  1878  the  general  assembly  Toumely"  in  8  volumes  (Paris,  1733-1760).  He 
made  Anthony  Fiat  his  successor,  and  he  is  now,  made  an  abridgment  of  this  work  as  a  class  book  of 
1910,  at  the  head  of  the  congregation.  theology  for  seminaries.  "  Institutiones  theologies 
The  work  of  the  congregation  has  remained  un-  quas  a  fusioribus  suis  editis  et  ineditis  ad  usum 
changed  save  for  adaptations  to  new  circumstances.  Seminariorum  contraxit  Petrus  Collet"  (Paris,  1744, 
Missions  at  home  are  no  less  necessary  than  formerly.  5  vols.).  Whilst  engaged  in  this  great  work.  Collet 
A  special  consideration  makes  them  more  than  ever  composed  more  than  forty,  volumes  on  different  the- 
the  objects  of  solicitude.  It  is  that  the  people  of  our  ological,  canonical,  liturgical,  and  devotional  sub- 
democratic  age  have  acquired  an  influence  and  an  au-  jects.  Brunet,  Francis  Florentin  (b.  in  France,  1731 ; 
thority  which  they  never  exercised  before.  Besides  d.  1806),  wrote  a  ''Parall^le  des  Religions"  in  5  vol- 
missions  to  the  people,  the  congregation  has  adapted  umes  4^  (Paris,  1792),  which  by  its  abundant  researches 
its  methods  in  senunaries  to  new  conditions.  In  the  paved  the  way  for  the  comparative  histories  of  reli- 
seventeenth  and  ei^teenth  centuries  clerics  received  gion  now  so  much  in  vogue.  Morino,  John,  visitor  of 
their  formation  chiefly  at  the  universities  or  in  the  me  Neapolitan  province,  issued  in  1910  the  seventh 
colleges  of  the  chief  cities;  clerics  who  did  not  study  edition  of  his  Moral  Theology.  MacGuiness,  John,  a 
there  unfortunately  but  too  often  did  not  study  native  of  Ireland  and  professor  in  the  Irish  College  in 
at  all.  In  this  state  of  affairs  it  sufficed  to  provide  Paris,  has  recently  published  a  second  edition  of  a 
seminaries  as  ecclesiastical  homes  for  clerics  who  went  complete  course  of  theology.  McNamara,  Thomas,  a 
out  to  follow  the  courses  in  the  universities  and  col-  pioneer  Irish  Vincentian,  published  many  books  of 
leges  of  the  city.  In  the  seminary  there  was  a  course  great  utility  to  the  clergy,  the  best  known  of  these  is 
in  liturgy;  the  students  were  helped  to  make  for  ''Programme  of  Sermons  and  Instructions",  which 
themselves  a  practical  abridgment  of  moral  theoloey  is  still  much  used. 

and  when  the  time  came  they  were  aided  by  the        (2)  Works    on    Canon    Law    and    Liturgy. — De 

exercises  of  the  retreat  to  prepare  for  ordinations.  Martinis  (b.  in  Italy,  1829;  died  1900),  Archbishop 

Two  or  three  priests  at  most  sufficed  for  such  estab-  of  Laodicsea,  published  "  Juris  Pontificii  de  Propa- 

liahments.    To-day  all  is  changed  in  this  regard,  ganda  Fide,  Pars  Prima  continens  Bullas,  Brevia, 

Seminarians  ordinarily  spend  all  their  time  within  the  Acta  S.S.  a  Congregationis  institutione  ad  prsesens, 

walls  of  the  seminary.    The  seminary  ^ves  them  juxta    temporis    seriem   disposita''  (Rome,    1888- 

ecclesiastical  instruction  in  philosophy,  history,    ex-  1897,  7  vols.,  in  quarto),  a  collection  of  documents 

egesis,  canon  law,  and  theolo^,  teaching  that  they  emanating  from  the  Propaganda  in  everv  respect 

could  not  find  outside  save  in  a  few  universities,  superior    to    any    preceding    collection.    Baldeschi, 

Seminary  life  no  longer  lasts  for  some  months  only,  Joseph  (b.  in   ftaly,    1791;  d.    1849).  published  an 

as  it  usually  did  in  the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth  '' Espositione  delle  Sacre  Ceremonie''  (Home,  1830, 

centuries,  but  for  several  years,  so  that  the  faculty  4  vols.,    24mo.),  which   has   been   translated    into 

required  for  a  seminary^  whether  it  be  composed  of  various   tongues.     Mancini,    Calcedonio    (d.    1910) 

members  of  a  community  or  of  the  secular  clergy,  began  at  the  Lazarist  house  of  Montecitono,  Rome, 

must  be  much  more  numerous  and  specially  equipped  in    1887,    the   publication   of   a   monthly  review. 


MISSION  364  MISSION 

'' Ephemerides    Litur^cse"j    which    is   still  issued.  Observatory  of  Turin  (1910).    Many  of  his  studieb 

Buroni,    Joseph  (h.   in    Piedmont,    1821),    besides  have  appeared   in  the  ''Bulletin  Astrononiiaue  de 

theolomcal   and   liturgical    writing,   has  published  TObservatoire  de  Paris''  1898,  1899.    S^  "Notices 

several    philosophical    works,    the   chief   is    "Dell'  Biblioioaphiques  sur  les  Ecrivains  de  la  Congregation 

Essere  e   del   Conoscere"    (Turin,    1877);    he   had  de  la  Mission^' (Angouldme,  1878,  8^).    The  fS^iish 

previously  issued  a  large  portion  of  it  under  the  title  edition  of  the  "Annals  of  the  ODne.  of  the  Miss.", 

''Delia  Filosofia  di  Antonio  Rosmini  saggio  di  Giu-  Nos.  38  and  39  (1903),  contains  in  thirty  closely 

seppe  Buroni"  (1877-80).    (3)  lAnguages. — Led  by  printed  pa^^es  a  list  of  books  published  by  the  Lasar- 

their  ministry  to  speak  the  languages  of  the  nations  ists  in  various  languages. 

they  evangelized  the  Lazarists  have  issued  divers        V.  Present  Status. — The  LazarigU  in  Europe. — 

works  in  or  concerning  these  languages.    Caulier,  The  mother-house,   the   residence  of  the  superior 

Philip  Albert  ^.  in  France,  1723;  d.  ^1793),  com-  general  of  the  whole  congregation,  is  at  Paris,  95  Rue 

K^sed  an   abrideed   catechism  in   the'  language  of  de  Sevres.    This  central  residence  is  also  a  house  of 

adagascar,   and    wrote  a  Malagasy  gnunmar  for  formation  with  its  internal  seminary,  or  as  it  is  often 

the    Antanosy    dialect.     Gonsalves,    Joachim    Al-  less  accurately  called,  its  novitiate  and  scholasticate. 

t^onsus,    published    among    other    works    in    the  A  second  house  of  formation  is  established  at  Dax,  a 

Chinese  language,  "  Lexicon  MagnUm  Latino-Simi-  city  a  little  south  of  Bordeaux.    In  1900  there  were 

cum  ostendens  etymologiam,  prosodiam  et  construe-  about  fifty  establishments  in  France,  missions,  semi- 

tionem  vocabulorum"  TMacao,  1841,  in  folio).    Vi-  naries,  and  colleges.    Since  1902  and  1903  the  greater 

guier,  Peter   Francis    (d.  France.   1745;  d.    1821),  number  of  these  establishments  had  to  be  abandoned 

published  "Elements  of  the  Turkish  Language,  or  when  a  laige  number  of  the  establishments  of  commu- 

Analytical  Tables  of  the  ordinary  Turkish  Language  nities  were  closed,  and  when  congregations  not  author- 

with  developments''  (Constantinople,  Printing  Press  ized  by  the  State  were  suppressed.  France  has  hitherto 

of  the  Palais  de  France,  1790,  4^).    Coulbeau.  John  supplied  almost  exclusively  subjects  for  the  Laza- 

Baptist  (b.  in  France,  1843),  has  published  in  tneg^2  rists'  missions  in  China,  Persia,  the  Levant,  Abys- 

language  or  primitive  Ethiopian  tongue,  the  "Missal  sinia,  and  the  different  countries  of  South  America, 

of  the  Ethiopian  Rite"  (Kerew,  Printing  Press  of  the  In  Germany,  where  the  Lazarists  had  been  established 

Catholic  Mission,  1890)  and  other  works.    He  also  since  1832,  they  were  expelled  by  the  Kulturkampf 

published  other  books  in  Armari^a,  the  present  (1873),  and  since  then  tney  have  establidunents  on 

idiom  of  Abyssinia,  for  example  "  Dialogues  on  the  the  frontier  of  their  countrjr  in  Belgium  and  Holland. 

Things  of  Faith"  (Kerew,   rrinting  Press  of   the  There  are  establishments  in  Syria,  and  in  Central 

Catholic  Mission,  1891).    Schreiber,  Jules,  compiled  a  America  at  Costa  Rica.    In  Austria  there  are  two 

manual  of  the  Ti^i  language  spoken  in  Central  and  centres  of  activity  for  the  Lazarists,  one  at  Gratz  for 

Northern  Abyssinia  (Vienna,  188/)  and  Gren^  John  (b.  the  houses  of  Austria  and  Hungary,  the  other,  Polish 

in  Germany.  1842;  d.  1907),  "La  LenguaQmchua",  a  in  language,  at  Krakow  for  the  establishments  of 

dialect  of  tne  Republic  of  Ecuador  ^Freibur^,  1896,  Galicia  and  Bukowina,  and  for  the  colonies  of  Polish 

in  12mo).     More  than  half  a  million   Indians    in  emierants  to  America.    In  Spain,  where  the  works 

Ecuador,  says  the  author,  understand  no  language  of  the  Lazarists  are  in  a  flourishing  condition,  the 

but  the  Quichua.    He  also  wrote  the  first  grammar  houses  are  divided  into  two  provinces,  Madrid  and 

and  dictionar^r  of  this  language.      Bedian,  Paul,  a  Barcelona.    The  Spanish  Lazarists  furnish  to  a  great 

Persian  Lazarist,  has  written  and  published  many  extentlabourers  for  several  of  the  old  Spanish  colonies, 

works  for  the  use  of  his  fellow  countrymen.    Dui^  Cuba  and  Porto  Rico,  Mexico,  and  the  Philippine 

ing  twenty  years  he  printed  more  than  forty  volumes  Islands.    They  were  twice  expelled  from  their  country 

in  the  Syriac  and  Neo- Aramaic,  reproducing  almost  by  the  revolutions  of  1835  and  1868.    The^  have  been 

all  the  ancient  MSS.  hitherto  unpublished  in  the  recognized  by  the  Governments  since  the  Concordat  of 

various  branches  of  ecclesiastical  science  and  history.  1851.    In  Portusal  where  they  had  six  houses  before 

The  latest  is  the  most  curious  and  important,  the  the  political  ana  religious  revolution  of  1835^  they 


;iff,  1910,  in  8^).  their  former  works.     Tlie  (Congregation  of  tl 

(4)    Travels   and   Scientific   Explorations. — Hue,    in  Italy  has  felt  the  political  vicissitudes  of  that  coun- 


immediately  translated  into  many  laneua^.    Later  princes  in  1848,  1860,  and  1873.    At  the  present  time 

he  published  a  sequel,  "The  Chinese  Empire"  (Paris,  there  are  38  houses  divided  into  three  pro  vmces,  Turin, 

1854,  2  vols.  8vo),  and  finally  "Christianity  in  Tibet,  Rome,  and  Naples.    As  to  Belgium  and  Holland,  it  is 

Tartary,  and  China"  (Paris,  1854,  4  vols.   18mo).  chieflv  since  the  difiSculties  in  France  that  the  Lasa- 

David,  Armand  (b.  in  France,  1826;  d.  1900),  corre-  rists  nave  secured  in  these  countries  houses  for  the 

sponding  member  of  I'lnstitut  de  France,  travelled  missions  and  especially   for   the   training  of  their 

in  the  East  and  Far  East.    Commissioned  by  the  young  men.    The  congr^ation  has  taken  up  a^in 

Museum  of  Natural  History  of  Paris  to  make  explora-  work  in  Northern  Africa,  in  Algiers.     There  is  a 

tions,  he  enriched  the  collection  by  numerous  dis-  vicariate  Apostolic  in  southern  Madagascar  and  an- 

ooveries.    He  wrote   "Journal  of  Travel  in  Central  other  in  Abyssinia,  and  there  are  establishments 

China   and   in   Eastern  Tibet"  which  appeared  in  at  Alexandria  in  Egypt.     They  have  also  founded 

"Nouvelles  Archives  du  Museum".  VIII;  IX,  and  schools  in  the  Levant,  Turkey  in  Europe,  and  Turkey 

X,  "Journal  of  my  Third  Tour  of  Exploration  in  in  Asia.    There  are  prominent  colleges  in  Constan- 

the  Chinese  Empire"  (Paris,  1875,  2  vols.  8®).     Be-  tinople,  in  Smyrna,  and  in  Antoura  near  Beirut, 

sides  numerous  studies  edited  by  him,   there  are  They  have  also  other  establishments  for  missions  and 

several  works  published  at  the  expense  of  the  French  education,  near  Constantinople,  at  Bebeck,  in  the 

Government  oescribing  the  scientific  discoveries  of  Archipelago  at  Santorin,  in  Macedonia,  Salonica,  at 

David:    "The   Birds   of  China  with  Atlas  of   124  Cavalla  and  at  Monastir  near  Salonica;  at  Zeitenlik 

filates  "  (Paris,  1877) :  "  Plants  Da  vidians  ex  Sinarum  they  maintain  a  seminary  for  the  Bulgarian  Rite,  the 

mperio  par  Frarichet"  (Paris,  1884,  2  vols.  4°),  etc.  hope  for  the  religious  regeneration  of  that  country. 

Boccardi,  John  Baptist,  has  published  astronomical  In  Syria  they  are  engaged  in  the  same  work  in  various 

studies  of  observations  made  at  the  Vatican  Observa-  houses.     In  Peraia  where   the   Laiarists  have  had 

tory  and  at  Catania.    He  Ib  the  director  of  the  Royal  establishments  since  1840,  and  where,  since   1842, 


MI8BI0N  365  BOSSION 

the  Hol^  See  selected  from  their  number  the  prefects  impulse  to  what  resulted  in  the  establishment  dl 

Apostolic  and  tiie  Apostolic  del^ate  for  that  countnr,  the  conununity  in  Ireland.    Early  in  the  last  century 

thev  exercise  the  apostolateb^  preaching  and  by  worKS  when  the  lack  of  church  accommodation  had  been 

of  cnarity.    One  of  the  Lazarist  missionaries  in  Persia  partially  supplied,  the  desire  of  establishing  Lazarists 

said  forty  years  ago:  "No  mission  is  so  militant  and  or  some  kindred  institute  for  missions  in  Ireland  was 

perhaps  also  so  difficult  as  this."  expressed  by  Dr.  Doyle  who  had  known  them  in 

In  Qiina,  which  is  one  of  the  widest  fields  for  apos-  Gounbra,  by  Dr.  Maher  who  had  been  with  l^em  at 

toUc  labour,  the  Lazarists  are  in  charge  of  the  impor-  Montecitoiio  and  by  Father  Fitzgerald,  O.P.,  of  Carlow 

tant  missions  of  Peking  and  of  several  vicariates  College,  but  nothing  was  done.    In  1832  four  youne 

Apostolic.    Sent  to  China  towards  the  close  of  the  men  at  Maynooth  approaching  ordination,  impressed 

eighteenth  century,  during  the  early  part  of  the  nine-  by  the  dangers  surrounding  the  ministry,  and  the 

teenth  century  they  passed   throiigh   most   trying  importance  of  working  for  God  and  the  salvation  of 

tunes.    Persecutions  burst  forth  sometimes  in  certain  souls,  a^^ped  that  a  community  life  was  desirable  for 

localities,  sometimes  everywhere.    In  1820  Francis  them.    They   were   James    Lynch,    Peter   Richard 

R6gis  Clet  (q.  v.).  a  Lazarist,  died  a  martyr,  and  in  Kenrick,  Anthony  Revnolds,  and  Michael  Burke,  all 

1840  Jean-Gabriel  Perboyre  (q.  v.)  had  a  like  fate  and  of  the  Diocese  of  Dublin.    On  consulting  with  the 

like  honour.    Both  have  been  oeatified.    The  work  of  senior  dean,  they  were  directed  to  the  Congregation 

2>readxng  the  Gospel  was  not  interrupted,  however,  of  the  Mission.  The  dean.  Father  Philip  Dowley, 
postolic  work  has  been  prosperous.  Instead  of  the  old  soon  after  became  their  leader.  He  had  just  been 
residence  of  Petang  at  Peking  a  new  and  much  more  made  vice-president  of  the  college  but  resigned, 
oonmiodious  residence  has  been  erected  on  a  large  About  this  time  they  were  joined  by  Father  Thomas 
tract  of  land  given  by  the  Chinese  Government  and  a  McNamara,  a  valuable  recruit,  as  his  powers  of  organ- 
new  cathedral  was  begun  in  December  1888.  This  ization  contributed  greatly  to  the  success  of  the 
important  work  was  begim  and  finished  by  the  bishop,  missions  and  other  works  of  the  congregation  in  Ire- 
M^  Tag^iabue^  and  Rev.  A.  Favier  who  after  became  land.  With  the  approval  of  Archbishop  Murray  a 
Bishop  of  Pekmg.  Around  the  cathedral  of  Peking  small  college  was  opened  in  Dublin  to  serve  as  a 
are  grouped  the  uieological  and  preparatorv  semina-  preparatory  seminary.  Another  newly-ordained  priest, 
ries,  a  printins  office,  schools,  and  charitable  institu-  Rev.  John  McCann,  supplied  the  funds  for  the  pur- 
tions.  Apostolic  zeal  has  not  erown  lax.  In  1908  the  chase  of  Castleknook.  In  1838  the  little  church  in 
Lazarists  of  the  Vicariate  of  Peking  had  the  joy  of  num-  Phibsboroug^,  a  suburb  of  Dublin,  was  placed  in  the 
bering  more  than  thirty  thousanabaptisms  of  adults,  hands  of  Dr.  Murray  of  Dublin,  to  which  he  soon 
The  total  for  the  last  five  years  was  fully,  if  not  be-  added  a  foundation  for  two  annual  missions.  It  was 
yond,  one  himdred  thousand  conversions.  The  for  missions  they  had  banded  together,  but  thoudi 
LAzarists  in  China  have  six  other  vicariates  Apostolic  they  gave  three  in  their  neighbourhood,  other  wor^ 
with  their  centres  at  Youn^Ping-Fou  and  Ching-  took  up  all  their  energies.  By  this  time  they  had  lost 
Ting-Fou  in  Tche-I^;  Ning-Po  in  the  Province  of  Father  Anthony  Reipolds  by  death.  Fatner  Peter 
Tche-Kiang;  Kiou-iuang,  Fou-Tcheou-Fou  and  Ki-  Richard  Kendnck  joined  his  brother,  then  Bishop  of 
N^an-Fou  in  the  Province  of  Kiang-Si.  In  the  Philadelphia,  and  subsequently  became  Archbishop  of 
missions  entrusted  to  the  Lazarists  in  China  there  are  St.  Louis.  Overtures  were  made  to  the  congregation 
at  present  one  hundred  and  for^-five  European  in  Paris  for  the  aggregation  of  the  Irish  community 
Lazarists  and  thirty-five  Chinese  Lazarists,  eleven  and  this  was  soon  accomplished;  two  of  the  Fathers  be- 
secular  priests  from  Europe  and  ei^ty-nine  native  ginning  their  internal  seminary  course  or  novitiate  in 
sectilar  cler^.  The  Lazarists  in  Chma  have  two  Paris  and  finishing  it  in  Ireland  under  Father  Girard 
internal  semmaries  or  novitiates.  The  procurator  of  were  delected  by  the  superior  to  form  these  postulants. 
these  niissions  resides  at  Shanghai.  Father  Hand  who  had  early  joined  the  community 

Such  are  the  works  of  the  Congregation  of  the  Mis-  left  before  this  time  to  found  All  Hallows  College  at 

sion  carried  on  by  its  3249  members  (1909).  priests.  Drumcondra   for   the   foreign   missions,    llie   first 

students,  lay  brotners,  and  novices.    It  may  oe  added  mission  of  these  Lazarists  was  given  in  Athy  in  Dublin 

that  wherever  they  are,  there  is  commonly  to  be  found  Diocese.    It  was  the  introduction  of  the  modem 

the  other  congr^ation  founded  by  St.  Vincent,  the  mission  into  Ireland.    At  this  and  the  following  mis- 

Dauf^ters  or  Sisters  of  Charity  {CameUea).    Such  is  sions  the  people  attended  in  thousands  and  the  con- 

the  case  in  Europe,  in  America,  and  even  on  the  for-  fessionals  were  thronged  night  and  day.    The  church 

dgn  missions  as  in  Madagascar,  Persia,  Syria,  China,  at  Phibsborough  has  given  place  to  a  fine  Gothic 

Tney  number  (1910)  more  than  30,000  and  labour  structure.    Here  the  devotion  to  the  Sacred  Heart 

also  in  places  where  the  Congregation  of  the  Mission  was  promoted  most  vigorously  ^ter  the  consecration 

is  not  established.  of  Ireland  to  the  Sacred  Heart  by  the  bishops  in  1873. 

The  English  Speaking  Lazarists, — (1)  The  Irish  Here  too  the  care  of  the  poor  lea  Father  Jonn  Gowan, 

Province. — During  St.  Vincent's  lifetime  his  priests  CM.,  to  found  a  flourishing  community  of  sisters 

were  sent  to  Ireland  at  the  request  of  Innocent  X,  to  callea  Sisters  of  the  Holy  Faith  (q.  v.)  recently  ap- 

hdp  the  persecuted  Catholics.    Eight  priests  went  proved  by  Rome.  The  be^^nnings  in  Cork  were  similar 

to  Limerick  and  Cashel.    In  Cashel  and  tne  surround-  to  those  of  Dublin.    A  pnest  of  high  standing  desired 

ing  towns  they  gave  missions  and  heard  eighty  thou-  to  open  a  house  for  missionaries,  on  the  mo<&  of  the 

sand  general  confessions.    In  Limerick  too  their  sue-  congregation  but  with  some  modifications.    He  began 


was  most  marked  and  its  memory  is  not  vet  dead,  by  opening  a  day  college.    He  was  the  Rev.  Michael 

But  new  and  terrible  persecutions  under  Cromwell,  O'Siulivan,  vicar-general  of  the  diocese.    For  some 

forced  the  missionaries  to  go  into  hiding  and  ultimately  years  the  collie  succeeded,  but  afterwards  did  not  ^t 

to  fly  the  country.    A  lay  brother  who  had   accom-  on  so  well.    He  then  offered  the  college  to  the  superior 

panied  them  died  a  martyr's  death.    When  Maynooth  at  Castleknock  and  entered  as  a  member  of  the  oom- 

uoll^^  was  founded  in  1798,  Father  Edward  Ferris,  munity.    Two  who  as  superiors  had  a  large  share  in 

an  assistant  of  the  superior  general,  was  allowed  by  his  the  development  of  the  Cork  foundation  afterwards 

superiors  to  come  to  the  aid  of  the  new  college,  became  bishops.  Dr.  Lawrence  Gillooly  (1819-1895). 

Araibishop  Troy  of  Dublin  had  asked  for  him  and  Bishop  of  Elphin,  and  Dr.  Neil  McCabe,  Bishop  ot 

made  him  dean  of  the  new  seminary.    A  few  years  Ardagh.    In  1853  a  church  in  Sheffield  where  tnere 

later  he  took  the  chair  of  moral  theology  which  he  was  plenty  of  work  among  the  poor  was  confided  to  the 

hcM  until  his  death,  26  November,  1809.    There  is  a  congr^tion. 

tradition  that  his  copy  of  the  "  Rules  "  of  the  congrega-  St.  Vincent  himself  had  sent  a  member  of  his  com- 

tioiiy  found  at  Masr&ooth  after  his  death,  gave  the  fiurst  munity  to  the  French  consul  in  London  in  the  hope  of 


MISSION 


366 


MISSION 


getting  some  foothold  for  his  community  in  England 
where  they  midit  aid  the  persecuted  Catnolics.  but  in 
vain.  Sheffield  was  the  nrst  foundation  in  England 
and  it  has  become  a  mission  centre  partly  endowed 
by  the  Duke  of  Norfolk.  A  house  was  established  in 
Mill  Hill,  London,  in  1889, and  it  is  now  a  parish,  and  has 
the  direction  of  the  provincial  house  oi  the  Sisters  of 
Charity.  A  normal  college  at  Hammersmith  was  en- 
trusted to  the  Lazarists  in  1899.  In  Scotland,  Fathers 
Duggan  and  White  laboured  in  St.  Vincent's  time, 
sent  thither  by  him.  Father  Duggan  worked  zeal- 
ously in  ihe  Hebrides  travelling  from  place  to  place 
until  his  labours  were  cut  short  by  death.  Father 
White's  busy  life  of  missionary  travel  on  the  mainland 
of  Scotland  was  interrupted  oy  his  imprisonment  in 
Cromwell's  time ;  on  his  release  with  the  condition  that 
if  he  be  caught  preaching  or  baptizing  he  would 
be  hanged  without  trial,  he  resumed  his  work  un- 
daunted in  the  mountain  districts.  But  it  was  not 
until  1859  that  the  ^rzt  Scotch  house  was  established 
at  Lanark.  The  magnificent  church  destroyed  by 
fire  in  1907  has  been  rebuilt  and  the  work  of  giving 
missions  has  gone  on  iminterruptedly. 

In  1840,  the  houses  of  Irelana  were  formed  into  a 
Province  and  Rev.  Philip  Dowley  (1788-1864),  was 
appointed  visitor.  He  was  succeeded  in  1864  by 
Father  Thomas  MacNamara  (1809-1892).  a  man  of 
great  zeal  and  learning,  who  did  much  for  tne  spiritual 
welfare  of  the  deaf-mutes  in  Ireland  and  was  nead  of 
the  Irish  College  from  1868  to  1889.  Father  Duff 
(1818-1890)  became  visitor  in  1867.  He  was  followed, 
in  1888,  by  Father  Morrissey  who  resigned  in  1909, 
after  a  most  successful  career  and  was  succeeded  by 
Rev.  Joseph  Walsh.  The  novitiate  was  started  in 
1844  at  Castleknock.  Prior  to  that,  and  even  to  some 
extent  afterwards,  the  novices  were  trained  at  the 
mother-house  in  Paris.  In  1873,  a  new  site  was  se- 
c\u^  and  the  novitiate  transferred  thither.  It  is 
known  as  St.  Joseph's  Vincentian  Novitiate,  Black- 
rock,  near  Dublin.  In  1858  the  Irish  College  in  Paris 
(q.  v.),  founded  in  the  last  years  of  the  sixteenth 
century,  was  transferred  to  the  Irish  Vincentians. 
Father  Lynch,  the  leading  spirit  of  the  young  priests 
who  founded  the  congregation  in  Ireland,,  was  conse- 
crated bishop  while  head  of  this  college:  going  first 
to  Scotland,  and  afterwards  to  the  See  of  Kudare  and 
Lei^in.  Armagh  seminary  was  confided  to  them 
by  Dr.  Dixon  in  1861.  About  1888,  the  Irish  Laza- 
nsts  were  made  spiritual  fathers  at  Maynooth,  then 
according  to  Cardmal  Newman  the  most  important 
ecclesiastical  seminary  in  Catholic  Christendom.  In 
1875,  a  training  school  was  begun  at  Drumcondra, 
Dublin,  and  in  1883  it  was  superseded  by  the  newly 
founded  normal  college  entrusted  to  the  Irish  Laza- 
rists by  the  Government.  In  the  space  of  twenty-six 
years  it  has  sent  out  over  2300  Catholic  teachers. 
All  Hallows  College  (q.  v.)  was  placed  under  the  care 
of  the  lAzarists  in  1892.  The  Australian  mission  of 
the  Irish  Province  was  begun  in  1885  with  a  most 
successful  series  of  missions  from  their  new  mission 
house  in  New  South  Wales.  At  the  urgent  request  of 
Bishop  Patrick  Joseph  Byrne  they  assumed  charge  of 
St.  Stanislaus  College,  Bathurst,  New  South  Wales, 
which  had  been  founded  some  years  previously.  A 
mission  centre  and  parish  were  established  at  Malvern 
near  Melbourne  in  1892.  The  Irish  Province  numbers 
(1910)  125  priests.  30  lay  brothers,  and  20  scholastics. 

(2)  The  United  States  Province. — ^The  Congrega- 
tion of  the  Mission  was  brought  to  the  United  States  in 
1816  by  Bishop  Dubourg  (q.  v.)  of  New  Orleans.  His 
diocese  comprised  both  upper  and  lower  Louisiana  as  it 
was  then  called.  Upper  Louisiana  to  which  he  sent 
the  Lazarists  included  what  became  afterwards  the 
States  of  Arkansas,  Missouri,  and  Illinois  and  all  the 
territory  north  and  west  of  tnese  states.  There  were 
but  four  priests  there  at  this  time  and  three  of  them  died 
3oon  afterwards.    He  succeeded  after  some  difficulty 


in  getting  three  Lazarist  priests,  with  a  brother,  to 
head  a  band  of  twelve  apostolic  workers  for  his  vast 
territory.  They  were  Rev.  Felix  de  Andreis  (q.v.), 
Joseph  Rosati,  John  Baptist  Aoquaroni,  and  Brother 
Blanka.  Bishop  Ryan  of  Buffalo  wrote  of  them  as 
coming  "to  do  for  religion  and  the  Church  in  the 
distant  and  still  imdeveloped  West  what  a  Carroll, 
a  Cheverus,  a  Flaget,  and  otner  great  and  holy  men  had 
done  and  were  doing  in  other  parts  of  the  country" 
(Early  Lazarist  Missions  anci  Missionaries,  1887). 
They  embarked  12  Jime,  1816,  on  an  American  brig 
bound  for  Baltimore,  reaching  there  26  July.  They 
were  welcomed  at  St.  Mary's  Seminary  by  Father 
Brut^.  On  their  way  to  St.  Louis,  they  stopped 
all  winter  at  Bardstown,  where  Father  de  Andreis 
taught  theology  in  St.  Tliomas'  Seminary.  He  had 
already  taught  it  with  great  success  at  the  College 
of  the  Propaganda  in  Rome.  He  was,  however, 
eager  to  ^  andpreach  the  Gospel  to  the  poor  savages 
and  studied  the  Indian  language  with  this  design.  Oto 
8  Jan.,  1818,  Father  de  Andreis  settled  down  as  pastor 
of  St.  Louis  and  vicar-general  of  the  diocese,  an  appoint- 
ment he  had  received  on  leaving  Rome.  He  writes :  "  It 
will  not  be  easy  to  establish  our  missionaries  on  the 
same  footing  as  in  Italy.  Here  we  must  be  like  a  regi- 
ment of  cavalry  or  flying  artillery  ready  to  run  wherever 
the  salvation  of  souls  may  require  our  presence." 
Several  of  those  who  came  from  Europe  at  Bishop 
Dubourg's  invitation  joined  the  litUe  community. 
Father  Joseph  Cosetti  died  on  the  eve  of  his  reception 
into  the  internal  seminary.  Father  Andrew  Ferari, 
F.  X.  Dahmen,  a  subdeacon,  and  Joseph  Tichitoli,  a 
subdeacon,  were  admitted  to  the  novitiate  on  3  Dec., 
1818,  in  St.  Louis. 

Early  in  1818  the  beginnings  of  an  establish- 
ment were  made  at  the  Barrens,  Perry  Co.,  Mis- 
souri, and  thither  the  novitiate  was  transferred  and 
E laced  under  Father  Rosati.  In  1820,  a  small  log 
ouse  twenty-five  by  eighteen  feet  was  occupied  by 
priests,  seminarians,  ana  brothers.  In  1820,  Portly 
after  writing  to  Father  Rosati  of  his  joy  at  the  near 
prospect  of  goin^  to  work  among  the  Indians,  Father 
de  Ajidreis  died  m  the  odour  of  sanctity^  The  process 
of  his  beatification  has  been  begun  (1910).  In  a  few 
years  a  large  brick  building  arose  and  gradually  the 
splendid  group  of  buildings,  church,  mother-house  of 
tne  Lazarists  of  the  West,  and  apostolic  college  were 
added.  The  early  days  were  fiul  of  missionary  ac- 
tivity for  the  new  community.  They  gave  the  first 
real  impetus  to  the  progress  of  the  Church  in  lUinois. 
Missouri,  Arkansas,  Indiana,  Mississippi,  and  Texas 
were  the  scenes  of  missionary  journeys.  Here  and 
there  churches  were  established  but  tnese  were  gen- 
erally relinquished,  as  diocesan  priests  were  found  to 
take  them.  Father  Rosati.  who  had  been  appointed 
superior  by  Father  de  Andreis,  wrote  in  1822:  "We 
are,  19  March,  ten  priests,  three  clerics,  and  six 
brothers."  He  refused  the  post  of  Vicar  Apostolic 
of  Florida  and  only  the  peremptory  command  of  the 
pope  made  him  accept  the  coadjutorship  of  New 
Orleans.  Though  overburdened  with  wonc  he  con- 
tinued still  to  hold  the  office  of  superior  of  the  Lasa- 
rists  until  1830  when  Father  Tomatore  arrived  from 
Rome. 

In  the  year  1835  theprovince  of  the  United  States  was 
formed.  Rev.  John  Timon,  bom  at  Conewago,  Penn., 
in  1797,  was  appointed  visitor.  He  became  first 
Bishop  of  Buffalo,  dyine  in  1867.  With  Father  Odin 
(q.  v.),  afterwards  Archbishop  of  New  Orleans,  he 
had  done  ^reat  work  in  Texas  whejre  the  Lazarists 
succeeded  m  having  the  State  restore  to  the  Church 
the  property  it  had  taken  when  Texas  separated  from 
Mexico.  The  parish  of  La  Salle,  Illinois,  a  centre  for 
the  missionary  labours  of  the  Lazarists,  was  estab- 
lished in  1838  and  they  still  minister  to  the  faithful 
there.  The  same  year,  1838,  a  school  was  begun 
at  Cape  Girardeau,  Missouri,  by  Father  Odin-  where 


MISSION 


367 


MISSION 


a  church  had  been  opened  two  years  before.  This 
was  the  commencement  of  St.  Vincent's  College,  Cape 
Ginirdeau.  In  1893,  the  theological  department  of  tne 
Gape  was  transferred  to  the  Kenrick  Seminary  in  St. 
Louis  directed  by  the  Lazarists  with  Aloysius  J.  Meyer 
as  superior.  In  1900  a  preparatory  semina^  was  added 
to  tne  theological  department  in  St.  Louis.  The 
Seminary  of  the  Assumption  of  Bayou  La  Fourche 
was  placed  in  the  hands  of  the  Lazarists  by  Bishop 
Blanc.  It  was  destroyed  by  fire.  Rebuilt  in  New 
Orleans  it  was  not  occupied  until  the  Lazarists  opened 
tiiere  the  seminary  of  St.  Louis,  but  the  fewness  of 
the  candidates  for  the  priesthood  did  not  justify  a 
separate  institution  and  it  was  closed  again  in  1907. 
Since  1849  St.  Stephen's  Church  in  New  Orleans  with 
its  schools,  hospitals,  and  orphan  asylum  has  been 
cared  for  by  the  Lazarists.    They  also  have  charge 


ay  t 
)h'8, 


of  St.  Joseph's,  established  in  1858  and  St.  Catherine  s, 
for  the  coloiu^d  people  of  the  whole  city. 

Between  the  years  1842  and  1847  the  Bishops  of 
Cincinnati,  Louisville,  Philadelphia,  and  New  York 
urged  the  visitor  to  take  charge  of  their  respective 
seminaries,  to  which  by  the  advice  of  his  council 
he  consented.  These  seminaries  remained  in  the 
charge  of  the  Lazarists  for  a  few  years,  but  most  of 
them  were  given  up  owing  to  the  withdrawal  of 
European  Lazarists  to  their  own  land  where  religious 
disturbances  had  ceased,  and  the  promotion  of  mem- 
bers to  the  episcopacy.  The  New  York  seminary, 
after  its  removal  from  La  Fargeville  to  Fordham  was 
accepted  by  the  Lazarists  at  the  request  of  Bishop 
Hugnes.  Father  Anthony  Penco,  who  was  made 
superior,  did  not  approve  of  the  seminarians  teaching 
in  the  college,  so  the  community  retired  from  the 
work.  For  eleven  years  the  Lazarists  had  charge  of 
the  diocesan  seminary  at  Philadelphia.  They  had 
been  invited  there  by  Bishop  Francis  Patrick  Kenrick. 
His  former  professor  at  the  Propaganda,  Father  Tomar 
tore,  presided  for  a  time  over  the  seminary.  The 
community  withdrew  from  the  seminary,  in  1854,  when 
Father  Thaddeus  Amat  (q.  v.)  the  superior  was  made 
Bishop  of  Monterev,  Cal.  The  Colle^  or  Seminary 
of  Our  Lady  of  the  Angels  was  foimded  m  1856  by  Rev. 
John  Joseph  Lynch,  \mo  left  it  when  called  to  become 
Bishop  and  Archbishop  of  Toronto.  It  became  the 
Niagara  University  in  1883.  Its  deceased  presidents 
have  been  Rev.  John  O'Reilly  (b.  1802;  d.  1862), 
Rev.  Thomas  J.  Smith,  afterwaras  visitor.  Rev.  R.  E.  V. 
Rice  (b.  1837;  d.  1878)^and  Rev.  P.  V.  Kavanaugh 
(b.  1842;  d.  1899).  The  Immaculate  Conception 
parish  in  Bidtimore  was  founded  by  the  Rev.  Mark 
Antimony  in  1850.  He  was  succeeded  by  the  saintly 
Father  Joseph  Giustiniani  (b.  1811 ;  d.  1886)  who  built 
the  present  oeautiful  church  and  schools.  In  1850  the 
parish  at  Emmitsburg,  Md.,  was  placed  in  charge  of 
the  Lazarists  and  there  resided  the  Rev.  Mariano 
Mailer,  first  director  from  St.  Vincent's  priests  of  the 
Sisters  of  Charity  when  Mother  Seton's  Sisters  were 
affiliated  to  the  central  house  in  Paris.  Father  Mai- 
ler's successors  in  the  office  of  director  of  the  Daugh- 
ters of  Charity  of  the  province  of  the  United  States 
were  Rev.  Francis  Burlando  (b.  1814;  d.  1873), 
1863-1873;  Rev.  Felix  Guedry  (b.  1833;  d.  1893), 
1873-1877;  Rev.  Alexis  Mandine  (b.  1832;  d.  1892), 
1877-1892;  Rev.  Sylvester  V.  Haire,  1892-1894;  Rev. 
Robert  A.  Lennon,  1894-1907;  Rev.  James  J.  Sul- 
livan, 1907.  This  province  was  divided  in  1910,  Rev. 
J.  J.  Sullivan  becoming  director  of  the  western  with 
headq^uarters  at  St.  Louis,  Mo.,  and  the  Rev.  John 
P.  Cnbbins  director  of  the  eastern  and  residing  at 
Emmitsburg,  Md.  St.  Vincent's  Church,  German- 
town,  was  established  in  1851  by  Father  Domenec. 
who  was  consecrated  Bishop  of  Pittsbui^g  in  1860. 
Hie  mother-house  for  the  United  States  was  trans- 
ferred from  St.  Louis  to  Germantown  in  1868.  There 
magnificent  buildings  in  Chelten  Avenue  have  been 
erected,  includmg  a  house  of  studies,  an   internal 


seminary,  and  an  apostolic  school,  as  well  as  a  beauti- 
ful churcn. 

Father  Philip  Bor^na  laboiued  in  Brooklyn  at  St. 
Mary's  Church,  Williamsburg,  during  the  year  1843- 
44.  A  later  date,  1868,  saw  the  beginnings  of  St.  John 
the  Baptist's  Church  and  College,  the  growth  of  which 
has  been  constant.  The  first  president  was  Father  John 
Theophilus  Landry  (b.  1839;  d.  1899).  The  diocesan 
seminary  of  Brooldyn  (1891)  has  been  under  the  care  of 
the  Lazarists  since  its  establishment.  In  1865  Los 
Angeles  college  was  opened.  From  1875  in  Chicago 
dates  St.  Vincent's  Church  and  College,  now  De  Paul 
University.  In  1888  the  province  of  the  United 
States  was  divided;  the  western,  with  the  mother- 
house  at  the  old  St.  Mary's  Seminary,  Perryville, 
Missouri '  the  eastern  retaining  as  the  newer  mother- 
house,  St.  Vincent's  Seminary,  Germantx)wn.  In 
1905  Holy  Trinity  College,  with  an  especially  fine 
equipment  for  engineering,  was  built  at  Dallas,  Texas, 
and  St.  Thomas'  Seminary  at  Denver,  Col.,  in  1907.  A 
mission  house  was  opened  at  Springfield,  Mass.,  in 
1903  and  another  at  Opetika,  Alabama,  19 10.  Mission 
bands  are  also  stationed  at  Germantown,  Pa.,  and  at 
Niagara,  N.  Y.,  in  the  East,  and  at  St.  Louis  and 
Perryville.  Mo.,  in  the  West. 

Since  Father  Timon  the  visitors  have  been:  Rev. 
Mariano  Mailer  (b.  1817;  d.  1892),  1847-1850;  Rev. 
Anthony  Penco  (b.  1813;  d.  1875),  1850-1855; 
Rev.  John  Masnou  fpro-visitor]  (b.  1813  ;  d.  1893), 
1855-1856,  recalled  to  Spain  and  made  visitor  there; 
Rev.  Stephen  V.  Rj^n  (b.  1825,  d.  1896),  1857-1867, 
when  he  was  made  Bishop  of  Buffalo ;  Rev.  John  Hay- 
den  (b.  1831;  d.  1872),  1867-1872;  Rev.  James  Ro- 
lando (b.  1816;  d.  1883),  1872-1879;  Rev.  Thomas  J. 
Smith  (b.  1832;  d.  1905),  1879-1905.  In  1888  the 
Rev.  James  McGill  became   head  of    the   eastern 

Srovince;  at  his  resignation  (1909),  the  Rev.  P. 
[cHale  became  visitor.  In  the  West  Father  Smith's 
successors  have  been  Rev.  William  Barnwell  (b. 
1862;  d.  1906,  a  few  months  after  his  appoint- 
ment) and  tiie  present  visitor  the  Rev.  Thomas 
Finney.  The  two  provinces  number  over  two  hun- 
dred priests  who  have  charge  of  six  colleges,  one  pre- 
paratory seminary,  two  apostolic  schools  for  students 
aspiring  to  become  Lazarists,  four  theological  sem- 
inaries, about  fifteen  churches,  and  about  eighty 
lay  brothers  and  scholastics.  Lazarists  from  the 
Polish  province  have  churches  for  their  fellow  coun- 
trymen, at  Conshohocken  and  Philadelphia,  Penn., 
at  Derby  and  New  Haven,  Conn.,  whence  also  they  go 
to  preach  Polish  missions.  The  Polish  Lazarists  are 
also  preparing  to  build  a  college  at  Erie,  Penn.,  1910. 
Two  Lazarists  from  Barcelona  province  in  1908 
began  work  for  the  Spanish  in  Philadelphia,  where 
they  have  a  church  and  conduct  night  classes,  and  an 
employment  agencv.  The  establishments  of  the  Laz- 
arists at  Ponce  and  San  Juan,  Porto  Rico,  as  well  as 
those  at  Manila.  Calbayog,  Cebu,  Jaro,  ana  Nueva  Ca- 
ceres  in  the  Philippine  Islands  may  also  be  mentioned 
in  connexion  with  the  Lazarists  of  the  United  States. 

Abelly,  Vie  du  VSnirabU  Senriteur  de  DieUt  Vincent  de  Paul 
(Paris.  1664):  Bouqaud,  VHistoire  de  Saint  Vincent  dePaiU, 
tr.  Brady  (New  York,  1899);  Maynard,  Saint  Vincent  de 
Patdt  new  edition,  4  vob. ;  Helyot,  Hittoire  dee  Ordrea  R&- 
ligieux  et  Militairea  (8  vols^  Paris,  1792)  \Diciionnaire  des 
Ordrea  Religieux  (3  vols.,  Paris,  1848);  Henrion,  Tabl&iu 
dee  ConorSgalione  Religieueea  (Paris,  1831) ;  Piolbt,  Lee 
Miaeione  CatHoliquea  Praneaiaea  (Paris,  1874);  AnruUea  de  la 
Congrigation  de  ta  Miaaion  18S4-19W:  there  are  Italiaa,  Ger- 
man, Spanish,  and  PoUsh  editions,  and  an  English  edition,  1894- 
1910;  Mhnoirea  de  la  Congregation  de  la  miaaion;  Polognet 
Madagaacar,  AlgSrie  (4  vob.,  Paris,  1866);  Fayier,  Pekin  (Po- 
kins,  1897);  Pgbset.  Vie  de  M.  Etienne  (Paris,  1881);  Boyle. 
St.  Vincent  de  Paul  arid  the  Vincentiana  in  Ireland,  ScoUand,  and 
England^  16S8-1909  (London,  1909);  [BurlandoJ,  Skelchea 
of  the  Life  of  Very  Jtteverend  Felix  de  Andreia  (Baltimore, 
1861:  enlarged  edition,  St.  Louis,  1900):  Ryan,  Early  Laaariat 
Miaaiona  arid  Miaaionariea  (in  U.  S.),  (1887). 

A  complete  bibliojnuphy  is  to  be  found  in  the  Annala  oftha 
CongregaHon  of  the  Miaaion^  No.  40  (Emmitsburg,  Md..  1903). 
See  also  bibliography  under  Vincent  de  Paul,  St. 

B.  Randolph. 


MI88IONABIS8 


368 


MI8SI0NAB7 


MiBsionarieB  of  St.  Oharles  Borromoo,  Congbb- 
GATiON  OF,  founded  by  John  Baptist  Scalabrini. 
Bishop  of  Piacenza,  Ital^r  (d.  1  June,  1905) ;  approved 
in  principle  by  Leo  XIII  in  a  Brief  dated  25  November, 
1887 ;  constitution  definitively  approved  by  a  decree  of 
the  Sacred  Consr^ation  of  Propaganda,  3  October, 
1908.  The  expediency  of  providing  for  the  spiritual — 
and  also,  in  some  degree,  for  the  temporal — ^needs  of 
Italian  emigrants  to  America  was  forcibly  brought 
home  to  Bishop  Scalabrini  by  the  pathetic  spectacle  of 
a  number  of  such  emigrants  waitmg  in  the  great  rail- 
way station  of  Milan.  Acting  upon  this  inspiration, 
and  encouraged  by  Cardinal  Simeoni,  then  Cardinal 
Prefect  of  Propaganda,  the  bishop  acquired  at  Piacensa 
a  residence  which  he  converted  into  "The  Christo- 
pher Columbus  Apostolic  Institution",  forming  there 
a  community  of  priests  which  was  to  be  the  nucleus  of 
a  new  congregation. 

This  congregation,  which  was  henceforth  to  be  known 
as  the  ''Missionaries  of  St.  Charles  Borromeo",  was  to 
be  governed  b^  a  superior-general,  dependent  upon 
the  Congregation  of  Propaganda;  its  aim  was  to 
maintain  Catholic  faith  ana  practice  among  Italian 
emigrants  in  the  New  World,  and  "  to  ensure  as  far  as 
possible  their  moral,  civil,  and  economical  welfare"; 
it  was  to  provide  priests  for  the  emi^ants,  as  well  as 
committees  of  persons  who  should  give  the  good  ad- 
vice and  practical  direction  needed  by  poor  Italians 
newly  arrived  in  foreign  ports;  to  establish  churches, 
schools,  and  missionary  nomes  in  the  various  Italian 
colonies  in  North  and  South  America,  and  to  train 
youths  for  the  priesthood.  The  members  of  the  con- 
gregation promise  obedience  to  their  superiors  in  the 
congregation  and  the  ecclesiastical  hierarchy. 

Seven  priests  and  three  lay  brothers  of  Bishop 
ScalabrinTs  institute  left  Italy,  on  12  July,  1888,  of 
whom  two  priests  and  one  lay  brother  were  bound  for 
New  York,  five  priests  and  two  lay  brothers  for  vari- 
ous parts  of  Brazil.  On  this  occasion,  Cesare  Cantt!i, 
the  famous  Italian  historian,  addressed  to  the  Bishop 
of  Piacenza  some  memorable  words  of  congratulation, 
asking  leave  to  add  to  the  bishop's  blessing  on  the 
departing  missionaries,  ''the  prayers  of  an  old  man 
who  admires  a  courage  and  an  abnegation  so  full 
of  humility".  A  welcome  had  already  been  assured 
these  first  missionaries  of  the  congregation  by  a  com- 
mendatory letter  (1  June,  1888)  of  Leo  XIII  ad- 
dressed to  the  American  bishops. 

Immediately  after  their  arrival  in  New  York  the 
new  missionaries  were  enabled  to  secure  a  favourable 
site  in  Centre  Street,  where  there  was  a  colony  of 
Italians,  and  in  a  short  time  a  chapel  was  opened; 
soon  after  this  the  church  of  the  Resurrection  was 
opened  in  Mulbenr  Street;  lastly,  a  building  in 
Roosevelt  Street,  which  had  been  a  Protestant  place 
of  worship,  became  the  property  of  the  mission 
fathers  who  transformed  it  into  the  church  of  St. 
Joachim,  the  first  specially  Italian  church  in  the 
Diocese  of  New  YorK.  The  Society  of  St.  Raphael 
(see  Emigrant  Aid  Societies)  was  organized  at  Ellis 
Island.  The  good  work  thereafter  spread  rapidly 
through  the  continent.  The  United  States  and  Can- 
ada now  (1910)  contain  21  parish  churches,  besides 
several  chapels,  served  by  the  conm^tion;  in  Brazil 
the  fathers  nave  chaise  of  13  parish  cnurches,  mostly 
with  schools  attachea,  and  2  important  orphanages. 
The  two  provinces  (Eastern  and  Western)  of  the  con- 

regation  in  the  United  States  number  45  priests  and 
lay  brothers,  while  the  single  province  of  Brazil 
numbers  35  priests  and  5  lay  brothers. 

Victor  Cangiano. 

ISiBsionazies  of  St.  FrandB  da  Sales  of  Annecy. 

— Amid  the  many  activities  to  which  St.  Francis  de- 
voted himself,  he  long  had  the  desire  to  found  a 
society  of  missionary  priests.  This  wish,  however, 
was  not  to  find  its  realization  until  nearly  two  cen- 


turies after  his  death.  At  that  time  Monseigneur 
Riley,  a  successor  of  the  Saint  in  the  See  of  Annecy, 
broached  the  subject  of  such  a  society  to  Father 
Mermier,  who  haa  been  considering  the  same  idea. 
Accordingly,  Father  Mermier  put  the  design  into 
execution.  In  1830  the  institute  was  formed  with 
La  Feuillette  as  the  site  for  the  mother-house.  Thia 
was  solemnly  blessed  by  the  bishop  on  8  August,  1837, 
and  the  congregation  canonically  instituted  oy  him  on 
8  October,  18S8.  The  society  was  not  to  be  a  mere 
association  of  priests,  but  a  new  religious  congregation, 
boimd  by  simple  vows.  Hence  Father  Mermier,  Uie 
first  superior-general,  offered  himself  and  his  compan- 
ions to  the  pope  for  foreign  missions.  In  1845  his 
offer  was  accepted  by  the  Propaganda,  and  the  first  mis- 
sionaries of  St.  Francis  de  Sales  set  out  for  India.  Tlie 
work  has  prospered  and  since  that  time  more  than 
100  priests  ana  seminarians  have  been  sent  out  by  the 
con^^ation.  besides  many  lay  brothers.  More  than 
200  nuns  of  aifferent  orders  have  gone  out  at  the  call 
of  the  missionaries  to  help  them.  The  dioceses  of 
Nagpur  and  Vizagapatam  nave  always  been  governed 
by  prelates  belonging  to  this  institute.  At  Vizaga- 
patam the  first  vicar  Apostolic  was  Mgr  Nevret 
(1850) ;  he  was  succeeded  by  Mgr  Tissot,  first  bishop 
of  the  diocese.  The  present  occupant  of  the  see  is 
MfT  Clerc.  The  first  Bishop  oi  Naepur  was  Mgr 
Riccaz ;  after  him  came  Mgrs  Pelvat,  Crochet,  Bmia- 
venture,  and  Coppel.  In  England  the  fathers  have 
three  missions  in  the  Diocese  of  Cltfton.  Since  the 
persecution  of  1903,  the  congregation  has  been  obliged 
to  leave  Savoy  for  Englan<L  ^ere  the  juvenate,  the 
novitiate,  and  the  house  ot  studies  are  successfully 
carried  on.  Tlie  superiors-general  since  the  founda- 
tion are:  the  Ver^  Rev.  FaUiers  Mermier,  Gaiddon, 
Clavel,  Tissot,  Gojon,  and  Bouvard. 

EehoB  SaUiienit.  Revue  menauelle  (Fribourg,  1908 >  10); 
Almanadi  de  St.  Fnmcoia  de  Salee  (I^ons,  1900). 

LouiB  Vallubt. 
ISiBsionary  B6€tor.    See  Rector. 

Missionary  Society  of   St.  Paul  the  ApostlSp 

otherwise  known  as  the  Paulist  Fathers,  a  com- 
munity of  priests  for  ^ving  missions  and  domg  other 
Apostolic  works,  especially  for  making  converts  to  the 
Catholic  Faith.  It  was  founded^Jn  Rome  and  in  New 
York,  in  1858,  by  Father  Isaac  Thomas  Hecker,  with 
whom  were  associated  Augustine  F.  Hewit,  George 
Deshon,  Francis  A.  Baker,  and  Clarence  A.  Walworth. 
All  of  these  had  been  members  of  the  Congregation  of 
the  Most  Holy  Redeemer,  and  owing  to  certain  misun- 
derstandings nad  been  suspected  of  disloyalty  to  their 
order  and  accused  of  disobedience. 

In  order  to  set  matters  right  and  to  explain  their 
case  to  the  superior  general,  Father  Hecker  went  to 
Rome,  and  on  29  August,  1857,  three  days  after  his 
arrival,  was  expelled  from  the  Redemptorists.  This 
action  was  appealed  to  the  Holy  See  and  was  not  ap- 
proved. Father  Hecker  and  the  above  named  priests 
were  then  at  their  own  request  dispensed  from  their 
vows,  and  proceeded  to  form  the  new  community. 
Hecker  received  letters  from  Propaganda,  strongly 
recommending  him  and  his  associates  to  the  bishops 
of  the  United  States.  This  is  the  official  origin  of  toe 
Paulists. 

But  long  before  this,  however,  the  Holy  Spirit  ^ve 
Father  Hecker  distinct  and  unmistakable  intimations 
— ^to  use  his  own  words — that  he  was  "set  apart  to 
undertake  in  some  leading  and  conspicuous  way  the 
conversion  of  this  country ''.  He  ados  that  he  "  made 
an  explicit  statement  of  these  supernatural  visitations 
to  various  persons,  singly  and  in  common,  always  un- 
der compulsion  or  obedience  or  necessity".  These 
advisers  included  Cardinal  Bamabo,  the  Prefect  of 
Propaganda  at  this  time^  and  several  of  the  most  ap- 

Srovedf  directors  of  souls  m  Rome .  They  unanimously 
edded  that  he  acted  wisely  in  following  this  interior 
supernatural  guidance. 


inssioN  369  inssioN 

During  the  summer  of  1858  a  practical  begiiminff  of  though  not  seldom  given  separately.  The  effects  of 
their  apostolate  was  made  by  the  Paulists  in  New  thisapostolatehave  justified  Father  Hecker'slifelone 
York,  to  which  diocese  they  were  made  heartily  wel-  contention  that  America  is  a  ripe  field  for  the  zeal  of 
come  by  Archbishop  John  Hughes.  He  gave  them  a  Catholic  missionaries.  Many  Uiousands  of  converts 
pariah  in  what  was  then  a  suburb  and  is  now  the  heart  have  been  made,  some  immediately,  more  after  pro- 
of the  city.  As  they  had  given  missions  as  Redemp-  longed  examination  of  the  claims  of  the  Church,  and 
torists  in  all  parts  of  the  country,  they  were  well  and  multitudes  of  half-hearted  and  indifferent  Catholics 
favourably  known  to  the  bishops  and  clergy  and  were  have  been  restored  to  the  practice  of  their  religion,  a 
verv  popular  with  the  people.  They  were  all  men  of  result  which  so  invariably  follows  these  lectures  as  to 
abinty^  quite  above  the  ordinary  intellectual  standard,  give  them  a  very  high  place  in  the  work  of  "  stopping 
powemil  preachers,  and  of  mature  spirituality.  Father  the  leaks  ". 

Hedcer  especially  was  known  as  a  remarkable  man.        In  the  year  1894,  the  Paulists  introduced  missions 

a  leader  in  Catholic  thought,  of  profoimdlv  interior  to  non-CathoUcs  among  the  diocesan  clergy,  beginning 

spirit  of  prayer,  joined  to  such  a  taaX  for  souls  as  char-  with  the  Diocese  of  Cleveland.    This  work  has  now 

acteriaes  only  the  saints.   They  were  all  Americans  and  been  extended  into  over  twenty-five  American  dio- 

alloanverts,  and  under  their  foimder's  inspiration,  they  ceses,  and  also  into  England  and  Australia.     The 

developed  their  high  gifts  of  preaching,  of  writing,  numoer  of  secular  priests  actively  engaged  in  these 


and  of  the  guidance  of  souls.   To  provide  a  house  and  diocesan  apostolates  is  very  considerable.    For  the 

church  the  new  communitv,  having  but  a  handful  of  training,  and  in  many  cases  for  the  support,  of  these 

parishioners,  appealed  to  their  friends  everywhere  for  bands  of  convert-makers,  members  of  the  Paulist 

financial  help.   The  response  was  generous,  and  they  community  brought  about  j^he  establishment  of  the 

built  in  West  50th  Street,  a  convent  and  church  com-  Catholic  Mieusionary  Union,  a  corporation  whose  board 

bined,  which  in  later  years,  when  the  present  church  of  directors  is  controlled  bv  members  of  the  hierarchy. 

was  erected,  was  used   wholly   for  their  dwelling.  Under  its  direction,  but  administered  wholly  by  Pam- 

This  is  the  mother-house.    In  course  of  time  foimda-  ists,  the  Apostolic  Mission  House  was  opened  on  the 

tions  were  made  in  San  Francisco  and  Berkeley,  Call-  Catholic  University  grounds,  Washington,  D.  C,  in 

fomia;  Chicago,  Illinois;  Winchester,  Tennessee;  and  1903,  and  from  its  classes  most  of  the  diocesan  mis- 

Auatiny  Texas.    The  novitiate  and  house  of  studies  is  sionaries  have  been  recruited.    The  present  sovereign 

in  Washington,  D.  C,  the  scholastic  training  being  pontiff  wrote  to  Cardinal  Gibbons  a  letter  of  ap- 

aflUiated  to  liie  courses  of  the  Catholic  University.  proval  of  this  institution  in  September,  1908. 

A  progranune  of  rule  was  drawn  up  at  the  time  of  With  the  same  end  in  view  the  Paulists  have  vig- 

the  founding  of  the  conununity,  in  1858,  and  approved  orously  engaged  in  the  apostolate  of  the  press.    The 

by  Archbishop  Hughes.    This  served  all  neeclful  pur-  first  fathers  printed  and  circulated  their  sermons  in 

pooes  for  twenty  years,  when  it  was  much  enlarged,  the  earliest  years  of  the  commimity,  and  in   1865 

It  is  still  in  process  of  experiment  before  being  pre-  Father  Hecker  started  the  "Cathohc  World  Maga- 

sented  to  the  Holy  See  for  canonical  approbation.   Its  zine  ",  then  the  only  Catholic  monthly  in  the  country* 

Spiritual  features  are  substantially  the  same  routine  of  and  this  was  immediately  followed  by  an  organized 
evout  exercises,  in  private  and  m  conunon,  observed  propaganda  of  missionary  books,  pamphlets,  and 
by  the  original  fatners  while  Redemptorists.  Al-  tracts,  most  of  which  were  either  distributed  to 
though  the  Paulists  do  not  make  vows  of  religion,  Protestants  gratis  or  disposed  of  at  nominal  prices— 
thev  undertake  to  observe  the  evangelical  counsels  a  work  highly  praised  by  the  Second  Plenary  Cotmcil 
as  fervently  as  if  canonically  boimd  to  do  so.  This  of  Baltimore,  and  still  energetically  carried  on.  The 
is  expressed  in  the  formula  of  profession  as  a  ''whole-  Paulist  Fathers  also  consider  it  part  of  their  vocation 
hearted  determination  to  obey  the  rules,  to  as-  to  influence  the  secular  press  in  tne  interests  of  Catho- 
pire  after  Christian  and  religious  perfection,  to  devote  Uc  truth.  The  preaching  of  missions  to  Catholics  also 
oneself  energetically  to  the  labours  of  the  Apostolic  has  en^ged  much  of  the  zeal  of  the  Paulists. 
ministry^  and  to  persevere  in  the  same  vocation  to  the  No  mnovation  on  traditional  Catholic  methods, 
end  of  hie".  The  training  of  the  members  is  provided  least  of  all  on  the  Catholic  spirit,  has  ever  been  ob- 
for  in  the  exercises  of  the  novitiate  and  house  ot  studies,  served  in  their  public  utterances  or  ministrations. 
Permanency  in  the  community  is  secured  by  this  orig-  though  the  personal  tone  and  character  of  the  Paulists 
inal  training,  and  the  act  of  i)rofession  witnesses  to  a  has  imparted  to  their  discourses  and  writings  a  pecul- 
well  matur^  purpose  of  striving  afterperfection  and  iar  zest.  Parish  work  has  occupied  many  members  of 
to  a  sincere  love  of  community  life.  To  this  bond  of  the  institute,  characterized  by  special  care  in  prepar- 
union  is  joined  that  of  z^  for  souls  actuating  the  ing  and  preaching  sermons,  the  training  of  chilaren, 
members  of  the  institute  individually  and  in  conunon.  the  reUef  of  the  poor,  the  beauty  and  dignit^r  of  cere- 
Father  Hecker's  estimate  of  the  fimdamental  principle  monial,  and  the  proper  rendering  of  the  official  music 
of  the  Paulist  life  is  as  follows:  "The  desire  for  per-  of  the  Church.  The  making  of  converts  is  a  promi- 
sonal  perfection  is  the  foimdation  stone  of  a  religious  nent  feature  of  their  parish  activities.  Constant 
community;  when  this  fails,  it  crumbles  to  pieces."  endeavours  are  made  to  attract  non-Catholics  to  the 
And  again:  "The  main  purpose  of  each  Paulist  must  sermons  and  the  public  services  of  the  Church,  as  well 
be  the  attainment  of  personal  perfection  by  the  prao-  as  to  private  conference,  and  converts  are  always 
tioe  of  those  virtues  without  which  it  cannot  be  se-  under  instruction. 

cured — ^interior  fidelity  to  grace,  prayer,  detachment  The  number  of  Paulists  is  now  67,  of  those  not  yet 

and  the  like."                                                              ,  ordained,  23.    The  increase,  though  not  numerically 

In  the  external  order,  the  Paulist  vocation  is  pn-  great,  has  been  continuous,  the  largei  number  of  the 

manly,  as  was  the  original  vocation  of  Father  Hecker,  novices  being  attracted  by  the  non-Cathohc  missions. 

ifae  conversion  of  non-Catholics.     It  embraces  all  ,  B«^»  ^^'^l^^K^P^T^J^^^  ^,^%  ^^^TLX?'*^* 

omnche.  of  the. Catholic  aportolate.  lecturing  and  '«»)'  '^^''^'^ '-"" ^'^ ^-^^^^^^l 

preachmg,  pnntmg  and  distribution  of  nussionary        --,    .       --  ,  •  *i.    «        j  «    -T    a     ^i 

Kterature,  Mid  private  conference  with  earnest  in-  Marion  Helpen  of  the  Sacred  Heart.    See  In- 

quirers.  The  spread  of  Catholicism  holds  the  first  place  grruTB  op  the  Mission  Helpbrs  of  the  Sacbbd 

both  in  their  prayers  and  in  their  active  life;  it  out-  Heabt. 

ranks  in  importance  all  other  external  labours.  It  is  MiBaion  TndiauB  (of  California). — ^A  name  of  no 
on  this  account  that  Paulists  are  most  commonly  real  ethnic  significance,  but  used  as  a  convenient  pop- 
known  both  in  and  out  of  the  Church  as  convert  ular  and  official  term  to  designate  the  modem  de- 
makers.  Missions  for  non-CathoUcs  are  systematically  scendants  of  those  tribes  of  California,  of  various 
fl^iven.  being  very  often  joined  to  Catholic  missions,  stocks  and  languages,  evangelized  by  the  Franciscans 
X.— 24 


MISSION  37U  inSSION 

in  the  latter  part  of  the  eighteenth  and  earlypart  of    present  limits  of  San  Francisco  City.    20.  San  Rafael 
the  nineteenth  centuries,  beginning  in  1769.    The  his-    (Aicangel) :   Payeras,    1817.  Indian  name  Aw^Uiiwi 


tone  California  missions  were  twenty-one  in  niunber,  (Nanaguami).    North  of  San  Francisco  Bay,  at  pre 

excluding  branch  foimdations,  extending  along  the  ent  San  Rafael,  Marin  Co.    21.  San  Francisco  Solano, 

coast  or  at  a  short  distance  inland  from  San  Diego  in  alias  Sonoma:  Altimira,  1823.  Indian  name,  Sonoma 

the  south,  to  Sonoma,  beyond  San  Francisco  Bay.  in  (?).   North  of  San  Francisco  Bay,  at  present  Sonoma, 

the  north.    Besides  these,  two  others,  established  in  Sonoma  Co. 

1780  in  the  extreme  south-eastern  comer  of  the  pres-        II.  Tribes  and  Languages. — Nowhere  in  North  or 

ent  state,  had  a  brief  existence  of  less  than  a  year  South  America  was  there  a  greater  diversity  of  lan- 

when  they  were  destroyed  by  the  Indians.    As  itkeir  gua^  and  dialects  than  in  California.    Of  fortv-six 

period  was  so  short,  and  as  they  had  no  connexion  native  linguistic  stocks  recojOiised  within  the  limits  of 

with  the  coast  missions,  they  will  be  treated  in  an-  the  United  States  by  phfiologists,  twenty-two,  or 

other  place  (see  Yuma  Indians).  practically  one-half,  were  represented  in  California,  of 

I.  Mission  Sites. — ^The  following  are  the  twenty-  which  only  six  extended  beyond  its  borders.    Seven 

one  missions  in  order  from  south  to  north,  with  name  of  distinct  linguistic  stocks  were  f oimd  within  the  terri- 

f oimder,  location,  and  date  of  foimding.    In  several  tory  of  actual  mission  colonisation,  from  Scm  Diego  to 

cases  the  mission  was  removed  from  the  original  site  Sonoma,  while  in  the  border  territory  north  and  east 

to  another  more  suitable  at  no  great  distance.    It  will  from  which  recruits  were  later  drawn,  at  least  four  more 

be  noticed  that  the  northwara  advance  does  not  en-  were  represented.    As  most  of  the  dialects  have  per- 

tirely  accord  with  the  chronological  succession:  ished  without  record,  it  is  impossible  to  say  how  many 

1.  San  Diego  (de  AlcaU):  f oimder,  Fr.  Junlpero  there  may  have  been  originally,  or  to  differentiate  or 
Serra,  1769.  Indian  name  of  site,  Cosoy.  At  Old  locate  them  closely.  As  tribal  oiganization  such  as 
Town,  suburb  of  present  San  Diego,  in  coimty  of  same  existed  amon^  the  Eastern  Indians  was  almost  un- 
name.  Removed  1774  to  Nipaguay  (Indian  name),  known  in  California,  where  the  rancheria,  or  village 
north  bank  of  San  Dic^,  six  miles  aoove  present  city,  hamlet,  was  usually  the  laxgest  political  unit,  the 
2.  San  Luis  Rey  (de  Francia) :  Fr.  Fermm  Francisco  names  commonly  used  to  designate  dialectic  or  local 
Lasuen,  1798.  Indiah  name,  Tacayme.  Four  mUes  groups  are  generally  merely  arbitrary  teims  of  con- 
up  San  Luis  Rey  River,  south  side,  San  Diego  Co.  (a)  venience.  For  the  linguistic  classification  the  princi- 
San  Antonio  de  Pala,  branch  mission:  Fr.  Antonio  pal  authorities  are  Kroeber,  Barrett,  and  other  ex- 
Peyr&,  1816.  At  PiJa,  about  20  miles  above,  north  perts  of  the  University  of  California, 
side  of  same  river,  in  same  coimty.  3.  San  Juan  1.  PomOf  or  Kukmapan,  Stodc, — ^The  Indians  of  this 
Capistrano:  Serra,  Nov.,  1776.  Indian  name,  Sajirit  stock  bordered  on  the  northern  frontier  of  the  mia- 
or  Quanis-savit.    At  present  San  Juan,  Orange  Co.  sion  area,  and  although  no  mission  was  actually 


4.  San  Gabriel  (Arcangel) :  Serra,  Sept.,  1771.  Indian  tablished  in  their  territory  in  the  earlier  period,  nmn- 
name,  Sibagna,  or  Tobiscagna.  San  Gabriel  River,  bens  of  them  were  brought  into  the  missions  of  San 
about  ten  miles  east  of  Los  Angeles,  Los  Angeles  Co.  Rafael  and  San  Francisco  Solano.    Broadly  speakins, 

5.  San  Fernando  (Rey  de  Espafia):  Lasuen,  Sept.,  the  Porno  territoiy  included  the  Russian  River  and  aS- 
1797.  Indian  name,  Pashecgna.  At  present  Fer-  jacent  coast  region  with  all  but  a  small  portion  61  the 
nando,  Los  Angeles  Co.  6.  San  Buenaventura:  Serra,  Clear  Lake  basm.  Barrett  has  classified  their  numer- 
1782.  Indian  name,  Miscanaga.  Ventura,  Ventura  ous  local  bands  and  rancheriaa  into  seven  dialectic 
Co.  7.  Santa  Barbara:  Palou,  1786.  Indian  name,  divisions,  but  all  probably  mutually  intelligible.  Of 
Taynayan.  Santa  Barbara,  Santa  Barbara  Co.  8.  their  southern  bsmds,  some  of  the  Gallinomero  (or 
Santa  In^s:  Tapis,  1804.  Indian  name,  Alajulapu.  Kainomero),  of  lower  Russian  River,  were  brought 
North  side  Santa  Inez  River,  about  present  Santa  into  San  Rafael  mission  and  the  Gualala  also  were 
Inez,  Santa  Barbara  Co.  9.  Purfsima  Concepcl6n:  represented  either  there  or  at  Sonoma.  The  so-called 
Palou,  1787.  Indian  name,  Algsaciipf .  Near  pres-  "  Diggers  "  of  the  present  mission  schools  at  Ukiah  and 
ent  Lompoc,  Santa  Barbara  Co.    10.  San  Luis  Obispo  Kelseyville  are  chiefly  Pomo. 

(de  Tolosa) :  Serra,  1892.    Indian  name,  Tishlini.   In  2.   Yukian  Stock. — ^The  Yuki  tribes  were  in  four 

S resent  San  Luis  Obispo  town  and  county.     11.  San  divisions,  two  of  which  were  north  of  the  Pomo  terri- 

[iguel:  Lasuen,  July,   1797.    Indian  name  Vahi^  toiy  and  therefore  beyond  the  sphere  of  mission  influ- 

(Vatica),  or  Chulam  (Cholame).    West  bank  Salinas  ence.  The  two  southern  bodies,  originally  one,  epeak- 

River,  at  present  San  Miguel,  San  Luis  Obispo  Co.    12.  ing  one  language  with  slight  dialectic  variations,  and 

San  Antonio  (de  Padua) :  Serra,  July,  1771.    Indian  commonly  known  as  Wappo  (from  Spanish  mtapo),  oo- 

name,  Teshhaya,  or  Sextapay.    East  side  San  An-  cupied  (a)  a  small  territory  south  of  Clear  L^e  ana  east 

tonio  River,  about  six  miles  from  present  Jolon,  Mon-  from  the  present  Kelseyville ;  (b)  a  laiger  territory  in- 

terey  Co.     13.  (Nuestra  Sefiora  de  la)  Soledad:  raJou,  eluding  upper  Napa  River  and  a  porticm  of  Russian 

Oct.,  1791.    Indian  name,  ChuttiugeUs.    East  side  River,  and  extending  approximately  from  Geyserville 

Salinas  River,  about  four  miles  from  present  Soledad,  to  Napa.  They  were  prooably  represented  at  Sonoma 

Monterey  Co.     14.  San  Carlos  (Borromeo,  de  Monte-  mission,  as  they  probably  are  also  imder  the  name  of 

rey"),  alias  Carmelo:  Serra,  1770.    Indian  name  (sec-  "  Diggns  "  in  the  present  mission  school  at  Kelseyville. 

ona  site),  Eslenes  (Esselen?).    First  at  present  Monte-  3.    rTirUun,  or  Copehan,  Stock, — ^This  stock  held 

rey,  but  removed  in  same  year  to  Carmelo  River,  a  few  all  (excepting  the  Wappo  projection)  between  the 

miles  distant,  Monterey  Co.     15.  San  Juan  Bautista:  Sacramento  River  and  the  main  Coast  Range  from  San 

Lasuen,  24  June,  1797.    Indian  name,  Popelout,  or  Pablo  (San  Francisco)  and  Suisun  Bays  northwards  to 

Popeloutchom.     West  side  San  Benito  River,  about  Mount  Shasta,  including  both  banks  of  the  river  in  its 

present  San  Juan  and  six  miles  from  Sanrent,  in  San  upper  course.    The  various  dialects  are  grouped  by 

benito   Co.     16.  Santa  Cruz:    Palou,   Sept.,  1791.  ifroeber  into  three  main  divisions  or  languages,  of 

Indian  name,  Aulintac.  Present  Santa  Cruz,  Santa  which  the  southern,  or  Patwin,  includes  all  soutn  from 

Clara  Co.     17.  Santa  Clara  (de  As(s):  Serra,  1777.  about  Stony  Creek,  and  possibly  also  those  of  Sonoma 

Indian  name,  Thamien.    First  established  near  Guada-  Creek  on  tne  bay.    Indians  of  these  southern  bands 

lupe  River,  about  head  of  San  Francisco  Bay.  Re-  were  brought  into  the  missions  of  Sonoma,  San  R»> 

moved  in  1781  three  miles  to  present  site  of  Santa  fael,  and  even  San  Francisco  (Dolores)  across  the  bay. 

Clara,  Santa  Clara  Co.    18.  San  Jos6 :  Lasuen,  1 1  June,  At  Sonoma  mission,  among  others,  we  find  recorded  the 

1797.    Indian  name,  Oroysom.  East  of  San  Francisco  Napa  and  Suisim  bands.    Accoiding  to  Kroeber  the 

Bay,  about  fifteen  miles  north  of  San  Jos6  C^ty  near  whole  region  of  Putah  Creek  was  thus  left  vacant  un- 

present  Irvin^n,  in  Alameda  Co.    19.  San  Francisco  til  repopulated  after  1843  by  Indians  who  had  origi- 

(de  Asls),  alias  Dolores:  Serra,  Oct.,  1776.    Within  nally  been  taken  thence  to  Sonoma  missian. 


371 

4.  Moquelvmnan,  or  Miwok,  SUxk.—Tiie  numerous  RaFael  and  Sonoma,  both  of  which  were  established 

banda  of  this  stock  occupied  three  diatiuct  areas,  vi*.,  within  their  territory.     In  1824  nearly  500  Indians  of 

(a)  Northern:  A  very  small  territoiy  south-east  of  this  group  were  brought  back  from  Sui  Francisco  and 

Clear  I^ke  and  about  the  heads  of  Putah  Creek,  in  San  Jos^  to  reside  m  the  new  mission   of  Sonoma. 

lAke  Co.,  occupied  by  a  b»Tid  known  as  Oleomi,  or  The  whole  group  was  known  as  Olamentke  by  the 

Guenock  (7),  speaking  a  language  apparently  distinct  Rusriana.    Among  the  principal  bands  or  villages 


from  tbe  othem  of  the  stock.    Tbey  seem  mostly  to  were  Bolina,  Tamal,  Cfaokuyem,  Licatuit,  Petaluma, 

have  been  gathered  into  Sonoma  mission,     (b^  West-  Sonoma,   Soclan,    Olompali,    Cotati,    Guvinen,  with 

era:  A  lat^r  territory  lying  north  of  San  Francisco  others  of  less  no(«.     The  celebrated  fignting  chief, 

Bay  to  beyond  Bod^a  Bay,  and  extending  from  the  Marin,  was  of  the  Licatuit  band,     (c)  Eastern:   The 

coosteastwardstobeyond  Sonoma,  included  within  the  main  area,  occupying  neariy  the  whole  r^on  east  of 

present  Marin  and  lower  Sonoma  Counties.     Thevari-  San   Jooouin   River  to  the   heads  of  the   tributary 

oua  bands  of  this  area  spoke  the  same  lamniage  in  two  streams,  from  Cosumnes  River  on  the  north  to  Fresno 

ati(^tly  different  dialects  (three,  according  to  Mer-  River  on  the  south.    Their  numerous  bands,  collect- 

liam)  and  were  gathered  into  the  two  missions  of  San  ively  known  usually  as  Miwok,  spoke  four  diSereat 


inssioN                     372  inssioN 

dialects,  of  which  that  of  the  north-western  plains  sec-  Telamni  from  Tulare  lake  and  eastward  were  brought 

tion  may  be  considered  a  distinct   language.    Al-  into  San  Antonio.    A  few  are  now  gathered  upon 

though  no  missions  were  established  in  the  territoi^  of  Tule  River  reservation,  while  a  few  others  still  r&- 

the  Miwok,  large  numbers  of  them  were  brought  mto  main  in  their  old  homes. 

San  Juan  Bautista,  Santa  Clara,  and  San  Jos6.  9.  Chumashan  Stock. — ^The  Indians  of  this  stock  held 

5.  Costanoan  Stock. — The  territory  of  this  lingui&-  approximately  the  territory  from  San  Luis  Obispo 
tic  group  extended  from  the  coast  inland  to  the  San  Bay  south  to  "Point  Mugu,  including  the  Santa  Maria, 
Joaquin  River,  and  from  San  Francisco  and  Suisun  Santa  In^,  and  Santa  Clajra  Rivers,  the  adjacent  east- 
Bays  on  the  north  southwards  to  about  the  line  of  em  slope  of  the  Coast  Range  divide  and  the  islands  of 
Point  Sur,  including  the  seven  missions  of  San  Fran-  Santa  Cruz,  Santa  Rosa,  and  San  Miguel.  The  mis- 
cisco  (Dolores),  San  Jo84,  Santa  Clara,  Santa  Cruz,  San  sions  San  Luis  Obispo,  Purfsima,  Santa  In^,  Santa 
Juan  Bautista,  San  Carlos,  and  Soledad.  Although  Barbara,  and  Sfim  Buenaventura  were  all  within  this 
there  was  no  true  tribal  organization,  a  number  of  area.  They  seem  to  have  been  represented  also  at 
divisional  names  are  recognized,  probably  correspond-  San  Miguel.  There  were  at  least  seven  dialects,  vii., 
ing  approximately  to  dialectic  distinctions.  C^  the  at  each  mission,  on  Santa  Cruz,  and  on  Santa  Rosa. 
peninsula,  and  later  gathered  into  San  Francisco  mis-  That  of  San  Luis  Obispo  was  sufficiently  distinct  to  be 
sion  were  the  Romonan  (at  present  San  Francisco),  considered  a  language  oy  itself. 

Ahwaste,  Altahmo,  Tulomo,  and  Olhone,  or  Costano  10.  Shoshonean  SUxk. — ^This  is  the  first  stock  within 
proper,  all  apparently  of  one  language  in  different  dia-  the  mission  area  which  extended  beyond  the  limits  of 
lects.  The  Saclan,  about  Oakland,  were  in  the  same  California,  the  cognate  tribes  within  the  state  being  an 
mission.  The  Karkin  along  Carquinez  straits  and  the  outpost  of  the  same  great  linguistic  group  which  in- 
Polye  further  south  were  ^thered  into  San  Jos^.  eludes  the  Piute,  Ute,  Comanche,  and  Pima  of  the 
Santa  Clara  had  two  native  aialects,  while  Santa  Cruz  United  States,  the  Yaqui,  Tarumari,  and  famous  Ax- 
apparently  had  another.  About  Sem  Juan  Bautista  tec  of  Mexico.  The  five  missions  of  San  Fernando,  San 
was  spoken  the  Mutsun  dialect,  known  through  a  Gabriel,  San  Juan  Capistrano,  San  Luis  Rey,  and  its 
granimar  and  phrase  book  written  by  the  resident  branch  mission  of  San  Antonio  de  Pala,  were  all  in 
missionaiy,  Father  Arroyo  de  la  Cuesta,  in  1815,  and  Shoshonean  territory,  and  the  great  majority  of  the 
published  in  Shea's  "American  Linguistics"  in  1861.  Mission  Indians  of  to-day  are  of  this  stock.  Those 
Eastward  were  the  Ansaima  and  about  the  mouth  of  within  the  mission  sphere  were  of  five  languages,  each 
the  Salinas  were  the  Kalindaruk.  At  San  Carlos  the  with  minor  dialectic  differences,  nearly  equivalent  to 
principal  band  was  the  Runsen,  of  which  a  remnant  as  many  tribes,  as  follows: — (a)  Gabrielino:  from 
still  exists,  and  at  Soledad  were  Uhalone,  besides  others  about  &nta  Monica  southward  nearly  to  San  Juan 
of  Esselen,  Salinan,  and  Yokuts  lineage.  Capistrano,  and  from  the  coast  back  to  the  foothills  of 

6.  Esselen  Stock. — ^The  Esselen,  or  Ecclemach,  con-  the  San  Bernardino  range,  toother  witii  Santa  Cata- 
stituting  a  distinct  stock  in  themselves,  occupied  a  lina  island.  It  was  spoken  m  slightly  different  dia- 
small  territory  on  Carmel  and  Sur  rivers,  south  of  lects  at  San  Fernando  (Femandefio)  and  San  Gabriel. 
Monterey  Bay,  until  gathered  into  San  Carlos,  and  per-  The  names  Kij,  Kizh,  and  Tobikhar  have  been  used  to 
haps  into  Soledad  mission.  designate  the  same  group,     (b)  Luisefio:  from  the 

7.  Salinan  Stock. — ^This  stock  centred  upon  the  Gabrielino  border  about  AJisos  creek  southwands  along 
Heaters  of  the  Salinas,  chieflv  in  Monterey  and  San  the  coast  to  the  Yuman  frontier  beyond  Esoondido, 
Luis  Obispo  Coimties,  from  tne  seacoast  to  the  Coast  including  lower  San  Luis  Rev  River.  Temecula,  Santa 
Range  divide,  and  from  the  head  streams  of  the  Rosa,  Sui  Jacinto,  and  probably  tne  islands  of  San 
Salinas  down  (north)  nearly  to  Soledad.  San  Antonio  Nicolas  and  San  Clemente.  Spoken  in  slightly  differ- 
and  San  Miguel  missions  were  within  their  territory,  ent  dialects  at  missions  of  San  Luis  Rey  (Luisefio, 
Nothing  definite  is  known  of  their  divisions,  except-  Kechi)  and  San  Juan  Capistrano  (Juanefio,  Gaitchim, 
ing  that  there  seem  to  have  been  at  least  three  prm-  Netela,  Aca^hemem).  (c)  Panakhil,  or  Agu&  Ca» 
cipal  dialects  or  languages,  viz.,  of  San  Miguel,  ot  San  liente,  occupied  a  limited  territory  on  the  hea£  of  San 
^tonio,  and  of  the  Playanos,  or  coast  people.  Be-  Luis  Rey  River,  and  now  at  Pala  and  Los  Coyotes  re- 
sides those  native  to  the  r^on,  there  were  also  Yokuts  serves,  (d)  Cahuilla,  or  Kawia:  the  eastern  slopes  of 
from  the  east  and  Chumash  from  the  south  in  the  the  San  Jacinto  Range  from  about  Saltonnorthwaivla  to 
same  missions.  Banning,  together  with  the  head  waters  of  Santa  Mar- 

8.  YoktUSf  or  Mariposan,  Stock. — The  Indians  of  this  garita  River.  First  visited  by  Father  Francisco  Gar- 
stock  had  true  tribal  divisions,  numbering  about  forty  c^  in  1776.  (e)  Serrano:  in  Sui  Bernardino  moun- 
tribes,  and  holdins  a  compact  territory  from  the  Coast  tains  and  valley  on  Mohave  River  and  northwards  to 
Range  divide  to  the  foothills  of  the  Sierras,  includine  Tejon  and  Paso  Creeks  of  San  Joaquin  Valley;  the 
the  upper  San  Joaquin,  Kings  River,  Tulare  Lake,  ana  Befieme  of  Father  Carets  in  1776  and  the  Takhtam  of 
most  of  Kern  River,  brides  a  detached  tribe,  the  Cho-  Gatschet.  Some  of  them  were  gathered  into  San  Ga- 
lovone,  about  the  present  Stockton.    Together  with  briel.    Three  dialects. 

the  Miwok  and  eastern  Costanoan  tribes,  they  were  11.  Yuman  Stode. — This  stock  also  has  its  main 

known  to  the  Spaniards  under  the  collective  name  of  home  beyond  the  eastern  boundaries  of  Uie  state,  and 

Tularefios,  from  their  habitat  about  Tulare  lake  and  includes   the   Mohave,   Walapai,  and  others.    San 

along  San  Joaquin  River,  formerly  Rio  de  los  Tulares.  Diego  mission  was  within  its  territoiy,  as  also  the  two 

Their  numerous  dialects  varied  but  slightly,  and  mav  short-lived  missions  on  the  Colorado.    Nearly  all  the 

have  been  all  mutually  intelligible,  the  principal  dii-  present  Mission  Indians  not  of  Shoshonean  stock  are 

ference  being  between  those  of  the  river  plains  and  of  Yuman.    Those  within  the  mission  sphere  were  of 

the  Sierra  foothills.    Although  outside  of  the  mission  two  languages,  viz..  Yuma  in  the  east,  about  the  junc- 

territory  proper,  the  Yokuts  area  was  a  principal  re-  tion  of  tne  Gila  ana  Colorado  rivers;  and  Dieguefto  in 

oruiting  ground  for  the  missions  in  the  later  period,  the  west,  in  two  main  dialect  groups:  (a)  Dk^efio 

hundreo/s  of  Indians,  and  even  whole  tribes,  being  proper,  along  the  coast,  indudii^  Sim  IH^,  and  (b) 

carried  off,  either  as  neophyte  subjects  or  as  military  Comeya,  farther  inland. 

Srisonem  of  war,  to  San  Josd,  San  Juan  Bautista,  Sole-  Very  little  is  in  print  concerning  the  languages  of  the 

ad,  San  Antonio,  San  Miguel,  San  Luis  Obispo  (?),  mission  territory.    For  vocabul&es  ima  grammatio 

and   probably   other   neighbouring   missions.     One  analysis  the  reader  may  consult  Bancrofts  volume 

Spanish  expedition,  about  1820,  carried  off  three  hun-  on  ''Myths  and  Languages ^^  Power's  "Tribes  of  Cali- 

dred  men,  women,  and  children  from  a  single  rancheria  fomia'',  Gatschet  in  "Wheeler's  Rept.",  and  above 

to  San  Juan  Bautista,  where  their  language  was  after-  all,  Barrett  and  Kroeber  in  the  University  of  Califor- 

wards  recorded  by  Father  La  Cuesta.    The  Tachi  and  nia  publications  (see  bibliography),  with  other  workv 


MISSION  373  inssioN 

and  'coDectioDB  therein  noted.    Among  the  important  Shell  beads  were  used  for  necklace  purposes,  and  eagle 

single  studies  are  a  "  Grammar  of  the  Mutsun  Lan-  and  other  feathers  for  head  adornments.    Dance- 

guage "  by  Fr.  Arroyo  de  la  Cuesta,  published  in  Shea's  leaders  and  priests  at  ceremonial  fimctions  wore 

^American  Linguistics  ",  IV  (1861) ;  a  Chumashan  (?)  feather  crowns  and  short  skirts  trimmed  with  feathers, 

catechism  and  prayer  manual  bv  Fr.  Mariano  Payeras  Light  sandals  were  sometimes  worn.    Musical  instru- 

of  Purfsima,  about  1810,  noted  by  Bancroft;  and  a  ments  were  the  rattle,  flute,  and  bone  whistle.    The 

MS.  grammar  and  dictionary  of  the  Luisefio  lan-  drum  was  unknown.    Weapons  were  the  bow  and  ar- 

ffuajge,  by  Sparkman,  now  awaiting  publication  by  the  row.  wooden  club,  stone  knife,  and  a  curved  throwing 

university  of  California.    The  missionaries  were  more  stick  for  hunting  rabbits.    Cremation  was  universal, 

than  once  urged  in  prefectual  letters  to  acquire  the  na-  excepting  in  the  Chumashan.    Marriage  and  divorce 

tive  languages  in  order  better  to  reach  the  Indians,  were  simple,  and  polygamy  was  frequent. 
said  in  1815  the  official  report  states  that  religious  in-        Of  the  mythology  and  ceremonial  of  the  coast  tribes 

struction  was  given  both  in  Indian  and  Spanish.  of  the  mission  area  northwards  from  Los  Angeles  we 

III.  Abts,  Custom,  and  Ritual. — The  Indians  of  know  almost  nothing,  as  the  Indians  have  perished 
California  constituted  a  culture  body  essentially  distinct  without  investigation,  but  the  indications  are  that 
from  all  the  tribes  east  of  the  Sierras.  The  most  obvi-  they  resembled  those  of  the  Imown  Interior  and  south- 
ous  characteristic  of  this  culture  was  its  negative  qual-  em  tribes.  For  these  our  best  authorities  are  the 
ity,  the  absence  of  those  features  which  dominated  missionary  Boscana,  Powers,  Merriam,  and  especially 
tribal  life  elsewhere.  There  was  practically  no  tribal  the  ethnoIcM'ists  of  the  University  of  California.  The 
organisation  and  in  most  cases  not  even  a  tribal  name,  southern  tnoes— Juanefio,  Luiscflo,  Dieguefio,  etc. — 
the  rancheria,  or  village  settlement,  usually  merely  a  base  their  ritual  and  ceremonial  upon  a  creation  myth 
larger  family  group,  being  the  ordinary  social  and  gov-  in  which  Ouiot,  or  Wiyot,  figures  as  the  culture  hero  of 
emmental  unit,  whose  people  had  no  common  desig-  an  earlier  creation  in  which  mankind  is  not  yet  en- 
nation  for  themselves,  and  none  for  their  neighbours  tirely  differentiated  from  the  animals,  while  Chungich- 
excepting  directional  names  having  no  reference  to  nish  (Chinigchinich  of  Boscana)  appears  as  the  lord 
linguistic  or  other  affiliation.  Chiefs  were  almost  and  ruler  of  the  second  and  perfectea  creation,  which, 
without  authority,  except  as  messengers  of  the  will  of  however,  is  a  direct  evolution  from  the  first.  The  orig- 
the  priests  or  secret  society  leaders.  The  clan  sjrstem  inal  creators  are  Heaven  and  Earth,  personified  as 
18  held  by  most  investijgators  to  have  been  entirely  brother  and  sister.  The  rattlesnake,  the  tarantula, 
wanting,  although  Merriam  claims  to  have  found  evi-  and  more  particularly  the  li^tning  and  the  eagle,  are 
dence  of  it  amon^  the  Miwok  and  Yokuts.  Excepting  the  messengers  and  avengers  of  Chungichnish.  In  the 
basketry,  all  their  arts  were  of  the  crudest  develop-  Dies uefio  myth  the  whole  living  creation  issues  from 
ment,  potteiy  being  found  only  in  the  extreme  south,  the  Dody  of  a  great  serpent. 

while  agriculture  was  entirely  unknown.    Both  men-        The  principal  ceremonies,  still  enacted  within  re- 

taUy  and  physically  they  represented  one  of  the  lowest  cent  memory,  were  the  girls'  puberty  ceremony,  the 

types  on  the  continent.    The  ordinary  house  struo-  boys'  initiation,  and  the  annual  mourning  rite.    In 

ture  throughout  the  mission  area  was  a  conical  frame-  the  puberty  ceremony  the  several  girls  of  the  village 

work  of  poles  thatched  with  rushes  and  covered  with  who  nad  attained  the  menstrual  age  at  about  the  same 

earth,  built  over  a  circular  excavation  of  about  two  time  were  stretched  upon  a  bed  of  fresh  and  fraerant 

feet  aeep.    The  fire  was  built  in  the  centre,  and  the  herbs  in  a  pit  previously  heated  bv  means  of  a  large 

occupants  sat  or  lay  about  it,  upon  skins  or  sage  fire,  and,  alter  oeing  covered  with  blankets  and  other 

bushes,  without  beds  or  other  furniture.    The  Galu-  herbs,  were  subjected  to  a  sweating  and  starving  pro- 

nomero,  north  of  San  Francisco  Bay,  built  a  communal  cess  for  several  days  and  nights  while  the  elders  of  the 

house  of  L  shape,  with  a  row  of  fires  down  the  centre,  band  danced  around  the  pit  sin^g  the  songs  for  the 

one  for  each  family.    The  ''sweat-house",  for  hot  occasion.    The  ordeal  ended  with  a  procession,  or  a 

baths  and  winter  ceremonies,  was  like  the  circular  race,  to  a  prominent  cliff,  where  each  girl  inscribed 

lodge,  but  much  larger.    The  dance  place  or  medicine  symbolic  painted  designs  upon  the  rock.    The  boys' 

lodge  was  a  simple  circular  inclosure  of  brushwood  initiation  ceremony  was  a  preliminary  to  admission  to 

open  -to  the  sky,  with  the  sacrifice  poles  and  other  a  privileged  secret  society,  the  officers  of  which  con- 

oeremonial  objects.  stituted  the  priesthood.     A  principal  feature  was  the 

Agriculture  beine  unknown,  the  food  supply  was  drinking  of  a  decoction  of  the  root  of  the  poisonous 
obtained  in  part  byhunting  and  fishing,  but  mostlyby  toloache,  or  jimson-weed  {datura  meteloidea),  to  pro- 
the  gathering  of  wild  seeds,  nuts,  and  berries.  The  duce  unconsciousness,  in  which  the  initiate  was  sup- 
islanders  liv«l  almost  entirely  by  sea-fishing,  while  posed  to  have  communication  with  his  future  protect- 
about  San  Francisco  they  depended  mainly  on  the  mg  spirit.  Rigid  food  taboos  were  prescribed  for  a 
salmon.  The  Chumashan  coast  tribes  fished  from  large  long  period,  and  a  common  ordeal  test  was  the  lower- 
dugout  canoes.  Hunting  was  usually  confined  to  ing  of  the  naked  initiate  into  a  pit  of  vicious  sting- 
small  game,  particularly  rabbits  and  jackrabbits,  the  ing  ants.  A  symbolic  "sand  painting",  with  figures 
lai^r  animals  being  generally  protected  by  some  re-  in  vari-coloured  sand,  was  a  part  of  the  ritual, 
lieious  taboo.  On  account  of  a  prevalent  ritual  idea  The  corpse  was  burned  upon  a  fimeral  pile  immedi- 
^i<^  forbade  the  hunter  to  eat  game  of  his  own  killing,  ately  after  death ,  together  with  the  personal  property, 
men  generally  hunted  in  pairs  and  exchanged  the  re-  by  a  man  specially  appointed  to  that  duty,  the  Dones 
suit.  Grasshoppers  were  driven  into  pits  and  roasted  being  afterwards  gathered  up  and  buried  or  otherwise 
as  a  dainty.  Among  vegetable  foods « the  acorn  was  preserved.  Once  a  year  a  great  tribal  mourning  cere- 
first  in  importance,  Ming  gathered  and  stored  in  large  mony  was  held,  to  which  the  people  of  all  the  nei^h- 
quantities,  pounded  into  meal  in  stone  mortars  or  bouring  rancheriaa  were  invited.  On  this  occasion 
ground  on  metates,  leached  with  water  to  remove  the  laige  quantities  of  property  were  burned  as  sacrifice  to 
bitterness,  and  cooked  as  mush  (porridge)  or  bread,  the  spirits  of  the  dead,  or  given  away  to  the  visitors. 
Wild  rice  was  also  a  staple  in  places,  while  in  the  bios-  an  effigy  of  the  deceased  was  burned  upon  the  pyre. 
som  season  whole  communities  lived  for  weeks  upon  and  the  performance,  which  lasted  through  several 
raw  clover  tops.  The  men  went  nearly  or  entirely  days  and  nights,  concluded  with  a  weird  night  dance 
naked,  exceptmgfor  a  skin  robe  over  the  shoulders  in  around  the  blazing  pile,  during  which  an  eagle  or  other 
cold  weather.  Women  usually  wore  a  short  skirt  with  great  bird,  passed  from  one  to  another  of  the  circling 
fringes  of  woven  or  twisted  bark  fibre.  Both  sexes  dance  priests,  was  slowly  pressed  to  death  in  their 
commonly  kept  their  hair  at  full  length,  but  bunched  arms,  while  in  songs  they  implored  its  spirit  to  cany 
up  behina.  Some  bands  shaved  one  side  of  the  head,  their  messages  to  their  friends  in  the  other  world. 
Tattooing  was  practised  by  both  sexes  to  some  extent.  The  souls  of  priests  and  chiefs  were  supposed  to  ascend 


to  tlie  akj  as  etara,  while  those  of  tlie  conunon  people 
went  to  on  underworld,  where  there  was  continual 
feasting  and  dancing,  the  idea  of  future  punishment  or 
lewara  being  foreign  to  the  Indian  mind.  The  dead 
were  never  named,  and  the  sum  of  insult  to  another 
was  to  say  "  Your  father  is  dead." 

In  coonexioa  with  childbirth  most  of  the  tnbee 
practised  the  eownade,  the  fatjier  keeping  his  bed  for 
some  days,  subjecl«d  to  rigid  diet  and  other  taboos, 
until  released  by  a  ceremonial  exorcism.  Besides  the 
great  ceremonies  already  noted,  they  had  numerous 
other  dances,  including  some  ot  dramatic  or  alewhtKrf- 
hand  character,  and,  among  the  southern  tnoes,  a 
grossly  obscene  dance  whieli  gave  the  missionaries 
much  trouble  to  suppress.  Among  the  Gallinomero, 
and  perhaps  others,  ^ed  parents  were  sometimes 
choked  to  death  by  their  own  children  by  crushing  the 
neck  with  a  stick. 
Ord  inary  morality 
could  hardly  be 
said  to  exist  even 
in  theory.  Infan- 
ticide and  abor- 
tion were  so  prev- 
alent that  even  the 

efforts  of  the  mis- 
sionaries hardly 
succeeded  in  check- 
ing the  evil.  In 
this  and  certain 
•other  detestable 
customs  the  coast 
tribes  were  like 
the  California  In- 
dians generaliy, 
whom  Powers 
characterizes,  in 
their  heathen  con- 
ion,  as  perhaps 

OBBdKiuo  BntcuiA  tioiia    race    exis- 

tent. Even  before  the  arrival  of  the  missionaries, 
their  blood,  like  that  of  all  the  coast  tribes  as  for  north 
as  Alaska,  had  been  so  poisoned  by  direct  or  trans- 
mitted contact  with  dissolute  sealing  and  trading 
crews,  that  the  race  was  already  in  swift  decline.  The 
confiscation  of  the  missions  and  the  subsequent  influx 
of  the  gold-hunters  doomed  the  race  to  extinction. 

IV.  Vital  Statistics. — By  the  confiscation  of  the 
missions  (1834-3S)  the  Indiana  lost  their  protectors 
together  with  their  stock  and  other  movable  property, 
and  by  the  transfer  of  California  to  the  Unit«d  States  m 
1S48  they  were  left  without  1^;al  title  to  their  lands, 
and  sank  in  to  a  condition  of  homeless  misery  under  which 
they  died  by  thousands  and  were  fast  approaching  ex- 
tinction. With  the  exception  of  occasional  ministra- 
tions by  secular  priests  or  some  of  the  few  remain- 
ing missionaries,  they  were  also  left  entirely  without 
spiritual  or  educational  attention,  notwithstanding 
which  the  Christian  Indians  continued  to  keep  the 
Faith  and  transmitted  the  tradition  to  their  children. 
At  last,  as  the  result  of  a  governmental  investigation 
in  1873,  a  number  of  viiTage  reservations  were  as- 
s^ed  oy  executive  proclamation  in  1876  to  the 
southern  remnant,  the  northern  bands  being  already 
extinct.  By  subsequent  legislation  there  are  now  es- 
tablished some  thirty  small  Mission  Indian  "  reserva- 
tions, ail  in  western  and  central  San  Diego  and  River- 
side Counties,  California,  with  a  total  population,  in 
1909,  of  2775  souls,  representing  five  tribes  and  lan- 
guages, via.,  Luisefio,  Serrano,  Cahuilla,  Agua  Cali- 
ente,  and  Dlegueiio.  The  largest  groupings  are  at 
Morongo  adjoining  Banning  (chiefly  Cahuilla)  238; 
Pala  (Luiseiio  and  Agua  Caliente)  226;  Fechanga 
a.uisefIo)  170;andSantaYsabelNo.3(pieKueiio)  165 
ibes  are  practically  all  Catholka  and  besides  twelve 


KOvemment  day-schools  with  a  total  enrolment  of  289 
there  are  17  Catholic  schools  served  by  secular  priests 
under  the  diocese  of  Los  Angeles,  with  a  total  enrol- 
ment in  1909  of  1894  pupils.  Of  these  the  lareest  are 
at  Fola  (260),  La  Jolla  (195),  Pauma  (180),  Soboba, 
or  San  Jacinto  (163),  Campo  (125),  and  Martfne> 
(125).  All  are  day-echools,  excepting  St.  Boniface 
boarding-school  at  Banning  with  100  pupils.  About 
the  same  time  Catholic  mission  work  was  begun  among 
the  remnant  tribes  on  the  northern  border  of  the  origi- 
nal mission  territory.  In  1870  the  mission  of  St.Turi- 
biUB  was  founded  by  Father  Luciano  Oeuna,  north  of 
Kelseyville  in  Lake  County.  In  1889  Saint  Maiy's 
mission  was  established  near  Ukiah  in  Mendocino 
County.  Thelndiansofbothstationsarelocallycalled 
"Diggers  ",  but  are  properlv  Pomo  and  Yukai  and 
some  of  the  older  ones  still  nave  recollection  of  the 
early  mission  fathers.  TheyareinchargeottheFriaia 
MinorandCapuchins.  All  these  northern  missions  are 
in  the  Arehdiocese  of  San  Francisco. 

According  to  a  careful  estimate  made  by  Merriam, 
theoriginal  Indian  population  of  themission  territory, 
eastw^s  to  the  San  Joaquin  and  lower  Sacramento 
rivers,  was  approximately  50,000  souls.  About 
30,000  were  domiciled  in  the  missions  at  the  time  of 
confiscation.  Following  the  ruin  of  the  missions  and 
the  invasion  of  the  Americans,  they  died  in  such  thou- 
sands that  of  all  those  north  of  the  present  Loa  An- 
geles, comprising  perhaps  four-fifths  of  the  whole,  not 
300  are  believed  to  survive  to-day.  The  southern 
tribes,  being  of  manlier  stock  and  in  some  decree  pro- 
tected by  t£eir  desert  environment,  have  held  them- 
selves better,  and  number  to-day  on  the  "Mission  In- 
dian" reservations,  as  already  stated,  2,775  souls,  a 
decrease,  however,  of  152  in  nme  years.  The  Mission 
Indians  of  California  have  dwindled  to  fewer  than 
one-sixteenth  of  theiroriginal  number,  and  indications 
point  to  their  extinction.    (See  Caufobnia..) 

AuKB,  Report  in  T«gatd  to  condUion  of  Mxation  Jnda.  En  RepL 
CmuiHT.  7nd.  yt# Jot /«7J  (W»*hinjlon,  1874):  H.  H.  BAHCitorr, 
Hid.  Caii]omia,  land  II  (Saa  Freoctoco,  1889);  Iduc  NatiM 

Racet.  Ir   Wild  Tribtt  (S«ii  Fiuiai "     ••"•"    ' "-■- 

Raeet.lU:  Mylfi 


I:  MjiUu  and  Larimiaat*  (San  Fnuidaco,  1889);  Bab- 

\nB^toaro^VotlAt  Porno  and  NtiMmnn  /ndwiu  in 

Vniv.  ofCatifomia  Pubt.  in  Am.  AtcK  and  ElAiwtan-  VI,  no.  1 
(Berkelsy,  1908)1  Idem,  Oioiraphu  and  DialecU  of  At  Mimk 
/luiuni,  iUd.,  DO.  2  (Berkeley,  ie08);BAitiu)wa,  £U»-Sa(iHv  •>/ 
lAeCoahmOa  Indi.  (Ctairaao,  ieOO):BABTl.nT,Pii«»Hdl  A'arrs- 
tirt  of  Explaratiom  (NewVoric.  I8M);  Bom»ma,  CUivMinuA 
(San  Juan  Cajrittrano  /n^.).  tratulaUoo  pabliahed  in  KOBUi- 
-  '-  ■  -Jali/omia  CNbit  Yoric,  1S«8):  BurBni^oT'f'".  "■' 
hann.rrpl.(7n>luiRjininiM(>e/imt(i«i)(WuhiDf 


,  ^jca  (edXOnthtTraH of aSpanitk PionetrlF . . 

(New  York,  IBM)  ■.Conunr.  oflnd.  A ffoi™.  imn.  rrpf.  of  (Ww 


go);  DeBOiB,  ^diuion  ol 


!a/ndi.  in  Unit.  ofCaL 


IMlhENaELBARDT,  J'ronciwiiu in  California  {Hubor  Sprini^ 
1807)1  FoHBXii.  CaJifomia  (London,  1839):  Hodqb  (ed.l.  Hand- 
book of  Am.  Indt.  (BuU.  SO,  Bar.  Am.  filAn.)  (WuhinKUm. 
1007-11):  Hrdlii:ea,  i'^ncol  Anthropoloav  of  California  in 
Univ.  of  CoL  Hrdiicka  pufc*.  in  Am.  Arik.  andE&n.,  IV  {BerlHr 

ley.  1006):  Jaci *• ■■^-^—    .==^..  . ._.. 

Affaire;    Lawi 


(BodtoQ,  1985);  Kapplkb,  Ind. 

,.,-„., t.   (Wsahington,  1B03):  Krokbes. 

pnpen  in  Univ.  of  CoL  puii.  in  Am.  Arth.  and  Eihn.  (Berke- 
iBV),  vii.,  Langaaoti  of  the  (SoidA)  Coatt  of  Califbmia.-~~r]niet 
-'  '-'    •*  ■■     -  -■-  Califorpia  (II,  ' ""  ■"-■-■-  ■ 


i  Yokuti 


of  CtO.  pvbi 
I},  vii.,  ijan'-- — "  -"*-  I 
Ind.  Cultw 

Cal.—R^iavmoflhaind.ofCaiiiom.iaiVr,  iwi);  BAnaamkM 
tJAe  CaAuiUa  Ind*.;— A  Mittion  Record  of  Die  CoL  Indt.—Eti- 
denca  of..  .  Miwok  Ind.  (VI.  1008);  SAoiAoiUBii  DiaUat  of 
SouOam  California  (VIII,  1900);  Hehiuah.  pspen  '-  '- 
A  nlAropobwH',  new  wrie*  (Lutcuster),  lii,.  Indian  P 
qJCali/ornIii(yn,190S)\_Mcmin  Slock  of  C  ■" 

Tolrmiem  in  Caiifomia  ex.,  1908);  E.  B.  F , 

California  {8«i  Fran  ciin»,  1897):    S.  Powbhs,  Triba  of  Coh- 
/bmioioCotU.  to  JV.  Am.  Ertn.,  Ill  (Wr -'■----    ■""'    "~ 


VLi,.  Indian  Population 

}f  California  (IX,  ,1907): 


'Mhincton. 


,     -         ^ 1877):  RoE- 

_..  (snon.).  Lift  in  CaKlpmia  (contuns  aba  BosciHi'a  >e- 
mt)  (New  York.  IMe):ilrKT.  Pahrrlt,  Ceremonj,  of  Uu  Uit- 
non  ind:  in  Am.  AnMroFHlfvu*,  new  serin,  VIII  (tanculAr. 
1000);  Shea,  (7(UAaIi<:  [Indian)  Mitioni  (New  York,  ISM): 
SuiTH,  InrtCal.  lUiinon^  Indt.lo date  (Swtaoy I,  liBatuoB-alLi 
inOtrf»'M(,»ep_arate).  (LoaAn<[el«._1909):P "■- — 


oflAe  Luie, 


.  o/CaI,Pii6»..Am,ArcA.in 


CoiiPanMrtSMiFnmctooo,  1880-1):  

dian  Crralion  Storp  ta  Am.  AniAropoloffiM.n....  -^.»-, ...  v-^— 
oaMer,  1009);  Idbh,  Rdii/ioia  PVncficK  otlki  DiteueMa  fndt., 
Univ.  b/CoL  piA*.  in  Am.  oihI  fiUn.,  VAl  (Bsrkelay,  IVIO}' 


:i(Lm)- 

o  fndt.. 


375  MISSIONS 

^■^5f*  P^^***?'*"^;^^?*-  HP<»?  Z'  5-  OworaMe^  Survey  aiy  sodetfes  have  been  founded  in  the  different 

&.SSi^.'tSXl?'feT?aOS"»'i  Y^Sr^  CaUiolic  countries     The  most  import  of  the«e 

(Waahinskm,  1879):  Rotcb  and  Thomas,  Indian  Land  Ce*-  Bocieties  are:  the  Society  of  Foreign  Missions  (Mis- 

lias*  ""^^^***'^  ^^^  ^'*  *  ^^'  -^"^  Ethnolotn/  (Wash-  sions  Etrang^ies),  founded  at  Paris,  1820;  Society 

"***^  ^^^^'                                     T^,„„  TLT^^^^  for  the  Propagation  of  the  Faith,  founded  at  Lyons, 

JAMES  MOONET.  jggg.  Leopoldinischo  Stiftung,  founded  at  Vienna, 


Gathouc. — The  history   of   Catholic  1829;   Bavarian  Ludwig-Missionsverein  (1839);  So- 

missions  would  necessarily  bcs^n  with  the  missionary  ciety  of  the  Holy  Chilonood  (Paris,  1843) ;  Society 

labours  of  Christ,  and  would  cover  a  ver;^  consider-  of  the  Holy  Liuid  (1895).     To  arrive  at  even  an 

able  portion  of  the  history  of  the  Catholic  Church,  approximate  estimate  of  the  total  sum  contributed 

The  principal  chapters  of  this  histoiy  will  be  foimd  by  Catholics  towards  their  foreign  missions  is  im- 

elsewnere  m  The  Cathouc  Encyclopedia,  in  the  possible.    To  re^rd  the  sums  collected  by  a  few  of 

articles  devoted  to  the  various  coimtries,  provinces,  the  leading  missionary  societies  as  the  total  Catholic 

dioceses,  vicariates,  reli^ous  orders,  and  congr^a-  contribution  towards  the  missions,  and  to  t£Jce  such 

taons.  notable  missionanes,  etc.    The  present  article  total  as  indicative  of  Catholic  interest  in  the  propaea- 

will  be  confined  to  a  short  general  survev  of  the  tion  of  the  Gospel  (as  is  too  commonly  done  to-day 

missionary  activity  of  the  Catholic  Church  at  the  by  some  controversialists),  is  manifestly  indefensible, 

present  dav.    The  subject,  as  thus  limited,  mav  con-  Not  only  are  no  statistics  of  receipts  available  for 

veniently  be  considered  under  the  following  heads:  many  of  the  missionary  societies,  but  no  estimate  can 

I.  Organization  of  Catholic  Missions;  II.  Receipts  be  made  of  the  sreat  sums  expended  by  all  the  reli- 

and  Expenditure;  III.  Utility  and  Object  of  Mission  gious  orders  and  congr^ations  (which  are  in  turn 

Statistics;  IV.  Statistics.  practically  dependent  on  voluntary  contributions)  on 

I.  Obqanization. — ^The  main  direction  of  the  the  preparation  of  their  members  for  missionary 
Catholic  missions  is  vested  in  the  Sacred  Congregation  labours  and  on  the  missions  themselves. 

of  Propaganda  under  the  supreme  jurisdiction  of  which  .A^;ain,  the  numberless  contributions  made  directly 

stand  most  of  the  missions  of  the  Catiiolic  world  (see  to  the  missions,  offerings  given  to  non-missionary  or- 

Propaganda,  Conqregation  of).    This  con^r^a-  ders  or  secular  priests  to  be  forwarded  to  the  heads  of 

tion  determines  the  ecclesiastical  rank  of  each  mission  certain  missions,  legacies  and  similar  gifts,  never  ap- 

(prefecture,  vicariate,  diocese),  assigning  to  it  a  su-  pear  in  the  statistics  of  receipts  furnished  by  the 

Serior  according  to  this  rank,  ana  imdertakes  the  collecting  societies.  So  important  a  portion  of  the 
uty  of  supplying  missionaries  wherever  their  services  total  amount  do  these  contributions  form  that  Baum- 
are  necessaiy.  For  the  training  of  Catholic  mission-  garten  (''Die  kathol.  Kirche  u.  ihre  Diener  in  Wort 
aries  numerous  secular  seminaries  have  been  in-  u.  Bild",  III,  Munich,  1903,  p.  399)  declares  that  we 
stituted;  the  most  important  are:  the  Urban  (so  must  multiply  the  sum  collected  by  the  missionary 
called  after  its  founder.  Urban  VIII),  English,  Irish,  societies  by  four  or  five  to  arrive  ap{)roximately  at  the 
Scotch,  American,  and  Canadian  Colleges  at  Rome:  sum  contributed  towards  Catholic  missions.  Those  who 
Pontifical  Seminary  of  Kandy;  Leonine  Seminaiy  of  contrast  the  apparent  totals  of  the  sums  contributed 
Athens;  the  seminaries  at  Milan,  Lyons,  and  Paris  by  Catholics  and  Protestants  towards  their  respective 
(this  last  is  the  headmiarters  of  the  famous  Society  missions  thus  fail  to  take  into  account  all  the  data 
of  Foreign  Missions) ;  Josephinum  College,  Columbus,  for  the  comparison.  Krose  (op.  cit.  in  bibliography, 
Ohio,  U.  S.  A.  *  American  College,  Louvain ;  English  p.  38)  quotes  the  case  of  two  similarly  situated  states 
Colleges  at  Valladolid  and  Lisb^ :  Scotch  College  at  of  about  the  same  size.  Catholic  Belgium  and  Protes- 
Valladolid;  Irii^  College,  Paris;  All  Hallows,  Dublin;  tant  Holland,  whose  respective  contributions  towards 
St.  Joseph's  Seminanr,  Mill  HiU,  Ixmdon ;  St.  Joseph's,  foreign  missions  were  1,019,474  ^only  the  sum  col- 
Rozendaal,  Holland;  St.  Joseph's,  Brixin,  Tyrol;  lected  by  a  few  of  the  leading  missionaiy  societies) 
General  College  of  Pulo  Pinang.  The  religious  orders  and  701,000  francs.  The  same  writer  points  out 
— Benedictines,  Dominicans,  Franciscans,  Jesuits,  (loc.  cit.)  that,  even  accepting  the  known  Catholic 
Augustinians,  etc. — which  continue  with  unabated  contributions  as  the  total,  and  accepting  the  Protes- 
x&bS  to  labour  for  the  propagation  of  the  Gospel,  are  tant  total  at  the  fisure  given  by  their  own  statisticians, 
assisted  by  a  series  of  new  orders  and  congregations,  the  German  Catholics  contributed  15  pfennig  per  cap- 
It  will  be  sufficient  to  cite  here  the  names  of  the  ita  towards  their  missions,  and  the  German  Protest- 
societies  most  widely  engaged  in  fore^  missions,  tants  12  pfennig,  although  the  latter  are,  as  a  class, 
and  to  refer  the  reader  to  the  special  articles  for  par-  the  wealtnier.  This  last  circumstance,  indeed,  merits 
ticulars:  Congr^ation  of  the  Holy  Ghost  and  the  special  attention,  if  we  would  not  accept  a  single  lange 
Immaculate  Heart  of  Maiy;  Congregation  of  the  Mis-  donation  of  a  millionaire  as  indicative  of  more  wioe- 
aion  (Lazarists);  Oblates  of  Mary  Immaculate;  spread  missionaiy  zeal  than  a  thousand  hiunble  sub- 
Societ^  of  Mary;  Oratorians  and  Oblates  of  St.  scriptions  of  the  poor.  The  astonishing  success  of  the 
Francis  de  Sales;  Redemptorists;  Paulists;  Congrega-  Catnolic  missions  during  the  nineteenth  centuiy,al- 
tion  of  the  Sacred  Hearts  of  Jesus  and  Mary;  Priests  though  most  of  the  propertv  of  the  missionary  or* 
of  the  Foreign  Missions  (Missions  Etrang^res).  ders  was  confiscated  or  secularized,  was  entirely  due 
For  a  fuller  list  see  "Missiones  Catholicss",  853-8.  to  the  extraordinary  zeal  and  self-sacrifice  of  the 
Among  Uie  colleges  of  the  regular  orders  specially  Catholic  missionaries  in  the  face  of  innumerable 
devot^  to  the  training  of  missionaries  may  be  men-  difficulties.  Regular  contributions  to  the  missionary 
tioned:  the  College  of  St.  Fidelis  (Capuchin),  College  societies  and  the  centralization  of  the  missions  fund 
of  St.  Anthony  (Franciscan),  College  of  St.  Isidore  are  highly  desirable:  men  are,  as  a  rule,  readjjr  to 
(Irish  Franciscan),  and  the  College  of  the  Irish  subscribe  freely  to  conspicuouslv  successful  missions, 
Augustinians,  at  Rome;  Seminary  of  Scheut,  near  while  the  less  prosperous,  in  which  the  missionaries 
Brussels  (Congregation  of  the  Immaculate  Heart  of  have  to  face  pernaps  greater  obstacles  and  disappoint- 
Mary) ;  the  colleees  of  the  Society  of  African  Mis-  ments,  receive  but  faint  support, 
sionaries  (White  Fathers) ;  the  Veronese  Institute  and  III.  Utilitt  and  Object  op  Mission  Statistics. 
the  colleges  of  the  Society  of  the  Divine  Word.  — Scientifically  compiled  statistics  render  self-decep- 

II.  Receipts  AND  ExpBNi)iTURB.—<)f  late  years  the  tion  impossible,  preventing  us  from  being  imduly 
support  formerly  lent  by  various  European  states  elated  ordisheartened  by  isolated  successes  or  reverses. 
to  missionary  enterprises  nas  been  considerably  dim-  They  tend,also,  to  lessen  the  heated  controversies  whidi, 
inished,  and  the  missions  are  to<lay  largely  dependent  unfortunately,  too  frequently  centre  around  the  ChrisM 
for  their  support  on  the  voluntary  contributions  of  the  tian  missions.  The  duty  of  supplying  the  public  witk 
taithful.    For  the  collection  of  tiieseofferingis  mission-  accurate  and  complete  statistics  rests  with  the  missioiK 


MISSIONS 


376 


MISSIONS 


aries  themselves.  A  report  of  comparative  failure 
does  not  prejudice  their  cause:  the  more  numerous 
the  difficulties  with  which  they  have  to  contend,  the 
more  conspicuous  is  their  self-sacrifice.  As,  however, 
statistics  now  receive  the  attention  of  all  denomina- 
tions, words  of  explanation  should  be  added  concerning 
local  difficulties,  and  in  cases  where  a  non-Catholic 
might  be  misled.  Thus,  e.^.,  a  non-Catholic  might 
not  know  that  a  Catholic  priest  may  not,  in  general, 
baptize  a  pagan  child  without  its  parents'  consent, 
nor  an  adult  without  proper  instruction. 

The  object  of  mission  statistics  is  to  supply  the 
reader  with  such  information  as  will  enable  him  to 


used  exclusively  of  such.  How  many  of  the  mission- 
aries are  natives  should  also  be  indicated,  since  this 
information  reveals  the  progress  made  towards  the 
ideal  of  all  missiona^  work,  the  establishment  of  a 
native  priesthood.  Besides  the  number  of  mission- 
aries, exact  information  should  be  given  concerning 
the  male  and  female  auxiliaries,  who  are  engaged  as 
catechists,  as  teachers,  or  to  care  for  the  sick;  likewise 
concerning  all  the  lay  brothers  and  sisters  Tnot,  how- 
ever, mere  servants)  who  are  employed  directly  or 
indirectly  in  the  work  of  evangelisation. 

(3)  Mission  Establiahments, — In  this  category  may 
be  classed  the   mission-stations,  diurches,  chapels, 


STATISTICAL  TABLE  OP 


Catboucb 

Cate- 
chumens 

MuaXONABIXB 

Total 

Of 

European 

Race 

Total 

Native 

Lay 
Brotnen 

126,773 

1.026.168 

1.060.369 

66.217 

2.242.922 

629.797 

157.640 

About    1.000 
..      14.000 
.,       12.000 
.,      25.911 
„      80.000 
6.000 

•  • 

24.672* 
426.480 
22.676* 

1.133 
65.443 

•  • 

•  • 

233 
1.811 
1.253 

78 
2.804 
2.937 

33 

43 

550 

652 

1 

1.756 

2.256 

m    • 

99 
291* 
164* 

32 

617 

1,811 

16 

6.299.886 
170.064 

92.840 
231.368 

74.032 
146.359 
810,342 

137.911 

•  • 

46.000 

15.000 
60.000 
20.000 

130.000 

160.000 
20,000 

•  • 

•  • 

630.304* 

•  • 

3.930 

272.929 

17.480 

259,870* 
654,209* 

•  • 

•  • 

•  • 

•  • 

9.149 

392 

313 
687 
378 
347 
217 

5.257 

9 

1 

2 

7 

111 

2* 

123* 

•  • 

•  • 

■  • 

•  • 

2.930* 
291* 

446 

300 
88 
403 
112* 

853.931 

401.796* 

360.953 

112.700 
110,711 

976.160* 

1.842 

476* 

186 

59 
138* 

1.357* 

239* 
40* 

•    • 

170,000 

•   • 

859* 
12.242* 

1.100 

•  • 

285* 

7.300.031* 

6,702,402 
1,038,132 
3,500,000 
3,200,000 
1.300.000 
4.500.000 
1.750.000 

437.911 

About  10.000 
..       15.000 

■  • 

*  • 

•  • 

•  • 

•  • 

•  • 

•  • 

•  • 

6,389* 

4.863* 

21.990.534 
29,290,565* 

25,000* 

•   ■ 

462.911* 

•   • 

Gboobapbical  Dxvisxonb 


Jai>an  and  Dependenoiea 

Cmna    .,  ..  (including  Macao) . . 

Further  India 

Eaat  Indiea 

India  and  Ceylon 

Anterior  Asia 

Mindanao 

Total  for  Asia 

Australia  and  Oceania 

South  Africa 

Central  .,     

N.  W. 

N.  E 

African  Islands 

Total  for  Africa 

South  America 

Central      .,    f 

West  Indiea   \ 

N.  America  Negroes 

„         „       Incuans 

Total  for  America 

Total  of  MitnoM  (1) 

Philippines 

Africa  (Seychelles.  Cape  Verde  Isles.  Angola) 

South  and  Central  America  Negroes 

South  America  Indians 

Central       ..  „     

Mexico  Indians 

West  Indies  Negroes 

Total  of  MianoM  (2) 

Total  (1)  and  (2) 


judge  how  far  the  work  of  the  mission  has  been  suc- 
cessful. The  special  points  on  which  exact  infor- 
mation is  most  desirable  may  be  grouped  under  four 
heads:  (1)  Number  of  Christians;  (2)  Personnel  of 
the  Mission;  (3)  Mission  Establishments;  (4)  Ad- 
ministrative Statistics. 

(1)  Number  of  Christiana, — In  recording  the 
number  of  Christians,  a  distinction  should  alwa^  be 
drawn  between  converted  heathens  and  Chnstiaa 
settlers.  While,  in  most  missionary  countries,  the 
latter  class  may  constitute  so  small  a  proportion  of  the 
totals  as  to  be  negligible,  there  are  many  countries  in 
which  the  number  is  sufficiently  lai^e  to  create  a  false 
idea  of  the  progress  of  the  mission,  ifthis  distinction  be 
not  observed  in  the  statistics.  A  distinction  between 
Christians  and  catechumens  is  equally  necessary,  and 
under  the  former  head  none  but  the  baptized  should 
ever  be  included.  By  catechumens  are  to  be  under- 
stood onlv  such  heathens  as  are  actually  being  in- 
structed for  baptism:  as  they  constitute  the  harvest 
of  the  mission,  they  should  never  be  excluded  (as  is 
now  too  often  the  case)  from  the  statistics. 

(2)  Personnel  of  the  Mission, — ^The  statistics 
concerning  the  personnel  of  the  mission  should  state 
how  many  are  priests,  the  term  missionoary  being 


schools  of  every  kind,  hospitals,  and  charitable  estab- 
lishments. Chief  stations  are  most  simply  distin- 
guished from  sub-stations  by  confining  the  former 
term  to  stations  which  have  at  least  one  resident  mis- 
sionary, and  the  latter  to  stations  where  Divine  ser- 
vice is  periodically  or  constantly  held  b^  a  non-resi- 
dent missionary.  To  attempt  to  restrict  the  tenn 
chief  station  to  centres  of  unusual  missionary  activity 
must  lead  to  great  uncertainty,  as  it  would  be  hope- 
less to  expect  that  any  uniform  dividing-line  oould  be 
universally  observed.  Again,  the  name  substation 
should  never  be  applied  to  places  where  instruotioD 
alone  is  given:  the  number  of  such  might  easily  as- 
sume proportions  which  would  almost  necessarily 
lead  to  misapprehension  of  the  exact  position  of 
Christianity  in  the  country.  Outposts,  such  as  those 
here  indicated,  should  (if  eiven)  be  Kept  separate 
from  the  stations.  The  schools  and  educational  es- 
tablishments possess  a  peculiar  interest,  since  in  many 
lands  the  task  of  reclaiming  adults  of  a  low  cultural 
level,  whose  minds  are  obsessed  with  superstitions 
and  brutalized  by  crime,  is  a  well-nigh  impossible  one. 
The  statistics  should  always  distinguish  between  male 
and  female,  elementary  and  secondary,  Catholic  and 
non-Catholic  pupils,  and  also  between  ordinary  pupik 


MISSIONS 


377 


MISSIONS 


and  orphans.  It  is  also  advisable  to  specify  the 
tftMshing  staff  (European  and  native)  and  the  num- 
ber of  pupils  receiving  instruction  in  handicrafts  and 
a^culture.  A  seminary,  if  such  exists,  should  re- 
ceive special  mention,  since  it  has  an  important  bear- 
ing on  the  formation  of  a  native  priesthood.  Other 
institutions  may  be  given  under  one  head,  as  in  many 
eases  one  building  serves  for  various  purposes. 

i1)  Administrative  Statistics, — ^The  figures  dealing 
with  the  actual  ministry  of  the  missionaries  are  of 
course  the  surest  indication  of  the  progress  of  Chris- 
tianitT.  In  giving  the  number  of  baptisms,  adults 
should  always  be  distinguished  from  children,  the 


ever,  the  word  mission  is  confined  to  the  work  of 
bringing  pagans  into  the  Church.  In  view  of  this 
difference  in  the  use  of  the  term  mission,  our  statistics 
will  contain  a  statement  of  the  present  condition  of  (1) 
the  Catholic  missions  in  lanols  prevailingly  or  ex- 
clusively pagan,  and  (2)  the  Catholic  missions  in  lands 
which  have  been  won  to  Christianity  since  the  Refoiv 
mation.  As  the  negroes  of  the  United  States  are  ad- 
mitted into  the  statistics  of  Protestant  missions,  the 
inclusion  of  this  second  class  is  necessary  to  supply  a 
uniform  basis  of  comparison  between  Catholic  and 
non-Catholic  missionary  activity. 
With  reference  to  the  accompanying  table  it  may  be 


CATHOLIC  MISSIONS 


AUZIUABIBS 

Chibf  and 

SUB- 
BTATION8 

Chubchss 

AND 

Chapels 

Pupils 

Chari- 

Baptisms 

Relicioua 
Women 

Catechista 

Schools 

Ordinary 

Orphans 

Uble 

Inatitu- 

tiona 

Adult 
Heathens 

Children 
in  Ex- 
tremis 

Catholio 
Children 

416 
3,846* 
3,169* 

408 
2,933 
1,224* 

•   • 

314* 
6,992* 
1.914 
76 

•  • 

•  • 

•  • 

287 

13.046 

6.081 

156 
4,677 
1.713 

176 

291 
6,025 
4,475 
76 
4,980 
1,769 

176 

113* 
4.821 
3.138 
96 
3.636 
1.090 

153 

6,389* 

118.013 

90,325 

9.285 

212.944 

67.118* 

•  • 

504,074* 

2.097 

23.380 

14,038 

688 

11.586 

1.962 

•  • 

22 

234 

*  • 

*  • 

*  • 

6,757 
71,963 
13,680* 

16.i27 

•  • 

•  • 

4,194 
76.868* 

28420 

•  • 

4.230 
34,668* 

11.996* 

*  • 

25.136 

17,792 

13.04T* 

53,651* 

*  • 

m  m 

■    ■ 

631* 

692* 

547* 

553* 

497* 

20.634* 

959* 

•  • 

m   m 

■   • 

1.667 
323 
304 
969 

405* 

2.565 
338 

1,329* 
4,232* 

258 
1,569(?) 

334 

200 
1.341* 

269 
1,384(?) 

228 

230 
1.30T* 

3,418* 

299 

1.210* 

337 

191 

1.355* 

17.021 

66.872 

19.071* 

17.717* 

73,132* 

193,813* 

952* 
6,996* 
1.673* 

482* 

173(?) 

11* 

211* 
96* 
33* 

23(?) 

374* 

•  • 

•  9 

m  m 
m    m 

•  • 

•  ■ 

•  ■ 

•  • 

•  • 

3,668* 

3,702* 

3.392* 

10,276* 

•   * 

•   • 

435* 

a   ■ 

418* 

340* 

299* 

18,898* 

■  • 

■  • 

•    • 

•  • 

263* 

•   • 

284 

282 

265 

36,071* 

■  ■ 

12* 

•   t 

•  • 

•  • 

391 

•    • 

306 

75 
197 

134 
72 

9,050* 
6,240* 

■   • 

24 

1.081* 
468* 

•  • 

•  • 

4.735* 
1.395* 

1.089* 

•    • 

1,008* 
30,393* 

•  • 

894* 

770 

69.259* 

,    , 

•  * 

•   • 

17,284* 

•  • 

.   ■ 

22,667* 

17,706* 

•  • 

787.780* 

•  * 

•  * 

•  • 

•  • 

*  • 

•  • 

9    » 

•  • 

•  • 

•  • 

<  • 
■ . 

•  t 

•  « 

•  • 

■  • 

•  • 

•  * 

•  • 

•  • 

9    • 

•  • 

•    « 

•   • 

. . 

•  • 

•  ■ 

•  • 

•  • 

•  « 

•    • 

■    • 

•  ■ 

■    ■ 

•    • 

«   • 

■  ■ 

•   • 

■    • 

•    • 

*  • 

•   • 

.. 

•   . 

•  • 

•   • 

•    • 

«   • 

•  • 

•   • 

.. 

•   • 

•  • 

•   • 

*.          l_ 

A»             J        • 

*  •     » 

-•  1     •          • 

•       1_     aI 

A    J    J  J 

V        -     a1            • 

#            A 

X          J                     #    A.l_ 

/• 

?i   i_i^ 

number  baptized  in  articulo  mortis  being  given  in  both 
caaes.  The  number  of  Easter  and  of  devotional  com- 
munions (^ven  separately)  are  of  special  importance 
as  indicating  approximately  the  number  of  Chris- 
tians who  have  reached  the  use  of  reason  and  the 
fervour  of  religious  life.  Such  concrete  figures  give 
a  better  idea  of  the  spirituality  of  the  newly-converted 
than  long  dissertations  on  their  zeal.  Naturally, 
explanations  of  local  conditions  must  accompany 
the  figures,  which  might  otherwise  lead  to  miscon- 
ception. 

IV.  Statistics  of  the  Cathouc  Missions. — In 
dealing  with  mission  statistics,  it  is  a  matter  of  the  ut- 
most importance  to  make  clear  from  the  first  in  what 
precise  sense  the  word  mission  is  to  be  understood.  In 
canon  law  the  term  si^ifies  all  districts  which  are  sub- 
ject to  the  Congregation  of  Propaganda,  and  it  might 
thus  include  territories  (e.  g.,  until  November,  1908, 
^gland  and  the  United  States)  with  which  the  idea 
of  mission  is  never  associated  in  ordinary  speech. 
We  also  find  two  clearly  defined  meanings  commonly 
assigned  to  the  word  by  popular  usage.  By  mi.ssion- 
ary  activity  is  often  understood  all  efforts  directed  to- 
wards the  propagation  of  the  Faith,  whether  among 
heathens  or  among  non-Catholics;  more  usually,  how- 


stated  that  the  imperfect  state  of  the  figures  available 
and  considerations  of  space  render  it  impossible  to  in- 
clude all  the  particulars  above  advocated.  An  asterisk 
denotes  tiiat  the  returns  are  incomplete.  No  figures 
have  been  given  where  returns  for  a  very  small  per- 
centage of  the  missions  are  available.  For  fuller  in- 
formation the  reader  is  referred  to  the  works  cited  in 
the  bibliography  and  to  the  articles  on  the  various 
countries  m  The  Catholic  Encyclopedia. 

HuoNDER,  Dtr  einheimisehe  KUrua  in  den  HeidenUlndem  (Frei- 
burg. 1909);  Idem.  Deutsche  JeeuUenmisaionare  deM  17.  und  18. 
JahrhunderU  (Freiburs.  1899) ;  Idem.  KcUhol.  u.  protestantiaehe 
MisnoTiMltnoaen  (Freiburg.  1910);  Kbosb,  KtUholteche  Miuiont' 
etatiBtik  (Freiburg.  1908) ;  Stocklbxn.  Der  neue  Wdt-BoU  mUaUtP' 
hand  Nachrichten  deren  MienonOren  S.  J.  (Augsburg.  1726) ;  Kal- 
KAR.  Den  kathol,  Miaeione-Hietoris  (0>peiihagen,  1826) ;  Hasabt. 
Kerkelijke  Hiatorie  tan  de  geheele  wereldt  (4  vols.,  Antwerp,  1667- 
71);  Hahn.  Oeachiehle  der  kathol.  Mxaaionen  (5  vols..  Cologne, 
1857-65) ;  Mull3aver,  Geachichte  der  kathol.  Miaaumem  in  Oatin- 
dien  (Freiburg,  1852) ;  Louvet.  Lea  Miaaiona  Catholiqtua  au  X IX' 
Sikcle  (Lyons,  1894) ;  Delplacb,  Le  Chriatianiameau  Japan  (2  vols.. 
Brussels,  1909-10);  Suau.  La  Pranced,  Madagaacar  (Paris.  1910); 
Piglet.  Lea  Miaaiona  Catholiquea  Pran^aiaea  au  XlX'  Steele  (6 
vols.,  Paris,  s.  d.);  Lb  Blant,  Imi  mariyra  de  VBxlrime-Orient  at 
lea  perafcutiona  antiquea  (Arras,  1877) ;  Launat,  HiaUrire  ginirala 
de  la  SociHi  dea  Miaaiona  Etrangirea  (3  vols.,  Paris,  1894);  Hen- 
RION,  Hintoiredea  Miaaiona  Catholiquea  (Paris,  1847);  Louvet.  La 
Cochinchine  religietue  (2  vols..  Pans.  1885) ;  Drpierrb.  Situation 
du  Catholiciame  en  Cochinchine  d  la  fin  du  X IX*  Siicle  (Saigon, 
1900);   Miaaiona  Daminieainaa  dana  Vextrima  Orient  (2  vols.. 


MISSIONS                              378  MISSIONS 

Pmis.  1885) ;  Djunkovbkt.  DicHonn.dea  MUnoM  Cathotutuet  (2  tribal  politics  of  the  natives  likewise  resulted  in  fheir 

vols..  Pans,  1864) ;  Hue,  Le  Chn^tantame  en  Chtne^  en  Tartane  et  -.«-,:«„««*%««  Kao^I  4- a  4\>a  wa*  a#v«.na  ««/!  ♦!,«  ^^x^i^^^^i.,*^ 

au  Tibet  (Pkris,  1857-68),  tr.  Hamltit  (London,  1857;  New  York,  PfS^g  more  heed  to  the  war  songs  and  the  satisfaction 

1887) :  CoBDXBR,  Relatione  de  la  Chine  avec  lee  puieaaneee  Straw  Of  their  passions  than  tO  the  question  of  their  spiritual 

»*r«a  (Paris,  1901) ;  Victor  BKRN>uaDiNDB  Roukn,  Hig.  univ.  dee  advancement.     Le  Caron  worked  faithfully,  evangel- 

mteetone  franetecatnee  (Pans,  1898);  WourBBaTAN,  The  CathoUe  ;-:_»„  au^  «-,,„«*»*.  «,*^  «>a«r;««»  fk<%  »»«»  *«•  ^4k<>.  «x«;X^« 

Cfctirdi  in  CWna  from  1860-1907  (St.  Louis,  1910) ;  Enq.lhardt.  J^mg  the  savages  and  paving  the  Way  for  Other  priests 

Mieeione  and  Mieeionariee  of  Califomia  (San  fVancisoo.  1906) ;  by   the   preparation    Of   a   dictionary   of   the    Huron 

9ji^^^l^  PMm««r  Prieete  of  North  Amenoa  (2  vols.,  New  York,  language.    Having  made  a  trip  to  France,  he  returned 

JSSSr^i  ,'2rT'S,^^9i^)  ;'^AS!S?S^f^S^"jS2r:  11«23)  n^  Fathe^Nicholas  \^el  and  Brother  Gabriel 

(London,  1891);  Marshall,  Ckrietian  Mieeione  (London.  1862);  Sagard,   the   future  historian   of   the  eariy  Cathohc 

Satow,  The  Jeeuit  Mieeion  Preee  in  Japan:  1591-1610  (London,  missions  in  Canada. 

{iilli  Sll"S?i.S:'1S5SiJl?^w"^,?^S[?!^  .  Yet  the  results  of  the  RecpUects'  labours  were  but 

(Cleveland,  1896-1901).  See  also  in  Vacant,  Ditt,  de  thiol,  oath,  mdifferent.    So  these  religious  generously  3nelded 

g*ari8,  iw^—);, ^S.Roj.  8.  V.  A/rwue,  I.  6^60;  Aitor*.  s.  v.  their  places  to  the  Jesuits,  who  reached  Quebec  on  19 

f^^S!^:  II,  U5t92!'^'  "•  ""*        '  •  ^^^2^^®'  FouRNw.  June,  1625,  the  firet  to  arrive  being  Fathers  J^me 

Klission  sutistics:  Krosr,  Katholieehe  Mieeioneetatietik  CFni'  Lalemant,  E.  Mass^,  and  Jean  de  BrSbeuf.    Father 

burg,  1908);  aUm  dee  Mieeione  de  la  So^  Mass6  had  already  laboured  among  the  Micmacs  of 

1843):  Gbundbuann,  Kleine  Mieeione^eographie  und -Statietik  m  their  midst,  while  Br^beuf  succeeded  liC  Caron  at 

(Stuttgart,  1901) :  Wbrnbr,  Orbieierrarum  eatholicue  (Freiburg,  the  head  of  the  Huron  mission,  whither  he  was  accom- 

1890)  and  the  Cathoho  dfreotones  for  the  vanous  countries.  nuniAd   hv  fhrnn  nfhAr  nn'Mfa   fmrn    Fmnr^A   nA*>A^ 

PubUcations  by  ReUgious  Orders:  Conepeetue  omnium  mie-  ^^^,°Z  ^^^          i'  pnests  irom  rT&ll(^   Uo^O). 

eionum(hdinie  FratrumMinorum  an,  i904--06(QatLncc\d.  1906);  One  of  these,  a  zealous  Franciscan,  Father  de  la 

Annalee  de  la  CongrSgaiion  de  la  Mieeion  (Paris,  annually) ;  Mie-  Roche  DalUon,  directed  his  Steps  towards  the  Neutral 

eione  Bdgee  dee  Pkree  de  la  Compagme  de  Jieue  (Brussels)  (con-  naf  inn    nn  whiVYi  h«  /»nii1H  m^Va  nn  imnrtxeairm       TJa 

tinuation  of  the  PrScie  hietoriguee);  Annalee  Apoetoliquee  de  la  2*H?"',^S  T,i«2x       COUiamalceno  impression.     Me 

ConoriQotion  du  S.  EtwU  et  duS,  (fceur  de  Marie  (Paris,  1886—);  finally  left  (1627),  while  Br^beuf's  Jesuit  companion 

&.  JoaevKe  Foreign  Mieeiotuirv  AdeoeaU{lMndpn,  quarterly) ;  had  alsO  tO  retum  East  in  the  COUrse  of  the  same  year. 

vomheUigetenHerten  Jeeu  {Blimp,  \9IMr-);  Mieeione  en  Chine  H  COUragmg  apathy,    if  nOt  hostility,   of  the   Hurons. 

au  Congo  (Bnixelles.  188^) :  BlCorreo  Sino-Annamita.  Corree-  In  1633,  after  a  temporary  absence  from  his  post,  he 

Sw^'^liSSi^^^  returned  West  with  Fathers  Antoine  Daniel  knd 

Thomas  Kennedy.  Ambroise  Devost.    Incredible  hardships  led  them  to 

the  village  of  Ihonatiria,  where  they  met  a  pleasant 

Misaions,  Catholic   Indian,  of  Canada. — ^The  reception.    Thence  they  visited  hamlet  cJter  hiumlet, 

French  discoverers  of  Canada  did  not  fail  to  impress  teacning  and  exhortine  the  Indians,  at  first  with 

the  aborigines  they  met  with  a  vague  idea  of  the  re-  no  very  great  success.    In  the  East  Fathers  Dolbeau 

ligion  thev  professed.    Thus^  on  3  July,  1534,  when  and  Jamay,  with  Brother  Duplessis,  were  displaying 

Jacques  Cartier  reached  Baie  des  Chsileurs,  he  pre-  their  zeal  on  behalf  of  the  roving  Montagnais  and 

sented  the  Indians  with  prayer  beads,  and    shortly  Algonquins  of  the  Saguenay,  Ottawa,  and  Lower  St. 

afterwards  erected  a  large  cross  with  the  inscription  Lawrence.    In  1636  Father  Dolbeau  had  even  ex- 

"  Vive  le  Roi  de  France  ,  thereby  combining  patriot-  tended  his  activities  to  the  outlying  bands  of  the 

ism  with  religion.    In  his  second  expedition  (1535)  Labrador  Eskimos.    Thus  were  missions  established 

he  was  accompanied  by  two  chaplains,  who,  of  course,  at  Tadoussac  for  the  Mont&gnais;  at  Gasp^  for  ^at 

could  not  impart  much  instruction  to  the  Eskimos,  tribe  and  the  Micmacs;  for  the  latter  alone  at  Ifiscou, 

Micmacs,  Algonqmns,  and  Hurons  with  whom  they  New  Brunswick,  and  at  Three  Rivers  for  the  Montag- 

came  into  contact,  yet  must  have  indicated  in  some  nais  and  the  Algonquins.    As  a  rule,  those  Indians, 

wav  the  interest  the  newcomers  took  in  their  spiritual  though  lower  than  the  Hurons  in  the  social  scale, 

welfare.    Moreover  this  important  voyage  ultimately  showed  themselves  more  amenable  to  Christian  ideals, 

resulted  in  the  conversion  and  baptism  of  Donnaconay  To  the  west  of  these,  missionary  operations  were 

the  Quebec  chief  kidnapped  to  France  by  the  discov-  thenceforth  to  be  concentrated  chiefly  with  a  view 

erer.    Likewise,  when  the  Sieur  de  Monts  establidied  towards  the  conversion   of   tribes    of   the    Huron 

his  colony  (1604)  in  what  was  to  become  known  as  confederacy.    By  the  end  of  1635  Fathers  Daniel 

Acadia,  he  had  with  him  priests  who  soon  turned  their  and    Devost,    going   to   Quebec,   met   two   priests 

attention  to  the  surroimding  tribes.    In  the  course  proceeding  to  the  north,  and  at  Three  Rivers  Father 

of  time  a  few  Micmacs  received  baptism  (1610),  and  Isaac   Jogues,    newly   arrived   from    France.    This 

their  companions  ever  manifested  the  greatest  attach-  missionary  soon  after  left  with  a  party  of  Hurons 

ment  for  the  oonipatriots  of  their  missionaries.    Two  with  whom  he  was  to  make  his  apprenticeship  of  the 

priests^   Father  Pierre  Biard  and  Edmond  Mass^.  hardships  in  store  for  him.    From  the  central  mission 

left  Dieppe  for  Port  Royal  (26  January,  1611),  ana  of  St.  Joseph,  or  Ihonatiria,  some  twenty-eight  towns 

started  their  ministrations  among  the  natives  by  a  were  visited,  the  inhabitante  of  which  proved  as  fickle 

wise  show  of  prudence^  which  some  were  tempted  as  they  were  superstitious.    Hence  continual  dangers 

to  regard  as  an  excessive  dilatoriness  in  admitting  for  the  missionaries  nearly  culminated  in  their  deadi 

into  the  (I!hurch.    Four  years  later  more  important  at  the  hands  of  those  for  whose  salvation  they  were 

missions  were  commenced  on  the  arrival  at  Quebec,  then  devoting  themselves.     In  1638  there  were  nine  priests 

founded  seven  years,  of  Fathers  Denis  Jamay,  Jean  Dol-  working  zealously  in  thirty-two  villages   of  some 

beau,  and  Joseph  Le  Caron,  Recollects,  accompanied  twelve    thousand    souls.      Gradually    they    estab- 

by  a  lay  brother.    While  the  first-named  remained  lished  the  residences  of  the  Conception,  St.  Mai^s, 

at  the  French  fort.  Father  Dolbeau  went  to  instruct  and  St.  Joseph's,  named  after  the  one  at  Ihonatiria. 

the  Montagnais  who  repaired  to  Tadoussac  at  the  Thence  they  visited  the  Petuns  (1639),  and  in  1641 

mouth  of  the  Saguenay,  and  Father  Le  Caron  went  to  Fathers  Charles  Raymbault  and  Isaac  Jogues  went 

the  Hurons  in  the  West.     (I!hamplain,  in  order  to  among  the  Ottawas.     Then,  smallpox  havine  made 

secure  the  friendship  of  the  latter^  tne  most  numerous  its  appearance  among  the  Hurons,   fresh  ouigers 

of  the  Indian  bands  in  his  vicimty,  deemed  it  good  ensued  for  the  missionaries,  ever  considered  the  cause 

policy  to   espouse  their  cause  against  their  invetr  of  such  visitations.     They  now  turned  their  attention 

erate  enemies,  the  powerful  Iroquois  of  the  South,  to  the  Neutrals,  a  powerful  nation  settled  on  the  penin- 

This  step  eventually  embroiled  the  French  colony  in  sula  between  Lakes  Erie  and  Ontario,  where  they 

incessant  hostilities.     Well  meant  though  it  undoubt-  experienced  new  insulte,  and  met  with  very  few 

edly  was,  and  perhaps  necessary  under  the  cireum-  consolations  (1640-41).     Though  they  thus  visited 

9tfUftoeSy  the  French  leader's  intervention  in  the  inters  eighteen  villages,  trying  to  win  over  the  people  by 


i 


MISSIONS                           379  MISSIONS 

their  gentleness  and  their  devotion  to  their  interests,  into  the  river.  Tlie  one  consolation  in  the  midst  ol 
thev  were  everywhere  greeted  with  maledictions  and  these  ruins  was  the  constancy  with  which  the  con- 
raillery.  Nevertheless  it  would  seem  as  if  their  verts  stuck  to  their  faith,  even  when  in  the  land  of 
patience  and  fortitude  must  have  at  length  struck  their  executioners.  So  thoroughly  did  they  share 
those  uncouth  savages,  for  in  1645  they  invited  them  the  fortitude  of  their  pastors,  that  many  of  ihem  not 
to  their  coimtiy,  promising  a  better  reception  for  the  only  confessed  their  faith  in  Christ  at  the  peril  of  their 
tireless  apostles.  The  days  of  the  Neutrals,  however,  lives  but  even  exhorted  their  persecutors  to  embrace 
jrere  numbered;  the  Iroquois  were  to  be  the  imcon-  it  themselves.  Some  of  the  fugitives  went  west, 
Bcious  executors  of  the  justice  of  God  upon  them.  while  others  found  a  temporary  refuge  on  the  desert 

To  the  north  of  Huronia  lav  the  territory  of  the  islands  of  Lake  Huron,  or  among  the  Neutrals  who 
Algonquins  who  counted  at  tnat  time  no  less  than  had  soon  themselves  to  flee  for  their  lives.  Mean- 
one  hundred  and  four  distinct  groups.  One  of  these,  whUe  the  exiles  of  Christian  Island,  after  imtold 
the  Nipissings,  was  visited  by  Fathers  Claude  Pijart  sufferings,  retired  in  the  spring  of  1650  to  the  nei^- 
and  Raymbaidt  (1640),  who  were  cordially  received.  bourho<xi  of  Quebec,  finally  settling  at  the  Lorette 
Though  they  soon  made  a  number  of  baptisms;  their  Mission  (see  Huron  Indians),  llieir  chief  occupa- 
success  was  scarcely  commensurate  with  their  exer-  tion  having  ceased  with  the  practical  extinction  of  the 
tions.  Little  b^  little,  however,  the  Nipissines  Hurons  as  a  people,  the  Jesuit  missionaries  now 
tired  of  the  missionaries,  and,  as  if  oy  wav  of  punish-  turned  their  attention  to  the  fierce  Iroauois,  repeating 
ment,  they  were  in  1650  exterminateabv  the  Iroquois,  the  prodigies  of  self-denial  with  whicn  their  victims 
Unfortunately  good  and  bad  alike  had  too  often  to  had  oeen  favoured.  Aeainst  their  tenacious  perse- 
suffer  by  the  invasions  of  those  warlike  aborigines,  verance  and  devotion  to  outy  no  bigotrv  can  stand.  To 
In  the  summer  of  1652  Father  Jogues  and  Brother  Protestants  as  well  as  to  Catholics  they  are  nothing 
Ren6  Goupil  were  surprised  by  a  party  of  that  short  of  heroes  of  Christian  fortitude.  To  the  west  of 
nation,  who  shockingly  mutilated  and  shamefully  Huronia  proper  was  the  land  of  the  Petuns  who 
tortured  the  former,  and  put  the  latter  to  death  (see  boasted  nme  or  ten  villages  with  a  population  of  per- 
GouPiL  and  Jogues).  In  common  with  practically  haps  ten  thousand  in  16^.  Two  missions,  that  oi  St. 
aU  the  missionaries  of  the  time,  Father  Jogues  was  a  John's  and  that  of  St.  Mathias,  had  been  established 
native  of  France;  an  Italian,  Father  Francis  Joseph  among  them.  These  Indians  were  commencing  to 
Bressani,  was  soon  to  walk  in  his  footsteps  (see  yield  to  the  influence  of  ^ce  when  they,  too,  hs3i  to 
Bbessani).  Nothing  daunted  by  torments  which,  retire  before  the  victonous  march  of  the  ruthless 
humanly  speaking,  should  have  proved  fatal,  Bressani,  Iroquois.  In  1652  we  find  them  at  Michillimakinac, 
after  his  experience  with  the  Mohawks,  returned  to  whence  they  set  out  on  a  series  of  peregrinations 
Canada  (1645)  and  consecrated  his  unfailing  energies  which  landed  them  among  tribes  of  the  United  States, 
to  the  welfare  of  the  Hurons,  who  could  not  help  re-  by  whom  they  were  ultimately  absorbed.  The  other 
garding  him  as  a  hero.  Meantime,  constantly  haiv  renmant  of  the  Huron  nation  fared  better.  About  1665 
assed  by  the  Iroquois,  who  had  burnt  several  of  their  they  enjoyed  the  ministrations  of  an  able  and  pious 
villages,  the  Hurons  were  rapidly  marehing  to  their  priest.  Father  Joseph  M.Chaumonot,  a  pioneer  mission- 
doom.  Yet,  thanks  to  the  fearlessness  of  their  spirit-  ary  who  had  eiven  no  less  than  fiftv-three  years  of  his 
ual  guides,  mission  work  grew  apace  among  tnem.  life  to  the  ill-fated  Hurons  (d.  1692;. 
Indeed  about  1648  Father  Bressani  felt  warranted  to  Considered  as  a  nation,  the  Hurons  had  been  wiped 
write  that  "whereas  at  the  date  of  their  arrival  they  off  the  face  of  the  earth.  Such  of  the  priests  as  were 
found  not  a  single  soul  possessing  a  knowledge  of  the  not  required  for  missionary  work  withm  what  is  now 
true  God,  at  the  present  daj^,  in  spite  of  persecution,  the  American  Union  then  turned  their  attention 
want,  famine,  war,  and  pestilence,  there  is  not  a  single  toward  the  more  pacific  tribes  nearer  home.  The 
family  which  does  count  some  Christians."  Better  Micmacs  had  from  the  first  accepted  Christianity  (see 
still,  the  converts  were  living  up  to  the  Christian  Micmacs).  On  29  July,  1657,  Gabriel  De  Queylus. 
standard  of  morality,  and  the  general  tone  of  the  Gabriel  Souart,  and  Dominioue  Galinier,  members  of 
nation's  society  was  gradually  undergoing  a  decided  a  newly  foimded  ecclesiastical  society,  the  Sulpicians, 
chfuige  for  the  better.  But  the  imptacable  Iroquois  accompanied  by  M.  d'Allet,  a  deacon  of  the  same 
would  not  allow  them  to  profit  peac^ully  b^  the  min-  institute,  arriving  at  Quebec,  immediately  proceeded 
istrations  of  their  priests.  One  by  one  their  villages  to  the  village  of  Ville-Marie,  now  Montreal,  where 
were  attacked  and  destroved.  In  the  spring  of  they  replaced  the  Jesuits  in  the  char^  of  the  local 
1648  St.  Joseph's  was  annihilated  and  its  mission-  parish.  Thou^  more  especially  destmed  for  work 
ary,  Father  D^iel.  killed  while  comforting  his  flock,  amons  the  whites,  the  Sulpicians  did  not  overlook 
Next  came  the  turn  of  the  fortified  town  of  St.  Louis  the  salvation  of  the  native  tribes.  Thus,  ten  yeara 
where  the  lion-hearted  Br^beuf  and  his  companion,  after  their  arrival  in  Canada  (1667),  they  ministered 
Falser  Lalemant,  were  martyred  (see  Brebeuf).  to  the  Ottawas  and  other  Algonquin  groups.  Bishop 
St.  Ignatius  villa^  suffered  a  similar  attack,  and  De  Montmorency-Laval,  the  first  prelate  in  the  colony, 
most  of  its  inhabitants  were  butchered.  Then  St.  entrusted  to  them  the  care  of  a  mission  established  at 
Mary's  was  assailed  by  the  enemy;  but,  warned  in  Quints  Bay  on  Lake  Ontario,  for  the  benefit  of  the 
time,  it  succeeded  in  repulsing  the  attack.  Numer-  Ca3ruga8,an  Iroquois  tribe,  and  many  adopted  Hurons 
ous  Huron  villages  were  successively  razed,  and  many  settled  in  their  midst.  Their  success  with  the  adult 
of  their  people  massacred,  while  othera  were  led  off  to  population  was  not  complete ;  but  their  very  presence 
the  land  of  the  invaders,  there  to  imdergo  torture,  p»aved  the  way  towards  establishing  missionary  sta- 
perpetual  captivity,  or  death.  tions  all  along  the  western  shore  of  Lake  Ontario 

No  wonder,  then^  if  the  Hurons  lost  heart  and*  (1669).    Soon  after,  the  Sulpicians  were  succeeded  in 

sought  safety  in  fli^t  and  dispersion.    Their  de-  that  field  bv  the  Recollects  who  had  just  returned  to 

voted  pastors  followed  them  in  their  exile.    They  Canada.    Father  Louis  Hennepin  and  others  laboured 

at  first  gathered  remnants  of  their  once  poweriiu  with  energy,  but  harvested  only  tares,  and  the  natives 

nation  on  an  island  in  Lake  Huron,  callea  to-day  gradually  returned  south ;  all  traces  of  a  mission  on 

Qiristian  LJand,  while  the  Petun  village  of  Etharita  the  Canadian  side  of  the  lake  disappeared, 

succumbed  imder  the  blows  of  the  southern  aborigines.  It  was  then  that,  quite  a  number  of  Iroquois  of  the 

and  with  it  Father  Charles  Gamier  who,  thou^  m  the  American  Union  having  been  won  over  to  the  Faith, 

grasp  of  death,  dragged  himself  to  minister  to  the  a  step  was  taken  bv  their  spiritual  advisers  of  which 

spiritual    needs    of   nis   afflicted    flock.    His    com-  the  results  were  to  fast  to  our  day.    To  withdraw  them 

panion,  Father  Noel  Chabanel,  was  at  the  same  time  from  the  dangers  of  their  pagan  environment,  the 

the  victim  of  an  apostate  Huron  who  flung  his  body  Jesuits  induced  them  (1668)  to  settle  at  La  Prairie, 


380 


MISSIONS 


near  Montreal,  whence  they  moved  (1676)  to  Sault  St. 
Louis,  and  then  to  Caughnawaga.  One  of  the  chief 
reasons  for  that  migration  was  the  prevailing  excesses, 

Srincipally  owing  to  the  intoxicants  dealt  out  by  the 
>utch.  The  French  colony  itself  was  not  free  from 
that  greatest  of  curses  for  the  American  aborigine. 
But,  m  addition  to  the  solemn  promise  to  abstain 
therefrom  which  was  exacted  of  all  the  newcomers 
into  the  model  settlement,  the  stopping  of  the  evil 
was  more  easy  on  Canadian  than  on  American  (or, 
as  it  was  then,  Encjiish)  soil.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  the 
missionaries  of  New  France,  and  especially  their 
valiant  head,  Bishop  Laval,  fought  it  with  imnag^g 
perseverance,  appealing  to  the  French  authorities 
whenever  their  representatives  on  the  St.  Lawrence 
proved  unwilling  to  stay  the  spread  of  this  scourge. 
In  their  new  home  at  Sault  St.  Louis  the  Iroquois 
Christians  gave  great  consolations.  Thus  one  of  the 
Tormer  torturers  of  Father  de  Br^beuf,  Garonhia^^ 
by  name,  became  one  of  the  most  zealous  catechists 
of  the  new  mission,  and  the  war-chief  Kiyn  shone  by 
his  virtues  as  much  as  by  his  courage.  But  the  best 
known  example  of  Christian  efflorescence  in  that 
settlement  was  Catherine  T^kwitha,  a  native  virgin 
sumamed  the  **  Lily  of  the  Mohawks",  who  died  in 
1678  after  a  short  life  passed  in  the  practice  of  heroic 
virtues.  About  that  time  events  shaped  themselves 
in  such  a  wav  as  to  further  increase  the  extent  of  the 
missionaiy  neld  in  the  East.  The  Abenakis,  an 
Algonquin  nation^  ever  a  staunch  alljr  of  the  French, 
though  most  of  its  tribes  were  considerably  nearer 
to  the  English,  were  attracting  the  attention  of 
Father  Gabriel  Druillettes,  who  visited  them  re- 
peatedly in  their  original  homes.  These  natives 
were  soon  to  swell  the  ranks  of  the  Canadian  Indians 
under  the  care  of  the  Jesuits.  After  a  series  of  hos- 
tilities in  the  course  of  which  the  English  had  at  one 
time  to  agree  to  pay  them  tribute,  the  Abenakis 
were  defeated  on  3  Dec.,  1679.  Rather  than  re- 
main neighbours  to  the  victors,  most  of  them  imme- 
diately made  their  way  to  Canada  and  Acadia,  where 
they  have  since  remained. 

The  following  year  (1680)  two  Jesuits,  the  brothers 
Vincent  and  Jacques  Bigot,  were  appointed  to  watch 
over  the  spiritual  interests  of  the  newcomers.  These, 
fathered  at  the  village  of  Sillery,  joined  St.  Joseph's 
Mission  which  in  IQSl  counted  already  some  five 
himdred  or  six  hundred  inhabitants,  as  yet  un- 
baptized,  but  animated  by  excellent  dispositions. 
Their  congeners  in  Acadia,  having  heard  of  the  wel- 
come extended  to  them,  asked  for,  and  were  granted, 
1  July,  1683,  a  land  concession  of  thirty-fiix  square 
miles  on  the  Chaudi^re  River,  to  which  they  flocked 
in  large  numbers.  This  was  given  the  name  of 
St.  Francis'  Mission.  For  over  twenty  years  the 
Bigot  brothers  devoted  their  energies  to  the  welfare 
of  the  Indians  of  both  missions,  and  their  seal  was 
rewarded  by  complete  success.  In  1708  other 
aborigines  of  the  same  stock  were  settled  at  B^can- 
court,  with  a  view  to  serve  as  a  rampart  against  the 
Iroquois.  They  ''were  all  Christians,  and  practised 
with  much  edification  the  precepts  of  Christianity" 
(Charlevoix,  ''Journal  Hist.",  V,  p.  164).  Twelve 
years  later  (1720)  they  numbered  about  five  hundred 
souls.  A  short  time  before  (1716),  the  mission  of 
Oka,  or  Lake  of  the  Two  Mountains,  was  established, 
where  Christianised  Iroquois  and  remnants  of  the 
A^onquin  nation  were  gathered  under  the  guidance 
of  the  Sulpicians.  In  these  various  foundations  the 
secular  authorities  generously  seconded  the  efforts 
of  the  missionaries  by  the  grant  of  laige  tracts  of  land 
for  the  benefit  of  their  chai^ge. 

Now  that  the  French  were  more  or  less  at  peace 
with  the  Iroquois,  and  friendly  with  the  other  tribes  in 
the  East^  they  dreamt  of  fresh  conquests  in  the  West. 
The  "Western  Sea"  (Pacific  Ocean)  was  especially 
the  object  of  their  ambition.    They  commissioned 


the  Sieur  Pierre  Gaulthier  de  Laverendrye  to  undiBS^ 
take  an  expedition  in  that  direction,  and  in  the  sum- 
mer of  1735  Father  Jean  Pierre  Aulneau,  S.J.,  ac- 
companied him  to  the  Lake  of  the  Woods  previous  to 
attempting  his  ultimate  mission,  the  conversion  ci 
the  Mandans  of  the  Upper  Missouri.  With  a  party 
of  twenty  Frenchmen,  he  was  treacherously  slain 
on  an  island  of  the  same  lake  by  the  Sioux  on  8  Jime  of 
the  following  year.  Father  Claude  Godef roy  Coquart, 
of  the  same  order,  took  his  place  (1743)  as  chaplain 
of  the  exploring  expedition,  and  dwelt  a  short  time  at 
the  present  Portage  la  Prairie,  but  could  accomplish 
nothinj;  for  the  Western  Indians.  The  mission  of 
Michilimakinac,  at  the  west  end  of  Lake  Huron,  was 
then  the  base  of  operations  for  such  expeditions. 
Thence  also  the  Jesuits  scoured  the  woods  in  quest  of 
souls  to  save,  and  Ross  Cox  says  that  the  impression 
they  made  on  their  wayward  wards  was  such  that, 
at  the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth  centurv,  the  de- 
scendants of  the  latter  haa  not  forgotten  ''the  good 
white  fathers  who.  unlike  other  white  men,  never 
robbed  or  cheated  tnem  "  ("Adventures  on  the  Colum- 
bia River",  New  York,  p.  149).  But,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  the  reservations  of  the  Abenakis  and  the 
Micmacs  in  the  far  East,  all  under  the  care  of  the 
Jesuits,  most  of  the  Catholic  missions  in  Canada 
were  along  the  St.  Lawrence.  Quite  a  few  were  at 
the  various  localities  then  called  the  Posts  of  the 
King,  the  Malbaie,  Tadoussac,  Mingan,  Chicoutimi, 
and  other  places,  concerning  which  Father  Coquart 
addressed  a  memoir  to  the  Intendant  of  New  France 
under  date  5  April,  1750. 

Shortly  before,  a  Sulpician,  Father  Francis  Picquet, 
had  started  a  movement  among  the  aborigines,  the 
results  of  which  were  most  remarkable.  In  a  village 
called  Ogdensburg  he  established  a  reduction,  the  suc- 
cess of  which  soon  attracted  widespread  attention.  In 
the  space  of  four  years  he  grouped  over  three  thousand 
Indians  and  opened  for  tneir  benefit  the  missions  of 
La  Pr^ntation,  La  Qalette,  Sucatzi,  L'lle  au  Galop, 
and  L'lle  Picquet,  on  the  St.  Lawrence.  So  great 
was  his  success  and  so  considerable  the  extent  of  his 
operations  that  (1749)  it  took  the  Bishop  of  Quebec 
ten  days  to  inspect  his  central  establishment  officially. 
Two  years  later  Father  Picquet  visited  the  Indians  on 
Lake  Ontario,  whence  he  repaired  to  the  land  oi  the 
Senecas.  When  Quebec  was  captured  in  1759,  that 
missionary  had  converted  laige  numbers  of  heathens. 
Unfortunately,  the  ensuing  unsettled  state  ot  the 
countiv  put  a  stop  to  his  activities,  and  in  May,  1760, 
he  had  to  leave  Ogdensburg,  never  to  return.  An- 
other Sulpician,  Father  Jean  Mathevet,  after  having 
mastered  the  language  of  the  Abenakis,  of  which  he 
compiled  a  dictionaiy,  was  then  ministering  to  the 
mixed  congr^ation  of  Oka  (1746-81),  together  with 
Father  Vincent  Guichart,  whose  missionary  labours 
extended  from  1754  to  the  time  of  his  dea^  in  1793. 
Perhaps  the  most  famous  Canadian  missionary  of  that 
period  was  Father  Jean-Baptiste  Labrosse,  a  Jesuit, 
who  exercised  his  ministry  aiU  through  Lower  Canada 
and  New  Brunswick  durmg  no  less  than  thirty-five 
years,  being  with  the  Montagnais  and  Uie  Midecites 
from  1754-82.  when  he  died  regretted  by  all  for  his 
unremitting  charity.  Two  events  then  conspired  to 
interrupt  the  progress  of  the  Catholic  missions  in 
Canada.  These  were  the  change  of  political  masters, 
owing  to  which  several  members  of  the  clergy  re- 
turn^ to  France,  and  the  suppression,  in  1773,  of  the 
Jesuit  Order.  Bv  the  fortieth  clause  of  the  M<mtreal 
capitulation  England  had  granted  religious  liberty  to 
the  Indians  as  well  as  to  the  whites  then  in  the  colony. 
Yet  some  of  the  instructions  soon  after  sent  to  her 
representatives  on  the  banks  of  the  St.  Lawrence  were 
openly  a^inst  the  spirit,  if  not  t^e  letter,  of  that 
treaty.  The  officiab  were  told  that  "all  missionarieB 
among  the  Indians,  whether  establi^ed  under  the 
authority  or  appointed  by  the  Jesuits,  or  by  any  other 


MZ88ION8 


381 


acissioivs 


eeelesiastieal  authority  of  the  Romish  Church,  [must] 
be  wiUidrawn  by  degrees,  and  at  such  times  and  in 
such  a  manner  as  shall  be  satisfactory  to  the  Indians 
and  consistent  with  the  public  safety,  and  Protestant 
missionaries  appointed  m  their  places''  (Ro^al  In- 
structions  to  sir  Geoi]ge  Prevost).  The  natives  re- 
fused to  part  with  their  priests  on  any  consideration, 
thereby  showing  the  extent  of  the  influence  Uiese 
had  acquired  over  them.  After  the  suppression  of 
the  Society  of  Jesus  die  care  of  the  Indians  fell  entirely 
on  the  shoulders  of  the  Sulpicians  and  of  such  of  the 
secular  clergy  as  could  be  spared  for  that  work. 
Among  the  f(Mrmer  we  mav  mention  Father  Thavenet, 
who  laboured,  mostly  at  the  Oka  mission,  from  1793  to 
1815.  Of  the  latter  one  of  the  most  prominent  was  a 
refugee  from  the  horrors  of  the  French  Revolution, 
Abb6  le  Courtois,  who  reached  Canada  on  26  June. 
1794,  and  died  on  18  May,  1828,  after  having  devoted 
himself  to  the  service  of  the  northeastern  and  St. 
Lawrence  aborigines. 

Meantime  an  event  had  taken  place  in  the  West 
which  was  portentous  of  the  most  imj^rtant  results 
for  Catholic  influence  amon^  the  natives  of  North 
America.  The  Earl  of  Sellurk  having  foimded,  in 
1812,  a  colony  of  Scotch  Presbyterians  and  Irish 
Catholics  at  the  junction  of  the  Assiniboine  and  Red 
Rivers,  was  violently  opposed  by  the  representatives 
of  the  Northwest  Company.  This  opposition  re- 
sulted (19  Jime,  1816)  in  the  Battle  of  Seven  Oaks,  in 
whidi  twenty-two  whites,  including  the  governor 
of  the  oolonv,  lost  their  lives.  As  it  was  evident  to  the 
noble  foimaer  that  no  permanent  success  could  be 
achieved  without  the  aid  of  religion^  he  obtained  from 
the  Bishop  of  Quebec  two  missionanes,  Father  Joseph- 
Norbert  Provencher  and  Joseph  Nicholas  S.  Du- 
moulin,  who,  on  16  July,  1818,  arrived  to  found  the 
church  of.  St.  Boniface,  opposite  Fort  Douglas,  the 
headauarters  of  the  traders  in  the  countrv.  One  of 
the  cnief  objects  of  the  new  mission  was  uie  conver- 
sion of  the  aborigines  of  the  Middle  West  of  Canada. 
Father  Dumoulin  tried  to  meet  the  wishes  of  his  bishop 
in  this  respect;  but^  owing  to  the  fact  that  he  could 
give  onl^  naif  of  his  time  to  the  Indians,  he  accom- 
{Wished  little  enough.  In  fact,  such  was  the  rebellious 
temper  of  his  native  charges,  that  he  was  twice  shot 
at  by  one  of  them.  Scarcelv  anything  could  be  done 
to  better  their  lot  until  1831,  when  Father  George  A. 
Beloourt  arrived  among  them  from  Lower  Canada. 
The  newcomer,  an  able  man,  immediately  commenced 
to  acquire  a  tnorough  knowledge  of  the  language  of 
the  Saulteuz,  or  Cnippewas,  which  he  reducra  to 
writing  and  of  which  he  composed  a  dictionarv.  In 
1833  he  established  on  the  Assiniboine  an  Indian 
vfllage,  known  as  St.  Paul's  Mission,  where  he  strove 
to  teach  farming  as  well  as  the  elements  of  the 
Christian  doctrine.  Owing  perhaps  to  his  insistence 
on  the  former,  his  success  was  far  from  complete. 
In  the  summer  of  the  same  year.  Father  Jean-Baptiste 
Thibault  reached  the  Middle  West;  tJiou^  less 
brilliantly  endowed  than  Belcourt.  he  was  to  prove 
more  successful  as  a  missionary.  The  latter  was  then 
journeying  to  Rainy  River,  where  he  found  the  In- 
dians "litue  disposed  to  leave  the  bottle  for  the  word 
of  God",  according  to  the  founder  of  the  Red  River 
Missions,  now  Bishop  Provencher.  In  the  course  of 
1838  Beloourt  established  a  second  post  at  the 
confluence  of  the  English  and  Winmpee  Rivers. 
Tliis  was  Wabassimone.  which  soon  aca  uired  a  degree 
of  celebrity,  thou^  it  nad  to  be  abanaoned  in  1847. 
In  1842  a  new  and  larser  field  was  opened  to  the  zeal 
of  the  missionaries,  the  Far  West,  to-day  Alberta, 
where  Father  Thibault  preached  tlie  Gospel  to  the 
Crees  and  Blackfeet  who  repaired  to  Fort  Edmonton. 
Without  becoming  at  once  converts  to  our  holy  faith, 
these  aborianes  were  persuaded  by  the  preaching 
of  the  Canadian  priest  to  the  extent  of  defimtively  re- 
jecting the  advances  of  iJie  Melodist  minister  who 


had  preceded  him  in  that  distant  region.  Then 
Tliibault  journeyed  even  farther  west,  and  founded 
the  mission  of  St.  Ann,  whence  he  and  other  priests 
thenceforth  attended,  with  some  measure  of  success, 
to  the  spiritual  wants  of  the  surrounding  tribes.  He 
next  went  (1844)  as  far  as  Cold  Lake^jLac  la  Biche 
and  even  lie  k  la  Crosse,  where  the  Dfyi6  Indians 
received  him  with  open  arms. 

A  short  time  before  (1842)  another  Canadian  mis- 
sionary. Father  Modesto  Demers,  began  work  througjh- 
out  British  Columbia,  or  New  Caledonia,  as  that  coun- 
try was  then  called,  going  as  far  as  Stuart  Lake,  where 
he  accomplished  wonders.  As  early  as  1838,  after 
having  crossed  the  entire  continent  from  Quebec, 
Father  Demers  had  reached  the  Columbia  valley, 
where  he  was  everywhere  received  as  the  special  en- 
voy of  the  Almighty,  and  produced  among  the  popu- 
lous tribes  of  the  Pacific  an  impression  which  power- 
fully worked  for  unity  when,  later  on,  the  mmisters 
of  various  sects  made  their  appearance.  In  the 
spring  of  the  following  vear,  Father  Jean  Baptiste  Z. 
Bolduc  reintroduced  Christianitv  on  Vancouver  Is- 
land, where  it  had  been  planted  at  the  time  of  the 
occupation  of  Nootka  by  the  Spaniards  (1789-95). 
In  1845-47  Father  John  Nobili,  a  Jesuit,  retraced 
Demera'  itinerarv,  and  finally  went  even  so  far  as 
Babine  Lake  in  the  course  of  his  missionary  excursion. 
Meantime  a  new  worker.  Father  Jean  £.  Darveau, 
was  in  a  fair  way  towards  materially  improving  the 
^iritual  condition  of  the  hardened  »siulteux  of  what 
is  tonday  Northern  Manitoba,  when  he  was  murdered, 
4  J\me^  1844,  by  Indians  who  sided  with  a  Protestant 
catechist  stationed  at  Le  Pas,  Lower  Saskatchewan, 
where  the  priest  intended  to  start  a  permanent  mis- 
sion. East  of  the  Manitoban  lakes.  Father  Domini- 
que Du  Banquet^  S.J.,  inaugurated  in  April  of  the 
same  vear  the  missionary  station  of  Walpole  Island, 
on  Lake  Superior,  whence  he  visited  various  posts, 
and  in  the  following  July  another  Jesuit,  Father 
Chon6,  took  up  his  residence  at  Wikwemikong,  on 
Manitoulin  Island,  where  a  secular  priest  had  pre- 
ceded him.  No  less  than  twenty-one  posts  on  the 
idand,  Georgian  Ba^ from  Mississagu^  to  Owen  Sound, 
as  well  as  Lake  Nipissing  and  Beausoleil  Island,  were 
attended  from  that  mission.  Great  was  the  opposi- 
tion of  the  Protestant  ministers  (among  whom  was 
James  Evans,  the  inventor  of  the  Cree  syllables); 
but  the  Jesuits  held  their  own,  and  managed  to  or- 

ginize  the  flourishing  Christian  settlements  of  Garden 
iver  and  Pigeon  ^ver  (1848).  The  latter  station 
was  transferrni  in  1849  to  Fort  William  by  Fathers 
Chon^  and  Fr^miot.  Thence  these  missionaries  min- 
istered to  the  Indians  of  Port  Arthur,  Prince's  Bay, 
Royal  Island,  and  Lake  Nepigon.  Still  further 
east,  in  the  very  land  of  the  Abenakis,  less  consoling 
events  had  taken  place  some  time  previously.  An 
Indian  known  b^  the  name  of  Masta  had  been  edu- 
cated in  the  United  States,  whence  he  returned  in 
1830  to  St.  Francis  Mission  with  the  title  and  at- 
tributes of  a  Protestant  minister.  After  much  op- 
position at  the  hands  of  his  fellow  Abenakis  he 
succeeded,  bv  dint  of  skilful  intri^e  and  with  the  con- 
nivance ot  the  Canadian  authorities,  in  putting  up  a 
Protestant  chapel  in  the  very  midst  of  the  Tnaian 
village  (1837).  Three  years  later  Father  J.  A. 
Maurault  was  sent  thither  by  Bishop  Signay  to  learn 
the  language  of  the  natives,  and  in  1847  he  actuall3r 
became  their  missionary.  Thenceforth  the  Abenaki 
preacher  saw  whatever  mfluenoe  he  had  ^ined  wane 
imtil  he  had  to  leave  the  scene  of  his  exploits.  At  the 
same  time  a  still  better  known  pnest  was  com- 
mencing his  apostolic  career  at  Oka,  Father  J.  A. 
Cuooq,  an  able  Sulpidan,  who  was  to  consecrate  his 
energies  for  over  half  a  century  to  the  welfare  of  the 
Mohawks  and  Algonquins,  whose  languages  he  event- 
ually mastered. 
A  new  era  dawned  for  the  Indian  missions  of 


lffX88XON8 


382 


MXSSXONS 


Canada.  At  the  request  of  Mgr  Bourget,  Bishop  of 
Montreal,  four  Oblates  of  Mary  Immaculate  reached 
the  St.  Lawrence  from  France  (1841)  and  imme- 
diately began  preaching  missions,  not  only  to  the 
wh'tes,  but  also  to  the  Indians  of  Lower  Canada. 
Several  missionaries  of  the  new  oxder.  Fathers  Louis 
D^l^ge,  Plavien  Durocher,  and  Jean-N.  Laverloch^re, 
soon  distinguished  themselves.  Hearing  of  their 
success,  Bishop  Provencher  begged  for  the  co-opera- 
tion of  their  brethren  in  religion.  On  25  Aug.,  1845, 
Father  Pierre  Aubert  and  Brother  Antonin-AIexandre 
Tach6  arrived  at  St.  Boniface^  and,  while  the  older 
missionaiy  was  sent  to  Wabassunong,  Brother  Tacb6 
left  after  his  ordination  (22  Oct.,  1845)  for  the  distant 
post  of  He  h  la  Crosse.  There  he  had  for  a  superior 
Father  Louis  Lafl^che,  who  had  established  that  mis- 
sion in  the  course  of  the  preceding  year.  Both  priests 
did  a  vast  amount  of  good  to  the  native  population. 
In  1846  two  other  Oblates,  Father  Henri  Faraud  and  a 
companion,  reached  the  Canadian  West.  In  the 
north  Father  Tach^  gradually  extended  his  field  of 
action.  He  visited  (1847),  first  of  all  missionaries, 
the  diores  of  Lake  Athabasca,  where  Father  Faraua 
was  to  inaugurate  the  Nativity  Mission  on  8  September, 
1849.  On  24  June  of  the  following  year  Father 
Tach^  was  appointed  coadjutor  to  Bisnop  Pxx>ven- 
cher,  and  temporarily  left  the  lie  k  la  Crosse  mission 
in  the  hand  of  newcomers,  Fathers  Maisonneuve  and 
Tissot,  whose  inexperience  was  somewhat  resented  by 
the  Indians.  Hence  Bishop  Tach^  had  to  return  to 
them  after  his  consecration  (23  Nov.,  1851).  and  for 
several  years  the  voimg  prelate  continued  among 
them  the  labours  wnich  pertain  more  to  the  province 
of  a  simple  priest  than  to  that  of  a  bishop.  Father 
Henri  Urolher,  a  young  Oblate  who  was  to  become 
the  Apostle  of  the  Arctic  Circle,  came  to  swell  the 
ranks  of  the  missionaries  (June^  1852),  while  Father 
Albert  Lacombe  started  on  his  long  career  as  an 
itinerant  missionary  over  the  Saskatchewan  plains. 
Father  Grollier  soon  went  to  Lake  Athabasca,  where 
he  was  for  some  time  Father  Faraud 's  companion. 
Then  he  founded  the  mission  of  Fond  du  Lac,  on  the 
same  body  of  water  (1853),  while  Father  Ren^  R^mas 
establi^ed  that  of  Lac  la  Biche.  The  principal  event 
of  1854  was  the  arrival  in  the  Canadian  Northwest 
of  Father  Vital  J.  Grandin,  a  young  Oblate  who  was 
to  do  yeoman  service  in  the  cause  of  the  missions 
there.  The  new  recruit  was  sent  to  Lake  Athabasca, 
to  relieve  Father  Faraud,  who  established  (1856)  St. 
Joseph's  Mission  on  Great  Slave  Lake.  Illustrative 
of  ihe  result  of  the  Oblates'  exertions  in  the  north, 
we  may  say  that,  by  the  end  of  1856,  there  remained 
of  the  seven  hundred  and  thirty-five  natives  who 
formed  the  population  of  lie  ^  la  Crosse,  only  one 
hundred  and  forty-eight  heathens. 

In  the  far  East  other  Oblates  were  emulating  those 
of  the  Canadian  Northwest ;  in  addition  to  those  already 
mentioned  there  were  Fathers  Andr^  Garin  and  Charies 
Amaud,  then  Fathers  Louis  Babel  and  Jean-Pierre 
Gu^uen.  These  missionaries  repeatedly  visited  in 
succession  Tadoussac,  Les  Escoumains,  Maskuaro, 
Mingan,  Portneuf,  and  Les  Ilets.  As  a  rule  their 
efforts  were  crowned  with  success.  Not  only  did  they 
teach  their  neophytes  the  rudiments  of  the  Christian 
doctrine,  but  they  even  imparted  to  them  some 
knowledge  of  the  secular  sciences,  and  enhanced  the 
attractiveness  of  the  Catholic  worship  by  solemn 
processions  and  other  pious  devices.  As  eariy  as  30 
Sept.,  1850,  one  of  them.  Father  Amaud,  at  this 
writing  (1910)  still  actively  engaged  in  the  eastern 
field,  wrote  of  the  natives  of  Les  Ilets:  ''They  aro  the 
best  instructed  on  the  coast ;  they  all  know  how  to  read 
and  write.  It  is  inspiring  to  see  them  in  the  church, 
the  men  on  one  side  and  the  women  on  the  other, 
prayei^book  in  hand,  vying  with  each  other,  as  it  were, 
m  modesty  and  fervour.  Another  spectacle  scarcely 
less  striking  is  that  of  the  little  children  in  prayer  after 


the  evening  service,  when  every  mother  teaches  die 
members  of  her  family  how  to  pray  to  the  Great 
Spirit"  (Rapport  sur  les  Missions  de  Quebec,  March, 
1851,  p.  36).  A  regular  house  of  the  Oblates  was  es- 
tablished (1851)  at  Rividre  au  Desert,  now  Maniwald, 
and  later  on  (1862)  others  wero  erected  at  Bethaia- 
mits  and  Ville-Marie  (Pontiac),  whence,  as  well  as 
from  the  residences  on  the  St.  Lawrence,  not  only  the 
roving  bands  of  the  interior,  Montagnais,  Algonqiuns, 
and  Nascapis,but  even  such  as  resorted  to  thetnuding- 

g»sts  of  Aobittibbi,  Albanv,  and  Moose  Factory,  on 
udson  Bay,  were  visited  by  the  "Black-Robes". 
In  spite  of  their  precarious  circumstances,  those  aborig- 
ines often  enough  repaid  by  a  faithful  discharge  of 
their  religious  duties  the  devotedness  of  their  spiritual 
guides.  The  same  may  be  said  of  the  Indians  of 
the  inhospitable  steppes  of  the  Far  North,  where  the 
Tach^,  Farauds.  Grandins,  Grolliers,  and  a  host  of 
others  were  glaalv  imdergoing  the  pangs  of  hunger, 
and  setting  at  defiance  the  rigours  of  Arctic  winters 
and  the  fatigues  of  endless  marches  on  snowshoes, 
for  the  sake  of  the  souls  entrusted  to  their  care. 
Their  courage  and  devotion  to  duty  were  so  great,  and 
their  successes  so  striking,  that  they  often  elicited 
flattering  encomiums  from  Protestant  traders  SLod 
explorers.  On  30  November,  1859,  Father  Grandin  was 
consecrated  Bishop  of  Satala  and  coadjutor  to  Bishop 
Tach^;  yet  he  remained  in  the  north^  spending  most 
of  his  time  in  incessant  travelling.  His  presence  there 
was  all  the  more  necessarv  as  the  preceding  year  had 
witnessed  the  arrival  in  the  Mackenzie  district  of  thfe 
first  Protestant  clergyman,  the  forerunner  of  numerous 
Anglican  missionaries  in  the  north.  Father  Grollier 
was  immediately  dispatched  to  Fort  Simpson,  the 
headquarters  of  the  enemy,  where,  in  spite  of  the  in- 
ducements offered  by  the  local  Protestant  trader,  he 
had  the  consolation  of  seeing  the  great  majority  of 
the  natives  side  with  the  representative  of  O&woli- 
cism.  He  then  founded  (1858)  the  missionary  post  of 
Our  Lady  of  Good  Hope,  likewise  on  the  Mackenaie 
and  just  within  the  Arctic  Circle.  Then  he  even 
went  down  as  far  as  the  first  Eskimo  village  (Sept., 
1860),  while  Father  Gascon,  a  new  recruit,  was  pro- 
tecting the  savages  of  the  Liard  lUver  against  die 
wiles  of  the  preacher.  Simultaneously  Ihe  difi&cult 
station  of  Lake  Caribou,  just  southwest  of  the  Barren 
Groimds,  was  established  imder  Father  V^greville. 
The  year  1862  saw  the  beginning  of  what  was  to 
become  a  most  important  establishment  under  the 
title  of  the  Divine  Providence,  on  the  Mackenzie, 
where  Fathers  Gascon  and  Petitot  made  the  very  first 
clearings.  That  same  year  a  Protestant  minister, 
Mr.  Kirkby,  despairing  of  success  east  of  the  Roclqr 
Mountains,  crossed  that  range  into  the  Yukon. 
Hearing  of  this,  an  intrepid  missionary,  Father 
S^guin,  immediately  followeid;  but  the  ooxmict  was 
unequal ;  the  preacher,  besides  the  powerful  influence 
of  the  traders,  had  resources  of  which  the  priest  oould 
not  dispose.  Above  all,  he  had  the  advantage  of 
priority,  and,  despite  two  other  visits  of  the  Cauiolic 
missionaries,  that  of  Father  Petitot  (1870)  and  that  of 
Bishop  Clut  with  Father  Lecorre  (1872),  the  Loudieuz 
of  the  Far  Northwest  were,  to  a  great  extent,  lost 
to  the  Church.  Thin^  were  Drifter  on  the  Saskatch- 
ewan and  in  the  adjoining  region,  where  new  posts, 
denoting  constant  progress,  were  being  established  on 
all  sides.  Even  martyred  Darveau's  old  mission  of 
Duck  Bay  had  been  in  a  sense  revived,  thou^  trans- 
ferred to  the  northern  extremity  of  Lake  Manitoba 
under  the  name  of  St-Laurent.    A  still  more  im- 

£>rtant  event  was  the  erection  of  the  Athabasca  and 
ackenzie  districts  into  a  separate  vicariate  Apos- 
tolic, with  Father  Faraud  (consecrated  30  Nov.,  1864) 
as  first  titular.  The  new  prelate  was  (1866)  given 
a  coadjutor  in  the  person  of  Bishop  Isidore  Glut. 
With  this  perfected  organisation  the  northern  mis- 
sions, served  by  such  steriing  missionaries  as  Fatheis 


383 


MISSIONS 


Steiin.  Grouard,  and  the  learned  explorer,  linguist, 
ana  eUmographer,  Father  Petitot,  managed,  in  the 
teeth  of  opposition  and  extreme  poverty,  not  onlv  to 
hold  their  own,  but  to  increase  the  number  of  tneir 
stations  and  converts.  In  the  course  of  1866  Father 
Petitot  procured  for  the  natives  of  Great  Bear  Lake 
the  visit  of  the  first  minister  of  the  Gospel  they  had 
ever  seen  in  their  drea^  wastes.  In  the  south 
Fathers  Laoombe,  Gast4,  Leduc,  Fourmond,  Bonnald, 
and  others  were  neither  less  active  nor  less  success- 
ful. While  in  the  far  East  secular  priests  were  looldng 
after  the  spiritual  interests  of  the  Abenakis,  the 
Oblates  continued  their  visits  to  the  Indians  north  of 
the  St.  Lawrence,  and  the  Jesuits  to  the  natives  of 
the  Lake  Superior  basin. 

On  the  Pacific  Coast,  the  work  of  evangelization 
inaugurated  by  Father  Demers  likewise  advanced. 
That  missionary,  having  been  made  Bishop  of 
Vancouver  Island  (1847),  called  to  his  aid  the  Ob- 
lates lately  established  in  Oregon.  Hie  stations 
of  Esquimalt,  Sanish,  and  Cowitchen,  and  the  oon- 
veision  of  hosts  of  aboric;ines  were  the  immediate 
results.  From  the  islana  missionary  work  spread 
to  the  adjacent  mainland.  On  8  Oct..  1859,  Father 
Oiaries  M.  Pandosy  founded  the  Okana^n  mis- 
sion, and  Fathers  Casimir  Chirouse,  Ldon  Fouquet. 
Paul  Durieu,  and  other  Oblates  powerfully  helpea 
their  superior.  Father  Louis-Josepn  D'Herlx>mez.  in 
regenerating  the  Indians  of  the  Lower  Fraser.  Most 
consoling  were  the  results  of  their  zeal,  and  it  is  doubt- 
ful if  a  more  thorouph  change  from  habitual  intemper- 
ance and  other  vices  was  ever  effected  in  North 
America  than  that  which  rejoiced  the  hearts  of  the 
Oblates  in  British  Columbia. 

On  20  Dec.,  1863,  Father  dUerbomez  became  the 
first  bishop  of  the  mainland,  and  this  circumstance 
gave  a  new  impetus  to  the  evangelization  of  that  im- 
mense country.  Shushwaps  and  Chilootins  were  then 
granted  the  same  spiritual  advantages  as  had  been 
tor  some  time  enjoyed  b^  the  natives  of  the  Lower 
Fraser  valley,  for  the  special  benefit  of  whom  the  mis- 
sion of  St.  Maiy's  had  been  established  (1861).  In 
the  course  of  1868  Bishop  d'Herbomez  himself  visited 
the  whole  of  the  northern  interior  of  British  Coliunbia, 
as  far  as  Babine  Lake,  doing  much  good  to  the  D^6s 
and  oliier  Indians  he  met.  Fathers  Le  Jacq  and 
McGuckin  walkea  in  his  footsteps  until  the  former 
establish»l  (1873)  the  mission  of  Stuart  Lake, 
which  was  to  become  the  great  centre  of  missionary 
activities  in  the  north  of  the  Pacific  province.  In 
Jime^  1876,  Father  Pierre-P.  Durieu  was  named 
coadjutor  to  Bishop  dllerbomez.  On  Vancouver 
Island  a  devoted  secular  priest.  Father  August 
Brabant,  had  long  been  battling  at  his  own  per- 
sonal risk  i^ainst  the  apathy  of  the  less  religioudy 
inclined  Indians  of  the  west  coast.  He  was  finally 
successful,  while  secular  priests,  Fathers  J.  N.  Lem- 
mens,  Joseph  Nicolaye,  and  others,  were  mdusdly 
taking  the  places  of  the  Oblates  who  had  oeen  ti^e 
pioneers  of  the  island  diocese.  In  1871  the  Holy 
See  formed  the  Province  of  St.  Boniface  with  ArclT- 
bishop  Tach6  as  metropolitan  and  three  suffragans, 
Bishop  Grandin,  now  titular  of  St.  Albert,  and  the 
vicars  Apostolic  of  Athabasca-Mackenzie  (Mgr.  Far- 
aud)  and  of  British  Columbia  (Mgr.  d'Herbomez). 
The  archdiocese  lost  importance  as  a  missionary  coun- 
try in  proportion  as  it  saw  the  wave  of  white  immi- 
gration roll  over  the  soil  tilled  by  so  many  devoted 
workers.  The  districts  of  the  Saskatchewan,  Atha- 
basca, and  the  Mackenzie  were  lone  to  remain  rich 
fields  for  apostolic  men  zealous  for  9ie  lowest  in  the 
social  scale.  That  the  difficulties  and  even  dangers 
attending  the  evangelization  of  the  Indians  had  not 
disappeared  from  those  territories  was  made  evident 
by  the  drowning  in  Lake  Athabasca  (1873)  of  a 
veteran  of  the  northern  missions.  Father  Emile 
Eynard,  an  e^-offioial  of  the  Frenoh  Qoverom^nt,  the 


freezing  (1874)  of  Louis  Daz€,  a  lav  missionary  of  the 
St.  Albert  diocese,  and  the  fate  which  befell  brother 
Alexis  (July,  1875),  kiUed  and  eaten  by  an  Iroquois 
companion. 

Yet  there  is  no  denying  that  local  conditions  were 
little  by  little  undergoing  some  alterations.  On  the 
plains  of  what  is  now  southern  Alberta  and  southern 
Saskatchewan  white  immigration  had  commenced.  At 
that  time  treaties  were  made  with  the  Indians,  en- 
tailing the  establishment  of  new  missionary  posts  and 
of  industrial  schools.  While  some  of  these  were  as- 
signed to  Protestant  sects,  the  Church  could  not  be 
content  with  a  second  place  in  a  country  where  she  had 
done  most  of  the  pioneer  work.  In  spite  of  occasional 
ill-will  on  the  part  of  those  in  power,  she  readily 
adapted  herself  to  the  new  circumstances.  Thus 
were  founded  the  important  Indian  schools  of  (1) 
Dunbow,  Alberta  (1884) ;  (2)  Qu'Appelle,  Saskatche- 
wan (1884);  (3)  St.  Boniface  (1890);  (4)  Duck  Lake, 
in  Saskatchewan  (1897),  and  other  similar  institutions 
for  the  benefit  of  the  Indian  youth.  Britidi  Columbia 
already  possessed  the  Indian  industrial  schools  of  St. 
Marv's,  William's  Lake,  Kamloops,  and  Kootenay,  all 
in  the  hands  of  the  Catholic  missionaries  and  nuns. 
Then  came  the  Saskatchewan  Rebellion  (1885),  which 
resulted  not  only  in  the  destruction  of  seven  Catholic 
missions,  but  even  in  the  death  at  the  hands  of  pagan 
Crees  (2  April)  of  Fathers  Fafard  and  Marcnand, 
young  Oblates  then  in  charge  of  the  posts  of  Frog 
Lake  and  Onion  Lake  respectively.  Quite  a  few  of 
the  misguided  Indians,  however,  eventually  profited 
by  these  troubles,  since  their  conaemnation  to  death  or 
confinement  led  them  to  join  the  Church  they  had  so 
grievously  injured. 

Thenceforth  the  roving  life  of  the  pioneers  be- 
came more  or  less  a  thing  of  the  past  for  the  mis- 
sionaries of  the  western  prairies,  who,  penned  up 
with  their  charge  in  well-aefined  reservations,  con- 
tinued their  mmistrations  without  that  element  of 
romance  which  breaks  the  monotony  of  the  daily  rou- 
tine and  contributes  to  the  making  of  history.  It 
may  now  suffice  for  us  to  mention  the  labours  of 
Fathers  Gast^  at  Lake  Caribou;  Bonnald  at  Cumbei^ 
land:  Grouard  (who  replaced  Bishop  Faraud,  d.  Oct., 
1892),  at  Lac  la  Biche  and  Athsibasca;  of  Father 
Pascal  (appointed  vicar  Apostolic  of  the  newly  crea- 
ted district  of  the  Saskatchewan,  19  April,  1891),  at 
Lake  Athabasca  and  elsewhere;  of  Father  S^guin,  on 
the  Lower  Mackenzie,  and  of  many  other  eqiuilly  de- 
serving missionaries.  Even  the  lonely  missions  of 
the  great  northern  stream  and  tributaries  have  had  a 
share  in  the  material  progress  so  noticeable  in  the 
south.  Thanks  to  the  initiative  of  Bishop  Grouard, 
a  steamer  has  been  built  which  annually  saves  to 
those  poor  missions  large  sums  of  money  formerly 
paid  to  the  Hudson  Bay  Company  for  their  periodical 
outfitting.  In  the  far  East  anew  impetus  was  im- 
parted to  the  missions  of  the  faithful  Micmacs  by  the 
arrival  of  the  Capuchin  Fathers  in  October,  1894, 
at  Ste-Anne  de  Kestigouche.  In  British  Columbir 
material  circumstances  were  never  quite  so  precarious 
as  in  Mackenzie.  Owin^  to  the  efforts  of  Bishop 
Durieu,  ^e  spiritual  conditions  of  the  Indians  of  the 
mainland  of  that  province  have  ever  been  exception- 
ally br^t.  Witn  the  aid  of  such  tried  co-workers 
as  Fathers  Le  Jacq,  Fouquet,  Chirouse  vunior,  and 
others,  the  wonders  of  the  Paraguayan  Keductions 
have  been  reproduced,  if  not  surpassed,  among  the 
Indians  of  the  Pacific.  Others  working  there  were 
Rev.  A.  G.  Morice,  who  directed  Stuart  s  Lake  mis- 
sion during  nineteen  years  and  invented  an  Indian 
syllabary  now  widely  known  in  the  North;  N. 
doccola,  who  did  wonders  in  the  Kootenay;  Fr. 
Thomas,  and  V.  Rohr. 

Of  a  native  population  of  111,043,  Canada  officially 
counts  to-day  40,820  Catholic  Indians  thus  distrib- 
uted: Prince  Edward  IslaAd,  274;  New  Pronswickr 


MISSIONS                            384  MISSIONS 

1871;  Nova  Scotia,  2103;  Quebec,  7926;  Ontario,  was  celebrated  by  the  noted  Dominican  Antonio  de 
6319;  Manitoba,  1734;  Saskatchewan,  2939;  Al-  Montesinos,  the  earliest  opponent  of  Indian  slavery, 
berta,  1873;  Northwest  Territories,  2252;  Yukon  at  A^rllon's  temporary  colony  of  San  Miguel  de  Guan- 
Territory,  59,  and  British  Columbia,  11,470.  These  dape  in  Viiginia  in  1526,  eighty  years  before  the  found- 
are  the  official  figures,  which  represent  only  the  treaty  ing  of  Jamestown. 

Indians.    In  so  far  at  least  as  the  present  vicariates  I.  South-Eastern  States  (Virginia  to  Alabama, 

Apostolic  of  Athabasca  and  of  Mackenzie  are  con-  Inclusive). — ^The  whole  south-eastern  portion  of  the 

cemed,  they  are  manifestly  out  of  proportion  with  the  United  States,  extending  westwards  to  or  beyond  the 

actual  population,  since  the  Catholic  Indians  and  Mississippi,  was  known  in  the  early  Spanish  period 

half  breeds  of  those  territories  alone  are  locally  esti-  under  the  general  name  of  Florida.    Altnough  at  least 

mated  at  11,000  and  5,000  respectively,  with  perhaps  fifteen  priests  had  lost  their  lives  in  this  region  with 

500  native  Protestants.     55,000  is  a  fairly  accurate  the  expeditions  of  Narv^ez  and  De  Soto  in  1527-28  and 

figure  for  the  total  of  the  Catholics  among  the  Cana-  1539-42,  an  attempt  to  evan^lize  the  native  tribes 

dian  Indians.  was  made  in  1549  by  the  Dommican  Luis  Cancer,  the 

For  boolos  beariDE  on  the  Catholic  miflsions  in  Canada  see  the  apostle   of   Guatemala,    under   a   royal   commission 

"^^"iJ^'orBSSX' cfjSISii  (^SSTu,.  1894):  Beoo.  g««tfd  **  •'^^o^n  request  for  the  conve«ion  of 

(a  nameeake  of  foregoing) ,  The  Creation  of  Manitoba  (toronto,  Florida.     Forced  by  the  obstmacv  of  the  ship-captam 

1871) ;  Idem,  History  of  the  North-west,  3  vols.  (Toronto,  1894);  to  land  at  Tampa  Bay  among  the  fierce  Calusa,  instead 

lZTi;J^ofiS^:^dr^^'^iJ.Ti^n^l-  ff-^^^iven  an  opportimity  to  search  out  a  friendly 

TIN.  Vie  de  Ccuhenne  Tekahowita  (Montreal);  Dugas,  Monsei-  tribe,  Father  Cancer  and  his  two  companions  had 

gneur  Provencher  (Montreal,  1889);  Idem.  Histoire  viridique  dee  hardly  touched  the  shore  when  they  were  killed  by 

f^.'^iSliS^fSife^SJZSl'S  Ya^i^iIS^ottS^  the  Msanbled.savages  in  sight  of  the  ship,  being  ihv^ 

1906) ;  Haroravb, /?«f /Jivcr  (Montreal.  1871);  Hill,  Afanito6a  the  first  missionary  martyrs  of  the  eastern  Umted 

(Toronto,  1890);  Jones,  Relaiion  inidite  du  R.  P.  Pierre  Laure,  States.     St.  AugUStine,  Florida,  the  first  permanent 

SAT,  NUre-Dame  de  la  Jeune  Lorette  (Montreal.  1900) :  Martin,  by  Menenoez  m  1666.     In  the  next  year,  at  tne  I©- 

Hurona  el  Iroquois  (Paris.  1898);  Maurault,  Histoire des  Ahtna-  quest  of  the  King  of  Spain,  three  Jesuits  were  sent  out, 

^^S^^t^i}t^^^^jXt'oTS^S^&^t^<i.  o-Jf  of  *hom  Father  Pe<^ro  M«tto««  having  landed 

Ton\o,l9W\li>w.Dietionnairehiatori^desCanadiensetdea  With  a  small  party  on  Cumberland  Island  on  the 

MHis  francais  de  V  Quest  (Quebec,  1907);  Idkm.  History  of  the  (]}eorgia  coast,  was  attacked  and  murdered  by  ih% 

ronto,  1886);  Paqubt,  Fraoments  de  T Histoire  reliffieuae  et  civiU  and  Brother  Francisco  de  Villareal,  after  spending  a 

de  la  paroisae  de  St  Nicolas  (L^via.  1894);  Pbtitot,  C?ies  Us  winter  Studying  the  language,  proceeded  to  work 

^S&^^i^r(Si^^:!i^rJ£JT<^^JS^  r''«fi^%  Calus*  tnbe  in.southern  nonda.    Rein- 

(Paris,  1889) ;  Idem,  A  utour  du  Grand  Lac  des  Eeclaves  (Paris,  forced  by  ten  more  Jesuits  m  1568,  they  went  OVer  tO 

1891};  Idem.  Exploration  de  la  Rigion  du  Grand  Lac  des  Ours  Havana  tO  establish  there  a  SChool  for  Indian  boys 

'ifS!'^]\Vt¥^!ri^rSri<S%'^ir^rLaZ  f««",  Florfd*-    FatW  Ju*n   BautisU  ^g,«»,   « 

ofthe  MuAeg  (London.  1866);  Soulbrin.  Le  Pkre  Laverloehkre  Jesmt  vice-provmcial,  then  took  chaige  of  the  Flonda 

(Paris.  8.  d.).          .j,„           ...™w,        v„.  mission,    establishing   stations   among   the   Calusa, 

«^'SW4^1i?^iS2nrir1:SfC^r\i.?^  Tee«rta.  and  To«>baga  tribes  ofthe  south  and  west 

1862-1910;;  ATortcwnAwlo^Ws  des  (>.M./.^aria); /2apj>ort«  coasts,  while  Father  Antomo  Sedefio  and  Brother 

sw  les  Missions  du  Diochse  de  Qu^>ee  (C^ebec).  Domingo  Bdez  began  the  first  Georgia  mission  on 

A.  Q.  MoBiCE.  Guale  (St,  Simon's?)  Island  among  the  Yamasee,  in 

whose  language  Brother  B&eE  prepared  a  mmmar 

BQaiionB.   Catholic    Indian,    of    the    Unfted  and  a  catechism.    In  1569  Father  Kogel  with  several 

States. — The  spiritual  welfare  of  the  native  tribes  other  Jesuits  b^an  work  iu  South  Carolina  among  the 

of  America  was  a  subject  of  deep  concern  to  the  Gov-  Christa  (Edisto)  and  others  in  the  neighbourhood  of 

emments  of  Catholic  Spain  and  France  from  the  very  the  Spanish  post  of  Santa  Elena.    After  about  a  year, 

discovery  of  the  Western  Continent.    To  th?s  fact  all  the  results  proving  unsatisfactory,  both  the  Orista 

the  early  patents  bear  witness.    That  granted  to  and  the  Guaie  missions  were  abandoned,  the  miasioii- 

Ayllon  in  1532  for  exploration  and  settlement  alone  aries  returning  to  Havana  with  a  number  of  boys  for 

the  Florida  coast,  as  quoted  by  Shea,  is  typical:  the  Indian  school. 

"Whereasourprincipalintent  in  the  discovery  of  new  In  1570  Father  Segura,  accompanied  by  Father 
lands  is  that  the  inhabitants  and  natives  thereof,  who  Luis  de  Quiroe  and  seven  (?)  novices  and  ikv  broth- 
are  without  the  light  or  knowledge  of  faith,  may  be  ers,  all  Jesuits,  together  with  four  instructea  Indian 
brought  to  understand  the  truth  of  our  holy  Catholic  youths,  undertook  a  mission  aniong  the  Powhatan  Li- 
Faith,  that  they  may  come  to  a  knowledge  thereof,  dlans  in  what  is  now  Virginia.  The  guide  and  inter- 
and  become  Christians  and  be  saved,  and  this  is  the  preter  on  whom  they  depended  to  bring  them  into 
chief  motive  that  you  are  to  bear  and  hold  in  this  touch  with  the  natives  was  a  young  Indian  of  the 
affair,  and  to  this  end  it  is  proper  that  religious  persons  region,  who  was  the  brother  of  a  local  chief  and  had 
should  accompany  you,  by  tnese  presents  I  empower  been  brought  off  by  a  Spanish  eJtpedition  nine  years 
you  to  carry  to  the  said  land  the  religious  whom  you  before,  educated  under  the  Dominicans  in  Mexico  and 
may  judge  necessary,  and  the  vestments  and  other  Spain,  and  baptized  under  the  name  and  title  of  Don 
thin^  n^ful  for  the  observance  of  Divine  worship:  Luis  de  Velasco.  Their  destination  was  Axacan 
and  I  command  that  whatever  you  shall  thus  expend  (Oshacon) — supposed  by  Shea  to  have  been  on  the 
in  transporting  the  said  religious,  as  well  as  in  main-  Rappahannock — but  more  probably  situated  farther 
tainin^  them  and  giving  them  what  is  needful,  and  soutn.  They  met  with  friendly  reception,  and  a  log 
in  their  support,  and  K)r  the  vestments  and  other  chapel  was  erected  (September,  1570),  but,  before  the 
articles  required  for  the  Divine  worship,  shall  be  paid  winter  was  over,  Don  Luis  proved  treacherous,  and 
entirely  from  the  rents  and  profits  which  in  anv  under  his  leadership  the  Indians  attacked  the  mission 
manner  shall  belong  to  us  in  tne  said  land."  Witn  (February,  1571)  and  massacred  the  entire  partv 
few  exceptions  secular  priests  and  missionaries  ac-  with  the  exception  of  one  Indian  bov,  who  was  spared, 
companied  every  Spanish  expedition  of  discovery,  and  finally  escaped  to  tell  the  tale.  The  massacre 
The  first  Mass  celebrated  within  the  present  limits  of  was  avenged  on  the  principals  by  Men^ndez  a  year 
the  United  States  was  probably  that  offered  up  by  later.  In  consequence  of  the  small  result  in  Florida 
the  priests  of  Ponce  de  Le6n*s  expedition  at  the  the  Jesuits  were  shortly  afterwards  transferred  to  the 
south-western  point  of  Florida  in  1521.    The  next  more  promising  field  of  Mexico.    Years  afterwardC;  oo 


MX88ZON8  385  MISSIONS 

the  eatablkhmant  of  the  Catholic  colony  of  Maryland,  of  them  with  their  churches,  made  prisoner  the  mis- 
some  attention  was  given  to  the  neighbouring  Indians  sionaries,  and  then,  proceeding  farther  southward, 
of  Virginia  (see  below^.  In  1577  several  Francich  burned  the  town  of  St.  Augustine  with  the  Franciscan 
cans  under  charge  of  Father  Alonso  de  Reynoso  ar-  church  and  convent  and  one  of  the  finest  libraries  then 
rived  at  St.  Augustine  and  began  work  among  the  in  America.  The  fortress  held  out  \mtil  relieved  by  a 
Timucua  Indians  near  the  city,  of  whom  a  number  Spanish  fleet.  In  January,  1704,  Moore,  at  the  head 
were  soon  regular  attendants  at  the  {)arish  church,  of  about  fifty  Carolina  men  and  a  thousand  or  more 
Fifteen  years  later  four  Franciscan  priests  and  two  well-armed  Creek,  Catawba,  and  other  savages,  rav- 
lay  brothers  were  at  work  in  the  towns  of  the  Timucua  aged  the  Apalachee  country,  destroyed  ten  of  the 
ami  Yamasee  from  St.  Augustine  northwards  into  efeven  missions  towns,  slaughtered  hundreds  of  the 
Georgia.  In  1593  twelve  more  were  sent  out  in  charge  people,  including  a  number  of  warriors  who  made  a 
of  Father  Juan  de  Silva,  including  the  noted  Father  stand  under  the  Spanish  lieutenant  Mexia,  and  carried 
Francisco  Pareja,  to  whom  we  are  indebted  for  our  off  nearly  1400  Christian  Indians  to  be  sold  as  slaves 
most  complete  account  of  the  Timucua  people  and  in  Carolina  or  distributed  for  torture  or  adoption 
language  and  for  several  devotional  works,  the  first  among  the  savages.  The  missions,  with  their  churches, 
books  printed  in  any  Indian  language  of  the  United  gardens,  and  orange  groves,  were  utterly  demolished, 
States.  the  vestments  ancTsacred  vessels  destroyed  or  carried 

In  1597  a  chief  of  the  Yamasee  oiganized  a  con-  off,  and  niunbers  of  the  neophytes  burned  at  the  stake. 
spiracy  which  seems  to  have  included  also  a  part  of  Four  of  the  mission  fathers  were  also  killed  (two 
tne  Tmiucua  tribe  about  St.  Augustine.  Five  mis-  being  tortured  and  burned  at  the  stake),  and  tneir 
dons,  stretching  from  St.  Augustine  to  Ossabaw  island  bodies  hacked  to  pieces  by  deliberate  permission  of 
in  Georgia,  were  attacked  and  five  of  the  six  mis-  Moore  himself,  who  gave  up  Lieutenant  Mexia  and 
aionaries  murdered.  Father  De  Avila  (or  Ddvila^,  four  Spanish  soldiers  to  the  same  fate, 
although  badly  wounded,  being  rescued.  The  ad-  This  was  practically  the  end  of  the  Florida  missions, 
vance  of  the  Indians  was  finely  checked  by  some  although  for  more  than  twenty  years  thereafter  efforts 
Spanish  troops,  after  all  the  Yamasee  missions  had  were  made,  with  some  temporary  success,  to  eather 
been  destroyed.  The  missions  among  the  more  peace-  together  again  the  remnants  of  the  Apalachee,  Timu- 
fui  Timucua  about  the  lower  Saint  John's  River,  cua,  and  oUier  Christian  tribes,  and  in  1726  there  were 
Florida,  continued  to  flourish,  being  in  1602  four  in  still  counted  more  than  1000  Christian  Indians.  With 
number,  besides  temporary  stations,  with  1200  Chris-  the  establishment  of  the  English  Georgia  colonv  and 
tian  Indians.  Other  Franciscans  arriving,  the  Yama-  the  ensuing  war  of  1740  the  attempt  was  abandoned. 
see  missions  were  re-established  in  1605,  the  Fotano  and  the  mission  territory  reverted  to  its  original  wild 
tribe  on  the  Suwanee  river  almost  entirely  Christian-  condition.  In  1753  only  136  Indians  remained  in  four 
iaed  two  years  later,  and  a  beginnii^  made  among  the  mission  stations  close  to  St.  Augustine.  In  1743  the 
lower  Creek  bands.  In  1633  missionaries  were  sent  Jesuit  Fathers  Jos^  Maria  Monaco  and  Joa6  Xavierde 
to  the  powerful  Apalachee  of  western  Florida  in  re-  Alana  began  a  mission  near  Cape  Florida  amone  the 
spoDse  to  repeated  re<^uests  from  that  tribe.  In  1655  utterly  savage  Ate  and  Job6  with  such  success  that  a 
tnere  were  35  Franciscan  missions  in  Florida  and  community  of  Christian  Indians  was  built  up,  which 
Georgia  with  a  Christian  Indian  papulation  of  26^000  continued  until  the  Seminole  War  (1817-18). 
aools.  This  was  the  senith  of  their  prosperity.  Two  II.  Maryland. — ^The  English  (Jatholic  colony  of 
years  later  the  Apalachee,  in  consequence  of  the  un-  Marvland,  founded  in  1634,  was  served  in  its  first  years 
just  exactions  of  the  governor,  became  involved  in  a  by  the  Jesuits,  who  made  the  Indians  their  special  care, 
warwith  the  Spaniards,  which  compelled  the  abandon-  Under  the  superior.  Father  Andrew  White,  and  his 
ment  of  the  eight  flourishing  missions  in  that  territoiy .  companions,  several  missions  were  established  among 
The  fathers  embarked  for  Havana,  but  were  all  the  Fiscataway  (Conoy)  and  Fatuxent  of  lower  Mary- 
drowned  on  the  passage.  In  1674,  through  the  efforts  land,  west  of  Cnesapei^ce  Bay,  and  considerable  atten- 
of  Bishop  Calder6n,  the  Apalachee  mission  was  re-  tion  was  also  given  to  the  rotomac  tribe  in  Virginia. 
stored,  and  several  new  foundations  establi&hed.  Li  The  principal  mission  was  begun  in  1639  at  Kittama- 
1684  tne  Diocesan  Synod  of  Havana  promulgated  regja-  auindl,  or  Piscataway,  near  the  mouth  of  the  creek  of 
lations  for  the  government  and  protection  of  the  mis-  that  name.  Other  stations  were  Mattapony  on  the 
sion  Indians.  In  the  same  year  the  Governor  of  Flor-  Patuxent,  Anacostan  (Anacostia)  adjoinmg  the  pres- 
ida,  alarmed  at  the  growing  strength  of  the  English  ent  Washington,  and  Potopaco  (Port  Tobacco),  where 
colony  of  Carolina,  undertook  to  remove  the  Indians  nearly  all  tne  natives  were  baptized.  In  16^,  dur- 
of  the  northern  missions  to  more  southern  settlements  ing  an  extended  visit  amons  the  Potomac,  on  the 
with  the  result  that  the  Yamasee  again  revolted  and.  Viiginia  side.  Father  White  oaptized  the  chief  and 
being  supplied  with  ^uns  by  the  English,  attacked  ana  principal  men,  with  a  number  of  others.  The  work 
destro^red  the  missiCHi  on  Saint  Catnerine  island,  was  much  hampered  by  the  inroads  of  the  hostile 
Georgia,  and  carried  off  a  troop  of  Cliristian  Indians  Susquehanna  from  the  nead  of  the  bay,  and  was 
prisoners  to  sell  as  slaves  in  Carolina.  In  1696  an  at-  brought  to  a  sudden  and  premature  close  in  1645  bv 
tempt  to  establish  missions  about  Cape  Cafiaveral  re-  the  Puritans  and  other  malcontents,  who,  taking  aa- 
sulted  in  the  killing  of  a  religious  and  six  companions,  vantage  of  the  Civil  War  in  England,  repaid  the  gen- 
A  like  attempt  in  the  next  year  among  the  fierce  eroslty  which  had  given  them  asylum  in  Maryland  by 
Calusa  south  of  Tampa  Bay  also  proved  abortive.  seizing  the  Government,  plundering  the  chuix^es  and 

For  years  the  English  slave-traders  of  Carolina  had  missions  and  the  houses  of  the  principal  Catholics,  and 
made  a  business  of  arming  certain  tribes  with  guns  sending  Fathers  White  and  Copley  to  England  to  be 
and  sending  them  out  to  make  raids  upon  other  tribes  tried  for  their  lives,  while  Father  Martweil,  the  new 
to  procure  slaves  for  Carolina  and  the  Barbadoes.  The  supHerior,  and  two  other  missionaries  escaped  to  Vir- 
Spanish  Government,  on  the  eontraiy,  refused  guns  ginia.  Later  efforts  to  revive  the  mission  had  only 
even  to  the  Christian  Indians.  The  War  of  the  SpaA-  temporary  success  owing  to  the  hostility  of  the 
ish  Succession  g^ve  an  opportunity  for  an  attack  upon  Protestant  Government  and  the  rapid  wasting  of  the 
the  Florida  missions.  In  May,  1702,  the  heathen  native  tribes.  Before  1700  the  remnant  of  the  Piscat- 
Lower  Chreeks,  armed  and  instigated  by  Governor  away  removed  bodily  from  Maryland  and  sought  ref- 
Moore  of  Carolina,  attacked  Santa  F^,  occupied  by  uge  in  the  north  with  the  Delawares  and  Iroquois, 
the  Tmiucua,  and  burnt  the  church.  In  October  of  the  among  whom  they  have  long  since  become  entirely  ex- 
same  year  a  combined  English  and  Indian  land  expe-  tinct.  To  Father  White's  anonymous  **  Relatio  iti- 
dition,  co-operating  with  a  naval  force,  attacked  the  neris  ad  Marylandiam"  (translation  published  in  1833 
Hussion  towns  nor3i  of  St.  Augustine,  burned  tbrw  w»dagainjnJ874)ww?»d9bted  for  the  best  account 


386 

of  the  western  Maryland  tribes.    He  also  composed  nal  languages.    Earlier  in  the  year  the  mission  village 

an  Indian  catechism,  still  extant,  and  a  manuscript  and  fine  church  on  the  Penobscot,  placed  under  Father 

STammar  of  the  Piscataway  language,  now  unfortu-  Lauverjat,  had  been  destroyed  by  another  party,  fol- 

natdv  lost,  the  first  attempt  at  an  Inofian  grammar  by  lowing  which  event  Massachusetts  had  summoi^  the 

an  Englishman  and  antedating  Eliot's  Bible  bv  at  Indians  to  deliver  up  every  priest  among  them  and 

least  a  dozen  years.     (See  Piscataway  Indians.)  had  set  a  price  on  Rasle's  head.  Although  repeatedly 

New  England. — ^The  earliest  Christian  mission  on  uiged  to  seek  safetv  in  Canada,  he  refused  to  desert 

the  soil  of  New  England  was  that  of  Saint-Sauveur  be-  his  flock.    At  last  the  blow  fell.     On  23  August,  1724, 

gun  among  the  Abenakis  in  connexion  with  a  French  the  New  England  men  with  a  party  of  Mohawk  In- 

post  on  Mount  Desert  Island,  Maine,  by  Father  Pierre  dians  surprised  Norrideewock  while  most  of  the  war- 

Biard  and  three  other  Jesuits  in  1613.    Both  post  and  riors  were  away,  killed  several  of  the  defenders,  and 

mission  were  destroyed  a  few  months  later  by  the  plundered  and  burned  the  church  and  village.    The 

English  cap  tain  Argall,  Brother  DuThet  being  killed  in  devoted  missionary,  now  old  and  crippled,  was  shot 

the  attack  and  Fathers  Biard  and  Quentin  carried  down  at  the  foot  of  the  cross,  scalped,  his  skull 

prisoners  to  Virginia.    In  1619  the  Recollects  arrived  crushed  and  his  body  almost  hacked  in  pieces.    A 

to  minister  to  the  French  fishermen  scattered  alon^  the  monument  to  his  memoiy  was  erected  on  uie  spot  in 

coast,  and  gave  attention  also  to  the  Indians,  chiefly  1833,  the  year  in  which  the  greater  monument,  hia 

in  New  Bnmswick  and  Nova  Scotia.    In  1633  the^  Abenaki  dictionary,  was  published, 

were  succeeded  by  the  Capuchins,  who  made  their  Mission  work  was  continued  in  some  measure,  al- 

headquarters  at  Port  Royal  (Annapolis),  Nova  Scotia,  though  \mder  difficulties,  among  the  Indians  of  the 

and  had  stations  as  far  south  as  the  Kennebec,  the  Penobscot  and  the  St.  John,  but  most  of  the  Norridge- 

principal  one  being  amonz  the  Penobscot,  near  the  wock  band  retired  to  Saint  Francis,  which  thus  became 

French  Fort  Pentagouet  (Castine),  at  the  mouth  of  one  of  the  most  flourishing  missions  in  Canada.     In 

the   Penobscot.     In  1655  the  post  was  seized  by  1759  it  was  attacked  by  a  strong  New  England  force 

the  English,  and  the  resident  missionary.  Father  r>e  under  Colonel  Rogers  and  completely  destroyed,  with 

Crespy,  carried  off.    Although  restored  to  France  by  its  church  and  records,  two  hundred  Indians  oeing 

treaty  in  1667,  the  mission  languished,  and  in  1693  killed.    The  mission  was  re-established  near  the  pres- 

was  consigned  to  the  Jesuits,  who  made  the  new  mis-  ent  Pierreville,  Quebec,  and  still  exists,  numbering 

sion  of  Sainte  Anne  (established  by  Father  Louis  about  350  mixed  bloods,  while  B^cancour  has  about 

Thury  in  1684  higher  up  the  river,  near  the  present  50  more.    The  Abenaki  bands  which  remained  in 

Oldtown)  their  chief  residence  among  the  Penobscot.  Maine  espoused  the  cause  of  the  Americans  in  the 

The  Capuchins  had  laboured  also  among  the  Etchemin  Revolution,  and  in  1775  made  applicaticm  to  the  new 

(see  Mauseet  Indians)  on  the  northern  frontier  of  Government  for  the  return  of  their  French  priests. 

Maine,  their  chief  station  being  at  Medoctec  on  the  The  Massachusetts  commissioners,  although  willing. 

Saint  John,  established  by  Father  Simeon  in  1688  and  were  unable  to  supply  them,  but  a  later  application  to 

revived  bv  the  Jesuits  in  1701.    In  1646  the  noted  Bishop  Carroll  resulted  in  the  appointment  of  the  Sul- 

Jesuit,  Gabriel  Druillettes,  was  sent  from  Quebec,  and  pician  Father,  Frangois  Ciquard,  to  the  Penobscot 

established  at  Norridgewock  (Indian  Old  Point)  on  the  at  Oldtown  about  1785.     For  nearly  ten  years  he 

Kennebec  the  Assumption  mission,  which  for  nearly  ministered  to  them  and  the  Passamaquodoy,  when 

eighty  years  thereafter  held  its  place  as  the  prin-  he  was  transferred  to  the  Maliseet  on  the  Samt  John, 

cipal  of  the  Abenaki  missions.    The  most  noted  worker  After  various  changes  the  Maine  missions  reverted 

at  this  post  was  Sebastian  Rasle  (RAle,  Rasles),  who  again  to  the  Jesuits  in  the  person  of  Father  John 

laboured  with  the  utmost  zeal  from  1695  until  his  &pst,  who  arrived  at  Oldtown  in  1848.    The  most 

heroic  death  in  1724  at  the  age  of  sixtynsix.  distinguished  of  the  later  missionaries   is    Eugene 

The  chronic  warfare  throughout  all  this  period  be-  Vetromile,  S.J.  (d.  1881),  author  of  several  works  on 

tween  the  rival  French  and  English  colonies,  in  which  the  Abenaki  tribe  and  language.    The  two  tribes  are 

the  native  tribes  almost  solidly  took  the  side  of  the  entirely  Catholic. 

French,  exposed  the  Indian  missions  to  the  constant  III.  New  York  and  Pennsylvania. — A  larse  part 

attacks  of  the   English  and  made  the  missionaries  of  what  is  now  New  York  State  was  held  by  the  five 

marked  men,  both  as  Catholic  priests  and  as  supposed  confederated  tribes  of  the  fierce  and  powerful  Iroquois 

agents  of  the  French  Government.    In  consequence  (q.  v.),  numbering  nearly  two  thousand  fighting  men. 

many  fugitives  from  the  Abenaki  bands  retired  to  liirough  the  imfortunate  circumstances  of  Champlain's 

Canada,  wb#5re  thev  were  joined  by  refugees  from  the  alljring  himself  with  a  party  of  their  enemies  in  1609, 

Pennacook  and  other  southern  New  England  tribes,  they  conceived  a  bitter  hostility  to  the  French  which 

driven  out  by  King  Philip's  War  of  1675-76.     In  1683  they  gratified  with  deadly  effect  after  procuring  guns 

these  were  gathered  by  the  Jesuit  Father  Jacques  from  the  Dutch  thirty  years  later.   For  this  reason,  and 

Bigot,  into  the  new  mission  of  Saint  FrauQois  de  Sales  from  the  additional  fact  that  their  territory  was  within 

(St.  Francis)  on  the  Chaudidre,  near  Quebec.    In  1700  the  sphere  of  English  influence,  no  permanent  Cath<^ie 

the  mission  was  removed  to  its  present  location.    In  mission  was  ever  established  within  their  limits,  ^- 

spite  of  repeated  demands  by  the  New  England  Gov-  though  several  attempts  were  made,  and  large  num- 

ernment   (1698,   1701,  ^1712),  the  Abenaki  refused  bers  were  drawn  off  from  the  confederacy  and  formed 

either  to  send  their  missionaries  away  or  to  accept  into  mission  settlements  imder  French  control.    So 

Protestant  teachers.  Realizing  the  danger,  the  Jesuits  far  as  is  known,  the  first  missionaiy  to  enter  this  region 

urged  that  the  Abenaki  Indians  and  missions  be  re-  was  the  Recollect  father,  Joseph  de  la  Roche  de  Dail- 

moved  to  a  safer  location  in  Canada,  but  the  project  Ion,  of  the  Huron  mission  in  Ontario,  who  in  1626 

was  not  favoured  by  the  Canadian  Government.    In  made  a  perilous  exploration  of  the  country  of  the 

1704-5  two  New  England  expeditions  ravaged  the  Neuter  Nation,  adjoining  the  Iroquois  in  western  New 

Abenaki,  burning  Norridgewock,  with  its  church,  and  York.    In  1642  the  heroic  Jesuit,  Isaac  Jogues,  was 

looting  the  sacred  vessels.    In  1713  some  Indians  re-  Captured  with  two  white  companions  and  several 

moved  to  the  St.  Lawrence  and  settled  at  Bdcancour,  Hurons  by  an  Iroquois  war  party  and  taken  to  the 

where  their  descendants  still  remain.     Norridgewock  Mohawk  town  of  Caughnawaea  (oZtos  Ossemenon) 

was  rebuilt,  and  in  1722  was  again  destroyed  oy  the  near  the  present  Auriesville,  where  the  Hurons  were 

New  EiUgland  men.    As  part  of  the  plimder  the  raiders  burned  at  the  stake,  and  the  three  Frenchmen  cruelly 

carried  on  the  manuscript  Abenaki  dictionary  (preserved  tortured  and  mutilated,  though  not  put  to  death, 

at  Harvard  and  published  in  1833),  to  whicti  Father  Father  Jogues  had  his  nails  torn  out,  two  fingera 

Rasle  had  devoted  thirty  years  of  labour,  and  which  crushed  by  the  teeth  of  the  savages,  and  one  tiiumb 

ranks  as  one  of  the  greatest  monuments  of  our  aborigi-  gawn  off.    One  of  hi?  companions,  the  novice  Reoe 


MIS8ZON8 


387 


MISSIONS 


Cknipil,  was  killed  shortly  afterwards  for  making  the 
aigii  of  the  cross  over  a  sick  child.  The  third  French- 
maoy  Coutiire,  was  finally  adopted.  After  a  terrible 
captivity  of  fifteen  months  during  which  he  baptized 
manv  prisoners  at  the  stake  as  well  as  dying  infants, 
besides  acquiring  a  knowledge  of  the  language,  Father 
Jogues  was  rescued  by  the  Dutch  and  fiiuLlly  found  his 
way  to  France.  In  the  meantime  another  Huron  mis- 
sionary. Father  Joseph  Bressani,  had  been  captured 
by  the  same  Mohawks,  tortured  in  even  more  terrible 
fashion  at  the  same  town,  and  likewise  ransomed 
through  the  kindness  of  the  Dutch  (1644).  In  the 
summer  of  1644  Father  Jogues  was  back  again  in  Can- 
ada, assisting  in  n^otiating  an  uncertain  peace  with 
the  Mohawks.  In  Mav,  1646,  he  was  sent  with  a  single 
white  companion  to  tne  Mohawk  country  to  consiun- 
mate  the  agreement.  This  done,  he  returned  to  Can- 
ada to  make  his  report,  and  then,  with  another  French- 
man and  a  Huron  euide,  set  out  once  more  for  the 
Mohawk  to  establish  a  mission.  They  were  inter- 
cepted on  the  way  by  a  war  par^  of  the  same  pei^dir 
ous  Mohawks,  and  carried  to  Caughnawaga,  where, 
after  various  cruelties,  all  three  were  put  to  death  on 
18  October,  1646,  the  head  of  Father  Jogues  being  set 
upon  the  palisades  of  the  town,  and  his  body  thrown 
into  the  Mohawk  River.  The  site  of  the  Indian  town 
is  now  the  property  of  the  Society  of  Jesus,  and  a 
memorial  chapel  marks  the  spot  of  their  martyrdom. 

In  August,  1653,  Father  Joseph  Poncet,  S.J.,  was 
captured  near  Montreal  by  a  Mohawk  war  party,  car- 
ried to  their  towns,  and  there  terribly  toitured,  but 
finally  sent  back  with  overtures  of  peace.  Of  the  five 
confederated  Iroquois  tribes,  the  Onondaga,  Oneida, 
and  Cavuga  were  also  now  for  peace  with  the  French. 
and  only  the  Seneca  (who,  however,  nearly  equalled 
all  the  others  together)  held  back.  Father  Foncet 
reached  Montreal  late-  in  the  year,  and  peace  was 
made.  Father  Simon  Le  Moyne,  S.J.,  volunteered  to 
go  back  to  ratify  the  terms  in  the  Iroquois  towns,  and 
arrived  in  the  summer  of  1654  at  ^ondaga,  their 
Cf^pital,  where  he  successfully  effected  his  purpose  and 
was  invited  to  select  a  spot  for  a  French  settlement. 
As  a  result  the  Jesuit  Fathers  Joseph  Chaumonot  and 
Claude  Dablon  established  the  first  Iroquois  mission 
at  Onondaga  in  November,  1654.  In  all  the  Iroquois 
tribes  there  were  numerous  Christian  Huron  captives 
(see  Huron  Indians),  who  gave  the  missionaries  a 
warm  welcome.  In  1656  Father  Le  Moyne  was  again 
with  the  Mohawks.  In  July,  1655,  a  party  of  fifty 
French  colonists  with  several  more  Jesuits  arrived  at 
Onondaga  to  found  a  settlement  there,  as  requested  by 
the  Iroquois,  although  it  was  strongly  felt  that  the 
latter  were  insincere  and  meditated  treachery.  Mis- 
sion stations  were  established  in  each  of  the  tnbes,  but 
idmoet  before  a  year  had  passed  the  Iroauois  raids 
along  the  St.  Lawrence  broke  out  afresh,  ana  in  March, 
1658,  the  mission  at  Onondaga  was  abandoned. 

Besides  the  Huron  and  other  Indian  captives,  Chris- 
tianity still  had  many  friends  among  the  Iroquois 
themselves,  foremost  of  all  being  Garaconthi6,  the 
Onondaga  chief  and  orator.  Through  his  influence  the 
Onondaga  and  Cayuga  sought  for  peace  in  1661,  and 
Le  Mo^e  was  recalled  to  Ononaaga.  In  1666  an 
expedition  under  De  Couroelles  completely  humbled 
the  Mohawks.  In  the  same  year  New  York  and  the 
Iroquois  country  passed  from  Dutch  to  ^islish 
control.  Following  the  peace  six  Jesuit  fathers 
(Jacques  Fremin,  Jean  Fierron,  Jacques  Bru^as, 
Julien  Gamier,  Etienne  de  Carheil,  and  Fierre  Milet) 
proceeded  to  the  Iroquois,  and,  before  the  end  of 
1668,  regular  missions  were  established  in  each  of 
the  five  tribes.  Garaconthi6  publicly  declared  him- 
self a  Christian,  and  his  example  was  followed  by 
several  other  cniefs.  As  converts  increased  it  was 
realised  that  the  prevailing  intemperance  and  de- 
baucheiy  consequent  upon  the  presence  of  traders  in 
tke  Indiaa  towns  were  a  serious  obstacle  to  Christian- 


itjT,  and  many  of  the  better-disposed  removed  to  the 
neighbourhood  of  the  mission  settlements  in  Canada. 
In  this  w^  originated  in  1668  the  Iroquois  mission 
village  of  La  Prairie  (St.  Francois  Xavier  des  Pr^), 
the  precursor  of  the  modem  Caughnawaga  (a.  v.). 
Among  the  names  prominently  identifiea  witn  the 
mission  are  those  of  Fathers  Bruyas  and  Marcoux. 
Iroquois  philologists;  Father  Lafitau,  ethnologist  ana 
historian;  and  the  sainted  Indian  girl,  Catherine 
Tegakwitha.  In  the  same  year  a  Su^ician  mission 
was  established  among  some  Christian  Iroquois,  chiefly 
Cayuga,  Quints  Bay,  at  Lake  Ontario;  but  after  a  few 
years  it  was  absorbed  by  the  Iroquois  mission  of 
The  Mountain,  established  in  1676  on  ihe  island  of 
Montreal  by  the  Sulpicians.  This  mission  was  trans- 
ferred in  1704  to  the  Sault  au  Recollet,  north  of  Mont- 
real, and  in  1720  to  its  present  site  at  Li^e  of  Two 
Mountains  (aliaa  Oka,  or  Canasada^),  on  the  island 
of  Montreal*,  a  number  of  Algonqum  sharing  the  vil- 
lage. Among  the  missionaries  was  Father  Jean-Andrfi 
Cuoq,  author  of  a  number  of  works  in  the  two  lan- 

fuages,  the  most  notable  of  which  is  a  standard 
roouois  dictionary. 

With  the  withdrawal  of  the  greater  part  of  the 
Christian  element  to  Canada  and  the  renewal  of  war 
in  1687  all  missionary  effort  in  the  Iroquois  territory 
was  finally  abandoned,  although  Father  Milet  con- 
tinued with  the  Oneida  until  1694.  In  the  war  of 
1687-99  Catholic  Iroquois  from  the  Canada  missions 
fought  beside  the  French  against  tiieir  heathen  kindred 
of  the  confederacy. 

At  the  request  of  the  Iroquois  a  mission  was  re- 
established at  Onondaga  and  another  among  the  Sen- 
ecas  in  1702  by  the  Jesuit  fathers,  Jacques  de  Lamber- 
ville,  Julien  Gamier,  and  Vaillant  du  Gueslis,  and  had 
the  effect  of  holding  the  Iroquois  neutral  in  the  next 
war  between  France  and  Eneland,  imtil  broken  up  by 
the  New  York  Government  m  1709.  In  1748  the  Sul- 
pician  father,  Francois  Picouet,  established  the  Presen- 
tation mission  on  the  St.  Lawrence  near  the  French 
post  of  Oswegatchie,  now  Ogdensburg,  New  York, 
with  the  design  of  drawing  off  tne  last  remaining  Cath- 
olic Indians  from  among  the  Iroquois.  Although 
raided  by  the  Mohawks  in  the  next  year,  it  was  at  once 
rebuilt  and  grew  rapidly  imtil  the  opening  of  the  war 
of  1754-63,  which  brought  it  to  the  verge  of  ruin,  most 
of  those  who  remained  joining  with  others  from  the 
Caughnawaga  mission  (Canada)  in  1756  to  establish  a 
new  settlement  imder  Jesuit  auspices  at  Aquasasne, 
aliaa  St.  Frangois  R4gis,  which  still  exists  under  the 
name  of  St.  R^;is,  on  both  sides  of  the  New  York- 
Canada  boundary  where  it  strikes  the  St.  Lawrence. 
The  Oswegatchie  settlement  was  finally  abandoned  in 
1807.  The  Catholic  Iroquois  now  niunoer  about  4025 
outof  atotal  18,725,  Caughnawaga  itself  with  2175souls 
beinjg  the  largest  Indian  settlement  north  of  Mexico. 
About  1755  the  first  mission  in  western  Peimsyl- 
vania  was  started  among  the  Delawares  at  Sawcunk. 
on  Beaver  River,  where  also  were  some  Shawnee  ana 
Mingo  (detached  Iroquois),  by  the  Jesuit  Claude- 
Francois  Virot,  but  was  soon  discontinued. 

IV.  Ohio  River  and  Lake  Region. — ^Under  this 
head  we  include  the  states  carved  out  in  whole  or  part 
from  the  old  "Northwestern  Territory",  vis.,  Ohio, 
Indiana,  Illinois,  Michigan,  Wisconsin,  and  Minnesota. 
As  the  mission  history  of  this  section  is  treated  in  detail 
under  the  principal  tribal  titles,  we  may  confine  our- 
selves here  to  a  brief  summary.  Excepting  southern 
Illinois  and  Indiana,  all  of  this  vast  territory  was 
originally  included  within  the  French  jurisdiction  of 
Canada,  and  up  to  the  close  of  the  French  period  in  1763 
was  cozifided  generally  to  the  spiritual  charge  of  the 
Jesuits,  who  continued  in  the  work  into  the  American 
period.  The  first  mission  west  of  the  Huron  country 
was  established  in  1660,  on  Keweenaw  Bay,  a  few  miles 
north  of  the  present  L'Anse,  Upper  Michigan,  by  the 
veteran  Huron  missionary,  Father  Ren6  Menard,  in 


aOSSXONS                            388  MISSIONS 

response  to  urgent  requests  from  the  Chippewas  and  Marquette  had  descended  the  Mississippi  as  far  as  the 

Ottawas.  The  next  year  a  call  came  from  some  furtive  villages  of  the  Arkansas,  later  known  as  Quaf>aw,  at 

Hurons,  who  had  fled  to  Green  Bay  in  Wisconsm,  to  the  mouth  of  the  river  of  the  same  name,  making  the 

escape  the  Iroquois.   To  the  remonstrance  of  those  who  earliest  map  of  the  r^on  and  indicating  the  position 

knew  the  dan^rs  of  the  way  he  replied/' God  calls  me.  of  the  various  tribes,  but  without  undertaking  a 

I  must  go,  if  it  cost  me  my  life. "    In  making  a  dan-  foundation. 

gerous  portage  he  became  separated  from  his  guides  and  In  1682  the  Recollect  Franciscan  Father  Zenobius 

was  never  seen  again,  but  as  the  searchers  came  upon  Membr^,  with  the  party  of  the  commander  La  Salle, 

a  hostile  trail,  and  his  Breviary  and  cassock  were  after-  descended  the  Mississippi  to  its  mouth  and  returned, 

wimls  found  with  the  Sioux,  it  is  believed  that  he  was  planting  a  cross  among  the  Arkansas,  and  preaching 

killed  by  a  lurking  enemy.    His  place  was  filled  by  to  them  and  to  the  Taensa,Natches.  and  others  farther 

Father  Claude  Allouez,  wno,  as  vicar-general  in  the  down.    In  1683  a  French  fort  was  built  at  the  Arkan- 

West,  established  the  second  Chippewa  mission  in  sas,  and  the  commander  Tonty  set  apart  a  mission  site 

1665,  imder  the  name  of  Saint-Esprit  at  La  Pointe  and  made  formal  request  for  a  Jesuit  missionary,  but 

Chegoim^on,  now  Bayfield,  Wisconsin,  on  the  south  apparently  without  result. 

shore  of  I^e  Superior.    Other  missions  soon  followed  In  1698,  imder  authority  of  the  Bishop  of  Quebec, 

at  Sault  Sainte  Marie  (Sainte  Marie)  and  Mackinaw  the  priests  of  the  seminaiy  of  Quebec,  an  offshoot  of 

^t.  Ignaoe)   in  Upper  Biichigan;    Green  Bay  (St-  the  Paris  Congregation  of  Foreign  Missions,  undertook 

Francois  Xavier),  St.  Marc,  and  St.  Jacques  in  Wiscon-  the  lower  Mississippi  field  despite  the  protests  of  the 

sin,  among  Chippewas,  Ottawas.  Hurons,  Mascoutens,  Jesuits,  who  considered  it  partlv  at  least  within  their 

Kickapoos,  Foxes,  and  Miami.  Among  the  noted  Jesuit  own  sphere.    Early  in  1699,  three  seminaiy  priests 

workers  were  Fauiers  Claude  Dablon,  Gabriel  Druil-  having  arrived,  as  many  missions  were  established, 

lettes,  and  the  explorer  Jacques  Marquette.    In  1688  vis.,  among  the  Tamaroa  (Tamarois),  a  tribe  of  the 

themissionofSt.  Joseph  was  rounded  by  Allouez  among  Illinois  oomederacy,  at  Cahokia,  Illinois,  by  Father 

the  Potawatomi  in  northern  Indiana.     The  mission  Jean-Francois  de  St-Cosmej  among  the  Taensa,  above 

at  Lapointe  was  abandoned  in  1671  on  account  of  the  the  present  Natchez,  Mississippi,  by  Fran^ois-J.  de 

hostile  Sioux,  but  most  of  the  others  continued,  with  Montigny ;  and  among  the  Tonica,  at  the  present  Fort 


interruption,  down  to  the  expulsion  of  the  Jesuits  in  Adams,  Mississippi,  by  Father  Antoine  Davion.    Fa- 

1764.  ml  727  the  Jesuit  father,  Louis  Guignas,  founded  ther  de  Montigny  shortly  afterwards  transferred  his 

the  mission  of  St.  Michael  among  the  Sioux,  on  Lake  mission  to  the  kmdred  and  more  important  Natches 

Pepin  in  Minnesota,   which   continued   until  some  tribe,about  the  present  city  of  that  name,  ministering 

time  after  1736.  beingabandoned  probably  on  account  thus  to  both  tribes.   Father  Davion  laboured  also  with 

of  the  war  witn  the  Foxes.  the  Yazoo  and  minor  tribes  on  that  river.   Other  priests 

The  first  mission  among  the  Illinois  was  that  of  the  of  the  same  society  arrived  later.  In  the  meantime  Iber- 

Immaculate  Conception,  founded  by  Marquette  in  ville.  the  father  of  the  Louisiana  colony,  had  brought 

1674  near  the  present  Rockford,  Illinois,  and  known  out  from  France  (1700)  the  Jesuit  father,  Paul  du  Ru, 

later  as  the  Kaskaskia  mission.    Others  were  estab-  who,  first  at  Biloxi,  Mississippi,  and  later  at  Mobile, 

lished  later  at  Peoria  Lake  and  at  Cahokia,  opposite  Alabama,  ministered  to  the  small  tribes  gathered 

St.  Louis,  imtil  by  1725  the  entire  Illinois  nation  was  about  the  French  post,  including  a  band  of  fugitive 

enrolled  as  Christian.   Among  the  Jesuit  names  prom-  Apalachee  from  the  revived  Flonda  mission,    m  the 

inently  connected  with  the  Illinois  missions  are  those  same  year  another  Jesuit,  Father  Joseph  de  Umoges. 

of  Marquette,  Rasle,  and  Jacques  Gravier,  author  of  from  Canada,  planted  a  mission  among  the  Huma  ana 

the  great  manuscript  Illinois  dictionaiy.  Bayagula,  Choctaw  bands  about  the  mouth  of  Red 

Missions  were  also  established  later  among  the  van-  River,  Louisiana, 

ous  branches  of  the  Miami  in  Indiana  as  well  as  In  1702  Father  Nicholas  Foucault,  of  the  Semina- 

among  the  Potawatomi,  which  continued  to  flourish  rists,  who  had  established  a  mission  among  the  Arkan- 

until  the  decree  of  expulsion,  when  the  mission  prop-  sas  two  years  before,  was  murdered,  with  three 

erty  was  confiscated,  althoujgh  the  Jesuits  cenerall^  companions,  by  the  savage  Koroa  of  Upper  Mississippi 

remained  as  secular  priests  until  their  death.    Their  while  on  his  way  to  Mobite.   Their  remains  were  f  oimd 

successors  continued  to  minister  to  Indians  and  whites  and  interred  by  Father  Davion.     In  1706  Father  St- 

alike  till  the  removal  of  the  tribes,  1820-40.  Cosme,  then  stationed  at  the  Natchez  mission,  was 

The  majority  of  the  Indians  of  Michigan  and  W]»-  murdered  by  the  Shetimasha,  near  the  n:iouth  of  the 

consin  remained  in  their  own  homes,  with  missions  Mississippi,  while  asleep  in  a  night  camp, 

maintained  either  as  regular  establishments  or  as  visit-  The  Tonica  station  was  abandoned  in  1708,  being 

ing  stations  served  by  secular  priests.    Of  the  later  threatened  by  the  Chickasaw  in  the  Rnglish  interest, 

missionaries  one  of  the  distinguished  names  is  that  of  The  whole  southern  work  languished,  the  Indians 

the  author  and  philologist  Bishop  Frederick  Baraga  themselves  being  either  indifferent  or  openly  hostile 

(d.  1865),  best  known  for  his  erammar  and  dictionary  to  Christianity,  and  when  Father  Charlevoix  made  his 

of  the  Chippewa  limguage.    (^formers  recent  work,  western  tour  in  1721  he  found  but  one  priest  en  the 

Chippewa    Indians;    Huron    Indians;    Illinois  lower  Mississippi,  Father  Juif,  among  the  Yaioa 

Indians;  Kickapoo  Indians;  Mascoutens  Indians;  Partly  in  consequence  of  Father  Charlevoix's  report. 

Menominee    Indians;    Miami    Indians;    Ottawa  the  iJouisiana  Company,  which  had  taken  over  control 

Indians;   Potawatomi   Indians;   Sioux   Indians;  of  the  colony,  gave  permiasion  to  the  Jesuits  to  undep- 

Winnebago    Indians:    Babaga;    Gravier;   Mar-  take  the  Indian  work,  while  the  French  posts  and  set- 

QUETTE,  Diocese  of;  Marquette,  Jacques.)  tlements  were  assigned  to  other  priests.    In  1726, 

V.  Lower  Mississippi  Region:  The  Louisiana  therefore.  Father  Paul  du  Poisson  restored  the  Arkan- 

MissiON. — The  "Louisiana  Mission"  of  the  French  sas  mission,  which  had  been  vacant  since  1702;  Father 

colonial  period  included  the  present  States  of  MiBSOuri,  Alexis  de  Guyenne  undertook  the  Alibamon,  a  tribe 

Arkansas,  Louisiana,  Mississippi,  and  Alabama,  with  of  the  Creek  nation,  above  Mobfle,  and  Father  MaUiu- 

the  Tamarois  foundation  near  Cahokia  in  Illinois,  but  rin  le  Petit  be^an  work  among  the  Choctaw  in  south- 

excludins  the  Caddo  establishments  on  the  disputed  em  Miasissippi.    The  Ursuline  convent  foundation  at 

Spanish  frontier  of  Texas.    For  several  reasons,  rival-  New  Orieans  in  1727  is  due  to  Jesuit  effort.    Jn  the 

nes  and  changes  among  the  religious  orders,  intrigues  next  year  the  Jesuit  father,  Midiel  Baudouin,  under- 

of  English  traSers,  and  general  neglect  or  open  hos-  took  a  mission  among  the  warlike  Chickasaw, 

tility  of  the  Louisiana  colonial  administration,  these  In  1729  the  southern  missions  were  almost  ruined 

soutnem  missions  never  attained  any  large  measure  of  by  the  outbreak  of  war  with  the  Natchez,  provoked  by 

prosperity  or  permanent  sueoeBS*    In  1673  the  Jesuit  the  arbitrary  exactions  of  the  French  commandant  k 


• 

ibeireountiy.  The  war  began  on  28  November  with  a  these,  successful  mission  schools  have  been  established 
masBacre  of  the  French  garrison,  the  first  victim  being  within  the  past  thirty  years,  and  are  now  in  operation, 
Father  du  Poisson,  who  was  struck  down,  and  his  head  amon^  the  Northern  Cheyenne  (secular) ,  Assiniboin 
backed  o£F,  while  on  his  way  to  attend  a  dyine  man.  (Jesuit),  Crow  (Jesuit),  Grosventre  (Jesuit),  and  Pie- 
Father  Souel  was  killed  on  1 1  December  by  the  Yazoo,  gan  Blackfeet  (Jesuit)  in  Montana ;  the  Arapaho  and 
who  then  turned  upon  the  French  garrison  in  their  Shoshoni  (Jesuit)  in  Wyoming;  and  the  Southern  Ute 
country.  On  New  Year's  Day,  1730,  me  Jesuit  Father  (Theatine)  in  Ck)lorado  (see  lTtb  Indians). 
Doutreleau,  on  his  way  down  the  river  with  some  VII.  Texab,  STc-^Texas  as  a  Spanish  colony  was 
boatmen,  was  fired  upon  at  close  range  by  some  of  the  connected  with  Mexico,  and  was  ruled  in  missionaiy 
same  tribe  while  sayine  Mass  on  shore,  but  escaped  afifairs  from  Quer^taro  and  Zacatecas,  instead  of  from 
althoujeh  badly  wounded.  The  war  involved  the  Havana,  as  was  Florida.  Its  immense  area,  four  times 
whole  lower  Mississippi,  and  ended  in  the  extinction  as  great  as  that  of  all  New  England,  contained  hun- 
of  the  Natches  as  a  people.  A  part  of  the  refugees  dreds  of  petty  tribes  or  bands — so  many,  in  fact,  that 
havinff  fled  to  the  Chickasaw,  a  war  ensued  with  uiat  they  have  never  been  counted — speaking  scores  of  Ian- 
tribe  m  1736,  durine  which  a  French  expedition  was  guages  or  dialects,  but  mostly  grouped  into  a  few  loose 
eut  to  pieces,  and  tne  Jesuit  chaplain,  Father  Anto-  confederacies,  based  upon  linguistic  affiliation,  of 
ninuB  Senat,  was  burnt  at  the  stake.  which  the  principal  witmn  the  mission  sphere  may  be 

In  1730  Father  Gaston,  a  newly-arrived  Seminarist,  designated  as  the  Caddo,  Hasinai,  Karankawa,  Tonk- 

had  been  killed  at  the  Tamarois  (Cahokia)  mission,  awa,  Wichita,  and  Pakaw&.  Of  these,  the  Caddo  group 

In  1754  the  last  Seminarist  was  sent  out  as  a  parish  extended  into  western  Louisiana,  while  the  tribes  of 

priest.     The  Arkansas  mission  had  been  killed  by  the  Wichita  connexion  ranged  north  into  'Kansas, 

offidal  neglect.   The  missionaryamong the  Alibamon  The  total  Indian  population  within  the  present  state 

Creeks  was  driven  out  by  the  French  commander  at  limits  was  probably  originally  close  to  40,000.    Thebe- 

Fort  Toulouse  (Montgomery,  Alabama)  for  his  opposi-  gnnning  of  mission  work  in  Texas  was  made  by  the 

tion  to  the  liquor  traffic,    feather  Baudouin  continued  fWiciscan  Father  Andr^  de  Olmos,  who  in  1544 

with  good  effect  amonp  the  Choctaw  for  eighteen  crossed  the  Rio  Grande  and,  after  gathering  a  laige 

years  until  appointed  vicar-ceneral  in  1757.  when  his  body  of  converts,  led  them  back  into  Tamaulipas, 

place  was  filled  by  FaUier  Nicholas  le  Feovre  imtil  where  they  were  organized  into  a  mission  town,  Olives. 

1764(?).   The  Alibamon  mission  was  restored  and  con-  In  1685  the  French  commander  La  Salle  erected  a  fort 

tinned  under  Fa^er  Jean  Le  Pr^our  from  1754  until  on  Matagorda  Bay,  and  two  years  later,  after  a  succes- 

the  expulsion  of  the  Jesuits  in  1764,  which  brought  the  sion  of  misfortunes,  started  to  make  his  way  overland 

"Louisiana  Mission"  to  a  close.    The  Natchez  and  to  Illinois,  leaving  behind  about  twenty  men,  including 

Yazoo  are  long  since  extinct,  but  a  considerable  por-  the  Recollect  missionaries.  Fathers  Zenobius  Membi^ 

tion  of  the  Choctaw,  Quapaw,  and  mixed-blood  Huma  and  Maximus  Le  Clercq,  and  the  Sulpician  Father 

still  keep  ^e  Faitli.     (See   also  Caddo   Indians;  CSiefdeville.  A  Spanish  expedition  whicn  arrived  later 

Choctaw  Indians:  Natchez^  Diocesb  of;  Quapaw  to  dispossess  the  French  foimd  only  blackened  ruins 

Indians  ;  Tonica  Indians  ;  Yazoo  Indians.)  and  unburied  bones.    All  but  two  men  had  been  killed 

VI.  NoBTHBRN  AND  Central  Plains. — The  earliest  by;  the  Indians,  among  whom  the  chalices  and  Brevi- 
labourer  here  was  the  Franciscan  Father  Juan  de  Pa-  aries  of  the  muniered  priests  were  afterwards  recovered. 
diQa,  who  with  four  others  of  his  order  accompanied  In  1690  a  company  of  Spanish  Franciscans  from  the 
the  famous  expedition  of  Coronado  in  1540-42,  and  Quer^taro  College,  headed  by  Father  Damian  Mlua- 
on  the  return  volunteered  to  remain  behind  with  the  net,  established  a  mission  amongthe  friendly  Hasinai 
Wichita  in  the  "Proviace  of  Quivira".  probably  in  (Asinais,  Cenis),  in  north-east  Texas,  and  projected 
southern  Kansas.  He  was  killea  soon  afterwards,  ap-  others,  but  the  work  was  abandoned  three  years  later, 
parentl  V  by  Indians  hostile  to  the  Wichita.  The  latter.  In  1699  the  Franciscans  of  the  Zacatecas  College  began 
reducea  to  about  300  souls,  are  represented  at  the  a  series  of  missions  along  the  south  bank  of  the  Rio 
Catholic  mission  sdiool  at  Anadarko,  Oklahoma  (see  Qrande.  to  which  they  gathered  in  a  number  of  Id- 
Wichita),  dians  ot  the  Pakaw&  group  in  southern  Texas.    These 

TTic  powerful  Sioux^  or  Dakota,  whose  territory  were  kept  up  until  1718,  when  the  chief  mission  was 

stretched  from  the  Wisconsin  border  almost  to  the  transferred  to  San  Antonio  in  Texas, 

foot  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  were  visited  by  the  In  1715  the  two  colleges  combined  to  restore  the 

Jesuit  Alloues  as  early  as  1666,  but  tribal  jealousies  Texas  missions,  urged  by  the  zeal  of  the  venerable 

interrupted  friendly  communication  and  prevented  founder  of  the  Zacatecas  college.  Father  Antonio 

any  mission  establishment.     In  1680  the  Recollect  Maigil.    The  Hasinai  mission  (San  Francisco)  was 

Franciscan,  Father  Louis  Hemiepin ,  spent  some  months  restored  and  another,  La  Purisima,  established  among 

with  them  as  a  captive  on  the  upper  Kfiasissippi.    In  the  cognate  Hainai  (Aynais)  in  the  neighbourhood  of 

1690  (?)  the  Jesuit  Father  Joseph  Marest,  and  in  1728  the  present  Nacogdoches.    Another  (N.  S.  de  Guadsr 

the  Jesuit  Father  looatiiisGuig^ias.  made  unsuccessful  lupe)  was  founded  by  Mareil  himself  among  the 

mission  attempts  m  the  tribe,  ana  in  1736  the  Jesuit  Nacogdoches  band  of  the  Caddo  in  1716,  and  others  in 

Father  Jean-Pierre  Aulneau  (or  Amand)  was  one  of  a  1717  among  the  Ais  (N.  S.  de  Dolores)  and  Adai  or 

partv  of  twenty-one  Frenchmen  massacred  by  them  Adayes  (San  Miguel  de  Linares),  the  last  being  within 

on  the  Lake  of  the  Woods,  just  beyond  the  northern  the  limits  of  Loiusiana.    In  1719,  war  having  been 

Minnesota  boundaiy.    In  1837  a  regular  mission  was  declared  between  France  and  Spain,  a  French  expedi- 

established  among  the  eastern  Sioux  in  Mionesota  by  tion  \mder  St-Denis  plundered  the  mission  at  the  Adai. 

Father  AugustinRavoux,  and  in  1848  the  noted  Jesuit  In  consequence  the  missions  were  abandoned  until 

missionary  Father  de  Smet  first  preached  to  those  peace  was  declared  two  years  later, 

west  of  the  Missouri.     Nearly  one-fourth  of  the  tribe  In  1718  the  mission  of  San  Francisco  Solano  was 

is  now  Catholic  (see  Sioux  Indians).  transferred  to  San  Antonio  de  Valero.    Other  missions 

The  famous  Flathead  mission  in  Montana,  estab-  were  established  in  the  vicinity,  making  a  total  of  four 

lished  by  Father  de  Smet  in  1840,  the  Osage  mission,  in  1731,  including  San  Antonio  de  Padua,  the  cele- 

Oklahoma,  regularly  established  about  1847  by  the  brated  Alamo.    The  principal  tribes  represented  were 

Jesuit  Fathers  Schoenmaker  and  Bax,  the  Kiowa  and  Caddo  and  Hasinai  from  the  East;  Xarame  from  the 

Quapaw  missions,  and  those  among  the  immigrant  Rio  Grande;  Pakawi  (Pacoa)  and  a  few  ToAkawa  of 

Choctaw,  Potawatomi,  and  Miami,  also  in  Oklahoma,  the  immediate  neighbourhood.    In  the  meantime  a 

those  of  the  Winnebago  in  Nebraska  and  the  Man-  lay  brother  had  penshed  in  a  prairie  fire,  and  another, 

dan  and  associated  tnbes  in  North  Dakota  are  all  Brother  Jose  Pita,  in  1721,  with  a  small  party,  had 

described  elsewhere  under  the  tribal  titles.    Besides  been  massacred  by  the  Lipan  while  on  his  way  to  his 


MttStONS 


3dO 


MttSlONS 


fltation.  In  1722  the  mission  of  Quadalupe  was  estab- 
liE^ed  at  Bahia,  on  Lavaca  (Matagorda)  Bay  among 
the  Karankawa.  Nine  years  later  it  was  moved  to 
the  Guadalupe  River.  In  1752  the  Candelaria  mission 
was  attacked  by  the  Coco,  a  Karankawa  band,  and 
Father  Jos^  Ganzabal  killed.  In  1757  the  mission  of 
San  Sabi  was  established  by  Father  Alonso  Terreros 
for  the  conversion  of  the  wild  and  nomadic  Lipan 
Apache,  but  they  refused  to  settle  in  It;  the  following 
year  the  tribes  destroyed  the  mission,  killing  Father 
Terreros  and  two  other  priests.  Another  attempted 
Lipan  mission,  in  1761,  was  broken  up  in  1769  by  the 
Comanche.  At  this  period  the  Texas  missions  had 
reached  their  highest  point,  with  an  Indian  population 
of  about  15,000.  In  1760  Father  Bartolom6  Garcia 
published  his  religious  manual  for  the  use  of  the  San 
Antonio  missions,  which  remains  almost  our  only 
linguistic  monument  of  the  Pakaw&  tribes  of  central 
Texas.  In  1791  another  mission  was  established 
among  the  Karankawa. 

Although  constantly  hampered  by  the  Spanish 
authorities,  the  missions  continued  to  exist  imtil  1812, 
when  they  were  suppressed  by  the  revolutionary  Gov- 
ernment, and  the  Indians  scattered  (see  PakawI  In- 
dians; Tonka WA  Indians;  Wichita). 

VIII.  New  Mexico  and  Arizona. — The  earliest 
exploration  in  this  territorv  was  made  by  the  Fran- 
ciscan Marco  de  Nisa  (Marcos  of  NizJBa)  in  1539, 
and  the  first  missions  were  undertaken  in  1542  by 
the  Franciscans  who  accompanied  Coronado.  (For 
the  missions  among  the  Pueblo  and  Hopi  see  Pueblo 
Indians.  )  The  most  important  event  in  this  connexion 
is  the  great  Pueblo  revolt  of  1680  in  which  twenty-one 
missionaries  and  some  400  others  were  massacred. 

The  missions  among  the  Pima  and  Papajo  of  Ari- 
zona are  of  later  foundation,  beginning  about  1732, 
and  originated  with  the  Jesuits,  with  whom  they  con- 
tinued until  the  expulsion  of  the  order  in  1767,  when 
they  were  taken  over  by  the  Franciscans  (see  Papajo 
Indians;  Pima  Indians). 

Attempts  to  evangelize  the  powerful  tribe  of  the 
Navajo  m  northern  Arizona  and  New  Mexico  were 
made  by  the  Franciscans  as  early  as  1746,  but  without 
result.  Lately  the  work  has  been  again  taken  up  suo- 
cessf  uUy  by  German  Franciscans.  To  their  scnolar^ 
ship  and  scientific  interest  we  owe  also  a  monumental 
"Ethnological  Dictionary  of  the  Navaho  Language". 
(See  Navajo  Indians.)  Secular  mission  work  is  also 
now  conducted  in  the  Mescalero  tribe  of  about  450 
souls  at  Tularosa,  New  Mexico. 

IX.  The  Columbia  Region. — The  first  knowledge 
of  Christianity  among  the  tribes  of  this  region  came 
through  the  Catholic  Iroquois  and  CJanadian  French 
employees  of  the  Hudson  Bav  Compimy,  by  whose  in- 
fluence and  teaching  many  of  the  Indians,  particularly 
amon^  the  Flatheads  and  Nez  Percte,  were  induced 
to  embrace  the  principles  and  practices  of  Catholicism 
as  early  as  1820,  leadmg  some  years  later  to  a  reouest 
for  missionaries,  in  response  to  which  the  Flatnead 
mission  in  Montana  was  founded  by  the  Jesuit  Father 
Peter  de  Smet  in  1841,  followed  shortly  afterwards  by 
another  amons  the  Coeur  d'Altoe  in  Idaho,  established 
by  the  Jesuit  Father  Nicholas  Point.  In  1839  Father 
Francis  Blanchet,  secular,  who  had  come  out  to  attend 
the  Canadian  residents,  established  St.  Francis  Xavier 
mission  on  the  Cowlitz,  in  western  Washington,  and 
another  on  the  lower  Willamet  at  Champoeg,  Oregon, 
while  about  the  same  time  Father  J.  B.  Bolduc  began 
work  among  the  tribes  on  Puget  Sound.  In  1844  Uiree 
Jesuit  missions  were  established  among  the  Pend 
d'Oreilles  and  Colvilles  of  the  Upper  Columbia,  besides 
three  others  across  the  Britisn  line.  In  1847  the 
Oblates  arrived,  and  missions  were  established  by 
Father  Pandosy  among  the  Yakima  and  by  Father 
Ricard  near  the  present  Ol3anpia.  In  1848  the  secu- 
lar Fathers  Rousseau  and  Mesplte  founded  a  station 
among  the  Wasoo,  at  the  Dalles  of  the  Columbia,  in 


Oregon.  Work  was  also  attempted  among  the  degei:r> 
erate  Chinooks,  with  little  result.  The  noted  OlHate 
missionary.  Father  Casimir  Chirouse  (d.  1802),  best 
known  for  nis  later  work  at  Tulalip,  reached  Or^on  in 
1847  and  b^;an  his  labours  among  the  tribes  of  Puget 
Sound  and  the  lower  Columbia  about  the  same  period. 

With  the  exception  of  the  Wasco  and  the  Chmooks, 
these  missions  or  their  successors  are  still  in  successful 
operation,  nmnbering  amonp  their  adherents  the 
majority  of  the  Christian  Indians  of  Washington  and 
southern  Idaho.  To  Fathers  Saintonge  and  Fandoey 
we  are  indebted  for  important  contrioutions  to  Yak- 
ima linguistics.  (See  Chinooks;  Kalispel  Indians; 
KxTTENAi  Indians;  Lake  Indians;  Lummi  Indians; 
PuTALLUP  Indians;  Spokan  Indians;  Tulaup  Indi- 
ans; Yakima  Indians.) 

Besides  these  there  are  Jesuit  missions  of  more 
recent  establishment  among  the  Nez  Perc^  of  Idaho : 
and  amon^  the  Umatilla,  IQamath,  Waimspring,  ana 
Siletz  Indians  in  Oregon,  besides  another  among  the 
remnant  tribes  of  Grand  Ronde  reservation,  Oregon, 
served  by  a  priest  of  the  Society  of  the  Divine  Saviour. 
(See  Siletz  Indians;  Umatilla  Indians;  Wabu- 
SFRiNQ  Indians;  Yamhill  Indians.) 

X.  California. — For  the  mission  histoiy  see  Cali- 
fornia; and  Mission  Indians. 

For  a  statement  of  the  present  organization  of 
Indian  mission  work  and  the  sources  and  methods  of 
financial  support,  see  article  Indian  Mibbions,  Bu* 
BEAU  OF  Catholic. 

XI.  The  Missionary  BAarttrs. — The  following  in- 
complete and  tentative  list  of  missionaries  who  died  by 
violence  or  other  untimely  death  in  direct  connexion 
with  their  work  will  show  that  even  before  the  estab- 
lishment of  the  rei)ublic  the  soil  of  the  United  States 
had  been  baptized  in  the  blood  of  Catholic  missionaries 
from  ocean  to  ocean.  A  few  other  names  are  included 
for  special  reasons.  Those  who  perished  with  the  ex- 
plormg  expeditions  under  Narvtez,  De  Soto,  and  others 
are  not  noted. 

1542  PadiUa,  Juan  de,  Franciscan,  killed  in  KaDsa8(?). 
Escalona,  Brother  Luis  de,  Franciscan,  killed  by 

Pecos,  New  Mexico. 
La  Cruz,  Juan  de,  Franciscan,  killed  by  Tigua, 
New  Mexico. 
1549  Cancer,  Luis,  Dominican,  killed  by  Calusa,  Flor- 
ida. 
Tolosa,  Diego  de,  Dominican,  killed  by  Calusa, 

Florida. 
Fuentes,  Brother,  killed  by  Calusa,  Florida. 
1566  Martinez,  Pedro,  Jesuit,  killed  by  Yamasee, 

Georgia. 
1569(7)  Bdez,  Brother  Dom.  Agustfn,  Jesuit,  died  of 

fever,  with  Yamasee,  Florida. 
1571  Segpra,  Juan  Bautista 
Quiros,  Luis  de 
G6mez,  Brother  Gabriel 
(novice) 
1571  Zerallos,  Brother  Saneho 
de  (novice) 
Solis,  Brother 
Mdndez,  Brother 
Redondo,  Brother 
Linares,  Brother 
1581  L6pez,  Francisco,  Francucan,  killed  at  Tjgua, 
New  Mexico. 
Santa  Maria.  Juan  de    }  Franciscans,  killed  at 
Rodriguez  (or  Ruiz),    >     Tigera,   New  Mex- 
Brother  Agustfn         )     loo. 
1597  Corpa,  Pedro  de 
Roar^ez,  Bias 
Aufion,  Miguel  de 
Velasco,  Francisco  de 
Badaj6z,  Brother  An- 
tonio 
1613  Du  Thet.  Brother  Gilb^,  Jesuit,  killed  by  the 
Englisn,  MaiDe. 


Jesuits.   kiUed    by 
Pownatan,     Vir- 


gmia. 


Franciscans,  killed  by 
Yamasee,  Georgia 
and  Florida. 


MISSIONS 


391 


Santo    Domingo 
.    Pueblo,     New 
Mexico. 


1631  Miranda  de  Avila,  Pedro,  Franciscan,  killed  by 

Taos,  New  Mexico. 

1632  Letrado,  Francisco    }  Franciscans,    killed    by 
Arvide,  Martin  de,    (     **  Zipias '',  New  Mexico. 

1633  Forras,    Francisco,    Franciscan,    poisoned    by 

Hopi,  Arizona. 

1642  Goupil,  Ren^  (novice),  Jesuit,  killed  by  Mohawks, 
New  York. 

1644  Bressani,  Joseph,  Jesuit,  tortured  by  Mohawks, 
but  rescued,  New  York. 

1646  Jogues,  Isaac,  Jesuit,  killed  by  Mohawks,  New 
York. 

1653  Ponoet,  Joseph,  Jesuit,  tortured  by  Mohawks, 
but  rescuea.  New  York. 

1657  Eight  Franciscans  drowned,  en  route  Florida 
missions  to  Havana. 

1661  Menard,  Ren^,  Jesuit,  lost,  supposed  killed  by 
Sioux,  Wisconsin. 

1675  "Several  missionaries'',  Franciscans  (record  in- 
complete), killed  by  Pueblos,  New  Mexico. 

1675  Marquette,  Jacques,  Jesuit,  died  in  woods,  Mich- 
igan. 

1680  La  Ribouide,  Gabriel  de.  Recollect,  killed  by 
Kickapoos,  Illinois. 

1680  Twenty-two  Franciscans  killed  in  general  massa- 
cre by  revolted  Pueblos,  New  Mexico,  and 
Arizona,  viz.: 
Talaban,  Juan 
Lorenzana,  Francisco  Anto- 
nio de 
Montes    de    Oca,    (Juan?) 

Jos^de 
Pio,  Juan  Bautista  de,  Tesuque  Pueblo,  New 

Mexico. 
Torres,  Tomas,  Nambe  Pueblo,  New  Mexico. 

S1^'*1^;o^'J?q11Lv>p.h«  [Sanlldefonso  Pueb- 
^zf  ffde""'""^'  i     lo.  New  Mexico. 
Rendon,  Matias  de,  Picuris  Pueblo,  New  Mexico. 

P^'J^jSr  de  (T-e  Pueblo.  New  Mexico. 

Maldonado,  Lucas,  Acoma  Pueblo,  New  Mexico. 

Bai,  Juan  de,  Alona  (Zufii)  Pueblo,  New  Mexico. 

Figueras,  Jos6  de  1 

Trujillo,  Jos^  I  Hopi  Pueblos,  Ari- 

Espeleta,  Jos^  de  |     zona. 

Santa  MaHa,  Agustfn  de    J 

Bemal,  Juan  (custos)      )  GaUsteo  (Tano)  Pueb- 

Vera,  Juan  Domingo  de  S     lo,  New  Mexico. 

Velasco,  Francisco  (Fernando?),  de,  Pecos  Pueb- 
lo, New  Mexico. 

Tinoco,  Manuel,  San  Marcos  Pueblo,  New  Mex- 
ico. 

Jesus,  Simon  (Juan?)  de,  Jemes  Pueblo,  New 
Mexico. 
1683  {circa)  Beltran,  Manuel,  Franciscan,  killed  by 

Tano8(?),  New  Mexico. 
1687  Membra,  Zenobius,  Recol- 
lect, 

Le  Clercq,  Maximus,  Re- 
collect, 

Chefdeville, — ,  Sulpician, 

1696  ,  ,  Franciscan,  by  Ais(?)    (Tororo), 

killed  Florida. 
1696  Arbizu,  Jos^  de       )  Franciscan,  killed  by  Taos, 

Carbonel,  Antonio  \     New  Mexico. 

Corvera,  Francisco    )  Franciscans,  killed  by  Te- 

Moreno,  Antonio       J     hua.  New  Mexico. 

CasaiKes,  Francisco,  Franciscan,  killed  by  Jemes, 
New  Mexico. 
1702  Foucault,  Nicholas,  Sem.  For.  Missions,  killed, 
by  Koroa,  Mississippi. 


1706  Delhalle,  Nicholas,  B.C.,  Recollect  (parish  priest^ 

Detroit),  killed  by  Ottawa,  Biichigan. 
St-Oosme,  Jean-Francois  de,  Sem.  For.  Missions, 

killed  by  Shetimasna,  Louisiana. 
1708  Gravier,  Jacques,  Jesuit,  died  of  wound  inflicted 

by  Illinois  (1705),  Illinois. 
1715  (circa)  Vatier,   L^nard,   Recollect,   killed   by 

Foxes,  Wisconsin. 
1718  Mantesdoca  (Mantes  de  Oca),  Brother  Luis  de, 

Franciscan,  kiUed  in  prairie  fire,  Texas. 

1720  (circa)  Mingiles,  Juan,  Franciscan,  killed  in  mas- 

sacre by  Missouri,  Missouri  (?). 

1721  Pita,  Brother  Jos^,  Franciscan,  killed  in  mas- 

sacre by  Lipan,  Texas. 
1724  Rasle  (Rasles.  R&Ie),  Sebastien,  Jesuit,  killed  by 
English  and  Indian  allies,  Maine. 

1729  du  Poisson,  Paul,  Jesuit,  killed  by  Natches, 

Mississippi. 
Souel,  Jean,  Jesuit,  killed  by  Yazoo,  Mississippi. 

1730  Gaston, ,  Sem.  For.  Missions,  killed  by  Illinois, 

Illinois. 
1736  Senat,  Antoninus,  Jesuit,  tortured  and  burned 

with  whole  party  by  Chickasaw,  Mississippi. 
Aulneau  (Amaud),  Jean-Pierre,  Jesuit,  killed 

with  twenty  others  in  massacre  by  Sioux,  on 

Massacre  Island,  Lake  of  Woods,  about  two 

miles  beyond  the  Minnesota-Canada  line. 
1752  Ganzabal,  Jos^  Francisco,  Franciscan,  held  by 

Coco  (Karankawa),  Texas. 
1758  (circa)  Silva,  ,  Franciscan,  killed  by  mission 

Indians,  Texas. 
Terreros,  Alonso  G.  de,^  killed  in  massacre  at 

Franciscan,  I      San  Sab£,   by  mis- 

Santiesteban,  Jos^,       f     sion  Indians,  Texas. 

Franciscan.  J 

1775  Jayme,  Luis,  Franciscan,  killed  by  Dieguefio, 

California. 
1780  Dfaz,  Juan 


^Franciscans,   killed  by 
Yuma,  California. 


killed  by  Karan- 
kawa(?),  Texas. 


1704  Parga,  Juan  de 

Mendosa,  Manuel  de 
Delgado,  Marcos 
^(lianda.  Angel 


Franciscans,  tortured 
and  killed  by  English 
and  Indian  allies, 
FJorjdft. 


Morena,  Matias 
Garces,  Francisco 
Barraneche,  Juan 

1812  Quintana,  Andr^,  Franciscan,  killed  by  Mis- 
sion Indians,  California. 

1833  Diaz, ,  killed  by  Caddo(?),  Texas. 

Bamcroft,  histories,  California^  Oregon^  Wauhingion^  New 
Mexico,  Arizona,  etc.  (San  Francisco,  1886-90) ;  Babcia,  Eneayo 
Cronddffico  (Madrid,  1723) ;  Bttreau  Cath.  Ind.  Mianona,  annual 
reports  (Washington);  Jeauit  Relaliona,  ed.  Tbwaitbs  (73  vols., 
Cleveland,  1896-1901);  Morxcb.  Catholic  Chvrch  in  Weatem 
Caruida  (2  vols.,  Montreal,  1910);  Pabkman,  Jeauita  in  North 
America  (Boston,  1867) ;  Idkm,  Pioneera  of  France  (Boston,  1883) ; 
Shsa,  Catholic  Miaaiona  (New  York.  1865) ;  Idkm.  Catholic  Church 
in  Colonial  Daya  (New  York,  1886) ;  also  authorities  under  cross- 
referenced  articles. 

James  Moonet. 

MiB8ion8,  Catholic  Parochial. — ^This  term  is  used 
to  designate  certain  special  exertions  of  the  Church's 
pastoRU  agencies,  made,  for  the  most  part,  among 
Catholics,  to  instruct  them  more  fully  in  the  truths  of 
their  religion,  to  convert  sinners,  rouse  the  torpid  and 
indifferent,  and  lift  the  good  to  a  still  higher  plane  of 
spiritual  effort.  To  distinguish  them  from  those  mis- 
sions which  represent  the  apostolic  activity  of  the 
Church  among  pagans  and  heretics,  these  home  mis- 
sions are  known  m  some  communities  of  English-speak- 
ing Catholics  as ''  parochial  missions '' .  Such  missions 
usually  consist  of  a  systematic  course  of  preaching  and 
instruction,  extending  over  a  stated  number  of  days, 
performed  by  authorized  missionaries.  The  present 
article  treate  of:  I.  The  Necessity  and  Utility  of 
Popular  Missions;  II.  Origin  and  History;  III.  Method. 

1.  Necessitt  and  Utility. — From  the  above  defini- 
tion it  is  evident  that  the  primary  object  of  a  popular 
mission  is  not  the  making  of  converts  to  the  Faith. 
However,  owing  to  the  familiar  relations  between 
Catholics  and  non-Catholics  in  the  United  States,  this 
is  so  r  immon  a  result  that  it  may  be  regarded  as  nor- 
mally a  part  of  the  work  in  that  country,  and,  beginning 
fro^  (he  Iftst  decade  of  the  nineteenth  century,  ^ 


imszoNs  392 

missionAry  movement  for  the  conveiBion  of  ciea  of  religious  education  might  to  some  extent  be 
ncm-Catholics  has  been  carried  on  throughout  that  supplied,  but  it  is  equally  true  that  such  reading  ie 
country.  (See  Missionary  Societt  of  St.  Paul  the  sadly  neglected.  To  supply  this  defect  is  one  of  the 
Apostle.)  But  the  converts  whom  a  pastor  most  of  all  aims  of  the  mission.  The  missionaEy  comes  to  in- 
seeks  during  a  reeular  parish  mission  are  amons  his  struct,  to  present  the  truths  of  salvation  deariy,  forci- 
own  people.  Anaf  it  cannot  be  denied  that  the  clear,  bly,  consecutively,  and  in  such  language  as  shall  reach 
forcible,  and  consecutive  exposition  of  the  most  im-  the  entire  audience.  The  end  of  man,  the  need  of 
portant  truths  of  salvation,  together  with  a  course  of  grace,  the  Divine  Attributes,  the  essential  parts  of  the 
instructions  to  prepare  the  people  for  the  worthy  re-  Sacraments  of  Penance  and  the  Eucharist,  and  the 
ception  of  the  sacraments  and  enlighten  them  on  the  conditions  required  for  their  worthy  reception ;  matri- 
duties  of  their  daily  lives,  affords  a  powerful  means  to  mony,  the  laws  of  the  Church  governing  it,  and  the 
renovate  a  parish  spiritually.  Everyone  finds  in  these  right  way  of  preparing  for  it  and  entering  it— -such  are 
sermons  and  instructions  something  that  appeals  pe-  some  familiar  themes  of  the  nussion.  In  times  like 
culiariy  to  him,  and  is  likely  to  bear  fruit  in  the  future,  the  present,  and  in  the  social  conditions  of  modem  life. 
These  missions  are  for  the  laity  what  retreats  are  for  the  ordinaiy  ''cure  of  souls  "  hardly  suffices  to  protect 
the  clergy  and  relisious  communities.  In  fact  they  are  soub  against  the  deadly  influences  of  constant  friction 
an  adaptation  to  the  needs  and  capacities  of  the  faithful  with  a  materialistic  world ,  and  aealnst  the  all-pervad- 
of  the  spiritual  exercises  long  traditional  in  the  Church,  Ing  atmosphere  of  sensuality  and  worldliness.  Fass- 
and  made  use  of  especially  during  the  Ages  of  Faith  ing  their  lives  face  to  face  with  extraordinary  spiritual 
when  people  were  in  the  habit  of  retiring  to  monaster-  perils,  Catholics  in  the  twentieth  century  need  the  ex- 
ies  to  devote  themselves  for  a  certain  period  of  time  to  traordinary  succour  and  protection  wnich  are  fur- 
that  renewal  in  the  spirit  of  their  mind,  which  the  nished  only  by  the  mission.  Thus  the  instructions 
Apostle  recommends: "  And  be  renewed  in  the  spirit  of  given  to  the  intelligences  of  the  faithful  at  a  mission 
your  mind :  and  put  on  the  new  man,  who  according  to  are  of  no  less  importance  than  the  sermons  which  are 
God  is  created  in  justice  and  holiness  of  truth  "  (Eph.,  addressed  to  their  wills.  The  duties  and  responsibili- 
iv,  23,  24).  In  view,  then,  of  the  man^  benefits  that  ties  of  parents  towards  their  children,  and  of  children 
accrue  from  a  retreat,  it  is  no  exaggeration  to  say  that,  towards  their  parents,  the  mutual  obligations  of  em- 
in  the  ordinaiy  course  of  Divine  Providence,  a  mis-  ployers  and  employed,  as  the  Church  views  them,  are 
sion  is  the  greatest  grace  that  God  can  confer  upon  by  no  means  to  be  taken  for  granted  as  fully  grasped 
anv  parish.  "There  is  nothing",  says  St.  Alphonsus,  even  by  the  more  intelligent  among  average  well- 
**  that  is  better  adapted  than  missions  or  retreats  to  meaning  Catholics. 

enlighten  the  minds  of  men,  to  purify  corrupt  hearts  Here,  lastly,  it  is  important  to  note  one  vital  pur- 

and  to  lead  all  to  the  exercise  of  a  truly  Christian  \iie*\  pose  which  the  parochial,  or  popular,  mission  serves  in 

The  usefulness  of  missions,  moreover,  for  the  sano-  many  dioceses  of  the  United  States.    With  a  rapidly 

tification  and  salvation  of  souls  has  received  not  a  lit-  increasing  Catholic  population,  the  ommization  of 

tie  recognition  from  various  popes  during  the  last  two  new  parishes  is  a  freauent  necessity.    It  is  not  as- 

oenturies.    Paul  III  recommended  the  Spiritual  Ex-  sumed  by  any  means  tnat  the  majonty  of  the  faithful 

ercises  of  St.  Ignatius  as  "  full  of  piety  and  sanctity  are  grievous  sinners,  nor  do  the  diocesan  cleigy  lose 

and  veiy  useful  and  salutary  for  the  edification  and  sight  of  the  truth  that  the  popular  mission  is  no  less 

spiritual  advancement  of  tne  faithful".    Benedict  efficacious  for  making  the  gocii  better,  and  stimulat- 

Al V,  after  comparing  missionaries  to  those  whom  the  inft  further  effort  on  the  part  of  those  who  are  already 

Apostles  Peter  and  Andrew  called  to  assist  them  in  wflling,  than  for  reclaiming  those  who  have  taken  the 

landing  their  nets,  says  that  for  "  purifying  corrupt  broad  path  of  evil.    In  this  view,  it  is  the  common 

morab  .  •  .  nothing  is  more  effective  than  to  solicit  practice  to  commence  the  life  of  a  new  parish  with  a 

the  aid  of  others,  namely  to  establish  everywhere  mission  conducted  by  priests  of  some  specially  chosen 

(that  is  in  eveiy  diocese)  sacred  missions.    Nor  can  missionary  institute.    In  such  a  mission  the  fervour 

this  be  called  a  new  ana  uncertain  remedy  which  is  of  the  new  parishioners  is  not  only  increased,  but 

proposed  for  purifying  the  morals  of  the  people.    It  is  effectively  applied  to  the  purpose  of  solidifying  and 

an  old  one  and  indeed  the  only  one  suitably  adapted  oiganizing  their  corporate  religious  life.     One  chief 

to  cure  existing  evils,  one  which  many  bishops  have  means  to  this  end  is  the  erection  of  pious  confratemi- 

employed  in  their  dioceses  with  extraorainaiy  results  "  ties  for  which  the  mission  affords  opportunity.    Thus 

r'Gravissimum",    8   Sept.,    1745).    Pius   VI   con-  the  League  of  the  Sacred  Heart,  the  Holy  Name  Socir 

aemned  the  proposition  of  those  who  called  missions  ety,  the  Sodality  of  the  Blessed  Viigin,  or  the  Rosary 

an  empty  noise  with  at  most  a  transient  effect  (Auct.  Confraternity  bfecomes  at  the  very  outset  the  instru- 

Fid.,  prop.  65).    Leo  XII  granted  a  plenary  mdul-  ment  of  incalculable  spiritual  benefit,  and  a  fulcrum 

gence  to  the  missions  given  by  the  Fathers  of  the  Soci-  by  means  of  which  the  efforts  of  the  new  pastor  attain 

ety  of  Jesus.    Gregory  XVI  extended  this  indulgence  more  than  double  the  results  which  mignt  otherwise 

to  the  sick  who  could  not  attend  the  missions,  but  have  been  expected  of  them. 

complied  with  the  required  conditions  at  their  homes;  II.  Origin  and  Histort. — In  substance,  missions 

and  in  1834  the  same  pontiff  extended  it  to  all  mis-  are  coeval  with  Christianity.    The  Founder  of  the 

sions,  irrespective  of  the  orders  to  which  the  mission-  Church  was  also  its  fijrst  misslonaiy.    His  life  was 

aries  belonged.    In  1849  Pius  IX  wrote  to  the  bishops  a  missionary  life,  "teaching  daily  m  the  temple'', 

of  Italy  urgmg  the  work  of  opiritual  exercises  and  mis-  *'  preaching  to  the  multitude  from  the  ship  ",  and,  at 

sions,  declaring  them  very  useful  for  fosteringpiety  the  close  ^His  life's  work,  entrusting  its  continuation 

and  exciting  confirmed  sinners  to  repentance  (^^Nos-  to  His  Apostles — "  Going  therefore,  teach  ye  all  na- 

tris",  8  Dec,  1849);  and  he  made  this  appeal  ajzain  tions;  .  .  .  Teaching  them  to  observe  all  things  what- 

to  the  bishops  of  Austria  in  the  "  Singulari  quidem  ,  17  soever  I  have  commanded  you  "  (Matt.,   xxviii,  19, 

March,  1856.  20).    Obedient  to  this  injunction,  the  history  of  the 

The  mission  is  an  appeal  to  the  intellect  and  the  Church  has  become  a  history  of  missionary  activity, 

will.    The  general  end  to  be  obtained  is  the  enlighten-  whether  by  it  be  understood  the  prolonged  missionary 

ment  of  the  former  and  the  movement  and  elevation  labour  among  heathen  tribes,  or  the  exercise  of  regu- 

of  the  latter.  The  necessity  of  these  are  apparent.  It  is  lar  mission  work  amonf  the  faithful, 

the  experience  of  missionaries  that,  owing  to  the  press-  It  is  true  that  until  the  beginning  of  the  seventeenth 

ing  material  necessities  of  modem  life,  much  ignorance  century  there  existed  no  oiganiied  fonn  of  popular 

prevails  among  the  Catholic  laity  as  a  class  in  matters  missionary  work  exactly  as  it  is  now  understood.    But 

Sertaining  to  their  religion.    It  is  true,  there  is  no  even  in  the  early  ages  of  the  Churoh  we  find  such  emi- 

earth  ofgood  reading  matter  whereby  the  deficien-  nent  saints  and  doctors  as  the  two  Gregories  (of  Nasi^ 


MI88ZON8                            393  MISSIONS 

anzui  and  of  Nyasa),  Basil,  and  Chrysostom,  Am-  Capuchins.  The  apostolic  labours  of  these  missionariefl 
broae,  Leo,  Augustine,  and  Gregory  the  Great  making  were  everywhere  blessed  with  remarkable  success.  In 
special  efforts  on  special  occasions  to  strengthen  faith  France,  the  birthplace  of  popular  missions,  the  Lasarists 
and  foster  piety  by  extraordinary  series  of  instruc-  and  the  Jesuits  were  the  pioneers  of  a  missionary  activ- 
tions,  exhortations,  and  devotions.  The  good  work  ity  which  stirred  up  the  faithful  to  greater  zeal  and  de- 
of  the  wandering  Celtic  missionaries  in  the  sixth  and  votfon  in  every  part  of  the  country.  Other  orders  and 
seventh  centuries — e.  g.,  Sts.  Columbanus,  Gall,  Ki-  congregations  gradually  came  to  their  assistance,  and, 
lian,  Fridolin — ^may  also  be  taken  as,  in  some  sense,  an  though  there  was  a  slight  falling  off  in  this  respect  dur- 
eariy  type  of  the  popular  mission.  Sts.  Bernard,  Peter  inp  the  period  of  the  FrenchRevolution,  yet,  in  the 
Damian.  Peter  the  Hermit,  and  the  other  great  preach-  leign  of  Napoleon  I,  the  emperor  himself  arranged  for 
era  of  the  Crusades  were  eminent  popular  mission-  missions  in  the  dioceses  of  Troyes,  Poitiers,  La  Ro- 
aries,  and  their  appeals  to  the  Christian  seal  of  Europe  chelle,  and  Metz,  to  be  conducted  at  the  expense  of 
were  splendid  instances  of  popular  missions  adapted  the  Government.  After  liie  Restoration  in  1815,  a 
to  the  conditions  of  the  age.  With  the  rise  of  the  new  impetus  was  given  to  missionary  work  by  the 
mendicant  orders  began  a  new  era  in  the  history  of  Abb6  Forbin-Janson,  who,  with  his  friend  the  Al!b4  de 
missionary  endeavour.  The  Dominicans  and  Fran-  Rauzan,  founded  the  Missionaires  de  France,  and  by 
ciscans  were  popular  missionaries  in  the  truest  sense  of  Charles  de  Masenod,  who  founded  the  Oblates  of  Mary 
^e  word.  They  went  from  town  to  town  preaching  Immaculate,  at  Marseilles,  in  1815.  In  Germany  paro- 
to  the  people  everywhere,  in  the  public  places  as  well  chial  missions  had  been  given  sporadically,  chiefly 
as  in  the  churches.  The^r  preached  chiefly  to  the  by  the  Jesuits  and  the  Redemptorists,  before  1848; 
masses,  the  poor  people,  using  simple,  unadorned  Ian-  after  that  date  they  became  more  general.  The  bish- 
euage.  As  a  consequence,  the  people  followed  them  ops  everywhere  encouraged  and  urged  them.  The 
m  crowds,  drawn  by  their  simple  elo<|uenoe.  Their  Cardinal  Archbishop  of  Mechlin,  in  1843,  maintained 
strict  rule  of  life  and  renimciation  exercised  during  the  that  the  people  of  every  parish  are  entitled,  at  least  ex 
Middle  Ages  a  most  salutary  social  influence  over  the  caritaiet  to  have  the  b^eflt  of  a  mission.  During  this 
enslaved  and  imprivileged  classes  of  the  population,  period  the  German  Church  could  pride  itself  on  many 
In  ^e  fourteenth  century  we  have  the  eminent  Do-  eminent  missionaries — ^Redemptorists,  Jesuits,  Do- 
minican preachers,  Tauler  and  Henry  Suso;  in  the  fif-  minicans,  Franciscans — ^who  devoted  themselves  en- 
teenth,  St.  Vincent  Ferrer  and  Savonarola;  in  the  six-  tirely  to  popular  mission  work:  the  names  of  Fathers 
teenth,  Louis  of  Granada.  The  acme  of  Franciscan  Roh,  Klinknofstr6m,  Pottgieser,  and  others  are  still 
preaching  was  reached  by  the  Observants  in  the  fif-  held  .in  benediction.  On  the  expulsion  of  the  Jesuits, 
teenth  century,  especiall^r  in  Italy  and  Germany.  Redemptorists  and  other  orders  from  the  German 
Famous  popular  missionaries  of  the  Franciscan  Order  Empire,  in  1872,  there  was  a  short  interruption,  but 
were  Sts.  Bemardine  of  Siena,  John  Capistran,  and  the  work  was  soon  taken  up  and  carried  on  with  the 
Peter  of  Alcantara.  By  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  cen-  richest  results  by  the  congregations  which  had  been 
tury  the  Society  of  Jesus  took  up  this  work.  St.  Igna-  permitted  to  remain.  The  Redemptorists,  on  tlrair 
tius  oombatted  chiefly  the  errors  of  the  Reformers.  In  return  in  1894,  entered  the  field  with  renewed  vigour. 
1592  the  Yen.  C^sar  de  Bus  (q.  v.)  founded  the  "  Pr^  In  Italy  systematic  mission  work  was  introduoM  by 
tree  seculiers  de  la  doctrine  cnr^tienne ",  a  congrega-  the  Lazarists  dining  the  lifetime  of  their  founder, 
tion  devoting  itself  entirely  to  the  work  of  catechiz-  With  the  rise  of  the  Redemptorists,  the  Passionists, 
ing  and  preaching  the  Christian  doctrine.  the  Fathers  of  the  Precious  Blood,  and  several  other 

All  these  saints,  religious  institutes,  and  preachers  con^^regations,  the  work  spread  rapidly  over  the  entire 

may  be  said  to  have  represented  the  work  of  popular  pemnsula,  and,  in  spite  of  the  disturbiuices  of  the 

missions  in  its  rudimentary  form.    That  work  was  not  nineteenth  century,  popular  missions  have  flourished 

reduced  to  a  system  imtil  the  foundation  of  the  Con-  there.    In  Austria  they  developed  during  the  reign  of 

gregation  of  Priests  of  the  Mission  early  in  the  seven-  Maria  Theresa,  but  imder  her  successor,  Joseph  II, 

teenth  century  by  St.  Vincent  de  Paul.    The  circum-  missions  were  to  a  great  extent  prohibited,  and  mis- 

stanoes  which  led  to  St.  Vincent's  taking  up  this  work,  sionaries  banished.    The  Redemptorists  were  recalled, 

together  with  a  full  account  of  his  institute  (com-  but  could  labour  only  on  condition  of  submitting  to 

monly  called  the  Lazarists)  and  its  methods,  wQl  be  official  persecution.    It  was  only  after  the  Revolution 

founa  imder  Missions,  CoNOREOATioif  of  Priests  of  of  1848  had  spent  itself  that  the  Redemptorists,  Jes- 

THE.    The  holy  enterprise  of  St.  Vincent  de  Paul  had  uits.  Capuchms,  and  Franciscans  could  carry  on  the 

France  for  its  birthplace;  in  Italy,  a  century  later  work  of  missions  unmolested,  especially  in  Bohemia 

^1732),    St.  Alphonsus    founded  his    congregation  and  the  Tyrol,  in  Westphalia,  Bavaria,  and  WUrtem- 

(see  Redeemer,  Congregation  of  the  Most  Holt),  berg.    On  the  expulsion  of  the  Jesuits  and  Redemp- 

Their  primary  occupation  is  the  apostolic  ministry  in  torSts,  missions  were  again  prohibited.    Later,  how- 

the  preaching  of  missions  and  retreats  to  all  classes  ever.  Capuchins  and  Franciscans  took  up  the  work, 

of  uatholics,  but  especially  to  the  most  neglected,  and  diocesan  priests  also  entered  the  field  as  mission- 

Tlie  congregation  spread  rapidly  throughout  Europe,  aries  and  directors  of  retreats.    In  1786,  St.  Clement 

About  one  hundred  years  later  Venerable  Caspar  Mary  Hofbauer,  second  founder  of  the  Redemptorists, 

Bufalo  (d.  1837)  founded  in  Rome  the  Congregation  with  his  friend  Thad&us  HQbl,  foimded  a  house  of  the 

of  the  Most  Precious  Blood  (see  Precious  Blood,  congregation  in  Warsaw,  where  King  Stanislaus  Poni- 

CongregationoftheMost),  to  devote  itself  exclu-  atowslu  placed  the  German  national  church  of  St. 

sively  to  parochial  mission  work.    The  causes  which  Benno  at  their  disposal.    The  labours  of  St.  Clement 

haveled  to  the  ra^  id  diffusion  of  this  newly  organized  and  his  companions  at  Warsaw  from  1786  to  1808 

mission  work  in  tlie  last  three  centuries  are  not  far  to  were  crowned  with  extraordinary  success, 

seek.    Owing  to  the  changed  conditions,  intellectual.  After  the  death  of  St.  Alphonsus,  his  miBsionariea 

social,  as  well  as  religious,  the  older  style  of  popular  evangelized  the  deserted  Catholics  in  the  Russian  Prov- 

preaching  had  become  inadequate  to  the  exigencies  of  inces  of  Courland  and  Livonia,  on  the  invitation  of 

the  age.    The  increasing  number  of  sects  with  itinera  Monsignor  Saliuszo,  Apostolic  Nuncio  in  Poland.    In 

ant  representatives,  and  a  corresponding  spread  of  Belgium  and  in  Holland  the  missionary  spirit  has,  with 

religious  indifference,  called  for  specially  oiiganized  one  or  two  slight  interruptions,  always  been  active, 

effort  on  the  part  of  the  Church.  The  Lazarists  laboured  in  Great  Britain  as  early  as 

llie  work,  once  begun,  was  soon  taken  up  by  other  1640,  and  until  the  penal  laws  made  organized  mission 

orders  whose  primary  end  was  different.     Notable  work  impossible.    It  was  not  imtil  about  1850  that 

among  these  were  the  Jesuits,  who  were  the  foremost  the  work  was  effectively  begun  in  that  country.    In 

JabourerB  in  the  field,  the  Dominicans,  Franciscans,  Ireland,  missions  were  recommended  by  national  and 


BOSSISSIPPX  394  MISSISSIPPI 

Provincial  s^ods — e.  g.,  by  the  Plenarv  Synod  of  sively  and  the  second  for  men.  If  it  is  to  continue 
'hurles,  in  1S50;  by  the  Synods  of  Cashel,  1853,  and  four  weeks,  the  first  week  is  for  married  women,  the 
of  Tuam,  1854,  and  the  Plenary  Synod  of  Maynooth,  second  for  unmarried  women,  the  third  for  married 
1875.  In  Ehigland  they  were  recommended  by  the  men,  and  the  fourth  for  unmarried  men.  As  far  as 
Provincial  Council  of  Westminster,  in  1852,  and  again  time  will  permit,  tiie  sermons  usually  deal  with  the 
in  1859:  in  Scotland  by  the  Plenary  Council  of  following  general  subjects,  which  are  varied  to  some 
1886.  The  Plenary  Council  of  Australia,  held  at  extent  according  to  circumstances:  Saivation,  Sin, 
Sydney  in  1885,  and,  in  Canada,  the  Provincial  Repentance,  Hell,  DeaUi,  Judgment,  Heaven — ^with 
Council  of  Quebec,  in  1863,  strongly  urged  parochial  special  instructions  on  matrimony,  temperance,  Chris- 
missions,  tian  education,  etc.  The  instructions  deal  also  with 
In  the  United  States  there  was  no  systematic  popu-  the  essentials  of  tiie  sacrament  of  penance,  certain 
lar  missionary  work  until  about  1860,  though  missions  commandments  of  God  and  of  the  Church,  Holy  Com- 
had  been  given  earlier.  The  Lazarist  Fathers  arrived  munion,  the  Mass,  devotion  to  the  Blessed  Virgin, 
in  181 6,  the  Redemptorists  in  1832,  and  the  Passionists  prayer,  duties  of  parents  and  children,  etc.  The  style 
in  1852;  but,  although  missions  and  spiritual  retreats  of  these  instructions  is  simple  and  didactic. 


wants  of  a  scattered  population.       In  1839  GregOiy  1851);  Hufnsr,  Volkami9»ionen  und  MiBHofiBm-neueruno  {Dili- 

XVI  sent  the  Abb6  Forbin-Janson  on  a  missionary  ?^ffi^*•S••  ^^^^^'*  Kam«?»»  P*«  ^rf*!7»j*^'».  (?*<i«rborii, 

T*"'    ,v  t"^,      XT   ./jc^    7*^^     V**  »  jxuooivuwj  1909);  HiLAXiOft,  Le  M%astonatre.ouVart  dea  mitunona  (Paris. 

tour  through  the  Umted  States,  where,  for  two  years,  i879):  Botlb.  St,  Vincent  de  Povl  attd  the  VineentianM  in  h^ 


the  Second  Provincial  Council  of  Cincinnati  (1858),  See  alao  the  biographies  of  StS;  Alpbonsus  Lifuori^  Fhilip 

the  Second  Plenary  Council  of  Baltimore  (1866),  and  N«rf.  ^ohn  of  the  Cross,  Itommic  Francis,  fgnatius  Lo- 
the  Tenth  Provincial  Council  of  Baltimore  ^1869),  Joseph  Schboeder. 

parochial  missions  are  strongly  recommended.  Among 

the  more  active  missionaries  of  this  period,  Fathers        BCiasiBSlppi,  one  of  the  United  States  of  America, 

Smarius,  Weninger,  Damen,  D.  Young,  O.P.,  and  takes  its  name  from  the  Mississippi  River  that  forms 

Hewit  are  still  gratefully  remembered.  its  western  boundary  from  35^  to  31^  N.  lat.   The  Act 

With  the  increase  in  the  number  of  priests,  the  of  Congress  of  1  March,  1817,  creating  the  state,  fixed 
parochial  mission  has,  during  the  last  century,  become  its  boimdaries  as  follows:  "  Beginning  on  Uie  Missis- 
an  extremely  influential  element  in  the  life  of  the  sippi  River  at  a  point  where  the  southern  boundary  of 
Catholic  Church  .in  the  United  States.  Besides  the  the  State  of  Tennessee  strikes  ^e  same,  thence  east 
Lasarists,  Redemptorists,  and  Passionists  already  along  Hie  said  boundary  line  to  ^e  Tennessee  River, 
mentioned,  Dominicans,  Augustinians,  Paulists,  and  thence  up  the  same  to  the  mouth  of  Bear  Creek,  thence 
Marists  have  been  active  in  this  field.  To  suppljr  the  bv  a  direct  line  to  the  north-west  comer  of  the  County 
lack  of  missionaries  of  the  regular  institutes,  a  highly  of  Washington,  thence  due  south  to  the  Gulf  of  Mex- 
satisfactory  expedient  has  been  devised  in  "diocesan  ico,  ^ence  westwardly,  including  all  of  the  islands 
apostolates".  These  groups  of  priests,  selected  from  within  six  leagues  of  the  shore,  to  the  most  eastern 
the  secular  clergy,  are  trained  for  mission  work  with  jimction  of  Pearl  River  with  Lake  Borgne,  thence  up 
special  reference  to  the  conversion  of  non-Catholics,  said  River  to  the  thirty-first  decree  of  North  latitude, 
They  are  exempted  from  ordinary  pastoral  work,  and  thence  west  along  said  degree  oflatitude  to  the  Biissis- 
held  in  readiness  to  give  missions  whenever  needed.  »ppi  River,  thence  up  the  same  to  the  beg[inning. " 
Under  various  names — as  "  Apostolic  Missionary  Tne  state  in  its  extreme  length  is  330  miles;  its  great- 
Band",  "Diocesan  Mission  Band",  etc. — ^the  system  est  width  is  188  miles;  its  area  46,340  square  miles, 
has  become  established  in  the  Archdioceses  of  New  It  has  a  coast-line  on  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  of  about  75 
York,  St.  Louis,  St.  Paul,  and  San  Francisco,  and  the  miles.  By  eovemment  8urve3r8  begun  in  1803^  the 
Dioceses  of  Alton,  Burlin^on,  Oklahoma,  Peoria,  state  is  divided  into  sections  and  townships. 
Pittsburg,  Providence,  Richmond,  San  Antonio,  Tovoffraphy, -'^It  contains  no  mountains,  but  there 
Scranton,  and  Wheeling.  In  the  average  American  is  a  aecided  difference  of  levels  between  the  idluvial 
parish  there  is  a  mission  every  three  years,  in  some  lands  lyinff  between  the  Mississippi  and  Yasoo  Rivers 
every  second  year,  and  many  make  it  an  annual  and  the  o&er  sections  of  the  state,  which  may  be  mi- 
event.  In  1903  Pope  Leo  XIII  addressed  a  letter  to  erally  characterised  as  the  uplands  of  the  state.  The 
the  Church  in  the  Philippine  Islands,  in  which  he  latter  comprise  approximately  five-sixths  of  the  entire 
strongly  recommended  the  giving  of  missions.  For  an  area  of  the  state,  oonstitutins  a  plateau  of  an  undulat- 
account  of  the  Church  Extension  Society  founded  by  ing  character,  the  level  of  which  gently  descends  in  a 
the  Rev.  Francis  Kelley,  of  Lapeer,  Mich.,  and  or-  general  southerly  direction  to  the  coast.  Its  general 
ganised  at  Chicago,  19  October,  1905,  for  the  develop-  elevation  above  the  level  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  near 
ment  of  the  missionary  spirit  among  the  faithful  and  the  coast-line  is  about  150  feet,  and  the  middle  north- 
the  support  of  the  Church  in  poor  or  pioneer  localities,  em  and  north-eastern  portions  are  from  about  150  to 
see  Societies,  Catholic.  500  and  600  feet  above  the  level  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico. 

III.  Method. — ^While  all  missionaiy  bodies  pursue  The  dramaxe  on  the  west  is  the  Mississippi  River  and 

the  same  end,  their  methods  of  conducting  missions  its  principeJ  tributaries  the  Yaaoo,TallaLatchie,Cold- 

varv  according  to  the  senius  of  each  institute  and  its  water,  Simflower,  Big  Black,  and  Womochitto  Rivers; 

traditions.    In  general,  however,  it  may  be  said  that  in  the  middle  part  the  Pearl,  which  empties  into  Lake 

purely  dogmatic  sermons  are  avoided,  as  well  as  mere  Borgne,  and  in  the  eastern  part,  the  Tombigbee  River. 

appeals  to  the  emotions  and  the  assumption  that  all  the  Chicksawha  River,  and  the  Escatawpa  River,  ana 

that  is,  is  bad.    The  aim  is  rather  to  seek  the  virtue  in  the  south  the  Wolf,  Pascasoula,  Biloxie,Abolochitto, 

that  lies  in  the  middle  course  of  sound  doctrine  and  and  Catahoula  Rivers.    The  upland  sections  of  the 

wholesome  religious  sentiment.    It  is  with  this  end  in  state  are  undulating,  and  successive  ridges  divide  the 

view  that  the  subjects  of  the  mission  sermons  are  area  between  the  water  courses.    The  north-eastern 

chosen,  and,  as  the  number  of  sermons  is  limited,  only  portion  contains  a  large  area  of  prairie  formation 

the  most  practical  topics,  bearins  on  the  everyday  whidi  overlies  a  cretaceous  sub-stratum,  commonly 

lives  of  the  people,  are  selected.    If  the  mission  lasts  known  as  rotten  limestone.    The  middle  comprises  a 

two  weeks,  the  first  week  is  usually  for  women  exdu-  Uirgd  area  of  uplands  with  a  8ul>-«tratum  of  day  for* 


BMtioii.   Hie  Bouthem  portion  ia  genenUy  sandy  and  Fauna  and  flora. — In  Mississippi  we  meet  with  bH 

kwn^.  the  difFerent  I'nin'ni"  that  are  fouod  in  the  gulf  states. 

The  Yasoo-Hisassippi  Delta  constitutes  the  ootttw-  There  ate  about  forty  different  species  of  mammaUa  in 
producinK  regioa  of  the  state,  the  finest  and  most  fer-  the  state.  Among  them  is  the  American  opossum, 
tile  cotton  lands  in  the  world,  not  ezoeptiDg  the  valleys  which  is  abundant,  and  is  highly  prized  as  on  article 
of  theNileandtheOaoges.  It  b^ins  at  t^  Tennessee  of  food.  The  deer  and  the  blaclc  bear,  that  once  ex- 
line  and  follows  on  its  eastern  boundary  a  line  of  hills  isted  in  great  numbers,  are  disappearing  owing  to  the 
or  bluffs  to  Vicksburg,  and  is  bounded  on  the  weet  by  dearins  up  of  the  country  and  the  inefticient  enforce- 
tbe  Mississippi  River.  It  lies  low  and  its  general  avei^  ment  of  the  game  laws.  Aoout  one  hundred  and  fifteen 
•CB  level  is  not  higher  than  the  high-water  level  of  the  varieties  of  birds  are  found,  about  twenty  of  which  are 
luseissippL  It  compriaea  an  estimated  area  of  4,480,-  migratory,  coming  from  the  north  during  the  fall  and 
000  acres  or  S480  square  miles.  It  is  now  protected  winter  months.  The  mocking  bird,  exclusively  a 
by  a  scientifically  constructed  system  of  levees  ext«nd-  southern  bird,  and  the  most  remarkable  songster  in 
ing  on  the  Mississippi  River  from  the  Tennessee  line  to  the  world,  is  found  in  the  state,  especially  in  tJie  mid* 
the  Uils  at  Vicksburg,  and  up  the  Yasoo  River  and  its  die  and  southern  portions,  in  great  numbers.  The  wild 
tributaries  above  the  danger  points.  The  levees  are  turkey,  a  native  of 
maintained  by  local  assessments  b^  the  two  levee  this  country,  ia 
boards  in  the  delta  and  by  appropriations  from  the  found  in  nearly  all 
Federal Government,made fortne improvementof the  E^uts  of  the  state, 
rivers  and  for  the  maintenance  of  the  leveee.  The  cost  Quail  are  also  very 
of  maintaining  this  levee  system  is  great,  but  is  far  abundant.  The  , 
more  than  compensated  for  by  the  protection  secured  game  taws  are  morr 
for  thie  large  area  of  cotton  lands.  These  levees  are  efTective  and  an 
BubetantialTy  constructed  of  earth  from  15  to  30  feet  more  vigorously  en 
high  with  bases  broad  in  proportion.  With  the  levee  forced  than  here-  1 
system,  it  is  the  general  opinion  of  levee  engineers  that  tofore.  More  than 
any  eeneral  overflow  of  the  delta  is  impossible.  In  fifty  species  of  rep- 
very  high  water  an  occasional  break  in  a  levee,  called  tilia  are  found  here, 
s  "crevasse",  may  overflow  a  small  local  area,  but  prominent  among 
with  the  present  scientific  skill  and  equipment,  these  them  being  thealli- 
breoks  are  generally  closed  promptly,  with  hut  little  gator  (A .  Wissw- 
damage  to  mnd  affected.  The  water  level  in  the  Mis-  sippienHs),  existing 
aiarippiandin  the  rivers  oF  the  delta  varies  veiy  much  mainly  in  the  middleand  southern  portions  of  the  state 
during  the  vear.  The  highest  water  is  from  January  ontheriveraand  lakes.  It  attains  a  maximum  len^  of 
to  April,  foUowed  often,  in  the  Mississippi,  by  what  is  from  14  to  15  feet.  There  are  at  least  sixty  species  of 
termed  the  June  rise  wluch  is  caused  by  the  melting  of  fish,  the  majority  of  which  are  edible.  The  oysters 
the  snow  and  ice  in  the  upper  Mississippi  and  in  its  and  crustaceans  of  the  gulf  exist  in  great  quantities 
tributaries.  There  are  good  landing  at  variouspoints  and  are  of  the  finest  quality  for  food. 
on  the  Mississippi  River,  among  them  being  Green-  The  state,  in  almoet  its  entire  area,  was  covered 
ville,  Vicksburg,  and  Natchec.  originally  with  a  magnificent  growth  of  forest  trees. 

Climaiie  Condiiums. — The  climate  is  mild  and  tern-  More  than  one  hundred  and  twenty  species  exist  at 

Derate.     In  the  summer,  breeies  from  the  Mexican  present.     Among  them  are  fifteen  varieties  of  oak, 

Gulf  in  the  middle  and  Bouthern  portions,  and  variable  mcludiag  live  oak  and  white  and  red  oaks  which  are 

winds  elsewhere  in  the  state,  render  the  beat  moderate  the  most  valuable.    Cypress  is  still  abundant  in  the 

andtolerable.  Intbesouthem portion tbctemperature  river   bottoms  and   on   the  lakes.     Besides   several 

rarely  falls  as  low  as  +  32°  Fahr.,  and  generally  does  species  of  hickory,  the  black  walnut,  chestnut,  sweet 

not  exceed  95°  Fahr.     In  the  middle  part  the  maxi-  gum.  red  cedar,  red  gum,  elms  of  various  varieties, 

mum  is  about  08°  and  the  lowest  is  rarely  lower  than  maple,  nsh,  sycamore  exist  here,  among  many  other 

-1-20^.       In  the   northern   portion   the   temperature  valuable  varieties,  all  of  large  growth  and  valuable  as 

rarely  falls  to  4- 10°,  and  for  a  few  days,  in  an  excep-  timber.   The  long-leaf  pine,  tlu  most  valuable  tree  for 

tionally  cold  winter,  may  go  to  -H  5°.      There  is  a  fair  timber  for  various  uses,  abounds  in  the  southern  por- 

andmoderaterainf^cxtendedthrough  tbeyear,  with  tions  of  the  state.    The  short-leaf  pine,  not  quite  so 

a  greater  fall  during  the  winter  and  spring.    Near  the  valuable,  is  widely  distributed  throughout  the  middle 

coast  the  fall  is  about  65  inches  per  annum,  and  else-  and  northern  sections.    Next  to  cotton,  timber  is  the 

where  it  averages  about  50  inches  aimually.    The  state  most  valuable  product  of  the  state.    The  value  of  the 

is  as  healthv  in  fdl  of  its  climatic  and  other  conditions  pine  timber  in  the  stat«  was  estimated  in  1880,  ap- 

BS  any  of  tne  adjacent  states.    In  the  low-lying  por-  [iroxiniately,  at  S25O,0O0,00O.    Allowing  for  the  cut- 

tkma  that  are  not  well  drained  there  are  some  malarial  ting  since  that  time  and  also  for  the  increase  in  the 

fevers,  but  these  conditions  are  being  steadily  im-  price  of  lumber,  a  conservative  approximate  estimate 

fvoved.    The  death  rate  for  the  state  does  not  exceed,  of  its  value  should  not  be  leas  than  $300,000,000  at  the 

annually,  1-20  per  cent.    Yellow  fever,  that  was  the  present  time. 

scourge  of  the  state  for  years  in  recurring  epidemics,  AgricuUxire. — This  is  the  principal  industry  in  the 

no  longer  exists,  since  the  discovery  ot  the  mosquito  state;  of  the  male  population  77.7%  and  of  the  female 

theory,  except  in  rare  and  sporadic  form.    The  yellow  71.3%  are  engaged  in  agricultural  pursuits.    Fully  one 

fever  experts  are  unanimous  in  the  opinion  that  with  half  of  the  state  is  of  extraordinary  fertility.    The  only 

ordinary  precautionary  measures  there  can  never  be  portion  that  is  unproductive  is  the  small  strip  of  tem- 

another  yellow  fever  epidemic  in  the  South.  tory  known  geographically  as  Flat  Woods,  wnere  only 

Otology. — The  geoli^  of  the  state  is  not  compli-  the  bottom  lands  are  fertile.    Cotton  is  tne  principal 

cated  and  is  similar  to  i^t  of  adjacent  states.    There  product,  beinj;  probably  three  times  greater  than  the 

are  four  groups  of  cretsceous  strata:   (1)  The  En  taw  other  industries  of  the  state  combined.    Thevalueof 

Ot  Coffee  group;  (2)  The  Tombigbee  group;  (3)  The  the  cotton  crop  as  shown  by  the  census  of  1900  was 

RottenLimeetoneproup;(4)TheRipleygroup,  Seven  $54,032,341.    The  crop  of  1879-1880  was  valued  at 

groups  of  the  Tertiary  strata  have  been  distinguished  $46,000,000,  showing  an  increase  during  that  period 

as  follows:  (1)  The  Flat  Woods  group;  (2)  The  La  of  over  $8,000,000.    Among  other  minor  products  are 

Orange  group;  (3)  the  Buhrstone  group;  (^VThe  Clai-  Indian  com,  oats,  bay,  peas  of  every  variety,  wheat, 

borne  group;  (5)  The  Jackson  group;  (6)  The  Vicks-  cane',  sorghum,  rice,  potatoes,  and  almost  every  vari- 

burg  group;  (7)  The  Grand  Gulf  group.  ety  of  orchard  and  garden  product.    Id  the  soutbera 


1II88I8SIPFI                            396  MI88I88IPn 

part  of  the  state,  sub-tropical  and  several  varieties  of  in  large  part,  the  University  at  Oxford^  the  Agrieul- 
tropical  fruits  are  suocesstully  cultivated.  The  Yasoo-  tuial  ana  Mechanical  College  at  StarkviUe.  For  eol- 
liiadssippi  Delta  is  the  most  remarkable  agricultural  ouied  students  the  state  mainfaina  the  Alcorn  Agri- 
section  of  the  state.  Its  area  is  6480  square  mUes,  cultural  and  Mechani<»tl  College  near  Brunisburs  and 
or  4,147.200  acres.  With  an  alluvial  soil  that  is  and  Rodney  College  near  Rodney,  both  in  Claiborne 
practically  inexhaustible,  its  cotton  production  ex-  Countv.  Tlie  totalnumber  of  chilaren  enrolled  during 
oeeds  that  of  any  other  land  in  the  world.  Its  land  1906-1907  was  482.208,  and  the  average  attendance 
produces  from  three  quarters  to  a  bale  and  a  half  for  the  same  perioa  was  285,047.  The  total  average 
an  acre,  and  with  careful  tillage  and  in  a  good  cotton  attendance  in  1905-1906  was  267,898,  showing  an  in- 
year  as  much  as  a  bale  and  three  quarters  to  two  bales  crease  in  1906-1907  of  17,149.  There  are  7241  schools 
to  the  acre.  The  increase  in  the  value  of  the  lands  in  in  the  school  districts,  and  117  schools  in  the  separate 
the  Delta,  both  timber  and  cultivated,  is  remark-  school  districts.  In  the  session  of  1906-1907,  thm  was 
able.  In  188 1  the  state  sold  1 ,500,000  acres  of  timber  a  larger  attendance  of  negro  pupils  than  white  pupils  by 
lands,  by  levee  tax  titles,  which  have  been  held  valid,  15,335.  For  the  session  of  1906-1907,  $2,631,790.35 
for  six  and  one  half  cents  per  acre.  These  lands  are  of  public  money  went  to  the  support  of  schools,  as 
now  worth,  on  an  average,  920  per  acre.  Twenty  yean  compared  with  $2,432,426.33  for  1905-1906.  There 
ago,  cotton  lands  could  be  bought  for  from  $15  to  $25  are  the  following  private  institutions  for  white  stu- 
an  acre  that  are  now  worth  from  $50  to  $75  per  acre,  dents:  Jefferson  College,  near  Natches;  Rust  Univer- 
Thepopulationof  the  delta  is  195,346;  of  this  number  sitv.  Holly  Springs;  Millsaps  College  and  Bellehaven 
24,137  are  whites  and  171,209  are  negroes.  The  College.  Jackson;  Blue  Mountain  College,  Blue  Moun- 
negroes  generally  cultivate  the  cotton  farms  and  the  tain;  Mississippi  College,  Clinton;  East  Mississippi 
large  cotton  plantations  of  the  state,  while  the  small  College,  Meridiim;  Stanton  College,  Natches.  There 
faims  are  cultivated  by  white  labour.  are  other  private  schools  of  lesser  prominence. 

Population. — ^The  population  of  the  state,  as  shown  Peniteniiary  System, — ^During  the  period  of  military 

by  the  census  of  1900,  is  1,551,270,  of  which  641^200  government  in  the  South,  a  prison  system  known  as 

are  white  and  907,630  are  negroes,  with  2203  Indians  convict  leasing  was  establiabed  in  this  and  other 

and  237  Chinese.    A  small  percentage  of  the  popula-  southern  states,  and  was  continued  in  Mississippi 

tion  is  forei^  bom.     There  are  5345  males  and  2536  until  1890,  when  it  was  abolished  and  the  present  sys- 

feinales  foreign  bom;  total,  7981.    Of  these  7625  are  tem  was  adopted  of  working  the  prisoners  on  state 

white.    The  total  number  of  males  <^  voting  age  is  lands  at  agricultural  pursuits  for  the  exclusive  benefit 

349,179.    Of  these  150,530  are  whites  and  197.936  are  of  the  state,  and  under  exclusive  official  control.   The 

negroes.    There  are  118,057  illiterate  males  ot  voting  state  owns  20,900  acres  of  cotton  and  farm  lands  upon 

age,  and  of  these  105,331  are  negroes  and  12,293  are  which  the  entire  prison  population  of  about  1200  pris- 

whites.    Illiteracy  in  the  total  population  amounts  to  oners  are  workea.    The  penitentiary  lands  cost  origi- 

32%.    The  illiteracv  of  the  entire  white  population  is  naUy  $145,600  and  are  now  worth  at  least  1600,0%. 

8%  and  of  the  total  negro  population,  49.1%.   Under  The  annual  cash  income  to  the  state  from  the  labour 

the  influence  of  the  extensive  school  facilities  provided  of  the  prisoners  is  not  less  than  $150,000.   In  addition 

at  the  expense  of  the  state,  the  percentage  of  illiteracy  to  this,  valuable  improvements  are  constantly  being 

is  steadily  decreasing.       ^  ^  made  on  the  property  by  the  prisonen.    The  present 

AdminUtration, — ^The  dvil  government  of  the  state  system  is  a  satisfactory  solution  of  the  convict  prob- 
is  structurally  similar  to  that  of  the  other  states,  lem,  in  which  all  conditions,  moral  and  sanitaiy,  are 
There  are  three  departments — executive,  legislative,  obtained.  Alabama,  Georgia,  South  Carolina,  and 
and  judicial.  The  state  officers  and  members  of  the  Louisiana  have  adopted  this  system, 
legislature  are  elected  by  the  people  every  four  Transportation.— ^The  railroad  mileage  in  the  state 
years.  There  are  three  supreme  cowrt  judges,  thir-  amounts  to  3759  miles,  according  to  the  Report  of  the 
teen  circuit  court  judges  and  eight  chancellors,  aJl  State  Railroad  Commission  of  190S.  The  state  is  well- 
appointed  by  the  governor  with  the  approval  of  the  supplied  with  water  transportation,  havins  the  foUow- 
senate.  The  elective  franchise  contains  the  following  ing  navigable  rivers:  Mississippi,  Yaaoo,  Tallidiatchie, 
conditions,  viz:  a  voter  must  be  twenty-one  yeare  old,  Sunflower,  Pearl,  Pascagoula,  Big  Black,  Tombi^bee, 
he  must  be  able  to  read  or  to  imderstand  the  state  and  some  minor  streams  that  are  navigable  during  a 
Constitution  when  read  to  him  (that  is,  a  layman's  and  portion  of  the  year.  There  are  deep-water  harboure  on 
not  an  academician's  understanding  of  the  Constitu-  the  gulf  coast  at  Horn  Island  opposite  Pascagoula, 
tion) ;  he  must  have  resided  in  the  state  two  yeare  and  and  Ship  Island  opposite  Gulf  Port.  There  is  a  depth 
in  the  precinct  one  year,  and  have  paid  all  taxes,  in-  of  water  at  the  pier  of  the  Gulf  and  Ship  Island  Rail- 
duding  an  annual  poll  tax  of  $2  for  two  ^eare  preced-  road  at  Gulf  Port  of  23  feet  at  low  tide,  and  30  feet  in 
ing  the  election.  Conviction  of  certain  crimes  against  the  protected  roadstead  inside  of  Ship  Island,  which 
honesty  entails  the  disfranchisement  of  a  voter.  This  is  accessible  by  tugs  and  lighten  through  a  deep-water 
qualified  suffrage  has  given  the  state  a  large  white  channel.  There  are  also  harboura  at  Bay  of  St.  Louis 
majority  in  its  electoral  body.    The  vaUdity  of  these  and  Biloxi. 

suffrage  qualifications  has  been  sustained  by  the  History. — ^In  1540  Hernando  De  Soto,  one  of  the 

Supreme  Court  of  the  United  States  in  the  case  of  most  adventurous  of  the  Spanish  exolorera,  discovered 

Wuliams  vs.  The  State  of  Mississippi,  decided  by  a  the  Mississippi  River,  and  his  expeaition  reached  the 

unanimous  court  in  1896.    The  state  tnaintAina  insti-  present  limits  of  this  state,  and  remained  until  his 

tutionsfor  the  insane,  the  blind,  luid  the  deaf  and  death  in  1542.   The  expedition,  under  the  leadensliip  of 

dumb,  affording  ample  facilities  for  both  races.  There  Moscoes,  was  withdrawn  in  1543,  descending  the  nver 

is  also  a  state  hospital  at  Natches  and  one  at  Vicks-  to  the  sea  and  thence  along  the  coast  to  Mexico.   It  is 

burg.  difficult  to  trace  the  exact  route  of  De  Soto.    It  is 

Education. — ^The  public  educational  system  of  the  known,  however,  that  he  passed  through  Florida  and 

state  consists  of  a  common  school  system  in  which  Georgia  as  high  as  35^  N.  lat.,  then  went  to  the 

each  county  is  a  school-district,  and  in  which  many  of  vicinity  of  Mobile  and  then  north-west  to  the  Missis- 

the  municipalities  constitute  separate  school-districts,  sippi  River.    In  1682  La  Salle  and  Fonti  descended  to 

This  system  is  maintained  at  the  public  expense,  by  the  mouth  of  the  Mississippi  River  and  claimed  the 

state,   county,   and   school   distnct;   and   separate  entire  region  for  the  King  of  France.    Inl698D1ber- 

educational  facilities   are  extended  to  all   of   the  ville  came  to  Mississippi,  authorised  by  the  French 

educable  children  of  both  races  in  the  state.    In  king  to  colonise  ihe  lower  Mississippi.    He  went  to 

addition,  the  state  maintains  the  Industrial  Insti-  Ship  Island  and  Cat  Island,  to  the  mainland  on 

tute  and  College  for  girls,  at  Columbus,  luid  maintains,  Biloxi  Bay,  to  Bay  of  St.  Louis,  and  to  Mobile.   The 


mSSISSIPPI                            397  BIIS8I8SIPPZ 

eolony  did  not  prosper.  D'Iberville  returned  to  tion  by  the  people  in  October,  1865,  under  the  auspices 
Fmnoe,  leaving  his  two  brothers,  SauvolM  and  Bien-  of  President  Johnson's  plan  of  Reconstruction,  with 
ville,  in  charge  of  the  countrv.  In  1699  D'Iberville  Benjamin  G.  Humphreys  as  governor.  Under  the 
returned  and  built  a  fort  on  the  Mississippi  about  400  Reconstruction  Acts  of  Congress  of  Bilarch,  1867,  the 
miles  below  Natchez.  He  sent  Fonti  on  an  expedition  Humphreys  government  was  abolished  and  a  tempo- 
to  Natches,  who  built  Fort  Rosalie  near  Natcnes.  At  rary  military  government  established  in  its  place  until 
that  time  Louisiana  belonged  to  France,  and  Florida  the  Reconstruction  government  was  established,  un- 
to Spain  by  claim  of  discovery.  In  1763  Spain  ceded  der  the  Acts  of  Ck>ngre8s,  with  James  L.  Alcorn  as 
Florida  to  Great  Britain.  The  northern  line  of  Florida  governor,  who  was  inaugurated  10  March,  1870.  This 
was  claimed  by  Spain  from  the  mouth  of  the  Yasoo  Reconstruction  period,  with  unlimited  negro  suffrage, 
River  east  to  the  Chattahouchie  River,  a  claim  that  lasted  until  1876,  when  the  white  man  regained  con- 
not  conceded  north  of   31^   N.  lat.    In  1772  trol  of  the  state.   The  ordinary  annual  expenses  of  the 


Richard  and  Sainuel  Swase  of  New  Jersey  formed  a  state  government  increased  from  $463,209.71  in  1869, 
permanent  settlement  on  the  Homochitto  River  in  to  $1,729,046.34  in  1871,  under  negro  rule.  In  1876, 
Adams  County.  In  1781  Spain,  then  at  war  with  under  white  rule,  the  expenses  of  the  state  were  re- 
England,  expelled  tJie  English  from  Florida,  and  took  duced  to  $591,709.00  per  anniun.  Durmg  the  Recon- 
possession  of  that  country.  Florida  was  conceded  to  struction  period  taxation  had  reached  the  point  of 
extend  to  31°  N.  lat.  and  westward  to  the  Perdido  confiscation,  and  one-fifth  of  all  the  lands  in  the  state 
River.  All  south  of  that  parallel  and  west  of  the  Per-  had  been  forfeited  to  the  state  for  taxes. 
dido  River  belonged  to  France.  All  east  of  the  Missis-  From  1876  to  1890,  by  various  extra-legal  methods 
sippi  River  and  north  of  31°  N.  lat.  was  territory  of  the  the  white  men  managed  to  maintain  control  of  the 
United  States  and  was  claimed  by  the  State  of  Georgia,  state,  and  the  constitutional  convention  of  1890  en- 

In  1798  the  Territory  of  Mississippi,  established  by  acted  a  constitution  that  placed  limitations  on  the 
Act  of  Congress,  was  bounded  as  follows:  On  the  west  elective  franchise.  The  state  suffered  severely  during 
by  the  Mississippi  River,  on  the  south  by  parallel  31°  the  Civil  War,  being  the  theatre  of  extensive  military 
t(,  lat.,  on  the  north  by  a  line  running  east  from  the  operations.  During  the  Reconstruction  period  there 
mouth  of  the  Yasoo  River  to  the  Chattahouchie  River  was  an  enormous  loss  in  property  values.  At  present 
and  along  the  latter  river  on  the  east.  In  1802  the  the  state  is  in  a  highly  prosperous  condition,  and  each 
State  of  Georgia  ceded  to  the  United  States  its  claim  year  witnesses  its  steady  improvement  and  develop- 
to  all  territory  north  of  31°  N.  lat.  as  far  as  the  Ten-  ment. 

nessee  line,  and  in  1804  Congress  attached  all  north  The  Diocese  of  Natchez  (<i.  v.)  includes  the  entire 

of  31°  N.  lat.  and  south  of  the  Tennessee  line  to  the  state;  the  Catholic  population  in  1910  amounted  to 

Territory  of  Mississippi.    In  1803  the  Louisiana  Pur-  25,701,  including  2017  coloured  and  233  Indian  Cath- 

chase  was  effected.   In  1812  Congress  added  what  was  olics. 

then  termed  the  District  of  Mobile  to  the  Territory  of  Laws  of  (he  Stale  AffedLing  Religian. — The  State  Con- 
Mississippi,  being  all  that  territory  extending  from  the  stitution  of  1890  provides  that  no  testamentary  be- 
Pearl  to  the  Peraido  rivers,  bounded  on  the  north  by  quests  of  any  property,  real  or  personal,  can  be  made  to 
31°  N.  lat.  and  on  the  south  by  the  Mexican  Gulf.  By  any  religious  or  cnaritable  uses.  The  statutes  regulate 
the  treaty  of  Madrid  of  27  October,  1795,  Spain  had  by  limi&tions  the  character  of  property  that  rebgious 
oonoMied  that  the  southern  boundaiy  of  the  United  societies  or  associations,  or  ecclesiastical  bodies,  may 
States  should  extend  to  parallel  31°  N.  lat.,  thereby  own  and  hold,  viz.:  a  church,  a  residence  for  a  priest  or 
waiving  all  claim  north  of  that  line.  Bv  the  treatv  of  minister,  and  a  school  or  seminary  each  for  male  and 
22  Februarv,  1819,  Spain  ceded  all  Florida,  includ-  female  scholars,  and  also  a  cemetery;  and  a  religious 
ing  the  whole  territory  south  of  parallel  31°  N.  lat.  and  denomination  may,  in  addition,  own  such  colleges  or 
east  of  the  Mississippi  River,  to  the  United  States,  seminaries  of  learning  as  it  may  deem  proper,  and  also 
But  the  United  States  was  then  in  possession  of  Flor-  a  place  of  residence  for  its  superior  cler^men.  These 
ida  east  of  the  Perdido  River,  by  conquest;  General  limitations  apply  to  all  religious  denonunations,  socie- 
Jackson,  having;  in  1818  invaded  east  Florida,  con-  ties  and  ecclesiastical  bodies,  without  discrimination. 
quered  the  Indians  and  expelled  the  Spaniards.  Be-  All  divorce  and  niarriage  laws,  and  cognate  laws,  ap- 
iore  that  time  the  United  States  claimed  de  jure  all  ply  without  discrimination  to  all  citizens  of  the  state 
west  of  the  Perdido  under  the  Louisiana  Piu>chase.  urespective  of  their  religious  beliefs  and  affiliations. 
The  present  territory  of  Mississippi  was  acquired  and  All  qualifications  of  the  elective  franchise  and  for 
claimed  as  follows:  That  portion  south  of  31°  N.  office  are  of  uniform  character.  So  also  are  all  laws 
lat.  and  west  of  the  Perdido  River,  and  extending  to  regulating  grand  and  petit  jury  duty,  and  road  and 
Pearl  River,  was  claimed  by  original  title  under  the  street  duty,  and  military  service,  and  exempting  all 
Louisiana  Purchase.  From  parallel  31°  N.  lat.  to  the  ministers  or  the  Gospel  from  these  duties.  The  State 
line  from  the  mouth  of  Pearl  River,  east  to  the  present  Constitution  of  1890  provides  that  no  religious  tests 
Alabama  line,  by  occupancy  and  proprietary  right,  as  a  qualification  for  office  shall  be  required,  and  that 
and  all  north  of  parallel  31°  N.  lat.  to  the  Tennessee  no  preference  shall  be  given  b}r  law  to  any  religious 
line  was  territory  of  Georgia,  and  was  ceded  bv  that  denomination  or  mode  of  worship.  Absolute  freedom 
state  to  the  United  States.  This  is  the  de  jure  deriva-  in  all  matters  of  religion,  or  modes  of  worship,  it  is 
tion  of  the  titles  of  the  United  States  Government,  declared  by  the  Constitution,  "shall  be  held  sacred". 
The  State  of  Mississippi  was  created  by  Act  of  Con-  The  Bible  is  not  to  be  excluded  from  the  public  schools, 
gress  of  1  March,  181/.      ....  meaning  the  schools  maintained  by  the  state.   Secular 

On  9  January,  1861,  Mississippi  passed  the  Ordi-  and  business  pursuits,  not  of  a  necessary  character,  are 

nance  of  Secession  and  joined  the  Southern  Confed-  prohibited  on  Simday.    Blasphemy  and  profanity  in 

eracy  immediately  upon  its  establishment.    The  state  any  public  place  is  prohibited.    The  Senate  and  the 

furnished  80,000  troops  to  the  Confederacy  during  the  House,  as  a  niatter  of  custom,  are  opened  with  prayer 

war,  with  a  total  population  of  70,295  white  males  by  some  minister  of  the  Gospel,  on  the  invitation  dl 

between  the  ages  of^  eighteen  and  forty-five  years,  the  presiding  officer  of  the  body.   The  following  legal 

There  were  545  whites  and  79,000  negroes  from  the  holidays  are  designated  by  the  statutes  of  the  state, 

state  enlisted  in  the  Federal  Army.    Upon  the  surren-  viz.:    1  January.  22  February  (Washington's  Birth- 

der  of  the  Confederacy  the  state  was  placed  under  day),  26  April,  Memorial  Day,  3  June,  JeiTerson  Davis 

ailitaiy  rule.    In  June,  1865,  a  provisional  govern-  Day,  4  July,  and  Christmas  Day. 

ment  was  established  by  Presidfent  Johnson,  with  The  laws  of  the  state  do  not  preserve  the  inviokr 

William   L.   Sharkey  as  provisional  governor.     A  bility  of  the  confessional  as  matter  of  evidence.   The 

QiTil  state  government  was  established  by  an  eleo-  only  privileged  communications  are  those  between  a 


imsouBZ 


398 


BOSSOUBZ 


client  and  his  lawyer.  There  is  a  general  law  by  which 
the  (governor  may  ^rant  charters  of  incorporation  to 
religious  con^gations  or  societies.  AH  property 
owned  by  religions  denominations  is  exempt  from  tax- 
ation. The  only  Catholic  who  has  held  a  state  office 
in  Mississippi  is  the  Hon.  Frank  Johnston,  who  was 
attorney-general  in  the  years  1893,  1894,  1895  under 
appointment  by  the  governor  to  fill  an  unexpiied 
term.     (See  Natchez,  Diocebe  of.) 

Claibornb,  MiMiuippi  aa  a  Province.  Territory  and  State 
(1880):  Rowland,  Official  and  Statistical  Regieter  (1004); 
GooDSPBXD,  Memoire  of  Mieeiaai^pi  (1891);  Riley,  Publica' 
tiona  of  Mississippi  Historical  Society  (1898-1009):  Johnston, 
Su^raae  and  Reconstruction  in  Mississippi,  VoL  Vl,  in  AftM. 
Htsl.  Soc.  Pub.  (1002);  Lynch,  Bench  and  Bar  of  Mississippi 
(1881);  Qarnkr,  Reconstruction  in  Mississippi  (1001):  Ga- 
BARBB,  History  of  Louisiana;  Lowry  and  Mc(3ardlb,  Missis- 
tippi;  Rowland,  Mississippi  Territorial  Archives,  17^-1809 
(loos);  MoNKTTB,  Vatteu  of  the  Mississippi;  Jenkins,  Missis- 
•ippi  River,  Vol.  VI,  in  Miss.  Hist.  Soc.  Pub.  (1002). 

For  an  elaborate  citation  of  varioua  printed  works  on  Missis- 
sippi as  a  province  and  territory,  see  Rowland,  Mississippi, 
I  (1007);  Stone,  Studies  on  the  American  Race  Problem  (1008). 

Frank  JoHNaTON. 

UisBOuri,  State  of. — ^The  State  of  Missouri  was 
carved  out  of  thejjouisiana  Territory^  and  derives  its 
name  from  the  principal  river  flowing  through  its 
centre.  The  name  (pronounced  Miz-zoo'ri)  signifies 
"big  muddy"  in  the  Indian  language.  Geographi- 
cally, Missouri  is  the  central  commonwealth  of  the 
Federal  Union. 

Boundaries  and  Area. — The  boundaries  are  the 
State  of  Iowa  on  the  north;  Arkansas  on  the  south; 
on  the  east  the  Mississippi  River  separates  it  from 
Illinois,  Kentucky,  and  Tennessee;  on  the  west  it  is 
bounded  by  Nebraska,  Kansas,  and  the  new  State  of 
Oklahoma.  It  lies  between  40°  30'  and  36**  30'  N.  lat., 
except  that  a  small  projection,  between  the  Rivers  St. 
Francis  and  Mississippi,  extends  about  34  miles  far- 
ther south  between  Tennessee  and  Arkansas.  The  area 
of  the  state  is  69,415  square  miles. 

Physical  Characteristics. — ^The  Missouri  River 
follows  the  western  boundary  of  the  state  as  far  south 
as  Kaiisas  City;  then  turning  east,  it  flows  across  the 
state  and  empties  itself  into  the  Mississippi  about 
twelve  xniles  above  St.  Louis.  The  portion  of  the 
state  lying  north  of  the  Missouri  is  a  great  extent  of 
gently  romng  prairie,  intersected  here  and  there  bv 
streams  which  are  lined  with  timber  and  flow  south 
into  the  Missouri  or  east  into  the  MissiBsipni.  The 
western  portion  of  the  state,  north  of  the  Missouri 
River,  is  generally  level,  but  rises  to  about  one  thousand 
feet  aoove  sea-level  in  the  north-western  comer  of  the 
state.  The  eastern  portion,  north  of  the  Missouri 
River^  is  more  broken,  with  some  hiUy  land  bordering 
the  Mississippi  and  Missouri  rivers.  The  portion  of  the 
state  south  of  the  Missouri  is  more  rolling;  it  is  well 
wooded,  especially  in  the  south-east,  with  some  swamp 
lands  in  the  extreme  south-eastern  section.  The  Ozark 
Mountains  break  into  the  south  central  part  of  the 
state,  but  rise  to  no  considerable  height  (highest  eleva- 
tion 1600  feet).  West  of  these  mountains  the  land  is 
rolling,  but  arable  and  fertile,  bein^  especiallv  adapted 
to  frmt-growing.  It  is  in  this  section  that  the  famous 
Missouri  red  apples  are  grown  in  the  greatest  quanti- 
ties. 

Population. — According  to  the  first  federal  census 
of  Missouri,  taken  in  1810,  the  state  had  then  20,845 
inhabitants.  The  census  of  1910places  the  population 
at  3,293,335.  According  to  the  Missouri  Bureau  of 
Labor  Statistics  for  1909,  the  population  of  the  state 
at  the  beginning  of  that  year  was  3,925,335. 

Resources. — AgricvUural  and  Farm  Products. — 
The  value  of  the  output  of  farm  crops  alone  for  the 
year  1908  was  $171,815,553.  Of  the  total  crop  valu- 
ation $98,607j605  consisted  of  Indian  corn,  in  tne  pro- 
duction of  which  Missouri  is  the  first  state  in  the  Umon. 
The  greater  portion  of  the  crop  is  consumed  by  live 
stock  within  the  state ;  this  portion  is  not  estimated  in 
tint  surplus  given  below.  The  surplus  in  live  stock  for 


the  vear  ending  31  December,  1908,  consisting  of  cat- 
tle, horses,  hogs,  mules,  and  sheep^  was  7,007,055  head, 
valued  at  $112,535,494.  Missouri  is  constantly  gain- 
ing as  a  wool-producing  state;  in  1908  there  was 
$1,306,922  worth  of  wool  sold.  The  farm-vard  prod- 
ucts are  important  items  in  the  agricultural  statistics; 
the  surplus  of  poultry,  eg^,  and  feathers  for  the  year 
1908  was  $44,960,973.  Mbsouri  has  never  been  con- 
sidered an  important  dairying  state,  but  since  1904 
there  has  been  a  remarkable  growth  in  this  industry. 
The  statistics  in  1904  show  an  estimated  total  value 
from  the  dairies  of  $4,900,783,  while  the  statistics  of 
1908  give  a  total  value  of  $20,651,778.  The  cotton 
crop  of  1908  brought  $3,723,352. 

Mines  and  Timbiar. — In  1907  the  Federal  authorities 
ranked  Missouri  the  chief  lead-producing  state  of  the 
Union.  The  returns 
from  the  smelters 
for  1908  show  that 
the  state  mined 
enough  lead  ore  to 
produce  122,451 
tons  of  primary 
lead.  The  total 
valuation  of  the 
lead  produced  in 
1908  was  $8,672,. 
873,  For  1908  the 
State  Mining  De- 
partment placed 
the  production  of 
zinc  ore  at  197,499 

tons,  and  its  value  q,^,  ^,  \f,— «rror 

at    $6,374,719.  8»al  of  Missouri 

Nickel,  copper,  and  cobalt  are  among  the  valuable 
minerals  produced  in  Missouri.  According  to  the 
United  States  geological  survey  of  1907,  Missouri  and 
Oregon  were  the  only  states  producing  nickel:  400 
tons  of  metalic  nickel,  200  tons  of  metalUc  cobalt, 
and  700  tons  of  metallic  copper  were  produced  in  1908. 
Iron  ore  to  the  value  of  $218,182  was  produced  in  the 
year  1908.  There  was  an  output  of  $26,204  in  sil- 
ver. In  the  production  of  clay  and  shale  goods  Mis- 
souri held  seventh  rank  in  1908.  In  cement  the  state 
also  held  seventh  place.  The  total  output  in  lime, 
cement,  brick,  and  tiling  for  1908  aggregated  a  value 
of  $8,904,013.  Petroleum  wells  exist  in  one  or  two 
counties  close  to  the  Kansas  border,  and  some  natural 
gas  has  been  found  in  the  state.  Coal  exists  in  abun- 
danoe,  the  value  of  the  output  in  1908  being  $5,644,330. 
The  products  of  the  forests  of  Missouri  produced  in 
1908  over  450,000,000  feet  of  assorted  lumber  with  an 
estimated  valuation  of  $8,719,822,  while  over  $4,000,- 
(XX)  worth  of  railroad  ties  were  also  produced  in  that 
year. 

Commerce. — ^The  following  table  of  surplus  prod- 
ucts, ^ven  out  by  the  Bureau  of  Labour  Statistics  in 
1909,  IS  a  concise  statement  of  the  surplus  of  the  state 
which  was  added  to  the  commerce  of  tne  world  during 
1908. 

RtsuMi:  OF  Valuationb  bt  Groups 

Commodity  Vahie 

Live  stock $112,535,494 

Farm  crops 34,991,518 

Mill  products 30,283,689 

Farmyard  products 44,960,973 

Apiary  and  cane  products 117,694 

Forest  products 22,958,014 

Dairy  products 8,260,711 

Missouri  "Meerschaum"  products. .  424,449 

Nursery  products 1,061,173 

Liouid  products 1,210,739 

Fish  and  game  products 636,629 

Packing-house  products 1,872,318 

Cotton  products 3,723,352 

Medicinal  products 95,398 

Vegetable  and  canned  goods 6,692,426 


inssomti  39d  Missomti 

CJomjnodity  XS^Scyi  more  particularly  from  those  mentioned,  with  many 
^eshfrvut.... •r'Sx?'??^  from  Maryland  and  the  Carolinas.  There  are  settle- 
Wool  and  mohair. «^»x25'5^?  ments  of  Italians,  Hungarians,  and  Bohemians,  but  on 

Mme  and  quarry  producjts 24,992,789  the  whole  these  nationalities  make  up  only  a  small 

Stone  and  clay  products 8,904,013  part  of  the  population.    St.  Louis  is  a  cosmopolitan 

Unclassified  products 4,623,953  city,  but  the  predominant  strains  of  foreign  blood  are 

Total  value $314,743,528  German  and  Irish. 

Means  of  CJommunication. — Although  the  Missis-  ^   Admission  to  the  Union. — ^Missouri  was  admitted 

sippi  River  runs  the  full  length  of  the  eastern  boun-  into  the  Union  conditionally  on  2  March,  1820,  and 

dary  of  the  state,  and  the  Missouri  flows  directly  was  formally  admitted  as  a  state  on  10  August,  1821, 

throuffh  the  state,  neither  of  these  streams  is  of  any  during  the  presidential  administration  of  James  Mon- 

considerable  commercial  value  as  a  means  of  com-  roe.    At  a  convention  held  at  St.  Louis  on  19  July, 

mimication   or  transportation.     Railroad  facilities,  1820,  the  people  passed  on  the  Act  of  Congress,  which 

however,  are  ample,  there  bein^  7991  miles  of  main  was  approved  in  March  of  the  same  year,  and  a  consti- 

line  with  about  3000  miles  of  sidings.    There  are  63  tution  was  drawn  up  and  a  new  state  established, 

steam  systems  operating  in  the  state.    There  are  one  Under  this  constitution,  in  August,  1820,  the  people 

railroad  bridge,  one  street-car  bridge,  and  one  combi-  held  a  general  election,  at  which  state  and  county 

nation  railroad,  street-car,  and  passenger  bridge  across  officers  were  chosen  and  the  state  government  orean- 

the  Mississippi  River  at  St.  Loms,  and  a  municipal  free  ized.    The  constitution  now  in  force  was  adopted  by 

bridge  for  tne  accommodation  of  railroads,  electric  vote  of  the  people  on  30  October,  1875,  and  came  into 

roads,  wagons,  and  foot  traffic,  is  in  process  of  con-  operation  on  30  November  of  the  same  year, 
struction.  Notable  Events  in  Political  History. — ^The  ad- 

Educational  System.  —  State  University.  —  The  mission  of  Missouri  as  a  state  provoked  much  bitter 

State  University  of  Missouri  was  established  by  legis-  discussion  in  Congress,  and  terminate  in  what  has 

lative  act  approved  on  11  February,  1839,  and  the  since  been  known  as  ''The  Missouri  Compromise", 

university  was  located  at  Columbia,  Boone  County,  This  bill  provided  that  Missouri  should  be  admitted  as 

on  24  June,  1839.   The  comer-stone  of  the  main  build-  a  slave  state,  but  forever  prohibited  slavery  in  the 

ing  was  laid  on  4  July,  1840.    Courses  of  instruction  in  remainder  of  the  Louisiana  Territory  lying  north  of 

academic  work  were  begun  on  14  April,  1841,  and  a  36®  30'  N.  lat.,  which  line  is  the  southern  boundaiy 

Normal  Department  was  established  in   1867  and  of  Missouri.    The  matter  of  slavery  was  the  cause  of 

opened  in  September,  1868.    The  College  of  Agricul-  many  controversies  during  the  early  history  of  the 

ture  and  Mecnanic  Arts  and  the  School  of  Mines  and  state,  and  durine  the  Civil  War  over  100,000  soldiers 

Metallurgy  were  made  departments  of  the  imiversity  were  contributed  to  the  Union  army  and  50,000  to  tiie 

in  1870,  the  School  of  Mines  and  Metallurgy  being  Confederacy. 

located  at  Rolla.  The  law  department  was  opened  Matters  Dikectly  Affecting  Religion. — Free- 
in  1872,  the  medical  department  in  1873,  the  engi-  dom  of  Worship. — Section  5,  Article2,ofthe  Constitu- 
neering  department  in  1877,  and  the  department  of  tion  of  1875  provides* 'that  all  men  have  a  natural  and 
journalism  in  1908.  In  1888  the  Experiment  Station  indefeasible  right  to  worship  Almighty  Gkxl  according 
was  established  under  Act  of  Congress,  and  the  Mis-  to  their  own  conscience;  tnat  no  person  can,  on  ao- 
souri  State  Militazy  School  in  1890.  For  the  schol-  count  of  his  religious  opinions,  be  rendered  ineligible 
astic  year  1908  there  were  enrolled  in  the  entire  to  any  office  of  trust  or  profit  under  this  State,  nor  be 
university  3033  students.  The  officers  of  instruc-  disqualified  from  testifying,  or  from  serving  as  a  juror; 
tion  and  administration  consisted  of  104  professors,  that  no  human  authority  can  control  or  interfere  witii 
64  instructors,  and  54  assistants.  Apart  from  the  the  rights  of  conscience;  that  no  person  ought,  by  any 
above-mentioned  institutions,  which  are  all  under  law,  to  be  molested  in  his  person  or  estate,  on  account 
the  supervision  of  the  University  of  Missouri  proper,  of  his  religious  persuasion  or  profession;  but  the  lib- 
the  state  maintains  the  Lincoln  Institution  at  Jeffer-  erty  of  conscience  hereby  secured  shall  not  be  so  con- 
son  City  for  the  education  of  negro  children  in  agricul-  strued  as  to  excuse  acts  of  licentiousness,  nor  to  justify 
ture  and  mechanic  arts.  practices  inconsistent  with  the  pood  order,  peace  or 
PvJblic  Schools. — ^The  state  is  divided  into  10,053  safety  of  this  State,  or  with  the  rights  of  others. "  The 
school  districts.  The  total  number  of  teachers  in  the  recognition  of  a  God  herein  manifested  does  not  in  an^ 
public  schools  in  the  year  1908  was  17,998,  the  total  way  prejudice  the  interests  of  atheists.  That  a  man  is 
number  of  pupils  being  984,659.  For  the  year  ending  an  atheist  or  has  peculiar  religious  opinions  does  not 
1  July,  1908,  the  public  schools  cost  the  tax-payers  prejudice  him  as  a  witness  (11  Mo.  App.  385).  Sun- 
$12,769,689.93.  The  law  requires  that  every  child  day  regulations  are  not  void  on  accoimt  of  peculiar 
with  sound  body  and  mind,  from  six  to  fourteen  years  religious  opinions  of  certain  citizens  (20  Mo.  214); 
of  age,  attend  either  a  public  or  private  school  during  nor  can  a  contract  be  voided  by  one  voluntarily 
each  school  year.  Missouri  has  tne  largest  permanent  entering  into  it  on  the  ground  that  it  reouires  him 
interest-bearing  school-fund  of  any  state  in  the  Union,  to  live  up  to  certain  religious  beliefs  (Franta  v. 
This  fund  in  1908  amounted  to  $14,014,335.45.  Apart  Bohemian  Roman  Catholic  C.  U.,  164  Missouri,  304). 
from  the  primary  and  high  schools  there  are  six  state  The  Constitution  also  provides  that  no  person  can  be 
normal  institutions,  of  which  one  is  located  in  each  of  compelled  to  erect,  support,  or  attend  any  place  or 
the  following  cities:  Columbia  (Teachers'  College),  system  of  worship,  or  to  maintain  or  support  any 
Kirksville,  Warrensburg,  Cape  Girardeau,  Springfield,  priest,  minister,  preacher,  or  teacher  of  any  sect, 
and  Maryville.  church,  creed,  or  denomination  of  religion;  but  if 
First  Settlers. — ^The  first  settlement  was  made  at  any  person  shall  voluntarily  make  a  contract  for  any 
Ste.  Genevieve  in  1735  by  the  French,  and  the  second  such  object,  he  shall  be  held  to  the  performance  of  the 
by  the  French  at  St.  Louis  in  1764.  The  Spanish  also  same;  that  no  money  shall  ever  be  taken  from  the 
came  up  the  river  in  search  of  gold,  and  St.  Louis  was  public  treasury  directly  or  indirectly,  in  aid  of  any 
soon  a  busy  trading  centre  for  the  citizens  and  the  church,  sect,  or  denomination  of  religion,  or  in  aid  of 
Indians  inhabiting  the  surrounding  territory.  From  any  priest,  preacher,  minister,  or  teacher  thereof  as 
the  eastwaitl  soon  came  emigrants  mm  other  states —  such ;  and  that  no  preference  shall  be  given  to  nor  any 
especially  Kentucky,  Tennessee,  and  the  Virginias —  discrimination  maae  against  any  church,  sect,  or  creed 
and  later  came  the  emigrants  from  foreign  shores,  par-  of  religion,  or  any  form  of  religious  faith  or  worahip; 
ticularly  the  Germans,  Irish,  and  some  Scoteh.  The  that  no  religious  corporation  can  be  established  in  this 
later  growth  of  the  state  has  been  made  up  of  settlers  state,  except  such  as  may  be  created  under  a  general 
from  almost  all  of  the  states  lying  to  the  eastward,  but  law  for  the  purpose  only  of  holding  the  title  to  such 


Mttsotmt                  400  Missotmt 

real  estate  as  may  be  prescribed  by  law  for  church  Marrtaae  and  Divorce, — ^Biarriages  are  forlnddUii 

edifices,  parsonages,  ana  cemeteries.  and  void  between  first  coiudns,  or  persons  more  near^ 

Sunday  Observance, — ^The  law  provides  that  the  related  than  first  cousins,  such  as  uncles  and  nieces, 

Sabbath  shall  not  be  broken  by  the  performance  of  etc.    Any  judge  of  a  court  of  record  or  justice  of  the 

any  labour,  other  than  works  of  necessity,  on  the  first  peace,  or  any  ordained  or  licensed  pr^u^er  of  the 

day  of  the  week,  commonly  called  Sunday,  and  the  Gospel,  who  is  a  citizen  of  the  United  States,  may  per- 

master  is  held  to  account  for  compelling  or  permitting  form  a  marriage  ceremony.    A  licence  of  marriage  is 

his  servants  or  apprentices  to  Labour  on  that  day.  required,  and  no  licence  vnH  be  issued  to  a  male  under 

But  any  member  of  a  religious  society  which  observes  the  age  of  twenty-one  or  to  a  female  under  eighteen 

any  other  day  than  Sunday  as  the  Sabbath,  is  not  without  the  consent  of  the  father  of  the  minor  or,  if 

bound  to  observe  Sunday  as  such.     Horse-racing,  thefathercannotact,  of  the  mother  or  guardian.   The 

cock-fighting,  and  playixig  games,  as  well  as  hunting  law  requires  that  the  person  performing  the  marriage 

game,  are  forbidden  on  Sunday.    The  selling  of  any  ceremony  shall  return  a  certificate  of  the  service  to  the 

wares   or  merchandise,  the  opening  of  anv  liquor  state  authorities.    The  causes  for  divorce  are  enumer- 

saloon,  and  the  sale  of  fermented  or  distilled,  liquors  ated  in  the  statute,  and,  besides  the  usual  clause,  it  is 

are  forbidden  on  Sunday.  provided  that  a  divorce  may  be  sranted  when  it  is 

Administering  of  Oaihs, — ^Every  public  official  is  proved  that  the  offending  person  ''has  been  guilty  of 
required  to  take  an  oath  to  perform  the  duties  of  his  conduct  that  makes  the  condition  of  the  complaining 
office  and  to  support  the  Constitution  of  the  United  party  intolerable".  This  clause  makes  it  possible  to 
States  and  of  the  State  of  Missouri,  and  all  witnesses  secure  a  divorce  on  any  grounds  that  the  judge  con- 
in  every  court  are  required  to  give  their  testimony  siders  sufficient,  and  is  thought  to  be  the  source  of 
"under  oath";  however,  any  person  who  declares  some  abuse.  Residence  of  one  year  in  the  state  is  re- 
that  he  has  conscientious  scruples  against  taking  an^  Sl^'^  before  a  petition  for  divorce  may  be  filed, 
oath  or  swearing  in  any  form,  is  permitted  to  make  his  There  is  no  statutory  prohibition  against  divorced 
solemn  declaration  or  affirmation  concluding  with  the  persons  marryins  at  any  time  after  a  decree  of  divorce 
words  "imder  the  pain  and  penalty  of  perjury",  nas  been  granted. 

Where  it  appears  that  the  person  to  be  sworn  has  any  Cathouc  Education. — ^Ever^  parish  of  any  con- 
particular  mode  of  swearing  in  addition  to  or  in  con-  siderable  sise  in  the  state  maintains  a  parochial  school, 
nexion  with  the  usual  form  of  administering  oaths,  There  are  228  parochial  schools  in  the  state  with 
which  to  him  is  a  more  solemn  and  binding  obligation,  38,098  children  m  attendance.  Each  diocese  has  its 
the  court  or  officer  administering  the  oath  is  required  own  school-boaurd,  and  a  uniform  svstem  of  text-books 
to  adopt  the  form  most  binding  on  the  conscience  of  is  used  throughout  the  diocese.  There  are  eight  col- 
the  person  to  be  sworn.  Any  person  believing  in  any  leges  and  acfulemies  for  boys  with  1872  students  in 
other  than  the  Christian  religion,  is  sworn  according  to  attendimce,  and  38  academies  and  institutions  of 
the  prescribed  ceremonies  of  his  own  religion,  if  there  higher  education  for  girls  with  4480  pupils  in  attend- 
be  any  such  (sec.  8840  to  8845  R.  S.  1899).  ance.    The  St.  Louis  University,  conducted  b^  the 

Use  of  Prefer  in  Leffislatwre. — ^There  is  no  statutory  Jesuit  Fathers,  is  one  of  the  leading  educational  insti- 

Erovision  for  a  chaplain  for  either  branch  of  the  legis-  tutions  of  the  country.   It  conducts  a  school  of  divin- 

iture,  but  the  rules  of  these  bodies  provide  for  a  clmp-  ity,  a  school  of  philosophy  and  science,  a  school  of 

lain  for  each,  who  is  paid  out  of  a  contingency  fimd.  medicine,  a  school  of  dentistry,  an  institute  of  law, 

The  chaplain  is  elected  b^r  the  legislative  body  for  each  and   an  undergraduate   and  academic   department, 

session.    No  Catholic  priest  has  ever  been  elected  to  There  is  a  total  of  950  lay  students  in  attendance.    No 

this  position.  parochial  or  private  schools  receive  any  assistance  or 

Seal  of  Confession. — Section  4659  R.  S.  1899  pro-  support  from  the  state,  and  all  citizens  are  required  to 
vides  that  a  minister  of  the  Gospel  or  a  priest  of  any  contribute  to  the  support  of  the  public  schools  regard- 
denomination  shall  be  incompetent  to  testify  concern-  less  of  whether  their  children  attend  a  private  or  a 
ing  the  confession  made  to  him  in  his  professional  public  institution. 

character  in  the  course  of  discipline  enjomed  by  the  Charitable  iNnrriT utions.— There  are  in  the  state 

rules  or  practice  of  such  denomination.  10  orphan  asylums  with  1248  inmates;  25  hospitals; 

Mattebb  AFFBcnNG  Reuqioub  Wobk. — Incorpo^  2  dear-mute  institutions  with  60  inmates;  3  homes  for 

ration  of  Churches, — ^No  religious  corporation  can  be  aged  persons;  1  industrial  and  reform  school:  1  found- 

estoblished  in  this  state  except  such  as  may  be  created  ling  asylum,  and  1  newsboys'  home — all  under  Catho- 

under  the  general  law  for  the  purpose  only  of  holding  he  auspices.   The  state  does  not  contribute  anything 

the  title  of  such  real  estate  as  may  be  necessary  for  to  the  Catholic  orphanages,  but  the  foundling  asylum 

churches,  schools,  parsonages,  and  cemeteries.    There  in  St.  Louis  receives  some  remuneration  for  keeping 

is  no  constitutional  or  statutory  recognition,  as  in  waifs  who  are  foimd  by  the  police  and  intrusted  to 

some  states,  of  any  churchman  in  his  ofocial  capacity,  that  institution. 

The  property  of  a  diocese,  for  example,  is  vested  in  the  Hiere  is  a  State  Board  of  Charities  and  Corrections, 

individxial  and  not  in  the  bishop  as  such.  of  which  the  governor  is  a  member  ex  officio.    This 

Exemption  from  Taxes  and  Public  Duties, — ^Thecon-  board  has  general  supervision  over  the  charitable 
stitution  of  uie  state  exempts  from  taxation  church  institutions  conducted  oy  the  state.  There  is  a  state 
property  to  the  extent  of  one  acre  in  incorporated  hospital  at  Fulton,  at  St.  Joseph,  at  Nevada,  and  at 
cities  or  towns,  or  within  one  mile  from  such  cities  or  Farmington.  There  is  a  state  Confederate  Soldiers' 
towns.  Church  property  to  the  extent  of  five  acres  Home  at  Higginsville,  and  a  State  Federal  Soldiers' 
more  than  one  mile  from  incorporated  cities  or  towns  Home  at  St.  James.  A  school  for  the  deaf  is  main- 
is  exempt  from  taxation.  These  exemptions  are  sub-  tained  at  Fulton,  a  school  for  the  blind  at  St.  Louis, 
ject  to  tne  provision  that  such  property  is  used  exclu-  and  a  colony  for  the  feeble-minded  and  epileptic  at 
sivelvforreligiousworship,  for  schools,  or  for  purposes  Marshall.  The  Missouri  State  Sanitarium  for  the 
purely  charitable.  treatment  of  tuberculosis  is  located  at  Mt.  Vernon  on 

The  law  also  provides  that  no  clergyman  shall  be  the  crest  of  the  Osarks. 

compelled  to  serve  on  any  jury.   Ministers  of  Uie  Gos-  Sale  of  Liquob. — Intoxicating  liquors  may  be  sold 

pel  may  select  such  boolm  as  are  necessary  for  the  only  by  Ucensed  saloon-keepers.   In  cities  of  two  thou- 

practice  of  their  profession,  and  the  same  are  exempt  sand  or  more  inhabitants  the  application  for  Ucence 

from  attachment  under  execution.   It  is  not  lawful  for  must  be  accompanied  by  a  petition  asking  that  the 

any  city  or  mimicipality  to  exact  a  tax  or  licence  fee  Ucence  be  granted.    This  petition  must  be  signed  by 

from  any  minister  of  the  Gospel  for  authorising  him  to  a  majority  of  the  tax-paying  citisens  owning  property 

follow  his  calling.  on  the  block  or  square  in  which  the  saloon  is  to  be 


mSSOUBI  401  MI8S0UBI 

Inpt.    Id  cities  or  towns  of  less  than  two  thousand  laws.  Its  general  proviaioDS  have  been  followed  by  the 

iobabitantB  the  petition  must  be  signed  by  a  majori^  decisions.     A  case  involving  the  Mullanphy  win, 

of  the  tax-paying  citisens,  and  a  majority  in  the  dIock  which  left  a  fund  to  furnish  relief  "  to  all  poor  emi- 

wheiB  the  saloon  is  to  be  kept.  *  The  law  provides  that  grants  and  tvavellers  coming  to  St.  Louis  on  their  way 

the  licenoe  may  be  revoked  upon  the  application  of  Bona  fide  to  settle  in  the  West",  reported  in  29  Ma 

any  person  showing  to  the  oounly  court  tiiat  the  643,  brought  out  an  early  discussion  of  charitable 

hoenoo-holder  does  not  keep  an  ordn'ly  house,  and  it  is  bequests;  this  provision  was  declared  valid,  and,  as  a 

provided  that  one  (1)  whose  licence  has  beoi  revoked,  precedent,  has  been  generally  followed.   There  is  no 

(2)  who  has  violated  any  of  the  provisions  of  the  licence  statutory  limitation,  as  in  some  states,  upon  the 

kw,  (3)  who  has  sold  liquors  to  any  minor,  (4)  who  amount  that  may  be  bequeathed  or  devised  to  charity. 

has  employed  in  his  business  of  saloon-keeper  any  per-  TIm  Constitution  of  1865  prohibited  all  bequests  and 

son  whose  licence  has  been  xevoked,  snail  not  be  devises  of  land  for  religious  purposes.    A  bequest  for 

entitled  to  a  licence.    The  law  prohibits  (1)  the  sale  Biasaes  was  held  void  under  this  section  of  the  consti« 

of  intoxicating  liouors  to  habitual  dnmkards,  minors,  tution.    An  outright  ^t  to  the  Archbishop  of  St. 

or  Indians,  (2)  we  keeping  of  female  employees  in  Louis  was  also  held  void  because  it  was  shown  there 

saloons,  and  (3)  the  keeping,  e^diibitin^,  or  using  of  was  an  understanding  that  the  money  was  to  be  used 

any  piano,  organ,  or  any  othier  musical  instrument  in  for  relijpous  purposes  (Kenrick  vs.  Cole,  61  Missouri, 

aaaloon.  These  laws  are  generally  enforced.  The  law  572).  This  section  was  omitted  from  the  Constitution 

provides  that  upon  appCcation  by  petition  to  the  of  1875,  and  the  courts  have  been  liberal  since  in  con* 

county  court  signed  by  one-tenth  of  the  qualified  struing  such  bequests  as  charitable  and  therefore 

voters  of  any  county,  who  sh^  reside  outside  of  the  valid. 

cities  or  towns  having  a  population  of  2500  or  more,  ^  Diocxbbb  and  Cathouc  Population. — The  state 
an  election  shall  be  held  to  determine  whether  or  not  is  divided  into  three  dioceses^hose  of  St.  Louis,  Kansas 
spirituous  liquors  shall  be  sold  within  the  limits  of  such  City,  and  St.  Joseph.  The  Diocese  of  St.  Louis  corn- 
county.  In  cities  or  towns  with  a  population  of  25QO  prises  all  of  the  eastern  half  of  the  state;  that  of  Kan* 
or  more,  ibe  petition  is  made  by  one-tenth  of  the  quali-  sas  City  the  western  portion  of  the  state,  south  of  the 
fied  votere  to  tiie  body  having  lenslative  functions  Missouri  River,  and  the  Diocese  of  St.  Joseph  the 
therein.  If  a  majority  of  the  qualified  voters  at  such  western  portion  ci  the  state,  north  of  the  Missouri 
election  vote  a«ainst  the  sale  of  intoxicating  liquors.  River.  The  Catholic  population  in  1009  was  452,703. 
no  licenee  can  be  issued  for  the  sale  of  limior  within  There  are  about  3000  Catholic  negroes  in  the  state, 
such  jurisdiction.  Section  3034  R.  S.  of  1809  provides  with  one  church  in  St.  Louis  and  one  coloured  priest. 
among  other  things  that  nothing  in  the  law  shEJl  be  so  There  is  one  coloured  Ca^olic  school  with  110  pupils, 
construed  as  to  prevent  the  sale  of  wine  for  sacramen-  and  one  orphan-asylum  for  coloured  children,  oon- 
talpurpoees.  ducted  by  the  Oblate  Sisters  of  Providence. 

nmoNS  AND  RBFOBMAToitnBs. — The  state  peniten*  First  Cathouc  Missions. — ^The  Cross  was  planted 
tiary  is  at  Jefferson  City;  there  is  a  reformatory  for  among  the  Indians  who  inhabited  the  region  now 
boys  at  Booneville  and  an  industrial  home  for  girls  at  known  as  Missouri  during  the  first  half  of  the  sixteenth 
Chillioothe.  The  law  provides  for  the  appointment  of  century  by  De  Soto,  who  was  buried  in  the  waters  of 
a  chaplain  for  the  pemtentiaiy  by  the  warden  and  the  the  Mississippi  in  May,  1542.  Marquette  descended 
boaici  of  inspectors,  consisting  of  the  state  treasurer,  the  Mississippi  as  far  south  as  the  thirty-fourth  degree 
auditor,  and  attorney-general.  The  law  makes  no  in  1673,  more  than  a  century  and  a  quarter  after  De 
reference  to  the  religious  denomination  of  the  chap-  Soto  had  marched  northward,  and  tells  us  that  he 
lain,  but  provides  that  his  selection  shall  be  governed  preached  the  Gospel  to  all  of  the  nations  he  met.  It 
by  his  special  qualifications  for  the  performance  of  the  is  thought  by  some  that  there  was  a  white  settlement 
duties  oe volving  upon  him.  He  is  required  to  conduct  at  the  mouth  of  the  River  Des  P^res  in  BftiBsouri,  a  few 
at  least  one  service  each  Sunday;  to  visit  convicts  in  miles  south  of  St.  Louis,  even  before  the  historical  set- 
their  cells  at  least  once  a  month,  when  practicable;  to  tlement  of  Cahokia,  lUinois  (the  sole  centre  of  dvilisa- 
visit  the  sick  in  the  hospital  at  least  once  a  day;  to  tion  in  the  Mississippi  Valley  for  some  time),  but  the 
hold  religious  services  in  the  hospital  once  a  week.  He  first  permanent  settlement  of  which  we  mtve  any 
shall  have  charge  of  the  prison  library  and  the  pui^  record  was  made  at  Ste.  Genevieve  about  1734. 
chase  of  books;  ne  shall  officiate  at  the  funeral  of  each  Amon^  the  oldest  records  in  the  state  are  those  of  the 
convict,  and  be  present  at  his  burial;  he  is  paid  the  Cathoho  church  at  Ste.  Genevieve.  There  was  also  a 
salary  of  $1200  per  annum.  The  law  further  provides  mission  in  1734  at  Old  Mines,  which  was  a  military 
^t  clergymen  of  every  denomination  of  the  City  of  station  in  Missouri.  Ste.  Genevieve  and  Old  Mines 
Jefferson  shall  at  all  times  have  free  access  to  the  were  attended  by  priests  from  Cahokia.  The  first  mis> 
prison,  or  may  visit  any  convict  confined  therein-^  sion  was  establiahed  in  St.  Louis  in  1764,  and  the  first 
subject  only  to  such  rules  as  may  be  necessary  for  the  church  was  built  in  1770.  A  mission  was  established 
good  government  and  discipline  of  the  penitentiary —  at  Carondelet  in  1767.  Fredericktown,  New  Madrid, 
and  may  administer  rites  and  ceremonies  of  the  Chureh  St.  Charles,  and  Florissant  were  missionary  points 
to  which  such  convict  belongs,  if  it  be  so  desired,  during  the  last  half  of  the  eighteenth  century.  The 
There  is  no  statutory  provision  for  a  chaplain  at  the  Lasanst  Fathers  were  established  at  Peiiyville  in 
reformatory  or  the  industrial  home.  Such  religious  1818,  and  the  Jesuits  at  Florissant  in  1823.  The  eariy 
ceremonies  as  are^  held  at  these  institutions  are  con*  settlements  were  made  up  of  French,  many  of  them 
ducted  by  those  interested  in  the  work  tlut)ugh  ar-  coming  from  Canada.  A  great  many  German  Catho- 
langements  made  with  the  officials  in  charge.  Sudi  lies  came  to  the  state  during  the  first  part  of  the  nine* 
oeremonies  are  lar^ly  within  the  discretion  of  the  teenth  century,  but  the  first  German  sermon  of  which 
officials,  but  the  spirit  of  the  law  as  laid  down  for  the  we  have  any  record  was  preached  by  Rev.  Joseph  A. 
penitentiary  prevails.  This  is  also  true  of  the  state  Luts  at  St.  Louis  in  1832.  During  this  same  period  a 
msane  asylum  and  the  reform  schools  and  jaOs  of  the  large  portion  of  the  immigration  was  made  up  of  Irish 
cities.  In  a  majority  of  these  institutions  religious  Catholics.  The  names  of  many  of  the  early  settle- 
services  are  held  by  Catholic  priests  at  reffular  inter-  ments  bear  evidence  of  the  Catholicism  of  those  who 
yals,  and  accommodations  are  provided  for  the  celebra-  were  first  established  there.  The  later  immigration 
tion  of  Mass  and  the  administration  of  the  sacraments,  into  the  state  has  been  made  up  of  almost  every  na- 

Chabitablb^  BEQUB8T8.-;-The  courts  are  accus-  tionality,  and  almost  all  of  the  Catholic  countries  are 

tomed  to  permit  eveir  charitable  use  to  stand,  which  represented.    A  famous  episode  in  the  state's  history 

comes  fairly  within  the  Statute  of  Elisabeth.    While  was   Archbishop    Kanrlok's   successful    resistance    to 

this  statute  has  not  been  inoorporated  in  the  state  the  test  oath  required  by  the  Drake  Constitution  of 

X.— 26 


MXTHRAISM 


402 


mtrntAisM 


1865.    He  finally  won  the  case  in  the  Supreme  Court 
of  the  United  States  (see  Oath,  MisaouRi  Test). 

PmNCiFAL  Reugioxtb  Dbnobonations. — ^Accord- 
ing to  the  Bulletin  issued  by  the  Department  of  Com- 
merce and  Labour  Bureau  of  the  Census  concerning 
religious  bodies  in  1906,  the  total  population  of  church 
members  in  the  State  of  Missouri  was  1,199,239,  and 
the  principal  religious  denominations  were  as  follows: 
Roman  Catholics,  382,642;  Baptists,  218,353;  Con- 
gregationalists,  11,048;  Disciples  or  Christians,  166,- 
137;  German  Evangelical,  32,715;  Lutherans,  46,868; 
Methodists,  214,004;  Presbyterians,  71,999;  Episco- 
palians, 13,328;  Reformed  Bodies,  1284;  United 
Brethren  bodies,  3316;  other  Protestant  bodies, 
23,166;  LatteiMlay  Saints,  8042;  all  other  bodies. 
6439.  Thus,  33.9  per  cent  of  the  total  number  ot 
ohurcb-goin^  people  in  the  state  are  Catholics,  the 
Baptists  havmg  the  next  highest  percentage  (18.2),  and 

the  Methodists  being  third  (17.8). 

HoucK,  Hiat.  of  MitBowrx  (Philadelphia,  1008);  Wiuxuis, 
HiBt.  of  the  State  ofMieeouri  (Columbia.  1004);  Billon,  Annate 
of  St.  Louie  (St.  Louis,  1880);  Scbart,  St.  Louie  City  and 
County  (Philadelphia,  1883);  Jesuit  Relatione:  BmcK,  Gazetteer 
ofMieeouri  (St.  Houifl,  1876);  Irvzno,  Conquer  of  Florida  (New 
York,  1851):  ConetUution  of  Mieeourt ;  RevieedStatutee  (idOO); 
Red  Book;  Bureau  of  Labour  Statietice  (Jefferaon  Qty,  1000); 
Manual  of  the  State  of  Mieeouri,  1909-10;  Bulletin  No.  lOS, 
Relioioua  BodAee,  1906,  Bureau  of  the  Ceneue  (Washington). 

John  L.  Coblet. 

MithraiBm. — A  pagan  religion  consisting  mainlv  of 
the  cult  of  the  ancient  Indo^ranian  Sun-god  Mithra. 
It  entered  Europe  from  Asia  Minor  after  Alexander's 
conquest,  spread  rapidly  over  the  whole  Roman  Em- 
pire at  the  beginning  of  our  era,  reached  its  senith  dur- 
mg  the  third  century,  and  vanished  under  the  repres- 
sive regulations  of  Tneodosius  at  the  end  of  the  fourth 
century.  Of  late  the  researches  of  Cumont  have 
brought  it  into  prominence  mainly  because  of  its  sup- 
posed similarity  to  Christianity. 

Origin. — ^The  origin  of  the  cmt  of  Mithra  dates  from 
the  time  that  Hindus  and  Persians  still  formed  one 
people,  for  the  god  Mithra  occurs  in  the  religion  and 
the  sacred  boola  of  both  races,  i.  e.  in  the  Vedas  and 
in  the  Avesta.  In  Vedic  hymns  he  is  f  remiently  men- 
tioned and  is  nearly  always  coupled  with  varuna,  but 
beyond  the  bare  occurrence  of  his  name,  little  is 
known  of  him;  only  one,  possibly  two,  hymns  are  dedi- 
cated to  him  (Rigveda,  III,  59).  It  is  conjectured 
(Oldenbeig,  "Die  Religion  des  Veda,"  Berlin,  1894) 
that  Mithra  was  the  rising  sun,  Varuna  the  setting  sim ; 
or,  Mithra,  the  sky  at  daytime,  Varuna,  the  sky  at 
night;  or,  the  one  the  sun,  the  other  the  moon.  In 
any  case  Mithra  is  a  light  or  solar  deity  of  some  sort : 
but  in  Vedic  times  the  vague  and  general  mention  oi 
him  seems  to  indicate  that  his  name  was  little  more 
than  a  memory.  In  the  Avesta  he  is  much  more  of  a 
livinff  and  ruling  deity  than  in  Indian  piety ;  neverthe- 
less, ne  is  not  only  secondary  to  Ahura  Mazda,  but  he 
does  not  belong^  to  the  seven  Amshaspands  or  peisoni- 
fied  virtues  which  immediately  surround  Ahura;  he  is 
but  a  Yasad,  a  popular  demigod  or  genius.  The 
Avesta  however  gives  us  his  position  only  after  the 
Zoroastrian  reformation;  the  inscriptions  of  the 
Achsmenid»  (seventh  to  fourth  century  b.  c.)  assign 
hhn  a  much  higher  place,  naming  him  immediatelv 
after  Ahura  Masda  and  associating  him  with  the  god- 
dess Anaitis  (Anahata),  whose  name  sometimes  pre- 
cedes his  own.  Biithra  is  the  god  of  light,  Anaitis  the 
goddess  of  water.  Independently  of  the  Zoroastrian 
reform,  Mithra  retained  nis  place  as  foremost  deity  in 
the  north-west  of  the  Iranian  highlands.  After  the 
conquest  of  Babylon  this  Persian  cult  came  into  con- 
tact with  Chaldean  astrology  and  with  the  national 
worship  of  Marduk.  For  a  time  the  two  priesthoods 
of  Mithra  and  Marduk  (magi  and  chaldsi  respectively]) 
coexisted  in  the  capital  and  Mithraism  borrowed 
much  from  this  intercourse.  This  modified  Mithraism 
travelled  farther  north-westward  and  became  the 


State  cult  of  Armenia.  Its  rulers,  anxious  to  daim 
descent  from  the  glorious  kings  of  the  past,  adopted 
Mithradates  as  their  roval  name  (so  five  kings  of 
Georgia,  and  Eupator  of  the  Bosporus).  Biithraism 
then  entered  Asia  Minor,  especially  Pontus  and  Cappft- 
docia.  Here  it  came  into  contact  with  the  Phrygian 
cult  of  Attis  and  Cybele  from  which  it  adopted  a  num- 
ber of  ideas  and  practices,  though  apparently  not 
the  gross  obscenities  of  the  Phiygian  worship.  This 
Phiyeian-Chaldean-Indo-Iranian  religion,  in  which 
the  Iranian  element  remained  predominant,  came, 
after  Alexander's  conquest,  in  touch  with  the  Western 
World.  Hellenism,  however,  and  especially  Greece 
itself,  remained  remarkably  free  from  its  influence. 
When  finally  the  Romans  took  possession  of  the  King- 
dom of  Petgamum,  occupied  Asia  Minor  and  stationed 
two  lesions  of  soldiers  on  the  Euphrates,  the  success 
of  Mithraism  in  the  West  was  secured.  It  spread 
rapidly  from  the  Bosporus  to  the  Atlantic,  from 
Ilf^ria  to  Britain.  Its  foremost  apostles  were  the 
legionaries ;  hence  it  spread  first  to  the  frontier  stations 
of  the  Roman  army. 

Biithraism  was  emphatically  a  soldier  religion: 
Mithra,  its  hero,  was  especially  a  diirinit]^  oi  fidelity, 
manliness,  and  bravery;  the  stress  it  laid  on  good* 
fellowship  and  brotherliness,  its  exclusion  of  women, 
and  the  secret  bond  amongst  its  members  have  sug- 
gested the  idea  that  Mithraism  was  Masonry  amongst 
the  Roman  soldiery.  At  the  same  time  Eastern  slaves 
and  foreign  tradesmen  maintained  its  propaguida  in 
the  cities.  When  magi,  comine  from  King  Tiridates 
of  Armenia,  had  woismpped  in  Mere  an  emanation  of 
Mithra,  the  emperor  wisned  to  be  initiated  in  their 
mysteries.  As  Mithraism  passed  as  a  Phiygian  cult  it 
b^an  to  share  in  the  official  recognition  which  Phry- 
gian worship  had  long  enjoved  in  Roane.  The  £m- 
Seror  Commodus  was  publicly  initiated.  Its  greatest 
evotee  however  was  the  imperial  son  of  a  priestess  of 
the  sun-god  at  Sirmium  in  Pannonia,  Valerian,  who 
according  to  the  testimony  of  Flavins  Vopiscus,  never 
forgot  the  cave  where  his  mother  initiated  him.  In 
Rome,  he  established  a  college  of  sun  priests  and  his 
coins  bear  the  legend  "  Sol,  Dominus  Imperii  Romani ". 
Diocletian,  Galerius,  and  Licinius  built  at  Camuntum 
on  the  Danube  a  temple  to  Mithra  with  the  dedication: 
"Fautori  Imperii  Sui".  But  with  the  triumph  of 
Christianity  Mithraism  came  to  a  sudden  end.  Under 
Julian  it  had  with  other  pagan  cults  a  short  revival. 
The  pagans  of  Alexandria  l3aiched  George  the  Aiian, 
bishop  of  the  city,  for  attempting  to  b£ild  a  church 
over  a  Mithras  cave  near  tne  town.  The  laws  of 
Theodosius  I  signed  its  death  warrant.  The  magi 
walled  up  their  sacred  caves;  and  Mithra  has  no  mar- 
tyrs to  rival  the  martyrs  who  died  for  Christ. 

Doctrine. — ^The  first  principle  or  highest  God  was 
according  to  Mithraism  ''Infinite  Time";  this  was 
called  A16p  or  Ssculum,  Kp6i>ot  or  Satunius.  This 
Kronos  is  none  other  than  Zervan,  an  ancient  Iranian 
conception,  which  survived  the  sharp  dualism  of 
Zoroaster;  for  Zervan  was  father  of  both  Ormusd  and 
Ahriman  and  connected  the  two  opposites  in  a  higher 
imity  and  was  still  worshipped  a  thousand  years  later 
by  tne  Manichees.  This  personified  Time,  ineffable, 
sexless,  passionless,  was  represented  by  a  human  mon- 
ster, witn  the  head  of  a  lion  and  a  seipent  coiled  about 
his  body.  He  carried  a  sceptre  and  lightning  as  sove- 
reign god  and  held  in  each  hand  a  key  as  master  of  the 
heavens.  He  had  two  pair  of  wings  to  sjrmboliie 
the  swiftness  of  time.  His  body  was  covered  with 
zodiacal  signs  and  the  emblems  of  the  seasons  (i.  e. 
Chaldean  astrolosy  combined  with  Zervanism). 
This  fiist  principle  Degat  Heaven  and  Earth,  which  in 
turn  begat  their  son  and  equal.  Ocean.  As  in  the 
European  legend,  Heaven  or  Jupiter  (Oromaades) 
succeeds  Kronos.  Earth  is  the  Spefita  Armaiti  of  the 
Persians  or  the  Jimo  of  the  Westerns,  Ocean  is  ApAm- 
NapAt  or  Neptune.    The  PerBian  names  were  not  f  or» 


MTTHEAIBH  41 

eotten,  though  the  Greek  fknd  Roman  ones  were  hab- 
itualljr  used.  Ahura  Mazda  and  Speilta  Armaiti  gave 
birth  to  a  grest  number  of  lesser  deities  and  heroes: 
Artognes  (Serculea),  Sharevar  (Mara),  Atar  (Vulcan), 
Anaitis  (Cybele),  and  so  on.  On  the  other  hand  there 
was  Pluto,  or  Ahrlman,  also  beeott«a  of  Infiniu  Time. 
This  Incarnate  Evil  rose  with  the  army  of  darkness  to 
attack  and  dethrone  Oromoades.  They  were  however 
thrown  back  into  hell,  whence  they  escape,  wonder 
over  the  face  of  the  earth  and  afflict  man.  It  is  man's 
duty  to  worship  the  four  simple  elements,  water  and 
fite,  air  and  earth,  which  in  the  main  are  nuin's 
Friends.  The  seven  planets  likewise  were  beneficent 
deities.  The  souls  of  men,  which  were  all  created  to- 
gether from  the  beginning  and  which  at  birth  bad  but 
to  descend  from  the  empyrean  heaven  to  the  bodies 
prepared  for  them,  received  from  the  seven  planets 
their  passions  and  characteristics.  Hence  the  seven 
days  of  the  week  were  dedicated  to  the  planeta,  seven 
metala  were  sacred  to  them,  seven  rites  of  initiation 
were  made  to  perfect 
the  Mithraisi,  and 
soon.    As  evil  spirits 


Hithrs  was  bom  of  a 
roothei^rock     by     a 


He  < 


the 


worli  with  the  Phry- 
gian cap  on  his  head 
(hence  his  designa- 
tion as  Pileatua,  the 
Capped  One),  and  a 
knife  in  his  hand. 
It  is  said  that  shep- 
herds watched  his 
birth,  but  how  this 
could  be,  considerii^ 

on  earth,  is  not  ex- 
plained. The  hero- 
god  first  givEfl  battle 
to  the  sun,  conquers 

him,crowQBhiinwith  Thb  Sachiiic 

rays  and  makes  him  Vatican  Mu 

hisetemalfriendand  fellow;  nay,  the  sun  becomes  in  a 
sense  Hithra's  double,  or  again  his  father,  but  'H\ui 
Hi0piif  is  one  god.  Then  follows  the  ntruggle  be- 
tween Mithra  and  the  bull,  the  central  dogma  of 
Mithiaism.  Ahura  Maida  had  created  a  w3d  bull 
which  \(ithis  pursued,  overcame,  and  dragged  into 
his  cave.  This  wearisome  journey  with  the  struggling 
bull  towards  the  cave  is  the  symbol  oC  man's  troubles 
on  earth.  Unfortunately,  the  bull  escapes  from  the 
cave,  whereupon  Ahura  Mazda  sends  a  crow  with  a 
message  to  Mithra  to  End  and  siay  it.  Mithra  re- 
luctantly obeys,  and  plunges  his  da^^r  into  the  bull 
as  it  returns  to  the  cave.  Straiuze  to  say,  from  the 
body  of  the  dying  bull  proceed  all  wholesome  plants 
and  nerbs  that  cover  the  earth,  from  his  spinal  marrow 
the  com,  from  his  blood  the  vine,  etc.  The  power  of 
evil  sends  his  unclean  creatures  to  prevent  or  poison 
these  productions  but  in  vain.  From  the  bull  pro- 
ceed all  useful  animals,  and  the  bull,  resigning  itself 
to  death,  is  transported  to  the  heavenly  spheres. 
Han  is  now  created  and  subjected  to  the  malign  in- 
fluence of  Ahriman  in  the  form  of  droughts,  deluges, 
and  conflagrations,  but  is  saved  by  Mithra.  Finally 
man  is  welTestahliahed  on  earth  and  Mithra  returns  to 
heaven.  He  celebrates  a  lost  supper  with  Helios  and 
his  other  companions,  is  taken  m  his  fiery  chariot 
across  the  ocean,  and  now  in  heaven  protects  his  fol- 
lowers. For  the  stni^le  between  good  and  evil  con- 
tinues in  heaven  between  the  planets  and  stars,  and 


on  earth  in  the  heart  of  man.    Hithra  in  the  Mediator 
(Matrtit)  between  Ood  and  man.    This  function  Sirat 
arose  from  the  fact  that  as  the  light-god  he  is  sup- 
posed to  float  midway  between  the  upper  heaven  and 
the  earth.     Likewise  a  sun-god,  his  planet  was  sup- 
posed to  hdd  the  central  place  amongst  the  seven 
planets.     The  moral  aspect  of  his  mediation  between 
god  and  man  cannot  be  proven  to  be  ancient.     As 
Mazdean  dualists  the  Mitbraists  were  strongly  inclined 
towards  asceticism :  abstention  from  food  and  absolute 
continence  seemed  to  them  noble  and  praiseworthy, 
though  not  obligatory.     They  battled  on  Mithra's  side 
against  all  impurity,  against  all  evil  within  and  with- 
out.    They  believed  in  the  immortality  of  the  soul, 
sinners  after  death  were  dragged  to  hell;  the  just 
passed   through   the  seven  splieres   of  the   planets, 
through  seven  gates  opening  at  a  myatio  word  to 
Ahura  Mazda,  leaving  at  each  planet  a  part  of  thdr 
lower  humanityuntil,as  pure  spirits,  they  stood  before 
God.    At  the  end  of  the  world  Mithra  will  descend  to 
earth     on     another 
bull,  which   he  will 
sacrifice,  and  mixing 
its  fat   with    sacred 
wine  he  will  make  all 
drink  the   beverage 
of  immortality.    He 
will  thus  have  proved 
himself  A^obanei,  i.  e. 
"never  conquered". 
WoRs  HI  p . — There 


into  the 
Mithraic  mysteries. 
The  consecrated  one 
{mysUt)    became    in 

(coroi),  occult  icry- 
phiua),  soldier(mtf  et), 
lion  (Uo),  Persian 
(Persea),  edax  me»- 
senger  (_hdiodTomos), 
ana  father  (pater). 
On  solemn  occasions 
they  wore  a  garb  ap- 
propriate to  their 
B  or  Mrraiu  name,    and    uttered 

■eum,  lUnDO  sounds  or  performed 

gestures  in  keeping  with  what  they  penjonifi^i.  "Some 
flap  their  wings  aa  birds  imitating  the  sound  of  acrow, 
others  roar  as  lions",  says  Pseudo- Augustine  (QuKst. 
Vet.  N.  Teat,  in  P.  L.,  XXXIV,  22U).  Crows,  occults 
and  soldiers  formed  the  lower  orders,  a  sort  of  cate- 
chumens;  lions  and  those  admitted  to  the  other  degrees 
were  participants  of  the  mysteries.  The  fathers  con- 
ducted the  worship.  The  chief  of  the  fathers,  a  sort 
of  pope,  who  always  lived  at  Rome,  was  called  "  Pater 
Patrum"  or  "Pater  Patratus."  The  members  below 
the  degree  of  pater  called  one  another  "  brother,"  and 
social  distinctions  were  foigotten  in  Mithraic  unity. 
The  ceremonies  of  initiation  for  each  degree  must 


sacred  meal  wos  celebrated  of  bread  and  haoma  juice 
for  which  in  the  West  wine  was  subntituted.  Tbiia 
meal  was  supposed  to  give  the  participants  super- 
natural virtue.  The  Mithraists  worshipped  in  caves, 
of  which  a  lar^  number  have  been  found.  There 
were  live  at  Ostia  alone,  but  they  were  small  and  could 
perhaps  hold  at  most  200  persons.  In  the  apse  of  the 
cave  st^Kid  the  stone  representation  of  Mithra  slaying 
the  bull,  apiece  of  sculpture  usually  of  mediocre  artutio 
merit  ana  always  made  after  the  same  Pergamean 
model.  The  light  usually  fell  through  ooenings  in  the 
top  as  the  caves  were  near  the  surface  of  the  ground. 
A  oideous  monstrosity  representing  KnHios  was  tUu 


404 

shown.    A  fire  was  kept  perpetiially  buming  in  the  sense;  Christ,  being  God  and  man,  is  by  nature  the 

sanctuary.    Three  times  a  day  prayer  was  offered  the  Mediator  between  Uod  and  man.    And  so  in  similar 

sun  towards  east,  south,  or  west  according  to  the  hour,  instances.    Mithraism  had  a  Eucharist,  but  the  idea 

Sunday  was  kept  holy  in  honour  of  Mitnra,  and  the  of  a  sacred  banquet  is  as  old  as  the  human  race  and 

sixteenth  of  each  month  was  sacred  to  him  as  media-  existed  at  all  ages  and  amongst  all  peoples.    Mithra 

tor.    The  25  December  was  observed  as  his  birthday,  saved  the  world  by  sacrificing  a  bull ;  Chnst  by  sacxifio- 

the  nalalis  invictif  the  rebirth  of  the  winter-sun.  un-  ing  Himself.    It  is  hardlv  possible  to  conceive  a  more 

conquered  by  the  rigours  of  the  season.    A  Mitnraic  radical  difference  thim  that  between  Mithra  tauroch- 

community  was  not  merelv  a  reli^ous  congregation;  tonos  and  Christ  crucified.    Christ  was  bom  of  a 

it  was  a  social  and  legal  body  with  its  decemprimif  Viigin;  there  is  nothing  to  prove  that  the  same  was 

magistrif  curaiorea,  d^ensores,  and  pair  ant.    These  believed  of  Mithra  bom  from  the  rock.    Christ  was 

communities  allowed  no  women  as  members.    Women  bom  in  a  cave;  and  Mithraists  worshipped  in  a  cave, 

might  console  themselves  by  fomiing  associations  to  but  Mithra  was  bom  under  a  tree  near  a  river.    Much 

worship  Anaitis-Cvbele;  but  whether  these  were  as-  has  been  made  of  the  presence  of  adoring  shepherds; 

Bociated  with  Mitnraism  seems  doubtful.     No  proof  but  their  existence  on  sculptures  has  not  been  proven, 

of   immorality   or  obscene  practices,  so  often  con-  and  considering  that  man  had  not  yet  appeared,  it  is 

nected  with  esoteric  pagan  cults,  has  ever  been  estab-  an  anachronism  to  suppose  their  presence.     (3)  Christ 

lished  against  Mithraism;  and  as  far  as  can  be  ascer-  was  an  historical  personage,  recently  bom  in  a  well 

tained,  or  rather  conjectujned  it  had  an  elevating  and  known  town  of  Judea,  and  crucified  under  a  Roman 

invigorating  effect  on  its  followers.    From  a  cnance  Governor,  whose  name  figured  in  the  ordinary  ofiicial 

remark  of  Tertullian  (De  PrsBScriptione,  xl)  we  gather  lists.    Mithra  was  an  abstraction,  a  personification 

that  their  ''Pater  Patrum"  was  only  allowed  to  be  not  even  of  the  sun  but  of  the  diffused  daylight;  his 

married  once,  and  that  Mithraism  had  its  virffinea  and  incarnation,  if  such  it  may  be  called,  was  supposed  to 

continerUes;  such  at  least  seems  the  best  interpretation  have  happened  before  the  creation  of  the  human  race, 

of  the  passage.    If,  however.  Dieterich's  Mitnras's  lit-  before  all  histor^r.    The  small  Mithraic  congregations 

ui^*^  be  really  a  liturgy  of  this  sect,  as  he  ably  main-  were  like  masonic  lodges  for  a  few  and  for  men  only 

tains,  its  liturgy  can  only  strike  us  as  a  mixture  of  and  even  those  mostly  of  one  class,  the  military; 

bombast  aiid  charlatanism  in  which  the  mystea  has  to  a  religion  that  excludes  the  half  of  the  human  race 

hold  his  sides,  and  roar  to  the  utmost  of  his  power  bears  no  comparison  to  the  religion  of  Christ.    Mith- 

till  he  is  exhausted,  to  whistle,  smack  his  lips,  and  raism  was  all  comprehensive  and  tolerant  of  every 

pronoimce  barbaric  agglomerations  of  syllables  as  the  other  cult,  the  Pater  Patrum  himself  was  an  adept  in 

different  mystic  signs  for  the  heavens  and  the  con-  a  number  of  other  religions;  Christianity  was  essen- 

stellations  are  unveiled  to  him.  tially  exclusive,  condemning  every  other  religion  in  the 

Relation  to  Christianity. — ^A  similarity  between  world,  alone  and  unique  in  its  majesty. 
Mithra  and  Christ  struck  even  earlv  observers,  such       Ccmont,  Notea  mr  un  temple  Mithriague  ^OtHe  (Ghent, 

as  Jturtin,  TertuUian,  and  other  Fathers   and  in  re-  '^^^^r^l'^^^J^'^^.^'i^  VS  ^i:^t 

cent  tunes  has  been  uiged  to  prove  that  Christianity  Mithra  (2nd..  Paris.  1902),  tr.  McCk>RMACK  (London.  1903); 

18  but  an  adaptation  of  Mithraism,  or  at  most  the  out-  Idem,  Rdiovme  Onenlalea  done  U  Paganiame  Romain  (Paiw, 

oome  of  the  same  religious  ideas  and  aspirations  l506):MARnNDAi^,r^^e^vwno^^ 

/  tV  i:  ^  o«M«^   Acii5*wuo   fVi?    V^rw»s    *^V      .  ^  Oct..  Nov..  Dec.);  Idem.  The  Rd%aum  of  Mtthm  in  Lecfvrei  on 

(e.  g.  Robertson,  "Pa^an  Chnsts",  1903).     Agamst  the  Hiet.  o/Religuma,  II  (C.  T.  S..  London.  1910);  Diix,  Roman 

this  erroneous  and  unscientific  procedure,  which  is  not  Society  from  Nero  to  M.  A urefiiM  (London,  1904);  8T.-<^i.Alit- 

endorsed  by  the  greatest  living  authority  on  Mithm-  J-^^Jffe^SirM  tlSTrt  T^'S^^i/'JT  .25 

ism,  the  foUowmg  considerations  must  be  brought  ChurchandlhePa</anRUual(EdinbMT^AS0S-9);BuynMn.Daa 

forward.      (1)  Our  knowledge  regarding  Mithraism  is  M^**.-  Mualerienweaen  und  die  HeUenteieruno  deaClmMentk 


almost  identical  monuments,  a  lew  casual  references  Myatajogvs  (Munich.  1907);  Gasqubt,  Enai  ewr  U  euUe  et  he 

in  the  Fathers  or  Acts  of  the  Martyrs,  and  a  brief  ^vnireede  Mithra  (Pans.  ld99).                     Ahendmm 

polemic  against  Mithraism  which  the  Armenian  Eznig  *    *           msif. 
about  450  probably  copied  from  Theodore  of  Mop- 

suestia  (d.  428)  who  lived  when  Mithraism  was  almost  Mitre. — Form,  Material,  and  Use. — The  mitre  is  a 

a  thing  of  the  past — these  are  our  only  sources,  unless  kind  of  folding-cap.    It  consists  of  two  like  parta, 

we  indude  the  Avesta  in  which  Mithra  is  indeed  men-  each  stiffened  by  a  lining  and  rising  to  a  peak :  thm  are 

tioned,  but  which  cannot  be  an  authority  for  Roman  sewn  together  on  the  sides,  but  are  united  above  by  a 

Mithraism  with  which  Christianity  is  compared.     Our  piece  of  material  that  can  fold  together.    Two  lappets 

knowledge  is  mostly  ingenious  guess-work;  of  the  real  trimmed  on  the  ends  with  frixige  hang  down  from  the 

inner  working  of  Mithraism  and  the  sense  in  which  it  back.     The  mitre  is,  theoretically,  fluways  supposed 

was  imderstood  by  those  who  professed  it  at  the  ad-  to  be  white.    The  official  "Ctcremoniale  Komanum" 

vent  of  Christianity,  we  know  nothing.     (2)  Some  distinguishes  three  kinds  of  mitres:  the  mi^'apr^tosa, 

apparent  similarities  exist;  but  in  a  niunoer  of  details  auriphrygiata,  and  simplex.    The  first  two  diner  from 

it  IS  quite  as  probable  that  Mithraism  was  the  borrower  each  other  only  in  the  greater  or  less  richness  of  the 

from  Christianity.    Tertullian  about  200  could  say:  ornamentation;  the  mitra  simplex,  or  simple  mitre,  is 

"  hestemi  sumus  et  omnia  vestra  implevimus  "  ("  we  one  of  white  silk  or  white  linen  entirelv  without  oniA- 

are  but  of  yesterday,  yet  your  whole  world  is  full  of  ment.    The  fringe  on  the  lappets  at  the  back  should 

us").    It  is  not  unnatural  to  suppose  that  a  religion  be  red.    The  bishop  must  wear  the  mitra  preUosa  on 

which  filled  the  whole  world,  should  have  been  copied  those  davs  on  which  the  hymn  Te  Deum  is  used  in  the 

at  least  in  some  details  by  another  religion  which  was  Office,  the  mitre  auriphrygiata  in  the  seasons  of  Ad- 

cmite  popular  durinp  the  third  century.    Moreover  vent  and  Lent,  on  fast  days  and  during  jpenitentia} 

the  resemblances  pomted  out  are  supemcial  and  ex-  processions,  the  miira  simplex  on  Good  Fridays,  at 

temal.    Similarity  in  words  and  names  is  nothing;  fimerals,  and  at  the  blessing  of  the  candles  on  Candle^ 

it  is  the  sense  that  matters.    During  these  centuries  mas-day.    When  bishops  attend  a  general  council,  or 

Christianity  was  coining  its  own  tecmiical  terms,  and  are  present  at  solemn  pontifical  acts  of  the  pope,  tbev 

naturallv  took  names,  terms,  and  expressions  current  wear  a  plain  linen  mitre,  while  the  cardinals  on  such 

in  that  aay;  and  so  did  Mithraism.    But  under  identi-  occasions  wear  a  simple  mitre  of  silk  damask.    The 

cal  terms  each  system  thought  its  own  thoughts,  right  to  wear  the  mitre  belongs  by  law  only  to  the 

Mithra  is  called  a  mediator;  and  so  is  Christ;  but  pope,  the  cardinals,  and  the  bishops.    Others  reouire 

Mithra  originally  only  in  a  cosmogonic  or  astronomical  tor  its  use  a  special  papal  privilege.    This  privilege 


IdTRBfl  OP  BL.  in00l2>  AISXRGATt  (xT-XVt  CENTDR7)  EnSCOFAL  MITSES  (XV  CENTURT) 

EI-lftCOPAL  MITRE  AND  TWO   GIRDLE  POCKBTB 

(XIV   CENTDRV)  BBPI8COPAI.  MITRE  {BPANIBH,  XVI  CENTDRT) 


)d,  for  example,  bv  numerous  abbots,  the 
dignitaries  of  many  cat hearal  chapteiB,  and  by  certain 
prelates  of  the  papal  Curia,  but,  as  a  rule,  the  right  is 
moie  or  leas  limited:  for  instance,  such  prelates  con 
only  uae  a  simple  mitre  of  white  linen,  unless  the  con- 
trary ia  expressly  granted  them.  The  mitre  is  dis- 
tincoiBbed  hom  the  other  episcopal  vestments  in  that 
it  a  always  laid  aside  when  the  bishop  prays;  for  ex- 
ample, at  tbe  oralionM  of  the  Mass,  of  the  Office,  in 
conferring  Holy  Orders,  at  the  Canon  of  the  Mass,  et«. 
The  reason  for  this  is  to  be  found  in  the  oommondment 
o(  the  Apostle  that  a  man  should  pray  with  uncovered 
bead  (I  Cor.,  xi,  4).  The  giving  of  tbe  mitre  is  a 
ceremony  in  the  consecration  of  a  bishop.  It  occurs 
at  tbe  close  of  the  Moas  after  the  solemn  final  blessing, 
the  consecrator  having  first  blessed  the  mitre. 

Antiquity, ^From  the  seventeenth  century  much  has 
been  written  concemins;  the  length  of  time  the  mitre 
has  been  worn.  According  to  one  opinion  its  use  ex- 
tends bock  into  the  age  of  the  Apostles;  according  to 
another,  at  least  as  far  back  as  the  eighth  or  ninth  cen- 
tury, white  a  further  view  holds  that  it  did  not  appear 
until  the  beginning  of  the  second  millennium,  but  that 
before  this  there  was  an  episcopal  ornament  for  the 
bead,  in  form  like  a  wreath  or  crown.  In  opposition 
to  these  and  similar  opinions,  which  cannot  all  be  dis- 
cussed here,  it  is,  however,  to  be  held  as  certain  that 
an  episcopal  ornament  for  tbe  head  in  the  shape  of  a 
fillet  never  existed  in  Western  Europe,  that  the  mitre 
was  first  used  at  Rome  about  the  middle  of  the  t^nth 
century,  and  outaide  of  Rome  about  the  year  1000. 
Exhaustive  proof  for  this  is  given  in  the  work  (men- 
tioned In  bioliopaphy  below),  "Die  liturgische  Ge- 
wanduneim Occident  und  Orient"  (pp.  431-48),  where 
gj)  that  has  been  brought  forward  to  prove  the  high 
antiquity  of  tbe  mitre  is  exhaustively  discussed  and 
refuted.  The  mitre  ia  depicted  for  the  first  time 
in  two  miniatures  of  the  beginning  of  the  eleventh 
century;theone  is  in  a  baptismal  reraster,  the  other  in 
on  Exultet-roll  of  the  cathedral  at  Ban,  Italy.  Tbe 
first  written  mention  of  it  is  found  in  a  Bull  of  Leo  IX 
of  tbe  year  1019.  In  this  tbe  pope,  who  had  formerly 
been  Bishop  of  Toul,  France,  conhnned  the  primacy  of 
the  Chureb  of  Trier  to  Bishop  Eberhard  of  Trier,  his 
former  metropolitan,  who  had  accompanied  him  to 
Rome.  As  a  sign  of  this  primacy,  Leo  granted  Bishop 
Eberhard  the  Roman  mitre,  in  order  that  he  mi^t  use 


Tin   TF  "jfr  Iw  ^w 


of  a  ctme,  the  orimial  shape  of  the  mitre.  Hie  oame> 
laucum  was  worn  oy  the  pope  principally  during  solemn 
processions.  The  mitre  developed  from  the  camelau- 
oum  in  this  way:  in  the  course  of  the  t«nth  eentuiy 
tbe  pope  b^an  to  wear  this  head-covering  not  merely 
during  processions  to  the  cbuich,  but  also  during  ttte 
subsequent  church  service.  Whether  any  influence 
was  exerted  by  the  recollection  of  the  sacerdotal  heod- 
omament  of  the  high-priest  of  the  Old  Testament  is 
not  known,  but  probably  not — at  least  there  is  no 
tiKce  of  any  such  influence.  It  was  not  until  the 
mitre  was  universally  worn  by  bishops  that  it  was 
called  an  imitation  of  the  Jewish  sacerdotal  head- 
ornament. 

Granting   of  the   Mitre   to   Dignitaries   other   than 
Biehopa, — Tbe  Roman  cardinals  certainly  hod  already 
the  right  to  wear  the  mitre  towards  the  end  of  tlie 
eleventh  century.    Probably  they'possessed  the  priv- 
il^e  as  early  as 
in  the  first  half  of 
the  century.    For 
if  Leo  IX  granted 
the    privilege   to 
the    cardinals    of 
the  cathedral    of 


anvo 


(se. 


it  according  to  Roman  custom  in  performing  tbe  o£Gces 
(rftheChurch.  ByaboutllOO-SOthecustomof  weai^ 
ing  the  mitre  was  general  among  bishops. 
^prigiit. — The  pontifical  mitre  is  of  Roman  oriran: 
it  is  derived  from  a  non-liturgical  head-covering  dis- 
tinctive of  the  pope,  the  cametaucum,  to  which  also 
the  tiara  is  to  be  traced.    The  camelaucum  was  worn 


815)  in  the  "Liber  Pontificals".  The  same  head- 
covering  is  also  mentioned  in  the  so-called  "  Donation 
of  Constantine".  The  Ninth  Ordo  states  that  the 
camelaucum  was  made  of  white  stuff  and  shaped  like 
a  bebnet.  The  coins  of  Sei^us  III  (904-11)  and  of 
Benedict  VII  (074-83).  on  which  St.  Peter  is  por- 
trayed wearing  a  camelaucum,  give  the  cap  the  form 


Cardinal:  I.  Car- 
diruil  Prietle)  in 
1051,  the  Roman 
cardinals  surely 
had  it  before  that 
date.  The  first 
authentic  grant- 
ing of  the  mitre 
to  an  abbot  dates 
from  the  year 
1063,  when  Alex- 
ander 1 1  conferred 
the    mitre    upon 

Abbot    EieUmus  0"«"  """■ 

of  the  Abbey  of  St.  Augustine  at  Canterbury.  From 
this  time  on  instances  of  the  grantiiiE  of  the  mitres 
to  abbots  constantly  increased  m  number.  At  times 
also  secular  princes  were  granted  permission  to 
wear  the  mitre  as  a  mark  of  distbction ;  for  example, 
Duke  Wtatislaw  of  Bohemia  received  this  privilege 
from  Pope  Alexander  II,  and  Pet«r  of  Aragon  from 
Innocent  III.    The  right  also  belonged  to  tbe  German 


century  and  that  of  the  twentieth  that  it  is  difficult 
to  recognize  the  same  ornamental  head-covering  in 
the  two.  In  its  earliest  form  the  mitre  was  a  simple 
cap  of  soft  material,  which  ended  above  in  a  point, 
wmle  around  the  lower  edge  there  was  g^erally, 
althoush  not  always,  on  ornamental  band  (eireulus) . 
It  would  also  seem  that  lappets  were  not  always  at^ 
tached  to  the  back  of  the  mitre.  Towards  1100  the 
mitre  began  to  have  a  curved  shape  above  and  to  grow 
into  a  round  cap.  In  many  eases  there  soon  app»u«d 
a  depression  in  the  upper  part  similar  to  the  one  which 
is  niode  when  a  soft  felt  hat  is  pressed  down  on  the 
bead  from  the  forehead  to  (Jie  book  of  the  head.  In 
handsome  mitres  on  ornamental  band  passed  from 
front  to  back  across  the  indentation ;  this  mode  more 
prominent  the  puffs  in  the  upper  part  of  tbe  cap  to  tbe 
li^ht  and  left  sides  of  the  head.  This  calotte-shaped 
mitre  was  used  until  late  in  the  twelfth  century;  in 
some  places  imtil  the  last  quarter  of  the  century. 
From  about  1125  a  mitre  of  another  form  and  some- 
what different  appearance  is  oft«n  found.  In  it  the 
puffs  on  the  sides  had  developed  into  horns  (eomua) 
which  ended  each  in  a  point  and  were  stiffened  with 
parchment  or  some  othei;  interlining.  This  mitre 
lormed  the  transition  to  the  third  style  of  mitre  which 
is  essentially  the  one  still  uaed  to-day:  the  third  mitre 


MTTTiltTTJJ  406  MITTABIIU 

1b  diBtinguisbed  from  its  predecessor,  not  aotu^^  by  omamented  witb  about  five  hundrad  more  or  Ie« 

ita  shape,  but  only  by  ita  position  on  the  head.    While  costly  precious  stones;  it  weighs  over  five  and  a  half 

retainmg  its  fonn,  the  mitre  was  henceforth  so  placed  pounds.    Similar  mitres  an  also  mentioned  in  the 

n  the  head  that  the  comua  no  longer  aroee  above  mventory  of  1295  of  Boniface  VIII,    Eight  medieval 

' "  iples  but  above  the  forehead  and  the  back  of  mitres  are  preserved  in  the  cathedral  of  Halbecstadt. 

.  .     .  J.    The  lappets  had,  naturally,  to  be  fastened  la  the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth  centuries  the  mitre 

o  the  under  edge  below  the  horn  at  the  back.     The  was  ornaments  with  rich,  heavy  embroidery  in  gold, 

first  example  of  such  a  mitre  appeared  towards  1150.  which  gave  it  a  still  more  imposing  appearance.     A 

Elaborate  mitres  of  this  kind  had  not  only  on  oroa-  mitreoftheeighteenthcenturypreeerveain theeathe- 

mentalband  (circu/us)  on  the  lowered^,  but  a  similar  dral  treasury  at  Limburg-on-the-l4khn  ia  remarkable 

ornamental  band  (fitu/iu)  went  vertically  over  the  for  the  large  number  of  precious  stones  that  adorn  it. 

middle  of  the  horns.     In  the  fourteenth  century  this  The  original  material  of  the  mitre  appears  to  have  been 

form  of  mitre  began  to  be  distorted  in  shape.     Up  to  white  linen  alone,  but  as  early  as  tne  thirteenth  cenr 


the  templet 
the  head. 


SlXTBBNTH-CSNTUBT    MlTBS    AND    ItirVLM 

then  the  mitre  had  been  somewhat  broader  than  high  tury  (with  the  exception  of  course  of  the  simple  mitre) 

when  folded  t<^ther,  but  from  this  period  on  it  began,  it  was  generally  made  of  silk  or  omamentecT  with  silk 

slowly  indeed,  but  steadily,  to  increase  in  height  until,  embroidery, 

in  the  seventeenth  century,  it  grew  into  an  actual         The  Liturgical  Head-CoveTing  in  Ihe  Greek  Rite. — In 

tower.    Another  change,  which,  however,  did  not  the  Orthodox  Greek  Rite  {the  other  Greek  Rites  need 

appear  until  the  fifteenth  century,  was  that  the  sides  not  here   be  considered)   a  liturgical   head-covering 

were  no  longer  made  vertical,  but  diagonal.     In  the  was  not  worn  until  the  sixteenth  century.     Before  this 

sixteenth  century  it  began  to  be  customary  to  curve,  onlv  the  Patriarch  of  Alexandria,  who  wore  one  as 

more  or  leas  decidedly,  tne  diagonal  sides  of  the  boms,  early  as  the  tenth  century,  made  use  of  a  head-cover- 

The  illustration  gives  a  summary  of  the  development  ing,  and  his  was  only  a  simple  cap.     The  Greek  pontif- 

of  the  shape  of  the  mitre.    It  should,  however,  be  said  leal  mitre  is  a  high  hat  which  swells  out  towards  the 

that  the  cnanges  did  not  take  place  everywhere  at  the  top  and  ia  spanned  diagonally  by  two  hoops;  oo  the 

same  time,  nor  did  the  mitre  everywhere  pass  through  highest  point  of  the  dome-shapeo  top  is  aeroes  either 

all  the  shapes  of  the  development.    A  large  number  standing  upright  or  placed  flat. 

otmitresofthelflterMiddle  Ages  have  been  preserved,  „De  ^ab,  Aneimt  viianenit  loHnlDCaui.  Z*  sMe    (Puif, 

but  they  all  belong  to  the  third  form  of  mitre.    Many  {i^^li,?°^,-  T^^i^M^vm'cP^^^y''B^l 

have  very  costly  ornamentation.     For  even  in  medie-  Dit  panti^caien  Oevandtr  da  AbmdtaruUm  (Frribuii  im  Br.i 

val  times  it  was  a  favourite  custom  to  ornament  ee-  tses):  Idh,  Dit  lUiagiaeiit  OewandnHt  im  Oeddail  uixf  Oritnl 

pMiaUy  the  mitre  with  embroidery,  rich  bands  (ouri-  'S^burg  Im  Br.,  1907).  Joseph  Bbaun. 

fritia),  pearls,  precious  stones,  small  ornamental  disks 

of  the  precious  metfUs;  and  even  to  use  painting.        MlttaielU,    Nicola  Giacxiiio    (in   religion   Gian 

Be8idesBevera]hundredlargeand8nial]pearls,amitie  Benedbtto),  monastic  historian,  b.  2  September, 

of  the  late  Middle  Ages  in  St.  Peter's  at  Salsbu^  is  also  1707,  at  Venice;  d.  4  August,  1777,  in  the  monastery  of 


MITYUMX 


407 


lOVAftT 


San  Michele  di  Murano  near  Venice.  After  joining  the 
CanuJdolese  Order  at  the  early  age  of  fourteen,  he 
ftudied  theology  at  Florence  and  Rome,  whereupon  he 
taught  philosophy  and  theology  at  the  monajstery  of 
San  Mionele  di  Murano.  Because  he  relinquished  the 
scholastic  method,  his  superiora  sent  him  to  the  monas- 
tery of  San  Parisio  in  Treviso  where  he  became  con- 
fessor and  archivist.  In  1760  he  was  elected  Abbot  of 
San  Michele  di  Murano  and  in  1765,  General  of  his 
Order  for  the  space  of  five  years  during  which  he  re- 
sided in  Rome;  in  1770  he  returned  to  nis  monastery 
where  he  remained  as  abbot  until  his  death.  His 
monumental  work,  in  the  preparation  of  which  he  was 
assisted  by  his  confreres  Costadini  and  Calogera,  is 
the  "  Annales  Camaldulenses  ordinis  S.  BenecQcti,  ab 
anno  907  ad  annum  1770"  9  vols,  folio  (Venice, 
1755-73).  It  follows  the  plan  of  Mabillon's  "An- 
nates ordinis  S.  Benedicti  .  His  other  works  are: 
"Memorie  della  vita  di  San  Parisio,  e  del  monastero 
dei  Santi  Christina  e  Parisio  di  Treviso"  (Venice^ 
1748),  "  Memorie  del  monastero  della  Santa  Trinity  di 
Fsnxa"  (Fsensa,  1749),  "Ad  Scriptores  rerum  Itali- 
carum  A.  Muratorii  aocessiones  historis  FaventinsB" 
(Venice,  1771),  "DelitteraturaFaventinorum"  (Ven- 
ice. 1775),  and  the  posthumous  woik  "Bibliotheca 
eoaicum  Mss.  monasterii  St.  Micluelis  de  Murano  cum 
appendice  librorum  15,  sseculi"  (Venice,  1779). 

Fabbonx,  De  vita  Mitiar^ii,  prefixed  to  the  last  named  woric 
of  5Iittarelli;  Idem,  Vita  Itatorvm  doctrina  excellentium  qui 
tc.l7  et  18 JtoruerunLV  (Plea.  1778-1804),  369-01;  Braun- 
mOllbb  in  Ktr^eniex;  Wkus  in  Biographie  UniveneOe,  XXVIII, 

427.  Michael  Ott. 

Mitylone,  a  titulaiy  archbishopric  in  the  island  of 
Lesbos.  Inhabitated,  first  by  tne  Pelasgians,  then 
by  the  .^k>lians,  it  was  ruled  in  turn  by  the  Persians, 
the  Athenians,  the  Macedonians,  the  Seleucidse,  and 
the  Romans.  Included  in  the  empire  of  the  E^t  after 
the  time  of  Theodosius  it  suffered  much  from  the  dif- 
ferent invasions  of  the  Scythians  in  376,  the  Slavs  in 
769,  the  Arabs  in  821,  881,  1035,  the  Russians  in  864 
and  1027.  In  1204  after  the  foundation  of  the  Latin 
empire,  the  city  became  a  possession  of  the  French, 
only  to  be  reconquered  in  1248  by  John  Ducas  Vatatzes. 
It  l>elonged  to  the  Genoese  when  the  sultan,Mahomet  II, 
conquered  it  in  1462.  The  home  of  manv  famous  per- 
sons, among  them  Sappho,  Alcseus,  and  the  sage  Pitta- 
cus,  Mitylene  was  famous  for  its  beauty  and  for  the 
strength  of  its  walls.  St.  Paul  stopped  there  during 
his  tnird  journey  (Acts,  xx,  14).  Among  its  bish- 
ops, whose  names  will  be  found  in  part  in  Le  Quien, 
"Oriens  christianus",  I,  953-962,  are  Zacharias 
Rhetor,  or  the  Scholastic,  author  of  an  Ecclesiastical 
History  about  the  year  536;  Saint  Geom  who  died  in 
exSie  at  Cherson  before  821  and  whose  ^ast  occurs  on 
7  April  and  16  May;  another  Saint  George  who  died 
in  843  and  is  venerated  by  the  Greeks  on  1  February 
with  his  two  brothers,  Samt  Simeon  and  Saint  David 
(Analecta  bollandiana  XVIII,  209  sq.).  Until  this 
time  Mitvlene  was  only  an  autocephalous  archbishop- 
ric ;  the  ''^Notitia"  of  Leo  the  Wise  about  900  describes 
it  as  a  metropolitim  see  with  five  suffragans.  Doro- 
theufl  of  Mitylene  stands  out  amone  the  friends  of  the 
Union  at  the  Council  of  Florence  of  which  he  wrote  a 
history  in  Greek  (Mansi,  XXXI,  463  sq.,  997,  1009). 
The  list  of  the  Latin  titularies  of  1205  to  1412 
mAj  be  found  in  Le  Quien,  III,  991-994;  Eubel, 
I,  370;  Gams.  449.  The  present  city  of  Metilin  nimi- 
bers  15,000  innabitants,  the  greater  number  schismatic 
Greeks;  the  760  Catholics  of  the  island  are  chiefly 
grouped  about  Metilin  and  are  included  in  the  arch- 
bishopric of  Smyrna.  The  parish  is  directed  bv  the 
Franciscans  ;the  Marist  Brothers  havea  school  f  orboys. 

Lb  QtTlBif,  OrieM  ehri$HanuB  I,  953-^1:  III.  001-994;  La- 
CROix.  Ilea  de  la  Orkee  (Pane.  1853),  207-338;  Cuinxt,  La  Tur- 

SiM<ril«M.I  ^arifl,  1892).  449-74:    Kodblvbt   Die  antiken 
aureaten  aer  tneel  Letboe  (Berlin.  1890);  Wroth,  Catalofjue  of 
Ortek  Caine  ofTroae,  Eolia,  andLeabes  (London,  1894),  184-215. 

S.  Salavilli. 


Mivart.  St.  George  Jackson,  Ph.D.,  M.D.,  F.ft.S«, 
V.P.Z.S.,  F.Z.S.,  Corresponding  member  of  the  Acad- 
emy of  Natural  Sciences,  Philadelphia;  Member  of  the 
Council  of  Linnean  Society,  etc.,  b.  in  London,  30 
November,  1827,  d.  there,  1  April,  1900. 

Professor  Mivart,  whom  Darwin  styled  the  "dis- 
tinguished biologist",  third  son  of  James  Edward 
Mivart,  owner  of  Mivart's  Hotel  in  Brook  Street,  was 
bom  at  39  Brook  St.,  Grosvenor  Sq^uare,  London. 
His  parents  were  Evangelicals;  and  his  early  educar 
tion  was  received  at  the  Clapham  Grammar  School, 
at  Harrow,  and  at  King's  College,  London;  from 
which  latter  institution  he  intended  to  go  to  Oxford. 
His  enthusiasm  for  architecture  led  him,  at  the  age  of 
sixteen,  to  make  a  tour  of  Pugin's  Gothic  churcnes; 
and  while  visiting  St.  Chad's,  in  Birmingham,  he  met 
Dr.  Moore  (afterwards  President  of  St.  Mary's  Collegp, 
Oscott)  who  received  him  into  the  Catholic  Church  in 
1844.  Mivart's  conversion  is  said  to  have  been  de- 
termined by  Milner's  "  End  of  Religious  Controversy  ". 
On  his  reception  he  proceeded  to  Oscott  College,  where 
he  remained  until  1846.  On  15  January  of  that  year 
he  became  a  student  at  Lincoln's  Inn,  and  was  called 
to  the  Bar  in  1851.  He  did  not,  however,  follow  a  le- 
gal career,  but  gave  himself  to  scientific  and  philosoph- 
ical studies;  and  in  1862  was  appointed  Lecturer  on 
Comparative  Anatomy  at  St.  Mary's  Hospital  Medi- 
cal School.  In  1874,  he  was  appointed  professor  of 
Biolo^  at  the  (Catholic)  University  College,Kensing- 
ton.  From  1890  to  1893  he  gave  a  course  of  lectures 
on  "The  Philosophy  of  Natural  History"  in  the  Uni- 
versity of  Louvam.  From  1849  he  was  a  member  of 
the  Royal  Institution ;  Fellow  of  the  Zoological  Society 
from  1858,  and  Vice-President  twice  (1869  and  1882) ; 
Fellow  of  the  Linnean  Society  from  1862;  Secretary 
of  the  same  during  the  years  1874-80,  and  Vice-Presi- 
dent in  1892.  In  1867  he  became  a  member  of  the 
Royal  Society — elected  on  account  of  the  merit  of  his 
work  "  On  the  Appendicular  skeleton  of  the  Primates" . 
This  work  was  communicated  to  the  Society  by  Pro- 
fessor Huxley.  Mivart  was  a  member  of  the  Meta- 
physical Societv  from  1874.  He  received  the  degrees 
of  Doctor  of  Philosophy  from  Pope  Pius  IX  in  1876, 
and  of  Doctor  of  Medicine  from  Louvain  in  1884. 
His  communications,  dating  from  1864,  to  the  "pro- 
ceedings "  of  learned  Societies — notably  the  Royal, 
the  Linnean,  and  the  Zoological — ^are  numerous  and  of 
great  scientific  value.  He  contributed  articles  to  the 
"  Encyclopedia  Britannica,"  and  to  all  the  leading 
English  and  American  reviews. 

In  1871  he  published  his  "Genesis  of  Species",  in 
which  work,  foreshadowed  by  an  article  in  the  "Quar- 
terly Review  "  of  the  same  year,  he  took  his  stand  as  the 
leading  opponent  of  the  Darwinian  hypothesis.  This 
estranged  nim  from  Darwin  and  Huxley;  but  his  repu- 
tation as  a  specialist  in  biological  science  was  in  no 
way  impairea  by  the  position  he  took  up.  In  subse- 
quent editions  of  his "  Origin  of  Species  Darwin  deals 
at  great  lensth  with  the  objections  raised  by  Mivart. 
His  since  published  "Life  and  Letters"  afford  ample 
evidence  of  how  weighty  he  felt  them  to  be.  Mivart, 
however,  himself  professed  a  theory  of  evolution;  but 
he  unhesitatingly  and  consistently  asserted  the  ir- 
reconcUiable  difference  between  the  inanimate  and 
animate,  as  well  as  between  the  purely  animal  and  the 
rational.  By  maintaining  the  creationist  theory  of 
the  origin  of  the  human  soul  he  attempted  to  recon- 
cile his  evolutionism  with  the  Catholic  faith.  In  phil- 
osophical problems,  towards  which  he  turned  more 
ancf  more  in  later  years,  his  attitude  was  rather  that  of 
a  neo-scholastic  as  against  the  post-Cartesian  philoso- 
phies ;  and  he  opposed  with  success  a  critical,  or  mod- 
erate realist,  system  of  knowledge  to  the  widely  preva- 
lent a^osticism  of  his  time.  Towards  the  close  of  his 
life  Mivart's  philosophical  speculations  began  to  verge 
on  an  " interpretation"  of  theol<^cal  dogma  that  was 
incompatible  with  the  Faith.    The  crisiSi  however, 


40S 


did  not  become  acute  before  hia  articles  in  tbe  "Nine- 
teenth Centuiy"  (''Modem  Catholics  and  Scientific 
Freedom"  in  July,  1885;  "The  Catholic  Churoh  and 
Biblical  Criticism"  in  July,  1887;  "Catholicity  and 
Reason"  in  December,  1887;  "Sins  of  Belief  and  Dis- 
belief" in  October,  1888;  "Happmess  in  Hell"  in 
December,  1892)  were  placed  on  tne  Index. 

His  orthodoxy  was  finally  brought  into  the  navest 
suspicion  bv  the  articles  '^The  Continuity  of  Cathol- 
icism" ("Nineteenth  Century",  January,  1900)  and 
"Some  Recent  Apolo^"  ("Fortnightly  Review", 
January.  1900).  In  the  same  month  (18  January, 
1900),  after  admonition  and  three  formal  notifications 
requiring  him  in  vain  to  mai  a  profession  of  faith  that 
was  sent  him,  he  was  inhibitea  from  the  sacraments 
by  Cardinal  Vaughan  "  until  he  shall  have  proved  his 
orthodoxy  to  the  satisfaction  of  his  ordinarv."  The 
letters  that  passed  between  Archbishop's  ELouse  and 
Dr.  Mivart  were  published  by  him  in  the  columns  of 
the  "Times"  newspaper  (27  January,  1900) ;  and  in 
March  a  last  article — "Scripture  ana  Roman  Cathol- 
icism " — ^repudiating  ecclesiastical  authority,  appeared 
in  the  "Nineteenth  Century". 

Dr.  Mivart  died  of  diabetes  1  April,  1900,  at  77 
Inverness  Terrace,  Bayswater,  London,  W.,  and  was 
buried  without  ecclesiastical  rites.  After  his  decease 
his  friends,  persuaded  that  the  gravity  and  nature  of 
the  illness  from  which  he  suffered  offered  a  complete 
explanation  of  the  amazing  inconsistency  of  Dr. 
Mivart's  final  position  with  that  which  he  had  main- 
taiaed  during  the  neater  part  of  his  life,  approached 
the  authorities  witn  a  view  to  securing  for  nmi  burial 
in  consecrated  ground.  Sir  William  Broadbent  gave 
medical  testimony  as  to  the  nature  of  his  malady 
ampl^  sufficient  to  free  his  late  patient  from  the  re- 
sponsibility of  the  heterodox  opmions  which  he  had 
put  forward  and  the  attitude  be  had  taken  with  re- 
gajd  to  his  superiors.  His  disease,  not  his  will,  was 
the  cause  of  his  aberration.  But  there  were  difficulties 
in  the  way.  Cardinal  Vaughan  was  ill  and  could  not 
deal  directly  with  the  representations  made.  Mis- 
understandings arose  about  the  publication  of  Sir 
William  Broadbent's  certificate;  and  the  cardinal 
counselled  a  little  patience  and  left  the  matter  to  the 
decision  of  his  successor.  So  it  was  that,  on  the  ap- 
pointment of  Arehbishop  Bourne,  the  case  was  re- 
opened; and  now  the  condition  of  the  publication  of 
tne  facts,  at  the  arohbishop's  discretion,  was  accepted 
by  the  friends  of  Dr.  Mivart.  The  burial  took  pace 
in  Kensal  Green  Catholic  cemetery  18  January,  1904. 
The  text  of  the  certificate  has  not  been  published; 
but  an  account  of  the  matter  is  to  be  foimd  in  the 
second  volimie  of  "Life  of  Cardinal  Vau^ian". 

Dr.  Mivart's  chief  works  are  the  followine: — 
"One  Poiat  of  Controversy  with  the  Agnostics"  in 
Manning;  "Essays  on  Religion  and  Literature" 
fl868);^'On  the  Genesis  of  Species"  (London,  1871); 
"An  examination  of  Mr.  Herbert  Spencer's  Psychol- 
ogy"; "Lessons  in  Elementary  Anatomy"  (London, 
1873) ;"  The  Common  Frog  "  in '^  Nature  series  "( 1873) ; 
"Man  and  Apes"  (London,  1873);  "Lessons  from 
Nature  "  (London,  1876) ; "  Contemporary  Evolution  " 
(London.  1876) ;  "  Address  to  the  Biological  Section 
of  the  British  Association"  ( 1879) ; "  The  Cat "  (London, 
1881);  "Nature  and  Thought'^  (London,  1882);  "A 
Philosophical  Catechism"  (London,  1884);  "On 
Truth"  (London,  1889) ;  "The  Origin  of  Human  Rea- 
son" (London,  1889);  "Dogs,  Jackals,  Wolves  and 
Foxes,  Monograph  of  the  Canids"  (London,  1890); 
" Introduction  CKSndrale  &  I'EItude  de  la  Nature:  Coius 

Profess^  &  I'UniveFsitS  de  Louvain"  (Louvain  and 
aris,  1891);  "Birds"  (London,  1892);  "Essays  and 
Criticisms"  (London,  1892);  "iVpes  of  Animal  Life" 
(London,  1893);  "Introduction  to  the  Elements  of 
Science"  (London,  1894);  "Castle  and  Manor"  (Lon- 
don, 1900):  "A  monograph  of  the  Lories"  (London, 
1896);  "The  Groundwork  of  Soienoe:  a  study  of 


Epistemology"  (London,  1898);  "The  Helpful 
Science"  (Loiidon,  1898):  Article  "Ape"  in  "En- 
cydopiedia  Britannica"  *  besides  many  notes  and 
memoirs  not  collected.  Transactions  and  Proceedings 
of  the  Zoological  Societv,  of  the  Linnean  Society, 
Proceeding?  of  the  Rovai  Society  and  articles  in  the 
"Popular  Science  Review  "  the  "Contemporary  Re- 
view", the  "Fortnightly  Review",  the  "Nineteenth 
Century",  the  "  DuHii  Review",  etc. 

Seo  Gentleman* a  MaoanneClSSe  and  1900);  Roual  Society 
Year  Book  (1901);  Men  and  Women  of  the  Time  (1895);  Das- 
win,  The  Life  and  Letters  of  Charles  Darwin  (London.  1887); 
8neai>-(?ox.  The  Life  of  Cardinal  Vaughan  (London,  1910); 
Oaeotian,  Jubilee  Number  (1888);  The  Timet  (January  12,  13. 
15,  22.  27,  29,  and  April  2,  3,  4.  1900);  The  Tablet  (Apttt  7« 
1900);  iVirfuw  (April  12, 1900), 

Francis  Avelxng. 

Mize  IndiaiiB  (also  Mue,  Latin,  Mi-she),  a  moun- 
tain tribe  in  southern  Mexico,  noted  for  their  extreme 
conservatism,  constitutinjg  toother  with  the  neigh- 
bouring Zoque,  a  distinct  linguistic  stock,  the  Zoquean. 
The  Mixe  occupy  a  nimiber  of  towns  and  villages  in 
the  district  of  Yautepec,  Villa  Alta,  and  Tehuantepec 
in  southern  Oaxaca  and  ninnber  altogether  about  25,- 
000.  They  maintained  their  independence  against 
both  the  Aztec  Empire  and  the  powerful  Zapotec  with 
whom  they  are  still  at  enmity  and  even  yet  can  hardly 
be  said  to  have  been  subdued  by  the  Spaniards,  as 
they  hold  themselves  aloof  from  the  whites,  retaining 
their  own  language  almost  to  the  exclusion  of  Span- 
ish, keeping  their  old  custons  and  adhering  to  many 
of  their  ancient  rites  and  superstitions  even  while  giv- 
ing ostensible  obedience  to  the  Church  and  manifest- 
ing a  docile  attachment  to  their  resident  priests.  With 
the  other  tribes  of  Oaxaca,  the  Mixe  were  brou^t 
imder  subjection  by  the  Spaniards  in  1521-4.  In 
1526  the  work  of  evangelization  was  begun  by  the 
Dominicans  under  Father  Gonzalo  Lucero  and  contin- 
ued with  them,  shared  after  1575  by  the  Jesuits  untfl 
turned  over  to  secular  priests  under  later  settled  con- 
ditions. The  work  of  conversion  was  slow  and  uncer- 
tain for  many  veais,  in  consequence  of  the  exceptional 
attachment  of  these  tribes  to  their  ancient  religion. 
Idols  were  frequently  discovered  buried  under  the 
cross  erected  in  front  of  the  chapel,  so  that  they  mig^it 
be  worshipped  in  secret  under  pretense  of  devotion  to 
the  Christian  symbol,  and  heathen  sacrifices  were  even 
offered  up  secretly  from  the  very  altars,  under  an  im- 
pression, intelligible  enough  to  the  Indian,  that  the 
sacredness  attadiing  to  the  Christian  environment  en- 
hanced the  efficacy  of  the  pagan  rite.  This  prevails 
to  a  great  extent  to-day. 

Physically  the  Mixe  are  of  good  height  and  strongly 
built,  not  handsome  in  features,  but  hardy  and  active, 
and  notable  burden  carriers.  Many  wear  beards.  Al- 
though described  in  ancient  times  as  savage  and  war- 
like and  addicted  to  cannibalism,  they  are  commonly 
regarded  to-day  as  timid,  stupid,  and  suspicious,  al- 
though industrious.  It  is  probable,  however,  that  the 
apparent  stupidity  is  rather  indifference  and  studied 
reserve,  and  Starr,  their  most  recent  visitor,  expresses 
his  siirprise  at  their  industry,  neatness,  and  general 
prosperity,  in  view  of  what  he  had  previously  been 
told.  It  ia  characteristic  of  their  stuboom  dispositioc 
that  their  roads  almost  invariably  run  straight  up  and 
down  the  mountain  instead  of  zigzagging  to  lessen  the 
difficulties  of  the  ascent.  In  the  same  way  they  still 
keep  their  villages  upon  the  heights,  while  the  oUier 
tribes,  imder  Spanish  influence,  have  generally  moved 
their  settlements  down  into  the  valle3rs.  Their  houses 
vary  from  light  thatched  structures  in  the  country 
districts  to  well-built  log  or  adobe,  roofed  with  tile,  in 
the  towns.  They  are  good  farmers,  producing  com, 
sugar,  coffee,  ana  bananas,  and  the  women  are  noted 
for  their  pottery  and  weaving  arts,  producing  beautiful 
fabrics  in  silk  and  cotton,  with  interwoven  animal  and 
bird  designs  and  dyed  in  fadeleas  colours.  From 
Starr  we  have  an  interesting  account  of  their  present 


I»  «.-ll 


409  MOAB 


day  customs  and  beliefs,  including  many  pagan  but-  that  he  has  prepared  a  catechism  and  Christian  docv 

▼ivals,  particularly  bird  and  other  animal  sacrifices,  trine  in  the  mooem  Mixtec,  which  has  been  printed." 

Food  is  still  buried  with  the  dead  and  libations  made  The  Mixteca  language  is  spoken  in  a  number  of  dia- 

to  the  earth,  while  offerings  are  still  made  secretly  at  lects  and  in  spite  of  its  peculiarly  difficult  charaoter, 

heathen  shrines  and  before  idols  hidden  away  in  secret  has  been  mucn  studied  on  accoimt  of  the  importance 

caves.     One  of  these  was  discovered  by  the  parish  of  the  tribe.    The  standard  authority  is  the  "  Arte  en 

priest  of  their  principal  town  a  few  years  ago,  and  ao-  lengua  Mixteca"  of  Fr.  Antonio  de  los  Reyes  (Mexico, 

cording  to  reliable  testimony  instances  of  cannibal  1593,  and  reprinted  at  Mexico  in  1750).    The  Indian 

sacrifice  have  occurred  within  living  memory.   Among  priest  author  noted  by  Starr  is  Fr.  Casiano  Palacios, 

their  numerous  dances  is  a  dramatic  performance  whose  "Catecismo"  was  published  in  Oaxaca  in  1896. 

founded  upon  the  story  of  the  Conquest,  with  charao-  Pimentel  also  devotes  a  chapter  to  the  language.    (See 

ters  representing  Montezmna,  Cort^,  and  Malinche.  also  Zapotec.) 

The  Mixe  language  is  peculiarly  harsh  in  sound  and  ^Bancboft.  Native  Rocm,  I-III  (Sed  FnAdaeo.  1882);  Idem, 

is  spoken  in  several  dialects.    Ite  chief  monument  is  S*^',^  ^S^  ^,%Sx^^*'*^'  ^^^8);  Bminov,  AmerxMu 

the  "InstltUClOn  Cnstiana,  que  COntiene  el  Arte  de  la  I  (Mexioo,  1862);    Stahb.  Bthnooraphy  of  Southern  Mexico  in 

lengua  Mije''  of  the  Dominican  Father  AgUStin  Quin-  Proe.  Davenport  Acad,  Sdeneea,  VlII  (Davenport,  1901):  Idbii, 

fjma.  (t^    1 AAH-1 7X4^        Tt   waa  nuhlifthMl  A.f.  PuphlA.  in  ^2«««<  Mexican  etudy  of  the  naiive  lanQuaqee  of  Mexico,  Univ.  ej 

lana  ^c.  lOOU-i  IW.      ij  was  puoiisnea  w,  rueoia  m  Chicago,  Devi.  AnthropoUmi,  BuU.  IV  (Cmoaco.  1900):  Idem.  In 

1729  and  repnnted  at  Oaxaca  m  1891.  Indian  Mexico  (Chioa^DTigos).         ^     ^'-^ 

Bakcboft.  riaHve  Racce,  I-III  (San  Franeiaoo,  1882);    Inm,  JamEB  MooNETT. 
HieL  of  Mexico  (San  Franoiaoo,  1886-8);   Barnabd,  Idhmua  c/ 

2>*!?*'?!S?ff  ^^  ^^^  ^?^^  •  B«if«>*''  ^J"^551^  'H^/ffif®^  MHxtacaB.   See  HuajuXpam  db  Lb6n,  Diocese  op. 

York,  1891);  Pimsmtel,  Itenouae  xndigenae  de  Mexico,  II  (Mez-  ' 

ieo,   1885);    Starr.,  SMnagropAyo/ 5(mM«rn^extco  in  iVoc.  Moab,    MoabitM.— In    the   Old    Testament,    the 

S£SSrjiS;'a/'SnaJ"l^                   ^b^LSHv,  wokI  Moab  (a«lo)  designates  (1)  a  son  of  Lot  by  his 

D€pt.  Anthropology,  Univ.  of  Chicago  (Chioaco,  1900);  Inm,  In  elder  daughter  (Gen.,  xix,37);  (2)  the  people  of  whom 

Indian  Mexico  (CUoa«o,  1908).  this  son  of  Lot  is  represented  as  the  ancestor  (Ex.,  xv, 

James  Moonbt.  15^  etc.),  and  who  are  also  called  "the  Moabites'* 
MixBd  Marriages.  See  Mabriage,  Mixed.  (Gen-i  xix,  37) ;  and  possibly  (3)  the  tenitory  occupied 
_^_^  _  „  ,  ,  -_  T  *.  *#.  V  "y  ^'^^  Moabites  (Num.,  xxi,  11).  Its  etymology: 
ICxteea  Indiaiis  (also  Misteca,  Latm,  Mish-  "from  my  father",  which  is  added  by  the  Septuamnt 
te-ka),  one  of  the  most  important  civilised  tribes  of  to  the  H*rew  text  in  Gen.,  xix,  37,  is  more  probable 
aouthem  Mexico,  occupying  an  extensive  territory  m  than  any  derivation  suggested  by  modem  scholare. 
western  and  northern  Oaxaca  and  extending  into  The  origm  and  race  of  the  Moabites  need  not  be  dis- 
Guerrero  and  Puebla.  They  number  m  all  about  250,-  cussed  here,  since  accoiding  to  Gen.,  xbc  they  are  the 
000  souls,  or  somewhat  more  than  the  whole  Indian  game  as  those  of  the  Ammonites,  which  have  been  ex- 
population  of  the  United  States  together.  Theur  east-  amined  in  the  article  Ammonites. 
em  and  southern  neighbours  are  the  mde  M«e  and  From  the  mountainous  district  above  Segor  (Zoar), 
the  cultured  and  powerful  ^potec,  with  the  last  a  town  which  lay  in  the  plain  near  the  south-^astem 
named  of  whom  they  constitute  a  distinct  Imguistic  end  of  the  Dead  Sea  (cf.  Gen.,  xix,  30),  Lot's  chUdien 
stock,  designated  as  the  Zapotecan.  The  ancient  cul-  forcibly  extended  themselves  in  the  region  of  eastem 
tupe  and  governmental  forms  of  the  Mixteca  were  Palestine.  Ammon  settled  in  the  more  distant  north- 
practically  the  same  as  those  of  the  Zapotec.  They  east  country,  Moab  in  the  dbtricts  nearer  to  the  Dead 
are  now  mdustnous  farmers,  weavers,  and  potters,  the  fiea.  These  were  inhabited  by  the  Emims,  a  gigantic 
pottery  manufacture,  contrary  to  the  Indian  custom  people,  whom,  however,  the  Moabites  succeeded  mex- 
cenerally,  being  m  the  hands  of  the  men.  They  stand  pelUng  (Deut.,  ii,  9,  10).  Moab's  territory  was  at 
high  for  industry  and  ingenuity,  dignified  and  relia-  first  of  considerable  extent,  some  fifty  miles  long  by 
ble  disposition,  hospitality  and  love  of  liberty.  They  thirty  broad.  It  comprised  the  highlands  east  of  the 
were  brought  imder  Spanish  dominion  about  the  same  Dead  Sea  and  the  Joixlan  as  far  as  the  mountains  of 
time  as  the  Zapotec  and  Mixe,  in  1521-4,  shortly  after  Galaad,  together  with  the  level  stretch  between  the 
which  the  work  of  their  conversion  was  begun  by  the  hi^lands  and  the  river,  and  the  well-watered  and  fer- 
Dominicans  and  prosecuted  with  such  success  that  the  tile  land  at  the  south  end  of  the  Dead  Sea.  On  three 
whole  nation  may  now  be  considered  as  Christian,  sides,  it  had  natural  boundaries:  on  the  west,  the  Dead 
notwithstanding  some  survivals  from  pagan  times.  Sea  and  the  southern  section  of  the  Jordan:  on  the 
They  are  active  and  enterprising,  and  have  taken  south,  the  Wady  el-Hasy,  separating  the  uplands  of 

Srominent  part  in  Mexican  politics,  being  particularly  Moab  from  those  of  Edom;  on  the  east,  the  Arabian 
evoted  to  the  Revolutionary  cause  in  1811.  Presi-  desert.  Only  on  the  north,  were  there  no  natural  feat- 
dent  Dfas  of  Mexico  is  of  one-fourth  Mixteca  blood.  ures  conspicuous  enough  to  form  a  fixed  boundary, 
San  Bartolo,  one  of  their  towns,  is  described  by  and  hence  Moab's  northem  frontier  fluctuated  at  differ- 
Starr  as  a  delightful  place,  large  and  strung  along  two  cnt  periods  between  the  Amon,  and  a  diagonal  running 
or  three  long  straight  streets.  The  houses  were  of  south-east  from  the  torrent  now  called  Wady  Nimrin 
poles  set  upright,  with  thick  thatchings  of  palms,  in  to  the  Arabian  desert. 

yards  completely  filled  with  fmit  trees,  and  garden  The  highlands  are  the  great  bulk  of  this  territory, 
beds  of  spinach,  lettuce,  and  onions.  Beehives  in  quan-  They  form  a  table-land  about  3000  feet  above  the 
tity  were  seen  at  nearly  every  house.  Ahnost  every  Mediteranean,  or  4300  feet  above  the  Dead  Sea,  ris- 
woman  was  clad  in  native  garments,  many  of  which  ing  slowly  from  north  to  south,  having  steep  westem 
were  beautifully  decorated.  The  men  wore  brilliant  slopes,  and  separated  eastward  from  the  desert  by 
sashes,  woven  in  the  town.  At  Teposcolula,  "the  low,  rolling  hilfc.  The  geology  of  this  almost  treeless 
peat  convent  church  historicallyinteresting,  is  strik-  plateau  is  the  same  as  that  of  the  range  of  westem 
ing  in  sise  and  architecture.  The  priest,  an  excel-  Palestine;  but  its  climate  is  decidedly  colder.  In 
lent  man,  is  a  pure-blooded  Mixteca  Indian,  talk-  sprine,  its  limestone  hills  are  covered  with  grass  and 
in^  the  language  as  his  mother  tongue.  With  great  wild  flowers,  and  parts  of  the  plateau  are  now  sown 
pnde  he  showed  us  about  the  building,  which  was  with  com.  It  is  traversed  by  three  deep  valleys,  the 
once  a  grand  Dominican  monastery.  .  .  .  The  cura  middle  of  which,  the  Amon,  is  the  deepest,  and  it 
had  ten  churches  in  his  charge.  He  seemed  a  devout  abounds  m  streams.  It  is  dotted  with  dounens,  men- 
man,  and  emphasized  the  importance  of  his  preaching  hirs,  and  stone  circles,  and  also  with  ruins  of  villages 
to  his  congre«ition  in  their  native  tongue  and  his.  So  and  towns,  mostly  of  the  Roman  and  Byzantine  peri- 
convincedis  ne  that  the  native  idiom  of  the  people  is  ods.  In  Old  Testament  times,  Moab  was  an  excellent 
the  shortest  rof^l  tQ  their  he^  And  iwderst^ding,  pasture  land  (IV  EingB,  iii,  4),  and  its  population  w^ 


MOABITE 


410 


mobub 


much  more  considerable  than  at  the  present  dav,  as  is 
proved  bv  the  numerous  cities,  such  as  Ar  Moab,  Gal- 
uniy  Kir  Moab,  Luith,  Nemrim,  S^r,  Nophe,  Oro- 
naim,  Qiriat  Hussot  (A.V.  Kiiiath-husotn).  Aroer, 
Baahneon,  Beer  Elim,  BethgamuL  Bethsimotn,  Beth- 

ghogor,  Bosor,  Cariath,  Dibon,  Eleale,  Helon,  Hese- 
on,  Jasa,  Medaba,  Mephaath,  Sabama  etc..  which 
the  Bible  mentions  as  at  one  time  or  another  Moabite. 
Shortly  before  Israel's  final  advance  towards  Pales- 
tine, ^e  Moabites  had  been  deprived  of  their  terri- 
tory north  of  the  Amon  by  the  Amorrhites,  coming 
grobablv  from  the  west  of  the  Jordan  (Num.,  nd,  13, 
6).  Moab's  king  at  the  time  was  Balaac  who,  in  his 
unfriendliness  towards  the  Hebrew  tribes^  hired  Ba- 
laam to  curse  them,  but  who  failed  in  this  attempt, 
the  expected  curses  oeing  divinely  changed  into  bless- 
ings (see  Balaam).  Another  fiendish  attempt  in  a 
different  direction  was  only  too  successful;  the  daugh- 
ters of  Moab  enticed  the  Israelites  into  their  idolatry 
and  immorality,  and  thereby  brousht  upon  them  a 
heavy  retribution  (Num.,  xxv).  Moab's  subsequent 
rdations  with  the  Hebrew  tribes  (Ruben.  Gad)  who 
had  settled  in  its  ancient  territory  north  of  the  Amon, 
were  probablv  those  of  a  hostile  neighbour  anxious  to 
recover  this  lost  territonr.  In  fact,  in  the  early  his- 
tory of  the  Judges,  the  Nioabites  had  not  only  regained 
control  of  at  least  a  part  of  that  land,  but  also  extended 
their  power  into  western  Palestine  so  as  to  oppress  the 
Benjamites.  -  The  Moabite  yoke  over  Benjamin  was 
finally  put  an  end  to  by  Aod,  the  son  of  Gera,  who  as- 
sassinated Eglon,  Moab's  king,  slaughtered  the  Moab- 
ites, and  recovered  the  territory  of  Jericho  to  Israel 
(Judges,  iii,  12-30).  To  this  succeeded  a  period  of 
friendly  intercourse,  during  which  Moab  was  a  refuge 
for  the  family  of  Eumelech,  and  the  Moabitees  RuQi 
was  introduced  into  the  line  from  which  David  was 
descended  (Ruth,  i,  1;  iv,  10-22).  Saul  again  fought 
against  Moab  (I  Kings,  xiv,  47),  and  David,  who^  for 
a  while  confided  his  parents  to  a  Moabite  king  (xxii,  3, 
4),  ultimately  invaded  the  countryand  made  it  tribu- 
tary to  Israel  (II  Kings,  viii.  2).  The  subjugation  ap- 
parently continued  under  Solomon,  who  had  Moabite 
women  in  his  harem  and  "built  a  temple  for  Chamos 
the  idol  of  Moab''  (III  Kmgs,  xi,  1,  7).  After  the  dis- 
ruption, the  Moabites  were  vassals  of  the  northern 
kingdom;  but  on  the  death  of  Achab,  they  broke  into 
an  open  revolt  the  final  result  of  which  was  their  inde- 
pendence, and  the  full  circumstances  of  which  are  best 
understood  by  combining  the  data  in  IV  Kings,  i,  1 
and  iii,  4-27,  with  those  of  the  "Moabite  Stone  ',  an 
inscription  of  Mesa,  King  of  Moab,  found  in  1868  at 
the  ancient  Dibon,  and  now  preserved  in  the  Louvre. 
It  seems  that  after  this,  they  made  frequent  incur- 
sions into  Israel's  territory  (cf.  IV  Kinm,  xiii,  20),  and 
that  after  the  captivity  of  the  trans-Jordanic  tribes, 
they  gradually  oc(;upied  all  the  land  anciently  lost  to 
the  Ajmorrhites.  Tneir  great  prosperity  is  frequently 
referred  to  in  the  prophetical  writings,  while  their  ex- 
ceeding pride  and  corruption  are  made  the  object  of 
threatemng  oracles  (Is.,  xv-xvi;  xxv,  10;  Jer.,  xlviii; 
Ezech.,  xxv,  8-11;  Amosj  ii,  1-3;  Soph.,  ii,  8-11;  etc.). 
In  the  cuneiform  inscnptions,  their  nuers  are  re- 
peatedly mentioned  as  tribute-payers  to  As&yria. 
This  was  indeed  the  condition  of  their  continuous 
prosperity.  It  can  hardly  be  doubted,  however,  that 
they  sided  at  times  with  other  Western  countries 
agamst  the  Assyrian  monarchs  (Fragment  of  Sargon 
II;  opening  chapters  of  Judith).  In  the  last  days  of 
the  Kingdom  of  Juda.  they  transferred  their  alle- 
giance to  Babyloxi.  ana  fought  for  Nabuchodonosor 
against  Joakim  (IV  Kings,  xxiv.  2).  Even  after  the 
fall  of  Jerusalem,  Moab  enjoyea  a  considerable  pros- 
perity under  Nabuchodonoeor's  rule;  but  its  utter 
ruin  as  a  state  was  at  hand.  In  fact,  when  the  Jews 
returned  from  Babylon,  the  Nabathean  Arabs  occu- 
pied the  territory  of  Moab.  and  the  Arabians  instead 
9f  tfy^  Moabites  were  the  allies  of  the  Ammonites  (cf. 


II  £M.(  iv,  7;  I  Mach.,  ix,  32-42;  Josephua,  "An* 
tiq.",  xiii.  13,  5.  xiv.  1,  4). 

As  is  shown  by  the  Moabite  Stone,  the  language  of 
Moab  was  "simply  a  dialect  of  Hebrew".  Its  use  of 
the  waw  consecutive  connects  most  intimately  the  two 
languages,  and  almost  all  the  words,  inflections,  and 
idioms  of  this  inscription  occur  in  the  original  text  of 
the  Old  Testament.  The  same  monument  bears  wit- 
ness to  the  fact  that  while  the  Moabites  adored  Char 
mos  as  their  national  god.  they  also  worshipped  Ash- 
tar  as  his  consort.  Besides  these  two  divimties.  the 
Old  Testament  mentions  another  local  deity  of  the 
Moabites,  viz.  Baal  of  Mount  Phegor  (Peer:  Beelphe- 
TOr)  (Num.,  xxv,  3;  Deut.,  iv,  3;  Osee,  ix,  10;  etc.). 
The  Moabites  were  therefore  polytheusts.  Aiid  al- 
though their  reli^on  is  not  f ull^  known,  it  is  certain 
that  human  sacrifices  and  also  impure  ntes  formed  a 
part  of  their  worship  (TV  Kings,  iii,  27;  Num.,  xxv; 
Osee,  ix,  10). 

TRZ0TSAM.  Land  of  Moab  (London.  1874) ;  CoNnn,  H^tk  and 
Moab  (London.  1884);  RaTBOBN,  BeitrOge  s.  90miHaAm  R^ 
HoionaoMchiehU  (BerUn,  1888):  W.  R.  Sioth.  Religum  of  the 
SomitM  (London,  1894) ;  Buss,  Narraiite  of  an  ejepodition  to  Moab 
and  GiUad  (London.  1896);  O.  A.  Smith,  HuUnieal  Qoogravky  of 
the  Holy  Land  (New  York.  1897);  Laoranoi.  Btudeo  our  Ua  Bo- 
Ugiono  Shnitiqueo  (Paria,  1903). 

Fbancis  E.  Gigot. 
Moabite  Stone.    See  Mesa. 

Mobile  (Fr.  Mobile,  Sp.  Maubila),  Diocbss  op 
(MoBiLiSNSis),  suffragan  of  New  Orleans,  comprises 
the  State  of  Alabama  (51,640  sq.  miles)  and  western 
Florida  (7281  square  miles),  and  derives  its  name 
from  Mauvila,  the  fort  and  chief  city  of  the  Gulf  In- 
dians, who  with  their  "emperor",  Tuscaloosa,  ''black 
warrior",  were  conquered  by  the  Spanish  soldier  and 
explorer,  Hernando  de  Soto,  in  1540. 

Early  History. — De  Soto's  expedition  was  accom- 
panied bv  "twelve  priests,  eight  ecclesiastics  and  four 
religious".  Mass  was  certainly  offered  near  the  pres- 
ent city  of  Mobile  as  early  as  1540.  From  1540  to 
1703  Dominican,  Capuchin,  and  Jesuit  misaonaries 
went  from  post  to  post  along  the  Mississippi  Vallejr, 
ministering  to  the  wants  of  the  scattered  Spanish, 
French,  and  Encdish  settlers  and  to  the  native  In- 
dian converts.  The  published  records  of  their  hero- 
ism, sealed  at  times  with  the  mart3rrB'  blood,  are  very 
meagre,  their  names  even,  in  great  part,  being  lost  in 
the  obscurity  of  that  long  and  troublous  period.  Not 
until  the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth  century^  have 
we  anything  like  a  historical  account  of  this  diooeee. 
''Fort  St.  Louis  de  la  Mobile"  was  founded  by  Iber- 
ville, the  illustrious  French-Canadian  explorer  (1702), 
at  some  distance  from  the  present  dty  of  Mobile, 
the  site  of  which  was  selected  (1710)  by  Iberville's 
brother.  Bienville.  Mobile  was  formally  erected  into 
a  parisn  (20  July^  1703),  subject  to  the  Seminary  of 
Foreign  Missions  m  Paris  and  Quebec. 

The  Rev.  Henry  RouUeaux  de  la  Vente  was  the  first 
parish  priest  (July,  1704),  his  curate^  the  Rev.  Alex- 
ander HUV6.  The  first  entry  found  m  the  records  of 
the  new  parish  is  that  of  the  baptism  of  an  ApAlacfae 
mrl  (6  September,  1703),  by  the  Rev.  A.  Davion.  The 
Rev.  J.  B.  de  St.  Cosme  was  murdered  by  savages  on 
his  way  to  Mobile  from  Natches  late  in  1706.  The 
last  record  of  the  secular  clergy  (13  January,  1721), 
that  of  the  Rev.  Alexander  Huv6.  appears  in  the  an- 
cient register  of  Mobile.  The  work  was  then  resumed 
by  the  religious  orders.  The  Quebec  Act  of  1774  con- 
ferred on  the  parish  priest  of  Mobile  amons  others,  a 
legal  title  to  his  tithes.  With  the  surrencfer  of  Mo- 
bile to  Spain  (12  March,  1780),  the  records  are  k^t  in 
Spanish,  and  the  church  in  Mobile  is  definitely  k^wn 
as  the  church  of  the  Immaculate  Conception.  Pius 
VII  erected  the  diocese  of  St.  Louis  of  New  Orleans 
(25  April,  1793)  {  usually  styled  Louisiana  and  the 
Floridas.  The  jurisdiction,  therefore,  of  the  ordi* 
naries  of  Quebec  and  Santiago  de  Cuba  over  that  im- 
mense territory  ceased  with  the  selection  of  its  firs^ 


ttofinf  411  ttofinf 

bishop,  the  Right  Rev.  Luis  Pefialver  y  Cardenas,  the  priests  who  came  to  Bishop  Quinlan  at  this  timd 
who  arrived  in  New  Orleans  17  July,  1795.  From  are  zealous  workers  in  the  diocese  to-day,  the  Very 
1792  to  1800  the  parish  priest  of  Mobile  was  the  Rev.  Rev.  C.  T.  O'Calla^an,  D.D.,  V.G.,  pastor  of  St.  Vin- 
Constantine  McKenna,  and  its  last  incumbent  under  cent's  church,  Mobile,  several  times  administrator  of 
Spanish  rule,  the  Rev.  Vincent  Genin.  the  diocese,  and  the  Very  Rev.  D.  Savage,  D.D.,  pas- 
BiBHOPs. — (1)  Michael  Portier,  b.  at  Mont-  tor  of  St.  Peter's  churchy  Montgomery,  a  member  of 
brison,  France,  1795  *  d.  at  MobOe,  4  May,  1859.  He  the  bishop's  council.  Bishop  Quinlan  s  administra- 
came  to  the  United  States  4  September,  1817.  Com-  tion  fell  upon  the  stormy  days  of  internecine  strife. 
Dieting  his  studies  at  St.  Mary's  Seminary,  Baltimore,  After  the  battle  of  Shiloh,  he  hastened  on  a  special 
Md.,  ne  was  ordained  priest  by  Bishop  Dubourg  at  train  to  the  blood-stained  battle-ground  and  minis- 
St.  Louis  (1818),  and  eight  years  later,  in  the  same  tered  to  the  temporal  and  spiritual  wants  of  North 
citywasconsecratedtituiar  Bishop  of  Oleno  by  Bishop  and  South.  After  the  war  diocesan  activities  were 
Rdeati,  and  became  first  vicar  Apostolic  of  the  new  crippled.  Nevertheless,  besides  repairing  ruined 
Vicariate  of  Alabama  and  the  Floridas.  At  the  time  churches.  Bishop  Quinlan  built  the  portico  of  the  Mo- 
of  his  accession  he  was  the  only  clerg3nnan  in  the  vica-  bUe  cathedral,  rounded  St.  Patrick's  and  St.  Marjr's 
riate  and  had  practically  only  three  congregations  churches  in  the  same  city,  and  established  churches  in 
with  churches^  Mobile,  Ala.,  and  the  old  Spanish  cities  Huntsville,  Decatur,  Tuscimibia,  Florence,  Cullman, 
of  St.  Augustine,  Fla.  (founded  1565),  ana  Pensacola,  Birmingham,  Eufaula,  Whistler,  and  Toulminville. 
Fla.  (founded  1696).  The  first  priest  who  came  to  his  April,  1876,  Bishop  Ouinlan  invited  the  Benedictines 
assistance  was  the  Rev.  Edwara  T.  Mayne,  a  student  from  St.  Vincent's  Abbey,  Pa.,  to  the  diocese,  and  tiiey 
of  Mt.  St.  Mary's  College,  Emmitsburg,  Md.,  sent  by  settled  at  Cullman.  The  first  abbot  of  the  new  settle- 
Bishop  England  of  Charleston,  to  take  charge  of  the  ment  was  the  Rt.  Rev.  Benedict  Menges,  O.S.B.,  suo- 
deserted  church  of  St.  Augustine.  Bishop  Portier  be-  ceeded  (1905)  by  Rt.  Rev.  Bernard  Menges,  O.S.B.. 
gan  his  administration  by  riding  through  his  vicariate  under  whose  capable  management  the  monastery  ana 
and  visited  Pensacola,  Tallahassee,  and  St.  Angus-  college  are  progressing  ana  extending  their  influence 
tine,  offering  the  Holy  Sacrifice,  preaching,  and  admin-  considerably. 

istering  the  Sacraments  as  he  went.  He  sailed  for  (3)  Dominic  Manttct.  third  Bishop  of  Mobile,  b.  in 
Europe  (1829)  in  quest  of  assistants,  and  returning  St.  Augustine,  Fla.,  20  December,  1823;  d.  at  Mobile, 
with  two  priests  and  four  ecclesiastics,  found  the  vica-  4  December,  1885.  He  was  educated  at  Spring  Hill 
riate  raised  to  the  Diocese  of  Mobile.  His  cathedral  College,  and  ordained  (1850)  bv  Bishop  Portier,  and 
was  a  little  church  twenty  feet  wide  by  fifty  feet  for  twenty-four  years  laboiu^  in  Montgomery  and 
deep,  his  residence  a  still  smaller  two-roomed  frame  Mobile.  He  was  consecrated  at  Mobile  (8  Dec.,  1874). 
structure.  By  1850  there  were  churches  and  congre-  Bishop  of  Dulma,  and  appointed  vicar  Apostolic  ot 
gations  in  Mobile,  Spring  Hill,  Summerville,  Mount  Brownsville.  Tex.,  and  was  transferred  to  tne  IMocese 
Vernon,  Fish  River,  Pensacola,  Tuscaloosa,  and  Mont-  of  Mobile  (9  Idarch,  1884),  without  being  relieved, 
gomery.  however,  from  his  duties  as  vicar  Apostolic,  but  find- 
He  was  somewhat  relieved  in  the  same  ^rear  by  the  in^  the  burden  too  great  he  resigned  and  was  ap- 
detachment  of  the  eastern  portion  of  Florida  and  its  pomted  to  the  titular  see  of  Maronea. 
annexation  to  the  newly-created  See  of  Savannah,  Ga.  (4)  Jeremiah  O'Sullivan,  fourth  Bishop  of  Mo- 
To  add  to  his  relief  the  new  cathedral  of  the  Immacu-  bile,  b.  in  (Dounty  (Dork,  Ireland,  1844:  d.  at  Mobile, 
late  Conc^tion,  built  mainly  through  the  untiring  10  August,  1896.  He  came  to  the  United  States, 
efforts  of  the  Rev.  J.  McGarahan,  was  finished  at  a  1863,  entered  St.  Charles  (Dollege,  Ellicott  City,  Md., 
cost  of  over  eighty  thousand  dollars,  and  consecrated  whence  he  proceeded  to  St.  Manr's  Seminaiy,  Balti- 
8  December,  1850.  About  1830  Bishop  Portier  estab-  more,  Md.,  was  ordained  priest  (June,  1868)  by  Arch- 
lislied  Spring  HiU  College  and  Seminary^  at  the  head  of  bishop  Spalding,  and  consecrated  Bishop  of  Mobile 
which  was  the  Rev.  Mathias  Loras  until  he  was  con-  (20  Sept..  1885),  by  Cardinal,  then  Archoishop,  Gib- 
secrated  Bishop  of  Dubuque  (10  December.  1837)  b^  bons.  Tne  present  towers  of  the  Mobile  cathedral 
Bishop  Portier,  who  also  consecrated  another  prcsi-  were  built  by  Bishop  O'Sullivan,  who  successfully 
dent  of  Spring  Hill,  the  Rev.  John  S.  Bazin,  third  strove  to  restore  the  ruined  financial  status  of  the  dio- 
Bishop  01  Vincennes,  24  October,  1847.  Spring  Hill  cese.  A  gifted  administrator,  an  admired  orator,  an 
College,  for  a  time  in  charge  of  the  Eudist  Fathers,  extremely  zealous  and  holy  bishop.  Bishop  O'Sullivan 
was  Ukken  over  by  the  Jesmt  Fathers  (1846)  and  has  travelled  and  laboured  unceasingly  in  the  diocese, 
since  been  managed  successfully  by  them.  Bishop  and  left  to  posterity  a  monument  of  noble  results, 
Portier  held  there  a  diocesan  synod  (19  January,  temporal  and  spiritual,  quietly  and  imostentatiously 
1835).    In  1833  he  secured  from  the  Visitation  con-  achieved. 

vent.  Georgetown,  a  colony  of  nuns  who  established        (5)  Edward  Patrick  Allen,  fifth  and  present 

in  Mobile  a  house  and  academy,  which  is  in  a  very  Bishop  of  Mobile,  was  bom  in  Lowell,  Mass..   17 

flourishing  condition.     He  brought  the  Brothers  of  March,  1853,  and  educated  at  Mt.  St.  Mary's  Colleee, 

the  Sacr^  Heart  from  France  (about  1847),  and  Emmitsburg,  Md.,  where  he  was  ordained  priest  by 

the  Sisters  of  Charity  from  Enmiitsburg,  Md.,  to  Bishop  Becker,  17  Dec.,  1881.     He  was  appointed 

manage  orphan  aeylums  for  boys  and  girls  respect-  presiaent  of  Mt.  St.  Mary's  (1884),  and  filled  that 

ivety.    One  of  his  last  acts  was  the  foundation  of  office  most  acceptably  untu  his  consecration  as  Bie^op 

an  infirmary  at  Mobile  conducted  by  the  Sisters  of  of  Mobile,  by  Carcunal  Gibbons,  in  the  cathedral. 

Charity.  Baltimore,  Md.  (16  May,  1897).    Under  the  able  and 

(2)  JOHN  Quinlan,  second  Bishop  of  Mobile,  b.  in  prudent  management  of  Bishop  AUen^  the  diocese  has 

(Ik>unty  Cork,  Ireland,  19  October,  1826;  d.  at  Mo-  advanced  with  great  strides,  and  is  still  developing  at 

bile,  9  March,  1883.    He  came  to  the  United  States,  a  rapid  growth.    Many  churches  and  missions  have 

1844,  studied  for  the  priesthood  in  Mt.  St.  Mary's  been  erected,  hospitals,  orphanages,  and  schools  estab- 

College,   Emmitsburg,   Md.^   and  was  ordained  by  lished.  the  number  of  priests  more  than  doubled,  and 

ArchbidiopPurcell  (1853),  with  a  fellow  student,  Rich-  consiaerable  property  acciuired  with  a  view  to  the 

ftfd  Gilmour,  afterwards  second  Bishop  of  Cleveland,  further  development  of  his  rapidly  increasing  charge. 

He  was  consecrated  Bishop  of  Mobile,  4  Dec.,  1859,  by  The  diocese  was  sorely  tried  by  a  fearful  storm  and 

Archbishop  Blanc  in  St.  Louis'  cathedral.  New  Or-  tidal   wave  (Sept.,  1906).     Many   churches  either 

leans,  La.     In  his  diocese  he  found  twelve  churches  totally   or   partially   destroyed   have    been   rebuilt 

and  fourteen  schools  for  which  he  had  only  eight  secu-  or  repidred.     But  the  complete  results  of  Bishop 

lar  priests,  and  he  therefore  brought  from  Ireland  Allen's  prosperous  administration  are  best  noticed 

deven  young  candidates  for  the  priesthood.    Two  of  by  a  comparison  between  the  standing  of  the-diocese 


Moeissus 


m 


ll06dtPt 


when  he  aasumed  control  and  its  existing  admirable 
state. 

Statistics. — 1897  (year  of  Bishop  Allen's  arrival). 
— Churches  with  resident  priests.  22'  parishes  with 
parochial  schools,  15;  childi«n  under  Catholic  care  in 
colleges,  academies,  and  schools,  2526;  hospitals,  2; 
orphanages,  2;  baptisms,  infants,  820,  converts^  60; 
marriages,  163;  Catholic  population,  17,000;  priests, 
secular  and  relie^ous,  48. 

1910. — ^Priests,  secular,  49,  religious,  52,  total,  101; 
churches  with  resident  priests,  43;  missions  with 
churches,  31;  total  churche8,74;  stations,  149;  chapels, 
25;  brothers,  41;  religious  women,  274;  children  under 
Catholic  care,  5039;  colleges,  3;  high  school,  1; 
academies;  7,  schools,  31,  ana  orphanages,  3;  hospitals, 
4;  home  for  aged  poor,  1;  baptisms,  infants,  1478, 
converts,  552;  marriages,  302;  Catholic  population, 
38^. 

Bishop  Allen  takes  a  lively  interest  in  the  Negro 
Missions,  and  is  largely  responsible  for  the  good  work 
being  done  by  the  Josephite  Fathers  in  Mobile  and 
vicinity^  Birmingham,  and  Montgomery.  Near  the 
latter  city  is  St.  Joseph's  CoUege,  founded  (1901)  b^ 
the  Very  Kev.  T.  B.  Donovan,  lately  deceased,  the  pn- 
maiy  object  of  which  "  is  to  educate  yoimg  colored  men 
to  be  catechists  and  teachers."  With  Bishop  Allen's 
sanction  a  colored  fraternal  organization  was  insti- 
tuted in  Mobile,  1909,  by  the  Rev.  C.  Rebescher,  which 
gives  promise  of  universal  sood. 

Benefadora, — ^The  chief  Denefactors  of  the  diocese 
were  Messrs.  Felix  and  Arthur  McGill — ^the  McGill  In- 
stitute, a  high  school  for  bovs,  bears  their  name.  The 
Hannan  Home  for  the  aged  poor  is  a  tribute  to  the 
generosity  of  Major  P.  C.  Hannan,  who  built  it  along 
the  lines  of  Bishop  Allen's  choosing. 

Religious  Orders. — In  the  Diocese  of  Mobile  are  the 
Jesuits,  Benedictines,  Josephite  Fathers,  and  Broth- 
ers of  the  Sacred  Heart.  Also  the  Sisters  of  the 
Visitation,  Sisters  of  Charity,  Sisters  of  Mercy,  Sb- 
ters  of  Loretto,  Sisters  of  St.  Joseph,  Sisters  of 
St.  Benedict,  Little  Sisters  of  the  Poor,  and  Sisters 
of  Perpetual  Adoration.  There  are  three  Catholic 
cemeteries,  one  in  Mobile,  one  in  Birmingham,  and 
one  in  Montgomery.  The  intrepid  Admiral  Semmes 
and  Father  Kyan,  the  poet-priest,  are  buried  in  the 
Catholic  Cemetery,  Mobile.  By  a  singular  coin- 
cidence the  first  priest  who  came  to  laoour  in  the 
new  Diocese  of  Mobile  and  the  last  and  ruling  Bishop 
of  Mobile  were  students  of  Mt.  St.  Mary's  College, 
Emmitsburg,  Md.,  while  the  first  Bishop  of  San  Aii- 
tonio,  Tex.,  the  Rt.  Rev.  Anthony  D.  PeUicer,  and  its 
present  coadjutor,  the  Rt.  Rev.  John  W.  Shaw,  were 
native  priests  of  the  diocese,  both  having  been  con- 
secrated in  its  cathedral  (the  former,  8  Dec.,  1874, 
the  latter,  14  April,  1910),  of  which  each  in  turn  was 
pastor. 

Hamilton,  Colonial  Mobile  (Boston  and  New  York,  1807); 
Shba,  Hietory  of  the  CcUKolie  Church  in  the  United  Siatee  (Akron, 
O.,  New  York,  Chicago.  1886.  1892);  Insif.  De/endert  of  Our 
Faith  (New  York,  Chicago,  1886,  1893) ;  Mothbb  Austin,  A 
CathoUc  Hietory  of  Alabama  and  the  Floridae,  I  (New  York.  1908) ; 
Metropolitan  Catholic  Almanac  and  Laitu't  Directory  (Baltimore, 
1850  Boq.);  Official  Catholic  Directory  (Milwaukee,  New  York, 
1910) ;  KSOKR,  Die  Benedictiner  im  Staate  Alabama  (Baltimore, 
1898). 

Thobias  J.  Eaton. 

ModBStui,  a  titular  metroptolitan  see  of  Cappado- 
cia.  Procopius  (De  sedif.,  V,  iv)  informs  us  that  this 
fortified  site,  in  north-western  Cappadocia,  was  con- 
stituted metropolis  of  Cappadocia  Tertia  by  Justin- 
ian, when  he  divided  that  province  into  three  parts. 
The  emi>eror  gave  it  the  name  of  JustinianopoUs. 
Nothing  is  known  of  its  history,  and  its  name  should 
perhaps  be  written  Moceasua.  There  is  no  doubt 
that  tne  site  of  Mocissus,  or  Mocessus,  is  that  occu- 
pied by  the  modem  town  of  Kir-Sheir,  chief  town  of  a 
sanjak  in  the  vilayet  of  Angora,  which  possesses  8000 
inhabitants,  most  of  them  MusBulmans.     In  the 


neighbourhood  of  Kir-Sheir  there  are  some  important 
ancient  ruins.  This  metropolis  figures  in  the  "  N  oti- 
tis episcopatuum"  until  the  twelfui  or  thirteenth  cen- 
tury. Only  a  few  of  its  titulars  are  known:  the  earli- 
est, Peter,  attended  the  Council  of  Constantinople 
^536);  the  last,  whose  name  is  not  known,  was  a 
Catholic,  and  was  consecrated  after  the  Council  of 
Florence  by  Patriarch  Metrophanes  of  Constanti- 
nople. 

LB  Quzxif.  Oriene  chrid.,  I,  407;  SicrrB.  Diet,  of  Oreek  and 
Roman  Qeog,,  a.  v.;  Rakbat,  A«ia  Aftnor,  300. 

S.  FtnoDks. 

MoeotI  Indians. — The  name  is  also  written  Ma- 
coBio,  Mbocobi,  Mocobio.  They  are  a  warlike  and 
predatory  tribe  of  Guaycuran  stock,  and  are  closely 
related  hnguistically  to  the  Toba,  Mbaya,  and  Abi- 
pon,  their  usual  allies,  settled  pnncipany  along  the 
middle  and  upper  Vermejo  River,  in  the  Chaoo  region 
of  northern  Argentina,  although  they  formerlv  ex* 
tended  their  forays  as  far  south  as  Santa  F6  and  even 
to  the  gates  of  Buenos  Aires.  In  habit  of  life  and 
general  characteristics  they  resembled  the  rest  of  the 
tribes  lust  mentioned,  but  were  distinguished  even 
beyond  them,  as  Dobruehoffer  says,  ''in  atrocity  and 
steady  hatred  to  the  Spaniards.  They  seemed  to 
conspire  to  ruin  Tucuman,  proving  themselves  for- 
midable, not  to  solitary  estates  merely,  but  to  whole 
cities".  They  entirely  destroyed  the  town  of  Concep- 
cion  and  massacred  its  inhabitants. 

This  special  hostility  to  the  people  of  Tucuman 
was  due  to  the  fact  that  years  before  a  large  numbv 
of  Mocovi,  who  had  been  induced  through  the  efforts 
of  the  Jesuit  Fathers  Altamirano  and  Diaz  to  come  in 
from  the  war-path  and  had  been  organized  into  the 
mission  of  San  Xavier,  had  been  treacherously  seized 
and  distributed  as  slaves  by  the  governor  of  that  prov- 
ince. Thev  received  a  temporary  check  in  1710  from 
Governor  tJrizar,  who  led  a  great  expedition  of  over 
three  thousand  men  against  the  Chaco  tribes,  with  the 
result  that  several  tribes  made  peace,  while  the  Mo- 
covi retired  to  the  south-west  and  continued  their 
raids  in  that  quarter.  Thirty  years  later,  during  a 
period  of  truce,  some  of  the  Mocovi  became  ac- 
quainted with  the  Jesuits  of  the  College  of  Santa  F6, 
through  whose  influence  they  were  won  to  friendship 
with  the  Spaniards,  and  the  chiefs  Aletin  and  Chitalin 
consented  to  receive  Christian  instruction  together 
with  their  people.  As  a  result  the  Mocovi  mission 
colony  of  San  Xavier  was  established  in  1743  by  Fa- 
ther Francisco  Surges  Navarro,  thirty  leagues  from 
the  city,  and  from  a  small  beginning  increased  rapidly 
by  accessions  from  the  roving  bands  of  the  tribe,  who 
were,  from  time  to  time,  won  over  by  the  persuasions 
of  the  new  converts.  Prisoners  captured  in  the 
various  expeditions  were  also  brought  into  the  new 
mission,  while  many  voluntarily  took  refuge  there  to 
escape  pursuit. 

The  Mocovi  proved  devout,  tractable,  and  willing 
workers,  and  puticularly  competent  musicians  under 
the  instruction  of  the  German  Father  Florian  Pauke, 
who  organized  a  band  and  chorus  whose  services  were 
in  demand  on  church  occasions  even  in  Buenos  Aires. 
With  bell  in  hand,  the  chief  himself,  Aletin,  acted  as 
crier  every  morning  to  call  his  people  to  Mass,  and 
took  the  lead  in  every  task  of  difficulty.  A  third 
chief,  who  had  long  held  out  against  the  Spaniards  and 
made  war  upon  his  mission  kinsmen  in  revenge  for 
their  abandonment  of  the  old  life,  finally  came  in  vol- 
untarily. In  1765  a  second  Mocovi  mission,  San 
Pedro  y  Pablo,  was  established  by  Father  Pauke  with 
another  portion  of  the  tribe  which  had  until  then  con- 
tinued hostile. 

At  the  time  of  the  expulsion  of  the  Jesuits  in  1767 
the  two  missions  contained  about  1200  Mocovi.  of 
whom  all  but  a  few  were  Christians.  Deprived  of 
their  accustomed  teachers,  most  of  them  finally  re« 
joined  their  wild  kinsmen  in  the  forests  of  the  Cnaoo. 


HODAUaM  4 

In  1800  the  tribe  was  still  loosely  estimated  at  2000 
warriora  or  over  6000  bouIs.  '1  hey  are  now  reduced 
far  below  th&t  number,  but  retain  their  tribal  or- 
fpmiiation  and  habits,  though  no  longer  hostile, 
and  i&Dge  generally  along  the  weatern  banks  of  the 
Parana-  Tne  best  study  of  their  language  is  Father 
Tavoliiii's"liitroduccidn  al  Art«  Mooovl    .     (See  also 

TOBA.) 

BaunoH,  Aiurvm  Race  (Neir  York,  ISSl);    Chablxtoix. 

HiH.t/ Fanc<iay.U.i2yo]M.,toadan,neO):  Dossiuorr 
• -      .     .       .       .^22);"—-'-  -•  ■ 


(La  PUtm,  1803). 


•o'tit  la  nua:  i 


m  M  C'AtHu.  I 


Jaugs  Moonbv. 


See  Mo  s  AH  CHI  A  VIS  II. 


13  UO&CHA 

gle  between  the  popes  and  Frederick  II  Modeda  Wu 
Gliibelline,  and  in  conflict  with  the  Guelph  dtiee; 
ueverthelesB,  it  haiboured  a  strong  Guelph  party, 
under  the  leadership  of  the  Aigoni  {amily,  while  the 
Ghibellines  were  led  by  the  Graaolfi.  In  12SS,  to  put 
an  end  to  internal  dissensions,  Modena  gave  its  alle- 
siance  to  Obizzo  II  of  £^te,  Lord  of  Ferrara,  who  also 
became  master  of  Reggio  in  1291.  After  the  death  of 
his  son  AzEo  VIII  (1308),  Modena  became  free  again, 
but  lost  a  part  of  its  temtoiy.  On  the  arrivid  of 
Heniy  VII,  the  town  received  an  imperial  vicar;  in 
1317,  it  welcomed  a  pontifical  legate,  choosing  later 
for  jta  lord  John  of  Bohemia,  while,  in  1336,  it  was 
ceded  by  Manfredo  Pio  of  Carpi  to  Obizzo  III  of  Ekte 
and  Ferrara  in  whose  family  it  remained  until  1859. 
Among  his  successora  were  Nicol6  III,  who  recov- 


t,  AscHDiocESK  OF  (Mir 
tral  Italy,  between  the  rivers  Secchia  and  Panaro. 
The  city  contMns  many  fine  buildings.  The  Roman- 
esque cathedral,  begun  in  1099,  consecrated  by  Lucius 
III  in  1184,  bearo  on  its  interior  facade  scenes  from 
the  Old  and  from  the  New  Testament  sculptured  in 
white  marble,  and  the  high  altar  possesses  a  Purifica- 
tion by  Guido  Reni;  the  inlaid  work  of  the  choir,  by 
the  I.endinara  brothers  (1465),  is  very  beautiful;  in 
the  belfry,  called  the  Ghirlandina,  is  kept  the  famous 
wooden  pail  t^en  from  the  Bologneae  ai  ter  the  battle 
of  ZappoLno  (1325);  this  p^l  is  the  subject  of  the 
heioic-comic  epic  of  Taesoni. "  LaSecchia  Rapita  ";  the 
pulpit  is  a  noteworthy  work  of  Arrigo  del  Campione. 
Notable  churches  of  Modena  are  San  Agoatino,  which 
contains  the  tombs  of  the  historians  Slgonius  and 
Muratori;  San  Pietro,  with  its  beautiful  Hpecimens  of 
the  art  of  Giambellini,  Dosai,  and  Francia;  San  Ste- 
fano  dells  Pomposa,  of  which  Muratori  was  provost, 
and  others,  all  rich  in  works  of  art.  The  magnificent 
Ducal  Palace,  built  in  1035  by  Duke  Francesco  I,  ac- 
cording to  the  plans  of  Avaiuini,  besides  a  valuable 
^lery  erf  pictures,  contains  frescos  by  Franceschini, 
Tintoretto,  Dossi,  and  others,  and  a  library  with  more 
than  three  thousand  manuscripts.  The  Royal,  Com- 
munal, and  Capitular  archives  possess  many  impor- 
tant documents.  The  university  was  founded  by 
Duke  Francesco  III  in  1738,  but  Modena,  as  early  as 
1182,  had  a  ttudium  pe7i«ra!e  which  rivalled  that  of 
Bologna.  The  citadel,  penta^nal  in  shape,  dates 
from  1635;  its  walls  and  bastions  were  transformed 
into  a  public  promenade  in  1816.  There  has  been  a 
military  school  for  infantry  and  for  cavalry  in  the 
royal  palace  of  Moilena  since  1859:  it  was  estab- 
lisned  by  the  last  duke,  Francesco  V.  The  various 
beneficent  institutions  of  this  city  are  united  in  the 
Opera  Pia  CeneraU. 

At  the  time  of  the  Gallic  War,  Mutina,  the  I^atin 
name  of  Modena,  was  already  in  the  power  of  the  Ro- 
mans, who  were  besieged  there  in  223  B.  c.  A  Roman 
colony  was  taken  from  Modena,  234  n.  c,  and  a  dec- 
ade Uter,  the  town  was  in  the  power  of  the  Ligurians 
for  a  year.  It  was  there,  also,  that  Spartacus  de- 
feated the  consul  Cassius  in  71  b.  c.  The  famous  hel- 
ium Mvlitiense  (42  b.  c.)  decided  the  fate  of  the  repub- 
lic at  Rome.  During  the  Empire  Modena  was  one  of 
the  most  proeperoua  cities  in  Italy,  but  in  the  war 
between  Constantine  and  Maxentius,  the  city  was  be- 
sieged, and  fell  into  great  decadence  until  698,  when  it 
was  revived  by  King  Cunibert. 

Chfuiemagne  made  it  the  capital  of  aline  of  counts, 
whose  authority,  however,  was  before  long  eclipsed 
by  thst  at  the  bishops,  one  of  whom,  St.  Lodomus, 
in  897  surrounded  the  city  with  walls,  to  protect  it 
against  Hungarian  incursions,  while  Bishop  Ingone 
was  formally  invested  with  the  title  of  count  by  Em- 
peror Conrad  1.  Later,  Modena  was  a  pOBsession  of 
the  Countess  Matilda,  after  whose  death  (1115)  the 
cily  became  a  free  commune,  and  in  time  joined  the 
Lombard  League  against  BarbarosBa.    In  the  strug- 


E  (XII  Cbktdbi),  Tub  Catbbdbu.  Uodbha 


of  Modena  from  the  emperor  in  1452,  and  later  that 
of  Duke  of  Ferrara,  from  Paul  11.  In  the  sixteenth 
centuiy,  in  the  palace  of  the  Grillenzoni  family,  there 
flourished  an  academy  of  letters.  The  city  submitted 
to  Julius  II  in  1510,  out  was  restored  to  the  Duke  of 
Parma  in  1530  by  Charles  V  at  the  death  of  Alfonso 
II;  however,  in  1597  Ferrara  returned  to  immediate 
dependency  upon  the  Holy  See,  but  Modena,  with 
R«ggio  and  its  other  lands,  as  a  fief  of  the  Empire, 
passed  to  Cesare,  cousin  of  Alfonso  II. 

From  that  time  a  new  era  began  for  Modena,  hence- 
forth the  home  of  a  court  devoted  to  the  arts  and  let- 
ters, and  solicitous  for  the  public  veal.  The  son  of 
Cesare,  Alfonso  III,  after  a  reign  of  only  one  year 
(1529),  became  a  Capuchin  mo^  in  the  convent  of 
Castelnuovo  di  Garfaenana,  founded  by  him,  and 
died  in  1614,  Alfonso  IV,  in  1662,  was  succeeded  b^ 
the  young  Francesco  II,  whose  regents  were  hu 
mother  Laura  and  his  great-unele  Cardinal  Rinaldo. 
He  built  the  Ducal  Palace  and  the  citadel  and  added 
Coreggio  to  his  territory.  As  Francesco  II  died  with- 
out [irogeny  (1658),  Modena  came  into  the  possession 
of  his  uncle  Rinaldo,  a  cardinal  also,  who  married 


MOfilWA 


414 


MOUBNA 


Carlotta  of  Brunswick,  and  after  a  reign  frequently 
troubled  by  French  incursions,  left  the  ducaJ  throne 
to  his  son  Francesco  III  in  1737,  when  the  latter  was 
fiehting  against  the  Turks  in  Hungary.  Francesco 
III  also  governed  Milan  for  Maria  Theresa.  Ercole 
III.  who  by  his  marriage  acquired  the  duchy  of  Massa 
ana  Carrara,  succeeded  to  that  of  Modena  in  1780,  and 
at  the  approach  of  Napoleon,  sought  refuge  at  Venice. 
Modena  became  the  capital  of  the  Cispadan,  united 
later  to  the  Cisalpine  republic,  and  eventually  was 
incorporated  into  the  Kmgdom  of  Italy.  In  1803 
Ercole  received,  as  compensation  for  the  loss  of  Mo- 
dena, Breisgau  and  Ortenau.  His  daughter  and  only 
child,  Maria  Beatrice,  married  the  Archduke  Ferdi- 
nand of  Austria,  and  their  son  Francesco  IV,  in  1814 
received  the  Duchy  of  Modena,  while  Maria  Beatrice 
governed  Massa  and  Carrara  until  her  death.  In 
1831  occurred  the  famous  conspiracy  of  Ciro  Menotti 
on  the  night  of  the  third  and  fourth  of  February;  it 
was  discovered,  and  Menotti  was  imprisoned,  taken  to 
Milan  by  the  duke,  who  had  been  constrained  to  flee 
to  that  city  by  the  revolt  of  Bologna,  and  was  hanged 
on  16  May,  after  the  duke's  return  to  Modena.  In 
1846  Francesco  V  succeeded  to  the  duchy,  and  in  the 
troubles  of  1848  was  compelled  to  seek  refuge  in 
Austria,  but  returned  in  the  following  year.  In  1859, 
however,  having  declared  for  Austna,  he  was  again 
obUged  to  leave  his  states,  and  the  provisional  govern- 
ment, imder  Carlo  Farini,  decreed  the  annexation  of 
Modena  to  the  Kingdom  of  Italy. 

Among  the  famous  men  of  Modena  are  the  astrono- 
mer Geminiano  Montanari,  the  anatomist  Gabriele 
Falloppio,  the  great  Austrian  general  Montecucoli, 
Cardmal  Savoleto,  Sigonius,  Miu^tori,  Tiraboschi, 
and  the  poet  Tassoni.  According  to  local  tradition, 
the  first  Bishop  of  Modena  was  St.  Cletus — ^probably 
sent  there  by  Pope  Dionysius  about  270.  After  him, 
there  is  mention  of  another  bishop,  Antonius  or  An- 
toninus, to  whom  reference  is  made  in  the  life  of  St. 
Geminianus  his  predecessor;  this  great  bishop  and  pro- 
tector of  the  city  sheltered  in  334  St.  Athanasius  and 
died  in  349.  Other  bishops  of  Modena  were  St.  Theo- 
dulus  ^about  398),  formerly  a  notarius  or  secretary  of 
St.  Ambrose;  St.  Geminianus  II  (III  according  to  Cap- 
pelletti)  who  is  said  to  have  induced  Attila  to  spare 
Modena  (452) ;  St.  Lupicinus  (749),  in  whose  time  the 
famous  abbey  of  Nonantola  was  foimded  by  Duke 
Anselm  of  Fnuli:  and  JE^diua  (1097),  who  b^an  the 
construction  of  tne  cathedral.  In  1148  the  Diocese  of 
Modena  was  suppressed  for  a  time  on  account  of  dis- 
cord with  the  Aobots  of  Nonantola.  William,  bishop 
in  1221,  frequently  served  the  popes,  Honorius  III  and 
Gregory  IX,  as  legate,  especially  among  the  Prus- 
sians, the  livonians,  the  Esthonians,  etc.;  eventusdly 
he  resigned  his  see  to  devote  himself  to  the  conversion 
of  those  peoples  (cf.  Balan,  ^'Sulle  legazioni  compiute 
nei  palsi  nordici  da  Guglielmo  vescovo  di  Modena,'' 
ibid.,  1872).  Bonadaneo  Boschetti,  bishop  in  1311, 
was  driven  from  his  diocese  by  the  Ghibellines: 
Nioold  Boiardo  (1401)  did  much  for  ecclesiastical 
discipline;  Nicold  Sandonnino  (1479)  was  pontifical 
legate  in  Spain;  Giovanni  Morone  (1529)  founded  the 
seminary,  and  is  famous  for  missions  on  which  he  was 
sent  to  Germany  in  the  beginnings  of  Lutheranism. 
Under  him,  through  the  "  Accademia'',  Protestantism 
obtained  a  footing  in  Modena,  and  was  eradicated 
with  difficulty;  ^Egidio  Foscarari  (1550),  to  whom  the 
Coimcil  of  Trent  entrusted  the  correction  of  the  Ro- 
man Missal  and  the  preparation  of  its  Catechism  for 
Parish  Priests;  Roberto  Fontana  (1646)  and  Giuseppe 
M.  Folignano  (1757)  both  restorers  of  the  episcopal 
palace,  while  the  second  did  much  for  the  endowment 
of  the  seminary. 

In  1821  the  Abbey  of  Nonantola,  a  prcBlatura 
nvUius  dioBceaeoSj  was  united  to  the  Diocese  of  Mo- 
dena; and  the  latter,  a  suffragan  of  Milan  until  1852, 
was  then  raised  to  the  dignity  of  a  metropolitan  see, 


with  Carpi,  Guastalla,  Massa,  and  Reggio  Emilia  fof 
its  suffragans.  The  Abbey  of  Nonantola  was  famous, 
once,  as  a  center  of  discipline  and  ecclesiastical  learn- 
ing, and  through  it  a  great  impetus  was  given  to 
agriculture  in  tne  surrounding  country.  Politically, 
Nonantola  entered  into  an  alliance  with  Bologna  to 
preserve  its  independence,  especially  against  Modena, 
but  like  the  latter  it  became  a  possession  of  the  house 
of  Este  in  1411.  Until  1449  the  administration  of 
Nonantola  was  confided  to  commendatoiy  abbots, 
one  of  whom  was  St.  Charles  Borromeo.  The  liter- 
ary treasures  of  the  abbey  gradually  found  their  way 
into  the  various  libraries  of  Italy. 

The  Archdiocese  of  Modena,  with  Nonantola,  con- 
tains 179  parishes,  in  which  there  are  220,400  faithful, 
with  455  secular  and  50  regular  priests;  8  religious 
houses  of  men.  and  13  of  women;  5  schools  for  boys 
and  7  for  girls;  60  seminarians;  450  chuitJies  or 
chapels. 

Cappbllbttx.  Le  Chiete  d* Italia,  XV;  Tirabobchi,  Mttmoru 
atoriche  modenen  (Modena,  1793-94) ;  Idem,  Storia  delta  Badia  di 
Nonantola  (Modena,  1784).  also  Biblioteca  modenne  (1781-86); 
Baraldi,  Compendia  atoria  deUa  eiltd  di  Modena  (Modena, 
1846):  ScHARFBNBBRO,  OeeckichU  der  HerzogtUmer  Modena  und 
Ferrara  (Mains,  1859);  Sandokini,  Modena  eotto  il  aotemo  dei 
papi  (Modena,  1879) ;  Monumenti  di  ttoria  patria  per  le  provineit 
modeneai  (Parma,  1861 — ). 

Univbrsitt  of  Modena. — At  the  end  of  the  twelfth 
century  there  existed  at  Modena  in  Italy,  a  flourishing 
school  of  jurisprudence.  Pilius,  who  established  him- 
self there  as  a  teacher  in  1182,  compares  its  renown  to 
that  of  Bologna.  During  the  whole  of  the  thirteenth 
century  professors  of  great  repute  taught  there,  with 
only  a  brief  interruption  between  1222  and  1232, 
though  even  durine  that  interval  Albertus  Papiensis 
and  Hubertus  de  iBonaccursis  still  lectured.  Other 
famous  professors  of  this  period  were  Martinus  de 
Fano,  Guilelmus  Durantis,  Albertus  Galeottus.  Guido 
de  Suzaria,  Nicolaus  Matarellus,  and,  probably.  Boni- 
fadus  a  Mutina,  who  afterwards  became  Bishop  of 
Modena  (1337)  and  of  Bergamo  (1340).  In  the  four- 
teenth century  the  Studium  fell  into  decay,  in  spite  of 
the  efforts  which  the  commune  of  Modena  put  forth 
to  maintain  it.  A  commimal  enactment  provided, 
in  1328,  that  three  professors — one  each  for  law,  medi- 
cine, and  the  training  of  notaries — were  to  be  engaged 
by  contract  every  year;  this  statute  is  the  only  extant 
documentary  evidence  that  medicine  as  well  as  law 
was  taught  at  Modena,  and  the  Modenese  School 
was  never  called  a  Studium  Generale.  Its  decay  was 
hastened,  not  only  by  political  vicissitudes,  but  by  the 
creation  of  other  umversities  in  the  neighbouring 
states.  With  the  restitution  of  Ferrara  to  the  Papiu 
States  (1597),  Modena  became  the  capital  of  the 
House  of  Este,  and  once  more  there  was  a  possibility  of 
reviving  the  extinct  Studium.  This  was  not  realised, 
however,  until  a  century  later  (1678). 

This  new  university,  which  owed  much  to  the 
priest  Cristoforo  Borghi,  was  joined  to  the  coUege  (con- 
viUo)  of  the  Congregation  of  St.  Charles.  It  was  in- 
augurated in  1683  by  Duke  Francis  II.  In  1772, 
Francis  III  increased  the  number  of  chairs,  took  steps 
to  secure  able  professors,  and  endowed  it  with  tne 
property  of  the  suppressed  Society  of  Jesus.  His 
most  important  service  was  the  drafting  of  a  constitu- 
tion for  the  university.  With  the  French  invasion  of 
1796  the  University  of  Modena  was  reduced  to  the 
rank  of  a  lyceum,  and  in  1809  nothing  remained  of  it 
but  the  faculty  of  philosophy.  When  Francis  IV  re- 
covered his  tlirone  (1815)  he  restored  the  university, 
but  the  disturbances  of  1821  caused  him  to  modify  its 
organization  by  distributing  the  students  in  various 
cormtii  scattered  through  his  states.  In  1848,  how- 
ever, the  earlier  organization  was  revived.  In  1859 
the  provisional  Government  suppressed  the  theoloei- 
cal  faculty,  and  in  1862  the  courses  in  philosophy 
and  literature  disappeared.  The  university  now  nas 
faculties  of  jurisprudence,  medicine,  suxigery,  scienoe 


MODBBNISM 


415 


MODBBMISM 


,[iiiatli«iDatic8,  natural  sciences,  and  chemistry). 
scfaoob  of  phannacy,  of  veterinaiy  medicine,  and  ot 
obstetrics. 

It  numbers  51  instructors  with  12  assistants,  who 
treat  d5  different  subjects;  the  attendance  in  1908, 
was  431 ;  in  1909,  422.  Annexed  to  the  university  are 
the  museum  of  experimental  phvsics,  founded,  in 
1760,  by  Fra  Mario  Morini:  the  chemical  laboratory 
and  cabinet  founded  bv  Micnele  Rosa;  the  museum  m 
natural  history  founded,  in  1786,  by  a  bequest  of 
Gius^pe  M.  Fogliani,  Bishop  of  Modena;  the  mu- 
seum of  anatomy  founded  b^  Torti  in  1698,  and 
Ant.  ScEupa  in  1774;  the  cabmet  of  maUria  medica 
founded  in  1773  by  Gius.  M.  Savanti;  the  laborato- 
ries of  pathological  anatomy,  experimental  physics, 
and  pharmaceutical  chemistry;  the  botanical  garden 
founded  by  Fhinds  III  in  1765;  an  observatory,  a 
veterinary  institute  and  museum,  clinics,  and  a  li- 
brary. Besides  those  already  mentioned,  the  follow- 
ing professon  of  this  university  have  attained  high 
distinction:  Virginio  Natta,  O.P.,  O.  Gherli,  O.P., 
8oona  (afterwaras  minister  to  Francis  IV),  Girolamo 
Tiraboschi  (lustorian  of  Italian  letters),  Agostino 
Paradisi,  Gmliano  Cassiani.  Padre  Pompilio  Pozzetti, 
the  Abbate  Spallanzani,  Bonaventura  Curti,  G.  B. 
Ventuii,  Bernardino  Ramaszini  (seventeenth  cen- 
tury), uio.  Cinelli,  Luigi  Emiliani,  Paolo  Gaddi,  and 
the  later  deceased  Galvagni. 

Vacxia,  Ctnno  ttcriea  deUa  R.  UniveraitA  di  Modena  (Modena, 
1873);  Annuario  deOa  R.  Unit,  di  Modena  (Modena,  1865) ;  Cam- 
Fou,  Jnformanoni  delta  R,  Univ.  di  Modena  (Modena,  1861); 
NotizU  aUfriche  circa  V  Unit,  di  M.  in  Omucoli  rdiaion^  Uiterari  e 

a  (July,  August.  1863) ;  Dbniplb,  .Dm  UnivereitdUn  dee  MO- 

T9  bia  1400^  (Berlin.  1885),  296  aqq. 

U.  Bbniqni. 


tdaUere 


Modernism. — Oriotn  or  the  Word. — ^Et3rmolo0[* 
cally,  modernism  means  an  exaggerated  love  of  what 
is  modem,  an  infatuation  for  modem  ideas,  'Hhe 
abuse  of  what  is  modem",  as  the  Abb6  Gaudaud 
explains  (La  Foi  catholique,  I.  1908,  p.  248).  The 
modem  ideas  of  which  we  speak  are  not  as  old  as  the 
period  called  "modem  times".  Though  Protestant- 
ism has  generated  them  little  by  little,  it  did  not 
understand  from  the  bediming  that  such  would  be  its 
sequel.  There  even  exists  a  conservative  Protestant 
party  which  is  one  with  the  Church  in  combating 
modernism.  In  general  we  ma^  say  that  modernism 
aims  at  that  radical  transformation  of  human  thought 
in  relation  to  God,  man,  the  world,  and  life,  here  and 
hereafter,  which  was  prepared  bv  Humanism  and 
eighteenth-century  philosophy,  and  solemnly  promul* 
gated  at  the  French  Revolution.  J.  J.  Rousseau,  who 
treated  an  atheistical  philosopher  of  his  time  as  a 
modernist,  seems  to  have  been  the  first  to  use  the 
word  in  this  sense  ("  Correspondance  k  M.  D.",  15 
Jan..  1769).  Littr6  (Dictionnaire).  who  cites  the  pas- 
sage, explains:  ''Modernist,  one  who  esteems  modem 
times  airo ve  antiquity" .  Alter  that,  the  word  seems  to 
have  been  forgotten,  till  the  time  of  the  Catholic  pub- 
liost  P^rin  (1815-1905)^rofe88or  at  the  Universit3r  of 
Louvain,  1844-1889.  Tnis  writer,  whilst  apologizing 
for  the  coinage,  describes  'Hhe  humanitarian  tenden- 
cies of  contemporary  society"  as  modernism.  The 
term  itsdf  he  defines  as  ''the  ambition  to  eliminate 
God  from  all  social  life  ".  With  this  absolute  modem- 
ism  he  associates  a  more  temperate  form,  which  he 
declares  to  be  nothing  less  than  "Ubendism  of  every 
degree  and  shade"  ("Le  Modemisme  dans  PEglise 
d'aprds  les  lettres  in^dites  de  Lamennais",  Paris, 
1881). 

During  the  early  years  of  the  present  century,  espe- 
cially about  1905  and  1906,  the  tendency  to  innovation 
which  troubled  the  Italian  dioceses,  and  especially  the 
ranks  of  the  ^oung  clergy,  was  taxed  with  modernism. 
Thus  at  Christmas,  1905,  the  bishops  of  the  ecclesias- 
tical provinces  of  Tunn  and  Vercelli^  in  a  circular  let- 
ter Qt  tbl^t  date,  uttered  grave  warnings  against  what 


they  called  "Modemismo  nel  dero"  (Modenusm 
among  the  clergy) .  Several  pastoral  letters  of  the  year 
1906  made  use  of  the  same  term ;  among  others  we 
may  mention  the  Lenten  charge  of  Carcunal  Nava, 
Ardibishop  of  Catania,  to  his  clergy,  a  letter  of  Cardi- 
nal Bacilieri,  Bishop  of  Verona,  dated  22  July,  1906. 
and  a  letter  of  Mgr  ttossi,  Archbishop  of  Acerenza  and 
Matera.  "Modemismo  e  Modemisti",  a  work  by 
Abbate  Cavallanti  which  was  publiidied  towards  the 
end  of  1906,  gives  long  extracts  from  these  letters. 
The  name  "modernism  was  not  to  the  liking  of  the 
reformers.  The  propriety  of  the  new  term  was  dis- 
cussed even  amount  good  Catholics.  When  the  De- 
cree "Lamentabih"  appeared,  Msr  Baudrillart  ex- 
pressed his  pleasure  at  not  findmg  the  word  "modern- 
ism" mentioned  in  it  (Revue  pratique  d'apolog^tique, 
IV,  p.  578).  He  considered  the  term  "too  vague". 
Besides  it  seemed  to  insinuate  "that  the  Church  con- 
demns everything  modem".  The  Encyclical  "Pas- 
cendi"  (8  l^pt.,  1907)  put  an  end  to  the  discussion. 
It  bore  the  official  title,  "De  Modemistarum  doo- 
trinis".  The  introduction  declared  that  the  name 
commonly  given  to  the  upholden  of  the  new  errors 
was  not  inapt.  Since  then  the  modernists  themselves 
have  acquiesced  in  the  use  of  the  name,  though  they 
have  not  admitted  its  propriety  (Loisy,  "Simples 
reflexions  sur  le  d6cret  'Lamentabili'  et  sur  Tency- 
clique  'Pascendi'  du  8  Sept.,  1907",  p.  14;  "11  pro- 
gramma  dei  modernisti":  note  at  the  beginning). 

Theory  of  Theological  Modernism. — (1)  The 
e88enlial  error  of  Modernism. — ^A  full  definition  of 
modemism  would  be  rather  difficult.  First  it  stands 
for  certain  tendencies,  and  secondly  for  a  body  of 
doctrine  which,  if  it  has  not  given  birth  to  these  ten- 
dencies (practice  often  precedes  theory),  serves  at  any 
rate  as  their  explanation  and  support.  Such  tenden- 
cies manifest  themselves  in  different  domains.  They 
are  not  united  in  each  individual,  nor  are  they  always 
and  everywhere  found  together.  Modernist  doctrine, 
too.  may  be  more  or  less  radical,  and  it  is  swallowed 
in  doses  that  vary  with  each  one's  likes  and  dislikes. 
In  the  Encyclical  "Pascendi",  Pius  X  says  that 
modemism  embraces  every  heresy.  M.  Loisy  makes 
practically  the  same  statement  when  he  writes  that 
''in  reality  all  CathoUo  theology,  even  in  its  funda- 
mental prmciples,  the  general  philosophy  of  religion. 
Divine  mw,  and  the  laws  that  govern  our  knowledge  of 
God,  come  up  for  judgment  before  this  new  court  of 
assize"  (Simples  inflexions,  p.  24).  Modemism  is  a 
composite  system:  its  assertions  and  claims  lack  that 
principle  which  unites  the  natural  faculties  in  a  living 
being.  The  Encyclical "  Pascendi "  was  the  first  Catho- 
lic synthesis  of  the  subject.  Out  of  scattered  materials 
it  built  up  what  looked  like  a  logical  system.  Indeed 
friends  and  foes  alike  could  not  but  admire  the  patient 
skill  that  must  have  been  needed  to  fashion  something 
like  a  co-ordinated  whole.  In  their  answer  to  the  En- 
cycUcal,  "II  programma  dei  Modemisti"^  the  Modern- 
ists tried  to  retouch  this  synthesis.  Previous  to  all  this, 
some  of  the  Italian  bishops,  in  their  pastoral  letters, 
had  attempted  such  a  synthesis.  We  would  partic- 
ularly mention  that  of  Mgr  Rossi,  Bishop  of  Acerensa 
and  Matera.  In  this  respect,  too,  Abbate  Cavallanti's 
book,  already  referred  to,  aeserves  mention.  Even 
earlier  still,  German  and  French  Protestants  had  done 
some  synthetical  work  in  the  same  direction.  Promi- 
nent among  them  are  Kant,  "  Die  Religion  innerhalb 
der  Grenzen  der  reinen  Vemunft"  (1^3);  Schleier- 
macher,  "Der  christliche  Glaube"  (1821-1822):  and 
A.  Sabatier,  "Esquisse  d'une  philosophic  de  la  religion 
d'apr^  la  psychologie  et  Thistoire"  (1897). 

The  general  idea  of  modemism  maybe  best  ex- 
pressed in  the  words  of  Abbate  Cavallanti,  thoug^ 
even  here  there  is  a  little  vagueness:  "Modemism  is 
modem  in  a  false  sense  of  the  word;  it  is  a  morbid 
state  of  conscience  among  Catholics,  and  especiidly 
youn^  Catholics,  that  professes  mfwifQl^  ideals,  opiih 


MODXBNXSM 


416 


Ions,  and  tendencies.  From  time  to  time  these  tenden- 
cies work  out  into  systems,  that  are  to  renew  the  basis 
and  superstructure  of  society,  politics,  philosophy, 
theology,  of  the  Church  herself  and  of  the  Christian 
rdigio?'.  A  remodelling,  a  renewal  according  to  the 
ideas  of  the  twentieth  century — such  is  the  longing 
that  possesses  the  modernists.  "  The  avowed  modern- 
ists", says  M.  Loisy.  ''form  a  fairly  definite  group  of 
thinking  men  united  in  the  common  desire  to  adapt 
Catholicism  to  the  intellectua].  moral  and  social  needs 
of  to-day  "  (op.  cit.,  p.  13) .  "  Our  religious  attitude  ", 
as  "H  programma  dei  modemisti"  states  (p.  5.  note  1), 
"is  ruled  by  the  sinsle  wish  to  be  one  with  Christians 
and  Catholics  who  five  in  harmony  with  the  spirit  of 
the  age".  The  spirit  of  this  plan  of  reform  may  be 
summarized  under  the  following  heads:  (a)  A  spirit  of 
complete  emancipation,  tending  to  weaken  ecdesias- 
tical  authority;  the  emancipation  of  science,  which 
must  traverse  every  field  of  investigation  without  fear 
of  conflict  with  the  Church:  the  emancipation  of  the 
State,  which  should  never  be  hamperea  by  religious 
authority;  the  emancipation  of  the  private  conscience, 
whose  inspirations  must  not  be  overridden  by  papal 
definitions  or  anathemas:  the  emancipation  of  the 
universal  conscience,  with  which  the  Church  should 
be  ever  in  agreement;  (b)  A  spirit  of  movement  and 
change,  with  an  inclination  to  a  sweeping  form  of  evo- 
lution such  as  abhors  an^rthing  fixed  and  stationary; 
(c)  A  spirit  of  reconciliation  among  all  men  through 
the  fec&gs  of  the  heart.  Many  and  varied  also  are 
the  modernist  dreams  of  an  understanding  between 
the  different  Christian  religions,  nav,  even  between 
religion  and  a  species  of  atheism,  ana  all  on  a  basis  of 
a^eement  that  must  be  superior  to  mere  doctrinal 
differences. 

Such  are  the  fundamental  tendencies.  As  such, 
they  seek  to  explain,  justify,  and  strengthen  them- 
selves in  an  error,  to  which  therefore  one  might  give 
the  name  of  ''essential"  modernism.  What  is  this 
error?  It  is  nothing  less  than  the  perversion  of 
dospia.  Manifold  are  the  degrees  and  shades  of  mod- 
erSst  doctrine  on  the  question  of  our  relations  with 
God.  But  no  real  modernist  keeps  the  Catholic  notions 
of  dogma  intact.  Are  you  doubtful  as  to  whether  a 
writer  or  a  book  is  modernist  in  the  formal  sense  of  the 
word  ?  Verify  every  statement  about  do^a;  examine 
his  treatment  of  its  origin,  its  nature,  its  sense,  its 
authority.  You  will  know  whether  you  are  deaiing 
with  a  veritable  modernist  or  not,  according  to  the  way 
in  which  the  Catholic  conception  of  dogma  is  traves- 
tied or  respected.  Dogma  and  supernatural  knowl- 
edge are  correlative  terms;  one  implies  the  other  as 
the  action  implies  its  obiect.  In  this  way  then  we  may 
define  modernism  as  "the  critique  of  our  supernatural 
knowledge  according  to  the  false  postulates  of  oon- 
temporarv  philosophy  " . 

It  will  be  advisfible  for  us  to  quote  a  full  critique 
of  such  supernatural  knowledge  as  an  example  of  the 
mode  of  procedure.  (In  the  meantime  however  we 
must  not  forget  that  there  are  partial  and  less  ad- 
vanced modernists  who  do  not  go  so  far).  For  them, 
external  intuition  furnishes  man  with  but  phenomenal, 
contingent,  sensible  knowledge.  He  sees,  he  feels,  he 
hears,  he  tastes,  he  touches  this  something,  this 
phenomenon  that  comes  and  goes  without  telling  him 
aught  of  the  existence  of  a  suprasensible,  absolute  and 
unchaxudng  reality  outside  ful  environing  space  and 
time.  But  deep  within  himself  man  feels  the  need  of 
a  higher  hope.  He  aspires  to  perfection  in  a  being  on 
whom  he  feels  his  destiny  depends.  And  so  he  has  an 
instinctive,  an  affective  yearning  for  God.  This  neces- 
sary impulse  is  at  first  obscure  and  hidden  in  the 
subconsciousness.  Once  consciously  understood,  it 
reveals  to  the  soul  the  intimate  presence  of  God. 
This  manifestation,  in  which  God  and  man  collabo- 
rate, is  nothing  else  than  revelation.  Under  the  influ- 
W99  ^  its  yeaminjs,  that  i?  of  it9  reli^ous  f eeUncp,  the 


soul  tries  to  reach  God,  to  adopt  towards  Him  an  atti- 
tude that  will  satisfy  its  yearning.  It  gropes,  it 
searches.  These  gropings  form  the  soul's  religious 
experience.  They  are  more  easy,  sucousful  andfar- 
reaching,  or  less  so,  according  as  it  is  now  one,  now 
another  mdividual  soul  that  sets  out  in  quest  of  God. 
Anon  there  areprivileged  ones  who  reach  extraordi- 
nary  results.  They  communicate  their  discoveries  to 
their  fellow  men,  and  forthwith  become  foundm  of  a 
new  religion,  which  is  more  or  less  true  in  the  proportion 
in  which  it  gives  peace  to  the  religious  feelmgs. 

The  attitude  Christ  adopted,  readiing  up  to  CSod  as 
to  a  father  and  then  returning  to  men  as  to  brothen — 
such  is  the  meaning  of  the  precept.  "Love  God  and 
thy  nei^bour" — bnngs  full  rest  to  the  soul.  It  mdkes 
the  relinon  of  Christ  the  reUgion  par  excdUnee,  the 
true  and  definitive  religion.  The  act  by  which  the 
soul  adopts  this  attitude  and  abandons  itself  to  God 
as  a  father  and  then  to  men  as  to  brothers,  constitutes 
the  Christian  Faith.  Plainly  such  an  act  is  an  act  of 
the  will  rather  than  of  the  intellect.  But  religious 
sentiment  tries  to  express  itself  in  intellectual  con- 
cepts, which  in  their  turn  serve  to  preserve  this  senti- 
ment. Hence  the  origin  of  those  formula  conceniin|S 
God  and  Divine  things,  of  those  theoretical  proposi- 
tions that  are  the  outcome  of  the  successive  rdigious 
experiences  of  souls  gifted  with  the  same  faith.  These 
formulsB  become  dogmas,  when  religious  authority  ap- 
proves of  them  for  the  life  of  the  community.  For 
community  life  is  a  spontaneous  powth  among  per^ 
sons  of  the  same  faith^  and  with  it  comes  authority. 
Dogmas  promulgated  m  this  way  teach  us  nothing  of 
tiie  unknowable,  out  only  symbolise  it.  They  contain 
no  truth.  Their  usefulness  in  preserving  the  fiuth  is 
their  only  raiaon  d^itre.  They  survive  as  long  as  they 
exert  their  influence.  Being  the  work  of  man  in  time, 
and  adapted  to  his  varying  needs,  they  are  at  best  but 
contingent  and  transient.  Religious  authority  too, 
natunuly  conservative,  may  lag  behind  the  times.  It 
may  mistake  the  best  methods  of  meeting  needs  of  the 
community,  and  try  to  keep  up  worn-out  fonnuls. 
Through  respect  for  the  communit^r,  the  individual 
Christian  who  sees  the  mistake  continues  in  an  atti- 
tude of  outward  submission.  But  he  does  not  feel 
himself  inwardly  bound  by  the  decisions  of  higher 
powers;  rather  he  makes  praiseworthy  efforts  to  bring 
his  Church  into  harmony  with  the  times.  He  may 
confine  himself,  too,  if  he  cares,  to  the  older  and  sim- 
pler religious  forms;  he  may  Uve  his  life  in  oonfonnitv 
with  the  dogmas  accepted  from  the  beginning.  Sucji 
is  Tyrrell's  advice  in  ms  letter  to  Fogassaro,  and  such 
washis  own  private  practice.  (2)  CaikoUe  and  Modern- 
ist Notiona  of  Dogma  Compared, — The  tradition  of  the 
Catholic  Church,  on  the  other  hand,  considers  dogmas 
as  in  part  supeznatmal  and  mysterious,  proposed  to 
our  faith  by  a  Divinely  instituted  authority  on  the 
ground  that  they  are  part  of  the  general  revelation 
which  the  Apostles  pr«iched  in  the  name  of  Jesus 
Christ.  This  faith  is  an  act  of  the  intellect  made  under 
the  sway  of  the  will.  By  it  we  hold  firmly  what  God 
has  revealed  and  what  the  Church  proposes  to  us  to 
believe.  For  believing  is  holding  something  firmly  on 
the  authority  of  God's  word,  when  such  authority  mav 
be  recognized  by  signs  that  are  sufficient,  at  least  with 
the  help  of  grace,  to  create  certitude. 

Comparing  these  notions,  the  Catholic  and  the 
modenust,  we  shall  see  that  modernism  alters  the 
source,  the  manner  of  promulgation,  the  object,  the 
stability,  and  the  truth  of  dogma.  For  the  modern- 
ist, the  only  and  the  necessary  source  is  the  pri- 
vate consciousness.  And  logicaUy  so,  since  he  rejects 
miracles  and  prophecy  as  edsus  of  God's  word  (D 
piogramma,  p.  96).  For  the  Catholic,  dogma  is  a  free 
communication  of  God  to  the  believer  noiade  throu^ 
the  preaching  of  the  Word.  Of  course  the  truth  from 
without,  which  is  above  and  beyond  any  natural  want, 
IB  proved  by  a  certa^i  intenor  ^n^ty  q^  V^^^ 


MOUBNZSM  417 

bifity  ^diieh  enabks  the  believer  to  wwimilate  and  live  ing  the  action  of  thinking;  (2)  dogmfc  itself  implicitlj 
the  truth  revealed.  It  enters  a  soul  well-disposed  to  affirms  that  reality  contains  in  one  form  or  another  the 
reodve  it,  as  a  principle  of  happiness  which^  though  an  justification  of  such  prescriptions  as  are  either  reason- 
unmerited  gift  to  which  we  have  no  right,  is  still  such  able  or  ralutaiy". 

aa  the  soul  can  enjoy,  with  unmeasured  gratitude.    In  Various  Degrbbs  of  Modsbnism  and  its  Cri* 

the  modernist  conception,  the  Church  can  no  lonser  tbrion. — Modernist  attacks  on  dogma,  as  we  have 

define  dogma  in  God's  name  and  with  His  infaUiole  alread}r  remarked,  vary  according  to  the  degree  in 

hdp;  the  ecclesiastical  authority  is  now  but  a  seoon-  which  its  doctrines  are  embracea.    Thus,  in  virtue 

dBry  interpreter,  subject  to  the  collective  conscious-  of  the  leading  idea  of  their  systems.  Father  Tyrrell  was 

neas  which  she  has  to  express.    To  this  collective  an  amostic  modernist,  and  Campbell  (a  Con^rega- 

eoDflciouaneBB  the  individual  need  conform  only  exter-  tionaOst  minister)  is  a  s^bolic  modernist.   Agam  the 

laSiy;  as  for  the  rest  he  may  embark  on  any  private  tendency  to  innovation  is  at  times  not  at  all  general, 

leljgioua  adventures  he  cares  for.   The  modernist  pro-  but  limited  to  some  particular  donuun.    Along  with 

Kirtions  dogma  to  his  intellect  or  rather  to  his  heart,  modernism  in  the  stnct  sense,  which  is  directly  theo« 
[vsteriee  uke  the  Trinitv  or  the  Incarnation  are  logical,  we  find  other  kinds  of  modernism  in  philos- 
dtner  unthinkable  (a  modernist  Kantian  tendency),  ophy,  politics,  and  social  science.  In  such  cases  a 
or  are  within  the  reach  of  the  unaided  reason  (a  mo-  wider  meaning  must  be  given  to  the  term. 
demist  Hegelian  tendency) .  "The  truth  of  religion  is  Here^  however,  it  is  neeidful  to  speak  a  word  of  warn- 
in  him  (man)  implicitly,  as  surely  as  the  truth  of  the  ing  against  unreasonable  attacks.  Not  every  novelty 
whole  physical  universe,  is  involved  in  every  part  of  it.  is  to  be  condemned,  nor  is  every  project  of  reform  to  be 
Could  he  read  the  needs  of  his  own  spint  and  con-  dubbed  modernist  because  it  is  imtimely  or  exaggerated. 
sdenoe,  he  would  need  no  teacher"  (Tyrrell,  '^Scylla  In  the.same  way^  the  attempt  fully  to  understand 
and  Chaivbdis",  p.  277).  modem  philosophic  thou^t  so  as  to  grasp  what  is  tme 
Aasuredly  Catholic  truth  is  not  a  lifeless  thing,  in  such  eystems,  and  to  discover  the  points  of  contact 
Rather  is  it  a  living  tree  that  breaks  forth  into  green  with  the  old  philosophy,  is  very  far  from  being  mod- 
leaves,  flowers,  andtmits.  There  is  a  development,  or  emism.  On  the  contraiy,  that  is  the  very  best  way 
padual  unfolding,  and  a  clearer  statement  of  its  dog-  to  refute  modernism.  Every  error  contains  an  ele- 
mas.  BesideB  the  primary  truths,  such  as  the  Divin-  ment  of  truth.  Isolate  that  element  and  accept  it. 
ity  of  Christ  and  His  mission  as  Messias,  there  are  The  structure  which  it  helps  to  support,  having  lost 
oUiers  which,  one  by  one,  become  better  understood  its  foundation,  will  soon  crumble.  Tne  name  m(K[em- 
and  defined,  e.  g.  the  dogma  of  the  Immaculate  Con-  ist  then  will  be  appropriate  only  when  there  is  question 
oeption  and  that  of  the  Infallibility  of  the  Pope.  Such  of  opposition  to  the  certain  teaching  of  ecclesiastical 
uiSolding  takes  place  not  only  in  the  study  of  the  authority  through  a  spirit  of  innovation.  The  woids 
tradition  of  the  dogma  but  also  in  showing  its  origin  of  Cardinal  Ferrari,  Archbishop  of  Milan,  as  cited  in 


eeption  has  certainly  been  strengthened  since  the  defi-  brochures,  newspapers  and  other  periodicals.,  go  to  the 
nition  in  1854.  The  rational  conception  of  the  dogma  leo^  of  detecting  the  evil  everywhere,  or  at  any  rate 
of  Divine  Providence  is  a  continual  object  of  study;  of  imputing  it  to  those  who  are  very  far  from  bein^ 
thedogmaof  the  Sacrifice  of  the  Mass  allows  the  reason  Lofected  with  it''.  In  the  same  year,  Cardinal  Maffei 
to  inquire  into  the  idea  of  sacrifice.  It  has  alwavs  had  to  condeom"  La  Pentaazurea",  an  anti-modernist 
been  oelieved  that  there  is  no  salvation  outside  the  organ,  on  account  of  its  exaggeration  in  this  respect. 
Qiurch,  but  as  this  belief  has  graduall;;^  come  to  be  On  the  other  hand,  it  is  regrettable  that  certain  avowed 
better  understood,  many  are  now  considered  within  leaders  of  modernism^  carried  away  perhaps  by  the 
the  soul  of  the  Church  who  would  have  been  placed  desire  to  remain  withm  the  Church  at  all  costs--an- 
without^  in  a  day  when  the  distinction  between  the  soul  other  characteristic  of  modernism — ^have  taken  refuge 
and  the  body  of  the  Church  had  not  generally  obtained,  in  equivocation,  reticence,  or  quibbles.  Such  a  line  of 
In  another  sense,  too.  dogma  is  instmct  with  life.  For  action  merits  no  s^pathy :  while  it  explains,  if  it  does 
its  trath  is  not  sterile,  but  always  serves  to  nourish  not  idtogether  justify,  the  mstrust  of  sincere  Catholics. 
devotion.  But  whilst  holding  with  life,  progress,  and  Proofs  of  the  Foregoing  Views. — But  does  the 
devekopment,  the  Church  rejects  transitory  dogmas  principle  and  the  quasi-essential  error  of  modernism 
that  in  the  modemist  theory  would  be  forgotten  unless  tie  in  its  corruption  of  doema?  Let  us  consult  the  En- 
replaced  by  contrary  fonnulse.  She  cannot  admit  that  cydical  "  Pascendi ".  The  official  Latin  text  calls  the 
"  thought,  hieraix^y,  cult,  in  a  word,  everything  haa  modemist  dogmatic  system  a  leading  chapter  in  theii 
changed  in  the  histoiy  of  Christianity  ,  nor  can  she  be  doctrine.  The  French  translation^  which  is  also  authen- 
content  with  '^the  identity  of  religious  spirit''  which  tic.  speaks  thus: /'Dogma,  its  origin  and  nature,  such 
18  the  only  permanency  that  modernism  admits  (II  is  the  ground  principle  of  modernism."  The  funda- 
proKramma  dei  Modemisti).  mental  princiine  of  modernism  is,  according  to  M. 
Tmih  consists  in  the  ooxiformity  of  the  idea  with  its  Loisy,  'the  possibility,  the  necessity  and  the  legiti- 
object.  Now,in  the  Catholic  concept,  a  dogmatic  for-  macy  of  evolution  in  understanding  the  dogmas  of 
mula  supplies  us  with  at  least  an  analogical  Imowled^  the  Church,  including  that  of  papal  infallibility  and 
of  a  given  object.  For  the  modernist,  the  essentuil  authority,  as  well  as  in  the  manner  of  exercisins 
nature  of  do^ma  consists  in  its  correspondence  with  this  authority"  (op.  cit.,  p.  124).  The  character  and 
and  its  capacity  to  satiny  a  certain  momentary  need  leaning  of  our  epoch  confirm  our  diagnosis.  It  likes 
of  the  religious  feeling.  It  is  an  arbitrary  i^rmbol  that  to  substitute  leading  and  fimdamental  questions  in 
teUa  nothmg  of  the  object  it  represents.  At  most,  as  the  place  of  side  issues.  The  problem  of  natural 
M.  Leroy,  one  of  the  least  radical  of  modernists,  sug-  knowledge  is  the  burning  qu^tion  in  present-day 
rata,  it  IS  a  positive  prescription  of  apractical  order  metaphysics.  It  is  not  surprisiiu;  therefore  that  the 
(Leroy.  "Dogme  et  cntique  ,  p.  25).  Thus  the  dogma  question  of  supernatural  knowledge  is  the  main  sub- 
of  the  Keal  Presence  m  the  Holy  Eucharist  means:  "Act  ject  of  discussion  in  religious  polemics.  Finally,  Hus 
aa: 
so 

add 

"This  however  does  not  mean  that  dogma  bears  no  error,  we  ask,  more  fully  justffies  the  pope's  state- 

lelatiQn  to  thought i  for  ()»^  thove  an  duties  concoror-  ment  than  that  which  alters  dogma  in  its  root  and  ea* 
X.— 27 


MODERNISM                           418  M0DSBNI8M 

sence?    It  is  furthermore  clear — ^to  use  a  direct  argu-  all  relinous  truth  from  the  natural  force  of  reason;  tfae 

ment — ^that  modernism  fails  in  its  attempt  at  religious  fifth,  mich  affirms  that  revelation,  if  it  joins  in  the  on- 

reform,  if  it  makes  no  change  in  the  Catholic  notion  of  ward  march  of  reason,  is  capable  or  unlimited  progress; 

dogma.    Moreover,  does  not  its  own  conception  of  the  seventh,  which  treats  the  prophecies  and  miracles 

dogma  explain  botn  a  large  number  of  its  proposi-  of  Holy  Scripture  as  poetical  imaginings;  propositions 

tions  and  its  leanings  towards  independence,  evolu-  sixteen  to  eighteen  on  the  equal  value  of  aU  reli^^ons 

tion,  and  conciliation?  from  the  point  of  view  of  salvation;  proposition  fifty- 

Modernist  Aims  Explained  bt  its  Essential  five  on  the  separation  of  Church  and  State;  propoei- 
Ebbob. — ^The  definition  of  an  unchangeable  dogma  tions  seventy-five  and  seventy-six,  which  oppose  the 
imposes  itself  on  every  Catholic,  learned  or  o^erwise.  temporal  power  of  the  pope.  The  modernist  tend* 
and  it  necessaril^r  sui)po8es  a  Church  legislating  for  all  ency  is  still  more  apparent  in  the  last  proposition, 
the  ftdthful,  passing  judgment  on  State  action — ^from  which  was  condemned  on  18  March,  1861:  "The  Bo- 
lts own  point  of  view  of  course — and  that  even  seeks  man  Pontiff  can  and  ought  to  conform  with  oontem- 
alliance  with  the  civil  power  to  cany  on  the  work  of  poraiv  progress,  liberalism,  and  civilisation." 
the  Apostolate.  On  the  other  hand,  once  dogma  is  Taking  only  the  great  lines  of  the  modernist  move- 
held  to  be  a  mere  symbol  of  the  unknowable,  a  science  ment  wiuiin  the  Church  itself,  we  may  sav  that  under 
which  merely  deals  with  the  facts  of  nature  or  history  Pius  DC  its  tendency  was  politico-liberal,  under  Leo 
could  neither  oppose  it  nor  even  enter  into  controversy  XIII  and  Pius  X  social;  with  the  latter  pontiff  still 
with  it.  If  it  IS  true  only  in  so  far  as  it  excites  and  reigning,  its  tendency  has  become  avowedly  theologioil. 
nourishes  religious  sentiment,  the  private  individual  is  It  is  m  France  and  Italy  above  all  that  modemism 
at  full  liberty  to  throw  it  aside  when  its  influence  on  him  properly  so-called,  that  is,  the  form  which  attadks  the 
has  ceased;  nay,  even  the  Churdi  herself,  whose  exist-  very  concept  of  religion  and  dosma,  has  spread  its 
ence  depends  on  a  dogma  not  different  from  the  others  ravages  amons  Catholics.  Indeea,  some  time  after  the 
in  nature  and  origin,  has  no  rieht  to  legislate  for  a  sdf-  pubhcation  of  the  Encyclical  of  8th  Septemb^,  1907. 
sufficing  State.  And  thus  independence  is  fidly  real-  theGerman,  English,  and  Belgian  bishops  congratulated 
ized.  There  is  no  need  to  prove  that  the  modernist  themselves  that  their  respective  countries  had  been 
spirit  of  movement  and  evolution  is  in  p^ect  har-  spared  the  epidemic  in  its  more  contagious  form.  Of 
mony  with  its  concept  of  ever-changing  donna  and  is  course,  individual  upholders  of  the  new  error  are  to  be 
unintelligible  without  it;  the  matter  is  sdf-evident.  found  ever3n¥here,  and  even  England  as  well  as  Ger- 
Finally,  as  regards  the  conciliation  of  the  different  many  has  produced  modernists  of  note.  In  Italy,  on  Uie 
religions^  we  must  necessarily  distingiush  between  what  contrary,  even  before  the  Encyclical  appeared,  the 
is  essential  to  faith  regarded  as  a  sentiment,  and  belidTs  bishops  have  raised  the  cry  of  alarm  in  their  pastoral 
whichareaccessory,  mutable,  and  practically  negli^ble.  letters  of  1906  and  1907.  Newspapere- and  reviews, 
If  therefore  you  go  as  far  as  making  the  Divimty  a  openly  modernist  in  their  opinions,  bear  witness  to  the 
belief,  that  is  to  sav,  a  symbolical  expression  of  faith,  gravityof  the  danger  which  the  Sovereign  Pontiff  sought 
then  docility  in  following  generous  impulses  may  be  to  av^.  After  Italy  it  is  France  that  has  furnished 
rdigious,  and  the  atheist^  religion  would  not  seem  to  the  largest  number  of  adherents  to  this  religious  reform 
differ  essentially  from  yours.  or  ultra-progressive  party.    In  spite  of  the  notoriety 

MoDEBNisT  Pbopositions  EXPLAINED  BT  ITS  of  Certain  individuals,  comparatively  few  laymen  have 
Essential  Ebbob. — We  make  a  selection  of  the  fol-  joined  the  movement;  so  far  it  has  found  adherents 
lowing  propositions  from  the  Encyclical  for  discus-  chiefly  among  the  ranks  of  the  youneerden^.  FVance 
sion:  (a)  the  Christ  of  faith  is  not  the  Christ  of  possesses  a  modernist  publishing  house  (La  librairie 
history.  Faith  portrays  Christ  according  to  the  re-  Nourry).  A  modernist  review  founded  dv  the  late 
ligious  needs  of  the  faithful;  history  represents  Him  Father  Tvrrell.  "Nova  et  Vetera",  is  published  at 
as  He  really  was,  that  is,  in  so  far  as  His  appearance  Rome.  'La  Kevue  Modemiste  Intematbnale"  was 
on  earth  was  a  concrete  phenomenon.  In  this  way  started  this  year  (1910)  at  Geneva.  This  monthly 
it  is  easy  to  understand  now  a  believer  may,  with-  periodical  cans  itself  "the  organ  of  the  intemationjiil 
out  contradiction,  attribute  certain  things  to  Christ,  modernist  society".  It  is  open  to  every  shade  of 
and  at  the  same  time  deny  them  in  the  quality  of  modernist  opinions^and  claims  to  have  co-workers  and 
historian.  In  the  "Hibbert  Journal"  for  Jan.,  1909,  correspondents  in  France,  Italy,  Germany,  England, 
the  Rev.  Mr.  Robert  wished  to  call  the  Christ  of  Austna,  Hungary,  Spain,  Belgium,  Russia,  Rumania* 
history  ''Jesus"  and  reserve  "Christ"  for  the  same  and  America.  The  Encyclical  "Pascendi"  notes  ana 
person  as  idealized  by  faith;  (b)  Christ's  work  in  deplores  the  ardour  of  the  modernist  propaganda.  A 
founding  the  Church  and  instituting  the  sacraments  strong  current  of  modemism  is  running  throu^  the 
was  mediate,  not  immediate.  The  main  point  is  to  Russian  Schismatic  Church.  The  Anglican  Qiurch 
find  supports  for  the  faith.  Now,  as  religious  experi-  has  not  escaped.  And  indeed  fiberal  Protestantism  is 
ence  succeeds  so  well  in  creating  useful  dogmas,  why  nothing  but  a  radical  form  of  modemism  that  is  win- 
may  it  not  do  likewise  in  the  matter  of  institutions  ning  the  greater  number  of  the  theolc^ans  of  the 
suited  to  the  age?  (c)  The  sacraments  act  as  eloquent  Reformed  Church.  Others  who  oppose  the  innovation 
formulse  which  touch  the  soul  and  carry  it  away.  IVe-  find  refuge  in  the  authority  of  the  Catholic  Church. 
cisely ;  for  if  dogmas  exist  onlv  in  so  far  as  they  preserve  The  F^lobophical  Obigin  and  Conssquences 
religious  sentiment,  what  other  service  can  one  expect  of  Modernism. — (1)  The  Origin, — Philosophy  renders 
of  the  sacraments?  (d)  The  Sacred  Books  are  in  every  great  service  to  the  cause  of  truth ;  but  error  calls  for  its 
religion  a  collection  of  religious  experiences  of  an  ex-  assistance  too.  Many  consider  the  philosophic  ground- 
traordinary  nature.  For  if  there  is  no  external  reve-  work  of  modemism  to  be  Kantian.  This  is  true,  if  by 
lation,  the  only  substitute  possible  is  the  subjective  re-  Kantian  philosophy  is  meant  every  system  that  has  a 
ligious  experience  of  men  of  particular  fipf  ts,  experiences  root  connexion  with  the  philosophv  of  the  K6nigsberg 
such  as  are  worthy  of  being  preserved  for  the  community,  sage.    In  other  words,  the  basis  of  modernist  philoeo- 

The  Modernist  Movement. — ^The  late  M.  P^nn  phy  is  Kantian  if,  because  Kant  is  its  father  and  most 

dated  the  modernist  movement  from  the  French  Revo-  illustrious  moderate  representative,  all  agnosticism 

lution.    And  rightly  so,  for  it  was  then  that  many  of  be  called  Kantism    (by  agnosticism  is  meant  the 

those  modem  liberties  which  the  Churoh  has  reproved  philosophy  which  denies  that  reason,  used  at  any 

as  imrestrained  and  ungovemed,  first  found  sanction,  rate  in  a  speculative  and  theoretical  way,  can  gain 

Several  of  the  propositions  collected  in  the  Syllabus  of  true  knowledge  of  suprasensible  things).  ^  It  is  not 

Pius  IX,  although  enunciated  from  a  rationalist  point  our  business  here  to  oppose  the  application  of  the 

of  view,  have  been  appropriated  by  modemism.   Such,  name  Kantian  to  modernist  philosopn  v.    Indeed  if  we 

for  example,  are  the  fourth  proposition,  which  derives  compare  the  two  systems,  .we  shall  nna  that  tbey  have 


419  MODERNISM 

two  elements  in  common,  the  negative  part  of  the  with  an  activity  of  its  own,  and  tending  towards  its 
''Critique  of  Pure  Reason"  (which  reduces  pure  or  own  object.  However,  as  it  is  not  in  continual  activ- 
speculative  knowledge  to  phenomenal  or  experiential  it^r,  it  is  not  self -sufficient;  it  has  not  in  itself  the  full 
intuition),  and  a  certain  argumentative  method  in  dis-  principle  of  its  operations,  but  is  forced  to  utilize  sen- 
tinguishing  do^ma  from  the  real  basis  of  religion.  On  sible  experience  in  order  to  arrive  at  knowledge.  This 
the  positive  side,  however,  modernism  differs  from  incompleteness  and  falling  short  of  perfect  autonomv 
Kantism  in  some  essential  points.  For  Kant,  faith  is  is  due  to  man's  very  nature.  As  a  consequence,  in  all 
a  really  rational  adhesion  of  the  mind  to  the  postulates  human  knowledge  and  activitv,  accoimt  must  be  taken 
of  practical  reason.  The  will  is  free  to  accept  or  reject  both  of  the  intrmsic  and  of  the  extrinsic  side.  Urged 
the  moral  law ;  and  it  is  on  account  of  this  option  that  on  by  the  finalitv  that  inspires  him,  man  tends  towels 
he  calls  its  acceptance  "belief.  Once  it  is  accepted,  those  objects  which  suit  him^  while  at  the  same  time 
the  reason  cannot  but  admit  the  existence  of  Grod,  objects  offer  themselves  to  him.  In  the  supernatural 
liberty,  and  immortality.  Modernist  faith,  on  the  other  Ufe,  man  acquires  new  principles  of  action  and,  as  it 
hand,  is  a  matter  of  sentiment,  a  flinging  of  oneself  were,  a  new  nature.  He  is  now  capable  of  acts  of 
towards  the  Unknowable,  and  cannot  be  scientifically  which  God  is  the  formal  object.  These  acts,  however, 
justified  by  reason.  In  Kant's  system,  dogmas  and  must  be  proposed  to  man,  whether  God  deigns  to  do 
the  whole  positive  framework  of  religion  are  necessary  so  by  direct  revelation  to  man's  soul,  or  whether,  in 
only  for  the  childhood  of  humanity  or  for  the  common  conformity  with  man's  social  nature,  God  makes  use 
people.  They  are  symbols  that  b^  a  certain  analogy  of  intermediaries  who  communicate  exteriorl^r  with 
to  images  and  comparisons.  They  serve  to  inculcate  man.  Hence  the  necessity  of  preaching,  of  moUves  of 
those  moral  precepts  that  for  Kant  constitute  religion,  credibility,  and  of  external  teaching  authority.  Cath- 
Modemist  symbols,  though  changeable  and  fleeting,  olic  philosophy  does  not  deny  the  soul's  spontaneous 
.correspond  to  a  law  of  human  nature.  Generally  life,  the  sublimity  of  its  suprasensible  and  supernatural 
speaking,  they  help  to  excite  and  nourish  the  effective  operations,  and  the  inaaequacy  of  words  to  trans- 
reUgious  sentiment  which  Kant  (who  knew  it  from  his  late  its  yearnings.  Scholastic  doctors  give  expres- 
reading  of  the  pietists)  calls  schtodrmerei.  Kant,  as  a  sion  to  mystical  transports  far  superior  to  those  of  the 
rationalist,  rejects  supernatural  religion  and  prayer,  modernists.  But  in  their  philosophv  they  never  forget 
The  modernists  consider  natural  religion  a  useless  the  lowliness  of  human  nature,  which  is  not  purely 
abstraction;  for  them  it  is  prayer  rather  that  consti-  spiritual.  The  modernist  remembers  only  the  internal 
tutes  the  very  essence  of  religion.  It  would  be  more  element  of  our  higher  activity.  This  absolute  and  ex* 
correct  to  say  that  modernism  is  an  offshoot  of  Schlei-  elusive  intrinsecism  constitutes  what  the  Encyclical 
ermacher  (1768-1834),  who  though  he  owed  some-  calls  "vital  immanence".  When  deprived  of  the  ex- 
thing  to  Kant's  philosophy,  nevertheless  built  up  his  temal  support  which  is  indispensable  to  them,  the  acts 
own  theological  eystem,  lutschl  called  him  the  "legi»-  of  the  higner  intellectual  faculties  can  only  consist  in 
lator  of  theology"  (Rechtf.  und  Vers.,  Ill,  p.  4^).  vague  sentiments  which  are  as  indetermined  as  are 
Schleiermacher  conceives  the  modernist  plan  of  re-  those  faculties  themselves.  Hence  it  is  that  modernist 
forming  religion  with  the  view  of  conciliating  it  with  doctrines,  necessarily  expressed  in  terms  of  this  senti- 
science.  Thus  would  he  establish  an  entente  cordude  ment,  are  so  intangible.  Furthermore,  by  admitting 
among  the  various  cults,  and  even  between  religion  the  necessity  of  symbols,  modernism  makes  to  extrin- 
and  a  kind  of  religious  sentimentality  which,  without  secism  a  concession  which  is  its  own  refutation, 
recognising  God.  yet  tends  towards  the  Good  and  the  (2)  The  Consequences. — ^The  fact  that  this  radi* 
Infinite.  Like  tne  modernists,  he  has  dreams  of  new  caliy  intrinsic  conception  of  the  spiritual  or  religious 
religioiis  apologetics;  he  wants  to  be  a  Christian;  he  activity  of  man  (this  perfect  autonomy  of  the  reason 
declares  himself  independent  of  all  philosophy;  he  re-  vuhdr^ins  of  what  is  exterior)  is  the  funaamental  philo- 
jects  natural  religion  as  a  pure  abstraction,  and  derives  sophical  conception  of  the  modernists,  as  the  altera* 
dogma  from  reli^ous  experience.  His  principal  writ-  tion  of  dogma  is  the  essential  characteristic  of  their 
ings  on  this  subject  are  '^Ueber  die  Religion"  (1799:  heresy,  can  be  shown  without  difficulty  by  deducting 
note  the  difference  between  the  first  and  the  later  from  it  their  entire  system  of  philosophy.  First  of  all, 
editions)  and  "Der  Christliche  Glaube"  (1821-22).  df  their  agnosticism:  the  vague  nature  which  they 
Ritschl,  one  of  Kant's  disciples,  recognizes  the  New  attribute  to  our  faculties  does  not  permit  them,  with- 
Testament  as  the  historical  basis  of  religion.  He  sees  out  scientific  observation,  to  arrive  at  any  definite 
in  Christ  the  consciousness  of  an  intimate  union  with  intellectud  result.  Next,  of  their  evolutionism:  there 
God,  and  considers  the  institution  of  the  Christian  is  no  determined  object  to  assure  to  dogmatic  formuke 
religion,  which  for  him  is  inconceivable  without  faith  a  permanent  and  essential  meaning  compatible  with 
in  Christ,  as  a  special  act  of  God's  providence.  Thus  the  life  of  faith  and  progress.  Now,  from  the  moment 
has  he  prepared  the  way  for  a  form  of  modernism  more  that  these  f ormuke  simply  serve  to  nourish  the  vague 
temperate  than  that  of  Schleiermacher.  Thou^  he  sentiment  which  for  modernism  is  the  only  common 
predicted  a  continual  development  of  religion,  Schlei-  and  stable  foundation  of  religion,  they  must  change 
ermacher  admitted  a  certain  nxity  of  dogma.  For  this  indefinitely  with  the  subjective  needs  of  the  believer, 
reason  it  seems  to  us  that  modernists  owe  their  radical  It  is  a  right  and  even  a  duty  for  the  latter  freely  to 
evolutionary  theory  to  Herbert  Spencer  (1820-1903).  interpret,  as  he  sees  fit,  religious  facts  and  doctrines. 
It  was  through  the  writings  of  A.  Sabatier  (1839^-  We  meet  here  with  the  a  priorisTiu  to  which  the  Encyc- 
1901),  a  French  Protestant  of  the  Broad  Church  type.  Ileal  **  Pascendi"  drew  attention. 
that  the  religious  theories  we  have  spoken  of,  spread  We  wish  to  insist  a  little  on  the  grave  consequence 
among  the  liitin  races,  in  France  and  in  Italy.  It  is  in  that  this  Encyclical  puts  especially  before  our  eyes. 
these  countries,  too,  that  modernism  has  done  greatest  In  many  ways,  modernism  seems  to  be  on  the  swift 
harm  among  the  Catholics.  Sabatier  is  a  radical  incline  which  leads  to  pantheism.  It  seems  to  be 
modernist.  He  has  especially  drawn  upon  Schleier-  there  on  account  of  its  symbolism.  After  all,  is  not 
macher  for  the  composition  of  his  two  works  on  reli-  the  affirmation  of  a  personal  God  one  of  these  dog- 
gious  ssmthesis  ("Esquisse  d'une  philosophie  de  la  maticformube  which  serve  only  as  S3rmbolic  expressions 
rel^on  d'apr^  la  psychologic  et  t'histoire",  Paris,  of  the  religious  sentiment?  Does  not  the  Divine  Per- 
1897;  "Les  religions  d'autorit^  et  la  religion  de  sonality  then  become  something  uncertain?  Hence 
I'esprit",  Paris,  1902).  radical  modernism  preaches  union  and  friendship. 
The  fundamental  error  of  the  modernist  philosophy  even  with  mystical  atheism.  Modernism  is  inclined 
is  its  misunderstanding  of  the  scholastic  formula  which  to  pantheism  also  by  its  doctrine  of  Divine  Imma- 
takes  account  of  the  two  aspects  of  human  knowledge,  nence,  that  is,  of  the  intimate  presence  of  God  within 
Doubtless,  the  human  mind  is  a  vital  faculty  endowed  us.    Does  this  God  declare  Himself  as  distinct  from 


M0DEBNI8M                           420  MODIBMISM 

UB?  If  SO,  one  must  not  then  oppose  the  pomtion  of  explanation  of  the  origin  of  modernist  errors.  Both 
modernism  to  the  Catholic  position  and  reject  exterior  have  too  long  confined  themselves  to  answers  which, 
revelation.  But  if  God  declares  Himself  as  not  dis-  though  fundamentally  correct,  are  but  little  suited  to 
tinct  from  us,  the  position  of  modernism  becomes  the  mentaUty  of  our  adversaries,  and  are  formulated 
openly  pantheistic.  Such  is  the  dilemma  proposed  in  a  language  which  they  do  not  understand  and  which 
in  the  Enc^^dical.  Modernism  Is  panthdstic  also  is  no  longer  to  the  point.  Instead  of  utilizing  what  is 
by  its  doctrine  of  science  and  faith.  Faith  having  quite  legitimate  in  their  positive  and  critical  tenden- 
for  object  the  Unknowable  cannot  make  up  for  the  cies,  thev  have  only  considered  them  as  so  many  ab- 
want  of  proportion  that  modernists  put  between  the  normal  leanings  that  must  be  opposed  .  .  ."  (Gau- 
intellect  ana  its  object.  Hence,  for  the  believer  as  deau,  ''LaFoi  Catholi(][ue'',  I,  pp.  62-65).  Another 
well  as  for  the  philosopher,  this  object  remains  un-  point  is  that  the  intrinsic  nature  of  the  movemoit  of 
known.  Why  snould  not  this  ''Unknowable''  be  the  contemporaryphilosophy  has  been  too  much  despnaed 
very  soul  of  the  world?  It  is  panthdstic  also  in  its  or  ignored  in  Catholic  schools.  They  have  not  given 
wa^  of  reasoning.  Independent  of  and  superior  to  it  that  partial  recognition  which  is  quite  consonant 
rehgious  formuke,  the  relieious  sentiment  on  the  one  with  the  best  scholastic  tradition:  "In  this  way,  we 
hand  originates  them  and  gives  them  their  entire  have  failed  to  secure  a  real  point  of  contact  betweoi 
value,  and,  on  the  other  hana,  it  cannot  neglect  them,  Catholic  and  modem  thought"  (Gaudeau,  ibid.).  For 
it  must  ej^ress  itself  in  them  and  by  them;  they  are  lack  of  professors  who  knew  how  to  mark  out  the  act- 
its  reality.  But  we  have  here  the  ontology  of  panthe-  ual  path  of  religious  science,  many  cultured  minds, 
ism,  which  teaches  ^at  the  principle  does  not  exist  especially  among  the  young  cleigy,  found  themadves 
outside  of  the  expression  that  it  gives  itsdf .  In  the  ddfenceless  against  an  error  whicn  seduced  them  b^  its 
pantheist  philosophy.  Being  or  the  Idea,  God,  is  before  speciousness  and  by  any  element  of  truth  contained 
the  world  and  superior  to  it,  He  creates  it.  and  yet  He  in  its  reproaches  against  the  Catholic  schools.  It  ia 
has  no  reality  outside  the  world;  the  worla  is  the  reali*  scholasticism  ill-unaerstood  and  calumniated  that  has 
cation  of  God.  incurred  this  disdain.    And  for  the  pope,  this  is  one 

Thb  Pstcholoqical  Causes  or  Modernism. —  of  the  immediate  causes  of  modernism.  "  Modern- 
Curiosity  and  pride  are,  according  to  the  Ekicyclical  ism",  he  says,  "is  nothing  but  the  union  of  the  faith 
"Pascendi",  two  remote  causes.  Nothing  is  truer:  with  false  pmlosophy".  Cardinal  Mercier,  on  the 
but,  apart  from  offering  an  explanation  common  to  all  occasion  of  nis  first  solemn  visit  to  the  Catholic  Uni* 
heretical  obstinacy,  we  ask  ourselves  here  why  this  versity  of  Louvain  (8  December,  1907),  addreased  the 
pride  has  taken  the  shape  of  modernism.  We  pro-  following  compliment  to  the  professors  of  theology: 
ceedtooonsider  this  question.  In  modernism  we  nnd,  "Because,  witn  more  good  sense  than  others,  you 
first  of  all,  the  echo  of  many  tendencies  of  the  mental-  have  vigorously  kept  to  objective  studies  and  the 
ity  of  the  present  generation.  Inclmed  to  doubt,  and  calm  examination  of  facts,  you  have  both  preserved 
distrustful  of  what  is  ^rmed,  men's  minds  tend  of  our  Ahna  Mater  from  the  strayings  of  modernism  and 
their  own  accord  to  minimize  the  value  of  dogmatic  have  secured  for  her  the  advantages  of  modem  sden- 
definitions.  Men  are  struck  by  the  divennty  of  the  tific  methods."  ("Annuaireder  University  Cathoti- 
religions  which  exist  on  the  face  of  the  earth.  The  que  de  Louvain",  1908,  p.  XXV,  XXVI.)  Saint 
Catholic  religion  is  no  longer,  in  their  eyes,  as  it  was  in  Augustine  (De  Genesi  contra  Manicheos,  I,  Bk.  L  i) 
the  eyes  of  our  ancestors,  the  morally  universal  religion  in  a  text  that  has  passed  into  the  Corpus  Juris  Ca- 
of  cultured  humanity.  They  have  oeen  shown  the  in-  nonici  (c.  40,  c.  xxiv,  q.  3)  had  aheady  spoken  as  fol- 
fluence  of  race  on  the  diffusion  of  the  Grospel.  They  lows:  "  Divme  Providence  suffers  many  heretics  of  one 
have  been  shown  the  good  sides  of  other  cults  and  be-  kind  or  another,  so  that  their  challenges  and  their 
liefs.  Our  contemporaries  find  it  hard  to  believe  that  questions  on  doctrines  that  we  are  ignorant  of,  may 
the  greater  part  of  humanity  is  plunged  in  error,  es-  f oroe  us  to  arise  from  our  indolence  and  stir  us  with  the 
pecially  if  they  are  ignorant  that  theCatholic  religion  desire  to  know  Holy  Scripture.  *'  From  another  point 
teaches  that  the  means  of  salvation  are  at  the  dis-  of  view,  modernism  marks  a  religious  reaction  against 
posal  of  those  who  err  in  good  faith.  Hence  they  are  materialism  and  positivism,  both  of  which  fail  to  satisfy 
mclined  to  overlook  doctrinal  divergencies  in  order  to  the  soul's  longing.  This  reaction  however,  for  reasons 
insist  on  a  certain  fundamental  conformity  of  tenden-  that  have  just  been  given,  strays  from  the  right  path, 
cies  and  of  aspirations.  Pontifical  Documents  concerning  Modbrnisu . 

Then   again  they   are  moved  by  sentiments  of  — ^The  semi-rationalism  of  several  modernists,  such  as 

liberalism  and  moderation,  which  reduce  the  impor-  Loisy  for  instance,  had  already  be^  condemned  in  the 

tance  of  formal  religion,  as  they  see  in  the  various  cults  Syllabus;  several  canons  of  the  Vatican  Council  on  the 

only  private  opinions  which  change  with  time  and  possibility  of  knowing  Grod  through  his  creatures,  on 

place,  and  which  merit  an  equal  respect  from  all.    In  the  distinction  between  faith  and  science,  on  the  8ul>- 

the  West,  where  people  are  of  a  more  practical  turn,  a  ordination  of  human  science  to  Divine  revelation,  on 

non-int^ectual  interest  explains  the  success  of  here-  the  unchangeableness  of  dogma^  deal  in  a  siinilar 

sies  which  win  a  certain  popularity.    Consider  the  strain  with  the  tenets  of  mooernism.    The  following 

coimtries  in  which  modernism  is  chiefly  promulgated:  are  the  principal  decrees  or  documents  expressly  di- 

France  and  Italy.    In  these  two  countnes,  and  espe-  rected  against  modernism.     (1)  The  pope's  address 

cially  in  Italy,  ecclesiastical  authority  has  unposed  on  17  April,  1907,  to  the  newly-created  cardinals.     It 

social  and  political  directions  which  ca4l  for  the  sacri-  is  a  r6sum^  which  anticipates  the  Encyclical  ''  Pas- 

fice  of  humanitarian  and  patriotic  ideas  or  dreams,  cendi''.     (2)  A  letter  from  the  Congregation  of  the 

That  there  are  important  reasons  for  such  commands  Index  of  29  April,  1907.  to  the  Cardinal  Archbishop  of 

does  not  prevent  discontent.    The  majority  of  men  Milan  with  rc^^ard  to  tne  review  "II  Rinnovamento". 

have  not  enough  virtue  or  nobility  to  sacrifice  for  long.  In  it  we  find  more  concrete  notions  of  the  tendencies 

tohigherduties.acause  which  touches  their  interest  or  which  the  popes  condemn.    The  letter  even  goes  so 

whichengages  their  S3rmpathy.    Hence  it  is  that  some  far  as  to  mention  tiie  names  of  Fogazzaro,  Father  Tyr- 

Catholics,  who  are  not  quite  steady  in  their  faith  and  rell,  von  Htt^el,  and  the  Abbate  Murri.     (3)  Letters 

rdigion,  attempt  to  revolt,  and  coimt  themselves  fortu-  from  Pius  X  ^  May,  1907,  to  the  archbishops  and 

nate  in  having  some  doctrinal  pretexts  to  cover  their  bishops  and  to  the  patrons  of  the  Catholic  Institute  of 

secession.  Paris.    It  shows  forth  clearly  the  great  and  twofold 

The  founder  of  the  periodical  "La  Foi  Catholique'',  care  of  Pius  X  for  the  restoration  of  sacred  studies 

a  review  started  for  the  purpose  of  combating  modem-  and  Scholastic  philosophy,  and  for  the  safeguarding 

isiiLaddsthisexplanation:''Theinsufficientcultivation  of  the  clergy.     (4)  The  decree  "Lamentabili^'  of  the 

of  Catholic  phitosophy  and  science  is  the  second  deep  Holy  Office,  3-4  July,  1907,  condemniikg  65  distinct 


MODIGUANA                           421  MODiaUANA 

propoe&tlQOS.    (5)  The  injunction  of  the  Hdy  Office,  follows  its  eeneral  condemnation  with  a  word  as  to 

''Reooitisaimo''^  of  28  August,  1907,  which  with  a  corollaries  ibat  may  be  drawn  from  the  heresy.    The 

view  to  remedying  the  evil,  enjoins  certain  prescrip-  pope  then  goes  on  to  examine  the  causes  and  the 

tions  ui>on  bishops  and  superiors  of  religious  orders,  effects  of  modernism,  and  finally  seeks  the  necessary 

(6)  The  EncyclioEd  "Pascendi",  of  8  Sept..  1907,  of  remedies.    Their  application  he  endeavours  to  put 

which  we  shall  speak  later  on.     (7)  Three  letters  of  into  practice  by  a  series  of  energetic  measures.    An 

the  Cardinal  Secretary  of  State,  of  2  and  10  Octo-  lurgent  appeal  to  the  bishops  fittingly  closes  this  strik- 

ber,  and  of  5  November,  1907,  on  the  attendance  of  ingdocument. 

the  clergy  at  secular  imiversities,  urging  the  execu-  I^otb8tant  Soubc?b8.--Kant.  Z>m  Rrf<^ 

non  2  a  general  regulation  Ol   l»yO  on  tms  SUDjeci.  j^^^j^  ^,^^  Offenbanmo  (1792);    Schlbixbmachbb.    C/efeer  dU 

The  Encyclical  had  extended  this  regulation  to  the  Rel%oum,Reden  an  die  0«WWet«n  unter  ihren  Verdehtem  (4th  ed., 

whole  Church.      (8)  The  condemnation  by  the  Car-  1831);    Idem.  Darc^m^iu^  Olaube  nach  dm  GrundsdUen  der 

dinid-^^car  of  .Rome  of  the  pamphlet  "  H  pr^ramma  tr:t^^''^Z.Sr^^^^  ^^^ui^-^ 

del  modemiStl",  and  a  decree  of  29  October,   1907,  akademUchen   Studiuma    (3rd  ed..   1830);    Heosl,   VorUsungen 

declaring  the  excommunication  of  its  authors,  with  <**«»'  *^*«  PhiUnophie  der  Raiaum  (1832), in  vols.  XI  and  xil  of  his 

anM»i  a1   rfworvAtinnn       (Q^  TVia  Hp/^i-m^  Mnf  ii   Pmnrin  complete  works;  RrracHL,  Albbbcrt,  DU  ehrisaiehe  Lehre  von  der 

^^i  xT^^^i          .C^     1       decree  MOtU  rropno  iUchtferUounaundVer»6hnunai^yo]B.,  1870-1874);  Idem,  Thetn 

of  18  Nov.,  1907,  on  the  value  of  the  decisions  of  the  Ugie  und  Metafiiysik  (1881);  Hermann.  Die  OeufiasheU  dee  Glav^ 

Biblical  Commission,  on  the  decree  "Lamentabili",  5f"  ^nd  dieFreiheit  dor  Theohgie  (2nd  ed.,  1889);    Ijpbixis, 

and  on  the  EncycUcal " Paacendi".    These  two  docu-  f^^^^ilt&^t'.  iXioStMS  S^.  SJX 

mentS   are  a^am   confirmed   and   upheld   by   ecclesi-  1876);  Qcaw  abz,  Zur  OeschichU  derneuesten  Theotogie  {Zrd  ed„ 

astical  penalties.      (10)  The  address  at  the  Consistory  1864) ;  Euckbn:  from  among  his  numerous  works  on  the  subject 

of  13  Feb.,  1908,  m  condemnation  of  the  two  news-  Idem,  GrundrUa  der  chriMichen  Qlaubene-  und  SittenleKere  (1880); 

gapers,   "La   Justice    SOciale''  and  "La   Vie   Catho-  lom,  Bntwickelung der  proteeUmliechen  Thetdoffie  teU  Kant  (lS92); 

que".    Sir^ethenwv^^ndemnatioMofthebookB  flS£S^ui7l!S!ii^ot^!^TiJ^rM%i:^^^ 

have  appeared.      (12)  The  Encychcal     Edlt» "  of  26  rdigion  de  VeeprU  [posthumousl  (1902) ;  Hamilton.  Di»cu»»ion  on 

May,  1910,  renewed  the  previous  condemnations.  (13)  ^i*^*^^K  ^^  ^'•**!Sflf  *  i?"^  ®**-  ^??®^  u,^^**"?*"^  T^  ^^ 

Stilf  Btronger  is  the  tone  of  the  Motu  Proprio  "8a«ro-  S^Sl^^r'J^J.^'as)^*^- &^'SS.Skf^?«S; 

rum  AntlStltum",  of  1  September,  1910,  declared  (14)  Thedoov   and   the    on    Rdigion    (London,    1907)  ;     Haklutt 

by  a  decree  of  the  Consistorial  Congregations  of  26  («nti-modemist).  Liberal  Theology  and  the  Ground  of  Faith  (Lon- 

S^tembw.  1910.    This  Motu  Proprio  invei,5h8ag^  ^S^^i  I^^^Vg";;;"?*-^^ 

modernist  obstinacy  and  specious   cunning.    After  atan  Riley  (London,  1909). 

having  quoted  the  practical  measures  prescribed  in  the  Modebnibt  Squbces. — Murri,  Paicologia  ddia  rdigione,  note 

Encyc1i«d  "Pascendi"    the  pope  urges  thrir  execu-  ^^^^^"^ S^^i^^^^S^Lf^ISS!; P^ 

UOn,  ana,  at  the  same  time,  makes    new    directions  dpi  eomuni  in  Programma  delta  9ocietA  regionale  di  euUura  (Rome, 


orders,  newly  appointed  confessors,  preachers,  parish  dei  Modemitti.  Riepoeta  ott*  Enddica  di  Pio  X, '' Pa$eendi  Domi- 

priests,  canons,  the  beneficed  clergy,  the  bishop's  staff,  nici  gregia"  (Rome,  1908) ;    Voorinbc,  Nostra  maxima  eulpaf 

Lenten   preachers,    the   officials    of   the   Roman   con-  6**  ^^"^^  ^*  *^  kath^xsehen  Kvrehe,^  deren  Uraachen  und 

Mj^E*v%^  |^A«^«»%>«A<^o.    vu^  vrxuwcuo   V*    w**^  AiA^tuMM  */vr»*  vortehlOge  zur  Beeeerung  (Vienna  and  Leipxig,  1904);    Lout, 

gregations,  or  tnbunals,  SUpenors  and  professors  m  VEvangiU  et  I'EglUe  (Paris,  1902);  Idem,  Autow  d'un  petit  livre 

relinoUS  congregations,  all  are  obliged  to  swear  accord-  (Paris,  1903) ;  Idem,  Simples  rljlexione  aur  U  dicrd  du  Saint-Office 

jngtoaformulawWchreprobat^theprmciD^^  '^^^S^^SSi,^::  li;So^fS3K"^"SS^&'"^ 

ISt  tenets.     (15)  The  pope's  letter  to  Prof.  Decurtms  referring  to  thbi  book,  which  has  been  condemned,  we  do  not  wish 

on   literary    modernism.      (All    these   documents    are  to  make  any  reflexion  on  the  Catholicity  of  the  author];  TrsRKLL, 

contained  in  Vermeersch.  op.  cit.  infra.)  i^,??!fj  (London.  New  York,  BomBay,  1906);  Idem.  Aoonfir 

rJ^L^         X      *'*»"'^^*"Y   »     *^   ^      "T    f^     J.     .   1.  denttal  letter  to  a  friend  who  te  a  profeaaor  of  anthropology.  It.  tr. 

These  acts  are  for  the  most  part  of  a  dlSCiplmary  f inaccurate)  in  II  Corners  ddla  Sera  (1  Jan..  1906):  JLetUrs  to  Hie 

character  (the  Motu  Proprio  of  September,  1910,  is  ac^ness  Pops  Pius  X  hya,Modemist  (Chicago.  1910). 

clearly  of  the  same  nature):  the  (fccree  "Lamenta-  .  9^^°,"*^  Soyiicwj.— TortauJ,  DogmeetHistoire  in  Bulletin 

j'.Trt',*/   ^",.*'    ,  ^~.  r^~^(J    "***       ,7*   ,  ..-T^***"^  jVT,  de  IttHrature  eedisiastique  (Feb.  to  March,  1904);   CATALLA.Mn, 

bih"  IS  entirely  doctnnal;  the  Encychcal  "Pascendi"  Modemismo  e  Modemisti  (Brescia,  1907);  Mbrcibr,  Ls  modet- 

and  the  Motu  Proprio  of  18  March,  1907,  are  both  nisme.sapositionds-^rvisdelascieTUietSacondamruUionparlePape 

doctrinal  and  disciplinary  in  character.    Writers  do  f^  tP^^^'  ^^^VT?"'^°/Sl2f'^'?^'  ^ "Jfi^J*? •^^ *»'»• 

wvrv>A«Mw  <H.^  vuaw2'.«x«a,A  T  u«  wucuon^v^.       *TA^i^«o  v.x^  j^  phuosophte  nouvelle  (Pans,  1908);    Lbpin.  Chrxdalogw:   Com" 

not  agree  as  to  the  autnonty  of  the  two  prmcipal  mentairedespropo8Uionse7-S8dud£eretduS.Omee''LamentabiU'' 

documents;  the  decree  "Lamentabili"  and  the  EncyC-  (Paris,  19085;  Lebbkton,  L*encydique  et  la  thiologie  modernists 

Ucal  "P««eadi"      In  the  present  writer's  opinion,  ^J^i^^°\lSr^i^rT)!ZCJt't^ 

Smoe  the  new  COnnrmatlon  aCCOrdea  to  these  decrees  Dogmen  und  geschichtlidun  Tatsachen.  Eine^  Untersuchung  ttber  den 

by   the    Motu    Proprio,    they   contain   in    their   doc-  Modemismiu,  4th  series  (Freiburg  im  Brelsgau,  1908) ;  HsiNKB, 

trinal  conclusions  the  infallible  teaching  of  the  Vicar  ^Z"*!^ S^^^"^  ?V^  ^  ^^,iSS{  ^^^ '  Michblttsch,  i)er  neue 

waujuM  WW   y*»",  ^       ,^    *»*w***i^.«  vw««w^xu^  v.*  w**w   w  »^c»»  SyUobus  (Qraa  and  Vienna,  1908);  Knbib.  Wesen  undBedeutung 

of  Jesus  i^hnst.      (l^Or  a  more  moderate  Opmion  Cf.  der  Encydika  gegen  den  Modemismus  (Mains.  1908);   Godrtbe, 

Choupin    in    "Etudes",   Paris,    CXIV,  p.   119-120.)  The  doctrine  of  Modernism  and  its  refutation  (Fhn&dQ\ph\ei,  1908); 

The  decree  "Lamentabili"  has  been  caUed  the  new  ^.'^^J*  ^'^i^^i*'  (London,  1908);  Maumus,  Lesmodei-. 

*«*o  u«^«^      A^«auy^v«^^  ^    AA«0  KTf^M^  wcMm^  WA«.  KM^  ntstes  (Pans,   1909);  Vbbmeebsch,  De  modemismo  tractatus  §t 

|hrllaDUSj  because  it  COntams  the  proscnption  by  the  notai  canonica  cumlctia  S.  Sedis  a  ir  April,  1907  ad  £5  Sept,,  1910 

Holy  Office  of  65  propositions,  which  may  be  grouped  (Bruges,  19 lO). 

imder  the  followmg  heads:   Prop.  1-8,  errors  con-  A.  Vermeersch. 
ceming  the  teaching  of  the  Church;  Prop.  9-19, 

errors  concerning  the  inspiration,  truth,  and  study  of  ModigUana,  Diocese  of  (Mutilianexsis),  in  the 

Holy  Writ,  especially    the    Gospels;  Prop.  20-36,  Province  of  Florence,  in  Tuscany.  The  city  is  situated 

errors  concerning  revelation  and  dogma;  Prop.  27-  on  the  banks  of  the  Tramazzo,  and  is  the  Castrum 

2Sf  Christological  errors;    Prop.  39-51,  errors  rel-  Mutilum  of  Livy.    In  the  ninth  century  it  was  owned 

ative  to  the  sacraments;   Prop.  62-^7,  errors  con-  by  the  counts  of  Ravenna;  later  it  was  ruled  by  the 

ceming  the  institution  and  organization  of  the  Church ;  Guidi  until  1377,  when  it  owed  allegiance  to  the  Flor- 

Prop.   58-65,  errors  on  doctrinal  evolution.     The  entines.   The  academy  of  the  Incamminati  flourished 

Encyclical  ''Pascendi''  in  the  introduction  laid  bare  there  in  the  sixteenth  century.    The  episcopal  see 

the  gravity  of  the  danger,  pointed  out  the  necessity  of  dates  only  from  1850  and  was  at  first  suffragan  of 

firm  and  decisive  action,  and  approved  of  the  title  Faenza.   The  cathedral,  originally  a  collegiate  church. 

"  Modernism''  for  the  new  errors.     It  gives  us  first  a  was  rebuilt  in  the  sixteenth  century  and  was  dedicated 

yeiy    methodical    exposition    of    modernism;  next  by  Julius  II.  The  first  bishop  was  Mario  Melini.  The 


1A0DR4  422  MOHAMfiBDAK 

diocese  is  now  suffragan  of  Florence;  has  84  parishes,  bers  the  total  membership  at  170,000,000.      Leaving 

46,200  parishioners;  two  religious  houses  of  men,  and  aside  the  excellent  adnunistrative  and  financial  orvan- 

scven  of  women;  one  school  for  boys,  and  three  for  ization  of  the  confraternities,  we  will  here  discuss  only 

gills.  their  religious  side. 
Cappbllbth,  U  Chie^e  dT  Italia,  XVU  (Venice.  1857).  As  is  well  known,  at  the  caU  of  the  muezsins  every 

U.  UBNiGNi.  Mohammedan    is    bound    to    recite    daily    certain 

«»  j^      M.'s,  1  rn-xi.     •    o        J        a  prayers   at   stated   hours.    The  khouans   are   also 

Modra,  a  titular  see  of  Bithynia  Secunda,  .suffragan  found  to  follow  these  prayers  with  others,  peculiar 

?4?i'TA*Q^  ^l^  ""'^^  of  ModKt  figures  only  m  Strabo  to  their  association.    Among  the  chief  of  th^  is  a 

(XII,  543),  who  places  It  m  PhrypEpicteta,^  kind   of  Utany,    called   dH^   (repeated   uttenmce). 

sources  of  the  Gallus.    It  was  probably  situated  ator  for  which  a  chkplet  is  used.    PikdUentally.  it  ii 

near  Ame  Gueul,  m  the  vilayet  of  Brouasa.    The  the  same  for  all  t!£e  orders,  but  with  slight  variations, 

region  is  caUed  Medrena  by  theophanes  the  Chro-  by  which  the  initiated  are  enabled  to  recognise  each 

nojprapher  afld  Ck)nst8Utttme  Porphyrogenitus  P^  other  easily.    In  general,  it  contains  the  Mohamme- 

mat^  VI).    Several    Notitiae  episcopatuum"  menUon  dan  symbol  or  Credo:  "f  here  is  no  God  but  the  true 

the  See  of  Medrena^  or  Mela.    The  name  of  t^  sec-  Qod"^  (La  ilaha  itt'  AUak,  literally,  "No  god  except 

ond  place  18  also  written  Melma,  and  WMcaU^  God"),  which  is  repeated,  say  a  hundred  timS. 

tmae  JiwtmianoTObs  Nova  m  honour  of  Justuua^  Other  terae  phrases  or  invocations  are  added,  such 

from  the  twelfth  century  we  find  only  Mela^a,  Me-  as  "God  sees  me",  "God  pardon",  part  of  a  verae 

laneeia,  or  Melama,  it  is  evident  that  the  earher  Mela  of  the  Koran,  or  names  of  the  Divmeattributes.  as 

18  the  Malagmaoften  mentioned  by  Byzantme  his-  **o  Living  One",  a  hundred  times,  or  simply  the 

^"f^  ^S/.*"®  ^^  ^?f^®  ®^i'^°  ^^  ^^  *°iP^  *7°*!*  syllable  i/oua  (Him).    When  the  recitation  in  chorus 

m  Asia  Mmor  on  the  road  from  Constantmople  to  becomes  accelerated,  the  syllables  of  La  ilaha  iU' 

DorylsBum  and  an  unportent  strategic  pomt.    This  AUah  are  gradually  reduced  to  la  hau,  la  ha,  la  hi, 

city  must  have  been  located  between  Lefke  and  Vezir-  or  even  hau,  ha,  hi,  or  hau-hou.    The  phrase  La  ilaha. 

khan,  two  railway  stations  on  the  Constantmoijle.  etc.,  must  be  repeated  by  the  Kadriya  one  hundred 


Btantius  of  Mela,  present  at  Constantmople  (869):  object  to  attain,  on  certain  days  and  during  certain 

Paulof  Mela,pr^tatConstantmoDle(879);  Jo^  moments,  a  profound  union  with  God.    Tfis  union 

Mala«ina  (1266);  Constantine  of  Melangeui  (thip-  (ittwdZ),  which  is  described  by  the  Persian  and  Hindu 

teenth  century) -N.  of  Melaneia  (1401).  gufi  of  the  ninth  century,  resembles  the  Nirvana  of  the 

B^t;SToHJ:ry  (te)  m2-    **  *^  5Cai™opoxiu)s  in  fiuddhists.    It  is  the^ihilation  of  the  personality 

S.  P^TBiDfeB.  ^^theidentification(cyamoriai^dd)oftheBubjectwitIi 

God.     Sidl-abd-el-Kader-el-Djilani  proclaimed  that 

Modnus.    See  Zenqq,  Diocese  of.  "happiness  is  in  unconsciousness  of  existence".  Shokh 

Modhr.HKNBT.    See  CxNcxKNATX,  ABCHDIOCB8.  SSdhS^tr»eSv;;i?ir^'fiS3Abi 

el-Eerim  summed  it  up  in  two  words,  "unconscioua- 

Mohammedan  Confraternities. — ^The  countries  ness  and  insensibility' .    Such  teaching  cannot  shock 

where  Mohammedanism  prevails  are  full  of  religious  Mussulmans,  for  they  venerate  madmen  as  saints, 

associations,  more  or  less  wrapped  in  secrecy,  which  and  believe  that  God  dwells  in  empty  brains,  whidk 

are  also  political,  and  which  may  prove  troublesome  explains  why  they  allow  demented  persons  a  liberty 

at  some  future  time.   The  oldest  of  them,  the  Kadriya,  which,  to  us,  seems  excessive.     Sometimes  the  im- 

dates  from  the  twelfth  centiiry  of  our  era,  havms  tiated  person  endeavours  to  obtain  union  with  the 

been  called  into  existence  by  the  necessity  of  united  founder  of  his  order,  whom  he  resards  as  a  superior 

counsels  in  order  to  make  head  against  the  Crusades,  emanation  of  the  Godhead  and  His  all-poweiful 

The  name  pven  to  it  was  that  of  its  founder,  the  intermediary.    In  this  wa^r  Refaya  are  made. 

Persian  Sidi-abd-el-Kader-el-Djilani,  who  died  at  As  to  the  method  of  arriving  at  this  pseudo-ecstatio 

Bagdad  in  1166.    His  disciples  speak  of  him  as  ''The  union:  Sufism,  which  preceded  the  confratemitieSy 

Si^tan  of  the  Saints".    One  of  the  more  recent  asso-  and  from  which  many  of  them  are  derived,  was  con- 

ciation,  and  a  verv  aggresave  one,  is  that  of  the  tent  to  teach  the    moral  method  of  renunciation- 

Senoussiva,  foimded  by  an  Algerian,  Sheikh  Senoussi  detachment  carried  as  far  as  possible.    This  was  the 

(d.  1859).    In  contrast  to  the  exclusive  spirit  of  the  essence  of  primitive  Sufism,  which  was  simply  a 

other  orders,  this  one  has  opened  its  doors  to  all  of  "way''  (tariqd),  a  method  of  sanctification,  not  a  dog* 

them^   allowing  them  to  keep   their  own  names,  matic  system  or  an  organization.    The  oonfrater- 

doctnnes,    usages,    and    privileges.    The    rallying  nities  added  special  exercises,  and  in  this  lies  the 

principle  of  this  combination  is  hatred  of  Christians;  great  difference  from  Christian  mysticism.    The  latter 

It  isolates  them  in  anticipation  of  the  uprising  which,  confesses  the  impossibility  of  attaining  a  true  mysti- 

on  the  appointed  day  of  the  Lord,  will  orive  tnem  out  cal  state  by  one  s  own  ^orts;  (jrod  must  produce  it, 

of  ''the  Land  of  Islam"  (dor  d  Islam,  as  opposed  and  then  it  comes  unexpectedly,   whether  during 

to  dor  d  harh,  "Land  of  the  Infidels",  or,  literally,  prayer  or  in  the  midst  of  some  indinerent  occupation. 

"Land  of  the  Holv  War").    Ite  motto  is:  "Turks  and  The  Mussulman  thinks  otherwise:  there  is  a  pnysical 

Christians^  I  will  break  them  sdl  with  one  blow",  process  which  consists  in  the  manner  of  recitins  the 

Those   affiliated   to   the   confraternities   are   called  aikr  in  common  and  which  takes  c^ect  especial^  on 

khouans  (brethren)  in  North  Africa;  dervishes  (poor  Friday,  the  weekly  holy  day  of  Islam.    There  are 

men)  in  Turkey  and  Central  Asia;  fakirs  (b^^^ars)  in  various  i>re8criptions  as  to  how  the  breath  should  be 

India;    mounds   (disciples)   in  Egypt,  Arabia,   and  held  and  its  respiration  prolonged.    A  more  important 

Syria.    Since  the  conquest  of  Algeria  by  the  French  detail   is  the  exhausting  bcdily  exercise  wnich  is 

(1830)  the  reaction  has  resulted  in  an  immense  devel-  enjoined  to  produce  a  kmd  of  vertigo  or  hysterical 

opment    of    confraternities    in    all    Mohammedan  intoxication,  followed  either  by  convulsions  or  by 

countries.    Except  among  the  wealthy  and  sceptical  extreme  weakness.    Thus,  among  the  Kadriya^  says 

of  the  great  cities,  very  few  Mussulmans  escape  the  Le  ChateUer,  "the  khouans  give  themselves  up  to  a 

infection  of  this  movement,  and  M.  Pommeroi  num-  rhythmical  and  gradually  accelerated  swaying  of  the 


XOHAHUUUN  423  HOHiimiDAN 

upper  part  oT  the  body  which  miperinducea  cookmUoii  caliied  m  different  subjects.    As  these  phenomena  are 

of  the  cerebro-opmal  system.    Under  the  double  in-  succeasvely  recogniied  by  the  practised  eye  of  the 

fluoice  of  this  purely  phyacol  cauae  and  the  con-  presiding  sheikh,  the  Ichouan^,  at  a,  given  Mgnal, 

centratJon  of  aU  the  intellectuaJ  facultiee  upon  the  pierce  ttieir  hands,  amis,  and  cheeks  with  darts, 

eame  idea,  that  of  the  majesty  of  God,  the  phenomena  Othera  slash   their   throats   or  belhee   with   sabrM. 

of  rdi^oUB  hyHteria  are  produced  in  many  of  the  Some  crunch  pieces  of  glass  between  their  teeth, 

adepts.  .  .  .  They  are  much  in  evidence  in  the  con-  eat    venomous    creatures,    or    chew    cactus    leaves 

venta  of  the  order"  (p.  29).    The  founder  had  pre-  bristling  with  thorns.    All,  one  after  another,  fall 

scribed  that  the  fMthful  should  confine  their  recit»-  exhausted,  into  a  torpor  which  a  touch  from  the 

don   to   "ha,   turning   the  head  to  the  right,   hou,  moqaddem  (presiding  initiator)  transforms,  in  certain 

turning  it  to  the  left,  hi,  bowing  it,  and  prolonging  cases,  into  nypnosis"  (ibid.,  101). 
each  sound  as  much  as  the  breath  permits.    It  is        In   another  confraternity,   that   of  the   Refaya, 

easy  to  imagine  the  effect  that  may  be  produced  on  founded  in  the  twelfth  century  by  Refal,  a  nephew 

the  most  soundly  constituted  temperament  by  the  re-  of   8idi-abd-el-Kader,    most   of   toe   devotees   faint 

petition  of  these  syllables  accompanied  with  violent  when  the  hysterical  intoxication  suoervenes;  others 

movements  of  the  head"  (ibid.,  p.  33).  At  the  pim-  "eat  serpente  and  live  coals,  or  roll  themselves  about 
ent  time  the  Zaheriya  go  through  the  same  movO' 
menta  with  the  formula,  La  iiaha  iU'  AUak,  spoken 
in  one  breath,  and  sometimes  as  often  as  twenty-one 
times  without  a  respiration.  The  SarehourdiYa, 
founded  in  the  thirteenth  century,  repeat  an  in- 
definite  number  of  times  without  mterruption  tba 
phrase  La  ilaha,  etc.,  while  raising  the  head  from  the 
navel  to  the  right  shoulder,  and  thus  they  fall  into 
a  dumb  state  of  unconsciousness.  The  Zaheriya 
add  the  left  shoulder.  The  Nakechabendiva  some- 
times help  the  process  with  opium  and  similar  drugs. 
Among  tne  Beioumiya  the  oody  is  t>ent,  at  each 
invocation,  down  to  the  waist,  while  the  arms  are 
cnwsed;  they  are  uncrossed  while  the  body  is  raised 
again,  and  then  the  hands  are  clapped  together  at  the 
level  of  the  face. 

Some  confratemitiefl  deserve  special  mention  for 
the  intense  nervous  paroxysms  attuned  by  their 
members.    Rrst,  among  the  Kbeluoatiya,  founded  in 

the  fourteenth  century,  the  members  from  time  to  among  burning  braiiers.    They  accustom  themselvefl 

time  retire  into  deep  solitude  (whence  their  name,  moreover,  to  casting  themselves  down  on  the  points 

from  it  A«Ioua,  retreat);  thus  separated  from  the  world,  of  darts,  to  piercing  their  arms  and  cheeks,  and  to 

the  disciple  can  communicate  with  others  only  by  being  trodden  under  foot  by  their  sheikh"  (ibid., 

Bgns  or  m  writing:  he  fasts  from  sunrise  to  simset,  204,  206).    The  howling  and  the  whirhng  dervishes. 

and  takes  only  such  nourishm^t  as  is  strictly  nece»-  who  ^ve  public  exiiibitions  at  Constantinople  and 

sary.     By  the  use  of  coffee,  he  reduces  bis  sleep  to  at  Cairo,  belong  to  the  Refaya.     Their  ceremony 

two  or  three  hours.     He  recites  cert^n  sacred  words,  begins  with  shouting  accompanied  by  osciilstions  and 

such  as  Houa  (Him),  Qayyottm  (Immutable),  Ilaqg  leaps  keepins  time  to  the  beating  of  drums.     "Form- 

(Truth)(  which  have  to  be  repeated  from  10,000  to  ing  a  chain  ,  writes  Thfephile  Gautier,  "they  pro- 

30,000  tunes  a  day,  according  to  the  directions  of  the  duco,  from  deep  down  in  their  cheats,  a  hoarse  and 

initiator.  "The  upper  eyelid  is  briskly  pressed  down  on  prolonged  howling:  AUahhoul  which  seems  to  have 

the  lower,  to  produce  a  titillation  in  the  organ  of  sight  nothing  of  the  human  voice  in  it.    The  whole  band, 

whidi  acts  on  the  optic  nerve  and,  through  it,  on  the  acting   under    a    single    impulse,    springs    forward 

cerebral  ^stem.  .  .  .  The  word  Qayj/oam  is  rei^ited,  simultaneously,   uttering   a  hoarse,   muffled   sound, 

Bay,  20,000  times,  while  the  disdple  sways  and  bows  like  the  growling  of  an  angry  menagerie,  when  the 

tJie  head,  with  closed  eyea.     The  rapidity  of  repeti-  lions,  tigers,  panthers,  and  hyenas  think  that  their 

tion  cannot  exceed  once  in  every  second,  and  the  feeding-time  is  being  delayed.    Then,  by  degrees, 

duration  of  such  a  prayer  is  from  five  to  six  hours,  the  inspiration  comes,  their  eyes  shine  hke  those  Oi 

Suppoon^  that  the  candidate  is  dven  three  names  wild  beasts  in   the  depths  of  a  cave;  an  epileptic 

to  repeat  m  this  way,  it  must  take  him  eighteen  hours  froth  comes  at  the  comers  of  their  mouths;  tneir 

a  day.  .  .  .  Hie  teachers  of  the  order  compare  the  faces  become  distorted  and  livid,  shining  through  the 

Khebua  initiation  to  a  deadly  poison  when  taken  sweat;  the  whole  line  lies  down  and  rises  up  under  an 

in  too  large  dosee  at  first,  and  whicn  can  be  assimilated  invisible  breath,  like  blades  of  wheat  under  a  storm, 

by  progressive  use.  ...  All  the  members  who  make  and  still,  with  ever^  movement,  that  terrible  AUah- 

frequent  retreats,  even  if  the  duration  is  not  pro-  Aouisrepeatedwithincreaaingenergy.    Howcansuch 

longed,  are  seriously  affected  in  mind.    Emaciated,  bellowing  be  kept  up  for  more  than  an  hour  without 

bag^rd-^ed,  they  return  to  ordinary  hfe  still  re-  bursting  the  osseous  frame  of  the  breast  and  spilling 

t«'"'"C  the  traces  of  their  haiah  trials.  ...  An  ex-  thebhxidoutof  the  broken  vessels?"  (Constantinople, 

treme  exaltation,  then,  is  the  characteristic  of  tliis  xii).     The  whirling  dervishes,  founded  in  the  tnir- 

order,  and  it,  more  than  any  other,  must  be  retarded  teontb  century,  are  Maoulaniya,  also  called  Mevlevia. 

ta  the  focus  of  an  intense  fanaticism"  (ibid..  62  sqq.).  "They  wait*  with  arms  extended,  head  inclined  on  the 

Another  very  remarkable  confraternity  is  that  of^  the  shoulder,  eyes  half-closed,  mouth  half-opened,  hke 

Alssaoua,  founded  in  the  fifteenth  century  by  Sidi-  confident  swimmers  who  are  letting  themselves  be 

Mohanuned-ben-AIssa.    The  diAr  takes  the  shape  of  borne  away  on  the  stream  of  ecstasy.  .  .  .  Sometimes 

raucous  cries,  "to  the  cadence  of  a  mufiled  music  the  head  is  thrown  back,  showing  the  wtiitos  of  their 

in  rapid  time.     Incfinations  of  the  body  down  to  the  eyes,  and  lips  flecked  with  a  light  foam"  (Constanti- 

hips,  increasing  in  rapidity,  accompany  each  of  these  nople,  xi).     Atlaet  they  fall  on  their  knees,  exhausted, 

enea,  or  cireular  movements  of  the  head,  which  are  face  to  the  earth,  until  the  chief  touches  them,  some- 

alao  calculated  to  shake  the  nervous  system.     The  times  having  to  rub  their  arms  and  legs.    No  beholder, 

nervous  crises  thus  superinduced  are  soon  expressed  without  previous  information,    would  suspect  the 

in  cerebral  intoxicfttipo  (Ad  ansstbesift  variously  lo-  religious  significance  of  tibese  physical  exereisee  of  the 


MOHAMMin  424 

howling  and  the  whirling  dervishes,  or  that  they  con-  for  the  leading  events  in  his  career.    His  earliest  and 

stitute  a  process  for  arriving  at  union  with  God.  chief  biographers  are  Ibn  l8haq(A.H.  161  ■»  a.  D.  768), 

This  union  does  not  consist,  as  with  the  saints  of  Wakidi    (207=>=822),  Ibn    Hisham    (213»828),  Ibn 

Christianity,  in  a  higher  knowledge  and  love  of  God,  Sa'd  (230=845),  Tiimidhi  (279=892).  Tabari  (310= 

attained  in  silence  and  repose.    In  the  orders  which  929),  the  "lives  of  the  Companions  oi  Mohammed '\ 

afifect  ecstasy,  the  khouan,  on  the  contrary,  is  satis-  the  numerous  Koranic  commentators  [especially  Tar 

fied  with  the  preposterous  notion  of  using  violent  ban.  quoted  above,  Zamakhshari  (^538=1144)^  and 

means  to  produce  physiological  effects  which  bring  Baidawi  (691=1292)]^  the  "Musnad,  or  ooUection  of 

on  intoxication  to  tne  point  of  unconsciousness.  traditions  of  Ahmad  ibn  Hanbal  (241=855),  the  col- 

RiifN.AfaroiKnrf«e«XA<wan  (Algiers,  1884);  Lb  Chatbliisb.L«  lectiODS   of   Bokhari    (256=870),    the    ''Isabah".    OT 

S'iSS:«;r;teUi^»'2i/JS2.'  B^/JSTi^i^^lS^  "DicUonMy  of  Pewons  who  knew  Mohamined"'  by 

Clu9  eeux  qui  guetterU  (Paris.  1002^ ;  Petit,  Let  corifririM  mund-  Ibn  Hajar,  etc.     All  these  collections  and  blC^raphieS 

mofMt,  an  excellent  summary  (Pans,  1902).  are  based  on  the  so-called  Hadiths,  or  ''tra(utions"y 

Aug.  Poui^Am.  the  historical  value  of  which  is  more  than  doubtful. 

These  traditions,  in  fact,  represent  a  gradual,  and 

Mohaminad  aad  Mohammedani wm .  —  I.  Thb  more  or  less  artificial,  legendary  development,  rather 
Founder.  —  Mohammed,  "the  Praised  One",  the  thimsupplementaxy  historical  information.  According 
prophet  of  Islam  and  the  founder  of  Mohammedan-  to  them,  Mohammed  was  simple  in  his  habits,  but 
ism,  was  bom  at  Mecca  (20  August  7)  a.  d.  570.  Ara-  most  careful  of  his  personal  appearance.  He  loved 
bia  was  then  torn  by  warring  factions.  The  tribe  of  perfumes  and  hated  strong  drink.  Of  a  hi^y  nerv« 
Fihr,  or  Quraish.  to  which  Mohammed  belonged,  had  ous  temperament,  he  shrank  from  bocQ^  pain, 
established  itseli  in  the  south  of  Hij&s  (Hediaz)^  near  Though  gifted  with  great  powers  of  imagination,  he 
Mecca,  which  was,  even  then,  the  principal  religious  was  taciturn.  He  was  affectionate  and  magnanimous, 
and  commercial  centre  of  Arabia.  The  power  of  the  pious  and  aust««  in  the  practice  of  his  religion,  brave, 
tribe  was  continually  increasing;  they  had  become  the  zealous,  and  above  reproach  in  his  personaiana  family 
masters  and  the  acknowledged  guardians  of  the  sacred  conduct.  Palgrave,  however,  wisely  remarks  that 
Kqabaj  within  the  town  of  Mecca — then  visited  in  an-  "the  ideals  of  Arab  virtue  were  first  conceived  and 
nual  pilgrimage  by  the  heathen  Arabs  with  their  offer-  then  attributed  to  him''.  Nevertheless,  with  every 
ings  and  trioutes — and  had  therebv  gained  such  allowance  for  exaggeration,  Mohammed  is  shown  by 
preeminence  that  it  was  comparatively  easy  for  Mo-  his  life  and  deeds  to  have  been  a  man  of  dauntlesb 
hammed  to  inaugurate  his  reUgious  reform  and  his  courage,  great  generalship,  strong  patriotism,  merci- 
political  campaign,  which  ended  with  the  conouest  of  ful  by  nature,  and  ^uick  to  forgive.  And  yet  he  was 
all  Arabia  and  the  fusion  of  the  numerous  Arao  tribes  ruthless  in  his  dealings  with  the  Jews,  when  once  he 
into  one  nation,  with  one  religion,  one  code,  and  one  had  ceased  to  hope  for  their  submission.  He  ap- 
sanctuary.  (See  Arabia,  CnrUtianity  in  Arabia.)  proved  of  assassination,  when  it  furth^ed  his  cause: 
Mohammed's  father  was  AbdaUah,  of  the  family  of  however  barbarous  or  treacherous  the  means,  the  ena 
Hashim,  who  died  soon  after  his  son's  birth.  At  the  justified  it  in  his  eyes;  and  in  more  than  one  case  he 
age  of  SIX  the  boy  lost  his  mother  and  was  thereafter  not  only  approved,  but  also  instigated  the  crime, 
taken  care  of  by  his  imcle  Abu-Talib.  He  spent  his  Concemm^  his  moral  character  and  sinoeritv  con- 
early  life  as  a  shepherd  and  an  attendant  of  caravans,  tradictory  opmions  have  been  expressed  by  scholars  in 
and  at  the  age  of  twenty-five  married  a  rich  widow,  the  last  three  centuries.  Many  of  these  opinions  are 
Khadeejah,  mteen  years  his  senior.  She  bore  him  six  biased  either  by  an  extreme  hatred  of  Idam  and  its 
children,  all  of  whom  died  very  young  except  Fatima,  foimder  or  bv  an  exagj;erated  admiration,  coupled 
his  beloved  daughter.  with  a  hatred  of  Christianity.    Luther  looked  upon 

On  his  commercial  ioumeys  to  Syria  and  Palestine  him  as  ''a  devil  and  first-bom  child  of  Satan".  Ma- 
he  became  acquaintea  with  Jews  and  Christians,  and  racci  held  that  Mohammed  and  Mohammedanism 
acquired  an  imperfect  knowledge  of  their  religion  and  were  not  very  dissimilar  to  Luther  and  Ptoteetantism. 
traditions.  He  was  a  man  of  retiring  disposition,  ad-  Spanheim  and  D'Herbelot  characterise  him  as  a 
dieted  to  prayer  and  fasting,  and  was  subject  to  epi-  "wicked  impostor",  and  a  "dastardly  liar",  while 
leptic  fits.  In  his  fortieth  year  (a.  d.  610).  he  claimed  Prideaux  stamps  him  as  a  wilful  deceiver.  Such  in- 
to have  received  a  call  from  the  Angel  (Gabriel,  and  discriminate  abuse  is  unsupported  by  facts.  Modem 
thus  began  his  active  career  as  the  prophet  of  Allan  and  scholars,  such  as  Sprenger,  Ndldeke,  Weil,  Muir,  Ko- 
the  apostle  of  Arabia.  His  first  converts  were  about  elle,  Grimme,  Margoliouth,  give  us  a  more  correct  and 
forty  in  all,  including  his  wife,  his  daughter,  his  father-  unbiased  estimate  of  Mohammed's  life  and  character, 
in-law  Abu  Bakr,  his  adopted  son  Aii  Omar,  and  his  and  substantially  agree  as  to  his  motives,  prophetic 
slave  Zayd.  Bv  his  preaching  and  his  attack  on  call,  personal  qualifications,  and  sincerity.  Tneva- 
heathenism.  Mohammed  provoked  peisecution  which  rious  estimates  of  several  recent  critics  have  been 
drove  him  trom  Mecca  to  Medina  in  622,  the  year  of  ably  collected  and  summarized  by  Zwemer,  in  his 
the  Hejira  (Flight)  and  the  beginmng  of  the  Moham-  "Islam,  A  Challenge  to  Faith"  (New  York,  1907). 
medan  Era.  At  Medina  he  was  recognized  as  the  According  to  Sir  William  Muir,  Marcus  Dods,  and 
prophet  of  God,  and  his  followers  increa^.  He  took  some  others,  Mohammed  was  at  first  sincere,  but  later, 
the  field  against  his  enemies,  conquered  several  Ara-  carried  awav  by  success,  he  practised  deception  wher- 
bian,  Jewish,  and  Christian  tribes,  entered  Mecca  in  ever  it  would  gain  his  end.  Koelle  "finds  the  key  to 
triumph  in  630.  demolished  the  idols  of  the  Kaaba,be-  the  first  period  of  Mohammed's  life  in  Khadija,  fais 
came  master  or  Arabia,  and  finally  united  all  the  tribes  first  wife ",  after  whose  death  he  became  a  prey  to  his 
under  one  emblem  ana  one  religion.  In  632  he  made  evil  passions.  Sprenger  attributes  the  allcsed  revela- 
his  last  pilgrimage  to  Mecca  at  the  head  of  forty  thou-  tions  to  epileptic  fits,  or  to  "a  paroxysm  ofcataleptic 
sand  followers,  and  soon  after  his  return  died  of  a  vio-  insanity '.  Zwemer  himself  goes  on  to  criticize  the  life 
lent  fever  in  tne  sixty-third  year  of  his  age,  the  elev-  of  Mohammed  by  the  standwls,  first,  of  the  Old  and 
enth  of  the  Hejira,  and  the  year  633  of  the  Christian  New  Testaments,  both  of  which  Mohammed  acknowl- 
era.  edged  as  Divine  revelation;  second,  by  the  pagan 

The  sources  of  Mohammed's  biography  are  numer-  morality  of  his  Arabian  compatriots;  lastly,  bv  the 

ous,  but  on  the  whole  untrustworthy,  being  crowded  new  law  of  which  he  pretendea  to  be  the  "divmely  ap- 

witn  fictitious  details,  legends,  and  stories.     None  of  pointed  medium  and  custodian".    According  to  tins 

his  biographies  was  compiled  during  his  lifetime,  and  author,  the  prophet  was  false  even  to  the  ethical  tra> 

the  earliest  were  written  a  century  and  a  half  after  his  ditions  of  tne  idolatrous  brigands  among  whom  he 

death.    The  Koran  is  perhaps  the  only  reliable  source  lived,  and  grossly  violated  the  ea^  sexual  morality  of 


MO] 


I'i  -li 


425 


MOHAMMED 


his  own  system.  After  this,  it  is  hardly  necessary  to 
say  that,  in  ZwemeHs  opinion,  Mohammed  fell  very 
far  short  of  the  most  elementary  requirements  of 
Scriptural  morality.  Quoting  Johnstone,  Zwemer 
condudes  by  remarking  that  the  judgment  of  these 
modem  scholars,  however  harsh,  rests  on  evidence 
which  "comes  all  from  the  lips  ana  the  pens  of  his  own 
devoted  adherents.  .  .  .  And  the  followers  of  the 

Srophet  can  scarcelv  complain  if,  even  on  such  evi* 
enoe,  the  verdict  of  history  goes  against  him  ". 
II.  The  System. — A.  GeograpkictuExtentf  DivisiorUf 
and  DisiribuHon  of  Mohammedans, — ^After  Moham- 
med's death  Mohammedanism  aspired  to  become  a 
world  power  and  a  universal  religion.  The  weakness 
of  the  Byzantine  Empire,  the  unfortunate 
rivalry  between  the  Greek  and  Latin  Churches, 
the  schisms  of  Nestorius  and  Eutyches,  the 
failing  power  of  the  Sassanian  dynasty  of 
Persia,  the  lax  moral  code  of  the  new  religion, 
the  power  of  the  sword  and  of  fanaticism,  the  hope 
of  plunder  and  the  love  of  conquest — all  these 
factors  combined  with  the  genius  of  the  caliphs,  the 
successon  of  Mohammed,  to  effect  the  conquest,  in 
considerably  less  than  a  century,  of  Palestine,  Syria, 
MeBOi>otamia,  Egypt,  North  Africa,  and  the  South  of 
Spain.  The  Moslems  even  crossed  the  Pyrenees, 
threatening  to  stable  their  horses  in  St.  Peter's  at 
Rome,  but  were  at  last  defeated  by  Charles  Martel  at 
Tours,  in  732,  just  one  hundred  years  from  the  death 
of  Mohammed.  This  defeat  arrested  their  western 
conquests  and  saved  Europe.  In  the  eighth  and 
nintn  centuries  they  conquered  Persia,  Afghanistan, 
and  a  large  part  of  India,  and  in  the  twelfth  centurv 
they  had  already  become  the  absolute  masters  of  aU 
Western  Asia,  Spain  and  North  Africa,  Sicilv,  etc. 
The^  were  finally  conquered  by  the  Mongols  and 
Turks,  in  the  thirteenth  century,  but  the  new  con- 

guerors  adopted  Mohammed's  religion  and,  in  the 
fteenth  century,  overthrew  the  tottering  Byzantine 
Empire  (1453).  From  that  stronghold  (Constanti- 
nople) they  even  threatened  the  German  Empire,  but 
were  successfully  defeated  at  the  gates  of  Vienna,  and 
driven  back  across  the  Danube,  in  1683. 

Mohammedanism  now  comprises  various  theologi- 
cal schools  and  political  factions.  The  Orthodox 
(Sunni)  uphold  the  ledtimacrjr  of  the  succession  of  the 
first  three  caliphs,  Abu  Bakr,  Omar,  and  Uthman, 
while  the  Schismatics  (Shiah)  champion  the  Divine 
rif^t  of  Ali  as  against  the  succession  of  these  caliphs 
whom  they  call  '^usurpers",  and  whose  names,  tombs, 
and  memorials  they  msult  and  detest.  The  Shiah 
number  at  present  about  twelve  million  adherents, 
or  about  one-twentieth  of  the  whole  Mohammedan 
world,  and  are  scattered  over  Persia  and  India.  The 
Sunni  are  subdivided  into  four  principal  theological 
schools,  or  sects,  viz.,  the  Hanifites,  found  mostly  in 
Turkey,  Central  Asia,  and  Northern  India;  the  Sha- 
fiites  m  Southern  Inaia  and  Egypt;  the  Malikites,  in 
Morocco,  Barbary,  and  parts  or  Arabia;  and  the  Han- 
balites  in  Central  and  Eastern  Arabia  and  in  some 
parts  of  Africa.  The  Shiah  are  also  subdivided  into 
various,  but  less  important,  sects.  Of  the  proverbial 
seventy-three  sects  of  Islam,  thirty-two  are  assigned 
to  the  Shiah.  The  principal  differences  between  the 
two  are:  (1)  as  to  tne  legitimate  successors  of  Mo- 
hammed; (2)  the  Shiah  observe  the  ceremonies  of  the 
month  of  fasting,  Muharram,  in  commemoration  of 
Ali,  Hasan,  Husain.  and  Bibi  Fatimah,  whilst  the 
Sunnites  only  regard  the  tenth  day  of  that  month  as 
sacied,  and  as  being  the  dav  on  which  God  created 
Adam  and  Eve;  (3)  the  Shiah  permit  temporary  mar- 
riages, contracted  for  a  certain  sum  of  money,  whilst 
the  Sunnites  maintain  that  Mohammed  forbade  them; 
(4)  the  Shi'ites  include  the  Fire-Worshippers  among 
the  "People  of  the  Book",  whilst  the  Sunnites  ac- 
knowledge only  Jews,  Christians,  and  Moslems  as 
such;  (6)  several  minor  differences  in  the  ceremonies  of 


prayer  and  ablution;  (6)  the  Shiah  admit  a  principle 
of  religious  compromise  in  order  to  escape  persecution 
and  death,  whilst  the  Sunni  regard  this  as  apostasy. 

There  are  also  minor  sects,  the  principal  of  which 
are  the  Aliites,  or  Fatimites,  the  Asharians,  Azaragites, 
Babakites,  Babis,  Idrisites,  Ismailians  and  Assassins, 
Jabrians.  Kaissanites,  Karmathians,  Kharijites,  fol- 
lowers or  the  Mahdi,  Mu'tazilites,  Qadrians,  Safrians, 
Sifatians,  Sufis,  Wahabis,  and  Zaidites.  The  dis- 
tinctive features  of  these  various  sects  are  political 
as  well  as  religious;  only  three  or  four  of  them  now 
possess  anv  influence.  In  spite  of  these  divisions, 
however,  the  principal  articles  of  faith  and  morality, 
and  the  ritual,  are  substantiidly  uniform. 


^: 


Pagb  of  Koran  MS.,  Sura  (Chapter)  lv 
From  a  manuscript  in  the  Royal  Library,  Berlin 

According  to  the  latest  and  most  reliable  accounts 
(1907),  the  number  of  Mohammedans  in  the  world 
is  about  233  millions,  although  some  estimate  the  num- 
ber as  high  as  300  millions^  others,  again,  as  low  as 
175  millions.  Nearly  60  millions  are  in  Africa,  170 
millions  in  Asia,  and  about  5  millions  in  Europe.  Their 
total  number  amounts  to  about  one-fourth  of  the 
population  of  Asia,  and  one-seventh  that  of  the  whole 
world.    Their  geographical  distribution  is  as  follows: 

Asia. — India,  62  millions;  other  British  possessions 
(such  as  Aden,  Bahrein,  Ceylon,  and  Cyprus),  about 
one  million  and  a  half;  Russia  (Asiatic  ana  European), 
the  Caucasus,  Russian  Turkestan,  and  the  Amur 
re^on,  about  13  millions;  Philippine  Islands,  350,000; 
Dutch  East  Indies  (including  Java,  Sumatra,  Borneo, 
Celebes,  etc.)  about  30  millions;  French  possessions 
in  Asia  (Pondicherry,  Annam,  Cambodia,  Cochin- 
China,  Tongking,  Laos),  about  one  million  and  a 
half;  Bokhara,  1,200,000;  Khiva,  800,000:  Persia, 
8,800,000;  Afghanistan,  4,000,000;  China  and  Chinese 
Turkestan,  30,000,000;  Japan  and  Formosa,  30,000; 
Korea,  10,000;  Siam,  1,000,000;  Asia  Minor.  7,179,- 
000;  Armenia  and  Kurdistan,  1,795,000;  Mesopo- 
tamia, 1,200,000;  Syria,  1,100,000;  Arabia,  4,500,000. 

Total,  170,000,000 

Africa.— Eerpt,  9,000,000;  Tripoli,  1.250,000; 
Tunis,  1,700^W);  Algeria,  4,000,0Q0;  Morocco, 
5,600,000;  Eritrea,  150,000;  Anglo-Egyptian  Sudan, 
1,000,000;  Senegambia-Niger,  18,000,000;  Abyssinia, 
350,000;  Kamerun,   2,000,000;   Nigeria,   6,000,000; 


MOHAUffMHn  426  MOHAMMin 

Dahomey,  350,000;  Ivory  Coast,  800,000;  Dberia,  although,  at  times,  thev  appear  in  human  form.  The 
600,000;  Sierra  Leone,  333,000:  French  Guinea,  principal  angels  are:  Gabriel,  the  guardian  and  com- 
1,500,000;  French,  British,  and  Italian  Somaliland,  municator  of  God's  revelation  to  man;  Michael, 
British  East  African  Protectorate,  Uganda,  Togoland,  the  guardian  of  men;  Azrail,  the  angel  of  death,  whose 
Gambia  and  Senegal,  about  2,000,000;  Zanzibar,  duty  is  to  receive  men's  souls  when  they  die;  and 
German  East  Africa,  Portuguese  East  Africa,  Rho-  Israfil,  the  angel  of  the  Resurrection.  In  addition  to 
desia,  Congo  Free  State,  and  French  Congo,  about  these  there  are  the  Seraphim,  who  surround  the 
4,000,000;  South  Africa  and  adjacent  islands,  about  throne  of  God,  constantlv  chanting  His  praises;  the 
235,000. — Approximate  total,  60,000,000.  Secretaries,  who  record  the  actions  of  men;  the  Ob- 
Europe. — -Turkey  in  Eiut)pe,  2,100,000;  Greece,  servers,  who  spy  on  every  word  and  deed  of  mankind; 
Servia,  Kumania,  and  Bulgaria,  about  1,369,000.  the  TraveUers,  whose  duty  it  is  to  traverse  the  whole 
Total;  about  3,500,000.  earth  in  order  to  know  whether,  and  when,  men  utter 
Amenca  and  Australia,  about  70,000.  the  name  of  God;  the  Angels  of  the  Seven  Planets; 
About  7,000,000  (i.  e.,  four-fifths)  of  the  Peroan  the  Angeb  who  have  charge  of  hell ;  and  a  oounUeas 
Mohanunedans  and  about  5,000,000  of  the  Indian  multitude  of  heavenly  beings  who  fill  all  space.  The 
Mohammedans  are  Shiahs;  the  rest  of  the  Mohamme-  chief  devil  is  Iblls,  who,  like  nis  numerous  companions, 
dan  world — about  221,000,000 — are  almost  all  Sun-  was  once  the  nearest  to  God,  but  was  cast  out  for 
nites.  refusing  to  pay  homage  to  Adam  at  the  command  of 
B.  Tenets. — ^The  principal  tenets  of  Mohamme-  God.  These  devils  are  harmful  both  to  the  souls 
danism  are  lud  down  in  the  Koran  (q.  v.).  As  aids  and  to  the  bodies  of  men,  although  their  evil  influence 
in  interpreting  the  relijrious  svstem  of  the  Koran  is  constantly  checked  by  Divine  interference.  Besides 
we  have:  first,  the  so-caued  '' Traditions'',  which  are  angeb  and  devils,  there  are  also  jinns,  or  genii, 
supposed  to  contain  supplementary  teachings  and  creatures  of  fire,  able  to  eat,  drink,  propagate,  ana 
doctrine  of  Mohammed,  a  very  considerable  part  of  die;  some  good,  others  bad,  but  all  capable  of  future 
which,  however,  is  decidedlv  spurious;  second,  the  salvation  and  oamnation. 

consensus  of  the  doctors  of  Islam  represented  by  the  ^  God  rewards  ^ood  and  punishes  evil  deeds.  He 
most  celebrated  im&ms,  the  founders  of  the  various  is  merciful  and  is  easily  propitiated  by  repentance. 
Islamic  sects,  the  Koranic  commentators  and  the  The  punishment  of  the  unpenitent  wickea  will  be 
masters  of  Mohammedan  jurisprudence;  third,  the  fearful,  and  the  reward  of  the  fiuthful  great.  All  men 
analogy,  or  deduction,  from  recognized  principles  will  have  to  rise  from  the  dead  and  submit  to  the 
admitted  in  the  Koran  and  in  the  Traditions.  Mo-  universal  judgment.  The  Day  of  Resurrection  and 
hammcd's  rdi^on,  known  among  its  adherents  as  of  Judgment  will  be  preceded  and  accompanied  by 
Islam,  contains  practically  nothing  original;  it  is  a  seventeen  f^uful.  or  greater,  signs  in  heaven  and  on 
confused  combination  of  native  Arabian  heathenism,  earth,  and  eight  lesser  ones,  some  of  which  are  iden- 
Judaism,  Christianity,  Sabiism  (Mandceanism),  Ha-  tical  with  those  mentioned  in  the  New  Testament, 
nifism,  and  Zoroastrianism.  The  Resurrection  will  be  general  and  extend  to  all 
The  system  may  be  divided  into  two  parts:  doona,  creatiu'ee — ^angels,  jinns,  men,  and  brutes.  The 
or  theory;  and  morals,  or  practice.  The  whole  torments  of  hell  and  the  pleasures  of  Paradise,  but 
fabric  is  built  on  five  fundamental  pdnts,  one  be-  especially  the  latter,  are  proverbially  crass  and  sen- 
longing  to  faith,  or  theory,  and  the  other  four  to  sual.  Hell  is  chvided  into  seven  regions:  Jahannam, 
morals,  or  practice.  All  Mohammedan  dogma  is  reserved  for  faithless  Mohammedans;  Lasa,  for  the 
supposed  to  DC  expressed  in  the  one  formula:  '^ There  Jews:  Al-Hutama,  for  the  Christians;  Al-Sair,  for 
is  no  God  but  the  true  God;  and  Mohammed  is  His  the  Sabians;  Al-Saqar,  for  the  Mayans;  Al-Jahtm, 

Erophet.''     But  this  one  confession  implies  for  Mo-  for  idolaters;  Al-H&wiyat,  for  h3rpocrites.    As  to  the 

ammedans  six  distinct  articles:   (a)  belief  in  the  torments  of  hell^  it  is  believed  that  the  danmed  will 

unity  of  God;  (b)  in  His  angels:  (c)  in  His  Scripture:  dwell  amid  pestilential  winds  and  in  scalding  water. 

(d)  m  His  prophets;  (e)  in  the  Resurrection  ana  and  in  the  shadow  of  a  black  smoke.    Draudits  of 

Day  of  Judgment;  and  (f)  in  God's  absolute  and  irre-  boiling  water  will  be  forced  down  thdr  throats, 

vocable  decree  and  predetermination  both  of  good  They  will  be  dragged  by  the  scalp,  flung  into  the 

and  of  evil.    The  four  points  relating  to  morals,  or  fire,  wrapped   in   garments   of   flame,  and  beaten 

practice,  are:  (a)  prayer,  ablutions,  and  purifications;  with  iron  maces.    When  their  skins  are  well  burned, 

(b)  alms;  (c)  fasting;  and  (d)  pilgrimage  to  Mecca,  other   skins  will  be  dven  them  for  their  greater 

(1)  Dogma. — ^The  doctrines  of  Islam  concerning  torture.     While  the  damnation  of  all  infidds  will 

God — ^His  unity  and  Divine  attributes — are  essen-  be  hopeless  and  eternal,  the  Moslems,  who,  though 

tisAly  those  of  the  Bible;  but  to  the  doctrines  of  the  holding  the  true  religion,  have  been  guilty  of  heinous 

Trinity  and  of  the  Divine  Sonship  of  Christ  Moham-  sins,  will  be  delivered  from  hell  alter  expiating  their 

med  had  the  strongest  antipathy.    As  Ndldeke  re-  crimes. 

marks,  Mohammed  s  acquaintance  with  those  two  The  joys  and  glories  of  Paradise  are  as  fantastic 
dogmas  was  superficial;  even  the  clauses  of  the  Creed  and  sensual  as  the  lascivious  Arabian  mind  could 
that  referred  to  them  were  not  properly  known  to  possibly  imasine.  "As  plenty  of  water  is  one  of  the 
him,  and  thus  he  felt  that  it  was  quite  impossible  greatest  additions  to  the  delights  of  the  Bedouin 
to  bring  them  into  harmony  with  the  simple  Semitic  Arab,  the  Koran  often  speaks  of  the  rivers  of  Para- 
Monotheism;  probably,  too,  it  was  this  consideration  dise  as  a  principal  ornament  thereof;  some  of  these 
alone  that  hindered  him  from  embracing  Christianity  streams  flow  with  water,  some  with  milk,  some  with 
(Sketches  from  Eastern  History,  62).  The  numb^  wine  and  others  with  honey,  besides  many  other 
of  prophets  sent  by  God  is  said  to  have  been  about  lesser  springs  and  fountains,  whose  pebbles  are  rubies 
124,000,  and  of  apostles,  315.  Of  the  former,  22  are  and  emeralds,  while  their  earth  consists  of  camphor, 
mentioned  by  name  in  the  Koran — such  as  Adam,  thdr  beds  of  musk,  and  their  sides  of  saffron.  But 
Noe,  Abraham,  Moses,  Jesus.  According  to  the  all  these  glories  will  be  eclipsed  by  the  resplendoit 
Sunni,  the  F^phets  and  Apostles  were  sinless  and  and  ravishing  girls,  or  houns,  of  Paradise,  the  en- 
superior  to  the  angels,  and  they  had  the  power  ioyment  of  whose  company  will  be  the  principal 
of  performing  miracles.  Mohammedan  angelology  feGcity  of  the  faithful.  These  mtddens  are  created 
and  demonology  are  almost  wholly  based  on  later  not  of  clay,  as  in  the  case  of  mortal  women,  but  of 
Jewii^  and  emy  Christian  traditions.  The  angels  pure  musk,  and  free  from  all  natural  impurities, 
are  believed  to  be  free  from  all  sin;  they  neither  defects,  ana  inconveniences.  They  will  be  TOautifui 
eat  nor  drink;  there  is  no  distinction  of  sex  among  and  modest  and  secluded  from  puolic  view  in  pavil- 
Lhem.    They  are,  as  a  rule,  invisible,  save  to  animalsi  ions  of  hollow  pearls.    The  pleasures  of  Paradise  will 


MOHAMMED  427  MOHAMMKD 

be  so  overwhelmmg  that  God  will  ^ve  to  everyone  Syrian  and  Egyptian  Christians,  which  was  in  a  stag- 
the  potentialities  ofa  hundred  individuals.  To  each  natin^  condition,  and  st^ixiily  mnking  lower  and 
individual  a  large  mansion  will  be  assigned,  and  the  lower  into  the  depths  of  barbarism  (op.  cit.,  Wollaston, 
very  meanest  will  have  at  his  disposal  at  least  80,000  71,  72).  The  history  and  the  development,  as  well  as 
servants  and  seventy-two  wives  of  the  drls  of  Para-  the  past  and  present  religious,  social,  and  ethical  con- 
dise.  While  eating  they  will  be  waited  on  by  300  dition  of  all  the  Christian  nations  and  countries,  no 
attendants,  the  food  being  served  in  dishes  of  gold,  matter  of  what  sect  or  school  they  may  be,  as  com- 
whereof  300  shall  be  set  before  him  at  once,  contain-  pared  with  these  of  the  various  Mohammedan  coun- 
ing  each  a  different  kind  of  food,  and  an  inexhausti-  tries,  in  9.II  s^es,  is  a  sufficient  refutation  of  Noldeke's 
ble  supply  of  wine  and  liquors.  The  magnificence  of  ass^ion.  Tnat  in  the  ethics  of  Islam  there  is  a  great 
the  garments  and  gems  is  conformable  to  the  deli-  deal  to  admire  and  to  approve,  is  beyond  dispute;  but 
cacy  of  their  diet.  For  they  will  be  clothed  in  of  originality  or  superiority,  there  is  none  Tihat  is 
the  richest  silks  and  brocades,  and  adorned  with  really  good  in  Mohammedan  ethics  is  pither  common- 
bracelets  of  ^old  and  silver,  and  crowns  set  with  place  or  borrowed  from  some  other  religions,  whereas 
pearls,  and  will  make  use  of  silken  carpets,  couches,  what  is  characteristic  is  nearly  always  imperfect  or 
pillows,  etc.,  and  in  order  that  they  may  enjoy  all  wicked. 

these   pleasures,    God   will   grant   them   perpetual  ^   The  principal  sins  forbidden  by  Mohammed  are 

youth,  Deaut3r,  and  vigour.    Music  and  singing  will  idolatiy  and  apostasy,  adultery,  false  witness  against 

also    be    ravishmg    and    everlasting"    (Wollaston,  a  brother  Moslem,  ^ames  of  chance,  the  drinking  of 

"Muhammed,  His  Life  and  Doctrines").  ^      ^       ^  wine  or  other  intoxicants,  usury,  and  divination  by 

The  Mohammedan  doctrine  of  predestination  is  arrows.  Brotherly  love  is  confined  in  Islam  to  Mo- 
equivalent  to  fatalism.  They  believe  in  God's  ab-  hammedans.  Any  form  of  idolatry  or  apostasy  is 
solute  decree  and  predetermination  both  of  good  and  severely  punished  in  Islam,  but  the  violation  of  any 
of  evil;  viz..  whatever  has  been  or  shall  be  in  the  of  the  other  ordinances  is  Kenerally  allowed  to  go  un- 
world,  whether  good  or  bad,  proceeds  entirely  from  punished,  unless  it  seriously  conflicts  with  the  social 
the  Divine  will,  and  is  irrevocably  fixed  and  recorded  welfare  or  the  political  order  of  the  State.  Among 
from  all  eternity.  The  possession  and  the  exercise  other  prohibitions  mention  must  be  made  of  the  eat- 
of  our  own  free  will  is,  accordingly,  futile  and  useless,  ing  of  blood,  of  swine's  flesh,  of  whatever  dies  of  itself, 
The  absurdity  of  this  doctrine  was  felt  by  later  or  is  slain  in  honour  of  any  idol,  or  is  strangled,  or 
Mohammedan  theologians,  who  sou^^t  in  vain  by  killed  by  a  blow,  or  a  fall,  or  by  another  beast.  In 
various  subtile  distinctions  to  minimize  it.  case  of  dire  necessity,  however^  these  restrictions  may 

(2)  Practice. — ^The  five  pillars  of  the  practical  and  be  dispensed  with.    Infanticide,   extensively  prac- 

of  the  ritualistic  side  of  Islam  are  the  recital  of  the  tised  by  the  pre-Islamic  Arabs,  is  strictly  forbidden  by 

Creed  and  prayers,  fastins^  almsgiving,  and  the  pil-  Mohammed,  as  is  also  the  sacrificing  of  children  to 

srimaf^  to  Af ecca.    The  formula  of  the  Creed  nas  idols  in  fulfilment  of  vows,  etc.    The  crime  of  infanti- 

Deen  given  above,  and  its  recital  is  necessary  for  salva-  cide  commonly  took  the  form  of  burying  newborn 

tion.    The  daily  prayers  are  five  in  number:  before  females,  lest  the  parents  should  be  reduced  to  poverty 

sunrise,  at  midaay.  at  four  in  the  afternoon^  at  sun-  by  providing  for  them,  or  else  that  they  might  avoid 

set,   and  shortly  before  midnight.    The  forms  of  the  sorrow  and  disgrace  which  would  follow,  if  their 

prayer  and  the  postures  are  prescribed  in  a  very  lim-  daughters  should  be  made  captives  or  become  scanda- 

ited  Koranic  1itui|y.    All  prayers  must  be  made  lous  by  their  behaviour. 

looking  towards  Mecca,  ana  must  be  preceded  by        Religion  and  the  State  are  not  separated  in  Islam, 

washing,  nedect  of  which  renders  the  prayers  of  no  Hence  Mohammedan  jurisprudence,  civil  and  crim- 

effect.    Pubuc  prayer  is  made  on  Friday  in  the  inal,  is  niainhr  based  on  the  Koran  and  on  the  ''Tra- 

mosque,  and  is  led  by  an  im&m.    Only  men  attend  ditions".    Thousands  of  judicial  decisions  are  at- 

the  public  prayers,  as  women  seldom  pray  even  at  tributed  to  Mohammed  and  incorporated  in  the  va- 

home.    Prayers  for  the  dead  are  meritorious  and  rious  collections  of  Hadith.    Mohammed  commanded 

commended.    Fasting  is  commended  at  all  seasons,  reverence  and  obedience  to  parents,  and  kindness  to 

but  prescribed  only  m  the  month  of  Ramadan.    It  wives    and    slaves.    Slander    and    backbiting    are 

begins  at  sunrise  and  ends  at  sunset,  and  is  very  rig-  strongly  denounced,  althou^  false  evidence  is  al- 

orous,  especially  when  the  fasting  season  falls  in  sum-  lowed  to  hide  a  Moslem's  cnme  and  to  save  his  repu- 

mer.    At  the  end  of  Ramadan  comes  the  great  feast-  tation  or  life.    As  regards  marriage,  polygamy,  and 

day,  generally  called  Bairam,  or  Fitr,  i.  e.,  ''Breaking  divorce,  the  Koran  explicitly  (suraiv,  v.  3)  allows  four 

of  the  Fast'.    The  other  great  festival  is  that  of  lawful  wives  at  a  time,  whom  the  husband  may  divorce 

Ajiha,  borrowed  with  modifications  from  the  Jewish  whenever  he  pleases.    Slave-mLstresses  and  concu- 

Day    of    Atonement.    Almsgiving   is   hi^y    com-  bines  are  permitted  in  any  number.     At  present, 

mended:  on  the  feast-day  after  Ramadan  it  is  oblig-  however,  owing  to  economic  reasons,  concubmage  is 

atory,  and  is  to  be  directed  to  the  "faithful"  (Mo-  not  as  commomy  practised  as  Western  popular  opin- 

hammedans)  only.    Pilgrimage  to  Mecca  once  in  a  ion  seems  to  hold.    Seclusion  of  wivce  is  commanded, 

lifetime  is  a  duty  incumbent  on  every  free  Moslem  of  and  in  case  of  unfaithfulness,  the  wife's  evidence, 

sufficient  means  and  bodily  strength;. the  merit  of  it  either  in  her  own  defence  or  aeainst  her  husband,  is 

cannot  be  obtained  by  deputy,  and  the  ceremonies  not  admitted,  while  that  of  the  husband  invariably  is. 

are  strictly  similar  to  those  performed  by  the  Prophet  In  this,  as  in  other  judicial  cases,  the  evidence  of  two 

himself  (see  Mecca).    Pilgrimages  to  the  tombs  of  women,  if  admitted,  is  sometimes  allowed  to  be  worth 

saints   are  very   common  nowadays,   especially  in  that  of  one  man.    The  man  is  allowed  to  repudiate 

Perna  and  India,  although  they  were  absolutely  for-  his  wife  on  the  slightest  pretext,  but  the  woman  is 

bidden  by  Mohammed.  not  permitted  even  to  separate  herself  from  her  hus- 

(2)  Morals. — It  is  hardly  necessary  here  to  em-  band  unless  it  be  for  ill-usage,  want  of  proper  mainte- 

phaaze  the  fact  that  the  ethics  of  Islam  are  far  in-  nance,  or  neglect  of  conjugal  duty;  and  even  then  she 

ferior  to  those  of  Judaism  and  even  more  inferior  to  generally  loses  her  dowry,  which  she  does  not  if  di- 

those  of  the  New  Testament.    Furthermore,  we  can-  vorced  by  her  husband,  unless  she  has  been  guilty  of 

not  agree  with  Noldeke  when  he  maintains  that,  al-  immodesty  or  notorious  disobedience.    Both  husband 

thougn  in  many  respects  the  ethics  of  Islam  are  not  and  wife  are  explicitly  forbidden  by  Mohammed  to 

to  be  compared  even  with  such  Christianity  as  pre-  seek  divorce  on  any  slight  occasion  or  the  prompting 

vailed,  ana  still  prevails,  in  the  East,  nevertheless,  in  of  a  whim,  but  this  warning  was  not  hcedoa  cither  by 

other  points,  the  new  taith — simple,  robust,  in  the  Mohammed  himself  or  by  his  followers.    A  divorced 

vigour  of  its  youth — ^far  surpassed  the  religion  of  the  wife,  in  order  to  ascertain  the  paternity  of  a  possible 


MOHILEFF 


428 


or  probable  offspring,  must  wait  three  months  before 
she  marries  again.  A  widow,  on  the  other  hand, 
must  wait  four  months  and  ten  days.  Immorality  in 
gen^^  is  severely  condenmed  and  punished  by  the 
Koran,  but  the  moral  laxity  and  depraved  sensualism 
of  the  Mohanmiedans  at  large  have  practically  nulli- 
fied Koranic  ethics. 

Slavery  is  not  only  tolerated  in  the  Koran,  but  is 
looked  upon  as  a  j^ractical  necessity,  while  the  manu- 
mission of  slaves  is  regarded  as  a  meritorious  deed. 
It  must  be  observed,  however,  that  among  Moham- 
medans, the  children  of  slaves  and  of  concubines  are 
generally  considered  equally  legitimate  with  those 
of  legal  wives,  none  being  accounted  bastards  ex- 
cept such  as  are  bom  of  public  prostitutes,  and  whose 
fathers  are  imknown.  The  accusation  often  brought 
against  the  Koran  that  it  teaches  that  women  have 
no  souls  is  without  foundation.  The  Koranic  law 
concerning  inheritance  insists  that  women  and  or- 
phans be  treated  with  justice  and  kindness.  Gener- 
ally speaking,  however,  males  are  entitled  to  twice  as 
much  as  females.  Contracts  are  to  be  conscientiously 
drawn  up  in  the  presence  of  witnesses.  Murder, 
manslaughter,  and  suicide  are  explicitly  forbidden, 
although  blood  revenge  is  allowed.  In  case  of  per- 
sonal injury,  the  law  of  retaliation  is  approved. 

In  conclusion,  reference  must  be  made  here  to  the 
sacred  months,  and  to  the  weeklv  holy  day.  The  Arabs 
had  a  year  of  twelve  lunar  months,  and  tnis,  as  often  as 
seemed  necessary,  theybrought  roughly  into  accordance 
with  the  solar  year  by  the  intercalation  of  a  thirteenth 
month.  The  Mohammedan  year,  however,  has  a 
mean  duration  of  354  days,  and  is  ten  or  deven 
days  shorter  than  the  solar  year,  and  Mohammedan 
festivals,  accordingly,  move  m  succession  throueh  all 
the  seasons.  The  Mohammedan  Era  begins  with  the 
Hegira,  which  is  assumed  to  have  taken  place  on  the 
16tn  day  of  July,  a.  d.  622.  To  find  what  year  of  the 
Christian  Era  (a.  d.)  is  represented  by  a  ^ven  year  of 
the  Mohanmiedan  Era  (a.  h.),  the  rule  is:  Subtract 
from  the  Mohanmiedan  date  the  product  of  three 
times  the  last  completed  number  of  centuries,  and  add 
621  to  the  remainder.  (This  rule,  however,  gives  an 
exact  result  only  for  the  first  dav  of  a  Mohammedan 
century.  Thus,  e.  g.,  the  first  day  of  the  fourteenth 
century  came  in  the  course  of  the  year  of  Our  Lord 
1883.)  The  first,  seventh,  deventh  and  twelfth 
months  of  the  Mohammedan  year  are  sacred;  during 
these  months  it  is  not  lawful  to  wage  war.  The 
twelfth  month  is  consecrated  to  the  annual  pilgrimage 
to  Mecca,  and,  in  order  to  protect  pil^rims^  the  pre- 
ceding (eleventh)  month  and  the  foUowmg  (nrst  of  the 
new  year)  are  also  inviolable.  The  seventh  month  is 
reserved  for  the  fast  which  Mohammed  substituted  for 
a  month  (the  ninth)  devoted  by  the  Arabs  in  pre- 
Islamic  times  to  excessive  eating  and  drinking.  Mo- 
hammed selected  Friday  as  the  sacred  day  of  the 
week,  and  several  fanciful  reasons  are  adduced  by  the 
Prophet  himself  and  by  his  followers  for  the  selection; 
the  most  probable  motive  was  the  desire  to  have  a 
holy  day  different  from  that  of  the  Jews  and  that  of 
the  Christians.  It  is  certain,  however,  that  FViday 
was  a  day  of  solemn  gatherings  and  public  festivities 
among  the  pre-Idamic  Arabs.  Abstinence  from  work 
is  not  enjomed  on  Friday,  but  it  is  commanded  that 
public  prayers  and  worship  must  be  performed  on  that 
day.  Another  custom  aating  from  antiquity  and 
stiU  universally  observed  by  all  Mohammedans,  al- 
thou^  not  explicitly  enjoined  in  the  Koran,  is  cir- 
cumcision. It  IS  looked  upon  as  a  semi-religious  prac- 
tice, and  its  performance  is  preceded  and  accompanied 
by  great  festivities. 

In  matters  political  Islam  is  a  system  of  despotism 
at  home  and  of  aggression  abroad.  The  Prophet  com- 
manded absolute  submission  to  the  imto.  In  no 
case  was  the  sword  to  be  raised  aspEunst  him.  The 
rights  of  non-Moelem  subjects  are  of  the  vaguest  and 


most  limited  kind,  and  a  religious  war  is  a  sacred 
duty  whenever  there  is  a  chance  of  success  against 
the  "  Infidel ".  Medieval  and  modem  Mohammedan, 
especially  Turkish,  persecutions  of  both  Jews  ana 
Christians  are  perhaps  the  best  illustration  of  this  fa- 
natical religious  and  pohtical  spirit. 

Spbbnqbb,  Dm  Leben  und  die  Leirg  det  Mohammed  (Berlin, 
1866);  Weil.  Daa  Lebm  Mohammed  (Stuttgart,  1864);  Munt, 
Life  of  Mohammed  (London,  1858,  1807) ;  Idem,  Mohammed  md 
leiam  (London,  1887} ;  Stko  Ambbb  Au,  A  CrUieai  Bxaminaiian 
of  the  Life  and  Teachinge  of  Mohammed  (London,  1873) ;  Idbm, 
The  Spirit  oflOam;  or.  The  Life  and  Teaching  of  Mohammad  (Cal- 
outta,  1902);  Kobllb.  Mohammed  and  Mohammedaniem  CriU' 
catty  Coneidered  (London,  1888) ;  NOldekx,  I>aM  Leben  Muham- 
mede  (Hanover,  1863) :  Idem,  lelam  in  Sketehee  from  Eaelem 
Hietory  (London,  1892),  61-106;  Wellbavsen,  Muhammed  in 
Medina  (Berlin.  1882);  Erehl,  Mohammed  (Leipsig.  1884); 
Gbimme,  Mohammed  (2  vols.,  MOnster.  1802-94) ;  Makgouodth. 
Mohammed  and  the  Riee  of  lelam  (London,  1005) ;  Zwembb,  leiam 
a  ChaUenqe  to  Faith  (New  York,  1007);  Caetani,  AnnaK  ddT 
lelam  (Milan,  1005—) ;  Maraccz,  Prodromi  ad  refutoHonem  AleO" 
rani  (4  parte,  Padua,  1608);  Arnold,  lelam,  ite  Hietory,  Charao' 
ter,  ana  BeJaUon  to  Chrietianity  (Loxidon,  1874);  KEnm,  Ge- 
eehiehU  der  herrechenden  Ideen  dee  I^me  (Leipsig,  1868);  Idem 
Cidtwrgeechichle  dee  Oriente  unter  den  Chalifen  (2  vcAb,,  VienDa, 
1875-77) ;  Huohes,  Dictionary  of  lelam  (London,  1805) ;  Idem. 
Noiee  on  Mohammedaniem  (3ra  ed.,  London,  1804);  Munu  The 
Coran,  ite  Compoeition  and  Teaching  (London,  1878);  Pebbon, 
L'ltlamieme,  eon  inetittUion,  eon  Hal  aelud  et  eon  atenir  (Pane. 
1877) ;  Gabcin  db  Tabst,  L*Ielamieme  d'apr^  le  Coran,  rcnedonc- 
merU  doctrinal  et  la  praHque  (2nd  ed.,  Paris,  1874);  MCllbb,  Der 
Itlam  im  Morgen-  und  Abendkmd  (2  vols.,  Bierlin,  1885--87) 
GoLDZiHEB,  Muhammedanieehe  Studien  (2  vols.,  Halle.  1889-08) 
Idem  in  Die  Orientaliechen  Rdigionen  (Leipsig.  1005),  87-135 
Lhebextx,  Btude  eur  Flelamieme  (Geneva,  1004) ;  Bncydopedia  of 
lelam  (Leyden  and  London,  1008 — );  Smith,  Mohammed  and 
Mohammedaniem  (London,  1876) ;  Krehl,  Be^trdge  tur  Muham' 
medanieehen  Dogmatik  (Leipsig.  1885) ;  Tool.  Studiee  in  Moham- 
medaniem, Hietorical  arid  Doctrinal  (London,  1802);  Sell,  The 
Faith  of  lelam  (London,  1886) ;  Wollabton,  Muhammed,  Hie 
Life  and  Doetrinee  (London,  1004) ;  Idem,  The  Sv?ord  ef  lelam 
(New  York,  1005) ;  Johnstone,  Muhammed  and  Hie  Poveer  (New 
York.  1901) ;  LiteraryRemaine  of  the  LaU  Bmanuel  Deuteeh  (Lon- 
don, 1874).  50-135:  Pizsi.  L'lelamiemo  (Milan,  1005);  Arnold. 
The  Preaching  of  Islam,  A  Hietory  of  the  Propagation  of  the  Mudim 
Faith  (London,  1896);  MacDonald.  Deedovment  of  MuaUm 
Theology,  Jurieprudenee,  and  ConeHtutional  Theory  (New  Yoik, 
1003) ;  Idem,  The  Rdigioue  AUiiude  and  Life  in  lelam  (Chicago. 
1008);  ZwEMER,  The  Mohammedan  World  To-day  (New  York, 
1006);  Carra  db  Vaux.  La  doctrine  de  V lelam  (Paiia,  1900); 
Lammbnb,  A  travere  r  Itlam  in  Btudee  (Paris,  20  Oct.,  1910); 
MARis,  Lee  Mueidmane  done  Vlnde,  ibid,  (Jan.  5  and  20). 

Gabrijsl  Oussani. 

Mohilefft  Abchdiocbsb  of  (Mohtloyiensib), 
Latin  Catholic  archdiocese  and  ecclesiastical  province 
in  Russia.  For  the  few  Catholics  in  Russia  before  the 
partition  of  Poland,  some  mission  stations  sufficed. 
The  Jesuits,  who  came  in  ambassadorial  suites,  la- 
boured in  Moscow  from  1648,  and  in  1691  built  Uie  first 
Catholic  church  there.  The  free  exercise  of  the 
Catholic  religion,  grsmted  in  1706  by  Peter  the  Great, 
was  also  allowed  by  his  immediate  successors,  on  condi- 
tion that  the  missionaries  did  not  attempt  to  secure 
converts.  The  Capuchins,  Franciscans,  and  Domini- 
cans also  laboured  among  the  immigrant  Catholics  with 
fruitful  results.  When  the  Jesuits  were  suppressed  in 
1773,  many  of  them  found  a  refuge  in  Russia.  How- 
ever, no  special  diocese  for  Catholics  was  erected. 
The  partitions  of  Poland  brought  under  Russian  sway 
many  hundred  thousand  Catholics,  whose  treatment 
was  in  striking  contrast  to  that  meted  out  to  the 
Uniats.  While  Uniate  churches  and  monasteries 
were  confiscated  and  delivered  to  the  Orthodox,  uid 
such  Uniats  as  refused  to  join  the  Orthodox  Church 
were  subjected  to  flogging,  imprisonment,  and  confis- 
cation of  property,  poBcy  and  shrewdness  led  the  em- 
press to  treat  tne  Latm  Church  veiy  differently. 
Wishing  to  attach  it  to  herself,  she  entrusted  the 
Franciscans  with  the  parishes  of  St.  Petersbuiv  and  the 
neighbourhood,  permitted  the  foundation  of  schools, 
and  released  churches  and  schools  from  all  taxes. 

As  in  the  first  partition  of  Poland  none  of  the  old  Pol- 
ish sees  fell  to  Ru88ia,the  empress  decided  to  found  a 
diocese  for  her  Latin  Catholic  subjects,  and  to  exclude 
all  foreign  priests  from  Russia.  Without  oonsultinff  the 
pope^  she  erected  the  Diocese  of  White  Russia  with  Mo- 
nileff  as  its  see  (1772),  and  appointed  as  first  bishop 


429  MOHILEFr 

Stenalaus  Siestrzenoewicz  Bohusz,  Auxiliary  Bishop  vented  him  from,  doinff  much  in  face  of  the  aeriBB  of 
of  Viliia  (1773).  At  first  Pius  VI  refused  to  recognize  oppressive  measures  of  Nicholas  I,  a  fanatical  adher- 
this  see,  mainly  on  account  of  the  empress's  arbitrary  ent  of  the  Orthodox  Church.  These  measures  which 
action  and  her  persecution  of  the  Uniats,  but  finally  were  intended  to  reduce  the  Catholic  Church  to  a  con- 
appointed  the  bishop  vicar  Apostolic  of  the  new  dio-  dition  of  servitude,  and  if  possible  to  exterminate  it 
oese.  In  1782  Catharine  arbitrarily  raised  the  bish-  completely  in  Russia,  were  furthered  by  the  practice 
opric  to  an  archdiocese.  After  some  negotiations,  the  of  leaving  the  archdiocese  vacant  for  long  periods — 
pope  recognized  the  new  Archdiocese  of  Mohilefif  by  e.  g.  after  the  death  of  Cieciszewski  and  of  his  succes- 
the  Bull  ''Oneroeapastoralis  officii"  of  15  April.  1783,  sor.  Ignaz  Ludwig  Pawlowski  (1841-42;  b.  1775). 
which  reserved  to  the  pope  the  foundation  oi  other  An  expostulatory  address  presented  by  Pope  Greg- 
dioceses  in  the  territory  of  the  archdiocese,  extending  ory  XVI  to  the  tsar  during  his  visit  to  Rome  in  1845 
from  the  Baltic  to  the  Pacific  Ocean.  At  the  second  lea  to  a  Concordat,  ratified  by  Russia  in  1848  and 
partition  of  Poland  (1793)  five  Latin  sees  fell  to  Rus-  promulgated  by  Pius  IX,  in  accordance  with  which 
sia,  Kamenetz,  Kieff,  Ijvonia,  Lutzk,  and  Vilna.  the  Diocese  of  Tiraspol,  with  Saratoff  as  its  see,  was 
Although  Catharine  had  promised  in  the  Treaty  of  founded  for  the  Catholic  colonists  in  Southern  Russia 
Grodno  (1793)  to  maintain  the  status  quo  as  regards  and  made  a  suffragan  of  Mohileff.  In  December, 
ihe  Catholic  Chtutsh,  she  arbitrarily  suppressed  these  1848.  Casimir  Dmochowski  (b.  1772;  d.  11  January, 
dioceses  and  founded  two  new  ones  m  places  with  1851)  was  appointed  archbishop.  He  was  succeeded 
hardly  anv  Catholics.  Part  of  the  propertv  of  the  by  I^naz  Holowiliski  (1851-5)  and  Wenceslaus  Zy- 
BUppressed  bishoprics  was  confiscatea  by  the  State  lifiski  (1856-63),  a  tool  of  the  government.  Persecu- 
ana  the  rest  given  to  favourites  of  the  empress.  tion,  suppression,  and  confiscation  continued  even 

Catharine^  son  and  successor,  Paul  I,  b^an,  di-  after  the  Concordat,  especially  under  Alexander  II. 

rectly  after  his  accession,  negotiations  with  Pius  VI,  The  Diocese  of  Kamenetz  was  arbitrarily  suppressed 

with  a  view  to  reorganizing  the  Latin  and  Uniat  in  1866,  and  Minsk  has  been  vacant  since  1869. 

Churches.    Four  of  the   five   suppressed   dioceses  Under  Nicholas  II  free  exercise  of  reli^on  was 

(Kamenetz,  Vilna,  Lutzk,  and  Livoma,  the  last  under  granted  in  1905,  while  the  edicts  of  toleration  of  17 

the  title  of  Samogitia)  were  restored,  and  the  new  Ddo-  April  and  17  October,  1905,  weakened  in  some  meas- 

ceee  of  Minsk  was  founded  to  replace  Kieff.    Part  of  ure  the  privileged  position  of  the  Orthodox  Church, 

the  confiscated  property  was  restored  to  the  Church.  Tliese  alleviations  have,  however,  been  since  whittled 

The  four  old  dioceses,  with  the  new  Diocese  of  Minsk,  down  by  the  arbitrary  conduct  of  subordinate  officials, 

were  made  suffragans  of  Mohileff,  which  now  became  acting  with  the  tacit  approval  of  the  government, 

a  proper  ecclesiastical  province.    Pius  VI  confirmed  Tlie  recent  archbishops  are:  Antonius  Fialkowski 

this  arrangement  on  15  November,  1798,  by  the  Bull  (1871-83) ;  Alexander  Casimir  Dziewaltowski  Gintowt 

"Maximis  undique  pressi",  which  forms  the  substan-  (1883-9);  Simon  Martin  Kozlowski  (1891-9);  Boles- 

tial  basis  of  the  constitution  of  the  Latin  Church  in  law  Hieronymous  Klopotowski   (1901-03);  George 

Russia  to-day.    The  Archdiocese  of  Mohileff  did  not  Joseph  Eles&us  a  Slup6ff  Szembek  (1903-5);  Appolin- 

escape  the  persecutions  to  which  both  the  Latin  and  aris  Wnukowski  (1^).  and  Vincentius  IGuczfiski 

Uniat  Churches  were  almost  constantly  exposed,  es-  (appointed  5  June,  1910). 

pecially  during  the  reigns  of  Nicholas  I  and  Alexander        it.  Statistics. — ^The  suffragans  of  Mohileff  are: 

U  (see  Russia).    In  the  hope  of  weakening  the  Catho-  Samogitia,    Lutzk-Zhitomir,   Vilna,    and    Tiraspol, 

lie  religion,  which  it  hated  and  barely  tolerated,  the  From  1866  Kamenetz  has  been  administered  by  the 

Government  regularly  selected  aged  or  compliant  men  Bishop  of  Lutzk,  and  from  1869  Minsk  by  the  arch- 

for  Mohileff,  leaving  the  pope  no  option  but  to  con-  bishop.    The  ecclesiastical  province  is  the  largest  in 

firm  its  choice.    The  first  archbishop,  Siestrzencewicz  the  world,  including  three-fourths  of  European  (the 

(b.  1730;  d.  1  Dec.,  1826),  was  one  of  its  most  pliable  ecclesiastical  province  of  Warsaw  is  excluded)  and  the 

tools.    Sprung  from  a  noble  but  impoverished  family  whole  of  Asiatic  Russia  (5,450,400  sq.  miles).    Ac- 

of  Lithuanian  Calvinists,  Siestrzencewicz,  after  serv-  cording  to  the  diocesan  statistics  for  1910  the  archdio- 

ing  in  the  army,  became  acquainted  with  Bishop  Mas-  cese  contains  28  deaneries,  245  parish  churches,  399 

salJd  of  Vilna,  and  through  his  influence  entered  the  priests,  1,023,347  Catholics.    The  administrators  of 

Catholic  Church  and  became  a  priest.    Massalki,  thirty-four  other  parishes  and  chapels  are  immedi- 

who  never  recognized  Siestrzencewicz's  lack  of  charac-  ately  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  archbishop.  Among 

ter.  made  him  a  canon  and  Auxiliary  Bishop  of  Vilna.  these  the  most  important  are:  Chemigoff  (10,600), 

Ambitious,  uninfluenced  by  motives  of  nonour  or  Tashkent  (15,0(X));  and  in  Siberia:  Krasnoyarsk  (13,-* 
conscientious  scruples,  and  greedy  for  power,  Siestiv  000),  Tomsk  (10,000),  Vladivostok  (10,500),  etc.  The 
zencewicz's  sole  aim  was  to  currv  favour  with  the  secu-  see  of  the  archcuocese  is  St.  Petersburg.  The  arch« 
lar  authorities  and  thus  secure  despotic  power  over  the  bishop  presides  over  the  Roman  Cathouc  Collegium, 
Catholic  Church  in  Russia.  To  mnit  as  far  as  possi-  which  regulates  the  relations  between  the  respective 
ble  the  power  of  his  clergy,  he  persuaded  Tsar  raul  I  dioceses  and  the  Department  of  Public  Worship,  and 
to  establish  the^  ''(Doll^e  of  the  Roman  Catholic  administers  the  property  of  the  Catholic  Church.  The 
Church '^  to  decide,  as  nnal  court  of  appeal,  all  im-  Metropolitan  Curia  consists  of  a  secretanr  and  four 
portant  matters  concerning  the  Catholic  dioceses.  Its  other  members;  the  archdiocesan  chapter  of  a  provost, 
decisions  had  to  receive  the  approval  of  the  ruling  dean,  archdeacon,  and  six  canons;  the  General  (Don- 
senate,  and  it  was  furthermore  declared  the  duty  of  sistory  of  an  official  (secular  administrator  for  the 
the  clergy  to  submit  unconditionally  to  the  will  of  the  bishop),  vice-official,  three  assessors,  visitor  of  monas- 
emperor  m  all  matters,  secular  or  ecclesiastical.  The  teries,  Defensor  nuUrimoniorumf  ana  twelve  lav  mem- 
presiding  officer  of  the  oollese  was  Siestrzencewicz,  bers.  The  Roman  Catholic  ecclesiastical  academy  at 
who  now  established  an  absolute  ecclesiastical  despo-  St.  Petersburg  has  a  rector,  spiritual  director,  sixteen 
tism,  appointing  to  the  council  only  unworthy  and  clerical  and  seven  secular  professors,  and  58  students, 
subservient  men.  He  granted  unlawful  divorces  for  The  seminary  has  2  provisors.  a  rector,  spiritual  direc- 
money,  induced  Alexander  I,  Paul's  successor,  to  ex-  tor,  inspector,  14  clerical  ana  5  secular  professors,  33 
pel  the  nuncio  (who  had  reported  to  Rome  the  arch-  theological  students,  59  philosophical,  and  31  in  the 
Dishop's  unscrupulous  conduct),  and  did  not  enter  the  preparatory  course.  There  are  no  statistics  as  to  the 
feeblest  protest  against  the  expulsion  of  the  Jesuits  monasteries  of  the  diocese.  From  1908  a  Catholic 
from  the  capital  m  1815,  and  from  Russia  in  1820.  monthly  has  been  published  at  St.  Petersburg. 
Casper  Casimir  Kolumna  Ciedszewski  (b.  1746),  .  '^K«mj>ieneuesimZu9tandedi^ 
Bishop  erf  Lutzk,  succeeded  ^^^  (28  Feb-  :S.'^'^'':^lfJ;!ll^^  \??S^6''<PX  ^; 
ruaiy,  1827;  d.  16  April.  1831),    His  great  age  pre-  Pxsbunq.  La  nuuu  d  u  Sawt-snge  (4  vols..  Paris,  I99^iwni 


MOHUBB  430  MOHUBB 

QoDUEWBKT.  Mmumenta  ecdenasiiea  PeiropoliUina  (3  vob..  St.  on  him  the  Doctorate  of  Theologv.   Not  long  before, 

den  arehidiaeeaeoaMohyUmeruiajn^o  anno  Domini  1010  coMcn  5?  ^^  pUDllsnea  ms  Secona  WOTK.      AtC^nafilUS  der 

(St.  PetenbuTs.  1910).  Groese  und  die  Kirche  seiner  Zeit  im  Kampfe  mit 

Joseph  Lins.  dem  Arianismus"  (Mams,  1827).   It  is  a  pleasing  and 

lively  portrait  of  the  great  Bishop  of  Alexandria,  the 

M5bler,  Johann  Adam,  theologian,  b.  at  Igers-  champion  of  orthodoxy  amid  the  great  ecclesiastical 

heim  (Wiirtemberg),  6  April,  1798;  d.  at  Munich,  conflicts  of  the  fourth  century.     He  portrays  him  as 

12  April,  1838.    The  gifted  youth  first  studied  in  the  hero  of  his  time,  with  a  character  that  contrasts 

the  symnasium  at  Mergentheim,  and  then  attended  favourably  with  the  gloomy  attitude  of  Arius  and  the 

the  lyceum  at  Ellwangen,  where  he  applied  himself  vacillating  weakness  of  Eusebius  of  Csesarea.    About 

primarily  to  philosophical  studies.    In  1815  he  turned  the  same  time  (Ttkbingen  theologische  Ouartalschrift. 

to  the  study  of  theology,  and,  after  leaving  the  theolog-  1827-8)  he  depicted  in  a  similar  masterly  way  one  ot 

ical  college  at  Ellwangen,  went  to  Ttibingen  to  con-  the  great  figures  of  the  Middle  Ages,  St.  Anselm  of 

tinue  his  studies  in  the  university  there  under  the  Canterbury,  as  monk,  scholar,  and  defender  of  eodesi- 

leamed   professors    Drey   and    Hirscher.    In    1818  astical  liberty. 

he  entered  the  seminary  at  Rottenburg  on  the  Neckar.  His  study  of  ecclesiastical  life  in  early  and  me- 
was  ordained  priest  on  18  September.  1810,  ana  dieval  times  led  naturally  to  an  examination  of  the 
was  sent  as  curate  in  charge  to  Weilaerstadt  and  distinctive  differences  between  Catholicism  and 
then  to  Riedlingen.  In  1821  he  became  Repetent  Protestantism.  The  results  of  his  investigation 
(tutor)  in  the  Wimelmstift  at  Tilbingen,  and  for  more  he  published  in  "Betrachtungen  liber  den  Zustand 
than  a  year  devoted  himself  almost  exclusively  to  der  Kirche  im  fiinfzehnten  und  zu  Anfang  des 
classical  literature,  particularl^r  to  earlier  Greek  sechzehnten  Jahrhunderts"  (Gesammelte  Schriften, 
history  and  philosophy.  In  tnis  way  he  acauired  II,  1-34).  He  concludes  that  the  Reformation,  really 
the  keenness  and  clearness  of  judgment,  delicacy  necessary  in  the  sixteenth  century,  did  not  take  place 
of  dictioii,  skill  in  exposition,  and  fine  sense  of  the  in  the  right  way,  but  took  on  rather  the  character  of 
Aesthetic  which  distinguish  all  his  writings  and  dis-  an  entirely  revolutionary  movement,  by  which  the 
courses.  Soon,  the  theological  faculty  at  Tubingen  tranquil  development  of  the  medieval  Church,  with 
offered  him  a  place  as  tutor  (Privatdozent)  in  church  all  its  good  elements,  was  disturbed  and  an  end  put  to 
history,  to  prepare  for  which  he  visited  the  leading  ecclesiastical  unity.  In  connexion  with  these  in- 
German  ana  Austrian  universities,  meeting  there  the  vestigations  he  b^an — ^as  he  had  seen  done  in  the 
best-known  Catholic  and  Protestant  theologians  and  North  German  universities  and  as  his  Protestant  col- 
pedagogues — Niemeyer,  Gesenius,  Planck,  Schleier-  league  at  Tubingen,  Professor  Baur,  had  done — leo- 
macher,  Marheineke,  and  in  particular  Neander,  who  tures  on  the  antithesis  between  Protestantism  and 
made  a  powerful  impression  on  the  young  man.  Catholicism,  or,  as  is  usually  said,  on  symbolism.    By 

Thus  eouipped,  he  began  his  lectures,  and  soon  this  term  are  meant,  in  this  connexion,  the  distinctive 

published  nis  nrst  book  under  the  title  ''Die  Einheit  notes  of  a  given  ecclesiastical  communion,  also  cer^ 

m  der  Kirche  oder  das  Prinzip  des  Katholizismus,  tain  set  formulae,  l^lly  consecrated,  and  in  a  general 

dargestellt  im  Geiste  der  Kirchenv&ter  der  drei  ersten  way  expressive  of  Christian  faith  or  of  certain  fundar 

Jahrhunderte''    (Tubingen,    1825).    It    was   hailed  mental  dogmatic  ideas;  or  again,  especially  since  the 

with  enthusiasm,  and  gave  brilliant  evidence  of  the  Reformation  (or  rather  since  the  seventeenth  or  eigh- 

profound  knowledge  and  the  remarkable  penetration  teenth  centuries),  the  confessions  of  faith  that  consti- 

of  the  young  scholar.    He  was  indeed  a  child  of  his  tute  the  form  or  rule  of  belief  for  the  faithful  of  any  re* 

time,  and  betrayed  certain  Febronian  views  and  some  ligious  denomination.     In  this  way  symbolism,  l>eing 

sympathy  with  the  pseudo- reformism  of  the  day,  the  science  of  creeds,  is  a  theological  science  that  oom- 

which  the  Hermesians  later  cast  up  to  him,  and  which  pares  one  religious  system  with  another  on  the  basis  of 

he  often  r^retted.    His  book,  nevertheless,  was  not  their  creeds,  and  thus  demonstrates  the  truth  or  falsity 

merely  a  highly  intellectual,  but  also  a  hi^lv  moral  of  a  particular  creed.    While  symbolism — or,  as  it  is 

act,  and  that  for  man^r  readers,  like  Chateaubriand's  now  usually  called,  comparative  symbolism — has  not 

"G^nie    du    christianisme''.    Through    the    whole  long  been  recognized  as  a  special  theological  science, 

work  there  breathes,  as  it  were,  a  new  spirit,  ''whidi  there  are  traces  of  it  even  in  earliest  Christian  times, 

seems  to  herald  a  rejuvenescence  of  the  Church  and  The  Reformation  created  the  conditions  amid  which  it 

of  theological  science ' ' .    There  is  here  no  shallowness  grew  to  maturity ;  and  its  first  representative  was  prob- 


For  him  the   church   unity  is  twofold  in  charac-  was  merely  to  make  one  acquainted  with  one's  own 

ter:  a  unity  of  spirit  and  a  unity  of  body.    The  for-  symbolic  books,  without  paying  any  attention  to  those 

mer  is,  first,  the  mystical  unity  in  the  Holy  Spirit,  of  another  denomination.     The  founder  of  scientific 

which  binds  all  the  faithful  in  one  communion;  then  symbolism  in  its  modem  sense  was  the  G6ttingen  pro- 

the  mental  unity  of  doctrine,  i.  e.,  the  comprehensive  fessor  Planck  in  his  ''Abriss  einer  historischen  und 

expression  of  the  Christian  mind  in  opposition  to  the  veigleichenden    Darstellung  der  dogma tischen    Sy- 

manifold  forms  of  heresy,  and  finally  umty  in  multiplic-  steme  uns^rer  verschiedenen  christlichen  Hauptpar> 

umty 
Church 

visible  the  unity  of  the  diocese;  to  this  correspond  the  in  his  "Christliche  Symbolik  oder  historisch-kritische 

wider  circles  of  the  metropolitan  system  and  the  coun-  und  dogmatische  komparative  Darstellung  des  kath- 

cil  of  the  entire  episcopate,  and  finally  the  Roman  olischen,   lutherischen.   reformierten,   una  socinian- 

primacv,  whose  ^^radual  development  Mohler  illus-  ischen  Lehrbegriffes"  (Heidelberg,  1810-13).     Planck 

trates  from  the  history  of  Christian  antiquity  and  of  and  Marheineke  have  found  imitators,  though  of  less 

the  Middle  Ages.    Immediately  after  the  appearance  importance,  who  continue  down  to  the  most  recent 

of  his  book  M6hler  was  offered  a  place  in  the  Univer-  times  to  treat  this  from  the  Protestant  standpoint, 
sity  of  Freiburg;  he  refused  it,  and  as  a  result  was        For  Catholics  such  studies  had  naturally  had  less 

appointed  extraordinary  professor  at  Ttibingen  in  attraction.    When  a  student  at  Tubingen,  MShler 

1826.    After  he  had,  two  years  later,  declined  another  had  heard  lectures  on  s^bolism,  and  had  later  met 

offer  from  Breslau,  he  became  at  Ttibingen  ordinary  many  Protestant  theologians.    He  was  the  first  Cath- 

professor  in  the  theological  faculty,  which  conferred  olic  writer  to  develop  this  idea,  and  became  the 


MOHLEB  431  MOHLEB 

bunder  of  this  science  among  Catholics  through  his  Mohler  was  appointed  to  the  Catholic  theolo^cal 

classical  work,  **  Symboiik  oder  Darstellung  der  dog-  faculty  at  that  university  to  lecture  on  the  exegesis  of 

matischen  G^ensatze  der  Katholiken  und  Prote-  the  New  Testament. 

stanten  nach  ihren  offentlichen  bekenntnisschriften"        He  began  at  Munich  with  lectures  on  the  Epistle  to 

(Munzy   1832:  13th  ed.,  1004).    He  demonstrated  the  Romans,  but  in  the  next  term  he  added  lectures  on 

that  there  could  be  no  incompatibility  between  what  Church  history  and  patrolo^.    His  intercourse  with 

was  truly  rational  and  what  was  truly  Christian,  both  professors  of  like  mind  raised  his  spirits,  and  his 

finding  their  sole,  direct,  and  entirely  adequate  ex-  nealth,  which  had  failed  at  Ttibingen,  improved.    He 

pression  in  Catholic  dogma.    He  showed  also  how  devoted  himself  with  fervour  t^  the  preparation  of  a 

Catholic  doctrine  held  the  middle  course  between  the  history  of  monasticism,  with  the  intention  of  setting 

extremes  of  Protestantism,  e.  g.,  between  a  supex^  forth  the  immeasurable  influence  of  the  Benedictine 

naturalism  and  pietism  that  denied  the  rights  of  rea-  Order  on  Western  civilization.    While  he  cherished  a 

son,  and  a  naturalism  and  rationalism  that  rejected  warm  attachment  for  the  sons  of  St.  Benedict,  he  was 

absolutelv  the  supernatural.    With  great  clearness  he  of  opinion  that  the  suspension  of  the  Society  of  Jesus 

exhibite(f  the  contradiction  between  Catholic  and  was  not,  historically  speaking^  to  be  regretted.    His 

Protestant  principles;  for  instance,  in  the  doctrine  of  plan,  however,  was  never  realized.    After  a  mild  at- 

Christian  anthropology.    On  this  basis  he  proved  that  tack  of  cholera  in  1836,  he  was  stricken  with  a  pul- 

other  differences  of  doctrine  regarding  the  Fall  of  monary  ailment  which  compelled  him  to  cease  lectur- 

Man,  the  Redemption,  the  sacraments,  and  even  the  ing  and  seek  health  or  alleviation  at  Meran  in  the 

Church,  were  only  logical  consequences  of  the  anthro-  Tyrol.    After  the  condemnation  of  Hermesianism  by 

pological  views  of  the  leaders  of  the  Reformation.  Gregory  XVI,  the  Prussian  Government  sought  again 

Uontradictoiy  as  it  may  seem,  it  was  Mdhler's  irenic  to  secure  Mohler  for  Bonn,  hoping  perhaps  that  this 

natiu^  that  impelled  him  to  publish  this  work.    He  would  help  to  dlav  the  controversies  that  had  arisen 

was  persuaded  that  a  knowledge  of  the  real  character  at  Cologne.    His  love  of  peace,  however,  and  his  deli- 

of  tne  ^eat  religious  conflict,  based  on  the  genuine  cate  health  caused  him  to  refuse.    Early  in  1838  the 

and  original  documents,  was  a  necessary  preliminarv  Kins  of  Bavaria  bestowed  on  him  the  Order  of  St. 

to  an^  definite  appeal  to  the  tribunal  of  truth.    Such  Michael,  and  on  22  March  made  him  dean  of  the  ca- 

investi^ations  seemed  to  him  important,  not  only  for  thedral  of  Wilrzburg.    Mohler  never  took  up  this 

theologians,  but  also  for  every  true  scholar,  the  truth  ofllice,  however,  for  he  died  a  few  weeks  later  m  the 

being  nowhere  so  important  as  in  matters  of  faith.  The  prime  of  hfe,  not  yet  forty-two  years  of  age,  deeply 

work  was  enthusiastically  received,  and  went  through  lamented  by  king  and  people,  r^retted  by  his  friencb 

five  editions  in  six  years.    An  Endish  translation  by  and  by  all  who  loiew  him.    A  monument,  subscribed 

James  Burton  Robertson  appearedf  in  London  in  1843  for  by  almost  all  Catholic  Germany,  adorns  his  grave 

under  the  title  "Symbolism;  or  Exposition  of  Doc-  inthecemetexy  at  Munich,  with  the  inscription:    De- 

trinal  Differences  between  Catholics  and  Protestants,  fensor    fidei,    literarum    decus,    ecclesisQ    solamen'' 

as  evidenced  by  their  S3ntnbolical  Writings"  (reprint,  (Defender  of  the  fsuth,  ornament  of  letters,  consolation 

London  and  New  York,  1894),  and  the  work  was  also  of  the  CJhurch).  The  clergy  of  WUrtemberg  erected  an- 

translated  into  French  and  Italian.    "What  many  other  monument  to  his  memory  at  his  birthplace,  at 

had  thought  and  felt,  but  could  not  clearly  under-  the  dedication  of  which  in  1880  his  disciple  and  suo- 

stand,  much  less  adequately  express,  was  brought  out  cessor  in  Tubingen,  Bishop  Hefele  of  Rottenbuig,  paid 

by  Mohler  with  marvellous  insight  and  in  the  clearest  a  noble  tribute  to  his  fame. 

way"  (Kihn).    His  German  diction  was  also  perfect.        Mohler,  as  Kihn  has  well  shown,  had  an  uncom- 

The  "Symbolik"  acted  like  an  electric  spark,  and  monly  attractive  personality.    He  was  an  ideal  priest, 

stirred  up  many  both  in  and  out  of  the  Church.  Nat-  almost  perfect  in  stature  and  comeliness,  deeply  pious 

urally,  Protestant  theologians  took  up  the  (gauntlet,  and  of  childlike  modesty,  with  a  heart  full  of  affection 

Marheineke  replied  with  moderation  in  his  work,  and  gentleness,  x)enetrated  with  the  desire  for  peace  in 

"Ueber  Dr.  J.  A.  Mohlers  Symbolik"  (Berlin,  1833),  personal  intercourse  and  for  the  restoration  of  har- 

and  Nitisch  in  his  "Eine  protestantische  Beantwort-  mony  between  the  different  creeds.    He  exercised  a 

ung  der  Symbolik  Dr.  M5hlers"  (Hamburg,  1835).  peculiar  fascination  over  all  who  approach^  him,  and 

On  the  other  hand  his  Tubingen  colleague.  Professor  men  of  every  belief  and  party  confidently  turned  to 

Baur,  abused  Mohler  in  aprolix  rejoinder,  "Der  Gegen-  him  on  all  manner  of  questions.    He  cnarmed  his 

satz  des  Katholicismus  und  Protestantismus,  nach  hearers  by  his  dignified  bearing,  his  kindly,  intelligent 

den  Principien  und  Hauptdogmen  der  beiden  Lehr-  eye,  his  classic  diction,  and  His  ripe  knowledge.    It 

begriffe.    Mit  besondercr  RUcksicht  auf  Dr.  Mohlers  may  be  siud  that  he  pave  new  life  to  the  science  of  the- 

Symbolik"  (Tubingen,  1834).    Mohler  replied  with  ologv;  dso,  and  this  is  ^eater  praise,  that  he  re- 

"  r^eue  Untersuchiingen  der  Lehrgegensntze  zwischen  awakened  the  religious  spirit  of  the  age.    He  was,  in 

den  Katholiken  und  Protestanten.     Eine  Verteidi-  tne  jadg.nent  of  a  Protestant  (Realencyklopadie  ftlr 

gung  meiner  Symbolik  gegen  die  Kritik  des  Herm  prot.  Theol.,  2nd  ed.,  IX,  662  sqq.),  an  epocn-making 

Prof.  D.  Baur"  (Ttibingen.  1834;  5th  ed.,  with  intro-  mind  and  a  brilliant  light  of  the  Catholic  Church: 

duction  and  notes  by  Scnanz,  Ratisbon,  1900),  to  while,  according  to  the  same  writer,  the  Evangelical 

which  Baur  again  replied  in  the  same  year.     In  his  Church,  to  which  he  owed  much,  had  to  thank  him  for 

reply  Mohler  was  able  to  state  with  greater  clearness  fresh  stimulus  and  for  what  it  learned  from  his  fine, 

certain  points  of  difference,  and  to  deal  morepro-  keen  exposition  of  ecclesiastical  development.    After 

foundly  with  certain  doubts  and  criticisms.    Tnese  his  deatn  Dollinger  edited  most  of  his  minor  writings 

ad^tions  were  edited  anew  by  Raich  in  "Erg&n-  in  "Gesammelte  Schriften  und  Aufs&tze"  (2  vols., 

zungenzuMdhlersSyinbolikaus  dessenSchrift.'Neue  Ratisbon.  1839-40).    They  are  numerous,  the  most 

Unterschungen"  (?.Iainz,  1889:  latest  ed.,  1906).  This  noteworthy  being  "Beleuchtung  der  Denkschrift  ftir 

controversy  with  Haur  made  Tubingen  disagreeable  to  die  Aufhebung  dee  den  katholischen  Geistlichen  vorge- 

Mohler,  and  he  decided  to  seek  some  other  academic  schriebenen  Colibates",  in   which   he  refutes  with 

centre.    The  Prussian  Government  sought  to  attract  great  earnestness  the  opponents  of  priestiv  celibacy, 

the  celebrated  theologian  to  the  Catholic  theolo^cal  and  proves  the  sublimity  of  the  virginal  life  from  the 

faculty  at  one  of  its  universities.    Negotiations  were  idea  of  the  Christian  priesthood,  from  reason,  and 

begun  and  Mdhler  was  not  unwilling  to  go  to  Bonn,  from  the  New  Testament.    Other  important  studies 

But  Professor  Hermes,  who  had  Archbishop  Spiegel  are:  "Hieronymus  und  Augustin  im  Streit  uber  Gala- 

on  his  side,  prevented  the  execution  of  this  desi^.  ter2, 14"  (I,  Isqq.);  "Ueber  den  Brief  an  Diognetus" 

DdUinger,  his  intimate  friend,  was  meanwhile  active  (I,  19  sqq.),  "Fragmente  aus  und  tiber  Pseudoisidor" 

in  his  Denalf  at  Munich,  and  through  his  influence  (I,  283  sqq.),  ripe  fruits  of  his  studies  of  the  FathwB 


432 


MOIONO 


and  Church  history.  He  was  alwaya  greatly  devoted 
to  such  studies,  and  in  his  lectures  often  drew  atten- 
tion to  the  lite  iry  treasures  of  Christian  antiquity. 
To  him  they  stood  as  the  unbroken  series  of  witnesses 
to  the  doctrine,  worship,  and  constitution  of  the 
Church — the  successive  evidences  of  her  many  vic- 
tories, as  he  puts  it  in  the  introduction  to  his  ''Patro- 
logie  Oder  cnristlichen  Literllrgeschichte",  the  first 
volume  of  which,  dealing  with  the  first  three  centu- 
ries, was  edited  by  Reithmayr  with  additions  of  his  own 
(Ratisbon,  1840).  Less  important  is  the  "Kommen- 
tar  Uber  den  Rdmerbrief"  (Ratisbon,  1845},  also 
edited  by  Reithmayr  after  Mdhler's  death;  it  is  diffi- 
cult to  say  how  much  of  it  is  Mohler's  own  work.  The 
same  may  be  sud  of  the  "Kirchengeschichte  von  J.  A. 
Mahler"  (3  vols.,  Ratisbon,  1867-8;  index  vol.,  1870), 
laboriously  compiled  from  class  notes  by  the  Benedic- 
tine Pius  Gams,  and  later  translated  into  French. 

RsiTHMATB,  Biographical  sketch  in  the  fifth  edition  of  the  Symr 
bolik;  Idbm  in  Kirehenlex,  (1893),  8.  v.;  Kihn  in  Raich,  Brgdnf 
gungen  (latest  ed.,  1006),  i-lix;  Frisdricr^  J,  A.  MShler,der  8vmr 
holxker  (Munich,  1894);  KnOpfler  (Munich,  1896):  Monatsikb 
(Lausanne,  1897) ;  Waqknmann-Hauck  in  ReaUncykl.  flkr  prot. 
Th§ol.t  8.  ▼.:  QoTAU  (Paris,  1905) ;  Schmid,  Der  gei«tige  ErUwick" 
hmgagang  MdKUrt  in  Hia.  Jahrb.  (Munich,  1897),  322^56,  572-99. 

Patricius  Schlager. 

Mohr,  Christian,  b.  at  Andemach,  1823:  d.  at 
Cologne,  1888.  He  practised  his  profession  of  sculp- 
tor chiefly  at  Cologne  under  the  cathedral  architect 
Zwimer.  After  some  early  ornamental  work  at 
Mainz  and  Coblenz,  Mohr  settled  in  Cologne  in 
1845.  He  first  executed  the  statuettes  on  the  tomb 
of  Archbishop  Conrad  of  Hochstaden,  the  founder  of 
the  cathedral.  Of  importance  are  his  figures  of 
Christ,  the  Evangelists,  and  fiftv-nine  angels  on  the 
south  portal  of  the  cathedral,  where  the  nch  variety 
of  the  added  symbols  excites  admiration.  On  the 
commission  of  Emperor  William  I  the  eight  statues 
in  the  middle  hall  were  executed.  The  St.  Peter" 
for  tlie  middle  portal  won  Mohr  the  first-class  medal 
at  the  Paris  Exhibition  of  1855.  He  also  carved  the 
statue  of  the  first  Cologne  cathedral  architect, 
Gerhard  Ride,  and  that  of  the  veteran  painter  of 
the  Cologne  school,  Stephan  Lochner.  He  undertook 
many  commissions  outside  of  Cologne:  the  panoramic 
figures  for  the  assembly-hall  at  Dtisseldorf,  the  thirty- 
four  figures  of  the  emperors  for  the  Rathaus  at  Aachen, 
the  equestrian  statues  for  the  FQrstenbergische 
Schloss  at  Herdringen,  the  portrait  efiigies  of  the 
Princes  of  Hohenzollem-Siginaringen,  the  figures  for 
the  fountain  on  the  market-place  at  LUbeck.  etc. 
For  more  than  forty  years  he  was  thus  engaged  at 
Cologne,  executing  commissions  for  that  city  and 
other  places.  The  cathedral  is  indebted  to  him  for 
the  best  of  its  sculptural  decoration;  the  Rathhaus 
for  the  statues  of  the  emperors,  and  the  Museum  for 
the  bust  of  Michelangelo,  which  in  1873  secured  for 
Mohr  the  honour  of  beinff  made  a  regular  member  of 
the  K.  K.  Akademie  of  Vienna.  Mohr  was  equally 
esteemed  as  an  art-collector  and  connoisseur  of  classi- 
cal and  German  antiquities.  His  household  furni- 
ture represented  the  art  of  the  Dtirer  period.  That 
he  was  not  opposed  to  the  Renaissance  is  proved  by  a 
beautiful  silver  ejiergne  in  that  style.  Finally,  he 
ai>pear8  as  a  writer  on  art  in  the  works  "Koln  in 
seiner  Glanzzeit"  and  ''Kolner  Torburgen".  For 
his  laiowledge  and  his  achievements  he  was  indebted 
for  the  most  part  to  his  personal  exertions,  since  he 
was  practically  self-educated:  and,  even  though  in 
many  cases  he  only  executecl  the  plans  of  Schwan- 
thaler,  still  numerous  independent  works  display 
both  talent  and  taste. 

Zeitschr,  fur  biUende  Kunat,  XXIV,  100  sqq.;  lUuatrierU  Z§ir- 
tmng,  no.  866  (1860). 

G.  GlETMANN. 

Mohr,  Joseph,  b.  at  Siegburg,  Rhine  Province, 
11  Jan.,  1834;  d.  at  Munich,  7  Februaiy.  1802. 
Father  Mohr  did  more  than  any  other  within  the 


last  centuiry  towards  restoring  to  ^^eral  use,  es- 
pecially in  German-speaking  countries,  those  virile 
melodies  and  texts  simg  in  the  vernacular  by  the 
people  prior  to  the  Reformation — some  dating  from  the 
twelfth  century — which  had  been  (fisplaced  by  a  senti- 
mental class  of  hymns  more  in  keeping  with  modem 
taste.  While  at  first  Father  Mohr  stood  practi- 
cally alone  in  the  pioneer  work  of  research,  he  later 
found  powerful  assistance  in  the  labours  of  Rev.  Dr. 
Wm.  B&umker  and  Rev.  Guido  Maria  Dreves,  at 
that  time  a  Jesuit,  both  of  whom  became  famous 
specialists  in  this  field.  Among  his  manv  works  may 
be  mentioned:  ''Lasset  uns  beten'';  '^Treatise  on 
Psalmody";  "Cacilia",  a  hymn-b(x>k  and  prayer^ 
book;  "Cantate",  a  h3rmn  and  prayer-book;  ''Psalmi 
Officii  hebdomadse  sanctse";  "Vesperfouchldn"; 
"Laudato  Dominum",  -a  hymn-book  and  prayer-book 
intended  more  especially  for  institutions  of  hif^er 
education;  ''Manuale  Cantorum",  and  ''Ps&Uer- 
lein",  a  h3rinn-book  and  prayer-book.  Most  of  these 
collections — ^model  hymn-books  as  well  as  prayer- 
books— have  had  large  circulations;  the  "Cantate" 
has  had  forty-two  editions,  and  the  thirty-third 
edition  of  the  collection,  ''Cacilia",  has  recently 
appeared.  Several  of  Father  Mom^s  collections 
became  the  official  hymn-books  of  certiun  dioceses: 
others  served  as  the  basis  for  the  compilation  of 
official  diocesan  hymn-books.  Mohr  haa  the  gift, 
rare  at  the  present  time,  of  writing  genuine  hjrnm- 
tunes.  some  of  i^hich  are  in  his  collections. 

COeaianvereiiu-Catalog  (Ratisbon,  1870);  KobnmClueb,  Lexi' 
kon  (Ur  kirchliefien  Tonkunat  (Ratisbon,  1895). 

JOSEPH  OtTEN. 

Moigno,  FRANrois-NAPoi/' ON -Marie,  ph3rsici8t 
and  author,  b.  at  Gu^m6n^  (Morbihan),  15  April,  1804; 
d.  at  SainVDenis  (Seine),  14  July,  1884.  He  received 
his  early  education 
at  the  Jesuit  col- 
lege at  Sainte- 
Anne  d'Auray  and 
entered  the  novi- 
tiate of  the  order 
2  Sept.,  1822.  He 
made  his  theologi- 
cal  studies  at  Mont- 
rouge,  devoting 
his  leisure  to 
mathematics   and 

ghysics  in  which 
e  achieved  much 
success.  Upon  the 
outbreak  of  the 
Revolution  of 
1830,  he  fled  with 
his  brethren  to 
Brieg  in  Switzer- 
land. Here  he  con-     I'^ANcoia-NAPottow-MAioB  Monmo 

tinned  his  studies  nnd,  being  endowed  with  a  reroarka- 
ble  memory,  acquired  at  t))e  same  time  several  foreign 
languages^  including  Hebrew  and  Arabic.  In  1836  he 
was  appomted  professor  of  mathematics  at  the  well- 
known  college  of  Ste-Genevidve,  Rue  des  Postes,  in 
Paris.  Here  he  became  widely  known  not  only  as  a 
scholar,  but  also  as  a  preacher  and  writer  of  ability. 
He  wrote  numerous  articles  for  the  press  and  was 
much  esteemed  by  the  scientific  men  of  the  time,  in- 
dueling  Cauchy,  Arago^  Dumas,  Ampere,  etc.  He 
was  engaged  on  one  of  his  best  known  works.  "  Lemons 
de  calcuT  diff^rentiel  et  de  calcul  integral ".  baaed 
chiefly  on  Cauchy's  methods,  and  had  already  pub- 
lished the  first  volume,  when  he  left  the  Society  in  1843. 
Shortly  afterwards  he  undertook  a  tour  of  Europe, 
contributing  numerous  letters  to  the  journal  '^L^ 
poQue ".  He  acted  as  chaplain  of  the  Lyote  Louis- 
k-drand  from  1848  to  1851.  He  became  scientific 
editor  of  the  "Pressed  in  1850  and  of  the  "F^ya**  in 
1851  and  in  1852  founded  the  weU-known  scientifie 


MOLAl 


433 


MOLBSMB 


U 


journal "  Cosmos  "*.  In  1862  he  founded ''  Les  Mondes ' ' 
and  became  associated  with  the  clergy  of  St-Germain 
des  Pr6s.  In  1873  he  was  appointed  one  of  the  canons 
of  the  chapter  of  Saint-Denis.  Moisno  was  a  man  of 
great  industry  and  throu|^hout  his  Tonff  career  was  a 
prolific  writer,  being  distmguished  rather  as  an  ex- 

gment  of  science  than  as  an  original  investigator, 
e  not  only  wrote  a  laq^  number  of  scientific  and 
apologetical  works  of  merit  but  also  translated  numer- 
ous l^glish  and  Italian  memoirs  on  science  into 
French.  He  also  edited  the  "  Actualit^s  scientifiques  *\ 
Among  his  more  important  works  may  be  mentioned 
"Repertoire  d'optique  modeme''  (Paris,  1847-50); 

Traits   de  t^l^phie  ^lectricjue"    (Paris,    1849); 

Logons  de  m^^nique  analytique"  (Paris,  1868); 

Saccharim^trie"  (Paris,  1869);  "Optique  mol^u- 
laire  "  (Paris.  1873) ;  "  Les  splendours  de  la  foi "  (Paris, 
187&-^);  "Les  livres  saints  et  la  science''  (Paris, 
1884),  etc.,  and  numerous  articles  in  the  "Comptes 
Rendus'',  "Revue  Scientifique",  "Cosmos",  etc. 

Cotmot,  3ni  series.  VIII,  443.         Hbnby  M.  BrocK. 

Molai  (Molat),  Jacques  de.  b.  at  Rahon,  Jura, 
about  1244;  d.  at  Paris,  18  March,  1314.  A  Templar 
at  Beaune  since  1265,  Molai  is  mentioned  as  Grand 
Master  of  the  Templars  as  early  as  1298.  He  was. 
as  he  described  himself  at  his  trial,  an  unlettered 
soldier  (miles  illeUercUua) ;  profiting,  however,  by  the 
collective  experience  of  his  order,  he  presided  in 
1306  or  1307  at  the  drawing  up  of  a  verv  important 
plan  of  crusade  and  went  to  Poitiers  to  lay  it  before 
Clement  V,  who  had  summoned  him  from  the  East. 
This  crusading  project,  based  upon  personal  knowl- 
edge of  the  Orient  and  the  Italian  cities,  is  considered 
by  Renan  superior  to  any  other  scheme  of  its  kind 
formulated  during  that  epoch.  In  it  Molai  shows  his 
implicit  confidence  in  tne  King  of  France,  whose 
victim  he  was  soon  to  become.  At  the  same  time 
Molai  presented  to  the  pope  a  memorial  against  the 
amalgamation  of  the  Hospitallers  and  the  Templars 
under  discussion  since  the  Council  of  Lyons  ana  ac- 
cepted in  principle  by  Gr^ory  X.  On  learning  from 
Clement  Y  the  accusations  brought  against  his 
order,  Molai  begged  the  pope  to  do  justice  and  re- 
turned to  Paris.  On  13  October,  1307,  he  was 
arrested  there,  together  with  all  the  Templars  of 
the  central  house  of  Paris,  by  the  lawyer  No^^aret. 
Nogaret's  captious  interrogatories  necessarily  discon- 
certed Molai,  who,  knowing  neither  law  nor  theology, 
was  unable  to  defend  himself. 

On  24  October,  1307,  on  his  first  appearance  before 
the  inquisitor  general  of  the  kingdom,  Molai  pleaded 
guilty  to  some  of  the  imputed  crimes,  notably  the 
alleged  obligation  of  the  Templars  on  joining  the 
order  to  deny  Christ  and  to  spit  upon  the  crucifix; 
but  he  refused  to  admit  the  cnmes  against  chastity. 
On  25  October,  1307^  he  repeated  these  same  admis- 
sions and  denials.  It  is  supposed  that  his  object  in 
making  these  partial  admissions  was  to  save  his  com- 
rades nt>m  the  extreme  penalty.  In  1308  a  commis- 
sion of  inguiiy  of  eight  cardinals  was  appointed  by 
the  pope;  it  was  a  new  form  of  procedure,  and  torture 
was  excluded  from  it.  Molai  caused  to  be  surrepti- 
tiously circulated  in  some  of  the  dungeons  a  wax 
tablet  calling  upon  his  brethren  to  retract  their  con- 
fessions, ana  in  August,  1308,  appeared  before  this 
commission.  What  then  took  place  is  a  most  obscure 
point  of  history.  According  to  the  record  of  his  trial 
as  it  appears  in  the  Bull  of  Clement  V,  ''Faciens 
misericordiam",  Molai  would  seem  to  have  repeated 
his  admissions  of  guilt,  but,  when  the  Bull  was  read 
to  him  on  his  appearance  before  another  commiission 
in  November,  1309,  he  was  stupefied,  made  the  sign 
of  the  Cross  twice,  and  exclaimed:  "Would  to  God 
that  sudi  scoundrels  might  receive  the  treatment 
they  receive  from  the  Saracens  and  Tartars!"  From 
this  VioUet  concludes  that  the  cardinals  of  the  com- 
X.— 28 


mission  of  1308  attributed  to  Molid  admissions  which 
he  had  not  made.  But  did  they  intend  to  injure  him? 
Quite  the  contrary,  M.  VioUet  thinks:  had  they  re- 
ported that  Molai  would  not  repeat  the  admissions 
made  in  1307,  Philip  IV  the  Fair  would  have  had  a  rea- 
son for  sending  him  to  the  stake  as  "  relapsed  " ;  so,  from 
motives  of  humanity,  they  perpetrated  a  falsehood 
to  save  him.  Before  this  commission  of  1309  Molai 
displayed  true  courage.  When  they  spoke  to  him  of 
the  sodomy  of  the  Templars,  and  of  tneir  transgres- 
sions against  religious  law,  he  answered  that  he  had 
never  heard  of  anything  of  the  kind,  and  asked  per- 
mission to  hear  Mass.  The  trial  diagged  on.  In 
March,  1313,  he,  with  three  other  hign  di^itaries 
of  the  order,  underwent  a  last  interrogatorv  in  Paris 
before  a  new  commission  of  cardinals,  prelates,  and 
theologians,  authorized  to  pronounce  sentence.  He 
was  condemned  to  imprisonment  for  life,  proudly 
denying  the  crimes  with  which  the  Temple  had  beev 
charged.  Philip  the  Fair  sent  him  to  die  at  the  stake 
as  ''relapsed",  and  he  continued  unflinching  until  the 
last  (see  Templars,  Knights). 

Hit,  liU,  de  la  France,  XXVII.  202-3. 382-«.  tiro  ohaps.  written 
by  Rsnan;  Viollet,  Lea  TrUerroffaUnrea  de  JcMjuee  de  Malay 
(raris.  1010);  Bbsbon.  Etude  eur  Jacquee  de  Molay  (Besancon, 
1877) ;  SchotticCllbr.  Der  UnUrgano  dee  Templerordene  (2  vols., 
Berlin.  1887);  Lavocat.  Prooke  dee  Frh-ee  de  Vordre  du  TempU 
(Paris,  1888);  Rastoul,  Lee  Templiere  ^aris.  1905). 

Georqes  Gotau. 

^  Molesme,  Notre-Dame  de,  a  celebrated  Benedio* 
tine  monasteiv  in  a  village  of  the  same  name.  Canton 
of  Laignes  (C6te  d'Or),  ancient  Burgundy,  on  the  con- 
fines of  the  Dioceses  of  Langres  and  Troyes.  St.  Rob- 
ert, Abbot  of  St-Michael  de  Tonnerre.  not  findixig  his 
monks  disposed  to  observe  the  Rule  oi  St.  Benedict  in 
its  original  simplicity,  left  them,  accompanied  by  a 
few  monks  and  nermits,  and  selected  a  spot  on  the  de- 
clivity of  a  hill,  to  the  right  of  the  River  Leignes, 
where,  having  obtained  a  grant  of  land  from  Hugo  de 
Merlennac,  they  built  a  house  and  oratory  from  the 
boughs  of  trees.  Here  they  lived  in  extreme  poverty 
untu  a  certain  bishop  visited  them,  and,  seeing  their 
need,  sent  them  a  supply  of  food  and  clothing.  Mem- 
bers of  the  noblest  families,  hearing  of  the  saintly  lives 
of  these  reli^ous,  soon  hastened  from  all  parts  of  the 
country  to  join  them,  bringing  in  many  cases  their 
worldly  possessions,  which,  added  to  numerous  other 
benefactions,  enabled  them  to  erect  a  church,  the  most 
beautiful  in  the  country  around,  and  suitable  monas- 
tic buildings.  The  increase  in  numbers  and  possessions 
caused  a  temporary  relaxation  in  fervour,  in  so  far  that 
the  monks  ceased  to  relish  the  work  of  the  fields,  being 
willing  to  live  on  the  alms  given  them.  Matters  hav- 
ing gone  even  so  far  as  open  rebellion,  St.  Robert  and 
the  most  fervent  religious  left  Molesme  (1098)  and 
founded  (Dtteaux,  which,  though  intended  as  a  Bene- 
dictine monastersr.  became  the  first  and  mother-house 
of  the  Cistercian  (Jrder.  Hie  monks  of  Molesme,  re- 
penting of  their  faults,  begged  Urban  II  to  oblige  St. 
Robert  to  return  to  them,  and  this  request  was  ac- 
ceded to  (1090);  Robert  continued  to  govern  them 
until  his  death  (1110).  Besides  (Dtteaux,  Molesme 
founded  seven  or  eight  other  monasteries,  and  had 
about  as  many  monasteries  of  Benedictine  nuns  under 
its  jurisdiction.  The  church  and  monastery  were  de- 
stroyed and  their  possessions  confiscated  in  1472  dur- 
ing the  war  between  France  and  Burgundy.  The 
buildings  were  again  burned  by  the  heretics  towards 
the  close  of  the  sixteenth  century.  In  the  seven- 
teenth century  the  fervour  of  the  monastery  was  re- 
newed on  the  introduction  of  the  reform  of  St.  Maur 
(1648).  All  the  glory  of  Molesme  has  now  vanished. 
The  magnificent  cnurch  is  razed  to  the  ground,  and  the 
monastic  buildings  are  used,  a  small  part  as  a  school, 
and  the  rest  as  common  dwellings. 

Mabillon.  Annalee  0,8.B,  (Lucca,  1740);  Gattia  ehriet.,  IV 
(Paris.  1876):  Qbbmain.  Monaeiieon  0oUioan«in  (Pario,  1882); 
VifyaO€  litUratrede  deux  rdiffieux  bHMietine  (Paris.  1717) ;  Jamau- 


MOLfBTTA 


434 


MOLttRS 


aQBSK,  Orioinum  eiiltreUntium.  I  (VieimA,  1876);  Manbiqub, 

'  ff'yoM.  1W2);  Mah  -        —  ' 
torum.  III  (Paris,  1717);  LAUBmr,  CaHuIaiT^  de  IToImiim  (Paris, 


iinnalM  eiatere.,  I  U^yons,  1642) ;  MABTiNS,  Theaauruu  oneodo- 


1W7). 


Edmund  M.  Obrecht. 


BCoUetta,   TteHiii,   and   Oiovinaiio,   Diocbsb 

OF    (MeLPHICTBNSIS,    TBRLmXNSIB   BT  JUVENACBN- 

si8).-^Molfetta  is  a  city  of  the  province  of  Baji^  in 
Apulia,  southern  Italy,  on  the  Adriatic  Seaj  its  ongin 
is  unknown,  but  many  objects  of  the  neolithic,  bronse, 
and  the  Mycensan  epoch  have  been  found  at  a  place 
called  Pulo,  which  shows  that  the  site  of  Molfetta  was 
inhabited  in  prehistoric  times.  The  town  has  a  beaif- 
tiful  cathedral,  and  beyond  its  limits  is  the  sanctuary 
of  the  Viripn  of  the  Martyrs  containing  an  image 
brought  to  it  b:^  some  Crusaders  in  1188.  The  first 
bishop  of  this  city  of  whom  there  is  anv  record  was 
John,  whose  incumbency  is  referred  to  the  year  1136. 
The  see  was  at  first  suffragan  of  Ban,  but  in  1484  it 
became  immediately  dependent  upon  Rome.  In 
1818,  it  was  enlarged  witn  the  territory  of  the  sup- 
pressed sees  of  Giovinasso  and  Terlixzi,  which  were 
re-established  in  1835,  remaining  united,  csque  princi^ 
politer.  In  the  opinion  of  some  people,  Giovinazzo  is 
the  ancient  E^iatia;  it  has  been  an  episcopal  see  since 
1071.  Terlizzi  was  a  city  in  the  Diocese  of  Giovi- 
nazzo, and  in  1731,  to  put  an  end  to  certain  questions 
of  its  independence,  it  was  declared  an  episcopal  see, 
but  united  with  Giovinazzo.  The  city  was  a  foiv 
tress  of  the  Hohenstaufens  and  of  the  Aragonese. 

The  Diocese  of  Molfetta  contains  4  pari^es:  80 
secular  and  6  regular  priests;  42,000  Catholics.  Ter- 
lizzi contains  3  parishes;  40  secular  and  6  regular 
priests;  24,100  Catholics.  Giovinazzo  contains  2  par- 
ishes; 37  secular  and  3  regular  priests;  12,150  Catho- 
lics. In  the  united  dioceses  there  are  6  convents  for 
women,  4  for  men.  2  schools  for  boys,  and  4  for  girls. 

Cafpbllbtti,  L$  ChieM  dTHalia,  XXI. 

U.  Bbnigni. 

Moli^  (properly,  Jban-Baftibtb  PoQuiajN.  the 
name  by  which  ne  became  known  to  fame  having  been 
assumed  when  he  went  on  the  stage,  to  avoid  embar- 
rassing his  family),  French  comic  poet;  b.  at  Paris,  15 
Jan.,  1622;  d.  there  17  Feb.,  1673.  He  was  the  son 
of  a  Paris  furniture  dealer  who  was  also  a  valet-de- 
chambre  to  the  king,  and  succeeded  his  father  in  the 
latter  of  these  two  capacities.  After  making  his 
studies  with  the  Jesuits  at  the  Coll^  de  Clermont,  he 
seems  to  have  studied  law  in  some  provincial  town — 
perhaps  Orleans.  It  is  not  known,  however,  if  he  ever 
took  his  licentiate.  The  stage  very  soon  attracted  him 
and  absorbed  him.  At  twenty-one  he  entered  the 
theatrical  company,  organized  under  the  name  of 
**  L'lllustre  The&tre'^  in  which  were  Madeleine  B^iart 
and  her  brothers.  The  troupe  engaged  a  band  of  four 
musicians  at  the  cost  of  one  livre  per  day,  and  a  dancer, 
who  was  to  receive  thirty-five  9oU  per  day  and  five 
sob  extra  for  every  day  when  there  was  a  penormance. 
The  business  started  with  a  deficit,  and  Moli^,  who 
appears  to  have  then  been  chosen  president  by  his  asso- 
ciates, was  arrested  for  debt.  He  was  imprisoned  in 
the  Ch&telet,  but  released  on  his  own  recognisances. 

In  the  course  of  the  subsemient  wanderings  through 
different  parts  of  France,  Moli^re  oompoised  some 
small  comic  pieces  of  no  importance,  or  which  two 
have  been  preserved — "La  Jalousie  de  Barbouill6'' 
and  "Le  Mededn  Volant".  Afterwards,  about  1653 
or  1655,  he  staged,  at  Lyons,  "L'Etouroi".  In  this 
he  be^an  to  use  the  language*  of  fine  comedy  which 
ComeiUe  had  created  ten  or  twelve  years  before.  ' *  Le 
D6pit  Amoureux",  produced  at  Bdziers  in  1656, 
should  also  be  mentioned  here.  Before  long  the 
"Illustre  Th^tre"  regained  confidence  to  face  the 
Parisian  public;  we  find  it  in  Paris  in  1658.  Next 
year  the  troupe,  now  authorized  to  call  itself  ''Troupe 
de  Monsieur,  Fr^re  du  Roi"  performed  ''Les  Pr^ 
deuaei  Rldioules",    In  this  comedy  Molitoe  declared 


war  against  the  spirit  of  refined  humbu^ery  {Vetprii 
pricieux),  and  he  never  ceased  to  be  its  enemy,  as 
witness  "Les  Femmes  Savantes"  (1672),  one  of  his 
last  pieces.    The  last  twelve  years  of  his  life  saw  the 

groduction  of  his  most  famous  works.  ''L'Eoole  dee 
laris"  (1661)  ^ows  the  beauty  of  a  confiding  and 
fen  tie  character  in  a  man;  ''Les  FAcheux"  (also 
661)  was  written  in  fifteen  days;  ''L'Ecole  des 
Femmes''  (1662)  gives  another  lesson  to  husbands — 
which  was  very  creditable  to  the  playwright,  for  he 
himself,  at  the  a^^  of  forty,  had  just  married  a  girl  of 
twenty,  Madeleme  B^jart's  sister,  the  volatile  Ar- 
mande  who  was 
to  give  him  so 
much  trouble.  The 
"Critique  de 
L'Ecole  des  Fem- 
mes''  and  the  "Im- 
promptu de  Ver- 
sailles" (1663)  are 
two  little  prose 
pieces  in  whien  the 
writer  defends  his 
comedy  of  the  pre- 
ceding vear  and 
attacks  his  critics. 
"Tartufe"(1664), 
the  famous  com- 
edy, at  first  in 
three  acts,  after- 
wards in  five,  deals 
trenchant     blows  ^  .  ^.    J*°"*""^.       . 

at  hypocrisy,  un-  ^■"*^  ^^  ^"^  ^vmrf 

fortunately,  however,  often  striking  true  virtue  at  the 
same  time.  After  its  first  production  the  public  per- 
formance of  this  piece  was  forbidden,  and  the  oan 
was  not  removed  for  five  years. 

In  the  interval  Molidre  wrote:  "Don  Juan"  (or  "Le 
Festin  de  Pierre")  (1665),  apparentlv  intended  as  a 
revenge  for  the  suppression  of  "  Tartuf e " ; "  Le  Misan- 
thrope" (1669)  a  great  comedy  of  character;  "  Amphi- 
trvon"  (1668),  thiee  acts  in  verse  of  various  measures, 
where  Jupiter  assumes  the  form  of  the  Theban  eeneral, 
Amphitryon,  in  order  to  betray  his  wife,  Alemena; 
lastly,  "L'Avare"  (1668).  Excepting  "Lee  Femmes 
Savantes",  already  mentioned,  the  comedies  of  his  last 
four  years  exhibit  a  great  deal  of  gaiety,  but  not  so 
much  breadth — "Monsieur  de  Pourceaugnac"  and 
"Le  Bouraeois  Gentilhomme",  in  1669,  "Les  Four^ 
beries  de  Scapin".  in  1671  and  "Le  Malade  Imasi- 
naire"  (1673).  While  on  the  stage  pla3ring  in  ''Ls 
Malade  Imaginaire",  the  author  was  seized  with  a 
violent  hemorrhage;  he  was  carried  home,  and  died. 

In  him  France  lost  the  greatest  of  the  comic  writers 
whom  her  history  has  produced.  Judging  Moli^re 
exclusively  from  a  literary  point  of  view,  it  must  be 
admitted  that  he  does  not  owe  his  reputation  to  the 
quantity  of  dramatic  entanglement  in  his  plays; 
he  owes  it  above  all  to  the  truth  of  his  portraiture. 
His  friend  Boileau  called  him  "the  looker-on"  (le  am' 
templateur).  He  knew  how  to  look  at  the  world, 
to  note  its  vices  and  its  failings,  and  his  genius  had 
the  power  of  combinins  what  ne  saw,  melting  all 
his  observations  together,  adding  to  them,  and 
thus  creatine  beings  who  are  no  longer  particular 
individualsp  out  are  recognizable  as  men  of  their 
whole  penod — often  of  all  periods  of  humanity. 
Moreover,  the  characters  are  his  chief  concern:  with 
him,  as  with  Racine,  the  characters  carry  the  whole 
piece,  they  are  its  soul.  His  art  may  at  times  fail 
in  otner  points — as  in  his  (UnouemerUSf  which  are 
often  ill  contrived — but  in  that  one  respect  he  is 
always  admirable.  His  plays,  then,  present  a  por- 
trait of  the  heart  of  man,  out  a  profile  portrait  drawn 
by  a  satirist,  whose  business  is  to  see  only  the  defec- 
tive side  of  it,  and  a  dramatic  writer,  who  is  obliged  b^ 
the  laws  of  stageoptics  to  emphasiie  certain  lines.  ThiB 


MOLINA                              435  MOLINA 

yerisiinilitude — or,  as  his  friend  La  Fontaine  expressed  tached  to  the  fathers  that  he  never  left  them.  When 
it,  carefulness  "not  to  go  one  step  away  from  nature"  he  reached  the  required  age  he  joined  the  Francis- 
— is  found  in  all  Molidre's  works.  It  is  particularly  can  order,  and  for  fifty  years  was  indefatigable  in 
risible  in  his  style.  Good  critics,  it  is  true,  have  his  work  among  the  Indians,  devoting  also  some  time 
found  fault  with  Molidre's  style,  particularly  in  his  to  the  numerous  works  which  he  left.  In  order  to  allow 
verse;  Boileau,  F^nelon,  and  La  Bruydre  did  so  in  the  him  to  follow  uninterruptedly  his  chosen  work,  his 
seventeenth  centunr;  Vauvenargues,  in  the  ei^-  superiors  relieved  him  of  all  cares  of  office,  although 
teenth;  Th6ophile  Gautier  and  others,  in  l^e  nine-  there  is  record  of  his  having  been  superior  of  the  con* 
teenth.  On  me  other  hand,  a  whole  school  has  arisen  vent  of  Texcoco,  in  1555.  Although  no  great  ao- 
in  the  last  fifty  years  to  extol  this  writer:  for  the  <tions  mark  the  life  of  Molina,  he  is  nevertheless  re- 
Moll^rists,  as  they  have  been  called,  Molidre  is  above  markable  for  his  untiring  zeal,  and  for  the  wonderful 
all  criticism;  they  preach  a  sort  of  cultus  of  Moli^re.  constancy  with  which,  for  half  a  century,  he  contin- 
To  be  more  judicious,  we  must  be  more  moderate,  ued  his  work,  resisting  its  monotonv,  overcoming  all 
Admitting  that  the  language  of  oomedv^  which  is  hardships  and  the  opposition  he  often  encountered, 
that  of  familiar  conversation,  permits  mm  certain  He  left  numerous  works,  the  following  unpublished: 
liberties,  which  he  cannot  be  fairly  blamed  for  usin^,  "Traduccidn  mexicana  de  las  Epistolas  y  Evangeilos 
still,  making  aU  due  allowance  for  the  nature  of  his  de  todo  el  afio";  "Horas  de  Ntra.  Sra.  en  mexicano"; 
medium,  there  is  no  denying  that  his  style  suffers  from  many  prayers  and  devotions  for  the  Indians;  "De 
real  carelessness — ^useless  repetitions,  incoherent  met-  Contemptu  Mundi";  also  a  treatise  on  the  sacra- 
aphors,  heav3r  and  entangled  phrases.  Molidre  was  ments.  The  following  have  been  published:  "Doo- 
obliged  to  write  quickly;  he  was  an  imi)roviser,  but  trina  breve  mexicana"  (1571);  "Vocabulario  caste- 
a  genius  of  improvisation.  For  his  style,  in  spite  of  its  llano  mexicano"  (1555);  "Confesonarlo  menor'' 
faults,  is  still,  as  Boileau  said  to  Louis  AlV,  a  "rare"  (1565);  "Confesonario  mayor"  (1565);  "Doctrina 
style.  Frank  and  natural,  he  excels  in  making  reason  Cristiana"  (1578);  "Arte  mexicano"  (1571);  and 
and  good  sense  talk.  It  is  the  style  of  a  poet,  too —  "  Vocabulario  castellano  mextcano  y  mesdcano  caste- 
warm,  highly  coloured,  brilliant.  Lastly,  one  finds  llano"  (1571,  reprinted,  Leipzig,  1880),  the  most  im- 
in  him  striking  words  and  striking  toucnes,  which  portant  of  his  works. 

come  spontaneously,  and  add  to  his  charm.  Dice,  mcMopAHeo  hupano-americanot  III  (Baroelona,  1803); 

As  for  morality,  it  owes  Moli^re  much  less  than  Virrijjcinrr,  Mmologio  franci*cano   (Mexico.   1871)  J  MouNA. 

hterature  does.     AlthOUf^h  he  gave  out,  m  his  pref-  SatAos,  Dietionnairt  de  la  2an^ue  NahuaU  (Pans.  1885);  Obnu 

aces,    that  it  was  his  wish  and  duty  as  a  dramatic  de  D,  J,  Qarda  leaAakda  (Mezioo,  1806),  III. 

poet,  to  be  of  service  to  morality,  he  has  been  severely  Camillus  Orivelli. 

censured  in  this  regard,  from  Bossuet  to  Jeanslacques  lur-^M—     a*«^»«^  ,.«    •  a^«»:«i.  r«—^i. ».;.>..  ^^a 

Rousseau     Whilehe  never  out  on  the  stane— as  is  so  Molina,  Antonio  db,  a  Spanish  Carthusian  and 

nft^n  Hnni in  thpw* Hava— a wnmAn  miiltvof  vinlAtins-  Celebrated  ascetical  writer,  b.  about  1560,  at  Villar 

W  ^Sg"^  ^^.'^^urr^otthlT^et "hi  ?u«va  de  lc«  Inf antes ;d  at  Mj«flar«^^^ 

has  been  reproachiii  with  the  presentetion  of  other  .^^^^  or  1619.    In  1575  bettered  ^e  Order  of  A««^ 

dangerous  pictures.    Furthermore,  he  is  always  on  ^««»  Hennits,  was  dected  superior  at  one  of  their 

thP  mdP  of  the  vlwnir  neonir  who  Lurelv  need  no  en-  houses  m  Spam,  and  for  some  tune  taught  theolotpr. 

SSiSS^ent  !n  th^  ^tn^S^  AU  hk^  »«*  wishin/to  join  an  order  of  stricter  disciplme.^e 

monsTaU  his  satires,  are  for  ^ts;  all  the  unpleasant  became  a  Cartturian  at  Mireflores,  where  ^edted 

failing  depicted  by  his  comedies  r^de  in  the  fathers  Pnor  of  the  monastenr.    He  wrote  ^  Sp^  a  few 

and  t^e  oW  people;  the  laugh  is  always  at  their  ex-  KS^*'*=HK''*'''"^**P**w'L^i^if!.!SlEfi^'^^^ 

penae,  exceptwEen  their  e^ism  excites  honor.    It  •'*T"*  ^''t  "'^^W'^'l'^^.l  ^-i^l^iS^' 

must  be  confessed  that,  while  the  passions  of  the  ^  ^ere  translated  mto  various  fom^lMi^i^. 

young  king,  Louis  XIV,  had  only  t6o  much  reason  ^e  most  famous  of  these  is  a  n«nual  for  pnests  and 

to  bl  pleSed  with  the  author  of  "Amphitiyon",  bears  the  title:  "Instruccion  de  Sacerdot«,  en  que  se 

religion  had  no  cause  to  approve  the  author  of  "^Tar^  ^,  doctrma  muy  "np^te  para  conooar  la  ^^ 

tufe".    MoUftre's  Christiiiity  was  not  as  profound  del  saj^ado  oficio  Saowdotal,  y  para  exercitwledebi- 

as  that  of  ComeiUe,  Racine,  Boileau,  and  nearly  aU  damente".    Twenty^itions  of  tins  work  are  kuOTm 

the  illustrious  writers  of  hi^  time.    And  yet,  when  *?  baye  been  published,  a,mpng  them  a  I^tm  t^a- 

there  was  question  of  his  being  given  Christian  burial,  *»?  by  the  Bdmn  Doimmcan  Nicolas  Ja^n  Boy, 

and  the  euri  hesitated,  on  the  ground  that  the  priest  '^b'ch  received  five  editiOM  (Antwerp,  1618,  1M4, 

had  arrived  too  late  tJ)  give  a&olution  to  the  wme-  9«lo©?. V^^j}2}}' *??  "^^^' ""^i*^ »    'i!Si*??^u" 

dian,  who,  it  may  atawSt  be  said,  passed  from  the  V"*"  ^^"f?'  }^\   ^*  Ti^/i^^f^Js**'*^*^^     *' 

stage  to  the  tribunal  of  God,  his  widow  proved  that  Jansenwt  Antome  Amauld  (De  la  frfiguente  Commu- 

he^ad  recdved  the  sacraments  in  the  list  previous  %<».  1643)  but  ably  defended  agamst  hmi  by  Petavius 

paschal  season.                                                 *^  ("Dogmata   th^loj5i(»De  ?«nit^ ',  ^b    III^ 

See  the  edition  of  MoUira  by  DnpoiB  amd  Mismabo  in  the  cap.  VI ;  newed.,  Pans,  1865-7,  VIII,  286-8).  He  IS  also 

CoUtetion  da  Brands  icrivaiiu  (Patia,  1873-1900),  abo  an  Enc-  the  author  of  two  ascetical  works  adapted  for  laymen. 

l^n^rflK.'^d^E^^^^^  The  one,  "Exercicios  ^PJ^tuales^  P««  Pej;«of «^^^^ 

Bohn**  Ubrary  (3  vol«.rLondon,  1876-77);  LACRonc.  Bibliog.  padas  de  cosas  de  su  salvacion  ,  WBS  published  at 

molUrewue  (Parw,  1875) ;  Veuillot,  Molih-e  et  Bourdaloue  (Paria.  BurgOS  in  1613:  the  Other,  "ExerciciOS  espirituales  de 

(London,  1900),  317;  Matthkwb,  Molih-e  (New  York,  1910).  mental",  etc.,  was  first  published  at  Burgos  m  1015, 

Georqeb  Bebtrin.  and  was  translated  into  Latin. 

..  „           ,                          „         .             ^ .         .             ^  Antonio,  Bibliothsea  hiapana  tuna  (Madrid,  1783-8).  1, 146; 

Moima,  Alonso  de,  Franciscan  fnar,  b.  prob-  Hubteb,  NommcUUor,  Srd  ed.,  ill,  608-9.    Michael  Ott. 
ably  1511  or  1512,  at  Escalona,  province  of  Toledo, 

Spain;  d.  1584,  in  the  city  of  Mexico.    In  1523  his  Molina  (Mol.  or  Molin),  Juan  Ignacio,  natural- 

Earents  came  to  New  Spain,  where  he  learned  the  Na-  ist  and  scientist;  b.  20  July,  1740,  at  Guaraculen  near 

uatl,  or  Mexican  language.    The  first  twelve  Fran-  Talca  (Chile);  d.  23  Oct.  (12  Sept.?).  1829,  at  ImoU 

ciscan  missionaries  who  arrived  in  1524,  seeing  how  or  Bologna  (Italy).     Molina  first  studied  in  Santiago 

thoroughly  versed  he  was  in  the  language  of  the  na-  and  became  a  Jesuit  when  only  fifteen.    The  young 

tives,  bej^^  Cort6s  to  use  his  influence  with  the  scholastic  excelled  in  languages  (he  composed  a  num- 

child's  mother  that  he  might  be  allowed  to  help  them  ber  of  poems),  and  in  the  natural  sciences.    In  1767 

in   their  preaching  and  catechising.    The  mother  he  was  sent  to  Italy  which  grew  to  be  his  second  home; 

readily  consented,  and  young  Alonso  became  so  at-  he  was  ordained  at  Imola  soon  after,  and  then  lived  as 


MOLINA 


436 


MOLINA 


a  tutor  in  Bologna.  In  his  Insure  time  he  devoted 
himself  espedall^  to  the  study  of  the  natural  sciences, 
although  nis  chief  distinction  lies  in  having  become 
the  most  prominent  historian  and  geographer  of  his 
native  American  home.  Molina  pubUwed  his  works 
in  Italian;  thev  all  appeared  at  Bologna,  the  first 
one  anonymously.  He  treats  of  Chile  in:  (1}  ''Com- 
pendio  della  storia  geografica,  naturale  e  civile  del 
repio  del  Chile"  (1776),  8vo,  245  pp.,  1  map,  10 
tables;  (2)  "Saggio  sulla  storia  naturale  del  Cmle" 
1782),  8vO|  368  pp.,  1  map,  2nd  enlarged  edition 
1810),  4to;  (3)  "Saggio  della  storia  civile  del  Chile" 
;1787),  8vo,  333  pp.,  2nd  enlarged  edition  (1810), 
4to,  306  pp.  These  three  wor^  have  been  trans- 
lated into  German  (Leipzig,  1786-91) ;  French  (Paris) ; 
Spanish  (2  vols.,  Madrid,  1788-95),  the  modt  complete 
edition;  English  (Middletown,  Conn.,  1808;  London, 
1809,  1825).  The  original  and  several  of  the  trans- 
lations contain  Molina's  portrait.  As  an  expression 
of  her  gratitude  Chile  named  the  town  of  Molina 
after  him.  If  these  works  evidence  his  learning  as 
a  student  of  natural  history,  this  is  equally  true  of  his 
''Memorie  di  storia  naturale  lette  in  Bologna" 
(Bologna,  1821,  8vo,  2  vols,  with  16  essays), 
which  Molina  as  a  member  laid  before  the  InsHttUo 
PonUficio.  Another  work^  ''Analogia  de  los  tres 
reinos  de  la  naturalezza",  is  of  considerable  interest, 
as  it  was  written  by  Molina  in  Spanish,  and  because  it 
was  not  published,  although  Mezzofanti  procured  the 
imprinuUur  in  1820.  Molina  was  highly  esteemed 
by  the  botanists;  Schrank  in  1789  named  after  him  a 
fl^nus  of  the  GraminetBf  well  known  throughout 
Europe,  Molinia;  and  Jussieu  in  the  same  year  classi- 
fied the  genus  Molinoea;  other  generic  names  (as  Mo- 
lina) are  no  longer  used. 

SoMMEBVOOEL,  BMioth.  de  la  Comp.  de  JUua,  V  (1894);  Sao- 
CABOO.  La  Botanioa  in  Italia  (Venice.  1895.  1901). 

Joseph  Rompbl. 

Molina,  Luis  de,  one  of  the  most  learned  and  re- 
nowned theologians  of  the  Society  of  Jesus,  b.  of 
noble  parentage  at  Cuenca.  New  Castile,  Spain,  in 
1535;  d.  at  Madrid,  12  October,  1600.  At  the  age  of 
eighteen,  he  entered  the  Society  of  Jesus  at  Alcald, 
and,  on  finishing  his  novitiate,  was  sent  to  take  up 
his  philosophical  and  theological  studies  at  Coimbra 
in  Portugal.  So  successful  was  he  in  his  studies  that, 
at  the  close  of  his  course,  he  was  installed  as  professor 
of  philosophy  at  Coimbra,  and  promoted  a  few  3rearB 
later  to  the  chair  of  theology  at  tne  flourishing  Univer- 
sity of  Evora.  For  twenty  years,  marked  by  untiring 
labour  and  devotion,  he  expounded  with  great  success 
the  '^Summa"  of  St.  Thomas  Aquinas  to  eager  stu- 
dents. In  1590  he  retired  to  nis  native  city  of 
Cuenca  to  devote  himself  exclusively  to  writing  and 
preparing  for  print  the  results  of  his  long  contmued 
studies.  Two  years  later,  however,  the  Society  of 
Jesus  opened  a  special  school  for  the  science  of  moral 
philosophy  at  Madrid,  and  the  renowned  professor 
was  called  from  his  solitude  and  appointed  to  the 
newly  established  chair.  Here  death  overtook  him 
before  he  had  held  his  new  post  for  half  a  year.  By  a 
strange  coincidence  on  the  same  day  (12  Oct.,  1600) 
the  ''Congregatio  de  auxiliis".  which  had  been  insti- 
tuted at  Rome  to  investigate  Molina's  new  system  of 
grace,  after  a  second  examination  of  his  ''Concordia", 
reported  adversely  on  its  contents  to  Clement  YIII. 
Molina  was  not  only  a  tireless  student,  but  also  a 
profound  and  original  thinker.  To  him  we  are  in- 
debted for  important  contributions  in  speculative, 
dogmatic  and  moral  theology  as  well  as  in  jurispru- 
dence. The  originality  of  his  mind  is  shown  quite  as 
much  by  his  novel  treatment  of  the  old  scholastic 
subjects  as  by  his  labours  along  new  lines  of  theologi- 
cal mquiry. 

Mouna's  chief  contribution  to  the  science  of  theol- 
ogy is  the  "Concordia",  on  which  he  spent  thirty 
yean  of  the  most  assiduous  labour.    Hie  publication 


of  this  work  was  facilitated  by  the  valuable  assistance 
of  Cardinal  Albert,  Grand  Liauisitor  of  Portugal  and 
brother  of  Emperor  Rudolf  II.  The  full  title  of  the 
now  famous  work  reads : "  Concordia  liberi  arbitrii  cum 
g^tiffi  donis,  divina  prsescientia,  providentia,  pnedes- 
tinatione  et  reprobatione"  (Lisbon,  1588).  As  the 
title  indicates,  the  work  is  primarily  concerned  with 
the  difficult  problem  of  reconciling  grace  and  free  will. 
In  view  of  its  purpose  and  principal  contents^  the  book 
may  also  be  regarded  as  a  scientific  vindication  of  the 
Tridentine  doctrine  on  the  permanence  of  man's  free 
will  under  the  influence  of  ^cacious  grace  (Seas.  VI, 
cap.  v-vi;  can.,  iv-v).  It  is  also  the  first  attempt  to 
offer  a  strictly  logical  explanation  of  the  great  prob- 
lems of  grace  and  free  will,  foreknowledge  and  provi- 
dence, and  predestination  to  glory  or  reprobation, 
upon  an  entirely  new  basis,  wlale  meeting  fairly  all 
possible  objections.  This  new  basis,  on  which  the 
entire  Molinistic  system  rests,  is  the  Divine  sdenHa 
media.  To  make  clear  its  intrinsic  connexion  with 
the  traditional  teachings,  the  work  takes  the  form  of 
a  commentary  upon  several  portions  of  the  "Summa" 
of  St.  Thomas  (I,  Q.  xiv,  a.  13;  Q.  xix,  a.  16;  QQ.  xxii- 
iii).  Thus  Molina  is  the  first  Jesuit  to  wnte  a  com- 
mentary upon  the  ''Summa".  As  to  style,  the  woric 
has  little  to  recommend  it.  The  Latinitv  is  heavy, 
the  sentences  are  long  and  involved,  and  the  prolix 
exposition  and  freauent  repetition  of  the  same  ideas 
are  fatiguing;  in  snort,  the  '' Concordia"  is  neither 
easy  nor  agreeable  reading.  Even  though  much  of  the 
obscurity  of  the  book  may  be  attributed  to  the  subject- 
matter  itself,  it  may  be  safely  said  that  the  dispute 
concerning  Molina's  doctrine  would  never  have  at- 
tained such  violence  and  bitterness,  had  the  style  been 
more  simple  and  the  expressions  less  ambiguous. 
And  yet  Molina  was  of  opinion  that  the  older  heresies 
concerning  grace  would  never  have  arisen  or  would 
have  soon  passed  away,  if  the  Catholic  doctrine  of 
grace  had  before  been  treated  according  to  the  princi- 
ples which  he  followed  for  the  first  time  in  his  "Con- 
cordia" and  with  the  minuteness  and  accuracy  which 
characterized  that  work.  But  he  was  greatly  mis- 
taken. For  not  only  was  his  doctrine  powerless  to 
check  the  teachings  of  Baius,  which  began  to  spread 
soon  after  the  publication  of  his  work,  and  to  prevent 
the  rise  of  Jansenism,  which  sprang  from  early  Prot- 
estant ideas,  but  it  was  itself  the  cause  of  t^t  his- 
toric controversy  which  has  raged  for  centuries  ber 
tween  Thomists  and  Molinists,  and  which  has  not 
wholly  subsided  even  to  this  day.  Thus,  the  "Con- 
cordia" became  a  bone  of  contention  in  the  schools,  and 
brought  on  a  deplorable  discord  among  the  theologians, 
especially  those  of  the  Dominican  and  Jesuit  orders. 
The  "Concordia"  had  scarcely  left  the  press,  and 
had  not  yet  appeared  on  the  market,  when  tnere  arose 
against  it  a  violent  opposition.  Some  theologians, 
having  got  a  knowledge  of  its  contents,  endeavourea 
by  every  means  in  their  power  to  prevent  its  publica- 
tion. Molina  himself  withheld  the  edition  for  a  year. 
In  1589  he  placed  it  on  the  market  togjether  with  a 
defence  of  it,  which  he  had  in  the  meantime  prepared 
and  which  was  to  answer  the  chief  objections  made 
agidnst  his  work  even  before  it  appeared.  The  de- 
fence was  published  separately  under  the  title:  "Ap- 
pendix ad  Concordiam,  continens  responsiones  ad  tres 
objectiones  et  satisfactiones  ad  17  animadversiones" 
(Lisbon,  1589).  This  precaution,  however,  was  of 
Uttle  avail^  and  the  controversy  grew  apace.  Not 
only  his  prmcipal  adversaries  among  the  Dominicans, 
Bafiez  and  de  Lemos,  but  even  his  own  brothers  in 
religion,  Henriquez  and  Mariana,  opposed  his  doc- 
trine most  bitterly.  Soon  the  wnole  of  Spain  rang 
with  the  clamour  of  this  controversy,  and  Molina 
was  even  denounced  to  the  Spanish  Inquisition. 
When  the  dispute  was  growing  too  bitter,  Rome  inter- 
vened and  took  the  matter  into  its  own  hands.  In 
1594  Clement  VIII  imposed  silenoe  upon  the  oontend* 


M0LINI8M 


437 


M0LINI8M 


log  parties,  and  in  1596  demanded  that  the  doeu* 
ments  be  sent  to  the  Vatican.  To  settle  the  con- 
troveFBy  he  instituted  in  1598  a  special  "Con^pregatio 
de  aimlii8'\  which  at  the  earl^r  stages  of  its  investi- 
gation showed  a  decided  opposition  to  Molina's  doc- 
trine. Doubtless  Molina  took  to  the  grave  the  im- 
pression that  Molinism  was  doomed  to  incur  the 
censure  of  the  Holy  See,  for  he  did  not  live  to  see  his 
new  ffjrstem  exonerated  by  Paul  V  in  1607.  (For  fup- 
tiier  detsdls  see  the  article  Congregatio  de  Auxilhs.) 

UncUstuibed  by  the  heat  and  bitterness  of  the  at- 
tack, Molina  published  a  complete  commentary  upK)n 
the  first  part  of  the  Summa  of  St.  Thomas,  which 
he  had  prepared  at  Evora  during  the  yeais  1570-73 
('*CoDunentarla  in  primam  partem  U.  Thomse''. 
2  vols.,  Cuenca,  1592).  The  chief  characteristic  ot 
this  woric,  which  has  been  repeatediv  re-edited,  is  the 
insertion  where  opportunity  offered  of  most  of  the 
dissertations  of  the  ''Concordia",  which  thus  became 
an  integral  part  of  the  commentary.  The  increasing 
bitterness  and  confusion  of  ideas  occasioned  by  the 
controversy  induced  Molina  to  publish  a  new  edition 
of  the  ''Concordia"  with  numerous  additions^  in 
which  he  endeavoured  to  correct  the  misconceptions 
and  misrepresentations  of  his  doctrine^  and  at  the 
same  time  to  dispel  the  important  misgivings  and 
accusations  of  his  adversaries.  This  edition  bears 
the  title:  "  Liberi  arbitrii  cum  gratise  donis  etc.  concox^ 
dia,  aJtera  sui  parte  auctior"  (Antwerp,  1595,  1609, 
1705;  new  edition,  Paris,  1876).  To-day  this  is  the 
only  standard  edition.  After  the  lapse  of  nearly  a 
century  the  Dominican  Fr.  Hyacinth  Seny,  in  his 
"Historia  Congregationis  de  auxiliis"  (Louvain, 
1700;  Antwerp,  1709)  accused  Molina  of  having 
omitted  many  assertions  from  his  Antwerp  edition  of 
the  "Concordia",  which  were  parts  of  the  Lisbon 
edition.  But  Father  Livinus  ae  Meyer,  S.J.,  sub- 
jected the  two  editions  to  a  critical  comparison,  and 
succeeded  in  showing  that  the  omissions  in  question 
were  only  of  secondiury  moment,  and  that  Sony's  ac- 
cusation was  thus  groundless.  Meyer's  work  bears 
the  title,  "Historia  controversiarum  de  auxiliis" 
(Antwerp,  1708).  De  Molina  was  not  less  eminent  as 
a  moralist  and  jurist  than  as  a  speculative  theologian. 
A  proof  of  t^is  is  his  work  "De  Justitia  et  jure" 
(Cuenca.  1593)  ^  which  appeared  complete  only  after 
his  deatn.  This  work  is  a  classic,  referred  to  fre- 
quently even  at  the  present  time  (7  vols.,  Venice, 
1614;  5  vols.,  Cologne,  1733).  On  broad  lines  Molina 
not  only  developts  therein  the  theory  of  law  in  general 
and  the  special  juridical  questions  arising  out  of  the 
political  economics  of  his  time  (e.  g.,  the  law  of  ex- 
chflua^),  but  also  enters  veiy  extensively  into  the 
Questions  concerning  the  juridical  relations  between 
Church  and  State,  pope  and  prince,  and  the  like.  It 
is  a  sad  fact,  that^  m  order  to  justify  the  brutal  per- 
secution of  the  Jesuits  in  France,  the  Benedictine 
Qdmencet  ("Extracts  des  assertions  pemicieuses" 
etc.,  Paris,  1672)  ransacked  even  this  solid  work 
and  fancied  he  found  therein  lost  principles  of  moral- 
ity. This  is  but  one  of  the  many  misfortunes  which 
at  that  time  of  unrest  fell  so  heavily,  and  as  a  rule  so 
undeservedly,  on  the  Society  of  Jesus  (cf .  Dollinger, 
"MoralstreitidEdten",  I,  Munich^  1889,  p.  337). 
The  work  "De  Hispanorum  primigeniorum  ori^e 
et  natura"  (Alcald,  1573;  Cologne,  1588)  is  often  at- 
tributed to  Molina;  in  reality  it  is  the  work  of  another 
jurist  of  the  same  name,  who  was  bom  at  Ursaon  in 
Andalusia. 

As  a  man,  priest,  and  religious.  Molina  commanded 
the  respect  and  esteem  of  his  bitterest  adversaries. 
During  his  whole  life  his  virtues  were  a  source  of  edi- 
fication to  all  who  knew  him.  To  prompt  obedience  he 
joined  true  and  sincere  humility.  Qn  his  death-bed, 
having  been  asked  what  he  wished  done  with  his  writ- 
ings, he  answered  in  all  simplicity:  "The  Society  of 
JeBUs  may  do  with  them  what  it  wishes".  His  love  for 


evangelical  poverty  was  most  remaricable;  in  spite  of 
his  bodily  infirmity,  brought  on  by  overwork,  he  never 
sought  anymitigation  in  the  matter  of  either  clothing 
or  food.  He  was  a  man  of  great  mortification  to  the 
very  end  of  his  life. 

A  biography  and  bibliography  together  with  a  portrait  of  Mo- 
lina may  be  found  in  the  Cologne  emtion  of  his  De  justitia  et  jure^ 
I  (1733).  It  bears  the  title  L.  Molina,  S.J.  vita  morumque  hrevie 
adumbraUo  atmu  operum  Catalogtu,  There  is  no  modem  critical 
biography.  See  Moboott  in  KireKenlex.t  s.  ▼.;  SoMiinRvoaEL, 
Bibl.  dee  icritaine  delaC.de  /.,  V,  1167-79;  Hubtsr,  Nomenclo' 
tar,  I  (2nd  ed.),  47  sqq.  J.  P0HI.B. 

MoUniam,  the  name  used  to  denote  one  of  the 
systems  which  purpose  to  reconcile  grace  and  free 
will.  This  system  was  first  developed  by  Luis  de 
Molina,  and  was  adopted  in  its  essential  points  by  the 
Society  of  Jesus.  It  is  opposed  by  the  Thomistic 
doctrine  of  ^ace — ^the  term  Thomism  has  a  somewhat 
wider  meamng — ^whose  chief  exponent  is  the  Domini- 
can Bafiez.  Along  lines  totally  different  from  those 
of  MoUna,  this  subtile  theologian  endeavours  to  har- 
monize grace  and  free  will  on  principles  derived  from 
St.  Thomas.  Whereas  Molinism  tries  to  clear  up  the 
mysterious  relation  between  grace  and  free  will  by 
starting  from  the  rather  clear  concept  of  freedom, 
the  Thomists,  in  their  attempt  to  ei^lain  the  atti- 
tude of  the  will  towards  grace,  begin  with  the  obscure 
idea  of  efficacious  grace.  The  question  which  both 
schools  set  themselves  to  answer  is  this:  Whence  does 
efficacious  grace  (gratia  eSlcax)^  which  includes  in  its 
very  concept  the  actual  free  consent  of  the  will,  derive 
its  infallible  effect;  and  how  is  it  that,  in  spite  of  the 
infallible  efficacy  of  grace,  the  freedom  of  the  will  is 
not  impaired?  It  is  evident  that,  in  every  attempt  to 
solve  tnis  difficult  problem.  Catholic  theologians  must 
safeguard  two  principles :  first,  the  supremacy  and  cau- 
sality of  grace  (against  Pelagianism  and  Semipela- 
giamsm),  and  second,  the  unimpaired  freedom  of  con- 
sent in  the  will  (against  early  Protestantism  and 
Jansenism).  For  both  these  principles  are  dogmas 
of  the  Church,  clearly  and  emphatically  defined  by  the 
Council  of  Trent.  Now,  whilst  Thomism  lays  chief 
stress  on  the  infallible  efficacy  of  grace,  without  de- 
nying the  existence  and  necessity  of  the  free  co- 
operation of  the  will.  Molinism  emphasizes  the  unre- 
strained freedom  of  the  will,  without  detracting  in  any 
way  from  the  efficacy,  priority,  and  dignity  of  grace. 
As  in  the  tunnelling  of  a  mountain^  gsdleries  started 
by  skilful  engineers  from  opposite  sides  meet  to  form 
but  one  tunnel,  thus  it  might  have  been  expected  that, 
in  spite  of  different  and  opposite  starting-points,  the 
two  schools  would  finally  meet  and  reach  one  ana  the 
same  scientific  solution  of  the  important  problem. 
If  we  find,  however,  that  this  is  not  the  case,  and  that 
they  passed  each  other  along  parallel  lines,  we  are 
incuned  to  attribute  this  failure  to  the  intricate  nature 
of  the  subject  in  question,  rather  than  to  the  in- 
efficiency of  the  scholars.  The  problem  seems  to  He 
so  far  beyond  the  horizon  of  the  human  mind,  that 
man  will  never  be  able  fully  to  penetrate  its  mystery. 
In  the  following  we  shall  first  consider  Molinism  as 
it  came  from  its  author's  hands^  and  then  briefly 
review  the  phases  of  its  later  historical  development. 

I.  Molinism  in  Its  Obiqinal  Form. — Molinism 
combats  the  heresy  of  the  Reformers,  according  to 
which  both  sinners  and  just  have  lost  freedom  of  will. 
It  maintains  and  strenuously  defends  the  Tridentine 
dogma  which  teaches:  (1)  that  freedom  of  will  has  not 
been  destroyed  by  original  sin,  and  (2)  that  this  free- 
dom remains  unimpaired  under  the  influence  of  Divine 
grace  (cf.  Sees.  VI,  can.  iv-v.  in  Denzinger,  ''Enchiri- 
dion", ed.  Bannwart,  FreiDurg,  1908,  nn.  814-15). 
Freedom  is  the  power  of  the  will  to  act  or  not  to  act, 
to  act  this  or  that  way;  whereas  it  is  the  characteristic 
of  necessary  causes,  as  animals  and  inanimate  beings, 
to  produce  their  effects  by  an  intrinsic  necessity. 
Freedom  of  the  will  is  a  conse<^uence  of  intelligence, 
and  as  such  the  most  precious  gift  of  maO|  an  endow* 


MOUNISM  438  M0LINI8M 

ment  which  he  can  never  lose  without  annihilating  concomitant  supernatural  concurBUB  (concursus  nnnd» 
his  own  nature.  Man  must  of  necessity  be  free  in  taneuSf  gratia  cooperana).  The  act,  in  so  far  as  it  is 
every  state  of  life,  actual  or  possible,  whether  that  free,  must  come  from  the  will;  but  the  ooncurstu  pnt^ 
state  be  the  purely  natural  {sUUus  pvrtB  naturaB)^  or  vttM  of  the  Thomists,  which  is  ultimately  identiosd  with 
the  state  of  original  justice  in  paradise  {status  justiiuB  God's  predestination  of  the  free  act,  makes  illusory 
original%8)t  or  the  state  of  fallen  nature  (status  naturcB  the  free  self-determination  of  the  will,  whether  in 
lapses),  or  the  state  of  regeneration  {stalta  nalura  giving  or  withholding  its  consent  to  the  grace.  The 
reparata).  Were  man  to  be  deprived  of  freedom  of  second  characteristic  difference  between  ue  two  ^s- 
will,  he  would  necessarily  degenerate  in  his  nature  and  terns  of  grace  lies  in  the  radically  different  conception 
sink  to  the  level  of  the  animal.  Since  the  purely  of  the  nature  of  merely  sufficient  grace  {aratia  suffi- 
natural  state,  devoid  of  supernatural  grace  ana  lack-  dens)  and  of  efficacious  grace  (gratia  efficax).  Whereas 
ing  a  supernatural  justice,  never  existed,  and  since  the  Thomism  derives  the  iof  allible  success  of  efficacious 
state  of  original  justice  has  not  been  re-established  by  grace  from  the  very  nature  of  this  grace,  and  assumes 
Christ's  Redemption^  man's  present  state  alone  is  consequently  the  grace  to  be  efficacious  intrinsically 
to  be  taken  into  consideration  m  solving  the  problem  (gratia  efficax  ah  irUrinseco),  Molinism  ascribes  the 
of  the  relation  between  grace  and  free  will.  In  spite  efficacy  of  grace  to  the  free  co-operation  of  the  will  and 
of  original  sin  and  concupiscence  man  is  still  free,  not  consequently  admits  a  grace  which  is  merely  extrinsi- 
only  with  reference  to  ethical  good  and  evil  in  his  cally  efficacious  (gratia  efficax  ab  extrinseco).  It  is  the 
natural  actions,  but  also  in  his  supernatural  salutarv  free  will  that  by  the  extrinsic  circumstance  of  its  con- 
works  in  which  Divine  grace  co-operates  with  his  will,  sent  makes  efficacious  the  grace  offered  by  God.  If 
Molinism  escaped  every  suspicion  of  Pelagianism  bv  the  will  gives  its  consent^  the  prace  which  in  itself  is 
laying  down  at  the  outset  that  the  soul  with  it«  facul-  sufficient  becomes  efficacious;  if  it  withholds  Its  con- 
ties  (the  intellect  and  will)  must  be  first  constituted  by  sent,  the  grace  remains  inefficacious  (gratia  ineMcax), 
prevenient  grace  a  supernatural  principle  of  operation  and  it  is  due — not  to  God,  but — solely  to  the  will  that 
in  actu  primOf  before  it  can,  in  conjunction  with  the  the  grace  it  reduced  to  one  which  is  merely  sufficient 
help  of  the  supernatural  concursus  of  God,  elicit  a  (gratia  mere  sufficiens). 

salutary  act  in  actu  secundo.  Thus,  the  salutary  act  is  This  explanation  gave  the  Molinists  an  advantage 
itself  an  act  of  grace  rather  than  of  the  will;  it  Is  the  over  the  Thomists,  not  only  in  that  they  safeguarded 
common  work  of  God  and  man,  because  and  in  so  far  therebv  the  freedom  of  the  will  under  the  influence  of 
as  the  supernatural  element  of  the  act  is  due  to  God  grace,  but  especially  because  they  offered  a  clearer  ac- 
and  its  vitality  and  freedom  to  man.  It  must  not  be  count  of  the  important  truth  that  the  ^ce,  which  is 
imagined,  however,  that  the  will  has  such  an  influence  merely  sufficient  and  therefore  remains  inefficacious,  is 
on  grace  that  its  consent  conditions  or  strengthens  the  nevertheless  always  really  sufficient  (gnUia  vers  suffi- 
power  of  grace  j  the  fact  is  rather  that  the  supernatural  eiens),  so  that  it  would  undoubtedly  produce  the  salu- 
power  of  grace  is  first  transformed  into  the  vital  energy  tary  act  for  which  it  was  given,  if  omv  the  will  would 
of  the  wiU,  and  then,  as  a  supernatural  concursus,  ex-  give  its  consent.  Thomism,  on  the  other  hand,  is  con- 
cites  and  accompanies  the  free  and  salutary  act.  In  fronted  by  the  following  dilemma:  Either  the  grace 
other  words,  as  a  helping  or  co-ox)erating  grace  (gratia  which  is  merely  sufficient  (gratia  mere  st^fficiens)  is 
adiiwans  8eu  cooperans),  it  produces  the  act  conjointly  able  by  its  own  nature  and  without  the  help  of  an  en- 
with  the  will.  According  to  this  explanation,  not  tirelv  different  and  new  grace  to  produce  the  salutary 
only  does  Divine  grace  make  a  supernatural  act  pos-  act  for  which  it  was  given,  or  it  is  not:  if  it  is  not  able, 
sible.  but  the  act  itself,  though  tree,  is  wholly  de-  then  this  sufficient  grace  is  in  reality  insufficient 
penaent  on  grace^  because  it  is  grace  which  makes  the  (gratia  insuficiens),  since  it  must  be  supplemented  by 
salutarv  act  possible  and  which  stimulates  and  assists  another;  if  it  is  able  to  produce  the  act  b^  itself,  then 
in  producing  it.  Thus  the  act  is  produced  entirely  sufficient  and  efficacious  grace  do  not  differ  in  nature, 
by  God  as  First  Cause  (Causa  prima) ,  and  also  entirely  but  by  reason  of  something  extrinsic,  namely  in  that 
by  the  will  as  second  cause  (causa  secunda).  The  un-  the  will  gives  its  consent  in  one  case  and  wi&holds  it 
prejudiced  mind  must  acknowledge  that  this  exposi-  in  the  other.  If  then,  when  possessed  of  absolutely 
tion  is  far  from  incurring  the  suspicion  of  Pelagianism  the  same  grace,  one  sinner  is  converted  and  another 
or  Semipela^anism.  can  remain  obdurate,  the  inefficacy  of  the  grace  in  the 
When  the  Thomists  propound  the  subtler  question,  case  of  the  obdurate  sinner  is  due,  not  to  the  nature  of 
through  what  agency  does  the  will,  under  the  influence  the  grace  given,  but  to  the  sinful  resistance  of  his  free 
and  impulse  of  grace,  cease  to  be  a  mere  natural  will,  which  refuses  to  avail  itself  of  God's  assistance, 
faculty  (actus  vrimus)  and  produce  a  salutary  act  But  for  Thomism,  which  assumes  an  intrinsic  and  cs- 
(actus  aecundus),  or  (according  to  Aristotelean  termi-  sential  difference  between  sufficient  and  c^cacious 
nology)  pass  from  potency  mto  act,  the  MoUnists  grace,  so  that  sufficient  grace  to  become  efficacious 
answer  without  hesitation  that  it  is  no  way  due  to  must  be  supplemented  by  a  new  grace,  the  explana- 
the  Thomistic  predetermination  (prcBdeterminatio  sive  tion  is  by  no  means  so  easy  and  simple.  It  cannot  free 
proemotio  physica)  of  the  will  of  God.  For  such  a  itself  from  the  difficulty,  as  is  possible  for  Molinism, 
causal  predetermination,  coming  from  a  will  other  by  saying  that,  but  for  the  refractory  attitude  of  the 
than  our  own,  is  a  denial  of  self-determination  on  the  wih,  God  would  have  bestowed  this  supplementarv 
part  of  our  own  will  and  destroys  its  freedom.  It  is  grace.  For,  since  the  sinful  resistance  of  the  will, 
rather  the  will  itself  which  by  its  consent,  under  the  viewed  as  an  act,  is  to  be  referred  to  a  physical  premo- 
restrictions  mentioned  above,  renders  the  prevenient  tion  on  the  part  of  God,  as  well  as  the  free  co-operation 
grace  (gratia  prca/eniens)  co-operative  and  the  com-  with  grace,  the  will,  which  is  predetermined  aid  tmum. 
pletely  sufficient  grace  (gratia  vere  sufficiens)  effica-  is  placed  in  a  hopeless  predicament.  On  the  one  hand 
cious;  for,  to  produce  the  salutary  act.  the  free  will  need  the  physical  premotion  in  the  form  of  an  efficacious 
onty  consent  to  the  prevenient  ana  sufficient  grace,  ^ace.  which  is  necessary  to  produce  the  salutary  act. 
which  it  has  received  from  God.  This  theory  reveals  is  lacking  to  the  will,'  and,  on  the  other,  the  entity  ci 
forthwith  two  characteristic  features  of  Molinism,  the  sinful  act  of  resistance  is  irrevocably  predeter- 
which  stand  in  direct  opposition  to  the  principles  of  mined  by  God  as  the  Prime  Mover  (Motor  primus), 
Thomism.  The  first  consists  in  this,  that  the  actus  Whence  then  is  the  will  to  derive  the  impulse  to  accept 
prt'mtw  (i.  e.  the  power  to  elicit  a  supernatural  act)  is,  or  to  reject  the  one  premotion  rather  tnan  the  other? 
according  to  Molinism,  due  to  a  aetermining  influx  Therefore,  the  Molinists  conclude  tiiat  the  Thomists 
of  grace  previous  to  the  salutary  act  (influxus  vrwvius,  cannot  lay  down  the  sinful  resistance  of  the  will  as  the 
gratia  proBvenfens),  but  that  God  enters  into  tne  salu-  cause  of  the  inefficacy  of  the  grace,  which  is  merely 
tary  act  itself  (actus  secundus)  only  by  means  of  a  sufficient. 


MOUMISM 


439 


H0LINI8M 


At  thiB  stage  of  the  controversy  the  Thomists  urge 
with  ^reat  emphasis  the  grave  accusation  that  the 
Molinists,  by  their  undue  exaltation  of  man's  freedom 
of  will,  seriously  circumscribe  and  diminish  the  suprem- 
acy of  the  Creator  over  His  creatures,  so  that  they 
destroy  Uie  efficacy  and  predominance  of  grace  and 
make  unpossible  in  the  hands  of  God  the  infallible  re- 
sult of  efficacious  grace.  For,  they  argue,  if  the  de- 
cision ultimately  depends  on  the  free  will,  whether 
a  given  grace  slxall  be  efficacious  or  not,  the  result  of 
the  salutary  act  must  be  attributed  to  man  and  not  to 
God.  But  this  is  contrary  to  the  warning  of  St.  Paul, 
that  we  must  not  glory  in  the  work  of  our  salvation  as 
though  it  were  our  own  (I  Cor.,  iv,  7),  and  to  his  teach- 
ing that  it  is  Divine  grace  which  does  not  only  give  us 
the  power  to  act.  but  ''worketh"  also  in  us  ''to  will 
and  to  accompli^''  (Phil.,  ii,  13);  it  is  contrary  also  to 
the  constant  doctrine  of  St.  Augustine,  according  to 
whom  our  free  salutary  acts  are  not  our  own  work,  out 
the  work  of  grace. 

The  consiaeration  of  these  serious  difficulties  leads 
us  to  the  very  heart  of  Molina's  system,  and  reveals 
the  real  Gordian  knot  of  the  whole  controversy.  For 
Molinism  attempts  to  meet  the  objections  just  men- 
tioned by  the  doctrine  of  the  Divine  adentia  media. 
Even  Molinism  must  and  does  admit  that  the  very 
idea  of  efficacious  grace  includes  the  free  consent  of 
the  will,  and  also  that  the  decree  of  God  to  bestow  an 
efficacious  grace  upon  a  man  involves  with  metaphysi- 
cal certainty  the  free  oo  -  operation  of  the  will.  From 
this  it  follows  that  God  must  possess  some  infallible 
source  of  knowledge  by  means  of  which  he  knows  from 
all  eternity,  with  metaphysical  certainty,  whether  in 
the  future  the  will  is  going  to  co-operate  with  a  given 
grace  or  to  resist  it.  When  the  question  has  assumed 
this  form,  it  is  easy  to  see  that  the  whole  controversy 
resolves  itself  into  a  discussion  on  the  foreknowledge 
which  God  has  of  the  free  future  acts;  and  thus  the 
two  opposing  systems  on  grace  are  ultimately  founded 
upon  tne  general  doctrine  on  God  and  His  attributes. 
Both  systems  are  confronted  with  the  wider  and 
deeper  question:  What  is  the  medium  of  knowledge 
^medium  in  quo)  in  which  God  foresees  the  (absolute  or 
conditioned;  free  operations  of  His  rational  creatures? 
That  there  must  be  such  a  medium  of  Divine  fore- 
knowledge is  evident.  The  Thomists  answer:  God 
foresees  the  (absolute  and  conditioned)  free  acts  of 
man  in  the  eternal  decrees  of  His  own  will,  which  with 
absolute  certainty  produce  prcemovendo  as  definite 
pnedeterminaiiones  ad  unum,  all  (absolute  and  condi- 
tional) free  operations.  With  the  same  absolute  cer- 
tainty with  which  He  knows  His  own  will,  He  also 
foresees  clearly  and  distinctly  in  the  decrees  of  His 
will  all  future  acts  of  man.  However,  the  Molinists 
maintain  that,  since,  as  we  remarked  above,  the  pre- 
determining decrees  of  the  Divine  Will  must  logically 
and  necessarily  destrov  freedom  and  lead  to  Determin- 
ism, they  cannot  possibly  be  the  medium  in  which  God 
infallibly  foresees  future  free  acts.  Rather  these  de- 
crees must  presuppose  a  special  knowledge  (scientia 
media)  f  in  tne  li^t  of  which  God  infallibly  foresees 
from  all  eternity  what  attitude  man's  will  would  in 
any  conceivable  combination  of  circumstances  assume 
if  this  or  that  particular  grace  were  offered  it.  And  it 
is  only  when  guided  by  His  infallible  foreknowledge 
that  (^d  determines  the  kind  of  grace  He  shall  give  to 
man.  If,  for  example.  He  foresees  by  means  of  the 
icientia  media  that  St.  reter,  after  his  denial  of  Christ, 
shall  freely  co-operate  with  a  certain  grace.  He  de- 
crees to  give  him  this  particular  grace  and  none  other; 
the  grace  thus  conferred  becomes  efficacious  in  bring- 
ing about  his  repentance.  In  the  case  of  Judas,  on 
the  other  hand,  God,  foreseeing  the  future  resistance 
of  this  Apostle  to  a  certain  grace  of  conversion,  de- 
creed to  allow  it^  and  consequently  bestowed  upon  him 
a  grace  which  m  itself  was  really  sufficient,  but  re- 
Qiained  inefficadous  solely  on  account  of  the  refrac- 


tory disposition  of  the  Apostle's  will.  Guided  by  this 
scientia  media  God  is  left  entirely  free  in  the  disposi- 
tion and  distribution  of  grace.  On  His  good  pleasure 
alone  it  depends  to  whom  He  will  give  the  supreme 
grace  of  final  perseverance,  to  whom  He  will  refuse  it; 
whom  He  will  receive  into  Heaven,  whom  He  will  ex- 
clude from  His  sight  for  ever.  This  doctrine  is  in  pe> 
feet  harmony  with  the  dogmas  of  the  gratuity  of  grace, 
the  unequal  distribution  of  efficacious  grace,  the  wise 
and  inscrutable  operations  of  Divine  Providence,  the 
absolute  impossibihty  to  merit  final  perseverance,  and 
lastly  the  inunutable  predestination  to  glory  or  rejec- 
tion; nay  more,  it  brings  these  verv  dogmas  into  har- 
mony, not  only  with  the  infalUble  foreknowledge  of 
God,  out  also  with  the  freedom  of  the  created  will. 
The  adeniia  media  is  thus  in  reahty  the  cardinal  point 
of  Molinism:  with  it  Molinism  stands  or  falls.  This 
doctrine  of  tne  aderUia  media  is  the  battle-field  of  the 
two  theological  schools;  the  Jesuits  were  striving  to 
maintain  and  fortify  it,  while  the  Dominicans  are  ever 
putting  forth  their  oest  efforts  to  capture  or  turn  the 
position.  The  theologians  who  have  come  after  them, 
unhampered  by  the  traditions  of  either  order,  have  fol- 
lowed some  the  doctrine  of  the  Jesuits,  some  the  Do- 
minican system. 

The  chief  objection  directed  against  Molinism  at  its 
rise  was,  that  its  shibboleth,  the  edevUia  media,  was  a 
sheer  invention  of  Molina  and  therefore  a  suspicious 
innovation.  The  Molinists  on  the  other  hand  aid  not 
hesitate  to  hurl  back  at  the  Thomists  this  same  objec- 
tion with  regard  to  their  prcemotio  physica.  In  reality 
both  accusations  were  equally  unfounded.  As  long  as 
there  is  an  historical  development  of  dogma,  it  is  nat- 
ural that,  in  the  course  of  tune  and  under  the  supers 
natural  guidance  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  new  ideas  and 
new  terms  should  gain  currency.  The  deposit  of 
faith,  which  is  unchangeable  in  substance  but  admits 
of  development,  contains  these  ideas  from  the  begin- 
ning, and  they  are  brought  to  their  full  development  by 
the  tireless  labours  of  the  theological  schools.  The 
idea  of  the  ecieniia  media  Mohna  had  borrowed  from 
his  celebrated  professor,  Pedro  da  Fonseca,  S.J. 
("(Dommentar.  m  Metaphys.  Aristotelis",  (Ik)logne, 
1615,  III),  who  called  it  aderUia  mixta.  The  justifica- 
tion for  this  name  Molina  found  in  the  consideration 
that,  in  addition  to  the  Divine  knowledge  of  the 
purely  possible  {sderUia  dmplide  inteUigerUue)  and  the 
knowledge  of  the  actually  existing  (sdentia  visionis), 
there  must  be  a  third  kind  of  "intermediate  knowl- 
edge", which  embraces  all  objects  that  are  found 
neither  in  the  region  of  pure  possibility  nor  strictly  in 
that  of  actuality,  but  partake  eoually  of  both  extremes 
and  in  some  sort  belong  to  both  kinds  of  knowledge. 
In  this  class  are  numbered  especially  those  free  ac- 
tions, which,  though  never  destined  to  be  realized  in 
historical  fact,  would  come  into  existence  if  certain 
conditions  were  fulfilled.  A  hypothetical  occurrence 
of  this  kind  the  theologians  call  a  conditional  future 
occurrence  (actus  liber  cSnditionate  fuiurus  eeu  futuribi- 
lis) .  In  virtue  of  this  particular  kind  of  Divine  knowl- 
edge, Christ,  for  example,  was  able  to  declare  with  cer- 
tainty to  His  obstinate  hearers  that  the  inhabitants  6f 
Tyre  and  Sidon  would  have  done  penance  in  sackcloth 
and  ashes,  if  they  had  witnessed  the  signs  and  mira- 
cles which  were  wrought  in  Corozain  and  Bethsaida 
(cf.  Matt.,  xi,  21  sq.).  We  know,  however,  that  such 
signs  and  miracles  were  not  wrought  and  tnat  the  in- 
habitants of  Tyre  and  Sidon  were  not  converted.  Yet 
God  had  infallibly  foreseen  from  all  eternity  that  this 
conversion  would  have  taken  place  if  the  condition 
(which  never  was  realized)  oi  Christ's  mission  to 
these  cities  had  been  fulfilled.  Who  will  doubt  that 
God  in  His  omniscience  foresees  distinctly  what  any 
inhabitant  of  New  York  would  do  throughout  the  day. 
if  he  were  now  in  London  or  Paris  instead  of  Americar 
It  is  true  that  a  number  of  Thomists,  for  example 
Ledesma  ("De  div.  gratia  auxil.",  Salamanca,  1611« 


MOUNXSM                            440  MOUNISM 

pp.  574  sqq.),  denied,  if  not  the  existence,  at  least  of  which  God  foresaw  from  all  eternity.  Though  Mo- 
the  infallibility  of  God's  knowledge  concerning  the  Una  himself  had  taught  this  doctrine  ("Concordia", 
conditioned  free  future,  and  attributed  to  it  only  p^cat  Paris,  1876,  pp.  450,  466,  522,  etc.),  it  seems  that 
probability.  But,  from  the  time  that  such  eminent  among  his  followers  some  extreme  Molinists  unduly  em- 
theologians  as  Alvarez,  Gonet,  Gotti,  and  Billuart  sue-  phasized  the  power  of  the  will  over  cotu^e,  thus  draw- 
ceededin  harmonizing  the  infallibility  of  this  Divine  mg  upon  themselves  the  suspicion  of  Semipelagianism. 
knowledge  with  the  fundamental  tenets  of  Thomism  At  least  Cardinal  Bellarmine  attacks  some  who  prop- 
by  the  subtle  theoiy  of  hypothetical  Divine  decrees,  agated  such  one-sided  Molinistic  views,  and  who 
there  has  been  no  Thomist  who  does  not  uphold  the  cannot  have  been  mere  imaginary  adversaries;  against 
omniscience  of  God  also  with  regard  to  conditioned  them  he  skilfully  strengthened  the  tenets  of  Congruism 
events.  But  have  they  not  then  become  supporters  by  numerous  quotations  from  St.  Augustine, 
of  the  scieniia  media?  By  no  means.  For  it  is  pre-  As  was  natural  the  later  Molinism  underwent  con- 
cisely the  Molinists  who  most  sternly  repudiate  tnese  siderable  changes,  and  was  improved  by  the  unweaiy- 
Divine  predetermining  decrees,  be  th^  absolute  or  ing  labours  of  those  who  sought  to  establish  the  acief^ 
conditioned,  as  the  deathknell  of  man's  freedom.  For  iia  media — the  most  important  factor  in  the  whole 
the  very  purpose  of  securing  the  freedom  of  the  will  system — on  a  deeper  philosophical  and  theolo^cal 
and  in  no  way  to  do  Violence  to  it  by  a  phvsical  pre-  basis,  and  to  demonstrate  its  worth  from  a  dogmatic 
motion  of  any  sort,  the  Molinists  insisted  all  along  point  of  view.  The  task  was  a  very  difficult  one.  The 
that  the  knowledge  of  God  precedes  the  decrees  of  His  theory  of  the  Thomistic  decrees  of  the  Divine  will  hav- 
will.  They  thus  kept  this  knowledge  free  and  unin-  ing  been  eliminated  as  the  infallible  source  of  God's 
fluenced  by  any  antecedent  absolute  or  conditioned  de-  knowledge  of  free  acts  belonging  to  the  conditional 
cree  of  God's  will.  Molinism  is  pledged  to  the  following  future,  some  other  theory  had  to  be  substituted, 
principle:  The  knowledge  of  God  precedes  as  a  guiding  Molina's  doctrine,  which  Bellarmine  and  Becanus  had 
light  the  decree  of  His  will,  and  His  will  is  in  no  way  made  their  own,  was  soon  abandoned  as  savouring  of 
the  source  of  His  knowledge.  It  was  because  by  Determinism.  Molina  (Concordia,  pp.  290,  SoS) 
their  ecierUia  media  they  understood  a  knowledge  in-  transferred  the  medium  of  God's  infalhble  knowledge 
dependentof  any  decrees,  that  they  were  most  sharply  to  the  eupercomprehenaio  cordis  (ta^toypwcfa,  the 
assailed  by  the  Thomists.  searching  of  hearts).    In  virtue  of  this  supercompre- 

II.  Later  Development  of  Molinism. — ^Thus  far  hension,  God  knows  the  most  secret  inclinations  and 

we  have  learned  that  the  central  idea  of  Molinism  lies  penetrates  the  most  hidden  recesses  of  man's  heart, 

in  the  principle  that  the  infallible  success  of  efficacious  and  is  thus  enabled  to  foresee  with  mathematical  oer- 

grace  is  not  to  be  ascribed  to  its  own  intrinsic  nature,  tainty  the  free  resolves  latent  in  man's  will.     This 

hut  to  the  Divmeacienlia  media.   The  Society  of  Jesus  xmsatisfactory  explanation,  however,  met  with  the 

has  ever  since  clung  tenaciously  to  this  principle,  but  natural  objection  that  the  mathematically  certain 

without  considering  itself  bound  to  mamtain  all  the  foreknowledge  of  an  effect  from  its  cause  is  nothing 

assertions  and  arguments  of  Molina's  ''(Doncordia";  more  or  less  than  the  knowledge  of  a  necessary  effect; 

on  many  points  of  secondary  importance  its  teachers  consequently  the  will  would  no  longer  be  tree  (cf . 

are  allow^  perfect  freedom  of  opinion.  Kleutgen,  ''De  Deo  Uno",  Rome,  1881,  pp.  322  sqq.). 

First  of  all  it  was  clear  to  the  Jesuits  from  the  begin-  Therdfore.  the  opinion,  gradually  adopted  since  the 
ning  and  the  disputations  before  the  (Don^pregatio  de  time  of  Suarez  (but  repudiated  in  Molina's  woric), 
Aiuoliis  (q.  v.)  did  but  strengthen  the  conviction,  that  maintains  that,  by  the  scientia  media,  God  sees  the 
a  more  perfect,  more  fully  developed,  and  more  accu-  conditioned  future  acts  in  themselves,  i.  e.  in  their  own 
rate  exposition  of  the  Molinistic  system  on  grace  was  (formal  or  objective)  truth.  For,  since  every  free  act 
both  possible  and  desirable.  As  a  modification  of  must  be  absolutely  determined  in  its  being,  even  be- 
Molinism  we  are  usually  referred  in  the  first  place  to  fore  it  becomes  actual  or  at  least  conditionally  possi- 
that  expansion  and  development,  which  afterwards  ble,  it  is  from  all  eternity  a  definite  truth  (determinaia 
took  the  name  of  Con^^ruism  (q.  v.),  and  which  owes  veriUu),  and  must  consequently  be  knowable  as  such 
its  final  form  to  the  jomt  labours  of  Bellarmine,  Sua-  by  the  omniscient  God  with  metaphysical  certainty, 
rez,  Vasquez,  and  Lessius.  As  the  article  on  Congru-  Ruiz  (**  De  scientia  Dei",  Paris,  1629),  with  a  subtletv 
ism  shows  in  detail,  the  system  received  its  name  from  beyond  his  fellows,  laid  a  deex)er  foundation  for  this 
the  gratia  congrua,  i.  e.  a  grace  accommodated  to  cir-  theory,  and  succeeded  in  getting  it  permanently 
cumistances.  By  such  is  understood  a  grace  which,  adopted  by  the  Molinists.  Further  proofs  for  the 
owing  to  its  internal  relationship  and  adaptation  to  sderUia  media  may  be  found  in  Pohle's  "Dogmatik", 
the  state  of  the  recipient  (his  character,  disposition,  I  (4th  ed.,  1908),  pp.  206  sq.  However,  when  further 
education,  place,  time,  etc.),  produces  its  effect  in  the  investigations  were  made,  so  ^eat  and  well-nigh  in- 
light  of  the  aderUia  media  with  infallible  certainty,  surmountable  were  the  difficulties  which  arose  against 
and  thus  is  objectively  identical  with  efficacious  grace,  the  e^blishinp  of  the  absolute  independence  of  the 
The  expression  is  borrowed  from  St.  Augustine,  as  scientia  media  m  regard  to  the  Divine  Will,  that  the 
when  he  says: " Cujus  autem  miseretur,  sic  eum  vocat.  greater  number  of  the  modem  Molinists  either  give  up 
quomodo  scit  ei  congruere,  ut  vocantem  non  respuat ''  the  attempt  to  indicate  a  medium  of  Divine  knowledge 
(Ad  Simplicianum,  1,  Q.  ii,  n.  13).  Consistently  then  (medium  in  quo),  or  positively  declare  it  to  be  super- 
with  this  terminology,  the  grace  which  is  merely  suffi-  nuous:  nevertheless,  there  are  a  few  (e.  g.  Kleutgen, 
cient  must  be  called  gratia  incongrua,  i.  e.  a  grace  Comoldi,  R^gnon)  who  make  a  sharp  distinction  be- 
which  has  not  a  con^puty  with  the  circumstances,  and  tween  the  question  of  the  actual  existence  of  the 
is  therefore  inefficacious.  This  term  also  is  sanctioned  scientia  media  and  that  of  its  process.  While  vigor- 
by  St.  Augustine  0-  c.),  for  he  says:  ^'Illi  enim  electi,  ously  maintaining  the  existence  of  the  scieniia  media^ 
qui  congruenter  vocati;  illi  autem,  qui  non  congrue-  they  frankly  acknowledge  their  ignorance  with  regm 


to  this  extent,  that  inefficacious  grace  and  merely  suffi-  tery  of  aU.   The  most  favourable  statement  that  may 

dent  grace  are  made  to  differ  even  in  aciu  prima— -not  be  made  in  its  favour  is  that  it  is  a  necessary  postulate 

indeed  in  their  internal  nature  and  physical  entity,  but  in  any  doctrine  of  grace  in  which  the  freedom  of  the 

in  their  moral  worth  and  ethical  nature — inasmuch  as  will  is  to  be  safeguarded;  in  itself  it  is  but  a  iheoloQOU' 

the  bestowal  of  an  ever  so  weak  gratia  congrua  is  an  menon.    If  we  then  consider  that  the  Thomists  also, 

incomparably  greater  benefit  of  God  than  that  of  an  with  Billuart  (De  Deo  dissert.,  VIII,  art.  iv,  §2  ad  6) 

ever  so  powerful  gratia  incongrua,  the  actual  inefficacy  at  their  head,  call  the  reconciliation  of  their  pnEmotio 


MOUNOS 


441 


MOUNOS 


pkysiea  with  the  freedom  of  the  will  a  "mystery",  it 
wcnild  seem  that  man  is  not  capable  of  solving  the 
problem  of  the  harmony  between  grace  and  free  will. 

Another  phase  in  the  development  of  this  system  is 
the  fact  Uiat,  in  the  course  of  tune,  some  of  the  Molin- 
ists  have  made  concessions  to  the  Thomist«  in  the 
question  regarding  predestination,  without  however 
abandoning  the  essentials  of  Molinism.  The  theory 
of  the  prtmnoHo  physica  agrees  admirably  with  the  idea 
of  an  absolute  predestination  to  glory  irrespective  of 
foreseen  merits  (prcBdestinatio  ante  proBvisa  merita). 
This  is  the  reason  why  this  theory  appears,  except  in 
the  case  of  a  few  theologians,  as  a  characteristic  feat- 
ure of  the  Thomistic  doctrine  on  grace.  Now,  abso- 
lute predestination  to  glory  necessarily  involves  the 
rather  harsh  doctrine  of  reprobation,  which,  though 
onbv  negative,  is  nevertheless  eouall^  absolute.  For, 
if  God  determines  to  bestow  efficacious  graces  only 
upon  those  whom  He  has  from  all  eternity  predestined 
to  glory,  then  those  not  contained  in  his  decree  of  pre- 
destination are  a  priori  and  necessarily  damned. 

Some  leading  Molinists  like  Bellarmine  and  Suarez 
may  possibly  have  been  tempted  to  show  the  practical 
possioility  of  reconciling  Molinism  with  the  eternal 
and  unchangeable  decree  of  predestination  by  siding 
with  the  Thomists  in  this  question  of  secondary  con- 
sideration, without,  however,  sacrificing  their  alle- 
eianoe  to  the  scieniia  media.  But  the  majority  of 
Molina's  followers,  under  the  lead  of  Lessius  and 
Vasques,  most  consistently  held  to  the  opposite  view. 
For  they  admitted  only  a  conditioned  predestination 
to  glory  which  becomes  absolute  only  consequent  upon 
the  foreseen  merits  of  man  (prcBdestinaiio  poet — et 
prapUsr — prcBciaa  merita),  and  roundly  condemned 
ne^tive  reprobation  on  the  ground  that  it  not  only 
limited  but  even  ran  counter  to  the  salvific  will  of 
God.  To-day  there  is  Scarcely  a  convinced  Molinist 
who  does  not  take  alone  this  reasonable  standpoint. 
A  modification  of  Molinism  of  minor  importance  arose 
with  regard  to  the  so-called  predefimtion  of  good 
woriES  (prcsdefiniHo  bonorum  operum).  By  predefini- 
tion,  in  contradistinction  to  predestination  to  glory, 
theolof^ians  understand  the  absolute,  positive,  and 
efficacious  decree  of  God  from  all  etermty,  that  cer- 
tain persons  shall  at  some  time  in  the  future  perform 
certam  good  works  (cf.  Franzelin,  "De  Deo  Uno". 
Rome,  lo83,  pp.  444  sqq.)*  This  predefinition  to  good 
woriES  is  either  formal  or  virtual,  according  as  Ckd's 
decree  governing  these  works  and  the  bestowal  of 
efficacious  grace  is  either  formal  or  merely  virtual: 
Molina,  Vasquez,  and  Gregory  de  Yalentia  defended 
virtual,  while  Suarez,  Tanner,  Silvester  Maurus,  and 
others  upheld  formal  predefinition.  (See  Conqruism; 
Gracs,  Contbovebsies  on.) 

WnurxB,  ThomoM  wm  Aquin,  III  (Ratbbon,  1859),  380  aqq.; 
Idbm,  Front  Suares  u.  die  ScKolastik  der  Uttten  Jahrh,,  I  (Vienna, 
1861),  344  aqq.;  Scrnkbiian,  S.J.,  Controternarum  de  divina 
gratUK  liberique  arbitrii  eoncordia  iniiia  et  proareenu  (Freiburg, 
1881) ;  DB  Rbgnon,  S. J.,  Bannea  et  Molina.  Histairet  Doctrines, 
CnKffue  mHaj^yeique  (Paris,  1883) ;  Pebch,  S.  J.,  Bin  Dominikaner- 
bieehof  [Didaeiu  Desa[  (tie  Moliniet  vor  Molina  in  Zeitechr,  far 
bath.  Tkeol.  (Innsbruclc,  1885),  171  8qq.;  Reuiicb,  Index  der  ter- 
batmen  Bneher,  II  (Bonn,  1885).  298  aqq.;  DOLUNaERrRBUBCB, 
BeBarmin*9  SelbtUnographie  (MQnich,  1887) ;  Schwanb,  Dogmen- 
geaek.,  IV  (Freiburg,  1890);  Gatraud.  Thomisme  et  Molinieme 
(Pm»t  1890) ;  Udb,  Do^rina  Capreoli  de  inJluxu  Dei  in  acttu  «o- 
lunUUie  hwnana  eeeundum  principia  Thomiemi  el  MoHniami 
(Graa,  1905) ;  Paouibr,  Le  Janainisme,  i  (Paris,  1909) ;  Moboott 
m  KirehsnUx.f  8.  v.  Molina. — Concerning  the  concurnu  divinua 
■ee  SUABBS,  Opuae,  de  eoncurtu,  motione  et  atunlio  Dei  (new  ed., 
Paris,  1856);  Jbilbb,  O.S.F.,  3.  BonaventvrcB  principia  de  con- 
eurau  Dei  genmrali  ad  actionet  eauaarum  aecundarum  coUeda  et  3. 
Tkomm  doetrina  eonfirmata  (Quaracchi,  1897).  C]k>nsult  also  text- 
books on  natunl  theology  (Honthbim,  Gctbbrlbt,  Lbbiibn, 
etc.)  and  on  dogma. — Oinceming  the  aeientia  media  see  Hbricb, 
De  aeientia  Dei  (Pampil,  1623);  Borull,  S.J..  Divina  aeientia  fvr' 
twvrum  eontingentiumt  pracipue  media  (Lyons.  1650);  Platbl, 
SJ.t  Auetoritaa  contra  preedelerminationem  pkyaieam  pro  aeientia 
Msdia  (Douai,  1669;  2nd  ed.,  1673);  Hbnao,  S.J.,  Seientia  media 
kiatoriee  propugnata  (Lyons,  1655;  Salamanca,  1665) ;  Idbii.  Seienf 
tia  madia  tkeoloffiee  defenaa  (2  vols.,  Lyons,  1674-6) ;  Hamibrs, 
&J..  Da  aeimUa  Dei  (Madrid.  1708);  db  Abanda,  S.J..  De  Deo 
acienUt  prmdaatinante  et  auxiliante,  aeu  Sckola  aeienticB  media  (Sara- 
1093)  i  9f9mMQKR,  SciatHa  madia  plena  ^oncHiata  fum  doc 


trina  3.  Tkoma  (Innsbruck,  1728).  Of  more  recent  works  see 
Hbnbb,  Dm  Lekra  aom  gMlichen  Vorhenoiaaen  der  ntkUnfUgen 
freien  Handlungen  in  Katkolik  (Mains,  1872-3) ;  Cobnoldi,  S.J.. 
Delia  M>ertd  umana  (Rome,  1884) ;  Pbccx,  Sentanaa  di  3.  Tommaao 
cirea  Vinfluaao  di  Dxo  axtUe  aaioni  dtUe  ereattara  raaionaMli  e  auUa 
acienxa  media  (Rome,  1885) ;  Schwanb,  Daa  gdttlicke  Vorherwiaaen 
(Monster,  1885);  Scrneideb,  Daa  Wiaaen  Oottea  nach  der  Lekra 
dea  kl.  Tkmnaa  von  Aguin  (4  vols.,  Ratisbon,  1884-6) ;  Fbldnbb, 
O.P.,  Die  Lekra  dea  St,  Tkomaa  Hber  die  WiUenafreikeit  der  aer- 
nUnfUgen  Weaen  (Gras,  1890);  Idbm,  Tkomaa  oder  Molina  in 
Commeb's  Jakrbuck  fUr  Pkiloa,  u.  apehdative  Tkeol.  (1891—); 
Fbins,  S.J.,  De  eooperatione  Dei  cum  omni  natvra  prceaertim  libera 
(Paris,  1892),  answered  by  Dummbbicuth,  O.P.,  Defenaio  doo^ 
trina  3,  Tkoma  depramotionephuaiea  (Paris,  1896) ;  Honthbim, 
S.J.,  Inatitutionea  Tkeodicaa  (Freiburg,  1893) ;  Db  San.  S.J..  Da 
Deo  Uno,  I:  De  mente  3.  Tkoma  droa  pradelerminationea  pkyaioaa 
(Louvain,  1894) ;  Kolb,  Menacklicke  Preikeit  u.  o^l*  Vorkerwiaaen 
naek  Ausiuatin  (Freiburg,  1908).  Of  text-books  we  may  mention 
Janbsenb,  De  Deo  Uno,  11  (Freiburg,  19(X)) ;  Prsch,  S.J.,  Pralec 
tionea  dogmaiica,  V  (3rd  ed.,  1908).  140  sqq.;  Pohlb,  Dogmatik,  1 
(4th  ed.,  1908).  191-210;  II  (4th  ed..  1909),  474-82. 

J.  Pohlb. 

Molinos,  Miguel  de,  founder  of  Quietisni.  b.  at  Mu- 
niesa,  Spain,  21  Dec.,  1640;  d.  at  Rome,  28  Dec.,  1696. 
In  his  youth  he  went  to  Valencia,  where,  having  been 
ordained  priest  and  received  the  degree  of  doctor,  he 
held  a  benefice  in  the  church  of  Santo  Tom^  and  was 
confessor  to  a  communit3r  of  nuns.  He  pretended  to 
be  a  disciple  of  the  Jesuits  and  quoted  them  as  his 
authority  in  his  differences  witii  the  university.  In 
1662  he  went  to  Rome  as  procurator  in  the  cause  of 
the  beatification  of  Venerable  Jer6nimo  Sim6n.  Here, 
after  residing  in  various  other  places,  he  finally  took 
up  his  abode  at  the  church  of  Sant'  Alfonso  which  be- 
longed to  the  Spanish  Discalced  Augustinians.  The 
Jesuits  and  Dominicans  having  accused  him  of  perni- 
cious teachings,  the  Inquisition  ordered  his  books  to  be 
examined.  He  defended  himself  well  and  was  acquit- 
ted; but  again  Cardinal  d'Estr^,  French  ambassador 
at  Home,  acting  on  instructions  from  Paris,  denounced 
him  to  the  authorities.  In  May,  1685,  the  Holy  Office 
formulated  charges  agaiast  him  and  ordered  his  arrest. 
The  report  of  the  i^rocess  was  read  on  3  September, 
1687,  in  the  Dominican  church  of  Santa  Maria  sopra 
Minerva,  in  the  presence  of  an  immense  concourse  of 
people  gathered  tor  the  occasion  by  means  of  grants  of 
mdulgences;  he  was  declared  a  dogmatic  heretic,  sen- 
tenced to  life  imprisonment,  to  be  perpetually  clothed 
in  the  penitential  garb,  to  recite  tne  Credo  and  one- 
third  of  the  Rosary,  ana  to  make  confession  four  times 
every  year.  He  received  the  sacraments  on  his  death- 
bed. He  taught  interior  annihilation,  asserting  that 
this  is  the  means  of  attaining  purity  of  soul,  perfect 
contemplation,  and  the  rich  treasure  of  interior  peace: 
hence  foUows  the  licitness  of  impure  carnal  acts,  inas- 
much as  only  tiie  lower,  sensual  man.  instigated  by  the 
demon,  is  concerned  in  them.  In  tne  cases  of  seven- 
teen penitents  he  excused  their  lascivious  acts,  and 
claimed  that  those  committed  by  himself  were  not 
blameworthy,  as  free  will  had  had  no  part  in  them. 

Innocent  XI,  in  the  Bull  ''Ccelestis  Pastor"  (2 
November,  1687),  condenmed  as  heretical,  suspect, 
erroneous,  scandalous,  etc.,  sixty-eig[ht  propositions 
which  Molinos  admitted  to  be  his,  being  convicted  of 
having  asserted  them  in  speech  and  in  writing,  com- 
municated them  to  others,  and  believed  them — propo- 
sitions which  are  not  those  of  the  ''Guia  Espintual" 
iJone.  Moreover,  the  pope  prohibited  and  condemned 
all  his  works,  printed  or  m  manuscript.  Molinos  had 
followers  in  abundance;  when  he  was  arrested,  it  is 
said  that  twelve  thousand  letters  from  persons  who 
consulted  him  were  found  in  his  possesion.  More 
than  two  hundred  persons  at  Rome  found  themselves 


tury.    In  Spain,  the  Bishop  of  Oviedo,  taken  to  Rome 
and  imprisoned  in  the  Cfastle  of  Sant'  Angelo,  the 

Eriest  Juan  de  Causadas,   and  the  Carmelite  lay 
rother  Juan  de  Longas,  who  corrupted  a  convent  of 
reli£;iou8  women,  were  all  punished  as  disciples  pf 


MOLITOB 


442 


MOLLOT 


Molinism.  In  France,  the  semiquietism  of  F^nelon 
and  Jeanne  Guyon  (q.  v.)  took  from  Molinoe  only  the 
teaching  of  "pure  love  .  Amone  the  writings  of 
Molinos  may  be  mentioned  the  following:  (1)  *'La 
devoci6n  de  la  buena  muerte"  (published  at  Valencia, 
1662,  under  the  name  of  Juan  Bautista  Catald);  (2) 
"La  Gufa  espiritual"  (published  first  in  Italian,  at 
Rome,  1675,  then,  in  Spanish,  at  Madrid,  1676),  ai>- 
proved  by  various  theologians  and  by  ecclesiastical 
authority,  so  much  so  that  twenty  editions  appeared 
in  twelve  years,  in  Latin  (1687),  French,  Elnglish 
Q685),  German  (1699).  etc.;  (3)  "Tratado  de  la 
Comtmi6n  cuotidiana"  (1687). 

MKNiNDKZ  Pblato,  HcUrodoxot  etpalioUa^  II  (Madrid,  1880), 
659;  BxTRKBT,  Recueil  de$  diver  set  j^iieet  coneemant  le  quiitiame 
(Amsterdam,  1688);  Scbarliko,  ZetUckriftfQrgeBeh.  theologiacke, 
XXIV,  XXV  (Hamburg  and  Qotha.  1855);  RArxEL  Urbano, 
Ouia  S$jnritttal  (Barcelona,  a.  d.);  Regio,  Clavia  aurea  qua 
aperiurUur  erroret  Michadia  Molinoa  (Mearina,  1687) ;  O611KE, 
BihlioUea  arUiqua  y  nueaa  de  eeeriiorea  aroQonetee  de  LcUaeea  .  .  . 
en  forma  de  Dieeiafnario  bibliogr<ifico-biogrd/ieOt  II   (Saragona, 

1885).  328.  Antonio  Pebez  Gotena. 

Molitor,  WiLHELM  (pseudonyms,  Ulric  Ribsler 
and  Bbnno  Bronner),  poet,  novelist,  canonist  and 
publicist,  b.  at  Zweibruecken  in  the  Rhine  Palatinate, 
24  Aujsust,  1819 ;  d.  at  Speyer,  1 1  January,  1880.  After 
Btudving  philosophy  and  jurisprudence  in  Munich  and 
Heidelben  (1836-40),  he  held  various  juridical  posi- 
tions in  the  service  of  the  State  from  1843-9.  But 
feeling  himself  called  to  the  priesthood,  the  pious 
young  lurist  studied  theolo^  at  Bonn  (1849-51)  and 
was  ordained  priest  on  15  March,  1851.  In  the  same 
year  he  became  secretary  to  Bishop  Weis  of  Speyer; 
on  11  November,  1857,  he  was  elected  canon  of  the 
cathedral  chapter  and,  soon  after,  appointed  custos  of 
the  cathedral,  and  professor  of  archsology  and  homi- 
letics  at  the  episcopal  seminary.  He  took  part  in  the 
consultations  of  the  German  bishops  at  Bamberg 
(1867) ,  Wttrzburg  (1868) ,  and  Fulda  (1869) .  In  18^ 
Pius  DC  summoned  him  to  Rome  as  a  consultor  in  the 
labours  preparatory  to  the  Vatican  Council.  From 
1875-7  he  was  a  member  of  the  Bavarian  Landtag. 
He  was  the  chief  promoter  of  the  Catholic  movement 
In  the  Palatinate,  and  advanced  the  Catholic  cause  es- 
pecially by  foimding  the  "Pfalzicher  Pressverein", 
the  dadv  paper  "Rheinpfals"  and  the  "Katholische 
Vereinsoruckerei".  His  pronounced  ultramontane 
principles  made  him  unacceptable  to  the  Bavarian  Gov- 
ernment, which  in  consequence  repeatedly  prevented 
his  election  to  the  See  of  Speyer.  He  is  the  author  of 
numerous  poems,  dramas,  novels^  sketches  on  the 
questions  ot  the  day,  and  a  few  jundical  treatises.  A 
collection  of  his  poems  was  published  in  1884;  his 
"Domlieder"  in  1846.  His  dramas  are:  "Kynast" 
(1844):  "Maria  Masdalena"  (1863,  1874);  "Das  alte 
deutscne  HandwerK''  (1864);  ''Die  Freigelassene 
Neros"  (1865);  "Claudia  Procula"  (1867);  "Julian 
der  Apostat"  (1867);  "Des  Kaisers  Guenstling",  a 
tragedy  of  the  times  of  the  martyrs  (1874);  "Die 
Blume  von  Sicilien''  (1880,  1897);  "Dramatische 
Spiele",  containing  the  dramatic  le^nd  "Sankt 
Ursulas  Rheinfahrt",  the  comedy  "Die  Villa  bei 
Amalfi",  and  the  dramatic  tale  "Sch5n  Gundel" 
(1878):  and  his  three  festive  plays, — "Weihnachts- 
baum'*  (1867),  "Das  Haus  zu  Nazareth"  (1872),  and 
"Die  Weisen  dee  Morgenlands''  (1877).  His  novels 
are:  "Die  schSne  ZweibrUckerin",  2  vols.  (1844); 
"Der  Jesuit"  (1873):  "Herr  von  SyUabus"  (1873); 
"MemoireneinesTodtenkopfs",  2  vols.  (1875);  "Der 
Caplan  von  Friedlingen"  (1877);  "Der  Cast  im  Kvff- 
hauser"  (1880).  His  juridical  works  are:  "UcW 
kanonisches  Gerichteverfahren  gegen  Cleriker" 
(1856);  "Die  Immunit&t  des  Domes  «u  Speyer" 
(1859);  "Die  Decretale  Per  VenercMem"  (1876).  He 
also  wrote  three  volumes  of  sermons  (1880-2);  "Das 
Theater  in  seiner  Bedeutung  und  in  seiner  gegenwar- 
tigen  Stellung"  (1866);  *^Uebcr  Goethes  Faust" 
(1869) J  "Brennwde  Fragen"  (1874);  "Pie  Oiw- 


macht  der  Presse"  and  "Die  Organisation  der  Katho- 
lischen  Presse"  (1866) ;  and  a  few  other  worics  of  minor 
importance.  In  collaboration  with  Huelskamp  he 
wrote  "Papst  Pius  IX  in  seinem  Leben  und  Wiricen", 
4th ed.  (1875)  and  in  collaboration  with  Wittmer  "  Rom, 
Wegweiser  durch  die  ewige  Stadt"  (1866,  1870). 

Bbumitbr  in  AUoemeine  Deuleehe  Btoorapkie,  LII  (LeipciCt 
1906),  438-40 ;  KsHRmN,  Bioarapkiech-litterarieekee  Lerikoi^  dmr 
kathoUedien  Diehter,  2Dd  ed.,  I  (Wanburg.  1872),  266-68;  AUe  und 
Neus  WeU,  XV  (New  York.  1880),  408-11. 

Michael  Ott. 

MoUoT  (O'Mollot),  Francis,  theologian,  gram- 
marian, b.  in  King's  County,  Ireland,  at  the  begin- 
ning 01  the  seventeenth  centuiy;  d.  at  St.  Isidore's, 
Rome,  about  1684.  At  an  early  age  he  entered  the 
Franciscan  Order,  and  in  the  year  1642  he  was  ap- 
pointed lecturer  in  philosophy  at  the  college  of  Kloe- 
temeuberg,  near  Vienna,  and  in  1645  passed  to  the 
chair  of  theolo^^  at  Gratz.  Here  he  published  a 
Scotist  work  on  the  Incarnation. 

About  1650  he  was  called  to  Rome  and  appointed 
primary  professor  of  theology  in  the  College  of  St. 
Isidore.  During  his  residence  in  Rome  he  wrote  sev- 
eral works  on  theological  subjects  and  a  long  Latin 
poem  on  Prince  Prosper  Philip  of  Spain.    In  1676  he 

Sublished  an  Irish  catechism  under  the  title  of  "Luoema 
idelium  seu  Fasciculus  decerptus  de  Doctrina  Chris- 
tiana". This  woric,  in  the  Irish  language  and  charac- 
ters, was  printed  at  the  office  of  the  Congregation  of 
the  Propaganda,  and  was  dedicated  to  Carainal  Al- 
tieri.  Protector  of  Ireland.  Father  MoUov  is  best 
known  as  the  author  of  the  first  Latin-Irish  printed 
grammar  (Grammatica  Latino-Hibemica).  This 
book  also  came  from  the  press  of  the  Propaganda 
(1677),  and  is  dedicated  to  Cardinal  Maasimi,  a  great 
friend  of  the  Irish.  It  is  hi^ly  esteemed  by  writers 
on  the  Celtic  languages,  and  la  laigely  drawn  upon  by 
modem  writen  on  Irish  grammar. 

Waddino-Sbahalba,  Seripioree  Ord.  Min.  (Rome,  1806): 
O'Rbillt,  Irieh  Writera  (Dublin,  1820);  Brsnnan.  Bed.  Biatory 
of  Irdand;  Rtan,  Worthiea  of  Ireland  (London.  1821);  Akdbb- 
aoN,  Hiatorieal  Skelehea  of  the  NaUve  Iriah  (London.  1846); 
Douglas  Htdb,  Literary  Hiatcry  of  Ireland  (London,  1903); 
O'MoLLOT,  Iriah  Proaody,  tr.  OTlannobaiub  (Dublin.  1006). 

Gbegort  Clkart. 

MoUoy,  Gerald,  theolodan  and  scientist,  b.  at 
Mount  Tallant  House,  near  Dublin,  10  Sept..  1834;  d. 
at  Aberdeen,  1  Oct.,  1906.  Monmgnor  Molloy  was  a 
distinguished  Irish  priest  and  for  many  years  a  very 
popular  and  much  admired  figure  in  the  intellectual 
fife  of  Ireland.  He  was  educated  at  Castleknock 
College,  where  he  was  very  successful  in  his  studies, 
and  subsequently  went  to  Maynooth  College.  Here 
he  applied  himself  with  enthusiasm  to  the  study  of 
theoloK>[  and  the  physical  sciences.  In  both  depart- 
ments nis  record  was  a  brilliant  one.  He  was  barely 
twenty-three  years  of  ase  when  in  1857  he  beoune  pro- 
fessor of  theology  at  Maynooth,  and  continued  to 
hold  that  chair  until  1874^  when  he  accepted  the 
professorship  of  natural  philosophy  at  the  Catholic 
University  of  Ireland.  In  1883  he  succeeded  Dean 
Neville  of  Cork  as  Rector  of  the  Catholic  Univer- 
sity, which  office  he  occupied  up  to  the  d^  of  his 
death.  The  varied  nature  of  Monsignor  Molloy's 
work  in  connexion  with  Irish  education  is  venr  strik- 
ing. He  acted  on  the  commission  on  manual  tndn- 
ing  in  primary  schools,  and  filled  the  post  of  ajssia- 
tant  commissioner  under  the  EducationafEIndowm^ita 
Act.  As  early  as  1880  he  became  a  member  of  the 
Senate  of  the  Royal  University  of  Ireland,  and  re- 
m^ed  so  till  1882,  when  he  was  appointed  to  a 
fellowship  in  the  same  imiversity.  In  1890  he  be- 
came a  member  of  the  governing  board  of  that 
institution  and  at  the  time  of  his  death  was  its 
vice-chancellor.  He  was  also  a  member  of  the  Board 
of  Intermediate  Education.  As  a  lecturer  and  skilled 
experimentalist,  Molloy  was  very  successful  in  dealing 
with  difiicult  sdentifii;  subjects  w4  r^dering  them 


MOLO                              443  MOLOCH 

easily  intelligible  and   interesting   to  his  hearers,  modal  of  Pope  Innocent  VII) ;  he  is  also  excellent  in 

Under  the  auspices  of  the  Royal  Dublin  Society,  of  figure  compositions.    The  dragon-killer  St.  George, 

whose  council  he  was  a  member,  he  delivered  a  series  a3  Kenncr  remarks,  by  its  natural  and  beautuul 

of  lectures  on  natural  science,  and  in  particular  on  filling  in  of  space,  reminds  us  of  classic<al  coins.    As 

electricity,  in  which  he  was  an  acknowledged  expert,  long  as  cast  medals  were   generally   used,   public 

On  one  occasion  he  joined  issue  on  the  subject  of  interest  in  the  portrait  predominated,  and.  the  re- 

li^tning  conductors  with  no  less  an  adversiury  than  verse  was  usually  ncgleeted;  this  changed  with  the 

Sir  Oliver  Lodge.    Among  his  works  are:  ''Geology  introduction  of  the  stamping  technique.    We  know 

and  Revelatioir'  (1870),  a  fuller  and  maturer  treat-  only  a  few  cast  medals  of  Molo;  he  preferred  the 

ment  of  a  series  of  papers  on  geology  in  its  relation  stamped  medal,  and  his  works  of  this  kind  are  among 

with  revealed  religion,  which  appeared  from  time  the  best  of  that  time.    It  may  be  stated  that  he  wa8 

to  time  in  the  ''Irish  Ecclesiastical  Record",  and  directly  responsible  for  the  new  ideas  in  stamping 

dealt  with  the  supposed  conflict  between  geology  technique.    Molo's  biography  is  still  very  obscure. 

and  revelation,  solving  the  problem  of  reconcilement:  ,  Kennkb  in  /oArft.  derhunslhistor.  Sammlunoen  de»  Ah,  Kaiaer- 

;;0utline8  of  a  «>u«e  of  Natvtfa]  Phijoeophy"  (1880);  JJSS^^'i/S'^.'ia.'iM,)?^'""""  ""^-  '^-  '^ 

"Gleanmgs  m  Science     (1888),  an  interesting  scnes  X.  Domaniq. 
of  popular  lectures  on  scientific  subjects;  "The  Irish 

Difficulty,  Shall  and  Will"  (1897).  He  also  trans-  Moloch  (Heb.  Mmch,  king).— A  divinity  wor- 
lated  a  number  of  passsigcs  from  Dante's  "Purga-  shipped  by  the  idolatrous  Israelites.  The  Hebrew 
torio",  wrote  of  the  Passion  Play  at  Oberammei]gau,  pointing  MdUch  does  not  represent  the  original  pro- 
and  was  a  frequent  contributor  to  several  magazines,  nunciation  of  the  name,  any  more  than  the  Gredc 
At  the  time  of  his  sudden  death,  due  to  heart  failure,  vocalization  MoX6x  found  in  the  LXX  and  in  the  Acts 
Father  MoUoy  was  representing  the  Catholic  Uni-  (vii.  43).  The  primitive  title  of  this  god  was  very 
versitvatthecelebrationof  the  fourth  centenazy  of  the  probably  MiUch,  "king",  the  consonants  of  which 
Aberdeen  University,  and  was  one  of  those  on  whom  came  to  be  combined  through  derision  with  the  vow- 
the  honorary  degree  of  Doctor  of  Laws  was  conferred  els  of  the  word  BoshHh^  "shame".  As  the  word  Mo- 
by the  latter  university  a  few  days  before.  His  loch  (A.  V.  Molech)  means  king,  it  is  difficult  in  sev- 
career  is  another  striking  contradiction  of  the  theory  eral  places,  of  the  Old  Testament  to  determine 
that  a  Catholic  clergyman  must  necessarily  be  an  whether  it  should  be  considered  as  the  proper  name  of 
opponent  of  scientific  progress.  a  deity  or  as  a  simple  appellative.  The  passases  of  the 
o-Li?*!?*''^'^''"^ ^^"^**°' ^o^?*' ^^Hi^**^'^^^^  origmal  text  in  which  the  name  stands  probably  for 

Rndatwn;  losif,  Olean%no»xn  Science:  DtMtn Renew  ilS72)  and  avjI  „*  «  „,^  „,^  t  ^„    ^,:;;   oi .  «^   o   k.  ttt  /a    V  T\ 

Irieh SeeUe.  Record  (1866^).  tbat  of  a  god  are  Lev.,  xviu,  21 ;,  XX,  2-6;  III  (A.  V.  I) 

Peter  F.  Cusick.  Kmgs,  xi,  7;  IV  (II)  Kmgs,  xxui,  10;  Is.,  xxx,  33;  Ivu, 

9;  Jer.,  xxxii,  35.    The  chief  feature  of  Moloch's  wor- 

Molo,  Gabparo  (he  wrote  his  name  also  Mola  and  f^P  among  the  Jews  seems  to  have  been  the  sacrifice 

MoLi),    skilful    Italian    goldsmith    and    planisher,  of  children,  and  the  usual  expression  for  describing 

chiefly  known  as  a  medalist,  b.  (according  to  Forrer)  ^bat  sacrifice  was  "to  pass  throurii  the  fire",  a  rite 

in  Breglio  near  Como  or  (according  to  older  records)  carried  out  after  the  victims  had  oeen  put  to  death, 

in  Lugano;  date  of  death  unknown.    He  was  first  The  special  centre  of  such  atrocities  was  just  outside 

active  at  Milan,   then  at  Mantua,  from   1608  at  of  Jerusalem,  at  a  place  called  Tophet  (probably 

Florence,  from  which  latter  period  we  possess  his  "place  of  abomination"),  in  the  valley  of  Geennom. 

first  signed  medal.    Here  he  was  maestro  delle  stamve  According  to  III  (I)  Kings,  xi,  7,  Solomon  erected  "a 

deUa  monete.    In   1609  he  became  well  known  by  temple*' for  Moloch  "on  the  hill  over  against  Jerusit- 

his  mcda^  commemorating  the  marriage  and  the  l^m  ',  and  on  this  account  he  is  at  times  considered  as 

accession  of  Cosmo  II.    In  1609  and  1610  he  cut  the  monarch  who  introduced  the  impious  cult  into 

the  dies  for  the  talers  and  the  "medals  of  merit"  Israel.    After  the  disruption,  traces  of  Moloch  wor- 

oonferred  by  the  grand  duke.    According  to  Kenner,  ship  appear  in  both  Juda  and  Israel.    The  custom  of 

it  is  not  necessary  to  suppose  that  he  gave  up  his  causing  one's  children  to  pass  through  the  fire  seems 

connexion  with  the  Florentine  court  at  this  time,  to  have  been  general  in  the  Northern  Kingdom  [IV 

because,  in  the  following  years,  he  struck  medals  for  (II)  Kmg8,xvu,  17;  Ezech.  xxiii,  37],  and  it  gradually 

the  court  in  Mantua,  as  well  as  coins  for  Guastcdla  grew  in  the  Southern,  encouraged  by  the  royal  exam- 

and  Casti^lione,  especiaUy  as  he  was  again  working  pie  of  Achaz  (IV  Kmgs,  xvi,  3)  and  Manasses  [IV 

in  Florence  in  1614  (certainly  in  1615).    The  medals  (H)  Kings,  xvi,  6]  till  it  became  prevalent  in  the  time 

also,  which  he  made  after  1620  for  Prince  Vincenzo  of  the  prophet  Jeremias  (Jerem.  xxxii,  35),  when  King 

II  of  Mantua,  may  very  well  have  been  struck  at  Josias  suppressed  the  worship  of  Moloch  and  defiled 

Florence.    His  further  sojourn  in  Tuscany  seems  to  Tophet  [IV  (II)  Kings,  xxiii,  13  (10)].    It  is  not  im- 

have  been  rendered  distasteful  to  him  by  intrigues,  probable  that  this  worship  was  revived  under  Joakim 

About  1623  he  moved  to  Rome,  where  he  became  and  continued  imtil  the  Babylonian  Captivity, 

die-cutter  at  the  papal  mint  in  place  of  J.  A.  Moro,  On  the  basis  of  the  Hebrew  reading  of  III  (1)  Kings, 

who  died  in  1625.     Here  he  made  a  great  many  coins  xi,  7,  Moloch  has  often  been  identified  with  Milcom, 

and  medals  for  Urban  VIII  (1623-44),  Innocent  X  the  national  god  of  the  Ammonites,  but  this  identifi- 

(1644-55),  and  Alexander  VII  (1655-57).    His  last  cation  cannot  be  considered  as  probable:  as  shown  by 

works  date  from  1634.     As  it  seems  strange  Uiat  the  Greek  Versions,  the  original  reading  of  III  (i) 

Molo  should,  at  the  age  of  eighty-four,  still  continue  Kings,  xi^  7,  was  not  Molech  but  Milchom  [cf.  also 

working  with  unabated  strength,  it  is  thought  that  III  (I)  Kings,  xi,  5,  33] ;  and  according  to  Deut.,  xii, 

another  artist  of  his  name — perhaps  his  son — con-  29-31:  xviii,  9-14,  the  passing  of  children  through  fire 

tinned  Gaspare's  work.    Indeed,  we  find  in  1639  was  of  Chanaanite  origin  [cf.  IV  (II)  Kings,  xvi,  3]. 

a  G.  D.  Molo,  who  might  have  been  a  son  of  Gasparo  Of  late,  numerous  attempts  have  been  made  to  prove 

and  who  apparently  died  young*  but  it  is  more  lixely  that  in  sacrificing  their  children  to  Moloch  the  Israel- 

that  Gasparo  founded  a  school  in  Rome,  and  that  ites  simply  thought  that  they  were  offering  them  in 

his  engravers  worked  according  to  his  instructions  holocaust  to  Yah weh.    In  other  words,  the  Mcfec^  to 

and  in  his  style,  but  passed  off  their  works  under  his  whom  child-sacrifices  were  offered  was  Yahweh  under 

name  and  with  his  signature.    One  of  his  numerous  another  name.    To  uphold  this  view  appeal  is  made 

pupils  is  his  successor  at  the  Zecca,   the  famous  in  particular  to  Jer.,  vii,  31;  xix,  5,  and  to  Ezech.,  xz, 

Hamerani   (Hameran,   a  German),   the  founder  of  25-31.    But  this  position  is  to  say  the  least  improb- 

that  long-lived  family  of  artists,  Hamerani.    Molo  able.    The  texts  appealed  to  may  well  be  understood 

is  a  good  and  faithful  delineator  of  character  (cf.  the  otherwise,  and  the  prophets  expressly  treat  the  cult  of 


MOLOKAI 


444 


HOLOEAI 


Holocb  as  fordsQ  and  as  an  apostaay  from  the  wor-  just  about  in  the  ceQtral  part  of  the  coast,  where  the 
ahip  of  the  true  God,  The  offerines  by  fire,  the  prob-  cliff  is  2200  feet,  there  i^  at  its  base  the  Leper  kettle- 
able  identity  of  Moloch  with  Baal,  and  the  fact  that  ment  FeninBula  <52  miles  from  Honolulu),  Eomewh&t 
in  Aaeyria  and  Babylonia  Malik,  and  at  Palmyra  of  a  hoiseahoe  Bhape,  about  two  miles  wide  near  the 
MaJach-bel,  were  Hun-godfl,  have  suggested  to  many  cliff  ipaii),  and  projecting  about  two  miles  into  Ow 


that  Moloch  was „._. 

BinDiMiN. /oAKrfMolocA  (Uip<ig.  1S74);  _ . 

tht  Smn^u  (London.  18M);  Bchulr,  Old  Tatanunl  ThvOen.  - 
la.,  £diiibui(h,  1898);  LjkoaAiiaB,  Btitduuir  lit  AfJivinni  3imi- 
liV'4t  (Puis.  191^). 

FhANCIS  E.  GlOOT, 


Around  the  extreme  point  this  new  c. 

tUtiaim  •>/     is  from  100  to  150  feet  high ;  nearer  the  pali  it  ia 
r*«A)ro.  I      „„_i, .  „,  Kalftwnn.  thp  PaB*j.i 


tlin 


much;  at  Kalawao,  Uie  eaatem  side,  aoout  fifty  fe«t 
only ;  and  at  Kalaupapa,  the  weatem  Hide,  it  is  even  less. 
An  old  and  very  diHicult  trail  over  the  pali  has  been 
improved  so  that  carrying  the  mails  twice  a  week  to 
Uolokai,  an  interesting  island,  one  of  the  North  and  from  the  steamer  landing  of  Kaunakakai,  on  the 
Pacific  group  formerly  known  aa  the  Sandwich  Is-  southern  side  of  the  island,  is  pmctieable,  and  occa- 
luida,  or  as  the  Kineaom  of  Hawaii,  then  as  the  Ge-  sionally  a  passenger  (usually  an  otfacial)  cornea  or  eoes 
public  of  Hawaii,  and  since  annexation  by  the  United  that  way.  The  steamer  comes  around  to  the  landing 
States  of  America  as  the  Territory  of  Hawaii.  This  at  Kalaupapa  once  a  week.  This  peninsula  has  been 
annexation  was  determined  by  joint  resolution  of  Con-  formed  by  we  action  of  a  local  volcano  long  since  the 
[;ress,  signed  by  the  main    island    was 

'   ~   '  '  formed.       The  dead 

ciat«r,  Kauhako,  oc- 
cupies a  central  part 
of  the  peninsula,  and 
has  a  well  of  brack- 
ish water,  the  sur- 
face keeping  on  a 
level  with  the  ocean, 
its  greatest  depth  be- 
ing750feet.  Theen- 
tire  formation  is  verv 


President  7  July, 
1893,  the  completad 
organization    taking 

ef^ct  14  June,  1900. 
Of  the  eight  principal 
islands,  Molokai  ia 
fifth  in  size,  261  sc). 
miles;  also  fifth  in 
population  (2504, 
Census  of  1900).  It» 
location  is  between 
the  islands  of  Oahu 
and  Maui,  separated 
from  the  latter  by  a 
channel    only   eight 


only   e 
width, 


having     no    great 

depth.     Holdcai  is 

about  thirty-eight 
mUea  in  length  From 

east  to  west,  and  its 

average  width   is 

about   seven    miles. 

The  island,  however, 

was  larger  in  ils  origi- 
nal volcanic   forma- 

tion.   The  mountain 

Just  off  Kalawao, 
and  fronting  t^ 
mouth  of  Waikalo 
Valley,  are  two 
masses  of  rock  pro- 
jecting from  the  ses, 
one  known  as  Mo- 
kapu,  one  as  Okala. 

Leprosy  first  ap- 
peared in  the  Ha- 
waiian  Islands 


1353.  In  1864  ito 
spread  had  beccane 
~i   alarming  that    r 


EUUIWIH  HOHB,  KtUVlO,    MOLOIAI 

^iB  row  of  houH  toward  the  mt  waa  dntroyed  uid  tba  n(«  ii 

_        Oflcupieii  hv  tha  Uiuted  BtAttt  L«praauiuin 

backbone  was  split  or  displaced,  the  northern  part  be-  Jan.,  1365,  in  the  reign  of  Kamehameha  V,  the  Lac- 
ing aubmei^ed  m  the  ocean;  and  there  now  remains  a  islature  passed  "An  act  to  prevent  the  sprrad  <^ 
line  of  majestic  cliffs  and  noble  headlands  that  for  leprosy",  the  execution  of  the  law  being  in  toe  hands 
unique  gr^deur  can  hardiy  be  surpassed,  the  great  of  the  Board  of  Health.  In  1865-6.  there  were  274 
ocean  beating  at  their  baee  except  where  the  few  val-  pereons  on  the  islands  reported  to  be  lepers.  I'nder 
leys  or  gulches  form  open  places  and  where  the  cliffs  the  act  of  3  Jan.,  1365,  segregation  was  bef^m,  and 
recede.  Thissomewhat  irregular  lineof  bold  mountain  plans  were  made  for  a  sepaiste  hospital.  Lana  was 
facevarieBinheightfrom2^0feetinthecentralparto[  purchased  for  this  in  Palolo  Valley,  Island  of  Oahu, 
the  island  to  3500  feet  towards  the  east.  Some  higher  but  when  it  became  known  in  the  neighbourhood,  ob- 
peoks  lie  farther  l>ack  in  the  eastern  part^  the  hishest  jections  were  so  strong  that  the  effort  was  alwndcned. 
being  almost  5000  feet.  All  of  these  highlands  are  A  site  was  then  securra  at  Kalihi,  near  Honolulu,  well 
strangely  seamed  by  erosion;  verdure  has  crept  in,  separated  from  the  other  liabitations,  and  in  Novem- 
covcring  the  protected  parts,  and  in  some  places  good-  ber,  1865,  the  hospital  was  establidied  there.  This 
sized  trees  are  growing.  Except  in  theverydry  times,  was  for  retention,  examination,  and  to  some  extent 
manyrivuletsappear,  disappear,  come  again  to  the  sur-  medical  treatment  of  the  lepers  or  suspects.  This  was 
taceorin  the  open  places  in  Kaleidoscopic  variety.  Af-  indeed  good;  but  the  neea  was  felt  of  a  larger  and 
tcrheavy  rains  these  littlestreamsbecometorrentaand  more  permanent  settlement,  isolated  for  those  de- 
from  overhanging  places  leap  into  the  open,  and  are  clared  to  be  lepers,  to  be  operated  in  connexion  with 
caught  and  carried  away  by  tne  winds.  In  tne  moun-  the  Kalihi  Hospital,  where  efforts  would  continue  for 
tains  back  of  the  open-faced  northern  coast,  many  the  cure  of  coses  in  the  early  stages.  In  locating  a 
wild  deer  are  found.  A  coral  reef,  about  half  a  mile  in  leper  settlement  the  search  was  soon  directed  to  ths 
width,  fringes  the  southern  coast.  The  slopes  to  the  Molokai  Peninsula,  so  well  protected  by  the  sea,  in 
south  and  lower-lying  parts  are  used  for  gmzmg,    Ow-  front  and  by  the  towering  cluf  behind.     Favoured  aa 


ing  to  the  uncertainty  of  the  supply  of  water,  the  it  is  by  the  wholesome  trade-winds  from  the  north- 
island  is  not  well  adapted  to  ogricuiture.  Honey  is  east,  a  place  better  adapted  could  hardly  have  been 
an  important  export.     Some  attempt  has  been  made     found.     The  Board  of  Health  establi-ihed  its  authoi^ 


t  sugar  planting,  without  much  success.     This  pic-  ity  here  on  6  Jan.,  1S66.     Waikalo  Valley,  eonnectod 

turesque  group  of  islands  is  favoured  in  being  out  of  with  the  peninsula  on  the  eastern  side,  and  not  accca- 

the  cyclone  belt,  and  in  having  no  snakes.  sible  from  other  directions,  was  first  selected,  as  ths 

Lbfeb  Sbttlement. — The  entire  northern  coast  of  richland  therecouldbecultivaled.and  thelittlccclony 

Molokai  has  but  one  protection  of  land.    The  gulches  might  become  self-supporting.    This  attemot  did  not 

are  merely  open  places,  like  the  mouth  of  a  pocket,  but  succeed,  the  deep  valley  being  rather  moist  fw  hatnt^ 


ttOLOlui  44^  BiOLOKAi 

*.vxt.    Thei«foie,  a  good  part  of  the  holdings  upon  the  1873.    Good  order  in  the  settlement  was  somewhat 
«astem  and  middle  portions  of  the  peninsula  were  se-  precariouH.     Damien's  deb^rmined  character  proved 
cured,  and  improvementa  were  begun.     Waikab  Val-  to  be  of  great  value.     Bi^BidcB  his  priestly  otfices,  there 
'ey  has  not  been  useless,  however,  but  has  been  used  was  opportunity  for  his  elTortA  at  every  turn.     With  a 
/or  cultivation  of  tero.     The  noa-Ieper  residents  still  hungn"  *cftl  fof  work,  ho  accomplished  many  things 
ntmained  at  ECalsupapa,  the  steamer  landing.     Inthe  for  the  good  of  the  place;   he  helped  the  authorities, 
time  of  these  beginnings  (1865-68)  Dr.  F.  W.  Hutchin-  and  brought  about  a  good  spirit  among  the  people, 
son  was  President  of  tlie  Board  of  Health,  and  was  Ten  years  later  (1883)  the  Franciscan  Sisters  came  to 
Minister  of  the  Interior  from  26  April,  1365,  until  11  Honolulu  from  Syracuse,  N.'Y.,  having  been  engaged 
Dec.,  1872.     Mr.  R.  W.  Meyer,  a  resident  of  the  moun-  by  the  Hawaiian  Government.     They  expected  com- 
tain-top  above  the  settlement,  was  Board  of  Health  ing  to  the  settlement  at  once,  but  the  authorities  con- 
Agent  and  attended  to  the  business.     He  continued  as  eluded  that  conditions   there  were  unsuitable,  that 
agent,  the  practical  and  very  efhcient  business  mana-  better  order  must  be  secured,  and  some  Improvements 
ger  of  liie  Leper  Settlement  untQ  his  death,  12  June,  made  in  buildings,  etc.     So  the  sisters  remained  at 
1897.  Kakaako  Branch  Hospital,  near  Honolulu,  for  about 
The  physician  at  Kalihi  Hospital  reported  2  March,  six  years,  a  certain  number  of  newly  gathered  lepers 
1866,  having  received  I5S  lepers,  57  of  whom  were  sent  being  retained  there.     This  hospital  was  given  up 
to  Holokai  Asylum,  101  remaining  at  Kalihi  Hospital 
for  treatment.   In  sending  to  Molokai,  some  difficulty 
attended   the  separating  of  relatives.     Therefore,  a 
few  Don-leper  relatives  were  allowed  to  go  along  as 
helpers  or  Kokiuu.     Some  cattle  and  sheep  were  also 
sent  to  Molokai.    For  Kalihi  Hospital,  and  Molokai 
Asylum  (or  Settlement,  as  it  generally  became  known 
later),  the  total  amount  of  expenses  in  1866  was  $10,- 
012.48. 

Hatters  went  on  pretty  well  at  first,  but  after  some 
time  an  ugly  spirit  developed  at  Molokai.     Drunken 
and  lewd  conduct  prevailed.    The  easy-going,  good- 
natured  people  seemed  wholly  changed.    laus  the 
President  of  the  Board  of  Health  reported  at  some 
length  in  1868;  but  he  was  able  to  state  tliat  a  change 
for  the  better  had  come.     Improvements  had  been 
made  at  Molokai,  including  the  building  of  an  hospital. 
Mr.  and  Mrs.  Walsh  had  been  employed  to  take  charge 
in  February,  1867,  relieving  Mr.  Leparat,  who  had  re- 
signed, Mr.  Walsh  to  act  as  schoolmaster  and  magis- 
trate, Mrs.  Walsh  as  nurse.     This  1868  report  gives 
the  number  of  lepers  received  at  Molokai  as  179,  the 
number  remaining  at  the  Kalihi  Hospital  as  43,  the 
total  amount  of  expenses  for  Kalihi  Hospital  and 
Holokai  Settlement  since  1866  amounting  to  124,803.-  when  the  sisters  came  to  Molokai.     At  the  settlement 
60.     From  this  time  on,  efforts  were  continually  made  in  1883  conditions  would  indeed  have  been  intolerable 
to  render  the  segregation  and  treatment  of  lepers  more  forthesisters.and  the  same  was  true  in  1886  when  the 
effective.     Many  difficulties  were  met  and  overcome,  writer  joined  Father  Daraien;  but  matters  were  being 
To  keep  good  order  in  these  early  years  was  always  gradually  improved.     At  last  three  sisters  came    t« 
difficult.     The    lepers   were    increasing    in    number.  Kalaupapa  IS  Nov.,  1888.     Bishop  Home  for  girls  and 
Nearly  all  who  came  to  the  settlement  were  located  at  women  had  been  built.     Two  more  sistere  came  6 
Kalawao,  on  the  eastern  side  of  the  peninsula,  the  May,  1889,  Robert  Louis  Stevenson  coming  by  the 
leper  settlement  practically  continuing  there  for  many  same  boat  tor  a  visit.     Father  Damien  died  15  April, 
yean.     In  1800  a  better  supply  of  water  was  brought  1889.   Hisdeath,  after  such  a  life,  arrested  the  world's 
from  Waikalo  Valley;   the  pipe  was  soon  extended  to  attention.     A  spontaneous  outburst  of  applause  from 
Kalaupapa,   the   steamer   landing.     A  reservoir  was  everywhere  at  once  followed.     The  silcteen  years  of 
constructed  midway  on  the  ridge  between  Kalawao  labouronMolokaimadearecordthatseemeduniqueto 
and  Kalaupapa.     Previous  to  tnat  time  a  pipe  was  the  world  at  large.     The  world  knew  very  little  about 
laid  from  a  small  reservoir  in  Waialeia  Valley,  between  lepers,  and  Father  Damien's  life  came  as  a  startling 
Waikalo  and  Kalawao,  and  extended  only  partly  revelation  of  heroic  self-sacrifice.  He  is  acknowledged 
through  Kalawao.     At  Kalaupapa,  two  miles  distant,  the  Apostle  of  the  lepers,  and  whatever  others  may  do 
the  people  brought  their  water  from  Waihanau  ValW  in  the  same  field  will  help  to  perpetuate  his  fame  and 
in  containers  upon  horses  and  donkeys.     The  people  honour.     A  monument  was  offered  by  the  people  of 
at  Kalaupapa  were  chiefly  non-lepers  who  lived  there  England,  and  accepted  by  the  Hawaiian  Board  of 
before  settlement  times.    Their  holdings  (kuleanas)  Health.     It  was  given  a  place  at  Kalaupkpa,  not  far 
had  not  yet  been  secured  for  the  lepers  as  those  at  from  the  steamer  landing,  near  the  public  rood  nOW 
Kalawao  had  been.    This  was  done,  however,  in  called  "Damien  Road", »ijoining  thesisters' placeat 
1894,  since,  after  the  waterpipe  was  laid  to  Kalaupapa,  Bishop  Home.     The  monument  in  itself  is  interesting, 
the  people  had  begun  to  drift  that  way,  and  the  public  being  an  antique  cross,  fashioned  and  adapted  from 
buildings  also,  the  shops,  etc.,   had  gradually  been  stone  cutting  of  about  the  sixth  century,  such  as  was 
moved  to  that  place.     'Therefore  it  was  wisely  deter-  found  in  the  ruins  of  the  Seven  Churches  of  Clonmao- 
mined  that,  in  the  interest  of  good  order,  as  well  as  for  noise  on  the  river  Shannon,  Ireland.     It  was  trans- 
convenience,  the  Government  should  own  and  control  ferred  by  the  Board  of  Health  to  the  Cathohc  Mission 
the  entire  peninsula   and  all  of  its  approaches,  the  on  It  Sept.,  1893,  the  Bishop  coming  to  receive  and 
non-lepers  Wng  sent  away.    This  was  quite  thor-  bless  it.    "Two  miles  away,  at  the  other  end  of  the 
ouidily  accomplished  in  1394.  Damien  Road,  in  Kalawao,  the  body  of  Father  Do- 
Father  Dauien  and  the  Franciscan  Sibtesb. —  mien  lies,  close  by  the  church,  where  the  Fandanus 
it  is  the  name  of  Father  Damien,  however,  that  has  tree  stood  that  sheltered  him  on  his  arrival  in  1873. 
made  Molokai  known  throughout  the  whole  world.  Over  this  grave  stands  a  siniple  cross  with  the  in- 
^  came  to  the  Molokai  Settlement  to  remain,  II  May,  scription  on  one  side,  "Father  Damien",  on  the  other, 


MOLTNIUZ 


446 


MOM&BXnUS 


"  Damien  Deveusier ''.  The  strong  wooden  cofiBn  was 
placed  in  an  excavation,  and  imbeoded  in  a  solid  block 
of  concrete.  Since  Father  Damien 's  time,  two  priests 
have  usually  been  on  duty  at  the  settlement,  one  at 
Kalawao,  the  other  at  Kalaupapa.  Father  Pamphile 
Deveuster,  Damien's  brother,  was  here  in  1895-7; 
he  returned  to  Belgium,  and  died  there  29  July, 
1909. 

Government  and  the  Lepers.  —  Public  senti- 
ment over  the  islands  has  always  supported  the 
Government  in  caji^ing  out  the  law  concerning 
lepers;  official  activity,  although  somewhat  vary- 
ing, has  on  the  whole  made  fair  progress;  at  times 
political  interests  have  not  been  entirely  favourable. 
The  first  home  at  Kalawao,  for  orphan  boys  and  help- 
less men,  was  be^un  in  1886  imder  Father  Damien, 
with  a  few  old  cabins  at  first,  two  large  buildings  being 
added  in  1887-8,  all  irregular  and  provisional.  The 
Government,  however,  recognised  it  as  a  home  1  Janu- 
ary. 1889.  Three  Franciscan  Sisters  came  to  this 
Kalawao  Home^  15  May,  1890,  and  the  mother-superior 
visited  it  occasionally.  In  1892-4  the  present  Bald- 
win Home  was  constructed,  and  put  into  use  in  May 
and  June,  1894.  The  sisters  were  replaced  1  Decem- 
ber, 1895,  by  four  Brothers  of  the  Picpus  Order.  Up 
to  the  present  time  (1910)  the  home  has  had,  including 
those  still  living,  976  inmates.  The  Board  of  Health 
has  alwa^  employed  an  experienced  physician  and 
other  officials  tor  the  settlement.  For  many  years 
the  Hawaiians  had  strange  ideas  about  regular  jjhysi- 
cians.  Very  few  would  call  for  one,  and  this  continued 
at  the  settlement  up  to  about  1902.  They  would, 
however,  always  take  medicine  from  the  brothers  or 
sisters,  and  have  had  a  friendly  feeling  for  the  Japan- 
ese treatment.  It  has  been  put  in  use,  dropped,  and 
revived  man^  times.  The  elder  Dr.  Goto  introduced  it 
at  Kakaako  m  1886.  Good  order  and  favourable  con- 
ditions in  general  were  specially  noteworthy  from 
1893.  A  glance  over  the  records  of  the  next  ten  years 
shows  continued  improvements  in  the  water  supply, 
enlarging  of  medical  service,  etc.  Total  expenses  for 
segregation,  support,  and  treatment  of  lepers  for  six 
years,  ending  31  December,  1903,  were  $876,888.86. 
in  1906  the  buildings  owned  by  the  Government  num- 
bered 298;  those  owned  by  private  parties  numbered 
150.  In  1908  the  lepers  at  Molokai  numbered  791 :  of 
these,  693  were  Hawaiians,  42  Chinese,  26  Portuguese, 
6  Americans,  5  Japanese,  6  Germans,  2  Soutn  Sea 
Islanders,  1  Duie,  1  French  Canadian,  1  Swede, 
2  Porto  Bicans,  1  Filipino,  1  Tahitian,  1  Russian, 
1  Corean,  1  British  Negro,  1  Hollander.  In  1866 
the  total  number  of  lepers  at  the  settlement  on  31 
December  was  115;  it  kept  increasing  imtil  in  1890  the 
number  reached  1213.  Since  then  there  has  been  a 
decrease  until,  31  December,  1908,  the  number  was 
771.  In  1908  the  plan  adopted  in  the  earliest  days 
(1865-69),  of  attempting  to  cure  new  cases,  or  any 
that  seemed  promising,  before  being  sent  to  Molokai, 
has  been  revived.  The  renewal  should  be  more  effect- 
ive than  in  the  early  time  because  of  the  great  advances 
science  has  made  in  the  past  forty  years.  This  new  work 
is  now  carried  on  at  Kalihi  as  it  was  over  forty  years  ago, 
but  in  better  buildings  and  imder  far  greater  advan- 
tages. Tlie  general  outfit  at  the  Molokai  Settlement 
is  about  complete:  establishments  for  the  medical  de- 
partment, hospital,  dispensary,  nursery,  etc.  There 
are  bath  nouses  and  drug  departments  at  the  homes, 
and  special  houses  for  the  sicK.  At  ICalaupapa  there 
are  the  pat  factory,  the  shops,  and  warehouses,  and  the 
residences  of  the  officials  pleasantly  located  and  well 
supplied  with  conveniences.  A  lai^e  building  is 
under  construction  for  white  lepers,  the  funds  being 
furnished  by  generous  friends  throu^out  the  islands. 
There  are  two  Catholic  churches,  and  several  of  other 
denominations.  At  Kalawao  the  most  prominent 
features  are  Baldwin  Home  and  the  U.  S.  Leprosarium. 
This  leprosarium  is  probably  the  greatest  institution 


of  its  kind  in  the  world.  The  appropriation  by  Con- 
gress was  generous.  The  buildings  are  extensive,  and 
supplied  with  a  very  elaborate  outfit  of  the  bc^t  qual- 
ity and  latest  invention,  and  everything  in  fact  that 
present-day  science  can  provide.  Another  new  addi- 
tion recently  added  by  the  U.  S.  Government  is  a  fine 
lighthouse,  a  pyramidal  concrete  structure,  the  light 

of  which  is  visible  for  about  twenty-four  miles. 

QuxNLAN,  Damien  of  Molokai  (New  York.  1909) ;  Lindgrkk. 
Th«  Water  Rem>urce9  ofMotokai  (Gon.  Printing  Office,  Wash.. 
D.  C.  1903);  Malo,  Hatoaiian  AfUiouUie9  (I^nolulu.  1903); 
DuTTON,  Earthquake  Science  Series  (New  York  and  London. 
1904):  Idem,  Hawaiian  Volcanoes  (London,  1904);  Alexaxdeh, 
A  Brief  Histor-f  of  the  Hawaiian  PeopU(^ew  York,  1891-1899); 
Thrum.  Hawaiian  AnniuU  (Honolulu,  1906-10);  HircHcocK, 
Hawaii  and  Its  Volcanoes  (Honolulu,  1910):  Blackman.  The 
Making  of  Hawaii  (London.  1906);  Senn,  Around  the  World 
via  India  (Chicago,  1905) ;  Carter.  Report  to  Secretary  of  In- 
terior (Honolulu.  1904) ;  Frkar,  Report  to  Sec.  of  Int,  (Honolulu, 


1909);  Official  Reports  of  the  Hawaiian  Board  of  Health  (Hono^ 
lulu.  1866, 1868,  1894.  1902-1909);   ~ 


in  Thb  Cathouo  £kctcu)pbdia. 


BoEYNAEM.4,  art.  Damien 


Joseph  Dutton. 


Mohmmix,  Sir  Cabtll.  Baronet  of  Sefton,  and 
third  Viscount  Molyneux  of  Maryborough  in  Ireland, 
b.  1624;  d.  1699.  He  joined  the  Kovalist  armv  at  the 
outbreak  of  the  civil  war,  and  served  with  his  brother, 
the  second  viscount,  in  the  Lancashire  Regiment, 
which  was  mostly  Catholic,  through  almost  all  the 
fighting  from  Manchester  (1642)  to  Worcester  (1651). 
After  succeeding  to  the  title  he,  as  a  well-known 
Catholic  cavalier,  experienced  very  harsh  treatment 
from  the  victors;  ana  the  family  estates  suffered  se- 
verely. It  was  not  until  the  reign  of  James  II  that  his 
fortunes  improved.  He  was  then  made  Lord  lieu- 
tenant of  Lancashire,  and  was  one  of  the  few  who 
fought  with  any  success  on  James's  side  against  the 
Prince  of  Oranse,  for  he  seized  and  held  the  town  of 
Chester,  until  all  further  resistance  was  in  vain.  Some 
years  later  he  was  arrested  on  a  fictitious  charge  of 
treason,  called  ''The  Lancashire  plot",  was  im- 
prisoned in  the  Tower  with  other  Catnolics,  but  upon 
trial  was  victoriouslv  acquitted  (1694). 

Many  other  members  of  this  notable  and  conspicu- 
ously Catholic  family  deserve  mention.  John  Moly- 
neux, of  Melling,  was  a  constant  confessor  for  tne 
Faith  under  Queen  Elisabeth,  and  his  son  and  grand- 
son both  died  in  arms  fighting  for  King  Charles  at 
Newbuiy.  Father  Thomas  Molyneux,  S.J.,  probably 
of  Alt  Urange,  Ince  Blundell,  was  a  confessor  of  the 
Faith  at  the  time  of  Oates's  Plot,  meeting  death  from 
ill-treatment  in  Morpeth  gaol,  12  January,  1681.  The 
family  is  of  itself  exceecunKly  interesting.  It  came 
from  Moulineaux  in  Seine  Inferieure  about  the  time 
of  the  Conquest,  and  can  be  shown  to  have  held  the 
manor  of  Sefton  without  interruption  from  about  1 100 
to  the  present  day,  while  other  branches  of  the  family 
(of  which  those  of  Haughton  in  Nottinghamshire  and 
Castle  Dillon  in  Ireland  are  the  most  conspicuous) 
have  spread  all  over  the  world.  The  main  stem  re- 
nuunea  staunch  through  the  worst  times.  William, 
seventh  viscount,  was  a  Jesuit,  and  there  were  in  his 
time  not  less  than  seven  Molyneux  in  the  Society  of 
Jesus  alone.    Aims:  asure,  a  cross  moline,  or. 

Vieioria  County  Histories,  Zjanoashire,  III  (London.  1907).  67- 
73:  FouBT.  Records  S.J.,  VII  (London,  18S2).  513-^16;  Catholic 
Record  Society,  V  (London.  1909).  109,  131,  218.  etc.;  PnixiFra, 
Thefamilu  of  Sir  Thomas  Molyneux  (Middlehill,  1820) ;  Moumsitx. 
Memoir  of  the  Molineux  Family  (London.  1882). 

J.  H.   POI^LBN. 

Mombritias,  Bontno,  philologist,  humanist,  and 
editor  of  ancient  writings,  b.  1424;  d.  between  1482 
and  1502.  He  was  descended  from  a  noble  but  not 
verv  wealthy  family  of  Milan,  and  studied  the  Latin 
and.  Greek  classics  at  Ferrara.  with  zeal  and  success. 
Later  he  became  a  teacher  of  Latin  at  Milan,  and  was 
highl]^  esteemed,  not  only  for  his  extensive  knowledge 
and  his  literary  works,  but  also  for  his  earnest  religious 
life,  as  may  be  gleaned  from  the  letters  of  his  contem- 
poraries.   He  suff erkl  many  misfortunes,  which,  how- 


MONACO 


447 


MONAD 


ever,  did  not  affect  his  industpr.  Wb  literary  im- 
portance lies  especially  in  his  editions  of  ancient  writ- 
ings. The  following  may  be  mentioned:  "Chronica 
Eusebli,  Hieronymi,  Prosper!  et  Matthsi  Palmerii" 
(Milan.  1475);  "Scriptores  rei  Augusta"  (1475): 
"Papiie  Glossarium"  (1476):  "Mirabilia  mundi"  of 
Solinus  (s.  1.  a.).  A  very  notable  contribution  to 
hagiography  is  his  collection  of  records  of  the  maFt3rr- 
dom  ana  hves  of  saintS;  which  appeared  under  the 
title:  "Sanctuarium"  (2  folio  vols.,  s.  1.  a.),  probably 
printed  in  1480,  and  recently  edited  (Paris,  1910)  by 
the  Benedictines  of  Solesmes  (Boninus  Mombritius, 
Sanctuarium  seu  vito  Sanctorum.  Novam  editionem 
cur.  monachi  Solesmenses.  2  tomi).  He  also  com- 
posed poems,  some  of  which  were  published  in  his  edi- 
tions of  the  ancient  writings,  and  some  printed  sepa- 
rately. Of  the  latter  may  be  particularly  mentioned 
"De  passione  Domini"  (reprinted,  Leipzig,  1499). 

De  vita  ei  operibua  Bonini  Mombritii  testimonia  aeleda  in  the 
above-mentioned  new  edition  of  the  Sandvarium,  I  (Paris, 
1910).  xui-xxix;  Fabricius.  BibL  lot.,  V  (Hamburg.  1730).  267; 
Bibl.'tcripl.  Mediolan..  I  (Milan.  1754).  cxIvi-<:Uii;  Hurtsb, 
NomencUUor,  II  (3rd  ed.,  Innsbruck,  1006).  1055. 

J.  P.  KiRSCH. 

Monaco,  Principalitt  and  Diocese  of,  situated 
on  the  Mediterranean  Sea,  on  the  skirts  of  the  Turbie 
and  the  T6te  de  Chien  mountains,  is  surrounded  on 
all  sides  by  the  French  department  of  the  Maritime 
Alps,  and  has  an  area  of  5337  acres.  On  account  of 
its  beautiful  climate,  it  is  one  of  the  most  popular  win- 
ter resorts  in  Europe.  Its  principal  resources  are  the 
fishery  of  the  gulf,  the  cultivation  of  fruit  trees  (olive, 
orange,  lemon) »  and  the  Casino  of  Monte  Carlo,  es- 
tablished in  1856,  whose  revenues  are  sufficient  to  free 
the  inhabitants  of  the  princi|)ality  from  the  burden  of 
taxation.  The  capital  consists  of  three  large  bor- 
oughs: the  old  Monaco,  which  is  built  on  a  promon- 
tory that  extends  875  yards  into  the  eea,  and  encloses 
the  harbour;  the  other  two  are  Condamine  and  Monte 
Carlo.  From  ancient  times  until  the  nineteenth  cen- 
tury the  port  of  Monaco  was  among  the  most  im- 
portant of  the  French  Mediterranean  coast,  but  now 
It  has  lost  all  commercial  significance.  Among  the 
notable  constructions  of  the  principality  are  the  an- 
cient fortifications,  the  old  ducal  palace  which  contains 
beautiful  frescoes  by  Annibale  Carracci.  Orazio  Fer- 
rari, and  Carlone,  the  cathedral,  built  (1884-87)  in  the 
Byzantine  style,  by  Prince  Albert  III.  the  Casino  of 
^lonte  Carlo,  and  the  monumental  fountain  of  the 

?ublic  square.  Monaco  dates  from  the  time  of  the 
hcenicians,  who,  on  the  promontory  upon  which  the 
old  town  is  built,  erected  a  temple  to  the  god  Mel- 
karth,  called  Monoicos,  solitary,  that  is,  not  con- 
nected with  the  cult  of  Ashtoreth;  whence  the  town 
derived  its  name,  which  is  Moneque,  in  Provencal.  In 
the  early  Middle  Ages  the  neighbouring  lorcis  often 
contended  with  each  other  for  the  possession  of  this 
important  port,  which  later  was  occupied  by  the  Sara- 
cens; it  was  taken  from  them  in  the  tenth  century  by 
Count  GrimaJdi,  in  whose  family  the  principality  re- 
mains to  this  day.  Formerly,  it  comprised  Mentone 
and  Roquebrune.  The  Grimaldis  often  had  to  defend 
themselves  against  Spanish  or  Genoese  fleets;  the 
most  famous  olockade  of  the  town  was  that  of  1.S06, 
which  failed.  In  1619  Prince  Honoratus  II,  with  the 
assistance  of  the  French,  drove  the  Spaniards  from 
Monaco,  and  since  that  time  the  principality  has  been 
under  the  protection  of  France.  During  the  Revolu- 
tion, Monaco  was  annexed  to  France,  but  the  prin- 
cipality was  re-established  in  1814.  A  revolution 
broke  out  in  1848  against  the  misgovemment  of 
Prince  Honoratus  V,  who  lost  Mentone  and  Rogue- 
brune.  these  cities  declaring  themselves  free  republics, 
and  (1860)  voting  for  their  annexation  to  France. 

Monaco  belonged  to  the  Diocese  of  Nice,  but,  in 
1868,  it  became  an  abbey  nuUiiif,  and  at  the  instance 

of  Prince  ChMes  III,  Leo  XIII  raised  it  to  a  dioceae, 


immediatelv  dependent  upon  the  Holy  See,  making 
the  abbot,  Mgr  Bonaventure  Theuret,  its  first  bishop. 

Ds  RoTER  vm  Saxmtb-Susannb,  La  PrincipauU  de  Monaco 
(Paris,  1884). 

U.  BEZnONI. 

Monad  (from  the  Greek  /wpdSf  /wwdBos),  in  the 
sense  of  ultimate,  indivisible  unit,  appears  very  early 
in  the  history  of  Greek  philosophy.  In  the  ancient 
accounts  of  the  doctrines  of  Pythagoras,  it  occurs  as 
the  name  of  the  unity  from  which,  as  from  a  principle 
(dpx^)i  all  number  and  multiplicity  are  derived.  In 
the  Platonic  ''Dialogues"  it  is  used  in  the  plural 
(/lordScf)  as  a  svnonym  for  the  Ideas.  In  Aristotle's 
"Metaphysics  it  occurs  as  the  principle  (4px^)  of 
number,  itself  being  devoid  of  quantity,  indivisible 
and  unchangeable.  The  word  monad  is  used  by  the 
nco-PIatonists  to  si^fy  the  One;  for  instance,  in  the 
letters  of  the  Christian  Piatonist  Synesius,  God  is  de- 
scribed as  the  Monad  of  Monads.  It  occurs  both  in 
ancient  and  medieval  philosophy  as  a  synonym  for 
atom,  and  is  a  favourite  term  with  such  writers  as  Gior- 
dano Bruno,  who  speak  in  a  rather  indefinite  manner 
of  the  minima,  or  minutely  small  substances  which 
constitute  all  reality.  In  general,  it  may  be  affirmed 
that  while  the  term  atom,  not  only  in  its  physical,  but 
also  in  its  metaphysical  meaning,  implies  merely  cor- 
poreal, or  materisl  attributes,  the  monad,  as  a  rulci 
implies  something  incorporeal,  spiritual,  or,  at  least, 
vital.  The  term  monad  is,  however,  generally  under- 
stood in  reference  to  the  philosopny  of  Leibniz,  in 
which  the  doctrine  of  monaaism  occupies  a  position  of 
paramount  importance.  In  order  to  understand  hia 
doctrine  (see  Leibniz)  on  this  point,  it  is  necessary  to 
recall  that  he  was  actuated  by  a  twofold  motive  in  his 
attempt  to  define  substance.  He  wished,  in  accord- 
ance with  his  general  irenic  plan,  to  reconcile  the  doc- 
trine of  the  atomists  with  the  scholastic  theoiy  of 
matter  and  form,  and  besides  he  wished  to  avoid  on 
the  one  hand  the  extreme  mechanism  of  Descartes, 
who  tau^t  that  all  matter  is  inert,  and  on  the  other 
the  monism  of  Spinoza,  who  taught  that  there  is  but 
one  substance,  God.  All  this  he  hoped  to  accomplish 
by  means  of  his  doctrine  of  monads.  Descartes  had 
defined  substance  in  terms  of  independent  existence, 
and  Spinoza  was  merely  inferring  what  was  implicitly 
contamed  in  Descartes's  definition  when  he  concluded 
that  therefore  there  is  only  one  substance,  the  su- 
premely independent  Being,  who  is  God.  Leibniz  pre- 
fers to  define  substance  in  terms  of  independent  ac- 
tion, and  thus  escapes  Descartes's  doctrine  that  matter 
is  by  nature  inert.  At  the  same  time,  since  the 
sources  of  independent  action  ma3r  be  manifold,  he  es- 
capes Spinoza  s  pantheistic  monism.  The  atomists 
had  maintained  tne  existence  of  a  multiplicity  of  mi- 
nute substances,  but  had  invariably  drifted  into  a 
materiafistic  denial  of  the  existence  of  spirits  and  spir- 
itual forces.  The  scholastics  had  rciccted  this  mate- 
rialistic consequence  of  atomism  and,  by  so  doing,  had 
seemed  to  put  themselves  in  opposition  to  the  current 
of  modem  scientific  thought.  Leibniz  thinks  he  sees 
a  way  to  reconcile  the  atomists  with  the  scholastics. 
He  teaches  that  all  substances  are  composed  of  minute 
particles  which,  in  every  case,  in  the  lowest  minerals 
as  well  as  in  the  highest  spiritual  beings,  are  partly 
material  and  partly  immaterial.  Thus,  he  imagines, 
the  shaip  contrast  between  atomistic  materialism  ana 
scholastic  spiritualism  disappears  in  presence  of  the 
doctrine  that  all  differences  are  merely  differences  of 
degree. 

The  monads  are,  therefore,  simple,  unextended  sub- 
stances, if  by  substance  we  understand  a  centre  of 
force.  They  cannot  begin  or  end  except  by  creation 
or  annihilation.  They  are  capable  of  internal  activ- 
ity, but  cannot  be  influenced  in  a  physical  manner  by 
anything  outside  themselves.    In  this  senf^e  thev  are 

independent.    Moreover,  eaob  roowtd  is  unique;  tb»t 


MONAGHAN 


448 


MONARCHIANS 


is,  there  are  no  two  monads  alike.  At  the  same  tune 
the  monads  must  have  qualities;  ''otherwise",  savs 
Leibniz  (MonadoL,  n.  8),  'Hhey  would  not  even  be 
entities''.  There  must,  therefore,  be  in  each  monad 
the  power  of  representation,  by  which  it  reflects  all 
other  monads  in  such  a  manner  that  an  all-seeing  eye 
could,  by  looking  into  one  monad,  observe  the  whole 
universe  mirrored  therein.  This  power  of  represen- 
tation is  different  in  different  monads.  In  the  lowest 
kind  of  substances  it  is  unconscious — Leibniz  finds 
fault  with  the  Cartesians  because  they  overlooked  the 
existence  of  unconscious  perception.  In  the  highest 
kind  it  is  fuUy  conscious.  We  may,  in  fact,  distin- 
gjuish  in  every  monad  a  zone  of  obscure  representa- 
tion and  a  zone  of  clear  representation.  In  the  monad 
of  the  grain  of  dust,  for  example,  the  zone  of  clear 
representation  is  very  restricted,  the  monad  mani- 
festing no  higher  activity  than  that  of  attraction  and 
repulsion,  m  the  monad  of  the  human  soul  the 
region  of  clear  representation  is  at  its  maximum,  this 
kind  of  monad,  the  "q^ueen  monad",  being  character- 
ized by  the  power  of  mtellectual  thought.  Between 
these  two  extremes  range  all  the  monads,  mineral, 
vegetable,  and  animal,  each  being  differentiated  from 
the  monad  below  it  by  possessing  a  larger  area  of  clear 
representation,  and  each  being  separated  from  the 
monad  above  it  by  having  a  larger  area  of  obscure 
representation.  There  is  then  in  every  created 
monad  a  material  element,  the  region  of  obscure  rep- 
resentation, and  an  inmiaterial  element,  the  area  of 
clear  representation.  Evervthing  in  the  created 
world  is  partly  material  and  partly  inmiaterial,  and 
there  are  no  abrupt  differences  among  thinps.  but  only 
differences  in  the  extent  of  the  immatenaJ  as  com- 
pared with  the  material.  Minerals  shade  off  insensi- 
bly (in  the  case  of  crystals)  into  Uving  things,  plant 
life  into  animal  life,  and  animal  sensation  into  numan 
thought.  ''All  created  monads  may  be  called  souls. 
But,  as  feeling  is  sometimes  more  than  simple  percep- 
tion, I  am  wiUing  that  the  general  name  moniEuls,  or 
entelechies,  shall  suffice  for  those  simple  substances 
which  have  perception  only,  and  that  the  term  souls 
shall  be  confined  to  those  in  which  perceptions  are  dis- 
tinct, and  accompanied  by  memory"  (MonadoL,  n. 
19).  "We  ascribe  action  to  the  monad  in  so  far  as  it 
has  distinct  perceptions,  and  passivity,  in  so'far  as  its 
perceptions  are  confused"  (ibid.,  n.  49).  If  this  is 
the  only  kind  of  activity  that  the  monad  possesses, 
how  are  we  to  account  for  the  order  and  harmony 
everywhere  in  the  universe?  Leibniz  answers  by  in- 
troducing the  principle  of  Pre-established  Harmony. 
There  is  no  real  action  or  reaction.  No  monad  can 
influence  another  phydcally.  At  the  beginning, 
however,  God  so  pre-arranged  the  evolution  of 
the  activity  of  the  myriads  of  monads  that  accord- 
ing as  the  body  evolves  its  own  activity,  the 
soul  evolves  its  activity  in  such  a  way  as  to  corre- 
spond to  the  evolution  of  the  activity  of  the 
body.  "Bodies  act  as  if  there  were  no  souls,  and 
souls  act  as  if  there  were  no  bodies:  and  yet  both  act 
as  if  one  influenced  the  other"  (ibid.,  n.  81).  This 
pre-established  harmony  makes  the  world  to  be  a  cos- 
mos, not  a  chaos.  The  principle  extends,  however, 
beyond  the  physical  universe,  and  applies  in  a  special 
manner  to  rational  souls,  or  spirits.  In  the  realm  of 
spirits  there  is  a  subordination  of  souls  to  the  benefi- 
cent rule  of  Divine  Providence,  and  from  this  subordi- 
nation results  the  "^stem  oi  souls",  which  consti- 
tutes the  City  of  God.  There  is,  therefore,  a  moral 
world  within  the  natural  world.  In  the  former  God 
is  ruler  and  legislator^  in  the  latter  He  is  merely  archi- 
tect. "God  as  architect  satisfies  God  as  legislator" 
(ibid.,  n.  89),  because  even  in  the  natural  world  no 
good  deed  goes  without  its  recompense,  and  no  evil 
deed  escapes  its  punishment.  Order  among  monads  is 
thus  ultimately  moral, 
gino^  Leibniz'  time  the  term  mopful  b98  b^en  ueed 


by  various  philosophers  to  deeisnate  indivisible  cen- 
tres of  force,  but  as  a  general  rule  these  units  are  not 
understood  to  possess  the  power  of  representation  or 
perception^  which  is  the  distinguishing  chuncteristic 
of  the  Leibnizian  monad.  Exception  should,  how- 
ever, be  made  in  the  case  of  Renouvier,  who,  in  his 
"Nouvelle  monadolo^e",  teaches  that  the  monad  has 
not  only  internal  activity  but  also  l^e  power  of  per- 
ception. 

Leibniz,  Monadology,  tr.,  in  Journal  of  Spec,  Phii.  (1897).  I, 
129  sq. ;  Idem,  tr.  by  Duncan  in  Leibniz*  Philotophical  Works  (New 
Haven,  1890) ;  Idem.  tr.  Latta  (Oxford,  1898) ;  original  in  Ojp€ra 
Philo9.,  ed.  Erdmann  (Berlin,  1840) ;  Idem,  with  notes,  ed.  Fiat 
(Paris,  1900):  Jabpeb,  Leibnix  u.  die  Seholaelik  (Jbeipaig,  1899); 
Mebz,  Leibniz  in  BlaekwoocTa  Phil.  Claztic*  (Kdinburj^  azul 
London,  1884) ;  Rxnouvieb  and  Prat,  La  notiveUs  wumadologie 
(Paris.  1899). 

William  Tubneb. 

Monaghan,  John  Jambs.  See  Wilmington, 
Diocese  of. 

Monarchians,  heretics  of  the  second  and  third  cen- 
turies. The  wordi  Monarchianif  was  first  used  by 
Tertullian  as  a  nickname  for  the  Patripassian  group 
(adv.  Prax.,  x).  and  was  seldom  used  by  the  an- 
cients. In  modem  times  it  has  been  extended  to  an 
earlier  |;roup  of  heretics,  who  are  distinguished  as 
Dvnamistic^  or  Adoptionist,  Monarchians  from  the 
Modalist  Monarchians.  or  Patripassians. 

I.  Dtnamists,  OB  Adoptionists. — ^AU  Christians 
hold  the  unitv  (/Mvapxla)  of  God  as  a  fundamental  doc- 
trine. By  the  Patripassians  this  first  principle  was 
used  to  deny  the  Trinityi  and  they  are  with  some  rea- 
son called  Monarchians.  But  the  Adoptionists,  or 
Dynamists,  have  no  claim  to  the  title,  for  they  did  not 
start  from  the  monarchy  of  God,  and  their  error  is 
strictly  Christological.  An  account  of  them  must, 
however,  be  given  nere  simply  because  the  name  Mo- 
narchian  has  adhered  to  them  in  spite  of  the  repeated 
protests  of  historians  of  dogma.  But  their  ancient 
and  accurate  name  was  Theodotians.  The  founder 
of  the  sect  was  a  leather-seller  of  Byzantium  named 
Theodotus.  He  came  to  Rome  imder  Pope  Victor 
(c.  190-2(X))  or  earlier.  He  taught  (Philosophumena, 
VII.  xxxv)  that  Jesus  was  a  man  bom  of  a  virgin  ao- 
coroing  to  the  counsel  of  the  Father,  that  He  lived 
like  other  men,  and  was  most  pious:  that  at  His  bap- 
tism in  the  Jordan  the  Christ  came  down  upon  Him  m 
the  likeness  of  a  dove^and  therefore  wonders  (Bvpd/ms) 
were  not  wrought  in  Him  until  the  Spirit  (which  The- 
odotus called  Christ)  came  down  ana  was  manifested 
in  Him.  They  did  not  admit  that  this  made  Him 
God;  but  some  of  them  said  He  was  God  after  His 
resurrection.  It  was  reported  that  Theodotus  had 
been  seized,  with  others,  at  Byzantium  as  a  Christian, 
and  that  he  had  denied  Christ,  whereas  his  compan- 
ions had  been  martyred ;  he  had  fled  to  Rome,  and  had 
invented  his  heresy  in  order  to  excuse  his  fall,  saying 
that  it  was*  but  a  man  and  not  God  that  he  had 
denied.  Pope  Victor  excommimicated  him,  and  he 
gathered  together  a  sect  in  which  we  are  told  much 
secular  studv  was  carried  on.  Hippolytus  says  that 
they  argued  on  Holy  Scripture  m  syllogistic  form. 
Euclid,  Aristotle,  and  Theophrastus  were  their  ad- 
miration, and  GaJen  they  even  adored.  We  should 
probably  assume,  with  Hamack,  that  Hippolytus 
would  have  had  less  objection  to  the  study  of  Plato  or 
the  Stoics,  and  that  he  disliked  their  pure^  literal  exe- 
gesis, which  neglected  the  allegorical  sense.  They 
also  emended  the  text  of  Scripture,  but  their  versions 
differed,  that  of  Asclepiodotus  was  different  from  that 
of  Theodotus,  and  again  from  that  of  Hermophilus; 
and  the  copies  of  Apolloniades  did  not  even  tally  with 
one  another.  Some  of  them  "denied  the  law  and  the 
Prophets'',  that  is  to  say,  they  followed  Mardon  in  re> 
jecting  the  Old  Testament. 

The  only  disciple  of  the  leather-seller  of  whom  we 
know  anything  definite  is  his  namesake  Theodotus  the 
banker  (^  r/Ktreiirijs),    He  wided  tQ  bis  Blaster's  doc- 


M0NABCHIAN8 


449 


M0NABCHIAN8 


trine  the  view  that  Melchisedech  was  a  celestial  power, 
who  was  the  advocate  for  the  angels  in  heaven,  as 
Jesus  Christ  was  for  men  upon  earth  (a  view  found 
among  later  sects. — See  Melchibedechians).  This 
teaclmig  was  of  course  groimded  on  Hebrews,  vii,  3, 
and  it  is  refuted  at  length  by  St.  Epiphanius  as  Heresy 
55,  "Melchisedechians'S  after  he  has  attacked  the 
leather-seller  under  Heresy  54,  *  *  Theodotians  *\  As  he 
meets  a  series  of  ar^ments  of  both  heretics,  it  is  prob- 
able that  some  wntings  of  the  sect  had  been  before 
Hippolytus,  whose  lost  *' Syntagma  against  all  here- 
sies supplied  St.  Epiphanius  with  all  his  information. 
After  tne  death  of  Pope  Victor.  Theodotus,  the 
banker,  and  Asclepiodotus  designee!  to  raise  their  sect 
from  the  position  of  a  mere  scnool  like  those  of  the 
Gnostics  to  the  rank  of  a  Church  like  that  of  Marcion. 
They  got  hold  of  a  certain  confessor  named  Natalius, 
and  persuaded  him  to  be  called  their  bishop  at  a  salary 
of  150  denarii  (24  dollars)  a  month.  Natalius  thus 
became  the  first  antipope.  But  after  he  had  joined 
them,  he  was  frequently  warned  in  visions  by  the 
Lord,  Who  did  not  wish  His  mart^rr  to  be  lost  outside 
the  Church.  He  neglected  the  visions,  for  the  sake  of 
the  honour  and  gain,  but  finally  was  scourged  all  night 
by  the  holy  angels,  so  that  in  the  morning  with  haste 
and  tears  he  betooK  hixnself  in  sackcloth  and  ashes  to 
Pope  Zephyrinus  and  cast  himself  at  the  feet  of  the 
clergy,  and  even  of  the  laity,  showing  the  weals  of  the 
blows,  and  was  after  some  difficulty  restored  to  com- 
munion. This  story  is  quoted  by  Eusebius  II  (VI, 
xxviii)  from  the' "Little  Labyrinth"  of  the  contempo- 
rary Hippolytus,  a  work  composed  against  Artemon,  a 
late  leader  of  the  sect  (perhaps  c.  225-30),  whom  he 
did  not  mention  in  the  Syntagma"  or  the  "PhUoso- 
phumena".  Our  knowledge  of  Artemon,  or  Artemas, 
IS  limited  to  the  reference  to  him  made  at  the  end  of 
the  Council  of  Antioch  against  Paul  of  Samosata  (about 
266-268),  where  that  heretic  was  said  to  have  followed 
Artemon,  and  in  fact  the  teaching  of  Paul  is  but  a 
more  learned  and  theological  development  of  Theodo- 
tianism  (see  Paul  of  Samosata). 

The  sect  probably  died  out  about  the  middle  of  the 
third  centu]^,  and  can  never  have  been  numerous.  All 
our  knowledge  of  it  ^oes  back  to  Hippol3rtus.  His 
"Syntagma"  (c.  205)  is  epitomized  in  Pseudo-Tertul- 
lian  (Prescript.,  lii)  and  Philastrius,  and  is  developed 
by  Epiphanius  (Hssr.,  liv.  Iv);  his  ''Little  Labjrnnth" 
(written  139-5,  cited  by  Eusebius,  V,  28)  and  his 
"Philosophumena"  are  still  extant.  See  also  his 
"Contra  Noetum  "  3,  and  a  fragment "  On  the  Melchis- 
edechians  and  Theodotians  and  Athingani",  pub- 
lished by  Caspari  (Tidskr.  filr  der  Evangel.  Luth. 
Kirke,  Ny  Raekke,  VIII,  3,  p,  307).  But  the  Athin- 
gani  are  a  later  sect^  for  which  see  Melchisedech- 
lANS.  The  Monarchianism  of  Photinus  (q.  v.)  seems 
to  have  been  akin  to  that  of  the  Theodotians.  All 
speculations  as  to  the  origin  of  the  theories  of  Theodo- 
tus are  fanciful.  At  any  rate  he  is  not  connected 
with  the  Ebionites.  The  Alogi  have  sometimes  been 
classed  with  the  Monarchians.  Lipsius  in  his  "Quel- 
lenkritik  des  Epiphanius"  supposed  them  to  be  even 
Philanthropists,  on  account  of  their  denial  of  the 
Logos,  and  Epiphanius  in  fact  calls  Theodotus  an 
6:ri<rwaa/la  of  the  Alogi;  but  this  is  only  a  guess,  and  is 
not  derived  by  him  from  Hippolytus.  As  a  fact, 
Epiphanius  assures  us  (Hser.,  51)  that  the  Alogi  (that 
is,  Gains  and  his  party)  were  orthodox  in  their  Christ- 
ology  (see  Montanists). 

iT.  MoDALisTB. — The  Monarchians  properly  so- 
called  (Modalists)  exaggerated  the  oneness  of  the  Fa- 
ther and  the  Son  so  as  to  make  them  but  one  Person; 
thus  the  distinctions  in  the  Holy  Trinity  are  energies 
or  modes,  not  Persons:  God  the  Father  appears  on 
earth  as  Son;  hence  it  seemed  to  their  opponents  that 
Monarchians  made  the  Father  suffer  and  die.  In 
the  West  they  were  called  Patripassians,  whereas  in 
the  East  they  are  usuaUy  called  Sabellians.  The  first 
X.— 29 


to  visit  Rome  was  probably  Praxeas,  who  went  on  to 
Carthage  some  time  before  206-08;  but  he  was  appar- 
ently not  in  re^ty  a  heresiarch,  and  the  arguments 
refuted  by  Tertullian  somewhat  later  in  his  book  "  Ad- 
versus  Praxean"  are  doubtless  those  of  the  Roman 
Monarchians  (see  Praxbas). 

A.  History. — Noetus  (from  whom  the  Noetians)  was 
a  Smymsan  (Epiphanius.  by  a  slip,  says  an  Ephe- 
sian).  He  callea  himself  Moses,  and  his  brother 
Aaron.  When  accused  before  the  presbyterate  of 
teaching  that  the  Father  suffered,  he  denied  it;  but 
after  having  made  a  few  disciples  he  was  again  inter- 
rogated, and  expelled  from  the  Church.  He  died  soon 
after,  and  did  not  receive  Christain  burial.  Hippoly- 
tus mockingly  declares  him  to  have  been  a  follower 
of  Heraclitus,  on  account  of  the  union  of  opposites 
which  he  taught  when  he  called  God  both  visible 
and  invisible,  passible  and  impassible.  His  pupil 
Epigonus  came  to  Rome.  As  he  was  not  mentioned 
in  the  "Syntagma"  of  Hippolytus,  which  was  written 
in  one  of  the  nrst  five  years  of  the  third  century,  he 
was  not  then  well  known  in  Rome,  or  had  not  yet  ar- 
rived. According  to  Hippol3rtus  (Philos.,  IX,  7),  Cle- 
omenes^  a  follower  of  Epigonus,  was  allowed  by  Pope 
Zephyrinus  to  establish  a  school,  which  flourished 
under  his  approbation  and  that  of  Callistus.  Hage- 
mann  urges  that  we  should  conclude  that  Cleomenes 
was  not  a  Noetian  at  all,  and  that  he  was  an  orthodox 
opponent  of  the  incorrect  theology  of  Hippolytus. 
m  same  writer  gives  most  ingenious  and  interesting 
(though  hardly  convincing)  reasons  for  identifying 
Praxeas  with  Callistus;  he  proves  that  the  Monar- 
chians attacked  in  Tertullian  s  "  Contra  Praxean  "  and 
in  the  "Philosophumena"  had  identical  tenets  which 
were  not  necessarily  heretical;  he  denies  that  Tertul- 
lian means  us  to  imderstand  that  Praxeas  came  to 
Carthage,  and  he  explains  the  nameless  refuter  of 
Praxeas  to  be,  not  Tertullian  himself,  but  Hippolytus. 
It  is  true  that  it  is  easy  to  suppose  Tertullian  and  Hip- 
polytus to  have  misrepresented  the  opinions  of  their 
opponents,  but  it  cannot  be  proved  that  Cleomenes 
was  not  a  follower  of  the  heretical  Noetus,  and  that 
Sabellius  did  not  issue  from  his  school;  further,  it  is 
not  obvious  that  Tertullian  would  attack  Callistus 
under  a  nickname. 

Sabellius  soon  became  the  leader  of  the  Monarchians 
in  Rome,  perhaps  even  before  the  death  of  Zephy- 
rinus (c.  218).  He  is  said  by  Epiphanius  to  nave 
foimded  his  views  on  the  Gospel  according  to  the 
Egyptians,  and  the  fragments  of  that  apocrypnon  sup- 

§ort  this  statement.  Hippolytus  hoped  to  convert 
abelhus  to  his  own  views,  and  attributed  his  failure 
in  this  to  the  influence  of  Callistus.  That  pope,  how- 
ever, excommimicated  Sabellius  c.  220  ("fearing  me", 
says  Hippolytus).  Hippolytus  accuses  CaUistus  or 
now  inventing  a  new  heresy  by  combining  the  views  of 
Theodotus  with  those  of  Sabellius,  althou^  he  excom- 
municated them  both  (see  Calustus  I,  Fope).  Sa- 
beUius  was  apparently  still  in  Rome  when  Hippolytus 
wrote  the  Philosophumena  (between  230  and  235). 
Of  his  earlier  and  later  history  nothing  is  known.  St. 
Basil  and  others  call  him  a  Libyan  from  Pentapolis, 
but  this  seems  to  rest  on  the  fact  that  Pentapolis  was 
found  to  be  full  of  Sabellianism  by  Dionysius  of  Alex- 
andria, c.  260.  A  number  of  Montanists  led  by  iEs- 
chines  became  Modalists  (unless  Hamack  is  right  in 
making  Modalism  the  original  belief  of  the  Montor 
nists  and  in  regarding  .^Ischines  as  a  conservative). 
Sabellius  (or  at  least  his  followers)  may  have  consider- 
ably amplified  the  original  Noetianism.  There  was 
still  Sabellianism  to  be  found  in  the  fourth  century. 
Marcellus  of  Ancyra  developed  a  Monarchianism  of 
his  own,  which  was  carried  much  further  by  his  disci- 
ple, Photinus.  Priscillian  was  an  extreme  Monarchian 
and  so  was  Commodian  ("Carmen  ApoL",  89,  277, 
771).  The  "Monarchian  Prologues"  to  the  Gospels 
found  in  most  old  MSS.  of  the  Vulgate,  wfre  attrib- 


M0N1BCHXAN8 


450 


MONIBCHXANS 


uted  by  von  Dobschtitz  and  P.  Corssen  to  a  Roman 
author  of  the  time  of  Callistus,  but  they  are  almost 
certainly  the  work  of  Priscillian.  Beryllus,  Bishop  of 
Bostra,  is  vaguely  said  by  Eusebius  (H.  E.,  VI,  33)  to 
have  taught  that  the  Saviour  had  no  distinct  pre-ex- 
istence  bdfore  the  Incarnation,  and  had  no  Divmity  of 
His  own.  but  that  the  Divinity  of  the  Father  dwelt  in 
Him.  Origen  disputed  with  him  in  a  council  and  con- 
vinced him  of  his  error.  The  minutes  of  the  disputa- 
tion were  known  to  Eusebius.  It  is  not  clear  whether 
Beryllus  was  a  Modalist  or  a  Dynamist. 

B.  Theology, — There  was  much  that  was  unsatisfao- 
tory  in  the  theology  of  the  Trinity  and  in  the  Christol- 
osy  of  orthodox  writers  of  the  Ante-Nicene  period. 
The  simple  teaching  of  tradition  was  expldned  by 
philosophical  ideas,  which  tended  to  obscure  as  well  as 
to  elucidate  it.  The  distinction  of  the  Son  from  the 
Father  was  so  spoken  of  that  the  Son  appeared  to  have 
functions  of  His  own,  apart  from  the  Father,  with  re- 
gard to  the  creation  and  preservation  of  tne  world, 
and  thus  to  be  a  derivative  and  secondary  God.  The 
unity  of  the  Divinity  was  commonly  guarded  by  a 
reference  to  the  unity  of  orifl;in.  It  was  said  that  God 
from  eternity  was  alone,  with  His  Word,  one  with  Him 
(as  Reason,  in  vulca  cordis f  \6yos  ipdidBeroi)^  before 
the  Word  was  spoken  (ex  ore  Pairie.  \6yos  vpwf>of>uc6t), 
or  was  generateid  and  became  Son  for  the  purpose  of 
creation.  The  Alexandrians  alone  insisted  rigntly  on 
the  generation  of  the  Son  from  all  eternity;  but  thus 
the  Unity  of  God  was  even  less  manifest.  The  writ- 
ers who  uiufl  theologize  may  often  expressly  teach  the 
traditional  Unity  in  Trinity,  but  it  hardly  squares 
with  the  Platomsm  of  their  philosophy.  The  theo- 
logians were  thus  defending  the  doctrine  of  the  Logos 
at  the  expense  of  the  two  fundamental  doctrines  of 
Christianity,  the  Unity  of  God  and  the  Divinity  of 
Christ.  They  seemed  to  make  the  Unity  of  the  God- 
head split  into  two  or  even  three,  and  to  make  Jesus 
Christ  something  less  than  the  supreme  God  the  Fa- 
tJier.  This  is  eminently  true  of  tne  chief  opponents 
of  the  Monarchians,  Tertullian.  Hippolytus,  and  No- 
vatian.  (See  Newman. ' '  The  Causes  of  Arianism  " ,  in 
"Tracts  theol.  and  eccles.")  Monarchianism  was  the 
protest  against  this  learned  philosophizing,  which  to 
the  simpficity  of  the  faithful  looked  too  much  like 
a  mythology  or  a  Gnostic  emanationism.  The  Mo- 
narchians emphatically  declared  that  Grod  is  one, 
whoUy  and  perfectly  one,  and  that  Jesus  Christ  is  God, 
wholly  and  perfectly  God.  This  was  right,  and  even 
most  necessary,  and  whilst  it  is  eajsy  to  see  why  the 
theologians  like  Tertullian  and  Hippolytus  opposed 
them  (for  their  protest  was  precisely  ap^ainst  the  Pla- 
tonism  which  tnese  theolo^ans  had  inherited  from 
Justin  and  the  Apologists),  it  is  equally  comprehensi- 
ble that  guardians  of  the  Faith  should  have  welcomed 
at  first  the  return  of  the  Monarchians  to  the  simplicity 
of  the  Faith,  '*ne  videantur  deos  dicere,  neque  rursum 
negare  salvatoris  deitatem"  (''Lest  they  seem  to  be 
asserting  two  Gods  or,  on  the  other  hand,  denying  the 
Saviour^  Godhead'*.— Origen,  "On  Titus",  frag.  II). 
Tertullian  in  opposing  them  acknowledges  that  the 
uninstructed  were  agamst  him;  they  could  not  under- 
stand the  magic  word  oUopo/da  with  which  he  con- 
ceived he  had  saved  the  situation;  they  declared  that 
he  taught  two  or  three  Gods,  and  cried '^Monarchiam 
tenemus."  So  Callistus  reproached  Hippolytus,  and 
not  without  reason^  with  teaching  two  Gods. 

Already  St.  Justin  knew  of  Christians  who  taught 
the  identity  of  the  Father  and  the  Son  ("  ApoL",  1, 63 ; 
'*Dial.'\  cxxviii).  In  Hermas,  as  in  Theodotus,  the 
Son  and  the  Holy  Ghost  are  confused.  But  it  was  re- 
served for  Noetus  and  his  school  to  deny  categorically 
that  the  unity  of  the  Godhead  is  compatible  with  a  dis- 
tinction of  Persons.  They  seem  to  have  regarded  the 
A6yot  as  a  mere  name,  or  faculty,  or  attribute,  and  to 
have  made  the  Son  and  the  Holy  Ghost  merely  as- 
p^ts  or  modes  of  existence  of  the  Father,  thus  emphat- 


ically identifying  Christ  with  the  one  God.  "What 
harm  am  I  cloing'',  was  the  reply  made  by  Noetus  to 
the  presbyters  who  inteirogated  him,  ''in  glorifying 
Christ?"  They  replied: ''We  too  know  in  truth  one 
God;  we  know  Chnst;  we  know  that  the  Son  suffered 
even  as  He  suffered,  and  died  even  as  He  died,  and 
rose  afl»in  on  the  tnird  day,  and  is  at  the  ri|^t  hand 
of  the  Father,  and  cometh  to  judge  the  living  and  the 
dead;  and  what  we  have  learned  we  declare"  (HippoL, 
"Contra  Noetum",  1).  Thus  they  refuted  Noetus 
with  tradition — the  Apostles'  Creed  is  enouch;  for  the 
Creed  and  the  New  Testament  indeed  made  the  dis- 
tinction of  Persons  clear,  and  the  traditional  formulas 
and  prayers  were  equsdly  immistakable.  Once  the 
Monarchian  system  was  put  into  philosophical  lan- 
guage, it  was  seen  to  be  no  longer  the  old  Cnristianity. 
Ridicule  was  used;  the  heretics  were  told  that  if  ike 
Father  and  the  Son  were  really  identified,  then  no 
denial  on  their  part  could  prevent  the  conclusion  that 
the  Father  suffered  and  died,  and  sat  at  His  own 
right  hand.  Hippolytus  tells  us  that  Pope  Zephy- 
rinus,  whom  he  represents  as  a  stupid  old  man,  ae- 
clared  at  the  instance  of  Callistus:  '^I  know  one  God 
Christ  Jesus,  and  besides  Him  no  other  Who  was  bom 
and  Who  suffered";  but  he  added:  "Not  the  Father 
died,  but  the  Son".  The  reporter  is  an  un^mpa- 
thetic  adversary ;  but  we  can  see  why  the  eigpd  pope  was 
viewing  the  simple  assertions  of  Sabellius  in  a  favour- 
able light.  Hippolytus  declares  that  Callistus  said 
that  the  Father  suffered  vnth  the  Son.  and  Tertullian 
says  the  same  of  the  Monarchians  wnom  he  attacks. 
Hagemann  thinks  Callistus-Praxeas  especially  at- 
tacked the  doctrine  of  the  Apologists  and  of  Hippoly- 
tus and  Tertullian,  which  assi^ed  all  such  attributes 
as  impassibility  and  invisibility  to  the  Father  and 
made  the  Son  alone  capable  of  becoming  passible  and 
visible^  ascribing  to  Him  the  work  of  creation,  and  aO 
operations  ad  extra.  It  is  true  that  the  Monarchians 
opposed  this  Platonizing  in  general,  but  it  is  not  evi- 
dent that  they  had  grasped  the  principle  that  all  the 
works  of  God  ad  extra  are  common  to  the  Three  Per- 
sons as  proceding  from  the  Divine  Nature;  and  they 
seem  to  nave  said  simply  that  God  as  Father  is  invisi- 
ble and  impassible,  but  becomes  visible  and  passible 
as  Son.  Tnis  explanation  brings  them  curiously  into 
line  with  their  adversaries.  Both  parties  represented 
God  as  one  and  alone  in  His  eternity.  Both  made 
the  generation  of  the  Son  a  subsequent  development; 
only  Tertullian  and  Hippolytus  date  it  before  Uie  cre- 
ation, and  the  Monarchians  perhaps  not  until  the 
Incarnation.  Further,  their  identification  of  the  Fa- 
ther and  the  Son  was  not  favourable  to  a  true  view  of 
the  Incarnation.  The  very  insistence  on  the  unity  of 
God  emphasized  also  the  distance  of  God  from  man, 
and  was  likdy  to  end  in  making  the  union  of  God  with 
man  a  mere  indwelling  or  external  union,  after  the 
fashion  of  that  which  was  attributed  to  Nestorius. 
They  spoke  of  the  Father  as  "Spirit"  and  the  Son  as 
"flesh  ,  and  it  is  scarcely  surpnsing  that  the  similar 
Monarchianism  of  Marcellus  should  nave  issued  in  the 
Theodotianism  of  Photinus. 

It  is  impossible  to  arrive  at  the  philosophical  views 
of  Sabelhus.  Hagemann  thought  that  he  started 
from  the  Stoic  erystem  as  surely  as  his  adversaries  did 
from  the  Platonic.  Domer  has  drawn  too  much  upon 
his  imagination  for  the  doctrine  of  Sabellius;  Harnack 
is  too  fanciful  with  regard  to  its  orimn.  In  fact  we 
know  little  of  him  but  that  he  said  tne  Son  was  the 
Father  (so  Novatian,  "De  Trin."  12,  and  Pope  Dio- 
nysius  relate).  St.  Athanasius  tells  us  that  ne  said 
the  Father  is  the  Son  and  the  Son  is  the  Father,  one  in 
h3rposta8is.  but  two  in  name  (so  Epiphanius):  "As 
there  are  divisions  of  gifts,  but  the  same  Spirit,  so  the 
Father  is  the  same,  but  is  developed  [rXarOperw]  into 
Son  and  Spirit"  (Orat.,  IV,  c.  Ar.,  xxv).  Theodore! 
says  he  spoke  of  one  hypostasis  and  a  threefold  wp6c»rwow, 
whereas  St.  Basil  says  k9  willingly  admitted  three 


MONA&GBLk  451  MONABCHU 


characterB  of  one  person".    The  Father  is  the  Monad  pope,  vou  in  your  zeal  shall  secure  the  execution  of 

of  whom  the  Son  is  a  kind  of  manifestation;  for  the  what  the  l^ate  is  to  perform"  (ea  videlicet  ratione,  ut 

Father  is  in  Himself  silent,  inactive  {ffuarQPf  dptp^prn-  si  quando  ifluc  ex  latere  nostro  legatus  dirigitur,  quern 

rot),  and  speaks,  creates,  works,  as  Son  (Athan.,  1.  c,  profecto  vicarium  intelligimus,  quse  ab  eo  gerenda 

11).  Here  agfun  we  have  a  parallel  to  the  teaching  of  the  sunt,   per  tuam  industriam  effectui   mancipentur). 

Apologists  about  the  Word  as  Reason  and  the  Word  Urban  II  had  thus  granted  Apostolic  legatine  power 

spoken,  the  latter  alone  being  called  Son.    It  would  to  the  secular  rulers;  according  to  the  Bull  of  Paschal 

seem  that  the  difiference  between  SabeUius  and  his  op-  II  this  meant  that,  when  a  papal  legate  was  sent  to 

Eonents  lay  mainly  in  his  insisting  on  the  unity  of  Sicily  to  exercise  jurisdiction  in  certain  ecclesiastical 

ypoetass  after  the  emisaon  of  the  Word  as  Son.    It  matters  as  the  pope's  representative,  he  must  com- 

does  not  seem  clear  that  he  regarded  the  Son  as  be^pn-  municate  the  nature  of  his  conunission  to  the  secular 

ning  at  the  Incarnation;  accordibog  to  the  passage  of  ruler,  who  would  then  execute  in  person  the  pope's 

St.  Athanasius  ^ust  referred  to,  he  may  have  agreed  order  in  place  of  the  legate  (legati  vice).    In  both  in- 

with  the  Apologists  to  date  Sonship  from  the  creative  stances  it  was  a  question  not  of  a  jurisdiction  of  the 

action  of  God.    But  we  have  few  texts  to  go  upon,  princes  of  Sicil3r  mdependent  of  tne  Holy  See,  but 

and  it  is  quite  uncertain  whether  Sabellius  left  any  only  of  the  privilege  of  the  secular  rulers  to  execute 

writings.    Monarchianism  is   frequently   combated  the  precepts  of  the  supreme  Church  authorities;  in 

by  Origen.   Dionysius  of  Alexandria  fought  Sabellian-  other  words,  the  sovereign  of  Sicily  was  privileged, 

ism  with  some  imprudence.    In  the  fourth  century  the  but  also  bound,  to  carry  out  papal  regulations  in  his 

Allans  and  Semiarians  professed  to  be  much  afraid  of  land. 

it,  and  indeed  the  alliance  of  Pope  Julius  and  Arhana-        As  a  result  of  the  feudal  relationship  between  the 

sius  with  Marcellus  gave  some  colour  to  accusations  princes  of  Sicily  and  the  pope,  ecclesastical  matters 

against  the  Nicene  formulas  as  opening  the  way  to  here  took  on  a  more  pronouncedly  political  character 

Sabellianism.    The  Fathers  of  the  fourth  centu^  (as,  than  elsewhere,  and  tne  Church  in  Sicily  was  reduced 

for  instance.  St.  Gregory  of  Nyssa,  ''Contra  Sabel-  to  the  greatest  dependence  upon  the  secular  power, 

lium".  ed.  Mai)  seem  to  contemplate  a  more  devel-  However,  up  to  the  beginning  of  the  sixteen tn  cen- 

oped  form  than  that  known  to  Hippolytus  ("Contra  tury.  the  privilege  bestowed  by  Urban  II  was  never 

Noetum  "  and  "Philosophumena")  and  through  him,  invoked  or  even  mentioned.    When  Ferdinand  U  of 

to  Epiphanius :  the  consummation  of  creation  is  to  con-  Aragon  became  King  of  Sicily,  his  secretary,  Luca  Bar- 

rist  m  the  return  of  the  A6yo%  from  the  humanitv  of  beri  of  Noto  in  Sici^,  undertook  to  collect  the  official 

Christ  to  the  Father,  so  that  the  original  unity  pf  the  documents  by  which  the  rights  of  the  kings  of  Sicily, 

Divine  Nature  is  after  all  held  to  have  been  tempo-  both  in  ecclesiastical  and  in  secular  matters,  were 

nXLy  compromised,  and  onlv  in  the  end  will  it  be  re-  clearly  determined.    To  this  collection  (Capwrevio) 

stored,  that  God  may  be  all  in  all.  was  joined  a  collection  of  documents  under  the  title 

Our  chief  orifdnal  authorities  for  eariy  Monarchian-  "liber  Monarchi^e".  meant  to  prove  that  the  secular 

ism  of  the  Modalist  type  are  Tertullian,  "Adversus  rulers  of  Sicily  had  always  exercised  the  spiritual 

Praxean",  and  Hippolytus,  "Contra  Noetum  "(frag-  power.    In  this  "liber  Monarchi^e"   the  privilege 

ment)     and    "  Philosophumena  ".     The     "  Contra  conferred  by  Urban  II  in  regard  to  the  legatine  power 

Noetum"  and  the  lost  "Syntagma"  were  used  by  was  first  published.    The  kings  urged  it  to  give  a  legal 

Epiphanius.  Har.  67  (Noetians),  but  the  sources  of  basis  to  tne  authority  they  had  long  exercised  over  the 

Epiphaniusrs  Hser.  62  (Sabellians)  are  less  certtdn.  local  Church.    They  also  used  it  to  extend  their  pre- 

Tne  references  by  Origen,  Novatian,  and  later  Fathers  tensions  that,  by  virtue  of  an  old  papal  privilege,  tney 

are  somewhat  indefinite.  possessed  ecclesiastical  authority  in  spiritual  matters 

'^^  k?^J^*>*'?^i^?'WS**V'  ^°'^%5!!?°.i?  ^L?i^  to  be  exercised  independently  of  the  pope.    Despite 

MAirn.  D%€  rOmudta  K%rcKe  (Freiburg  un  Br.,  1864) ;  the  best  Prot-  j^„u*«  »«^»»^<..»«i  ^^nr.»«.«:««»  ♦!,«  ^^,^^\l,xLT^^^^  ^t  ♦!•-» 

muaii  aoooimt,  Hasnack  in  RmieneydapddU  a.  v.  Monarehiar^  doubts  expressed  concemmff  the  gcnumeness  01  the 

iamuM  (1903);  Dobnbr.  BntwieklunoMgesehiehu  der  Lehre  wn  der  Urban  document,  Ferdinand  declared  on  22  January, 

PenonCHruU  (2nd  ecL.  Berlin.  1863) ;  tr.Dooenne  of  the  Person  of  1515.  <«  ^S  for  the  Kingdom  of  Sicily,  where  We  excr- 

?JSl/in^SS-dSSSJ3£;  ^B^^u^'Sr^^rS:::  J^l  cise  the  supervision  oTspiritual  as  well  as  of  secular 

L^»ic,  1896);  DOlunokr.  Hippoitftue  und  Kaliutus  TRatisbon.  affairs,  we  have  made  sure  that  we  do  so  legitimately  . 

JS^'A-L^!?^**"*  '*~'  ^^*1$^  (Edinburgh,  1876);  Salmon  in  j^  consequence  of  such  exorbitant  demands,  disputes 

in  KircUniex.,  a.  Vv.  Babbluub;  Duchmnm.  Hietoire  aneienne  de  ajps©  betw^n  the  iK)pes  and  the  rulers  of  the  island. 

r SgUae^UFmB,  1906) ;  tr„  Bariy  Hittary  of  the  Chrittian  Church  Clement  VII  negotiated  With  Charles  V  concerning 

(London,  1909);  TixAroht,  £f wtoire  dee  ^gmee.  I  (Paria,  1905);  the  Monarchia  Sicula,  but  without  success.    In  1678 

Hid  the  Hulcnee  ofDogmahy  Schwan..  ^u«ace.  etc  pj^y     jj  ^^^  ^^^    '^  ^^^^  ^  ^^^^^  confirmation 

JOHN  i^HAPMAN.  ^^  ^j^^  ^.^  ^^^  pj^  y     ^  ^^^^  ^^^  ^^  appointed 

Monaicbia  Slciila,  a  right  exercised  from  the  be-  a  special  permanent  judge  {Judex  Monorchia  Sicula) , 

ipnning  of  the  sixteenth  centurv  by  the  secular  rulers  who  was  to  give  final  decisions  in  the  highest  ecclesi- 

of  Sicily,  according  to  which  they  had  final  jurisdic-  astical  causes,  an  appeal  from  his  judgment  to  the 

tton  in  purely  reUgious  matters,  independent  of  the  pope's  being  forbidden.    The  Judex  Monarchia  Sicw* 

Holy  See.    Tnis  rij^t  they  claimed  on  the  ground  of  a  ta  claimed  the  general  right  to  visit  the  convents,  su- 

papal  privilege.    The  oldest  document  advanced  in  preme  jurisdiction  over  the  bishops  and  the  clergy, 

support  of  their  claim  is  a  Bull  of  5  July^  1098,  ad-  and  the  exercise  of  a  number  of  ecclesiastical  rights 

dressed  by  Urban  II  to  Count  Roger  I  of  Sicily  (Jaff6,  belonging  to  the  bishops,  so  that  papal  jurisdiction 

"Regista  Rom.  Pont.'',  I,  2nd  ed.,  n.  5706;  latest  edi-  was  aunost  wholly  excluded. 

tionof  thetextin''QuellenundForschungenausitalien.        When  Baronius,  in  an  excursus  on  the  year  1097  in 

Archiven  und  Bibliotheken",  VII,  1904,  pp.  214-9).  the  eleventh  volume  of  his  "Annales  ecclesiastici" 

The  pope  agreed  not  to  appoint  a  papal  legate  for  (Rome,  1605),  produced  solid  reasons  against  the 

Sicily  against  the  count's  will,  and  declared  his  inten-  senuineness  of  Urban  II's  Bull  and  especially  against 

tion  of  getting  executed  by  the  count  the  ecclesiastical  the  legality  of  the  Monarchia  Sicula,  a  violent  feud 

acts,  usually  performed  by  a  legate  (quinimmo  quse  arose,  and  the  Court  of  Madrid  prohibited  the  elev- 

per  legatum  acturi  sumus,  per  vestram  industnam  enth  volume  from  all  countries  of  the  Spanish  Em- 

legati  vice  exhiberi  volumus).    Paschal  II  in  a  Bull  of  pire.    Baronius  omitted  the  excursus  in  the  second 

I  October,  1117,  addresBed  to  Count  Roger  II  of  edition  of  the  "Annales"  (Antwerp,  1608),  but  pub- 


MONASTSaOBS  452  MONASTERIES 

lished  instead  a  special  "Tractatus  de  Monarchia  Columbanus  and  his  followers.    Rezniremont,  Jou- 

Sicula".    During  the  War  of  the  Spanish  Succession  arre,  Brie,  Chelles,  Andelys,  and  Soissons  were  other 

another  serious  conflict  arose  between  the  Papal  well-known  examples  of  the  seventh  and  eighth  cen- 

Curia  and  the  Spanish  court  in  regard  to  this  alleged  turies.    From  Gaul  the  idea  spread  to  Belaum  and 

legatine  power.    The  occasion  of  the  dispute  was  a  Germany  and  also  to  Spain,  where  it  is  said  to  have 

question  of  ecclesiastical  immunity,  and  the  differ-  been  introduced  by  St.  Fructuosus  in  the  middle  of 

ences  continued  after  Count  Victor  Amadeus  had  been  the  seventh  century.    According  to  Yepes  there  were 

made  King  of  Sicily  by  the  Peace  of  Utrecht  and  had  in  Spain  altogether  over  two  hundred  double  monas- 

been  crowned  at  Palermo  (1713).    On  20  February,  teries. 

1715,  Clement  XI  declared  the  Monarchia  Sicula  null        Ireland  presents  only  one  known  example — ^Kildare 

and  void,  and  revoked  Uie  privileges  attached  to  it.  — ^but  probably  there  were  others  b^des.  of  which  all 

This  edict  was  not  recognized  by  the  monarchs  of  traces  have  since  been  lost.    In  Englana  most  of  the 

Sicily,  and,  when  a  few  years  later  the  island  came  early  foundations  were  double;  this  has  been  wrongly 

imder  the  rule  of  Charles  VI,  Benedict  XIII  entered  attributed  by  some  writers  to  the  fact  that  manv  <h 

into  negotiations  with  him  with  the  result  that  the  the  Anglo-Saxon  nuns  were  educated  in  Gaul,  where 

Decree  of  Clement  XI  was  withdrawn,  and  the  Mon-  the  system  was  then  in  vo^e,  but  it  seems  more  coi^ 

archia  Sicula  restored,  but  in  an  altered  form.    The  rect  to  ascribe  it  to  the  rehgious  influence  of  the  mi»- 

klng,  through  the  concession  of  the  pope  could  now  sionaries  from  lona,  since  the  first  double  monastery 

appoint  the  Judex  MonarchioB  Siculd^  who  was  at  the  in  England  was  that  of  St.  Hilda  at  Whitby,  estab- 

same  time  to  be  the  delegate  of  the  Holy  See  and  em-  lished  under  the  guidance  of  St.  Aidan,  and  there  is  no 

powered  to  decide  in  the  last  instance  upon  religious  evidence  to  show  that  either  St.  Aidan  or  St.  Hilda 

matters.    On  the  basis  of  this  concession  the  kings  of  was  acquainted  with  the  double  organisation  in  use 

Sicily  demanded  more  and  more  far  reaching  rights  in  elsewhere.    Whitby  was  founded  in  the  seventh  cen- 

ecclesiastical  affairs,  so  that  fresh  stru^es  with  the  tury,  and  in  a  short  time  England  became  covered 

Holy  See  constantly  arose.    The  situation  grew  ever  with  similar  dual  establishments,  of  which  Coldin^iam, 

more  unbearable.     Pius  IX  tried  in  vain  by  amicable  Ely,  Sheppey,  Minster,  Wimbome,  and  Baridng  are 

adjustments  to  enforce  the  essential  rights  of  the  Holy  prominent  examples.    In  Italy,  the  only  other  coun- 

See  in  Sicily.    Garibaldi,  as  '* Dictator"  of  Sicily,  try  besides  those  already  mentioned  where  double 


claimed  the  rights  of  the  papal  legate,  and,  during  the  monasteries  are  known  to  have  existed,  they  were  not 

service  in  the  cathedral  at  Palermo,  caused  legatine  nim^roua.  but  St.  Gregory  speaks  of  them  as  being 

honours  to  be  ^own  him.    In  the  Bull  ''Suprema"  found  in  Sardinia  (Ep.  xi),  and  St.  Bede  mentions  one 

of  2S  January,  1864,  which  was  not  published  with  the  at  Rome  (Hist.  Eccl.,  IV,  i).    The  Danish  invasions 

Prescriptions  for  its  execution  until  10  October,  1867,  of  the  ninth  and  tentn  centiuies  destroyed  the  double 

ius  IX  revoked  the  Monarchia  Sicula  finally  and  for-  monasteries  of  England,  and,  when  thev  were  re- 

ever.    The  government  of  Victor  Emanuel  protested,  stored,  it  was  for  one  sex  only,  instead  of  for  a  dual 

and  the  Judex  MonarchicB  SicvkSf  Rinaldi,  refused  to  community.    The  system  seems  to  have  died  out  also 

submit,  for  which  he  was  excommunicated  in  1868.  in  other  countries  at  about  the  same  time,  and  it  was 

Article  15  of  the  Italian  law  of  guarantees  (13  May.  not  revived  imtil  the  end  of  the  eleventh  century 

1871)  explicitly  revoked  the  Monarchia  Sicula,  and  when  Robert  of  Arbrissel  inaugurated  his  reform  at 

the  question  was  thus  finally  disposed  of.  Fontevrault  and  gave  the  idea  a  fre^  lease  of  life.   It 

Sbntis,  Die  MofMrchia  Sicula,    Erne  hiHariadiHXirumiUuehe  u  not  Surprising  tO  find  that  SUCh  a  system  Was  SOme- 

£^^^;?5Si?o":iii2?2i:S;^^*^S^°J^^  time?  aJbuaed  aad  hence  it  wa«  alwave  «.  cAject  of 

corona  di  Sicilia  (2nd  ed..  Palermo.  1869) ;  ScADtno,  SkUo  e  chieaa  SOhcitude  and  Stnct  legislation  at  the  hands  of  ecdesi- 

in  Sj«i*a  (Palermo,  1887);  Giannonn*.  II  tribunale  deOa  Mo-  astical  authority.    Many  synodal  and  oonciliar  de- 

:^nnf:S£^^^'H'^^  ?r  Jf >5;*  iJrSarffS:  «««  recogm«d  its  dange™,  and  ordered.the  stricter 

schunoenau9itaiim.Arehivmu,Biblioih€hen,yil(id(A), 1H9-219.  surveillance  of  all  commumcations  passing  between 

J.  p.  KiBSCH.  monks  and  nuns.    Too  dose  proximity  of  buildings 

was  frequently  forbidden,  and  every  precaution  was 

Monasteries,  Double,  religious  houses  compris-  taken  to  prevent  any  occasion  of  scandal.    Veivprob- 

ing  communities  of  both  men  and  women,  dwelling  in  ably  it  was  this  scant  favour  shown  b^  the  Church 

contiguous  establishments,  united  under  the  rule  of  towards  it  that  caused  the  gradual  declme  of  the  sys- 

one  superior,  and  using  one  church  in  common  for  tem  about  the  tenth  century. 

their  hturgical  offices.    The  reason  for  such  an  ar-  In  many  double  monasteries  the  supreme  rule  was 

rangement  was  that  the  spiritual  needs  of  the  nuns  in  the  hands  of  the  abbess,  and  monks  as  well  as  nuns 

mi^t  be  attended  to  b^r  the  priests  of  the  male  com-  were  subject  to  her  authority.    This  was  especially 

munity,  who  were  associated  with  them  more  closely  the  case  in  England,  e.  g.  in  St.  Hilda's  at  Whitby  and 

than  would  have  been  possible  in  the  case  of  entirely  St.  Etheldreda's  at  Elv,  though  elsewhere,  but  more 

separate  and  independent  monasteries.    The  system  rarely,  it  was  the  abbot  who  ruled  both  men  and 

came  into  existence  almost  contemporaneously  with  women,  and  sometimes,  more  rarely  still,  each  oom- 

monasticism  itself^  and  like  it  had  its  origin  in  the  munity  had  its  own  superior  independent  of  the  other. 

East.    Communities  of  women  gathered  around  re-  The  justification  for  the  anomalous  position  of  a 

ligious  founders  in  Egypt  and  elsewhere,  and  from  the  woman  acting  as  the  superior  of  a  community  of  men 

li^  of  St.  Pachomius  we  learn  many  details  as  to  the  is  usually  held  to  oricdnate  from  Christ's  words  from 

nuns  under  his  rule  and  their  relation  to  the  male  com-  the  Cross,  ''Woman,  behold  thy  son;  Son,  behold  thj 

munities  founded  by  him.    Double  monasteries,  of  mother" :  and  it  is  still  further  urged  that  maternity  is 

which  those  of  St.  Basil  and  his  sister,  Macrina,  may  a  form  or  authority  derived  from  nature,  whilst  that 

be  cited  as  examples,  were  apparently  numerous  which  ispatemalb  merely  le«al.    But,  whatever  may 

throughout  the  East  during  the  early  centuries  of  b^  its  ongin,  the  supreme  rule  of  an  abbess  over  both 

monasticism.    It  cannot  be  stated  with  any  certainty  men  and  women  was  deliberately  revived,  and  sanc- 

when  the  system  found  its  way  into  the  West,  but  it  tioned  by  the  Church,  in  two  out  of  the  three  mcdie- 

seems  probable  that  its  introduction  into  Gaul  may  be  val  orders  that  consisted  of  double  monasteries.    At 

roughly  ascribed  to  the  influence  of  Cassian,  who  did  Fontevrault  (founded  1099)  and  with  the  Bridget- 

so  much  towards  reconciling  Eastern  monasticism  tines  (1346),  the  abbess  was  the  superior  of  mcmks  as 

with  Western  ideas.    St.  Cssarius  of  Aries,  St.  Aure-  well  as  of  nuns,  though  with  the  Gilbertines  (1146)  it 

lian,  his  successor,  and  St.  Radegimdis,  of  Poitiers,  was  the  prior  who  ruled  over  both.    In  the  eariier 

founded  double  monasteries  in  the  sixth  centuiy,  and  double  monasteries  both  monks  and  nuns  observed 

later  on  the  system  was  propagated  widely  by  St.  the  same  rule  mutaiia  mutandis;  this  example  was  fol- 


MdNASTEBIESi                           453  MONASTSitiSlS 

lowed  by  Ponteyraiilt  and  the  Brid^ettines.  the  rule  The  Elector  Maximilian  (Joseph)  III  (1745-77)  began 

of  the  former  being  Benedictine,  while  the  latter  ob-  in  Bavaria  a  work  of  destruction  which  was  carried  on 

served  the  Rule  of  St.  Bridget.    But  with  the  Gilber-  by  his  successors  down  to  the  Elector  Maximilian 

tinea,  whilst  the  rule  of  the  nuns  was  substantially  Joseph  IV,  Napoleon's  ally,  who  became  King  Maxi- 

Benedictine,  the  monks  adopted  that  of  the  Augu8>  milian  I  of  Bavaria  in  1805  (d.  1825).    Measiu^  were 

tinian  Canons.     (See  Brigittinbs;   FoMTEVRAUi/r:  taken  first  against  the  mendicant  orders;  the  secular 

GiLBERTiNES.)    Little  is  known  as  to  the  buildings  or  power  began  to  meddle  in  the  government  of  the  mon- 

the  earlier  double  monasteries  except  that  the  church  asteries,  a  commission  being  appointed  by  the  civil 

usually  stood  between  the  two  conventual  establish-  authorities  for  that  purpose.     In  the  meantime  (1773) 

ments,  so  as  to  be  accessible  from  both.    From  exca-  the  suppression  of  the  Jesuits  was  decreed.    About 

vations  made  on  the  site  of  Watton  Priory,  a  Gilbei^  the  ^rear  1782  the  Elector  Charles  Theodore  (1778-99) 

tine  house  in  Yorkshire,  it  ^pears  that  the  separation  obtained  the  assent  of  Pius  VI  to  a  project  for  the 

of  nuns  from  canons  was  effected  by  means  of  a  sub-  extinction    of    several    religious    foundations.    The 

stantial  wall,  several  feet  high,  which  traversed  the  Elector  Maximilian  Joseph  IV  (King  Maximilian  I) 

church  lengthways,  and  it  is  probable  that  some  simi-  of  Bavaria  completed  the  work  of  destruction,  in- 

lar  arrangement  was  adopted  in  other  double  monas-  fluenced  by  the  policv  of  his  ally,  Napoleon  I,  and 

teries.     No  such  communities  exist  at  the  present  assisted  by  the  Count  de  Montgelas,  his  chief  minister, 

day  in  the  Western  Church.  A  rescript  of  9  September.  1800,  deprived  the  reli- 

Batkson,  Orioin  and  Early  Hiatory  of  Double  Moruuleries  in  gioUS  Orders  in  Bavaria  OI   all   property   rights   and 

E^^SS2SS5;;^^;^,2JriSSJ^^                     iiiS^i  PJoWbited  them  to  receive  novTces.    f  he  convents 

TuK£B  AND  Mallmon.  Handbook  to  Christian  and  BccUaiagticai  Of  ^hc  mendicant  Orders  (Franciscans,  Dominicans, 

Bom«,  III  (London,  1900):  BxTTLER,  LoimeHutoryo/PaUadiiM  in  Augustinians,  Carmelites)  and  the  religious  houses 

?^;.£'^*S'iSfv''U^^l*?^,;,i21^)?SS,S^5:!  »/  ^«™^  ^^^  the  first  to  fan     Then  came  the 

nai^o.s.  BAPikTia,  1703-39);  Vita s.Pachomiim p. L.,l,XKni;  ^^^^"^  0^  ^^6  Canons  Regular  and  the  Benedictines. 

Fehb  in  Did.  Thiol.  Cath.  (Paria.  1859).  The  Cathedral  monasteries  were  not  spared.    Among 

G.  Cyprian  Alston.  the  abbeys  that  disapp^u^  in  1803  mav  be  men- 
tioned: St.  Blasien  of  tne  Black  Forest  (the  commu- 

Monasteries,  Sxn^PRESsiON  of. — Under  this  title  nity,  however,  being  admitted,  in  1809,  to  the  monas- 

will  be  treated  only  the  suppressions  of  religious  tery  of  St.  Paul),  St.  Emmeran  of  Ratisbon,  Andechs, 

houses  (whether  monastic  in  the  strict  sense  or  houses  St.  Ulrich  of  Augsburg,  Michebberg,  Benedictbeum, 

of  the  mendicant  orders)  since  the  Reformation.    The  -  Ertal,   Kempten,   Metten,   Oberaltaich,  Ottobeum, 

somewhat  more  general  subject  of  state  encroachments  Scheyem,  Tegemsee,  Wessobrilnn. 

on  Church  property  will  be  found  treated  under  such  The  monasteries  in  other  parts  of  North  Germany 

titles  as  Laicization;  Commend atort  Abbot;  In-  met  with  the  common  fate  of  all  church  property. 

VESTTFUREs,  CoNFUCT  OF.    The  ecouomic  motives  of  On  the  left  bank  of  the  Rhine  they  were  suppressed 

state  opposition  to  the  'tenure  of  lands  by  religious  when  that  t-erritory  was  annexed  to  France  oy  the 

corporations  (dating  from  the  thirteenth  century)  are  Peace  of  Lun6ville.  9  February,  1801.    Their  nrop- 

explained  under  Mortmain.    The  countries  dealt  with  ertv  was  disposed  of  by  the  Diet  of  Ratisbon  (3  Marcn, 

in  the  present  article  are:  I.  Germany,  the  Iberian  1801 — ^February,  1803)^  the  deplorable  business  having 

Peninsula,  and  Italy;  II.  En^^land.    (For  French  sup-  been  n^otiated  in  Pans  with  Bonaparte  and  Talle3r- 

pressions,  see  France,  especially  sub-title,  The  Tkird  rand.    Besides  her  twenty-five  ecclesiastical  princi- 

Kepuhlic  and  ike  Chisrch  in  France.)  palities  and  her  eighteen  universities,  Catholic  Ger- 

I.  Germany,  Spain  and  Portugal,  Italy. — A.  many  lost  all  her  aobeys  and  her  religious  houses  for 
Germany  (indudinff  aU  Austrian  Dominions). — ^The  men:  their  property  was  given  to  Bavaria,  Prussia, 
confiscation  of  religious  property  following  upon  the  and  Austria.  As  to  the  religious  houses  for  women, 
Treaty  of  Westphalia  (1648;  had  been  for  tne  ben-  the  princes  were  to  consult  with  the  bishops  before 
efit  of  Protestant  princes  onlv.  More  than  a  himdred  proceeding  to  expel  their  inmates.  The  future  re- 
monasteries  and  innumerable  pious  foundations  dis-  ception  of  novices  was  forbidden.  In  the  Nether- 
appeared  at  this  time.  Towards  the  middle  of  the  lands,  the  Principality  of  Li^e,  and  the  portions  of 
ei^teenth  century  a  new  movement  tendhig  to  the  Switzerland  annexed  oy  France,  the  religious  houses 
destruction  of  monastic  institutions  swept  over  those  disappeared  completely. 

portions  of  the  German  Empire  which  had  remained  In  the  territories  immediately  subject  to  the  House 

attached  to  the  Catholic  Faith.    "Josephinism'',  as  of  Hapsburg,  the  secularization  of  monastic  houses  had 

this  political  and  religious  movement  was  afterwards  begun  more  than  thirty  years  before  this.    In  pur- 

called,  taking  its  name  from  its  foster-father,  the  suance  of  the  policy  with  which  his  name  has  been 

Emperor  Joseph  II,  made  the  Church  subservient  to  especially  associated,  the  Emperor  Joseph  II  (d.  1790) 

the  State.    The  supernatural  character  of  the  reli-  forbade  the  teaching  of  theology  in  monasteries,  even 

gious  life  was  i^ored;  abbeys  and  convents  could  be  to  the  young  religious,  and  also  the  reception  of  nov- 

permitted  to  exist  only  on  giving  proof  of  their  mate-  ices.    Intercourse  witn  the  Holy  See  was  placed  un- 

rial  utility.     A  plan  was  formed  at  this  period  for  der  imperial  control.    It  was  forbidden  to  receive 

the  general   secularization  of  monastic   and   other  foreign  religious.    The  civil  authorities  interfered  in 

ecclesiastical  property  for  the  profit  of  the  Catholic  the  regular  discipline  of  communities.    Commenda- 

Govemments  in  Germany.    This  was  part  of  a  gen-  tory  abbots  were  appointed.    Monasteries  were  de- 

eral  pl^i  for  a  redistribution  of  territory.    Frederick  prived  of  the  parishes  belonging  to  them.    Superiors 

II  (tne  Great)  of  Prussia  had  taken  the  initiative  and  nad  to  account  to  the  emperors  representatives  for 

had  won  over  England  and  France  to  his  idea.    The  the  disposition  of  their  incomes.    Theological  works 

opposition  of  Maria  Theresa,  of  the  Prince  Bishop  of  printed  outside  the   Empire   could  not  be  used. — 

Mainz,  and  of  Pope  Benedict  XIV  caused  the  project  ^  Such  were  the  principal  lines  of  action  of  this  adminis- 

to  fiul.    The  Holy  See  kept  the  diplomacy  of  Prussia "  tration,  of  which  Kaunitz  was  the  minister.    All  this, 

in  check  for  some  years.    To  counteract  the  action  of  however,  was  but  the  prelude  to  a  decree  of  suppres- 

Rome  on  public  sentiment,  the  partisans  of  seculari-  sion  which  was  issued  on  17  March,  1783. 

juition  encouraged  in  Germany  the  spread  of  those  This  decree  apphed  to  all  monasteries,  whether  of 

philosophical  errors-^Materialism  and  Rationalism —  women  or  of  men,  judged  useless  bv  the  standards  of 

which  were  then  gaining  ground  in  France  (see  En-  Josepbinism '  their  revenues  were  taken  to  increase  the 

CYCiiOPEDiSTs).     with  this  view  they  succcMeded  in  salaries  of  the  secular  priests  or  for  pious  establish- 

withdrawing  the  universities  from  Roman  influence,  ments  useful  to  religion  and  humanity.    The  dioceses 

Meanwhile  the  princes  approached  the  task  directly,  of  the  Low  Countries  (then  subject  to  the  House  of 


monasteehs                 454  monastebos 

Hapeburg)  lost  one  hundred  and  sixt^r-eight  convents,  Throne.  Their  existence  was  again  threatoied  by 
abbeys,  or  priories.  In  all,  738  religious  houses  were  the  Revolution  of  1820^  when  the  Cortes  decreed  the 
suppressed  m  the  Empire  during  the  reign  of  Joseph  II.  suppression  of  the  religious  orders,  leaving  only  a  few 
in  anticipation  of  this  disaster^  Pius  VI  hacf  con-  houses  to  shelter  the  aged  and  infirm.  It  must  be 
ferred  on  the  bishops  extensive  pnvileges.  They  had  said  that,  in  this  case,  the  effect  of  the  generally  anti- 
power  to  dispense  expelled  reli^ous,  Doth  men  and  religious  principles  actuating  the  revolutioni^  was 
women,  from  wearing  their  habit,  and,  in  case  of  ne-  reinforced  by  tho  impoverishment  of  the  nation  by  the 
cessity,  to  dispense  them  from  the  simple  vows.  They  Napoleonic  wars,  by  the  revolt  of  its  American  colO' 
were  to  secure  for  them  a  pension — ^but,  as  this  was  nies,  and  by  changed  economic  conditions.  Ferdinand 


generally  insufficient,  many  were  reduced  to  poverty. 
The  Government  transformed  the  monasteries  mto  hos- 


III,  who  was  restored  to  the  throne  by  the  French 
Army,  hastened  to  annul  the  decrees  of  the  Cortes 
pitals,  colleges,  or  barracks.  The  victims  of  the  perse-  (1823).  The  monasteries  and  their  property  were 
cution  remained  faithful  to  their  religious  obligations,  given  back  to  the  religious,  who  were  enabled  once 
Their  ordinaries  took  great  care  of  thexn^  Carcunal  de  more  to  live  in  community.  But  in  October,  1835,  a 
Frankenbei^,  Archbishop  of  Mechlin,  affording  a  par-  decree  of  the  Government,  inspired  by  Juan  de  Mendi- 
ticularly  bright  example  in  this  respect.  The  Abbey  zabal,  minister  of  finance,  again  suppressed  all  the 
of  Melk  (q.  v.)  was  spared;  some  of  the  suppressed  monasteries  in  Spain  and  its  possesions.  The  Cortes, 
houses  were  even  affihated  to  it;  but  on  the  death  of  which  had  not  been  consulted,  approved  of  this  meaa- 
Abbot  Urban  I  (1783),  the  emperor  placed  over  the  ure  next  year,  and  promulgated  a  law  abolishing  vows 
monks  a  religious  of  the  Pious  Schools  as  conunenda-  of  religion.  All  the  movable  and  inunovable  property 
tory  abbot.  The  monasteries  of  Styria  were  soon  was  confiscated  and  the  income  assigned  to  the  sink- 
closed,  though  some  houses — e.  g.,  KremsmQnster.  ing  fund.  Objects  of  art  and  books  were,  in  general, 
Lainbach,  Admont — escaped  the  devastation.  All  reserved  for  the  museums  and  public  libraries,  though 
those  in  Carinthla  and  the  T3rrol  were  sacrificed.  The  many  of  them  were  left  untouched,  and  many  others 
religious  in  Bohemia  had  not  yet  recovered  from  the  diapersed.  Large  Quantities  of  furniture  and  other 
ravages  caused  by  the  wars  of  Frederick  II  and  Maria  objects  were  sold,  tne  lands  and  rights  of  each  house 
Theresa,  when  thev  had  to  encounter  this  fresh  tem-  alienated,  while  speculators  realised  lai^  fortunes, 
pest.  Breunau,  Emmaus  of  Pra^e,  and  Raigem,  Certain  monasteries  were  transformed  into  barracks 
with  a  few  monasteries  of  Cistercians  and  Premon-  or  devoted  to  public  purposes.  Others  were  sold  or 
stratensians,  escaped  complete  ruin.    The  emperor  abandoned  to  pillage. 

showed  no  consideration  towards  the  venerable  Abbey .  In  1859  the  Government  gave  to  the  bishops  those 

of  St.  Martin  of  Pannonia  and  its  dependencies.    In  religious  houses  which  had  not  already  been  aispoaed 

Hunganr  the  Benedictines  were  entirely  wiped  out.  of.    Numerous  conventual  churches  were  tumea  over 

The  death  of  Joseph  II  put  an  end  to  this  violence,  for  parish  use.  The  religious  were  promised  a  pen- 
without,  however,  stopping  the  spread  of  those  opin-  sion  not  to  exceed  one  franc  a  day,  but  it  was  never 
ions  which  had  incited  it.  His  brother,  Leopola  II  paid.  No  mercy  was  shown  even  to  the  aged  and  the 
(d.  1792)  allowed  thin^  to  remain  as  he  founa  them,  mfirm,  who  were  not  allowed  to  wait  for  death  in  their 
but  Francis  II  (Francis  I  of  Austria,  son  of  Leopola  cells.  Almost  all  hoped  for  an  approaching  political 
II)  undertook  to  repair  some  of  the  ruin,  permitting  change  that  would  restore  them  their  religious  liberty, 
religious  to  pronounce  solemn  vows  at  tne  age  of  as  Yuml  happened  twice  before,  but  the  event  proved 
twenty-one.  The  Himgarian  Abbey  of  St.  Martin  of  otherwise.  The  destruction  was  irrevocable,  some 
Pannonia  was  the  first  to  profit  by  this  benevolence,  religious  sought  a  refuge  in  Italy  and  in  France.  The 
but  its  monks  had  to  open  the  gymnasia  in  it  and  its  greater  number  either  petitioned  the  bishops  to  incor- 
dependencies.  The  monasteries  of  the  Tyrol  and  porate  them  in  their  dioceses  or  went  to  live  with  their 
Salzburg  had  escaped  the  ruin.  These  countries  were  families.  The  people  of  the  Northern  provinces,  who 
attached  to  Austna  by  the  (Ik>ngre8s  of  Vienna  (Sept.,  are  very  devoted  to  Catholicism,  did  not  associate 
1814— June,  1815).  The  monks  were  allowed  to  re-  themselves  directly  with  the  measures  taken  against 
enter.  The  celebrated  Abbey  of  Reichenau  alone  did  the  religious:  so  much  cannot  be  said  for  those  of  the 
not  arise  from  its  ruins.  The  princely  Abbey  of  St.  South  and  of  the  large  towns,  where  the  expulsion  of 
Gall,  too,  had  been  diraolved  during  the  Wars  of  the  religious  sometimes  took  the  appearance  of  a  popular 
Revolution  and  the  Empire,  and  there  was  a  proposal,  insurrection:  convents  were  pillaged  and  burned,  re^ 
at  the  Confess  of  Vienna,  to  re-establish  it,  but  with-  ligious  were  massacred.  Monasteries  of  women  were 
out  giving  it  back  its  lands:  the  abbot  would  not  ac-  treated  less  inhumanly:  here  the  authorities  contented 
cept  the  conditions  thus  imposed,  and  the  matter  themselves  with  confiscating  property  and  suppressing 
went  no  further.  The  Swiss  monasteries  were  ex-  privileges;  but  the  nuns  contmued  to  live  in  conunu- 
posed  to  pillage  and  ruin  during  the  wars  of  the  Revo-  nity.  With  time  the  passion  and  hatred  of  the  perae- 
lution.  The  government  of  the  Helvetian  Republic  cutors  diminished  somewhat.  The  monks  of  the  Ab- 
was  hostile  to  them,  they  recovered  a  little  liberty  bey  of  Montserrat  in  Catalonia  were  able  to  oome 
after  the  Act  of  Mediation,  in  1803.  But  the  situ-  together  again.  The  religious  orders  which  supplied 
ation  changed  alter  1832.  The  Federal  Constitution,  the  clergy  for  the  Spanish  colonies,  such  as  the  Do- 
revised  at  that  time,  suppressed  the  guarantees  minicans,  Augustinians,  and  Franciscans,  were  author- 
granted  to  convents  and  rehgious  foundations.    Diu>  ized  to  retain  some  houses. 

ing  the  long  period  of  persecution  and  confiscation  in  The  monasteries  in  Portugal  met  the  same  fate  as 
Switzerland,  from  1838  to  1848  (for  which  see  Lu-  those  in  Spain,  and  at  about  the  same  time  (1833). 
cernb),  the  monks  of  Mariastein  sought  refuge  in  Only  the  Franciscans  charged  with  religious  duties  in 
Germany,  and  then  in  France  and  Austria;  those  of  the  Portuguese  colonies  were  spared. 
Mury  were  sheltered  at  Griess  (Tsrrol),  others,  like  C.  Italy, — During  the  eighteenth  century,  while 
Disentis,  fell  into  utter  ruin.  The  Swiss  Benedic-  Josephinism  was  rampant  in  Catholic  Germany,  Leo- 
tines  then  went  to  the  United  States,  where  they  pold.  afterwards  the  Emperor  Leopold  II,  tried  to 
founded  the  Swiss- American  congregation.  emulate  in  some  degree  the  emperor's  anti-monastie 

B.    The  Iberian  Penin8ula,-^he  constitution  of  policy.    But   the   general   persecution   of   rdisous 

1812  given  to  the  Kingdom  of  Spain  by  the  Govern-  orders  in  Italv  did  not  begin  until  the  wars  of  the  Kev- 

ment  which  Napoleon  imposed  on  it  suppressed  all  ro-  olution  and  the  Empire  had  effected  a  complete  trana- 

ligious  congregations  ana  confiscated  their  property,  formation  in  that  country.    France  inspired  with  her 

in  accordance  with  the  conqueror's  general  policy,  anti-religious  tendencies  the  new  governments  estab- 

They  were  re-established  in  1814  by  King  FercTinand,  lished  by  Napoleon,    (IJhurch  property  was  confis- 

whom  the  War  of  Independence  had  restored  to  the  cated;  monasteries  aitd  convents  were  suppressed, 


M0NA8TEBIES                          455  MONASTERIES 

thougb  ooDjifregationB  devoted  to  the  care  of  the  aick  of  these  oommlflsions  of  visitation,  the  project  of  sup 
and  to  the  instruction  of  poor  children  were  tolerated  pressing  some,  if  indeed  not  all,  of  the  monastic  eetao- 
here  and  there  as,  for  instance,  m  the  Kingdom  of  ishments  in  the  country,  had  been  not  only  broached, 
Italy,  founded  in  1805.  The  repressive  measures  but  had  become  part  of  Henry's  practical  politics.  It 
could  not  be  enforced  in  all  localities  with  equal  sever-  is  well  to  remeniber  this,  as  it  throws  an  interesting 
ity.  Napoleon  extended  them  to  the  city  of  Rome  in  and  somewhat  unexpected  light  upon  the  first  disso- 
1810.  The  authorities  then  closed  the  rehgious  houses  lutions:  the  monasteries  were  doomed  prior  to  these 
of  both  sexes.  At  Naples  the  authorities  proceeded  visitations,  and  not  in  consequence  of  them,  as  we 
to  suppress  all  the  orders  and  confiscate  their  property  have  been  asked  to  believe  according  to  the  traditional 
(1806-13).  When  the  Congress  of  Vienna  restored  story.  P^liament  was  to  meet  e&rly  in  the  foUowing 
these  states  to  ih&i  exiled  rulers,  the  latter  hastmed  }^ear,  1536,  and,  with  the  twofold  object  of  replenish- 
to  make  the  Church  free  once  more.  In  Tuscany  the  m^  an  exhausted  exchequer  and  of  anticipating  oppo- 
duke  made  a  grant  to  the  monasteries,  in  exchange  for  sition  on  the  part  of  the  religious  to  the  proposed  eo- 
the  lands  that  they  had  lost.  In  the  Pontifical  ^tes  clesiastical  changes,  according  to  the  royal  design,  the 
things  reverted  to  the  ancient  order:  1824  houses  for  Commons  were  to  be  asked  to  grant  Henry  the  pos- 
men  and  612  for  women  were  re-established.  In  Naples  sessions  of  at  least  the  smaller  monasteries.  It  must 
the  religious  had  diminished  by  at  least  one-half.  have  been  felt,  however,  by  the  astute  Cromwell,  who 

The  period  of  peace,  however,  was  not  destined  to  is  credited  witn  the  first  conception  of  the  desi^,  that 
endure:  the  estaolishment  of  Italian  unity  was  fatal  to  succeed,  a  project  such  as  this  must  be  sustamed  by 
to  the  religious  orders.  The  persecution  was  resumed  strong  yet  simple  reasons  calculated  to  appeal  to  the 
in  the  constitutional  Kingdom  of  Sardinia,  which  was  popuhu:  mind.  Some  decent  pretext  had  to  be  found 
about  to  become  the  asent  and  the  type  of  united  for  presenting  the  proposed  measure  of  suppression 
Italy.  Cavour  imposed  this  anti-religious  policy  on  and  confiscation  to  the  nation,  and  it  can  hiurdly  now 
King  Victor  Emmanuel.  He  proposed  first  to  secu-  be  doubted  that  the  device  of  blackening  the  characters 
larize  the  monastic  property:  the  money  thus  ob-  of  the  monks  and  nuns  was  deliberatelv  resorted  to. 
tained  was  to  serve  as  a  church  fimd  to  equalize  the  The  visitation  opened  apparently  in  the  summer  of 
payment  of  the  diocesan  clergy.  The  king  finally  1535,  although  the  visitatorial  powers  of  the  bishops 
gave  his  sanction  to  a  law  which  suppressed,  in  his  own  were  not  suspended  until  the  eighteenth  of  the  following 
states  alone,  334  convents  and  monasteries,  contain-  September.  Preachers  were  moreover  commissioned 
ing  4280  religious  men  and  1200  nuns.  This  ruin  and  to  go  over  the  country  in  the  earlv  autumn,  in  order, 
depredation  proceeded  uniformly  with  the  cause  of  by  their  invectives,  to  educate  public  opinion  against 
Italian  unity,  since  the  Piedmontese  constitution  and  the  monks.  These  pulpit  orators  were  of  three  sorts, 
l^Dslation  were  imposed  on  the  whole  peninsula.  The  (1)  "ndlers",  who  aeclaimed  against  the  religious  as 
rc£^ouB  orders  and  benefices  not  charged  with  cures  "hypocrites,  sorcerers,  and  idle  drones,  etc.";  (2) 
of  souls  were  declared  useless,  and  suppressed;  the  "preachers  ,  who  said  the  monks ''made  the  land  un- 
buildings  and  lands  were  confiscated  and  sold  (1866).  profitable'';  and  (3)  those  who  told  the  people  that, 
The  Government  paid  allowances  to  the  surviving  re-  if  the  abbeys  went  down,  the  king  would  never  want 
ligious.  In  some  abbeys — as  at  Monte  Cassino — the  any  taxes  again".  This  last  was  a  favourite  argu- 
members  of  the  community  were  allowed  to  remain  as  ment  of  Cranmer,  in  his  sermons  at  St.  Paul's  Cross, 
care-takers.  The  Papal  States  were  subjected  to  the  The  men  employed  by  Cromwell — the  agents  en- 
same  policy  after  1870.  The  Italian  authorities  con-  trusted  with  the  task  of  getting  up  the  required  evi- 
tentea  themselves  with  depriving  the  religious  of  their  dence — ^were  chiefly  four.  Layton,  Leigh^  Aprice,  and 
legal  existence  and  all  thev  possessed,  without  raising  London.  They  were  well  fitted  for  their  work;  and 
any  obstacles  to  a  possible  reconstruction  of  reffular  the  charges  brought  a^unst  the  good  name  of  some 
communities.  A  certain  number  of  monasteries  nave  at  least  of  the  monasteries,  by  these  chosen  emissaries 
thus  been  able  to  exist  and  carry  on  their  work,  owing  of  Cromwell  are.  it  must  be  confessed,  sufficiently 
solely  to  the  guarantee  of  individual  liberty;  their  ex-  dreadful,  aJthou^  even  their  reports  certainly  do  not 
istence  is  precarious,  and  an  arbitrary  measure  of  the  bear  out  the  modem  notion  of  wholesale  corruption. 
Government  midit  at  any  time  suppress  them.  After  The  visitation  seems  to  have  been  conducted  sys- 
the  general  dissolution,  some  Italian  religious — ^for  in-  tematically,  and  to  have  passed  throus^  thr^  clearly 
stance,  the  Olivetans  and  the  Canons  Regular  of  St.  defined  stages.  During  the  summer  the  houses  in  the 
JohnLateran — crossed  the  Alps  and  established  houses  west  of  England  were  subjected  to  examination;  and 
of  their  respective  orders  in  France.     J.  M.  Bessb.  this  portion  of  the  work  came  to  an  end  in  September, 

when  Layton  and  Ldgh  arrived  at  Oxford  and  Cam- 

SuPFBESSiON  OF  MoNABTBRiBS  IN  "EsGLAND  I7NDEB  bridge  respectivelv.    In  October  and  November  the 

Hknbt  VIII. — ^From  any  point  of  view  the  destruc-  visitors  changed  the  field  of  their  labours  to  the  east- 

tion  of  the  English  monasteries  by  Henry  VIII  must  em  and  soumeastem  districts;  and  in  December  we 

be  regarded  as  one  of  the  great  events  of  the  sixteenth  find  Layton  advancing  through  the  midland  counties 

oentuiy.    They  were  looked  upon,  in  England,  at  the  to  liclmeld,  where  he  met  Leigh,  who  had  finished 

time  of  Henry's  breach  with  Rome,  as  one  of  the  great  his  work  in  the  religious  houses  of  Huntingdon  and 

bulwarics  of  the  papal  s^rstem.    The  monks  had  been  Lincolnshire.    Thence  they  proceeded  together  to  the 

called  "the  great  standmg  army  of  Rome".    One  of  north,  and  the  city  of  York  was  reached  on  11  Janu- 

the  first  practical  results  of  the  assumption  of  the  ary,  1536.    But  with  all  their  haste,  to  which  they 

hi^est  spiritual  powers  by  the  king  was  the  super-  were  urged  by  Cromwell,  they  had  not  proceeded  very 

vision  by  royal  decree  of  the  ordinary  episcopal  visi-  far  in  the  work  of  their  northern  inspection  before  the 

tations,  and  the  appointment  of  a  layman — ^Thomas  meeting  of  Parliament. 

Cromwell — as  the  king's  vicar-general  in  spirituals.  From  time  to  time,  whilst  on  their  work  of  inspec- 

with  special  authority  to  visit  the  monastic  houses,  tion,  the  visitors,  and  principally  London  and  Leigh, 

and  to  brin^  them  into  line  with  the  new  order  or  sent  brief  written  reports  to  their  employers.    Practi- 

things.    This  was  in  1534;  and,  some  time  prior  to  the  cally  all  the  accusations  made  against  the  good  name 

December  of  that  year,  arran|;ements  were  already  of  the  monks  and  nuns  are  contained  in  the  letters 

bdng  made  for  a  systematic  visitation.    A  document,  sent  in  this  way  by  the  visitors,  and  in  the  document, 

dated  21  January,  1535,  allows  Cromwell  to  conduct  or  documents,  known  as  the  "Comperta  Monastica", 

the  visit  through  "commissaries" — rather  than  per-  which  were  drawn  up  at  the  time  by  the  same  visitors 

sonally — as  the  minister  is  said  to  be  at  that  time  too  and  forwuxled  to  tneir  chief,  Cromwell.    No  other 

busy  with  ''the  affairs  of  the  whole  kingdom".    It  is  evidence  as  to  the  state  of  the  monasteries  at  this  time 

ppw  practically  admitted  that,  even  prior  to  the  issue  is  fprth^Qiing,  ai^d  ike  incjuirer  into  the  tfut]i  qf 


MONA8TEBIE8 


456 


MONASTERIES 


these  accusations  is  driven  back  ultimately  upon  the 
worth  of  these  visitors'  words.  It  is  eafiy,  of  course, 
to  dismiss  inconvenient  witnesses  as  being  unworthy 
of  credit,  but  in  this  case  a  mere  study  of  these  letters 
and  documents  is  quite  sufficient  to  cast  considerable 
doubt  upon  thdr  testimony,  whilst  an  examination 
into  the  subsequent  careers  of  these  roval  inquisitors 
will  more  than  justify  the  rejection  of  their  testimony 
as  wholly  unworthy  of  belief.  (Gasquet,  "Henry 
VIII  and  the  EngUsh  Monasteries  ,  I,  xi.) 

It  is  of  course  impossible  to  enter  into  the  details  of 
the  visitation.  We  must^  therefore,  pass  to  the  sec- 
ond step  in  the  dissolution.  Parliament  met  on  4 
Februazy,  1536,  and  the  chief  business  it  was  called 
upon  to  transact  was  the  consideration  and  passing  of 
the  act  suppressing  the  smaller  religious  houses.  It 
may  be  well  to  state  exactly  what  is  known  about  this 
matter.  We  know  for  certain  that  the  king's  pro- 
posal to  suppress  the  smaller  religious  houses  gave 
rise  to  a  long  debate  in  the  Lower  House,  and  that 
Parliament  passed  the  measure  with  great  reluctance. 
It  is  more  than  remarkable,  moreover,  that  in  the 
preamble  of  the  Act  itself  Parliament  is  careful  to 
throw  the  entire  responsibility  for  the  measure  upon 
the  king,  and  to  declare,  if  words  mean  anything  at 
all,  that  they  took  the  truth  of  the  charges  against  the 
good  name  of  the  religious,  solely  upon  the  king's 
"declaration"  Uiat  he  Knew  the  charges  to  be  true. 
It  must  be  remembered,  too^  that  one  simple  fact 
proves  that  the  actual  accusations,  or  "Comperta" — 
whether  in  the  form  of  the  visitors'  notes,  or  of 
the  mythical  "Black-book" — could  never  have  been 
placed  before  Parliament  for  its  consideration  in  de- 
tail, still  less  for  its  critical  examination  and  judg- 
ment. We  have  the  "Comperta"  documents — ^the 
findings  of  the  visitors,  whatever  they  may  be  worth, 
whilst  on  their  rounds,  among  the  State  papers — and 
it  may  be  easily  seen  that  no  distinction  whatever  is 
made  in  them  between  the  greater  and  lesser  houses. 
All  are,  to  use  a  common  expression,  "tarred  with  the 
same  brush";  all,  that  is,  are  eoually  smirched  by  the 
filthy  suggestions  of  Layton  ana  Leigh,  of  London  and 
Apnce.  ^^The  idea  that  the  snialler  monasteries 
rather  than  the  larger  were  particular  abodes  of  vice", 
writes  Dr.  Gairdner,  the  editor  of  the  State  papers  or 
this  period,  "is  not  borne  out  by  the  'Comperta'". 
Yet  the  preamble  of  the  very  Act,  which  suppressed 
the  smaller  monasteries  because  of  their  vicious  Uv- 
ing,  declares  positively  that  "in  the  great  and  solemn 
Monasteries  of  the  realm"  religion  was  well  observed 
and  God  well  served.  Can  it  oe  imagined  for  a  mo- 
ment that  this  assertion  could  have  found  its  way  into 
the  Act  of  Parliament,  had  the  reports,  or  "Com- 
perta", of  the  visitors  been  laid  upon  the  table  of  the 
House  of  Commons  for  the  inspection  of  the  members? 
We  are  consequently  compelled  by  this  fact  to  accept 
as  history  the  account  of  the  matter  given  in  the  pre- 
amble of  the  first  Act  of  dissolution:  namely  that  the 
measure  was  passed  on  the  strength  of  the  king's 
"declaration"  that  the  charges  against  the  smaller 
houses  were  true,  and  on  that  alone. 

In  its  final  shape  the  first  measure  of  suppression 
merely  enacted  that  all  religious  houses  not  poss^sed 
of  an  income  of  more  than  £200  a  year  shoula  be  given 
to  the  Crown.  The  heads  of  such  houses  were  to  re- 
ceive pensions,  and  the  religious,  despite  the  alleged 
depravity  of  some,  were  to  be  aomitted  to  the  larger 
and  more  observant  monasteries,  or  to  be  licensed 
to  act  as  secular  priests.  The  measure  of  turpitude 
fixed  by  the  Act  was  thus  a  pecuniazy  one.  All  mo- 
nastic establishments  which  fell  below  the  £200  a  year 
standard  of  "good  living"  were  to  be  given  to  the 
king  to  be  dealt  with  at  his  "pleasure,  to  the  honour  of 
God  and  the  wealth  of  the  realm". 

This  money  limit  at  once  rendered  it  necessary,  as  a 
first  step  in  the  direction  of  dissolution,  to  ascertain 
which  houses  came  within  the  operation  of  the  Act. 


As  early  as  April,  1536  (less  than  a  month  from  the 
passing  of  the  measure),  we  find  mixed  commissions  oi 
officials  and  country  gentlemen  appointed  in  oonse- 
<iuence  to  m^e  surveys  of  the  religious  houses,  and 
instructions  issued  for  their  guidance.  Tlie  returns 
made  by  these  commissionerB  are  of  the  highest  im- 
portance in  determining  the  moral  state  of  the  reli- 
gious houses  at  the  time  of  their  dissolution.  It  is 
now  beyond  dispute  that  the  accusations  of  Crom- 
well's visitors  were  made  prior  to  the  passing  of  the 
Act  of  Suppression  of  1536,  and  therefore  prior  to,  not 
after  (as  most  writers  have  erroneously  supposed),  the 
constitution  of  these  mixed  commissions  of  gentry  and 
officials.  The  main  purpose  for  which  the  commis- 
sioners were  nominated  was  of  course  to  find  out  what 
houses  possessed  an  income  of  less  than  £200  a  year; 
and  to  take  over  such  in  the  kin^s  name,  as  now  by  the 
late  Act  legally  belonging  to  His  Majesty.  The  gen- 
try and  officials  were  however  instructed  to  find  out 
and  report  upon  "  the  conversation  of  the  Uves"  of  the 
religious;  or  in  other  words  they  were  specially  di- 
rected to  examine  into  the  moral  state  of  the  houses 
visited.  Unfortunately,  comparatively  few  of  the 
returns  of  these  mixed  commissions  are  now  known  to 
exist;  although  some  have  been  discovered,  which 
were  unknown  to  Dr.  Gairdner  when  he  made  his 
"Calendar"  of  the  documents  of  1536.  Fortunately, 
however,  the  extant  reports  deal  expressly  with  some 
of  the  very  houses  against  which  Layton  and  Leigh 
had  made  their  pestilential  suggestions.  Now  that 
the  suppression  was  resolved  upon  and  made  legal,  it 
did  not  matter  to  Henry  or  Cromwell  that  the  inmates 
should  be  described  as  "evil  livers";  and  so  the  new 
commissioners  returned  the  religious  of  these  same 
houses  as  being  really  "of  good  and  virtuous  conver- 
sation", and  this,  not  in  the  case  of  one  house  or  dis- 
trict only,  but,  as  Gairdner  says,  "the  characters  given 
of  the  inmates  are  almost  uniformly  good". 

To  prepare  for  the  reception  of  the  expected  spoils, 
what  was  known  as  the  Augmentation  C)ffice  was  es- 
tablished, and  Sir  Thomas  Pope  was  made  its  first 
treasurer,  24  April,  1536.  On  this  same  day  instruc- 
tions were  issued  for  the  guidance  of  the  mixed  com- 
missions in  the  work  of  dissolving  the  monasteries. 
According  to  these  directions,  the  commissionerB, 
having  interviewed  the  superior  and  shown  him  the 
"Act  of  Dissolution",  were  to  make  all  the  officials  of 
the  house  swear  to  answer  truthfully  any  questions 
put  to  them.  They  were  then  to  examine  mto  the 
moral  and  financial  state  of  the  establishment,  and  to 
report  upon  it,  as  well  as  upon  the  number  ot  the  re- 
ligious and  "the  conversation  of  their  lives".  After 
tn&tt  an  inventory  of  all  the  goods,  chattels,  and  plate 
was  to  be  taken,  and  an  "indenture"  or  counterpart 
of  the  same  was  to  be  left  with  the  superior,  dating 
from  1  March,  1536,  because  from  that  date  all  had 
passed  into  the  possession  of  the  king.  Thencefor- 
ward the  superior  was  to  be  held  responsible  for  the 
safe  custody  of  the  king's  property.  At  the  same 
time  the  commissioners  were  to  issue  their  commands  to 
the  heads  of  the  houses  not  to  receive  any  more  rents  in 
the  name  of  the  convent,  nor  to  spend  any  money,  ex- 
cept for  necessary  ^cpenses,  until  the  king's  pleasure 
should  be  known.  They  were,  however,  to  be  strictly 
enjoined  to  continue  their  care  over  the  lands,  and  "  to 
sow  and  cultivate"  as  before,  until  such  time  as  some 
king's  farmer  should  be  appointed  and  relieve  them  of 
this  duty.  As  for  the  monks,  the  officer  was  told  "to 
send  those  that  will  remain  in  religion  to  other  bouses 
with  letters  to  the  governors,  and  those  that  wi^  to 
go  to  the  world  to  my  lord  of  Canterbury  and  the  lord 
chancellor  for"  their  letters  to  receive  some  benefices 
or  livings  when  such  could  be  found  for  them. 

One  curious  fact  about  the  dissolution  of  the  smaller 
monasteries  deserves  special  notice.  No  sooner  had 
the  king  obtained  possession  of  these  houses  under  the 
money  value  of  £200  a  year,  than  he  commenced  to 


MOKA8TSUE8 


467 


MONASTEBDEfi 


refound  some  ''in  peipetuity"  under  a  new  charter. 
In  this  way  no  fewer  than  fifty-two  religious  houses  in 
various  parts  of  England  gained  a  temporary  respite 
from  extinction.  The  cost,  however,  was  consider- 
able, not  alone  to  the  religious,  but  to  their  friends.  The 
property  was  again  con&cated  and  the  religious  were 
nniuly  swept  away,  before  they  had  been  able  to  repay 
the  sums  borrowed  in  order  to  purchase  this  very  slen- 
der favour  at  the  hands  of  the  royal  legal  possessor. 
In  hard  cash  the  treasurer  of  the  Court  of  Augmenta- 
tion acknowledges  to  have  received,  as  merely  ''part 
TOtyment  of  Uie  various  sums  of  money,  due  to  the 
King  for  fines  or  compositions  for  the  toleration  and 
continuance"  of  only  thirty-three  of  these  refounded 
monasteries,  some  £5948  6b.  8d.  or  hardly  less,  prob- 
ably, than  £60,000  of  present-day  money.  Sir 
Thomas  Pope,  the  treasurer  of  the  Court  of  Augmen- 
tation, ingenuously  adds  that  he  has  not  counteid  the 
arrears  due  to  the  oflice  under  this  head,  "since  all 
and  each  of  the  said  monasteries,  before  the  close  of 
the  account,  have  come  into  the  King's  hands  by  sur- 
render, or  by  the  authority  of  Parliament  have  been 
added  to  the  augmentation  of  the  royal  revenues". 
"For  this  reason,  therefore,"  he  adds,  "the  King  has 
remitted  all  sums  of  mone^  still  due  to  him,  as  the 
residue  of  their  fines  for  his  royal  toleration."  The 
sums  paid  for  the  fresh  foundations  "in  perpetuity", 
which  in  reeJity  as  the  event  showed  meant  only  the 
respite  of  a  couple  of  years  or  so,  varied  considerably. 
As  a  rule  they  represented  about  three  times  the  an- 
nual revenue  of  the  house;  but  sometimes^  as  in  the 
case  of  St.  Mary's,  Winchester,  which  was  nned  £333 
68.  8d.  for  leave  to  continue,  it  was  re-established 
with  the  loss  of  some  of  its  richest  possessions. 

It  is  somewhat  difficult  to  estimate  correctly  the 
number  of  religious  houses  which  passed  into  the 
king's  possession  in  virtue  of  the  Act  of  Parliament  of 
1536.  Stowe's  estimate  is  generally  deemed  suffi- 
ciently near  the  mark,  and  he  says: "  the  number  of  the 
houses  then  suppressed  was  376".  In  respect  to  the 
value  of  the  property,  Stowe's  estimate  would  also  ap- 
pear to  be  substantially  correct  when  he  gives  £30,- 
000,  or  some  £300,000  of  present-day  money,  as  the 
yearly  income  derived  from  the  confiscated  lands. 
There  can  be  no  doubt,  however,  that  subsequently 
the  promises  of  large  annual  receipts  from  the  old  re- 
Hgious  estates  prov^  illusory,  and  that,  in  spite  of  the 
rack-rentins  of  the  Crown  farmers,  the  monastic 
acres  fumiwed  far  less  money  for  the  royal  purse  than 
they  had  previously  done  under  the  thrifty  manage- 
ment and  personal  supervision  of  their  former  owners. 

As  to  the  value  of  the  spoils  which  came  from  the 
wrecked  and  dismantled  houses,  where  the  waste  was 
everywhere  so  great,  it  is  naturally  difficult  to  appraise 
the  value  of  the  money,  plate,  and  jewels  which  were 
sent  in  kind  into  the  king's  treasury,  and  the  proceeds 
from  the  sales  of  the  lead,  bells,  stock,  furniture,  and 
even  the  conventual  buildings.  It  is,  however,  reason- 
ably certain  that  Lord  Herbert,  following  Stowe,  has 
g laced  the  amount  actually  received  at  too  high  a 
gure.  Not,  of  course,  that  these  goods  were  not  worth 
vastly  more  than  the  round  £100,000,  at  which  he  esti- 
mates them;  but  nothing  like  that  sum  was  actually 
received  or  acknowledged  by  Sir  Thomas  Pope,  as 
treasurer  of  the  Court  of  Augmentation.  Corrup- 
tion, without  a  doubt,  existed  everywhere,  from  the 
lowest  attendant  of  the  visiting  commissioner  to  the 
highest  court  official.  But  aUowing  for  the  number- 
less ways  in  which  the  monastic  possessions  could  be 
plundered  in  the  process  of  transference  to  their  new 
possessor,  it  may  be  not  much  beyond  the  mark  to  put 
these  "Robin  Hood's  pennyworths",  as  Stowe  calls 
them,  at  about  £1,000,000  of  present-day  money. 

Something  must  necessarily  be  said  of  the  actual 
process  which  was  followed  by  the  Crown  agents  in 
dissolving  these  lesser  monasteries.  It  was  much  the 
same  in  every  case,  and  it  was  a  somewhat  long  pro- 


cess,  since  the  work  was  not  all  done  in  a  day.  The 
rolls  of  accounts,  sent  into  the  Augmentation  Office 
by  the  commissioners,  show  that  it  was  frequently  a 
matter  of  six  to  ten  weeks  before  any  house  was  finally 
dismantled  and  its  inmates  had  all  been  turned  out 
of  doora.  The  chief  commissioners  paid  two  official 
visits  to  the  scene  of  operations  durine  the  progress  of 
the  work.  On  the  first  they  assembled  the  superior 
and  his  subjects  in  the  Chapter  House,  announced  to 
the  community  and  its  dependents  their  impending 
doom;  called  for  and  defaced  the  convent  seal,  the 
symbol  of  corporate  existence,  without  which  no  busi- 
ness could  be  transacted;  desecrated  the  church;  took 
possession  of  the  best  plate  and  vestments  "unto  the 
King's  use" ;  measured  the  lead  upon  the  roof  and  cal- 
culated its  value  when  melted;  counted  the  bells;  and 
appraised  the  goods  and  chattels  of  the  community. 
Then  they  passed  on  to  the  scene  of  their  next  opera- 
tions, leaving  behind  them  certain  subordinate  offi- 
cers and  worlcmen  to  carry  out  the  designed  destruction 
by  stripping  the  roofs  and  pulling  down  the  gutters 
and  rain  pipes;  melting  the  lead  into  pig?  and  fodders, 
throwing  down  the  bells,  breaking  them  with  sledge- 
hammers and  packing  the  metal  into  barrels  ready  for 
the  visit  of  the  speculator  and  his  bid  for  the  rooils. 
This  was  followed  by  the  work  of  collecting  the  furni- 
ture and  selling  it,  together  with  the  window  frames, 
shutters,  and  doors  by  public  auction  or  private  tender. 
When  ail  this  had  been  done,  the  commissioners  re- 
turned to  audit  the  accounts  and  to  satisfy  them- 
selves generally  that  the  work  of  devastation  had  been 
accomplished  to  the  king's  contentment — ^that  the 
nest  had  been  destroyed  and  the  birds  scattered — 
that  what  had  been  a  monument  of  architectural 
beauty  in  the  past  was  now  a  "bare  roofless  choir, 
where  late  the  sweet  birds  sang". 

No  sooner  had  the  process  of  destruction  begun 
simultaneously  all  over  the  country  than  the  people 
began  at  last  to  realize  that  the  benefits  likely  to  ac- 
crue to  them  out  of  the  plunder  were  most  illusory. 
When  this  was  understood,  it  was  first  proposed  to 
present  a  petition  to  the  lung  from  the  Lords  and 
Commons,  pointing  out  the  evident  damage  which 
must  be  aone  to  the  country  at  large  if  the  measure 
were  carried  out  fully;  and  asking  that  the  process 
of  suppression  should  be  at  once  stopped,  and  that  the 
lesser  nouses,  which  had  not  yet  been  dissolved  under 
the  authority  of  the  Act  of  1536,  should  be  allowed  to 
stand.  Nothing,  of  course,  came  of  this  attempt. 
Heniy's  appetite  was  but  whetted  by  what  had  come 
to  him,  and  he  only  hungered  for  more  of  the  spoils  of 
the  Church  and  the  poor.  The  action  of  the  Parlia- 
ment in  1536  in  permitting  the  first  measure  to  be- 
come law  made  it  in  reality  much  more  difficult  for 
Henry  to  draw  back;  and  in  more  senses  than  one  it 
paved  the  way  for  the  general  dissolution.  Here  and 
there  in  the  country  active  resistance  to  the  work  of 
destruction  was  organized,  and  in  the  case  of  Lincoln- 
shire, Yorkshire,  and  the  North  generally,  the  popu- 
lar rising  of  the  "Pilgrimage  of  Grace"  was  caused  in 
(^e  main,  cr  at  least  in  great  measure,  by  the  desire  of 
the  people  at  lai]ge  to  save  the  religious  houses  from 
ruthless  destruction.  The  failure  of  the  insurrection 
of  the  "Pilgrimage  of  Grace"  was  celebrated  by  the 
execution  of  twelve  abbots  and,  to  use  Henry's  own 
words,  by  a  wholesale  "tying-up"  of  monks.  Bv  a 
new  and  ingenious  process,  appropriately  called  "Dia- 
solution  by  Attainder",  an  abbey  was  considered  by 
the  royal  advisers  to  fall  into  the  king's  hands  by  the 
supposed  or  constructive  treason  of  its  superior.  In 
this  way  several  of  the  larger  abbeys,  with  all  their 
revenues  and  possessions,  came  into  Henry's  hands  aa 
a  consequence  of  the  "Pilgrimage  of  Grace". 

The  Parliament  of  1536,  it  will  be  remembered,  had 
granted  Henry  the  possession  only  of  the  houses  the 
annual  value  of  which  was  less  than  £200.  What 
happened  in  the  three  years  that  followed  the  passing 


MOKASTIRT 


458 


M0NA8TIBT 


of  the  Act  was  briefly  this:  the  king  was  ill  satisfied 
wiUi  the  actual  results  of  what  he  had  thought  would 

grove  a  veritable  gold  mine.  Personally,  perhaps,  he 
ad  not  gained  as  much  as  he  had  hoped  for  from  the 
dissolutions  which  had  taken  place.  The  property  of 
the  monks  somehow  seemed  cursed  by  its  origin;  it 
passed  from  his  control  by  a  thousand-and-one  chan- 
nels, and  he  was  soon  thirsting  for  a  greater  prize, 
which,  as  the  event  showed,  he  was  equally  unable  to 
guard  for  his  own  uses.  By  his  instructions,  visitors 
were  once  more  set  in  motion  against  the  larger  ab- 
beys, in  which,  according  to  the  Act  of  1536,  rehgion  was 
"  ngnt  well  kept  and  observed  ".  Not  havins  received 
any  mandate  from  Parliament  to  authorize  Uie  exten- 
sion of  their  proceedings,  the  royal  agents,  eager  to 
win  a  place  in  his  favour,  were  busy  up  and  down  the 
country,  cajoling,  coercing,  commandmg,  and  threat- 
ening the  meml^ers  of  the  religious  houses  in  order  to 
force  them  to  give  up  their  monasteries  unto  the 
King's  Majesty.  As  Dr.  Gairdner  puts  it:  "by  vari- 
ous arts  and  means  the  heads  of  these  establishments 
were  induced  to  surrender,  and  occasionally  when  an 
abbot  was  found,  as  in  the  case  of  Wobum,  to  have 
committed  treason  in  the  sense  of  the  recent  statutes, 
the  house  (by  a  stretch  of  the  tyrannical  laws)  was 
forfeited  to  the  king  by  his  attainder.  But  attain- 
ders were  certainly  the  exception,  surrenders  being  the 
general  rule''. 

The  autumn  of  1537  saw  the  beginning  of  the  fall  of 
the  friaries  in  England.  For  some  reason,  possibly 
because  of  their  poverty,  they  had  not  been  Drought 
under  the  Act  of  1536.  For  a  year  after  the  "Pil- 
grimage of  Grace"  few  dissolutions  of  houses,  other 
than  those  which  came  to  the  king  by  the  attainder  of 
their  superiors,  are  recorded.  With  the  feast  of  St. 
Michael,  1537,  however,  besides  the  convents  of  friars 
the  work  of  securing,  by  some  means  or  other,  the  sur- 
render of  the  greater  houses  went  on  rapidlv.  The  in- 
structions (dven  to  the  royal  agents  are  clear.  They 
were,  by  aJl  methods  known  to  them,  to  get  the  re- 
ligious willingly  to  consent  and  agree"  to  their  own 
extinction.  It  was  only  when  they  found  "any  of  the 
said  heads  and  convents,  so  appointed  to  he  dissolved. 
BO  wilful  and  obstinate  that  they  would  in  no  wise' 
agree  to  sipn  and  seal  their  own  death-warrant,  that 
the  commissioners  were  authorized  by  Henry's  in- 
structions to  "take  possession  of  the  house"  and  prop- 
erty by  force.  And,  whilst  thus  engaged^  the  royal 
agents  were  ordered  to  declare  that  the  king  had  no 
design  whatsoever  upon  the  monastic  property  or  sys- 
t«n  as  such,  or  any  desire  to  secure  the  total  suppres- 
sion of  the  religious  houses.  They  were  instructed  at 
all  costs  to  put  a  stop  to  such  rumours,  which  were 
naturally  rife  all  over  the  country  at  this  time.  This 
they  dia ;  and  the  unscrupulous  Dr.  Layton  declared 
that  he  had  told  the  people  everywhere  that  "in  this 
they  utterly  slandered  the  King  their  natural  lord". 
He  bade  them  not  to  believe  such  repK)rts;  and  he 
'  *  commanded  Uie  abbots  and  priors  to  set  in  the  stocks  " 
such  as  related  such  untrue  things.  It  was,  however, 
as  may  be  imagined,  hard  enou^  to  suppress  the  ru- 
mour whilst  the  actual  thing  was  going  on.  In  1538 
and  1539  some  150  monasteries  of  men  appear  to 
have  signed  away  their  corporate  existence  and  their 
property,  and  by  a  formal  deed  handed  over  all  rights 
to  the  king. 

When  the  work  had  progreased  sufficiently  the  new 
Parliament,  which  met  in  April,  1539,  after  observing 
that  divers  abbots  and  others  had  yielded  up  their 
houses  to  the  king,  "without  constraint,  coercion,  or 
compulsion",  confirmed  these  surrenders  and  vested 
all  monastic  property  thus  obtained  in  the  Crown. 
Finallv,  in  the  autumn  of  that  year,  Henry's  triumph 
oyer  the  monastic  orders  was  completed  by  the  hor- 
rible deaths  for  constructive  treason  of  the  three 
peat  Abbots  of  Glastonbury,  Colchester,  and  Read- 
ing.   And  BO,  as  one  writer  has  said,  "before  the  win- 


ter of  1540  had  set  in,  the  last  of  the  abbeys  had  been 
added  to  the  ruins  with  which  the  land  was  strewn 
from  one  end  to  the  other". 

It  is  difficult,  of  course,  to  estimate  the  exact  number 
of  religious  and  religious  nouses  supprrased  at  this  time 
in  England.  Putting  all  sources  of  information  together, 
it  seems  that  the  monks  and  regular  canons  expelled 
from  the  greater  monasteries  were  about  3200  in  num- 
ber; the  friars,  1800;  and  the  nuns,  1560.  If  to  these 
should  be  added  the  number  of  those  affected  by  the 
first  Act  of  Parliament,  it  is  probably  not  far  from  the 
truth  to  say  that  the  number  of  relioous  men  and 
women  expelled  from  their  homes  by  the  suppreasion 
were,  in  round  numbers,  about  8000.  Besiaes  these, 
of  course,  there  were  probably  more  than  ten  times 
that  number  of  people  turned  adrift  who  were  their 
dependents,  or  otherwise  obtained  a  living  in  their 
service. 

If  it  is  difficult  to  determine,  with  any  certainty,  the 
number  of  the  religious  in  monastic  England  at  the 
time  of  the  dissolution  of  the  monasteries,  it  is  still 
more  so  to  awe  any  accurate  estimate  of  the  property 
involved.  Speed  calculated  the  annual  value  of  the 
entire  property,  which  passed  into  Henry's  hands  at 
some  £171,312  4s.  3^d.  Other  valuations  have 
l>laced  it  at  a  higher  figure,  so  that  a  modem  calcula- 
tion of  the  annual  value  at  £200,000.  or  some  £2,000,- 
000  of  presentrday  money^  is  probaoly  not  excessive. 
Hence,  as  a  rough  calculation^  it  may  ce  taken  that  at 
the  fall  of  the  monasteries  an  mcome  of  about  two  mil- 
lion pounds  sterling  a  year,  of  the  present  money 
value,  was  taken  from  the  Church  ana  the  poor  and 
transferred  to  the  royal  purse. 

It  may,  however,  be  at  once  stated  that  Heniy  evi- 
dently never  derived  anything  like  such  a  sum  from 
the  transaction.  The  capital  value  was  so  dimin- 
ished by  gratuitous  grants,  sales  of  lands  at  nominal 
values,  and  in  numerous  other  ways,  that  in  fact,  for 
the  eleven  years  from  1536  to  1547,  the  Augmentation 
Office  accounts  show  that  the  king  only  drew  an 
average  yearly  income  of  £37,000.  or  £370,000  of 
present-day  money,  from  property  wnich,  in  the  hands 
of  the  monks,  had  probaby  produced  five  times 
the  amount.  As  far  as  can  be  gathered  from  the  ao- 
counts  still  extant,  the  total  receipts  of  the  kins  from 
the  monastic  confiscations  from  April,  1536,  to  Mich- 
aelmas, 1547,  was  about  thirteen  million  and  a  half  of 
present-day  money,  to  which  nr.ust  be  added  about  a 
million  sterling,  the  melting  value  of  the  monastic 
plate.  Of  this  sum,  leaving  out  of  calculation  the 
plate  and  jewels,  not  quite  three  millions  were  spent 
by  the  king  personally;  £600,000  was  spent  upon  the 
royal  palaces,  and  nearly  half  a  million  on  the  house- 
hold of  the  Prince  of  Wales.  More  than  five  millions 
sterling  are  accounted  for  unr'er  the  head  of  war  ex- 
penses, and  nearly  £700^000  were  [q>ent  on  coast  de- 
fence. Pensions  to  religious  persons  account  for 
£330,000;  and  one  curious  item  of  £6000  is  entered  as 
spent  "to  secure  the  surrender  of  the  Abbey  of  Abing- 
don." 

QAaQUST,  Henry  VIII  and  the  BngUMh  MonaaUrie»  CT<ondon. 
1899) ;  Idem,  Overlooked  Testimoniee  to  the  Charaeter  of  the  Bngheh 
Monaeterxea  in  Dublim  Review  (April.  1894);  Dixon.  Hialory  ^tht 
Church  of  Bngland,  I.  11;  Gaibdkbb.  The  Church  m  tho  Sixteemtk 
Century  (London,  1902) ;  Idsm,  Calendar  of  Staie  Papere  of  Bemrm 
VIII,  vols,  for  1897-40  and  Inlrodudume;  Idem,  LoOard^  and 
the  Reformation  in  England  (London,  1908);  Leltere^retaHmo  to 
the  Suppreenon  of  the  MonaeUrieet  ed  ^■'*^ST.  ^V""**^  Society, 
London,  1843):  Archiiold.  The  Somered  Rehoume  Houoee  m 
Camhridoe  ffielorienl  Beaaye,  no.  6  (1892);  MAiwiKq.  lUmry 
VIII  and  the  Bnnlieh  Monatderiee  in  DvbUn  l?m«w  (April.  1888); 
Idkm.  Henry  VIII  and  the  Sunoreenon  «/  the  Oreater  JTm- 
aeteriee  in  Dublin  Reriew  (Anril.  1889) :  Pftkce.  The  Paenrng  of  Ao 
Monk  in  Quarterly  Retiew  (July,  1895>:  roBBETP.  W«**2r?  ^^ 
ReformaOon,  ed.  Qasqubt  (London,  1896):  jBsaopv.  Ir^ori  the 
Great  PiUage  (London.  1901);  Wakbmah,  Introdudtwm,  to  the 
Church  HiHorv  of  Bngland  (London.  189A.  1898);  SrsLMAK.  The 
Hietory  and  Pate  of  Sacrilege  (London.  1698. 1848. 1858). 

Francis  Aidan  Gabqttbt. 

Monastery,  Canonipal  Erbction  op  a. — ^A  re- 
ligious house  (monastery  or  convent)  ia  a  fixed 


M0NASTXCI8M  459  MONASTICISM 

deaoe  of  relipoiis  pereons.    It  supposes,  therefore,  see  RBUoiotrs  Obdbbb,  and  the  article  on  the  ptflie* 

continuous  habitation  of  a  community  strictly  so  ular  order  or  congregation  required. 

called,  governed  by  a  BupNerior  and  following  i^e  rule       I.  Its  Growth  and  Mbthod. — Origin, — ^Any  di»- 

Erescribed  by  the  respective  order.  Such  a  i^lidous  cussion  of  pre-Qiristian  asceticism  is  outside  the  scope 
ouse  is  to  be  distinguished  from  a  grange  or  mrm,  of  this  article,  but  readers  who  wish  to  study  this  por- 
from  a  villa  or  place  of  recreation,  and  from  a  hospice  tion  of  the  subject  may  be  referred  to  Part  I,  of  Dr. 
or  place  for  the  reception  of  travelling  religious.  The  Zockler's  "Askese  imi  Mdn:htum''  (Frankfort, 
conditions  for  the  legitimate  erection  of  a  monastery  1897),  which  deals  with  the  prevalence  of  the  ascetic 
are:  (1)  the  permission  of  the  Holy  See.  This  is  cer-  idea  among  races  of  the  most  diverse  character.  So 
tain  for  countries  subject  to  th  Decree  ''Romanos  too,  any  question  of  Jewisli  asceticism  r.3  exemplified  in 
Pontifices"  (i*  e.  the  Umted States,  England,  etc.);  it  is  the  Essenes  or  ThcrapeutcB  of  Philo's  "De  Vita  Con- 
also  required  for  Italy.  Outside  of  Italy  and  mission-  templativa"  is  excluded,  but  for  this  reference  may  be 
ary  countries  generaUy,  the  question  is  much  disputed  given  to  Mr.  F.  C.  Conybeare's  volume  "  Philo  about 
by  canonists;  (2)  the  assent  of  the  ordinarv.  This  the  Contemplative  Life''  (Oxford,  1895),  by  which 
condition  was  approved  by  the  Council  of  Chalcedon  the  authenticity  of  the  work  has  been  reinstated  after 
in  451,  and  was  m  force  as  late  as  the  twelfth  century,  the  attacks  of  Dr.  Lucius  and  other  scholars.  It  has 
In  the  thirteenth,  the  pri^-il^es  of  the  mendicant  already  been  pointed  out  that  th'' monastic  ideal  is  an 
orders  caused  freouent  derogations  from  the  law,  but  ascetic  one,  but  it  would  be  wrong  to  say  that  the 
the  ancient  disdpline  wai  restored  bv  the  Council  of  earliest  Christian  asceticism  was  monastic.  Any  such 
Trent  (Sess.  XaV,  de  Reg.,  cap.  iii).  This  permis-  thing  was  rendered  impossible  by  the  circumstances  in 
sion  cannot  be  given  by  the  vicar-general  nor  by  the  whidi  the  early  (Dhiistians  were  placed,  for  in  the  first 
vicar-capitular.  Before  the  bishop  ^ves  his  assent,  century  or  so  of  the  Church's  existence  the  idea  of  liv- 
he  should  make  himself  acquainted  with  the  opinions  ing  apart  from  the  congregation  of  the  faithful,  or  of 
of  those  to  whom  such  a  monastery  mi^t  prove  a  det-  forming  within  it  associations  to  practise  special  re- 
riment,  as  the  superiors  of  other  religious  orders  al-  nunciations  in  common  was  out  of  question.  While 
ready  established  there,  or  the  people  of  the  place,  admitting  this  however  it  is  ecually  certain  that  mo- 
The  parish  priest  cannot  object,  unless  it  is  intended  nasticism,  when  it  came,  was  little  more  than  a  precipi- 
to  confer  parochial  rights  on  the  new  religious  house;  tation  of  ideas  previously  in  solution  among  Chns- 
(3)  there  must  be  a  proper  provision  for  the  sustenance  tians.  For  asceticism  is  the  struggle  against  worldly 
of  twelve  relidous,  otherwise  they  must  live  under  the  principles,  even  with  such  as  are  merely  worldly  with- 
jurisdiction  of  the  ordinary.  This  last  condition  does  out  b^g  ednf ul.  The  world  desires  and  honours 
not,  however,  apply  to  countries  where  the  "Romanos  wealth,  so  the  ascetic  loves  and  honours  poverty.  If 
Pontifices"  is  in  force.  For  the  transfer  of  a  monas-  he  must  have  something  in  the  nature  of  property 
tery  from  one  site  to  another  in  the  same  locality,  no  then  he  and  his  fellows  ^all  hold  it  in  common^  just 

Esrmission  of  the  Holy  See  is  required,  as  this  is  trans-  because  the  world  respects  and  safeguards  private 

tion,  not  erection.    There  was  an  ancient  law  that  a  ownendiip.    In  like  manner  he  practises  fasting  and 

new  monastery  could  not  be  erected  within  a  certain  virginity  tiiat  thereby  he  may  repudiate  the  licence  of 

distance  from  an  older  one,  but  it  has  gone  into  desue-  the  world. 

tude.    As  regards  convents  of  relifldous  women,  the  as-        Hereafter  the  various  items  of  this  renunciation 

sent  of  the  ordinary  is  required,  out  not  that  of  the  will  be  deeJt  with  in  detail,  they  are  mentioned  at  this 

Hol^  See.    The  same  holds  for  the  erection  of  houses  stage  merely  to  show  how  the  monastic  ideal  was  fore- 

of  pious  congregations  and  institutes.  shadowed  in  the  asceticism  of  the  Goe^  and  its  first 

Bactofbw,  CompendiumJuriM  R^fuJnrium  (N^  York,  1903) ;  followers.    Such  passages  ss  I  John,  ii,  15-17 :  "  Love 

Taumtov.  Thi$  Law  ofth^  Church  (St.  Louis,  1906),  ■.  v.  Mono*'  _-4.  xt.  -,,«,-ij    «A»rTkT  fV;««»a  tlio*  om  in  ty^a,  wnflrl 

tmy;  Vumumcb,  zX  RdioiaHt  Jn»tituti$,  I  (Braces,  1902).  J?*^  ^'^^  ^orld,  nor  the  thmgB  that  are  in  the  world. 

WiLUAM  H.  W.  Fanning.  I^  any  man  love  the  worldj  the  chanty  of  the  Father  is 

not  m  him.  For  all  that  is  m  the  world  is  the  concu« 
MonMtlGism. — ^Monasticism  or  monachism,  liter-  piscence  of  the  flesh,  and  the  concupiscence  of  the 
ally  the  act  of  "dwelling  alone"  (Greek,  p^pos,  ftovd^ip^  eyes,  and  the  pride  of  life,  which  is  not  of  the  Father 
iwntx^f)i  has  come  to  denote  the  mode  of  life  pertain-  but  is  of  the  world.  And  the  world  passeth  away  and 
log  to  persons  living  in  seclusion  from  the  world,  the  concupiscence  thereof.  But  he  that  doeth  the  will 
under  religious  vows  and  subject  to  a  fixed  rule,  as  of  God  abideth  for  ever" — ^passages  which  might  be 
monks,  friars,  nuns,  or  in  general  as  reli^ous.  The  multiplied,  and  can  bear  but  one  meanine  if  taken  liter- 
basic  idea  of  monasticism  in  all  its  varieties  is  seclu-  ally.  Ana  this  is  preciselv  what  the  early  ascetics  did, 
sion  or  withdrawal  from  the  world  or  societv.  Theob-  We  read  of  some  who,  driven  by  the  spirit  of  God. 
iect  of  this  is  to  achieve  a  life  whose  ideal  is  different  dedicated  their  energies  to  the  spread  of  the  Gospel 
from  and  largely  at  variance  with  that  pursued  by  the  and,  giving  up  all  their  possessions  passed  from  city  to 
majority  of  mankind;  and  the  method  adopted,  no  city  in  voluntary  poverty  as  apostles  and  evangelists, 
matter  what  its  precise  details  may  be,  is  always  self-  Of  others  we  hear  that  they  renounced  property  and 
abnegation  or  organized  ascoticbm.  Taken  in  this  marriage  so  as  to  devote  their  lives  to  the  poor  and 
broaa  sense  monachism  may  be  found  in  every  religious  needy  of  their  particular  church.  If  these  were  not 
system  which  has  attaineclto  a  high  degree  of  ethical  strictly  speaking  monks  and  nuns,  at  least  the  monks 
development,  such  as  the  Brahmin,  Budahist,  Jewish,  and  nuns  were  such  as  these;  and,  when  the  monastic 
Christian,  and  Moslem  religions^  and  even  in  the  sys-  life  took  definite  shape  in  the  fourth  century,  these 
tem  of  those  modem  communistic  societies,  often  anti-  forerunners  were  naturally  looked  up  to  as  the  first 
theological  in  theory,  which  are  a  special  feature  of  exponents  of  monachism.  For  the  truth  is  that  the 
recent  social  development  especially  in  America.  Christian  ideal  is  frankly  an  ascetic  one  and  mona- 
Hence  it  is  claimed  that  a  form  of  life  which  flourishes  chism  is  simply  the  endeavour  to  effect  a  material  reali- 
in  environments  so  diverse  must  be  the  expression  of  zation  of  that  ideal,  or  organization  in  accordance 
a  principle  inherent  in  human  nature  and  root^  withit,  when  taken  literally  as  regards  its  "Counsels'' 
therein  no  less  deeply  than  the  principle  of  domestic-  as  well  as  its  ''Precepts"  (see  Asceticism;  CoxTNSELSy 
itv,  thoujsh  obviously  limited  to  a  far  smaller  portion  Kv angelical). 

of  mankmd.    This  article  and  its  two  ensuing  sec-        Besides  a  demre  of  observing  the  evangelical  ooun« 

tions.  Eastern  Monasticism  and  Western  Monab-  sels,  and  a  horror  of  the  vice  and  disoroer  that  pre- 

TiciSM,  deal  with  the  monastic  order  strictly  so  called  vuled  in  a  pagan  ace,  two  contributory  causes  in  par* 

as  distinct  from  the  "religious  orders''  such  as  the  ticular  are  often  inmcated  as  leading  to  a  renunciation 

friars,  oanons  re^pilar,  cle»s  regular,  and  the  more  of  the  world  among  the  early  Christians.    The  first  of 

Tectmt  congregations.    For  information  as  to  these  these  was  the  expectation  of  an  immediate  Second 


MONASTICISM                         460  MONASTICISM 

Advent  of  ChriBt  (cf.  I  Cor.,  vii,  29-31;  I  Pet.,  IV,  7.  (a)  Poverty. — ^There  are  few  subjects,  if  any,  upon 

etc.).  That  this  belief  was  widespread  is  admitted  on  all  which  more  sayings  of  Jesus  have  been  preserved  tnan 

hands,  and  obviously  it  would  afford  a  strong  motive  upon  the  superiority  of  poverty  oyer  wealth  in  His 

for  renunciation  since  a  man  who  expects  this  present  kmgdom  (cf.  Matt.,  v,  3;  xiii,  22;  xix,  21  sq.;  Mark, 

order  of  things  to  end  at  any  moment,  will  lose  keen  x,  ^  sq.;  Luke,  vi,  20;  xviii,  24  sq.,  etc.),  and  the  fact 

interest  in  many  natters  commonly  held  to  be  im-  of  their  preservation  would  indicate  that  such  words 

portant.    This  belief  however  had  ceased  to  be  of  any  were  frequently  quoted  and  presumably  frequently 

great  influence  by  the  fourth  century,  so  that  it  can-  acted  upon.    The  argument  based  upon  sucn  pa»- 

not  be  regarded  as  a  determining  factor  in  the  origin  of  sages  as  Matt.,  xix,  21  sq.,  may  be  put  briefly  tnus. 

monasticism  which  then  tool:  visible  shape.     A  sec-  If  a  man  wish  to  attain  eternal  fife  it  is  better  for  him 

ond  cause  more  operative  in  leading  men  to  renounce  to  renoimce  his  possessions  than  to  retain  them.  Jesus 

the  world  was  the  vividness  of  their  belief  in  evil  said,  "How  hanlly  shall  they  that  have  riches  enter 

spirits.    The  first  Christians  saw  the  kingdom  of  into  the  kingdom  of  God'',  the  reason  being  no  doubt 

Satan  actually  realized  in  the  political  and  social  life  that  it  is  difficult  to  prevent  the  affections  from  be- 

of  heathendom  around  them.    In  their  eyes  the  gods  coming  attached  to  riches,  and  that  such  attachment 

whose  temples  shone  in  every  city  were  simply  devils,  makes  admission  into  Clurist's  kingdom  impos^ble. 

and  to  participate  in  their  rites  was  to  join  in  devil  As  St.  Augustine  points  out.  the  disciples  evidently 

worship.    When  Christianity  first  came  in  touch  with  understood  Jesus  to  include  all  who  covet  riches  in  ^e 

the  Gentiles  the  Council  of  Jerusalem  by  its  decree  number  of  "the  rich",   otherwise,   considering  the 

about  meat  offered  to  idols  (Acts,  xv,  20)  made  clear  small  number  of  the  w^thy  compared  with  the  vast 

the  line  to  be  followed.    Consequently  certain  profes-  multitude  of  the  poor,  they  would  not  have  asked, 

sions  were  practically  closed  to  believers  since  a  sol-  "Who  then  shall  be  saved"?    "You  eannot  serve 

dier,  schoolmaster,  or  state  official  of  any  kind  might  be  God  and  Mammon  "  is  an  obvious  truth  to  a  man  who 

called  upon  at  a  moment's  notice  to  participate  in  knows  by  experience  the  difficulty  of  a  whole-hearted 

some  act  of  the  state  religion.    But  the  difficulty  ex-  service  of  Gcxi;  for  the  spiritual  and  material  good  are 

isted  for  private  individuals  also.    There  were  gods  in  immediate  antithesis,  and  where  one  is  the  other 

who  presided  over  every  moment  of  a  man's  life,  gods  cannot  be.    Man  cannot  sate  his  nature  with  the  tem- 

of  house  and  garden,  of  food  and  drink,  of  health  and  poral  and  yet  retain  an  appetite  for  the  eternal;  and 

sickness.    To  honour  these  was  idolatry,  to  ignore  so,  if  he  would  live  the  life  of  the  spirit,  he  must  flee 

them  would  attract  inquiry  and  possibly  persecution,  the  lust  of  the  earth  and  keep  his  heart  detached  from 

And  so  when,  to  men  placed  in  this  dilemma,  St.  John  what  is  of  its  very  nature  unspiritual.  The  extent  to 

wrote,  "Keep  yourselves  from  idols"  (I  John,  v,  21)  which  this  voluntary  poverty  is  practised  has  varied 

he  said  in  effect  "Keep  yourselves  from  public  life,  greatly  in  the  monachism  of  different  ages  and  lands, 

from  society,  from  pobtics,  from  intercourse  of  any  In  Eg3rpt  the  first  teachers  of  monks  taught  that  the 

kind  with  the  heathen",  in  short  "renounce  the  renunciation  should  be  made  as  absolute  as  po^ble. 

world".  Abbot  Agathon  used  to  say,  "Own  nothing  which  it 

By  certain  writers  the  communistic  element  seen  in  would  grieve  you  to  give  to  another".    St.  Macarius 

the  Church  of  Jerusalem  during  the  first  years  of  its  once,  on  returning  to  his  cell,  found  a  robber  carrying 

existence  (Acts,  iv,  32)  has  sometimes  been  pointed  to  off  his  scanty  furniture.    He  thereupon  pretended  to 

as  indicating  a  monastic  element  in  its  constitution,  be  a  stranger,  harnessed  the  robber's  horse  for  him  and 

but  no  such  conclusion  is  justified.    Probably  the  helped  him  to  get  his  opoil  away.    Another  monk  had 

community  of  goods  was  simply  a  natural  continua-  so  stripped  himself  ot  all  Jhings  that  he  possessed 
tion  of  the  practice,  begun  by  Jesus  and  the 
where  one  of  the  band  kept  the  common  i 

acted  as  steward.    There  is  no  indication  that  such  a  sold  the  very 

custom  was  ever  instituted  elsewhere  and  even  at  As  the  monastic  institute  became  more  organiied 

Jerusalem  it  seems  to  have  collapsed  at  an  early  pe-  legislation  appeared  in  the  various  codes  to  regulate 

riod.  It  must  be  recognized  also  tnat  influences  such  as  this  point  among  others.    That  the  principle  re- 

the  above  were  merely  contributory  and  of  compara-  mained  the  same  however  is  clear  from  the  strong  way 

tively  small  importance    The  main  cause  whicn  be-  in  which  St.  Benedict  speaks  of  the  matter  while  mak- 

got  monachism  was  simply  the  desire  to  fulfil  Christ's  ing  special  allowance  for  the  needs  of  the  infirm,  etc. 

law  literally,  to  imitate  Him  in  all  simplicity,  following  (Reg,  Ben.,  xxxiii).    "Above  everything  the  vice  of 

in  His  footsteps  whose  "  kingdom  is   not  of  this  private  ownership  is  to  be  cut  off  by  the  roots  from  the 

world".    So  we  find  monachi^  at  first  instinctive,  monastery.    Let  no  one  presume  either  to  give  or  to 

informal,  unorganised,  sporadic;  the  expression  of  the  receive  anvthing  without  leave  of  the  abbot,  nor  to 

same  force  working  differently  in  different  places,  per-  keep  anything  as  his  own.  neither  book,  nor  writing 

sons,  and  circumstances;  developing  with  the  natural  tablets,  nor  pen,  nor  anything  whatsoever,  since  it  is 

growth  of  a  plant  according  to  the  environment  in  unlawful  for  them  to  have  their  bodies  or  wills  in  their 

which  it  finds  itself  and  the  character  of  the  individual  own  power".     The  principle  here  laid  down,  viz.,  that 

listener  who  heard  in  his  soul  the  call  of  "Follow  Me",  the  monk's  renunciation  of  private  property  is  abso- 

(2)  Means  to  the  End. — ^It  must  be  clearly  under-  lute,  remains  as  much  in  force  to-day  as  m  the  dawn  of 

stood  that,  in  the  case  of  the  monk,  asceticism  is  not  monasticism.    No  matter  to  what  extent  any  indi- 

an  end  in  itself.    For  him,  as  for  all  men,  the  end  of  vidual  monk  may  be  allowed  the  use  of  clothing, 

life  is  to  love  God.    Monastic  ascetism  then  means  books,  or  even  money,  the  ultimate  proprietorship  in 

the  removal  of  obstacles  to  loving  God,  and  what  such  things  can  never  be  permitted  to  him.     (See 

these  obstacles  are  is  clear  from  the  nature  of  love  Poverty;  Mendicant  Friars;  Vow.) 

itself.    Love  is  the  union  of  wills.    If  the  creature  is  (b)  Chastity. — If  the  things  to  be  given  up  be 

to  love  God,  he  can  do  it  in  one  way  only;  by  sinking  tested  by  the  criterion  of  difficulty,  the  renunciation 

his  own  will  in  God's,  by  doing  the  will  of  God  in  all  of  material  possessions  is  clearly  the  first  and  easiest 

things:  "if  ye  love  Me  keep  my  commandments",  step  for  man  to  take,  as  these  things  are  external  to 

No  one  understands  better  than  the  monl:  those  words  his  nature.    Next  in  difficulty  will  come  the  things 

of  the  beloved  disciple,  "Greater  love  hath  no  man  that  are  united  to  man's  nature  by  a  kind  of  necessary 

than  this  that  a  man  lay  down  his  life",  for  in  his  case  affinity.    Hence  in  the  ascending  order  chastity  is  the 

life  has  come  to  mean  renunciation .    Broadly  speak-  second  of  the  evangelical  counsels,  and  as  such  it  is  based 

ing  this  renunciation  has  three  great  branches  corre-  upon  the  words  of  Jesus,  "If  any  man  come  to  me  and 

sponding  to  the  three  evangelical  counsels  of  poverty,  hate  not  his  father  and  mother  and  wife  and  children 

chastity,  and  obedience.  and  brethren  and  sisters  yea  and  his  own  soul  also,  ho 


M0NA8TICISM  461  M0NA8TICISM 

cannot  be  my  disciple"  (Luke,  xiv.  26).  It  is  obvious  coldly,  nor  with  murmuring,  nor  with  an  answer  show- 
that  of  all  the  ties  which  bind  the  numan  heart  to  this  ing  imwillingpaess,  for  the  obedience  which  is  given  to 
wozld  the  possession  of  wife  and  children  is  the  strong-  superiors  is  given  to  God,  since  He  Himself  hath  said, 
est.  Moreover  the  renunciation  of  the  monk  includes  He  that  heareth  you,  heareth  Me"  (Re^.  Ben.,  v). 
not  only  these  but  in  accordance  with  the  strictest  It  is  not  hard  to  see  why  so  much  emphasis  is  laid  on 
teaching  of  Jesus  all  sexual  relations  or  emotion  aris-  this  point.  The  object  of  monasticism  is  to  love  God 
ing  therefrom.  The  monastic  idea  of  chastity  is  a  life  in  the  highest  degree  possible  in  this  life.  In  true 
like  that  of  the  angels.  Hence  the  phrases,  "  angelicus  obedience  the  will  of  the  servant  is  one  with  that  of  his 
ordo",  ''angelica  conversatio",  which  have  been  master,  and  the  union  of  wills  is  love.  Wherefore, 
adopted  from  Origen  to  describe  the  life  of  the  monk,  that  the  obedience  of  the  monk's  will  to  that  of  Goa 
no  doubt  in  reference  to  Mark,  xii,  25.  It  is  pri-  may  be  as  simple  and  direct  as  possible,  St.  Benedict 
marily  as  a  means  to  this  end  that  fasting  takes  so  writes  (ch.  ii)  ''  the  abbot  is  considered  to  hold  in  the 
important  a  place  in  the  monastic  life.  Among  the  monastery  the  place  of  Christ  Himself,  since  he  is 
eany  Egyptian  and  Syrian  monks  in  particular  fast-  called  by  His  name"  (see  Obedience;  Vow).  St. 
in^  was  carried  to  such  lengths  that  some  modern  Thomas,  in  chapter  xi  of  his  Opusculum"  On  the  Per- 
wnters  have  been  led  to  regard  it  almost  as  an  end  in  fection  of  the  Spiritual  Life",  points  out  that  the 
itself,  instead  of  being  merely  a  means  and  a  subordi-  three  means  of  perfection,  poverty,  chastity,  and 
nate  one  at  that.  This  error  of  course  is  confined  obedience,  belong  peculiarly  to  the  relidous  state. 
to  writers  about  monasticism,  it  has  never  been  For  reli^on  means  the  worship  of  God  alone,  which 
countenanced  by  any  monastic  teacher.  (See  Celi-  consists  in  offering  sacrifice,  and  of  sacrifices  the  holo- 
B ACT  OP  THE  Cijsbgt;  Chastitt;  Continence;  Fast;  caust  is  the  most  perfect.  Consequently,  when  a  man 
Vow.)                                                          ...  dedicates  to  God  all  that  he  has,  all  that  he  takes 

(c)  Obedience. — "  The  first  step  in  humility  is  obe-  pleasure  in,  and  all  that  he  is,  be  offers  a  holocaust ;  and 
dience  without  delay.  This  befits  those  who  coimt  this  he  does  pre-eminently  by  the  three  religious  vows, 
nothing  dearer  to  them  than  Christ  on  account  of  the  (3)  Tfie  Different  Kinds  of  Monks. — It  must  be 
holy  service  which  they  have  undertaken  .  .  .  with-  clearly  understood  that  the  monastic  order  properly 
out  doubt  such  as  these  follow  that  thought  of  the  so-called  differs  from  the  friars,  clerks  regular,  and 
Lord  when  He  said,  I  came  not  to  do  my  own  will  but  other  later  developments  of  the  religious  life  in  one 
the  will  of  Him  that  sent  me"  (Keg;  Ben.,  v).  Of  all  fundamental  point.  The  latter  have  essentially  some 
the  steps  in  the  process  of  renunciation,  the  denial  of  a  special  work  or  aim,  such  as  preaching,  teaching,  lib- 
man's  own  will  is  clearly  the  most  difficult.  At  the  crating  captives,  etc.,  which  occupies  a  large  place  in 
same  time  it  is  the  most  essential  of  all  as  Jesus  said  their  activities  and  to  which  many  of  the  observances 
(Matt.,  xvi,  24),  "If  any  man  will  come  after  me.  let  of  the  monastic  life  have  to  give  way.  This  is  not  so 
him  deny  himself  and  take  up  his  cross  and  follow  in  the  case  of  the  monk.  He  fives  a  special  kind  of 
me",  llie  most  difficult  because  self-interest,  self-  life  for  the  sake  of  the  life  and  its  consequences  to  him- 
protection,  self-regard  of  all  kinds  are  absolutely  a  self.  In  a  later  section  we  ehidl  see  that  monks  have 
part  of  man's  nature,  so  that  to  master  such  instincts  actually  undertaken  external  labours  of  the  most 
reauires  a  supernatural  strength.  The  most  essen-  varied  character,  but  in  every  case  this  work  is  extrin- 
tial  also  because  by  this  means  the  monk  achieves  that  sic  to  the  essence  of  the  monastic  state.  Christian 
p^ect  liberty  which  is  only  to  be  foimd  where  is  the  monasticism  has  varied  greatly  in  its  external  forms, 
Spirit  of  the  Lord.  It  was  Seneca  who  wrote,  "parere  but,  broadly  speaking,  it  has  two  main  species  (a)  the 
deo  libertas  est",  and  the  pagan  philosophers  (fictum  eremitical  or  solitary,  (b)  the  cenobitical  or  family 
is  confirmed  and  testified  to  on  every  page  of  the  Go&-  types.  St.  Anthony  (o.  v.)  mav  be  called  the  founder 
pel.  In  Egypt  at  the  dawn  of  monasticism  the  cus-  of  the  first  and  St.  Pacnomius  (q.  v.)  of  the  second, 
tom  was  for  a  young  monk  to  put  himself  under  the  (a)  The  Eremitical  Type  of  Monasticism. — ^This 
guidance  of  a  senior  whom  he  obeyed  in  all  things,  way  of  life  took  its  rise  among  the  monks  who  settled 
Although  the  bond  between  them  was  wholly  volun-  around  St.  Anthony's  mountain  at  Pispir  and  whom 
tai^  the  system  seems  to  have  worked  perfectly  and  he  organized  and  guided.  In  consequence  it  prevailed 
the  commands  of  the  senior  were  obeved  without  hesi-  chieflv  in  northern  Egypt  from  Lycopolis  (As3rut)  to 
tation.  "Obedience  is  the  mother  of  all  the  virtues " :  the  Mediterranean,  but  most  of  our  information  about 
'*  obedience  is  that  which  openeth  heaven  and  raiseth  it  deals  with  Nitria  and  Scete.  Cassian  (q.  v.)  and  Pal- 
man  from  the  earth  " :  "  obedience  is  the  food  of  all  the  ladius  (q.  v.)  give  us  full  details  of  its  worlang  and  from 
saints,  by  her  they  are  nourished,  through  her  they  them  we  learn  that  the  strictest  hermits  Uved  out  of  ear- 
come  to  perfection":  such  sayings  illustrate  suffi-  shot  of  each  other  and  only  met  together  for  Divine  wor- 
dently  the  view  held  on  this  point  by  the  fathers  of  the  ship  on  Saturdays  and  Sundays,  while  others  would 
desert.  As  the  monastic  Ufe  came  to  be  organized  by  meet  daily  and  recite  their  psalms  and  hymns  together 
rule,  the  insistence  on  obedience  remained  the  same,  in  little  companies  of  three  or  four.  There  was  no  Rule 
but  its  practice  was  legislated  for.  Thus  St.  Bene-  of  Life  among  them  but,  as  Palladius  says,  "they  have 
diet  at  the  very  outset,  in  the  Prologue  to  his  Rule,  re-  different  practices,  each  as  he  is  able  and  as  he 
minds  the  monk  of  the  prime  purpose  of  his  life,  viz.,  wishes".  The  elaers  exercised  an  authority,  but 
"that  thou  mayest  return  by  the  labour  of  obedience  chiefly  of  a  personal  kind,  their  position  and  influence 
to  Him  from  whom  thou  hadst  departed  by  the  sloth  being  in  proportion  to  their  reputation  for  greater 
of  disobedience".  Later  he  devotes  the  whole  of  his  wisdom.  The  monks  would  visit  each  other  often  and 
fifth  chapter  to  this  subject  and  again,  in  detailing  the  discourse,  several  together,  on  Holy  Scripture  and  on 
vows  his  monks  must  take,  while  poverty  and  cha»-  the  spiritual  life.  General  conferences  in  which  a 
tity  are  presumed  as  implicitly  included,  obedience  is  large  number  took  part  were  not  uncommon.  Gradu- 
one  of  the  three  things  explicitly  promised.  ally  the  purely  eremitical  life  tended  to  die  out  (Ca»- 

Indeed  the  saint  even  legates  for  the  circumstance  sian,  "Conf.",  xix)  but  a  semi-eremitical  form  contin- 
of  a  monk  being  ordered  to  do  something  impossible,  ued  to  be  common  for  a  long  period,  and  has  never 
"Let  him  seasonably  and  with  patience  lay  before  his  ceased  entirely  either  in  East  or  West  where  the  Car^ 
superior  the  reasons  of  his  incapacity  to  obey,  without  thusians  and  CamaJdulese  still  practise  it.  It  is  need- 
showing  pride,  resistance  or  contradiction.  If,  how-  less  here  to  trace  its  developments  in  detail  as  all  its 
ever,  alter  this  the  superior  still  persist  in  his  com-  varieties  are  dealt  with  in  special  articles  (see  Anchor- 
mand,  let  the  younger  Know  that  it  is  expedient  for  ites;  Anthony,  St.;  Anthony,  Orders  op  St.;  Cam- 
him,  and  let  him  obey  for  the  love  of  God  trustins  in  aldolese;  Carthusians;  Hermits;  Laura;  Mo- 
His  assistance"  (Reg.  Ben.,  Ixviii).  Moreover  "what  nasticism.  Eastern;  Sttutes  ob  Pillar  Saints^' 
is  commanded  is  to  he  done  not  fearfully,  tardily,  nor  Paul  the  Hermit,  St.). 


M0NA8TICISM  462  M0N18TICI8M 

(b)  Tbe  Cenobitical  Type  of  Monasticism.— Thk  among  Eastern  monks,  while  in  the  west  no  chaofew 

tvpe  began  in  Egypt  at  a  somewhat  later  date  than  of  importance  have  taken  place  sinoe  St.  Benedict's 

the  eremitical  form.    It  was  about  the  year  318  that  rule  gradually  eliminated  all  local  customs.    For  the 

St.  Pachomius,  still  a  young  man,  foimded  his  first  development  of  the  Divine  office  into  its  picsent  form 

monastery  at  Tabennisi  near  Denderah.    The  insti-  see  the  articles,  Bbbviabt;  Houss,  Canonical:  and 

tute  spread  with  surprising  rapiditv,  and  by  the  date  also  the  various  ''hours",  e.  g.  Matins;  Lattdb,  etc.: 


of  St.  Pachomius's  death  (c.  345)  it  counted  eight    Liturqt,  etc.    In  the  east  this  solemn  litiusii 

monasteries  and  several  hundred  monks.  Most  re-  prayer  remains  to-day  ahnost  the  sole  active  wok  oi 
markable  of  all  is  the  fact  that  it  immediately  took  the  monks,  and,  though  in  the  west  many  other  forma 
shape  as  a  fuUy  organised  congre^tion  or  order,  with  of  activity  have  flourished,  the  0pU8  Dei  or  Divine 
a  superior  general,  a  system  of  visitations  and  general  Office  has  alwa3rs  been  and  still  is  regarded  as  the  pre- 
chapters,  and  all  the  machinery  of  a  centralized  gov-  eminent  duty  and  occupation  of  the  monk  to  wnich 
emment  such  as  does  not  again  appear  in  the  monas-  all  other  works,  no  matter  how  excellent  in  them- 
tic  world  until  the  rise  of  the  Cistercians  and  Mendi-  selves,  must  give  way,  according  to  St.  Benedict's  prin- 
cant  Orders  some  eight  or  nine  centuries  later.  As  dple  (Reg.  &n..  xliii)  "Nihil  operi  Dei  praeponatur" 
regards  internal  organization  the  Pachomian  monas-  (Let  notmng  take  precedence  of  the  woric  of  God). 
teries  had  nothing  of  the  family  ideal.  The  numbers  Alongside  the  official  liturgyi  private  prayer,  eqie- 
were  too  great  for  this  and  eveiything  was  done  on  a  daily  mental  prayer,  has  uways  held  an  miportant 
military  or  barrack  system.  In  each  monastery  there  place;  see  Prater:  Contemplativb  Lifb. 
were  numerous  separate  houses,  each  with  its  own  pra>-  (b)  Monastic  Labours. — ^The  first  monks  did  oom- 
po9Uu8,  cellarer,  and  other  officials,  the  monks  being  paratively  little  in  the  way  of  external  labour.  We 
grouped  in  these  according  to  the  particular  trade  hearof  them  weavins  mats,  making  baskets  and  doing 
they  followed.  Thus  the  fullers  were  gathered  in  one  other  work  of  a  simple  chuacter  which,  while  serving 
house,  the  carpenters  in  another,  and  so  on;  an  ar-  for  their  support,  would  not  distract  Uiem  from  the 
rangement  the  more  desirable  because  in  the  Pacho-  continual  contemplation  of  God.  Under  St.  Pacho- 
mian monasteries  regular  organized  work  was  an  in-  mius  manual  labour  was  or^^anized  as  an  essential  nart 
tegral  part  of  the  system,  a  feature  in  which  it  differed  of  the  monastic  life:  and,  smoe  it  is  a  principle  oi  the 
from  the  Antonian  way  of  life.  In  point  of  austerity  monks  as  distinguished  from  the  mendicants,  that  the 
however  the  Antonian  monks  far  surpassed  the  Pacho-  body  shall  be  self-supporting,  external  wow  of  one 
niian,  and  so  we  find  Bgoul  and  Schenutd  endeavour-  sort  or  another  has  been  an  inevitable  part  of  the  life 
ing,  in  their  great  monastery  at  Athribis,  to  combine  ever  since. 

the  cenobiticfd  life  of  Tabennisi  with  the  austerities  of  (i)  Agriculture,  of  course,  naturally  ranked  first 
Nitria.  among  the  various  forms  of  external  labour.  The 
In  the  Pachomian  monasteries  it  was  left  very  sites  chosen  by  the  monks  for  their  retreat  were  usu- 
much  to  the  individual  taste  of  each  monk  to  fix  ally  in  wild  and  inaccessible  places,  which  were  left  to 
the  order  of  life  for  himself.  Thus  the  hours  for  them  precisely  because  they  were  uncultivated,  and 
meals  and  the  extent  of  his  fasting  were  settled  by  him  no  one  else  cared  to  undertake  the  task  of  Mft^ny 
alone,  he  might  eat  with  the  others  in  common  or  have  them.  The  rugged  valley  of  Subiaoo,  or  the  fens  and 
breaa  and  salt  provided  in  his  own  cell  every  day  or  marshes  of  Glastonbury  may  be  cited  as  examples, 
every  second  day.  The  conception  of  the  cenobitical  but  nearly  all  the  most  ancient  monasteries  are  to  be 
hfe  was  modified  considerably  by  St.  Basil.  In  his  found  in  places  then  considered  uninhabitable  by  all 
monasteries  a  true  community  life  was  followed.  It  except  the  monks.  Gradually  forests  were  cleared 
was  no  longer  possible  for  each  one  to  choose  his  own  and  marshes  drained,  rivers  were  bridged  and  roads 
dinner  hour.  On  the  contrary,  meals  were  in  com-  made;  until,  almost  imperceptibly,  the  desert  place 
mon,  work  was  in  conmion,  prayer  was  in  conmion  became  a  farm  or  a  garden.  In  the  later  Middle  Ages, 
seven  times  a  day.  In  the  matter  of  ssceticism  too  when  the  Black  Monks  were  mying  less  time  to  agri- 
all  the  monks  were  imder  the  control  of  the  superior  culture,  the  Cistercians  re-established  the  old  order  of 
whose  sanction  was  required  for  all  the  austerities  they  things;  and  even  to-day  such  monasteries  as  La 
might  undertake.  It  was  from  these  sources  that  Trappe  de  Staoueli  in  N.  Africa,  or  New  Nursia  in  W. 
western  monachism  took  its  rise;  further  information  Australia  do  identically  the  same  work  as  was  done  by 
on  them  will  be  found  in  the  articles  Basil  thb  the  monks  a  thousand  years  ago.    ''Weowe  theagn- 


and  remmciation.    In  the  way  of  occuoations  there-  every  creed,  is  enough  for  the  purpose  here  (see  Cia- 

fore  prefer  must  always  take  the  first  place.  tbrcians). 

(a)  Monastic  Prayer.— From  the  very  outset  it  has        (ii)  Copying  of  MSS.— Even  more  unportant  than 

been  regarded  as  the  monk's  first  duty  to  keep  up  the  their  services  to  agriculture  has  been  the  work  of  the 

official  prayer  of  the  Church.    To  what  extent  the  monastic  orders  in  the  preservation  of  ancient  litera- 

Divine  office  was  stereotyped  in  St.  Anthony's  day  ture.    In  this  respect  too  the  results  achieved  went 

need  not  be  discussed  here,  but  Palladius  and  Cassian  far  beyond  what  was  actually  aimed  at.    The  monks 

both  mske  it  clear  that  the  monks  were  in  no  way  be-  copied  the  Scriptures  for  their  own  use  in  the  Church 

hind  the  rest  of  the  world  as  regards  their  liturgical  services  and,  when  thdr  doisters  developed  into 

customs.    The  practice  of  celebrating  the  office  apart,  schools,  as  the  march  of  events  made  it  inevitable  th^ 

or  in  twos  and  threes,  has  heea  referred  to  above  as  should,  they  copied  also  such  monuments  of  classical 

oonmion  in  the  Antonian  system,  while  the  Pacho-  literature  as  were  preserved.    At  first  no  doubt  such 

mian  monks  performed  many  of  the  services  in  their  work  was  solely  utilitarian^  even  in  St.  Benedict's  rule 

separate  houses,  the  whole  community  only  assem-  the  instructions  as  to  reading  and  study  make  it  dear 

blmg  in  the  church  for  the  more  solemn  offices,  while  that  these  filled  a  veiy  subordinate  place  in  the  dim>- 

the  Antonian  monks  only  met  together  on  Saturdays  sition  of  the  monastic  life.     Cassioaorus  was  the  nrst 

and  Sundays.    Among  the  monks  of  Syria  the  nispt  to  make  the  transcription  of  MSS.  and  themultipli- 

office  was  much  longer  than  in  Egypt  (Cassian,  "In-  cation  of  books  an  organized  and  important  branch  of 

stit.",  II,  ii;  III,  i,  iv,  viii)  and  new  offices  at  different  monastic  labour,  but  his  insistence  in  this  direction  in- 

houis  of  the  day  were  institute.    In  prayer  as  in  fluenced  western  monachism  enormously  and  is  in 

other  matters  St.  Basil's  le^slation  became  the  norm  fact  his  chief  daim  to  recognition  as  a  legator  for 


MOKA8T1CI8M 


463 


MOlfASTlCttM 


Aofiks.  It  is  not  too  much  to  say  that  we  to-da>  are 
indd>ted  to  the  labours  of  the  monastic  copyists  for 
the  preservation,  not  only  of  the  Sacred  WritlneSi  but 
of  practically  all  that  survives  to  us  of  the  secular  lit- 
erature of  antiquity  (see  Manuscript;  Cloister; 
Scriptorium). 

(iii)  Education. — At  first  no  one  became  a  monk  be- 
fore he  was  an  adult,  but  very  soon  the  custom  began 
of  receiving  the  young.  Even  infants  in  arms  were 
dedicated  to  the  monastic  state  bv  their  parento  (see 
Reg.  Ben.,  lix)  and  in  providing  tor  the  education  of 
these  child-monks  the  cloister  inevitably  developed 
into  a  schoolroom  (see  Oblati).  Nor  was  it  long  oe- 
fore  the  schools  thus  established  began  to  include  chil- 
dren not  intended  for  the  monastic  state.  Some  writ- 
ers have  nuuntained  that  this  step  was  not  taken  until 
the  time  of  Charlema^e,  but  there  is  sufficient  indi- 
cation that  such  pupds  existed  at  an  earlier  date, 
though  the  proportion  of  external  scholars  certainly 
increased  lanely  at  this  time.  The  system  of  educa- 
tion followed  was  that  known  as  the  "Trivium"  and 
"Quadrivium"  (see  Arts,  The  Seven  Liberal), 
wmch  was  merely  a  development  of  that  used  during 
classical  times. 

The  greater  number  of  the  larger  monasteries  in 
western  Europe  had  a  claustral  school  and  not  a  few, 
of  which  St.  Gidl  in  Switzerland  may  be  cited  as  an  ex- 
ample, acouired  a  reputation  which  it  is  no  exaggera- 
tion to  call  European.  With  the  rise  of  the  umver- 
dties  and  the  spread  of  the  mendicant  orders  the 
monastic  control  of  education  came  to  an  end,  but  the 
schools  attached  to  the  monasteries  continued,  and 
still  continue  to-day,  to  do  no  insignificant  amount  of 
educational  work  (see  Arts,  The  Seven  Liberal; 
Cloister;  Education;  Schools). 

(iv)  Aitshitecture,  painting,  sculpture  and  metal 
work. — Of  the  first  hermits  many  hved  in  caves, 
tombs,  and  deserted  ruins,  but  from  the  outset  the 
monk  has  been  forced  to  be  a  builder.  We  have  seen 
that  the  Pachomian  system  required  buildines  of  elab- 
orate plan  and  large  accommodation,  and  the  organ- 
ised development  of  monastic  life  did  not  tend  to  sim- 
plifv  the  buildings  which  enshrined  it.  Consequentl}'* 
skiU  in  architecture  was  called  for  and  so  monastic 
architects  were  produced  to  meet  the  need  in  the  same 
almost  unconscious  manner  as  were  the  monastic 
schoolmasters.  During  the  medieval  period  the  arts 
of  painting,  illuminatiDjS,  sculpture,  and  goldsmiths' 
wonc  were  practised  in  the  monasteries  all  over 
Europe  and  the  output  must  have  been  amply  enor- 
mous. 

We  have  in  the  museums,  churches,  and  elsewhere 
^ch  countless  examples  of  monastic  skill  in  these  arts 
that  it  is  really  difficult  to  realize  that  all  this  wealth  of 
beautiful  things  forms  only  a  small  fraction  of  the  total 
of  artistic  creation  turned  out  century  after  century 
bjT  these  skilful  and  untiring  craftsmen.  Yet  it  is  cer- 
tainly true  that  what  has  perished  b^  destruction, 
loss  and  decay  would  outweigh  man]^  times  over  the 
entire  mass  of  medieval  art  work  now  in  existence,  and 
of  this  the  larger  portion  was  produced  in  the  work- 
shop of  the  cloister  (see  Architecture;  Ecclesias- 
tical Art;  Painting;  Illumination;  Reuquart; 
Shrine;  Sculpture). 

(v)  Historical  and  patristic  work. — As  years  passed 
by  the  great  monastic  corporations  accumulated 
archives  of  the  highest  value  for  the  history  of  the 
countries  wherein  they  were  situated.  It  was  the  cus- 
tom too  in  many  of  the  larger  abbeys  for  an  official 
chronicler  to  record  the  events  of  contemporary  his- 
toiy.  In  more  recent  times  the  seed  thus  planted 
bore  fruit  in  the  many  great  works  of  erudition  which 
have  won  for  the  momcs  such  high  praise  from  scholars 
of  all  classes.  The  Maurist  Con^gation  of  Bene- 
dictines (q.  v.)  which  flourished  in  France  during 
the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth  centuries  was  the  su- 
preme example  of  this  type  of  monastic  industiy,  but 


similar  works  on  a  less  extensive  scale  have  been  un* 
dertaken  in  every  country  of  western  Europe  by 
monks  of  all  orders  and  congregations,  and  at  the 
present  time  (1910)  this  output  of  solid  scholarly  work 
shows  no  signs  whatever  of  diminution  either  in  qual- 
ity or  Quantity. 

(vi)  Missionary  work. — ^Perhaps  the  mission  field 
would  seem  a  sphere  little  suited  for  monastic  ener- 
gies, but  no  idea  could  be  more  false.  Mankind  is 
l>roverbially  imitative  and  so,  to  establish  a  Chris- 
ticmity  where  paganism  once  ruled,  it  is  necessanr  to 
present  not  simply  a  code  of  morals,  not  the  mere  laws 
and  regulations,  nor  even  the  theology  of  the  Church, 
but  an  actual  pattern  of  Christian  society.  Such  a 
"working  model"  is  found  pre-eminently  in  the  mon- 
astery, and  so  it  is  the  monastic  order  which  has 
proved  itself  the  apostle  of  the  nations  in  western 
Europe. 

To  mention  a  few  instances  of  this — Saints  Co- 
lumba  in  Scotland,  Augustine  in  England,  Boniface  in 
Germany,  Ansgar  in  Scandinavia,  Swithbert  and  Wil- 
librord  m  the  Netherlands,  Rupert  and  Emmeran  in 
what  is  now  Austria,  Adalbert  in  Bohemia,  Gall  and 
Columban  in  Switzerland,  were  monks  who,  by  the 
example  of  a  Christian  society  which  they  and  their 
companions  displayed,  led  the  nations  among  whom 
they  Uved  from  paganism  to  Christianity  and  civiliza- 
tion. Nor  did  the  monastic  apostles  stop  at  this 
point  but,  by  remaining  as  a  community  and  training 
their  converts  in  the  arts  of  peace,  thev  established  a 
society  based  on  Gospel  princi]3les  and  firm  with  the 
stabihty  of  the  Christian  faith,  in  a  way  that  no  indi- 
vidual missionary,  even  the  most  devoted  and  saintly, 
has  ever  succeeded  in  doing. 

It  must  be  clearly  understood  however,  that  mo- 
nasticism  has  never  become  stereotyped  in  practice, 
and  that  it  would  be  quite  false  to  hold  up  any  single 
example  as  a  supreme  and  perfect  model.  Monasti- 
cism  IS  a  living  thing  and  consequently  it  must  be 
informed  ^ith  a  principle  of  self  motion  and  adaptabil- 
ity to  its  environment.  Only  one  thing  must  al- 
ways remain  the  same  and  that  is  the  motive  power 
which  brought  it  into  existence  and  has  maintained  it 
throughout  the  centuries,  viz.,  the  love  of  God  and  the 
desire  to  serve  Him  as  perfectly  as  this  life  permits, 
leaving  all  things  to  follow  after  Christ. 

DiUionnaire  d* AacHicitme;  Miqne,  Eneydopidie  7*hSologique, 
XLV,  XLVI ;  A  Kr.MPis.  De  Imitatione  ChruUi:  Aluvb,  The  Mo» 
fuutie  Life, vol.y 111  of  "The  Formation  of  Christendom"  (Lon- 
don, 1896) ;  Ambbosb.  &r..  De  Virffinibue:  De  Viduie:  EpieMa,  in 
P.  L.,  XIV-XVII;  AMiuNBAU.  Vie  de  Schnoudi  (Pans.  1888); 
Idem,  Voyo^e  d^un  moine  iffj/plien  done  le  dieert  (Vienna,  1883) ; 
Idbm,  Eeeai  atir  VivoltUion  hxst.  et  j^iloe.  dee  idiee  moralee  dana 
VEffifpU  aneienne  (Paris.  1895) ;  ApophtheomtUa  Patrum,  in  Verba 
Seniorum^  P.  L„  LxV;  Aquinas,  8t.  Thokab,  tr.  Pbogtbr,  The 
Rdigioue  State  (London,  1902) ;  Idem,  tr.  idem.  Apology  for  the 
Rdigioue  Ordere  (London,  1902);  Atubkaoobab,  L^joHo  pro 
Chriatiania  in  P.  (7.,  VI;  Athanasiub,  St.,  VitaAnlonii:  Bpietolce, 
P.  G.,  XXV-XXVIII;  AuGUBTiNB,  St..  De  moribue  Bcdee, 
CathoL,  Epietola:  Enchiridion  in  P.  L..  XXXIV-XXXVII; 
Bakeb,  Sancta  Sophia  (London.  1876);  Basil,  St..  BputoUe: 
Reffula  /imus  traetatat  Regula  brevitu  traelaia^  De  renuntiation» 
eaculit  Hexoemeron  (proamium),  De  Judicio;  Constitutionee  o*- 
ceticce  (N.B.  The  last  named  probably  by  Eustathius  of  So- 
bostc),  P.  O.,  XXIX-XXXII;  Bede,  Ven.,  Vita  S3.  Abbatum  in 
P.  L.,  LXLV;  Benedict.  &r..  Reoula,  P.  L.,  LXVI;  Bbbnabd, 
St.,  De  diligendo  Deo:  Emalola,  P.  L.,  CLXXXII-V;  Binqham, 
Antiqutiieallxmdont  1865)  :BL08ins,  OperaOmnia  (Antwerp.  1632) ; 
BoRNEMANN,  In  tnwatiganda  numaehnttta  orioine  quibua  de  eauaie 
ratio  habendaailOriginia  (Gottingen,  1885) ;  Briort,  SomeAapeela 
o/primitite  church  life  (London,  1893) ;  Budob,  Book  of  the  Ooeemore 
(London,  1893) ;  Idem,  Paradiae  of  the  Holy  Fathera  (2  vols.,  Lon- 
don, 1907) ;  Butler.  Lauaiac  Hiatory  of  Palladiua  (Cambridffe, 
1898) ;  Cjbsarius  of  Arlbs,  St.,  Regula  ad  Virginea  in  Hoi/- 
stein;  Calmbt,  Comment,  in  Reg.  8.  Benedieti  (Paris,  1734);  Cab- 
man (tr.  Gibson),  Jnaiitutea:  Conferences  (Oxford,  1894);  critical 
text  ed..  Petschenig  (Vienna,  1886,  1888);  Cassiodorus,  Opera 
in  P.L.,  LXX;  Clement  of  Alexandria,  St.,  Paidagogua:  Stro- 
mata:  quia  divea  aalvetur  in  P.  G.,  VIII,  IX;  Columbanus,  St., 
Regula  :  Pamitentiale  in  Holbtbin  ;  Contbeare,  Phih  about  the 
contemplative  life  (Oxford,  1895);  Idem,  Apology  and  Ada  of  Apol" 
Umiua,  etc.  (London,  1894) ;  Ctprian,  St..  de  habitu  Virginum  in 
P.  L..  IV;  Diognetua,  Bpidle  to,  in  P.  O.,  II;  Dotlb,  Prineiplea  of 
the  Monaatic  Life  (London,  1883);  Feasbt,  Monaatieiam  (Lon- 
don, 1898):  Gabqubt,  Bngliah  monaatic  life  (London,  1904); 
Greoort,  St..  Dialoguea: Bpiatlea,  in  P.  L .,  LXVI;  Grboort  Nasi- 
ANXEN.  St.,  Oration  on  AlkanatiuM  in  P.  G..  XXXV-XXXVIIli 


MOttASTtCttM  464  MONASTICISM 

j?^;^^A*'-  BowDEN,  r/i«  Fojjer.  ofthede*^  (2  vola..  Lon-    ghow  that  the  thing  was  done.    A  full  practice  of  the 

don,  1867);  Hannat,  SjnrU  and  Orifftn  of  Chnstuxn  Moruuttciam     i„„x  Tr„««„«i:«„i  «^„^„^i  /  u  j*  \         i  j       i     u 

(London,  1903);  Idkm]^  The  Wisdom  of  the  DeseH  (London,    last  Evangelical  counsel  (obedience)  could  only  be  re- 

1904) ;  Harnack,  Dae  Miinchtum,  eeine  Jdeale  und  teine  OeachiehUt      alized   after  the  monastic  ideal  had  taken   root  and 


Jerua, :  Adv,  Jotinian :  De  Virie  iUuttrib, :  BpaUola  in  P,  L.,  life,  practised  long  and  frequent  fasts,   abstained 

XXII-XXX;  KBAiiicH,^w  ABcetikinihrer  doomaj^ehenOmn^  from  flesh  and  wine,  and  supported  himself,  if  ho  were 

lage  he%   Banhua  dem    GroMen    (Paderbom,    1896):    KBttOBB,  «ui«    k,»  »r>.«»  .»^«ii  u-.«jrl-LrA    i      -.•           r      u   j.  l 

GMcAicAted«rattcArM<Zu^enLitercrfur(Uip«ig.i898);  t«cKT,Ht*-  ^"^^f  ^V  8°™®  s^^U  handicraft,  keeping  of  what  he 

Unry  of  European  Morals  (2  vols.,  London,  1869);  l'Hdillikb,  £:r-  earned  Only  SO  much  as  was  absolutely  necessary  for 

^icationdeliRkoledeS.  Ben<At{2  vola..  Paria.  1901) :  Lucius,  his  own  sustenance,  and  giving  the  rest  to  the  poor. 

Die  TherapeuUn  (Straaburg.  1880);  Mabillon,  Acta  88.  Ordtnu  xf  i,-  ---«-^  „-.  ~l„««*«^  ^^^    t«  ^i^u*.  u^  ^^-.r™Lj 

5.  Benedicti  (Paris.  1701);  Idkh.  Annate,  (hdinie  3.  BenedicU  }}  ^l  ^^  an  educated  man,  he  might  be  employed 

a*aris,  1703);  Msthodids.  Symponum  decern  virffinum  in  P.  (7..  DV  the  Church  in  SOme  SUCh  capacity  aS  that  of  cate- 

SS5x"v  MoNTAi^MBEOT.  Les  Jif (nn«  d'Occui^mi  (7  vols.  Paris,  chist.    Very  often  he  would  don  the  kind  of  dress 

1860),  tr.  with  introd.  by  Gaaqubt  (London.  1896);  Newuan,  --,u:-»v  t„o-i,^v^  u-  «r<^«~>.  ^(t  ««  «  ^u:i.v«^wvU^«  ^*  -.« 

Historical  Sketches  (3  vols..  London,  1873)7  Oxanam,  Histori  ^*"5*^  marked  ite  Wearer  Off  as  a  philosopher  of  an 

of    Civilisatum   in   the  Fifth  century   (London,    1868);    Pbbu-  austere  SChool. 

BCHEN,  PaUadiusundRuftnusjpUieaen.  1897);  Pai^dius.  His-  In  Egypt,  at  the  tune  when  St.  Anthony  first 

tona  Laustaca,  ed.  Butleb  (Cambridge,  1904) ;  Raiisat,  The  g^nxUr^n^^U^   oa^w^4-:^    i:f«     «k^^   ».^.^   ^....^u'i^    ^r 

Church  in  the  Roman  Empire  (London7i895) ;  Rilbt.  Athos  the  embraced  the  sflcetic  life,  there  Were  numbers  of 

mountain  of  the  Monks  (London,  1887);   Rosweyd,  Vita  Patrum  aSCCtlCS  UVmg  m  hutS  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the 

Antwerp.  1628).  mosUy  reprinted,  in  P.  L.,l^Xlll-LXXiy;  towns  and  Villages.    When  St.  Anthony  died  (356 

RunNUS,   Hxstona  Monachorum  in   P.L,,  XXI ;   Idbm,  Verba  ^^    *itt'7\     4-«r^    ^7r«^.»«    ^r    •v.^«»fl4-:«:«w.    <^....:»i.^    :-* 

Seniorum  in   Robweyd;   Idem.  Rcgula  S,  Basilii  Ep.  in  Hol-  ?f    ^^7^' J?^°    ^^^^    ?}.    monastlClsm    flourished    in 

stein;  Spbextzenhofeb.  Dm  Enitncklunq  des  alien  M&nehtums  in  ±ig3rpt.    1  here  were  villages  or  colomes  of  hermits — 

^aii«»  (Vienna,  1894);  Idem,  DieHist^rischen  Voraussetzung  der  the  eremitical  type:  and  monasteries  in  which  a  com- 

^cffe/ dM /ft.  Benedict  (Vienna,  1895) ;  SuABES,  tr.  HuMFBET,  rA«  »«„«;♦«   i;f/»   moo   llrl      +1,^   ,*^^^uu\«,   ««.«w.       a    u^^t 

Religious  State  (3  vols.,  Londin,  1884);  SMiri,  Rise  of  Christian  mumty   Me   Was   led—the   cenobltlC   type.     A    bncf 

Monasticism  (London,  1892) ;  Idem,  Characteristics  of  Christian  SUrvey  Of  the  Openmg  chapters  of  Palladius's  "  I^USiac 

if oroii«i/ (London,  IS75) iSvhPicivB  Sbvkrvs,  Dialoffues:  lAfe  of  History"  wiU  serve  as  a  description  of  the  former 

St.  Marttn  in  P.  L.,  XX;  Weinoabten,  Der  Ursvpmg  des  Mihtch-  tvnp 

tufiM  (Gotha,  1877);  Wbisbackeb,  tr.  MiLLBB,  TAe  Apo«to2»c  A0«  ^vT'ii    i.                             i    *          -r.  «       .          .        .     «.«« 

of  the  Chnstian  Church;  Wolteb,  Elementa  Monastxca  (Bruses.  iralladlUS  was  a  monk  from  Palestine  who,  m  388, 

^^K  •  J^°**°°°^?^i  AfwMMitcwm,  ancient  cTui  modem  (London,  went  to  Egypt  to  drink  in  the  Spirit  of  monasticism 

1896);  ZocKixB.  Askese  und  Monchtum  (Frankfort.  1897).  ^^  ^j^e  foimtwnhead.    On  landing  at  Alexandria  he 

G.  Roger  Huddlbston.  put  himself  in  the  hands  of  a  priest  named  Isidore, 

who  in  early  life  had  been  a  hermit  at  Nitria  and  now 

II.  Eastern  Monasticism  Before  Chalcedon  apparently  presided  over  a  hospice  at  Alexandria 
(a.  d.  451). — ^E^pt  was  the  Motherland  of  Christian  without  in  any  way  abating  the  austeritv  of  his  life, 
monasticism.  It  sprang  into  existence  there  at  the  By  the  advice  of  Isidore,  Palladius  placed  himself  un- 
beginning  of  the  fourth  centiuy  and  in  a  very  few  der  the  direction  of  a  hermit  named  Dorotheus  who 
years  spread  over  the  whole  Qiristian  world.  The  lived  six  miles  outside  Alexandria,  with  whom  he  was 
rapidity  of  the  movement  was  only  equalled  by  the  to  pass  three  years  learning  to  subdue  his  passions 
durability  of  its  results.  Within  the  lifetime  of  St.  ana  then  to  return  to  Isidore  to  receive  higher  spirit- 
Anthony  the  religious  state  had  become  what  it  has  ual  knowledge.  This  Dorotheus  spent  the  whole  day 
been  ever  since,  one  of  the  characteristic  features  of  collecting  stones  to  build  cells  for  other  hermits,  and 
the  Catholic  Church,  with  its  ideals,  and  what  may  the  whole  night  weaving  ropes  out  of  palm  leaves. 
be  termed  the  groundwork  of  its  organization,  deter-  He  never  lay  dfown  to  sleep,  though  slumber  sometimes 
mined.  But  this  was  not  all.  The  simple  teaching  overtook  Mm  while  working  or  eating.  Palladius, 
of  the  first  Egyptian  monks  and  hermits  fixed  once  who  seems  to  have  lived  in  his  cell,  ascertained  from 
and  forever  the  broad  outlines  of  the  science  of  the  other  solitaries  that  this  had  been  his  custom  from 
spiritual  life,  or,  in  other  words,  of  ascetic  theology,  his  youth  upwards.  Palladius's  health  broke  down 
The  study,  therefore,  of  early  monasticism  possesses  a  before  he  completed  his  time  with  Dorotheus.  but 
great  deal  more  than  a  merely  antiquarian  interest,  he  spent  three  years  in  Alexandria  and  its  ndghoour- 
It  is  concerned  with  a  movement  the  force  of  which  hooa  visiting  the  hermitages  and  becoming  acquainted 
is  in  no  way  spent  and  which  has  had  a  very  laige  with  about  2000  monks.  From  Alexandria  he  went  to 
share  in  creating  the  conditions  which  obtain  at  the  Nitria,  where  there  was  a  monastic  village  containing 
present  day.  about  5000  solitaries.    There  was  no  kind  of  monas- 

The  first  chapter  in  the  history  of  monasticism  is  tic  rule.    Some  of  the  solitaries  lived  alone,  some- 

the  life  of  St.  Anthony  which  has  already  been  de-  times  two  or  more  lived  together.    They  assembled 

scribed  (see  Anthony,  Satnt).    The  inauguration  of  at   the   church   on   Saturdays   and   Sundays.    The 

the  monastic  movement  may  be  dated  either  about  church  was  served  by  eight  priests  of  whom  the  oldest 

285,  when  St.  Anthony,  no  longer  content  with  the  life  always  celebrated,  preached,  and  judged,  the  others 

of  the  ordinary  ascetic,  went  into  the  wilderness,  or  only  assisting.    All  worked  at  weaving  nax.    There 

about  305,  when  he  organized  a  kind  of  monastic  hfe  were  bakeries  where  bread  was  made,  not  only  for 

for  his  disciples.    Ascetic  is  the  term  usually  employed  the  village  itself,  but  for  the  solitaries  who  lived  in  the 

by  writers  on  monasticism  for  those  who  in  pre-mo-  desert  beyond.    There  were  doctors.    Wine  also  was 

nastic  days  forsook  the  world  so  far  as  they  were  able.  sold. 

Of  the  three  Evangelical  counsels,  chastity  alone  can  Strangers  were  entertained  in  a  guest-house.    If 

be  practised  independently  df  external  circumstances,  able  to  read,  they  were  lent  a  book.    They  might 

Naturally,  therefore  (beginning  with  the  sub-Apos-  stay  as  long  as  they  liked,  but  after  a  week  they  were 

tolic  age),  we  hear  first  of  men  and  women  leading  the  set  to  some  kind  of  work.     If  at  the  ninth  hour  a  man 

virgin  life  (cf.  I  Clem.,  xxxviii;  Ignat.,  ''ad  roly-  stood  and  listened  to  the  sound  of  psalmody  issuing 

carp.",  c.  v;  Hennas,  "Sim.",  DC,  30).  from  the  different   cells,   he  would  imagine,   says 


was 

the  complete  renunciation  of  all  worldly  possessions,  three  whips  suspended  from  three  palm  trees,  one  for 

would  be  difiicult  till  there  were  monasteries,  for  per-  monks  who  might  be  guilty  of  some  fault,  one  for 

sons  with  wealth  to  renounce  would  not.  generally  thieves  who  might  be  caught  prowling  about,  and  the 

speaking,  have  been  brougjit  up  so  as  to  be  capable  third  for  strangers  who  misbehaved.    Further  into 

of  earning  their  own  livelihooa.    Still  we  have  the  the  desert  was  a  place  called  Cells,  or  Cellia,  whither 

examples  of  Origen,  St:  Cyprian,  and  Pamphilus  to  the  more  perfect  withdrew.    This  is  described  by  the 


M0NASTICI8M  465  MONA8TICI8M 

author  of  the  "HiRtoria  monachorum  in  JSgypto".  Pentecost,  were  fast  days.    Some  only  took  very  little 

Here  the  solitaries  lived  in  cells  so  far  apart  that  they  at  the  second  meal;  some  at  one  or  other  of  the  mei^ 

were  out  out  of  sight  and  out  of  hearing  of  one  another,  confined  themselves  to  a  single  food :  others  took  just 

Like  those  of  Nitria,  they  met  only  on  Saturdays  and  a  morsel  of  bread.    Some  abstainea  altogether  from 

Sundays  at  church,  whither  some  of  them  had  to  the  commimity  meal;  for  these  bread,  water,  and 

travel  a  distance  of  three  or  four  miles.    Often  their  salt  were  |)lacea  in  their  cell. 

death  was  only  discovered  by  their  absence  from        Pachomius  appointed  his  successor  a  monk  named 

'^urch.  _        ^  Petronius,  who  died  within  a  few  months,  having 

In  strong  contrast  with  the  individualism  of  the  likewise  named  his  successor,  Horsiesi.    In  Horsiesi's 

<veimtical  life  was  the  rigid  discipline  which  prevailed  in  time  the  order  was  threatened  with  a  schism.    The 

the  cenobitical  monasteries  founded  by  St.  Pachomius.  abbot  of  one  of  the  houses,  instead  of  forwarding  the 

When,in313,Ck>nstantinewasatwarwithMaxentius,  produce  of  the  work  of  his  monks  to  the  head  house 

PaGfaomlus,  still  a  heathen,  was  forcibly  enlisted  to-  of  the  order,  where  it  would  be  sold  and  the  price 

gether  with  a  number  of  other  young  men,  and  placed  distributed   to   the   different   houses   according   to 

on  board  a  ship  to  be  carried  down  the  Nile  to  Alex-  their  need,  wished  to  have  the  disposal  of  it  for  the 

andria.    At  some  town  at  which  the  ship  touched,  sole  benefit  of  his  own  monastery.    Horsiesi,  findine 

the  recruits  were  overwhelmed  with  the  kindness  of  himself  unable  to  coi)e  with  the  situation,  appointed 

the  Christians.    Pachomius  at  once  resolved  to  be  a  Theodore,  a  favourite  disciple  of  Pachomius,  his 

Christian  and  carried  out  his  resolution  as  soon  as  he  coadjutor. 

was  dismissed  from  miUtary  service.    He  began  as  an        When  Theodore  died,  in  the  year  368,  Horsiesi  was 

ascetic  in  a  small  village^  taking  up  his  abode  in  a  able  to  resume  the  government  of  the  order.    This 

deserted  temple  of  Serapis  and  cultivating  a  garden  threatened  schism  brings  prominently  before  us  a 

on  the  produce  of  which  he  lived  and  gave  alms,  feature  connected  with  Pachomius's  foundation  which 

The  fact  that  Pachomius  made  an  old  temple  of  is  never  again  met  with  in  the  East,  and  in  the  West 

Serapis  his  abode  was  enough  for  an  ingenious  theoiy  only  man^  centuries  later.    ''Like  Ctteaux  in  a  later 

that  he  was  originally  a  pagan  monk.    This  view  is  age'',  writes  Abbot  Butler,  ''it  almost  at  once  as- 

now  quite  exploded.  sumed  the  shape  of  a  fully-organized  congregation 

Pachomius  next  embraced  the  eremitical  life  and  or  order,  with  a  superior  gencnd  and  a  system  of 

prevailed  upon  an  old  hermit  named  Palemon  to  take  visitation  and  general  chapters — in  short,  all  the 

nim  as  his  disciple  and  share  his  cell  with  him.    It  machinery  of  a  centralized   government,  such  as 

may  be  noted  that  this  kind  of  discipleship,  which,  does  not  appear  again  in  the  monastic  world  until 

as  we  have  already  seen,  was  attempted  b^  Palladius,  the  Cistercian  and  the  Mendicant  Orders  arose  in 

was  a  recognized  thing  among  the  Egyptian  hermits,  the  twelfth  and  thirteenth  centuries"  (op.  cit.,  I, 

Afterwards  he  left  Palemon  and  founded  his  first  235). 

monastery  at  Tabennisi  near  Denderah.  Before  he  A  word  must  be  said  about  Schenoudi,  or  Schnoudi, 
died,  in  346,  he  had  under  him  eight  or  nine  large  or  Senuti.  Shortly  after  the  middle  of  the  fourth 
monasteries  of  men,  and  two  of  women.  From  a  century,  two  monks,  P^ol  and  Pschais.  changed  their 
secular  point  of  view,  a  Pachomian  monastery  was  an  eremitical  monasteries  into  cenobitical  ones.  Of  the 
industrial  community  in  which  almost  every  kind  of  latter  we  know  scarcely  anything.  Schenoudi,  when 
trade  was  practised.  This,  of  course,  involved  much  a  boy  of  about  nine  years  old,  came  under  the  care 
buying  and  seUing,  so  the  monks  haa  ships  of  their  of  his  uncle  P^L  Both  Pgol  and  Schenoudi  were  re- 
own  on  the  Nile,  which  conveyed  their  agricultural  formers — the  Pachomian  Rule  was  not  strict  enough 
produce  and  manufactured  goods  to  the  market  and  for  them. 

Drought  back  what  the  monasteries  required.    From        Schenoudi  succeeded  his  uncle  Pgol  as  head  of 

the  spiritual  point  of  view,  the  Pachomian  monk  was  the  White  Monastery  of  Athribis  and,  till  his  death 

a  religious  livmg  under  a  rule  more  severe,  even  when  (about  453),  was  not  only  the  greatest  monastic 

allowance  has  been  made  for  differences  of  climate  leader,  but  one  of  the  most  important  men,  in  E^pt. 

and  race,  than  that  of  the  Trappists.  He  waged  war  against  heretics;  he  took  a  prominent 

A  Pachomian  monastery  was  a  collection  of  build-  part  in  the  rooting  out  of  paganism;  he  championed 

ings  surrounded  by  a  wall.    The  monks  were  dis-  the  cause  of  the  poor  against  the  rich.     He  once 

tnbuted  in  houses,  each  house  containing  about  forty  went  in  person  to  Constantinople  to  complain  of  the 

monks.    Three  or  four  houses  constituted  a  tribe,  tyranny  of  government  officials.    On  one  occasion 

There  would  be  from  thirty  to  forty  houses  in  a  mon-  ^000  men,  women,  and  children  took  refuge  in  the 

astery.   There  was  an  abbot  over  each  monastery,  and  Wnite  Monastery  auring  an  invasion  of  the  savage 

?rovosts  with  subordinate  officials  over  each  house.  Blemmyes  of  Ethiopia,  and  Schenoudi  maintained 

'he  monks  were  divided  into  houses  according  to  all  the  fugitives  for  three  months,  providing  them 

the  work  they  were  employed  in :  thus  there  would  be  with  food  and  medical  aid.    On  another  occasion  he 

a  house  for  carpenters,  a  house  for  agriculturists,  and  ransomed  a  hundred  captives  and  sent  them  home 

so  forth.    But  other  principles  of  division  seem  to  with  food,  clothing,  and  money  for  their  journey 

have  been  employed,  e.  g.,  we  hear  of  a  house  for  the  (Leipoldt,  "Schenute  von  A  tripe",  172.  173).    Sche- 

Greeks.    On  Saturdays  and  Sundays  all  the  monks  nouai's  importance  for  the  history  or  monasticism 

assembled  in  the  church  for  Mass;  on  other  days  the  is  small,  for  his  influence,  great  as  it  was  in  his  own 

Office  and  other  spiritual  exercises  were  celebrated  country,  did  not  make  itself  felt  elsewhere.    There 

in  the  houses.  were  two  barriers:  Upper  Egypt  was  a  difficult  and 

''The  fundamental  idea  of  St.  Pachomius's  Rule",  dangerous  country  for  travellers,  and  such  as  did 

writes  Abbot  Butler,  "was  to  establish  a  moderate  penetrate  there  would  not  be  likely  to  visit  a  monas- 

ievel  of  observance  (moderate  in  comparison  with  the  tery  where  hardly  anything  but  Coptic  was  spoken. 

life  led  by  the  hermits)  which  might  be  obligatory  According  to  Abbot  Butler,  "Schenoudi  is  never 

on  all;  and  then  to  leave  it  open  to  each — and  to  in-  named  by  any  Greek  or  Latin  writer"  (op.  cit.,  II, 

deed  encourage  each — ^to  go  oeyond  the  fixed  mini-  204).    He  has  been  rediscovered  in  our  own  time  in 

mum,  according  as  he  was  prompted  by  his  strength,  Coptic  MSS.    A  description  of  the  ruins  of  the  White 

his  courage,  and  his  zeal"  ("Lausiac  History",  1,  p.  Monastery  will  be  found  in  Curzon's  "Monasteries 

236).    Tms  is  strikingly  illustrated  in  the  rules  con-  of  the  Levant",  ch.  xi.    There  are  photographs  of  the 

coming  food.    Acoormng  to  St.  Jerome,  in  the  preface  outer  wall  and  the  ruins  of  the  chiu^h  in  Milne's 

to  his  translation  of  the  "Rule  of  Pachomius",  the  "Hist,  of  Egypt  under  Roman  Rule". 
tables  were  laid  twice  a  day  except  on  Wednesdays        In  part  II  or  Butler's  "Lausiac  History"  is  a  map 

and  Fridays,  which,  outside  the  seasons  of  Easter  and  of  Monastic  Egypt.    A  glance  at  this  map  and 
X.— 30 


M0KASTICI8M                        466  MONASTICISM 

the  uotes  accompanying  it  brings  forcibly  before  the  had  better  take  up  their  abode  in  the  cenobium  (Aotft 

mind  an  important  fact  in  monastic  history.    With  SS.,  March,  I.  386-87). 

the  exception  of  a  single  Pachomian  monastery  at  Antioch,  wnen  St.  John  Chrysostom  was  a  young 

Canopus,  near  Alexandna,  the  cenobitic  monasteries  man,  was  full  of  ascetics  and  the  neighbouring  moun- 

are  in  the  South^  and  cozmned  to  a  relatively  small  tains  were  peopled  with  hermits,    oo  great  was  the 

area.    The  eremitical  monasteries,  on  the  contrary,  impulse  driving  men  to  the  solitary  li^  that  at  one 

are  everywhere,  and  especially  in  the  North.    These  time  there  was  an  outciy,  amounting  almost  to  a  per- 

latter  were  thus  far  more  accessible  to  pilgrims  visit-  secution.  among  Christians  as  well  as  pagans  a^nst 

ing  Egypt  and  so  became  the  patterns  or  models  those  wno  embraced  it.    This  was  tne  occasion  of 

for  the  rest  of  the  Christian  world.    It  was  the  ere-  St.  Chrysostom's  treatise  against  the  opponents  of 

mitical,  not  the  cenobitical,  type  of  monasticism  which  monasticism:  in  the  first  book  he  dwelt  upon  the 

went  forth  from  Egypt.  guilt  incurred  by  them;  the  second  and  thud  were 

Monasticism  at  a  very  early  date  spread  along  addressed  respectively  to  a  pagan  and  a  Christian 

the  route  of  the  Exodus  and  the  desert  of  the  Forty  father  who  were  opposing  the  wish  of  their  sons  to 

Years'  Wandering.    The  solitaries  had  a  special  pre-  embrace  the  monastic  state.    The  paretic  scene  be- 

dilection  for  Scnptural  sites.    At  every  place  nal-  tween  the  saint  and  his  mother,  whidi  he  deBcribes 

lowed  by  tradition,  which  Sylvia  visited  (a.  d.  385),  in  the  beginning  of  the  "De  sacerdotio",  must  be 

she  found  monks.    The  attraction  of  Mt.  Sinai  for  typical  of  what  took  place  in  many  Christian  homes. 

the  solitaries  was  irresistible,  in  spite  of  the  danger  He  himself  so  far  yielded  to  his  mothex's  entreaties 

of  captivity  or  death  at  the  hancu  of  the  Saracens,  that  he  contented  himself  with  the  ascetic  life  at  home 

In  373  a  number  of  solitaries  inhabited  this  moim-  till  her  death.    Palestine  and  Antioch  must  suffice 

tain,  living  on  dates  and  other  fruit,  such  bread  as  as  examples  of  the  rapid  spread  of  monasticiBm  out- 

they  had  being  reserved  for  the  Sacred  Mysteries.   All  side  of  Egypt.    There  is  abundant  evidence  of  the 

the  week  they  lived  apart  in  their  cells;  they  gathered  same  phenomenon  in  all  the  countries  between  the 

together  in  the  church  on  Saturday  evemng  and,  Mediterranean  and  Mesopotamia;  and  Mesopotamia, 

after  spending  the  night  in  prayer,  received  com-  according  to  St.  Jerome,  whose  testimony  is  amply 

munion  on  Sunday  morning.    Forty  of  them  were  borne  out  by  other  writers,  rivalled  Egypt  itself  in  the 

massacred  in  373,  and  on  the  same  day  another  group  number  and  holiness  of  its  monks  (Comm.  in  Isaiam, 

of  soUtaries  at  Raithe  (supposed  to  be  Elim)  were  V,  xix). 

lolled  by  a  second  band  of  barbarians.    These  events  We  now  come  to  a  name  second  only  in  impor- 

were  described  by  eye-witnesses  (Tillemont,  ''H.  E.''.  tance  to  St.  Anthony's  for  the  history  of  eaatero  mo- 

VIL  573-80).    The  same  kind  of  life  was  being  led  nasticism.    St.  Basil  the  Great  before  embradnj^  the 

at  Mt.  Sinai,  and  a  similar  experience  was  under-  monastic  state  made  a  careful  study  of  monasticiBm 

spne  some  twenty  years  later  when  St.  Nilus  was  in  Egypt,  Palestine,  Coelesyria,  and  Mesopotamia, 

there.  The  result  was  a  decided  preference  for  the  oenobiti- 

St.  Hilarion,  who  for  a  time  had  been  a  disciple  cal  life.    He  founded  several  monasteries  in  Pontu8| 

of  St.  Anthony,  propagated  monasticism  of  the  ere-  over  one  of  which  he  himself  for  a  time  presided,  ana 

mitical  tjrpe  first  in  the  neighbourhood  of  his  native  very  soon  monasteries,  modelled  after  his,  spread  over 

city   Gaza  and   then  in  Csrprus.     His  friend  St.  the  E^t.    His  monks  assembled  together  for  "paal- 

Epiphanius,  after  practising  the  monastic  life  in  mody"  and  "genuflexions"  seven  times  a  day,  in 

Egypt^  founded  a  monastery  near  EHeutheropolis  in  accordance  with  the  Psalmist's  "Septies  in  die  laudon 

Paleetme  somewhere  about  330  or  perhaps  a  little  dixitibi"  (Ps.  cxviii,  164) :  at  midnight  ("  Media  nocte 

later.  surgebam  — Ibid.,   62),   at  evening,  morning,  and 

In  Jerusalem  and  its  neighbourhood  there  were  midday  (Ps.  Iv,  18),  at  the  third  hour,  the  hour  of 

numerous  monasteries  at  a  very  early  date.    To  name  Pentecost,  and  at  the  ninth,  the  sacred  hour  of  the 

only  a  few,  there  was  the  monastery  on  the  Mount  of  Passion.    To  complete  the  tale  of  seven,  the  midday 

Olives,  from  which  PaUadius  went  forth  on  his  tour  prayer  was  divided  into  two  parts  separated  by  the 

of  the  Egyptian  monasteries;  there  were  two  monas-  community  meal  (Sermo  ''Asceticus^',  Benedictine 

teries  for  women  in  Jerusalem,  built  by  the  older  and  edition,  II,  321).    St.  Basil's  monastic  ideal  is  set 

younger  Melania  respectively.    At  Bethlehem  St.  forth  in  a  collection  of  his  writings  known  as  the 

Paula  founded  three  monasteries  for  women  and  one  "Ascetioon",  or  "Ascetica",  the  most  important  of 

for  men  about  a.  b.  387.    There  was,  besides,  in  which  are  the  "Reguls  fusius  tractate",  a  series  oi 

Bethlehem  the  monastery  where  Cassian  some  years  answers  to  questions,  fifty-five  in  number,  and  the 

before  began  his  religious  life.    The  lauras,  which  ''ReguJs  brevius  tractatse",  in  which  three  hundred 

were  very  numerous,  formed  a  conspicuous  feature  in  and  thirteen  questions  are  briefly  replied  to.    It  must 

Palestinian  monasticism.    The  first  seems  to  have  not  be  supposed  that  the  "Reguue"  form  a  rule, 

been  founded  before  334  by  St.  Chariton  at  Pharan,  thou^^h  it  would  be  possible  to  go  a  good  way  towards 

a  few  miles  from  Jerusalem;  later  on,  two  more  constituting  one  out  of  them     They  are  answers  to 

were  founded  by  the  same  saint  at  Jericho  and  at  questions  which  would  naturally  arise  among  persona 

Suca.  already  in  possession  of  a  framework  of  customs  or 

St.  Euthymius  (473)  founded  another  celebrated  one  traditions.  Sometimes  they  treat  of  practical  que»» 
in  the  Valley  of  Cedron.  Near  Jericho  was  the  laura  tions,  but  as  often  as  not  they  deal  with  matters  con- 
ruled  over  by  St.  Gerasimus  (475).  Some  'details  ceming  the  spiritual  life.  What  is  on  the  whole  a 
concerning  the  rule  of  this  laura  have  fortimately  Kood  description  of  them  will  be  found  in  Smith  and 
been  preserved  in  a  very  ancient  Life  of  St.  Euthy-  Cheetham,  "Diet,  of  Christ.  Antiquities",  II,  1233 
mius.    It  consisted  of  a  cenobium  where  the  cenobitic  sqg. 

life  was  practised  by  novices  and  others  less  proficient.  It  would  not  be  easy  to  exsf^rate  St.  Basil's  in- 

There  were  also  seventy  cells  for  solitanee.    Five  fluence  upon  eastern  monasticism:  he  furnished  the 

days  in  the  week  these  latter  lived  and  worked  alone  type  which  ultimately  prevailed.  Buttwopdntsof  the 

in  their  cells.    On  Saturday  they  brought  their  work  utmost  importance,  as  marking  the  difference  between 

to  the  cenobium.  where,  after  receiving  Holy  Com-  Eastern  and  Western  monasteries,  must  be  kept  in 

munion  on  Sunoays,  they  partook  of  some  cooked  mind.     (1)    He  did  not  draw  up  a  rule,  but  gave, 

food  and  a  little  wine.    The  rest  of  the  week  their  what  is  far  more  an  elastic  thing,  a  model  or  pattern, 

fare  was  bread,  dates,  and  water.    When  some  of  them  (2)    He  was  not  the  founder  of  a  religious  order. 

asked  to  be  aUowed  to  heat  some  water,  that  they  No  E^astem,  except  St.  Pachomius,  ever  was«    An 

might  cook  some  food,  and  to  have  a  lamp  to  read  by,  order,  as  we  understand  the  term,  is  a  purely  Western 

they  were  told  that  if  they  wished  to  live  thus  they  product.    "It  is  not  enough",  says  a  writer  who  oer- 


MON18TICI8M 


467 


MON18TICI8M 


lainly  does  not  underrate  St.  Basil's  influence,  "to 
affirm  that  the  Basilian  Order  is  a  myth.  One  must 
n>  further  and  give  up  calling  the  Byzantine  monks 
BasiHanB.  Those  most  concerned  have  never  taken 
to  themselves  this  title,  and  no  Eastern  writer  that 
I  know  of  has  ever  bestowed  it  upon  them"  (Pargoire 
in  "Diet.  d'Arch^ologie  chr6tienne",  s.  v.  "Basile"). 
In  a  word,  every  monastery  is  an  order  of  its  own. 
With  St.  Basil  Eastern  monasticism  reached  its  final 
stage — communities  of  monks  leading  the  contempla- 
tive life  and  devotine  themselves  wholly  to  prayer 
and  work.  The  cenobitical  life  steadily  became  the 
normal  form  of  the  religious  calling,  and  the  eremiti- 
cal one  the  exceptional  form,  requiring  a  long  previous 
training. 

We  must  now  speak  of  the  grounds  upon  which 
St.  Basil  based  his  decision — &  decision  so  momentous 
for  the  future  history  of  monasticism — ^in  favour  of 
the  cenobitical  life.  Life  with  others  is  more  ex- 
pedient because,  in  the  first  place,  even  for  the  supply 
of  their  bodily  needs,  men  oepend  upon  one  another. 
Further,  there  is  the  law  of  charity.  The  solitary 
has  only  himself  to  regard:  yet  "charity  seeks  not 
itself". 

Again,  the  solitary  will  not  eoually  discover  his  faults. 
there  bmng  no  one  to  correct  him  with  meekness  ana 
mercy.  There  are  precepts  of  charity  which  can  only 
be  fmfilled  in  the  cenobitical  life.  The  gifts  of  the 
Holy  Spirit  are  not  all  given  to  all  men,  but  one  is 
given  to  one  man  and  another  to  another.  We  can- 
not be  partakers  in  the  gifts  not  bestowed  on  ourselves 
if  we  live  bv  ourselves.  The  great  danger  to  the 
solitary  is  self-complacency;  he  is  not  put  to  the  test, 
80  that  he  is  unable  to  learn  his  faults  or  his  progress. 
How  can  he  learn  humility  when  there  is  no  one  to 
prefer  before  himself?  Or  patience  when  there  is 
no  one  to  yield  to?  Whose  feet  shall  he  wash?  To 
whom  shall  he  be  as  a  servant?  (Reg.  fus.  tract., 
Q.  vii.)  This  condemnation  of  the  eremitical  life 
is  interesting  because  of  what  might  almost  be  called 
its  tameness.  One  would  expect  at  least  a  lurid 
picture  of  the  dangers  which  the  solitary  ran,  delu- 
sions, melancholy  culminating  in  despair,  terrible 
moral  and  spiritual  falls,  the  abandonment  of  the 
religious  calling  for  the  life  of  vice,  and  so  forth.  But 
instead  of  such  things  we  have  little  more  than  what 
amounts  to  disadvantages  and  the  risk  of  somewhat 
flat  and  conmionplace  kinds  of  failure,  against  which 
the  common  life  afforded  the  best  protection .  Clearly 
St.  Basil  found  very  little  that  was  tragic  during  the 
two  years  he  was  investigating  monasticism  in  Egypt, 
Mesopotamia,  and  elsewhere. 

It  might  be  supposed  that  so  uncompromising  a 
verdict  against  the  eremitical  life  would  stir  up  a  fierce 
conflict.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  it  did  nothing  of  the 
kind.  Palestine,  towards  the  end  of  the  fourth  cen- 
tury, began  to  supersede  E^rpt  as  the  centre  of  monas- 
ticism^ and  in  Palestine  the  laura  and  the  cenobium 
were  m  perfect  harmonv.  That  of  St.  Gerasimus, 
with  its  cenobium  already  referred  to,  may  be  taken 
as  a  typical  example.  St.  Basil's  authority  was  equal 
to  St.  Anthony's  among  «the  leaders  of  Palestinian 
monasticism;  yet  they  took  it  as  a  matter  of  course 
that  life  in  the  laura  was  the  most  perfect,  though 
under  ordinary  circumstances  it  should  not  be  en- 
tered upon  before  an  apprenticeship  had  been  served 
in  a  oenobitun.  The  paradox  is  not  so  great  as  it  may 
at  first  sight  appear.  The  dweller  in  the  laura  was 
under  an  archimandrite  or  abbot  and  so  was  not 
exposed  to  the  dangers  of  the  purety  eremitical  state. 
(A  number  of  passages  from  ttie  Lives  of  St.  Euthy- 
mius,  St.  Theodosius,  and  others  bearing  upon  the 
above  subject  have  been  brought  together  by  Holl, 
"Enthusiasmus  und  Bussgewalt  beim  Griechischen 
M5ncthum",  Leipzig,  pp.  172  sqq.) 

At  the  Council  of  Chalcedon,  monasticism  had  so 
become  a  recognized  part  of  the  life  of  the  Church 


that  it  was  especially  legislated  for.  Monasteries  were 
not  to  be  erected  without  the  leave  of  the  bishop; 
monks  were  to  receive  due  honour,  but  were  not  to 
mix  themselves  up  with  the  affairs  of  Church  or  State. 
They  were  to  be  subject  to  the  bishop,  etc.  (can.  iv). 
Clerics  and  monks  were  not  to  serve  in  war  or  embrace 
a  secular  life  (can.  vii).  Monasteries  were  not  to  be 
secularized  (can.  xxiv). 

Solitary  spots,  according  to  St.  Basil,  should  be 
chosen  as  sites  for  monasteries.  Nevertneless,  they 
soon  found  their  way  into  cities.  According  to 
Marin  ("Les  Moines  de  Constantinople'',  Paris, 
1897,  330-808),  at  least  fifteen  monasteries  were 
founded  at  Constantinople  in  the  time  of  Constantine 
the  Great;  but  Besse  (Les  Moines  d'Orient.  18) 
affirms  that  the  three  most  ancient  ones  only  dated 
back  to  the  time  of  Theodosius  (375-95).  In  518 
there  were  at  least  fifty-four  monasteries  in  Constan- 
tinople. Their  names  and  those  of  their  rulers  are 
given  in  a  petition  addressed  by  the  monks  of  Con- 
stantinople to  Pope  Hormisdas  in  518  (Martin, 
ibid.,  18). 

For  Esyptian  moDasticiBm,  not  only  are  the  original  aouroes  far 
superior  to  ^oee  for  earlv  Monastioism  elBewhere.  but  the  subject 
has  been  more  thorouiply  investi^ted.  The  most  important 
work  that  has  appeared  in  recent  tunes  is  Bxttlbb,  Ths  Lausitie 
History  of  PaUadiw  in  Cambridge  Texts  and  Studies,  VI.  (first 
part,  1898:  seocmd  part,  1004).  Other  important  works  are 
IiADBUiB,  Etude  aur  le  eSncbitteme  Pakkomten  vendant  U  IV* 
aikcle  et  la  premiire  maitiS  du  V*  (Louvain  and  Paris,  1898); 
BcHiswiBTS.  Dae  moroerdandieehe  M&nchthum,  I  (Mains,  1004); 
Leipolot,  Schenvte  von  Atripe  (Leipiia,  1903)  in  Texte  und  UnUi^ 
euch.  (new  series),  XI  (Leipsig,  1003).  Ladeuse  gives  an  exhaustive 
study  of  the  documents  ujxm  which  our  knowledge  of  Pachomius 
and  Schenoudi  are  based.  Bchiewiets  treats  of  (1)  Christian 
asceticism  in  the  first  three  centuries  and  (2)  Egyptian  mo- 
nasticism in  the  fourth;  he  omits  Schenoudi  altc^ther.  A  very 
Important  point  of  difference  between  Ladeuie  and  Schiewiets  on 
the  one  hand,  and  Butler  on  the  other,  is  the  unfavourable  esti- 
mate formed  by  the  first  two  and  the  favourable  one  by  the  last 
of  Palladius's  account  of  the  Pachomian  monasticism.  Classifi- 
cations and  appreciations  of  the  orimial  sources  will  be  found  in 
Bxttlbb,  ov.  dt.,  pt.  1, 196  sqq. ;  pt.  11,  p.  zii.  The  most  valuable, 
now  that  tn  text  has  been  restored  by  Butler,  is  the  Laueiae  Hie- 
tory  of  PaUadiuM  (see  above).  What  used  to  pass  for  Palladius 
was  a  text  very  much  interpolated  with  the  Hittoria  monachorum 
in  jSgyplo,  an  account  of  information  gathered  by  seven  monks  of 
Palestme  who  visited  Egypt  in  394-96,  written  by  one  of  them. 
The  Greek  text  was  printea  for  the  first  time  by  Prbubchbn,  Pai^ 
ladius  und  Rufinua  (Giessen.  1897).  Till  1807  it  was  only  known 
in  the  Latin  version  of  Rufinus,  which  was  supposed  to  be  the 
original.  As  the  experiences  narrated  do  not  square  with  the  facts 
of  Kufinus's  Life,  this  supposition  reduced  it  to  the  level  of  an  hi»- 
toricid  romance.  Butler  nas  proved,  or  nearly  proved,  that  the 
Greek  is  the  original  and  thus  restored  the  work  to  its  proper 
place  as  a  genuine  record.  He  has  done  the  same  for  the  Letueiac 
iii^.  by  recovering  the  uninterpolated  text.  The  Jnstitutee 
and  Conferences  of  Cassian  are  also  records  based  upon  personal 
knowledge  (see  art.  Cassian,  John).  For  Pachomian  monasti- 
cism the  chief  authorities  are  the  Greek  Life  of  Pachomius;  Pacho- 
luus,  Ascetieum,  known  also  as  the  Paralipomena;  the  Bviatoia 
Amnumis  on  Theodore  (all  to  be  found  in  Acta  8S.,  May,  I);  and 
8t.  Jerome's  translati<ni  of  the  Rule.  A  number  of  Coptic  and 
Arabic  MSS.  concerning  Egyptian  monasticism  have  been  pub- 
lished of  late  years  chie^  bvAifiuNKAU,  for  which  we  must  refer 
the  reader  to  the  bibliognuphy  at  the  end  of  Ladbusb,  op.  eit.,  and 
to  Lbipoldt,  op,  eii.  An  English  translation  of  Syriac  versions  of 
the  Lausiae  History,  the  Ascetieum,  and  the  Hiai,  Monach.  (there 
attributed  to  St.  Jerome)  will  be  found  in  vol.  I  of  Budob,  Parof 
diss  of  the  Fathers  (Lonaon,  1907).  For  Palladius,  references  to 
the  corresponding  Greek  text  of  Butler  will  be  found  on  pp.  xxxiii, 
xxziv. 

For  non-Egjrptian  Eastern  mona-tidsm,  the  chief  sources  are 
the  IJves,  when  authentic,  of  individual  monks  and  hermits;  St. 
Thbodobbt,  De  titis  patrum;  certain  writing  of  St.  Basil,  St. 
Jbbomb,  St.  John  Chbtsostom ,  St.  Epiphanivs,  St.  Ephbbm 
Stbus,  St.  Hilus,  etc. ;  the  historians  Socbatbs  and  Sosombn. 
Among  older  books  dealing  with  the  subject  Tillemont's  Mhnoires 
is  perhaps  the  most  mdispensable.  Mabin,  Vies  des  Pkres  dee 
dieerts  d^Orimt  (9  vols.,  Pans,  1824).  gives  copious  quotations  from 
the  original  sources.  The  only  important  modem  work  upon 
Eastern  Monasticism  as  a  whole  seems  to  be  Bbssb,  Les  motnes 
d'Orient  antirieurs  au  eoncile  Chalddoine  (451)  (Louvain,  4(X)1) 

Francis  Joseph  Bacchus. 

III.  Eastern  Monasticism. — (1)  Origin. — ^The  first 
home  of  ChriBtian  monasticism  is  the  Egyptian  desert. 
Hither  during  persecution  men  fled  the  world  and  the 
danger  of  apostasy,  to  serve  God  in  solitude.  St.  An- 
thony (270-356)  is  ooimted  the  father  of  all  monks.  His 
fame  attracted  many  others,  so  that  under  Diocletian 
and  Constantine  there  were  large  colonies  of  monks  in 


M0N18TICISM 


468 


MONASTICISM 


Efyptj  the  first  XaDpae.  St.  Athanasius's  (d.  373) 
fnendly  relations  to  the  Egyptian  monks  and  the 
refuge  he  found  among  them  during  his  second  (356- 
362)  and  third  (362-363)  exiles  are  well  known  inci- 
dents of  his  life.  The  monks  lived  each  in  his  own 
hut,  providing  for  their  simple  needs  with  their  own 
hands^  unitecTby  a  bond  of  willing  submission  to  the 
direction  of  some  older  and  more  experienced  hermit, 
coming  together  on  Saturday  and  Sunday  for  com- 
mon prayer,  otherwise  spending  their  time  in  private 
contemplation  and  works  of  penance.  Celibacy  was 
from  the  beginning  an  essential  note  of  monasticism. 
A  wife  and  family  were  part  of  the  "world"  they  had 
left. 

Poverty  and  obedience  were  to  some  extent  rela- 
tive, though  the  ideal  of  both  was  developing.  The 
monk  of  the  desert  was  not  necessarily  a  pnest;  he 
formed  a  different  class  from  the  clergy  who  stayed 
in  the  world  and  assisted  the  bishops.  For  a  long 
time  this  difference  between  monks  and  clergy  re- 
mained; the  monk  fled  all  intercourse  with  other 
people  to  save  his  soul  away  from  temptation.  Later 
some  monks  were  ordained  priests  in  order  to  adminis- 
ter sacraments  to  their  brethren.  But  even  now  in 
the  East  the  priest-monk  (Upofju^vaxos)  is  a  special 
person  distinct  from  the  usual  monk  (jiSwaxot),  who  is 
a  layman. 

St.  Anthony's  scarcely  less  famous  disciple  Pacho- 
mius  (d.  315)  is  beUeved  to  have  begun  the  oi^anization 
of  the  hermits  in  groups,  "folds"  (fuiydpac)  with  stricter 
subjection  to  a  leader  (dpx^fMpSplTiit);  but  the  organi- 
zation was  vague.  Monasticism  was  still  a  manner  of 
life  rather  than  affiliation  to  an  organized  body;  any 
one  who  left  wife  and  family  and  the  "world"  to  seek 
peace  away  from  men  was  a  monk.  Two  codified 
^' Rules"  are  attributed  to  Pachomius;  of  these  the 
lonser  is  translated  into  Latin  by  St.  Jerome,  a  second 
and  shorter  one  ia  in  Palladius,  "Hist.  Lausiaca" 
XXXVIII.  Sozomenos  gives  a  compendium  of  the 
"Rule  of  Pachomius"  (IL  E.,  Ill,  xiv).  Neither  of 
these  rules  is  authentic,  but  they  may  well  contain 
maxims  and  principles  that  go  back  to  his  time, 
mixed  with  later  ones.  They  are  already  consid- 
erably advanced  towards  a  regulated  monastic  life. 
They  order  uniformity  in  dress^  obedience  to  a  su- 
perior, prayers  and  meals  at  nxed  times  in  com- 
mon; they  regulate  both  ascetic  practices  and  hand- 
work. 

About  the  same  time  as  St.  Anthony  in  Eg3rpt,  Hi- 
larion  flourished  at  Gaza  in  Palestine  (see  St.  Jerome, 
"Life  of  St.  Hilarion"  in  P.  L.,  XXIII,  29-54).  He 
stands  at  the  head  of  West  Synan  monasticism.  In 
the  middle  of  the  fourth  centunr  Aphraates  speaks  of 
monks  in  East  Syria  (Wright,  "The  Homilies  of  Aphra- 
ates", London,  1869, 1,  Horn.  6  and  18).  At  the  same 
time  we  hear  of  them  in  Armenia,  Pontus,  and  Cappa- 
docia.  Epiphanius,  for  instance,  who  in  367  became 
Bishop  of  Salamis  in  Cyprus,  had  been  for  thirty 
years  a  monk  in  Palestine.  At  the  time  of  St.  Basil 
(330-379),  therefore,  there  were  already  monks  all 
over  the  East.  As  soon  as  he  was  baptized  (357)  he 
determined  to  be  a  monk  himself;  he  spent  two  years 
traveUing  "to  Alexandria,  through  Egypt,  in  Pales- 
tine, Syria,  and  Mesopotamia"  (Ep.  223),  studying  the 
life  of  the  monks.  Then  in  358  he  formed  the  com- 
munity at  Annesos  in  Pontus  that  was  to  be  in  some 
sort  a  new  point  of  departure  for  Eastern  monasticism. 
He  describes  the  life  at  Annesos  in  a  letter  to  St.  Greg- 
ory Nazianzen  (Ep.  2).  Its  principles  are  codified  in 
various  ascetic  works  by  him,  of  which  the  chief  are 
the  two  "Rules",  the  longer  ("O/w  kotA  irX<lTOf,P.  G., 
XXXI,  905-1052)  and  the  shorter  ("Opot  jcar'  hrirofi^w, 
ib.,  1051-1306) .     (See  Basil,  Rule  op  Saint.) 

(2)  To  the  great  Schism. — Gradually  nearly  all  East- 
em  monasteries  accepted  the  Rules  of  St.  Basil. 
Their  inner  organization  evolved  a  hierarchy  of  ofii- 
^als  among  whom  the  various  offices  were  distrib- 


uted; the  prayers,  meals,  work,  pumshments 

S^rtioned  out  according  to  the  ascetic  works  of  St. 
asil,  and  so  the  whole  monastery  arrived  at  a  woric- 
ing  order. 

That  order  obtains  still.  In  its  inner  life  Eastern 
monasticism  has  been  extraordinarily  stationary. 
There  is  practically  no  development  to  describe.  Its 
history  from  the  fourth  century  down  to  our  own  time 
is  only  a  chronicle  of  the  founding  and  endowment  of 
new  monasteries,  of  the  part  taken  by  monks  in  the 
great  reUgious  controversies  and  in  one  or  two  contro- 
versies of  their  own,  of  the  emperors,  empresses,  patri- 
archs, and  other  great  persons  who,  freely  or  under 
compulsion,  ended  their  career  in  the  world  by  retiring 
to  a  monastery.  Two  ideas  that  constantly  recur  in 
Eastern  theology  are  that  the  monastic  state  is  that  of 
Christian  perfection  and  also  a  state  of  penance.  £u- 
sebius  (d.  c.  340)  in  his  "Demonstratio  evangelica" 
distinguishes  the  two  kinds  of  life  of  a  Chnstian, 
the  less  perfect  life  in  the  world  and  the  perfect  life 
of  monks. 

The  idea  recurs  continually.  Monks  lead  the  "an- 
gelic life",  their  dress  is  the  "angelic  habit "j  like  the 
angels  they  neither  marry  nor  give  in  mamage,  and 
like  them  the  chief  object  of  their  existence  is  to  sing 
the  praises  of  God  (in  the  Divine  office).  Not  incom- 
patible with  this  is  the  other  idea,  found  in  St.  Basil 
and  many  others,  that  their  state  is  one  of  penance 
(jurdpoia).  Symeon  of  Thessalonica  (d.  1429)  counts 
the  monks  simply  as  "penitents"  (jAerapooOpT€s).  The 
most  perfect  life  on  es^h,  namely,  is  that  of  a  man 
who  obeys  the  command  to  "do  penance,  for  the 
Kingdom  of  Heaven  is  nigh  " . 

The  organization  and  me  of  a  Byzantine  monastery 
before  the  schism  is  known  to  us  by  the  decrees  affect- 
ing it  made  by  various  councils,  laws  in  the  "Corpus 
iuris"  (in  the  "Codex"  and  the  "Novellae"),  the  lives 
of  eminent  monks,  of  which  the  "Sjmaxarion"  has 
preserved  not  a  few.  and  especially  by  the  ascetic 
writings  of  monks,  letters,  sermons,  and  so  on,  in 
which  Uiey  give  aavice  to  their  colleagues.  Of  such 
monastic  writers  St.  John  Damascene  (d.  c.  754),  George 
Hamartolos  (ninth  century),  and  especially  St.  Theo- 
dore of  Studion  (d.  826)  are  perhaps  the  most  valuable 
for  this  purpose.  At  the  head  of  each  independent 
monastery  (XaOpa  is  the  common  name  in  Gredc)  was 
the  supenor.  At  first  (e.  g.,  by  Justinian:  "Nov.",  V, 
vii;  CXXIII,  v  and  xxxiv)  he  is  called  indifferently 
dppds,  dpxifMPdplTiit,  i^od/iCMf.  Later  the  common 
name  is  ^oA/upos  only.  The  archimandrite  has  be- 
come a  person  of  superior  rank  and  takes  precedence 
of  a  hegumenos.  Goar  thinks  that  archimandrite 
meant  the  superior  of  a  patriarchal  inonastery,  that 
is,  one  immediately  subject  to  the  patriarch  and  ind^ 
pendent  of  the  jurisdiction  of  the  ordinary'.  The  title 
then  would  correspond  to  that  of  the  Western  "Abbas 

nullius". 

Marin  (Les  Moines  de  Constantinople,  pp.  87-90), 
admitting  this^  demonstrates  from  examples  that 
there  was  an  mtermediate  period  (from  about  the 
sixth  to  the  ninth  centuries)  during  which  the  title 
archimandrite  was  given  ai^a  purely  personal  honour 
to  certain  hegumenoi  without  involving  any  exemp- 
tion for  the  monastery.  A  furtherprecedence  be- 
longed to  a  "  great  archimandrite ".  The  election  and 
rights  of  the  hegumenos  are  described  by  St.  Basil  in 
his  two  Rules,  by  Justinian  (Novel.,  CXXIII,  xxxiv), 
and  Theodore  of  Studion  (Testamentum,  in  P.  G., 
XCIX,  1817-1818) .  He  was  elected  by  the  monks  by 
a  majority  of  votes:  in  cases  of  dispute  the  patriarch 
or  ordinary  decided;  sometimes  lots  were  cast.  He 
was  to  be  chosen  for  his  merit,  not  according  to  the 
time  he  had  already  spent  in  the  monastery,  and 
should  be  sufficiently  learned  to  know  the  canons. 
The  patriarch  or  bishop  must  confirm  the  election  and 
institute  the  hegumenos.  But  the  emperor  re^^ved 
him  in  audience  and  gave  him  a  pastoral  staff  (the 


HONA8TICI8M  469  HOITA8TKI8U 

fifiSot).    The  ceremony  of  ioduction  ia  given  in  the  him  and  clothee  him  in  tbe  habit,  finalljr  celebraMe  tlie 

"  Euchologion"  (Gear's  edttioD,  Venice,  1730,  365-  holy  Liturgy,  and  ^vee  him  Conunumon.    From  the 

39J).     He  then  rememed  abbot  for  life,  except  in  the  time  of  his  profession  the  monk  remains  inseparably 

event  of  liis  being  deposed,  aft«r  trial,  for  some  ca-  attached  to  the  mooastery.    Besidee  the  vows  of  pov- 

nonicol  offence.  erty,  chastity,  aod  obedience  he  makes  a  vow  of  per- 

The  hegumenofl  had  absolute  authority  over  all  his  severance  in  the  rd^ous  exerciseH  of  the  particular 

mooka,  could  receive  novices  and  inflict  puniahments:  laara  he  has  ohoaen.     Normally  he  can  no  more 

but  he  was  bound  always  by  the  rule  of  St.  Basil  and  change  to  another  than  go  back  Ui  the  world.    He 

the  canons,  and  he  had  to  consult  a  committee  of  the  should  moreover  never  go  out  at  all.     In  theory  all 

more  experienced  monks  in  all  cases  of  difficulty.  This  monks  are  "enclosed"  (St.  Baail,  P.  G.,  XXXI,  636- 

committee  was  the  iriraiii  that  in  many  ways  lim-  636):  but  this  rule  hasneverbeen  taken  very  literally. 

ited  the  autocracy  of  the  superior  (St.  Basil's  Rule,  Monks  travelled  about,  with  the  consent  of  their  su- 

P.  C,  XXXI,  1037).    The  hegumenos  in  the  Byzaji'  periors  and  with  the  excuse  that  they  were  engaged  in 

tine  time,  after  Justinian,  was  aenerally,  but  not  quite  busiaeaa  of  the  laura  or  of  the  Church  in  general, 
always,  a  priest.     He  receivea  the  confessions  ol  his         But  there  still  remained  a  further  step.     Aft«r  hav- 


monks  (there  are  instances  of  those  who  were  not  ing  proved  their  perseverance  for  some  years  monks 
priests  usurping  this  office  (Marin,  op,  cit.,  66)]  and  weTe  accustomed  to  ask,  as  a  reward  for  their  advance- 
could  ordain  them  to  minor  Orders,  including  the  sub-  ment  in  the  ascetic  life,  for  the  "great  habit"  (tA  iiiya 
diaconate.  Under  the  abbot  there  was  a  hierarchy  of  «ai  d'y7'X»it4>'  axftim).  This  was  simply  a  lai^er  and 
o(h;r  officiala,  more  or  less  numerous  according  to  the  more  dignified  cloak,  suitable  for  the  veterans  of  the 
size  of  the  laura.  The  Sttnrptioir  took  hia  place  in  case  monastery.  Gradually  its  reception  became  a  n^- 
of  his  absence  or  sickness,  the  oltorCiMi  had  charge  of  lar  ceremony  and  the  wearers  of  the  great  habit  be^ 
all  the  property,  the  to  fonn  a  superior 
ncWifHOf  looked  after  I  class,  the  aristocracy 
the  food,  the  trurrji-  \  ofthelaura.  St.The- 
f/irafix"^  saw  to  the  odore  of  Studion  ob- 
regular  performance  I  jected  Strongly  to 
of  services  in  the  this  distinction:  "As 
church,  the  nn-  I  there  is  only  one 
ripxn*  guided  the 
singers  dunng  the 
Divine  office.  These 
officials,  who  usually 

formed  the  synaxis,  there  is  no  real  plac. 

acted   as  a  restraint  (orsuchahighertank 

on  the  authority  of  !    in  the  monastic  sys- 

the  hegumenos.   Nu-  I    tem.     At  the  recep- 

merous  lesser  offices,  i    tion  of  the  first  habit 

as  those  of  infirma-  the  monk  makes 

rian,      gue-it-master,  hia  solemn  vows  for 

porter,  cook,  and  so  life  and    becomes  a 

on,  were   divided  <    full  monk  in  evety 

among  the  commu-  sense.    However^  in 

nity.Themonkswere  spite  ot  opposition,  , 

divided     into    Oiree  '    tne   i *  — " 

orders,  novices,  those 
who  bear  the  les 


T  (a*o 


habit  and  those  who  have  the  great  habit.    Children  peals  very  much  the  ceremony  of  the  les 

(the  Council  in  Trullo  of  692  admiU  profesdon  as  valid  forms  a  tand  of  renewal  of  vows  (Goar,  403-414) ;  it  is 

after  the  age  of  ten  years),  married  men  (if  their  wives  from  the  older  monks  who  have  gone  thtou^  this  rite 

are  wilUng),  even  slaves  who  arc  badly  treated  by  and  are  honourably  distinguished  by  thdr  long  cloaka 

their  masters  or  in  danger  of  losing  their  faith,  could  b>e  that  the  dignitaries  of  the  laura  are  chosen.     Another 

received  as  novices.    Justinian  ordered  novices  to  wear  gradual  development  was  the  formation  of  a  class  of 

lay  clothes  (Novel.,  V,  ii),  but  soon  the  custom  was  in-  priest-monks.     At  first  no  monks  received  any  ordi- 

ttoduced  that  after  a  probation  of  about  six  months  nation;  then  one  or  two  were  made  priests  to  admin- 

(whiie  they  were  postulants)  they  should  have  their  ister  sftcraments  to  the  others,  then  later  it  became 

hair  cut  (tonsure)  and  receive  a  tunic  (x'^''')  and  the  common  to  ordain  a  monk  priest.     But  it  has  never 

tall  cap  called  «aXi»«uix'o».     The  service  for  this  first  become  the  rule  that  all  choir-monks  should  be  or- 

clothingisinthe"Euchologion"  (Goar,  pp.  378-380).  dained,  os  it  became  in  the  West.     On  enteringmon- 

After  three  years'  novicealup  the  monk  received  the  asteriea  people  changed  their  name.    The  monk  was  to 

leaser  habit  or  mawfyoj!  (tA  fu*;)**  »xfl»«<,  (ui»S*oiJ.   He  abstain  from  flesh-meat  always;  his  food  was  fruit  and 

is  B^n  tonsured  in  the  form  of  a  cross,  recdves  a  new  vegetables  and  on  feast^ays  fish,   ^gs,   milk,   and 

tumc,  belt,  cap,  sandals,  and   the  monastic  cloak  cheese.   Wine  was  allowed.    The  chiefmeal,  the  only 

((urJjaf).     For  the  rite,  see  Goar,  pp.  382-389.    The  full  meal  m  the  day,  was  served  at  the  sixth  hour 

mandyas  is  the  "angelic  habit"  that  makes  him  a  (midday);  on  the  frequent  fast-days,  including  everpr 

true  monk;  it  is  at  this  service  that  he  makes  his  vows.  Wednc^ay  and  Friday  and  the  four  fasting-tunes,  tt 

An  older  form  of  the  "sacrament  of  monastic  perfeo-  was  put  off  till  the  ninth  hour.     Later  in  the  evening, 

tion"  ^uwTiSpw^  nomx'^fl"  "X««io'<wi),  that  is,  of  the  after  the  irbitmow  (compline),  the  remains  of  the 

I}roression  and  reception  of  a  monk,  is  given  by  Djony-  meal  were  again  spread  in  the  refectory  and  any  who 

siuB  Areopagita  (c.  500),  "de  Eccles.  Hierarch.",  VI,  wished,  chiefly  the  younger  members,  might  partake 

ii  (P.  G.,  in,  533).    The  monk  is  "ordained"  by  a  of  a  light  supper  (cl.  Marin,  op.  cit.,  p.  121). 

priest  (i<p<^;  he  always  calls  bishops  Upipx"),  pre-  The  monk  s  main  occupation  was  the  <Iaily  cbant- 

nmably  the  abbot.    Standing  he  recitea  the  "monas-  ing  of  the  long  Bysantine  office  in  church.    This  took 

tic  invocation  "  {r^r  lantaTmiit  twU\rivi¥),  evidently  a  up  a  great  part  of  the  day  and  the  night.    There  were 

prayer  for  the  grace  he  needs.     The  priest  then  asks  moreover  Oie  iXoBntrunl  offices,  which  on  the  eves  of 

him  if  he  renounces  everything,  explains  to  him  the  great  feasts  lasted  all  night.    The  rest  of  the  time  was 

duties  of  his  state,  signs  him  with  the  cross,  tonsuies  spent  in  manual  work,  diggjngi  carpentry,  weaving, 


MONASTICISM  470  MONASTXCXSM 

and  80  on,  portioned  out  to  each  by  the  abbot,  of  fender  of  images  in  the  second  Iconoclast  persecution, 

which  the  profit  belonged  to  the  monastery  (St.  Basil,  became  Hegumenos  of  Studion  in  799  (till  nis  death  in 

P.  G.,  XXaI,  1016.  1017,  1132,  etc.;  Marin,  op.  cit..  826).    His  letters,  sermons  and  constitutions  for  the 

132-135).    Men  who  already  know  an  innocent  and  Studite  monks  gave  renewed  ideals  and  influenced  all 

Srofitable  craft  may  continue  to  exercise  it  as  monks.  Byzantine  monastidsm.  During  this  period  a  great 
ome  practised  medicine  for  the  good  of  the  commu-  number  of  decrees  of  synods,  ordinances  of  patri- 
nity.  Nor  were  the  study  of  theology  and  the  arts  of  archs,  emperors,  and  abbiots,  further  defined  and  ez- 
calligraphy  and  painting  neglected.  Af  onasteries  had  panded  the  rule  of  St.  Basil.  Many  Eastern  synods 
libraries,  and  monks  wrote  theological  works  and  draw  up  among  their  canons  laws  for  monks,  often 
hymns.  In  St.  Theodore's  time  the  Studion  monas-  merely  enforcing  the  old  rule  (e.  g.  the  Synod  of  Gan- 
t^  was  famous  for  its  librarv  and  the  beautiful  hand-  gres  in  the  middle  of  the  fourth  century.  Can.,  xix, 
writing  of  its  monks  (Theodore,  '^Orat.",  XI,  16;  in  etc.).  St.  John  Chrysostom  (cf.  Montalembert, 
P.  G.,  XCIX).  There  was  a  scale  of  punidmients  "Histoire  des  Moines  d'Ocddent",  Paris,  1880.  I, 
ranging  from  special  fasts  and  prayers  or  the  drevXoyUi  124),  the  Patriarch  John  the  Faster  (d.  £96 :  Pitra, "  Spi- 
— that  is,  privation  of  the  abbot's  blessing — to  the  cile^um  Solesmense'',  Paris,  1852,  IV,  416-444),  the 
dfwpuTftAt  or  solitary  confinement  and  excommunica-  Patriarch  Nicephoros  (d.  829:  ib.,  381, 415),  and  so  on, 
tion  from  all  common  prayers  and  the  sacraments.  downtoPhotius  (Hergenrother.  "Photius ',  Batisbon, 
The  punishment  for  formcation  was  excommunication  1867,  II,  222-223),  added  to  tnese  rules,  which,  ool* 
for  fifteen  years  (cf.  the  ''Epitimia''  ascribed  to  St.  lected  and  commented  in  the  various  constitutions  and 
Basil  in  M.  P.,  XXXI,  1305-1314).  A  monk  who  typika  of  the  monasteries,  remain  the  guide  of  a  By- 
had  proved  his  constancy  for  many  years  in  the  com-  zantine  monk.  Most  of  all,  St.  Tlieooore's  "Consti- 
mumty  could  receive  permission  from  the  hegumenos  tutions  of  Studion"  (P.  G.,  XCIX,  1703-1720)  and  his 
to  practise  the  severer  life  of  a  hermit.  He  then  went  list  of  punishments  for  monks  (ib.,  1734-1758)  repre- 
to  occupy  a  solitary  cell  near  the  laura  (St.  BasiPs  sent  a  classical  and  much  copied  example  of  sudi  a  ool- 
Rule.  P.  G.,  XXXI,  1133).  But  he  was  still  counted  a  lection  of  rules  and  principles  from  approved  sources. 
member  of  the  monastery  and  could  return  to  it  if  he  St.  Basil's  mother  and  sister  had  form^  a  community 
found  solitude  too  hard.  At  the  court  of  the  Patri-  of  women  at  Annesos  near  the  settlement  of  the  men. 
arch  of  Constantinople  was  an  official,  the  Exarch  of  From  that  time  convents  of  nuns  spread  throughout 
the  monks,  whose  dut^r  it  was  to  supervise  the  monaa-  the  Byzantine  Church,  organized  according  to  the 
teries.  Most  other  bishops  had  a  similar  assistant  same  rule  and  following  the  same  life  as  that  of  the 
among  their  clergy.  monks  with  whatever  modifications  were  necessary  for 
Celibacy  became  an  ideal  for  the  cleigy  in  the  East  their  sex.  The  convents  were  subject  to  the  jurisdio- 
gradually,  as  it  did  in  the  West.  In  the  fourth  cen-  tion  of  the  bishop  or  patriarch.  Their  spiritual  needs 
tury  we  still  find  St.  Gregory  Nazianzen's  father,  who  were  provided  for  by  a  priest,  generally  a  priest-monk, 
was  Bishop  of  Nazianzos,  living  with  his  wife,  without  who  was  their  "  ghost Iv  father ''  {rptv/wruAt  ranj^). 
scandal.  But  very  soon  after  that  the  present  East-  The  abbess  was  called  fnovtUwiwa. 
em  rule  obtained.  It  is  less  strict  than  in  the  West.  Lastly,  during  tiiis  period  the  monks  play  a  very 
No  one  may  marry  after  he  has  been  ordained  priest  important  part  in  theological  controversies.  The 
(Paphnutius  at  the  first  Council  of  Nicsea  maintains  Patriarch  of  Alexandria,  for  instance,  in  his  disputes 
this;  see  the  discussion  in  Hefele-Leclercq,  ''Histoire  with  Constantinople  and  Antioch  could  always  count 
des  Conciles'^  Paris,  1907,  I,  pp.  620-624:  the  first  on  the  fanatical  loyalty  of  the  great  crowd  of  monks 
Canon  of  the  Synod  of  Neocssarea  in  314  or  325,  ib.,  p.  who  swarmed  up  from  the  desert  in  his  defence.  Often 
327,  and  Can.  Apost.,  xxvi.  The  Sjmod  of  Elvira  we  hear  of  monks  fighting,  leading  tumults,  boldly  at- 
about  300  had  decreed  absolute  celibacy  for  all  clerks  tacking  the  soldiers.  In  all  the  Monophysite  troubles 
in  the  West,  Can.  xxxiii,  ib.,  pp.  238-230);  priests  al-  the  monks  of  Egypt.  S3ma,  Palestine,  and  the  capital 
readv  married  may  keep  theu*  wives  (the  same  law  ap-  were  able  to  throw  tne  great  weight  of  their  united  in- 
plied  to  deacons  and  subdeacons:  Can.  vi  of  the  Synod  fluence  on  the  one  side  or  the  other.  During  the 
m  Trullo,  692;  see  ''Echos  d'Orient",  1900-1901,  pp.  Acacian  schism  (482-519),  while  the  whole  Byzantine 
65-71),  but  bishops  must  be  celibate.  As  nearly  sdl  Church  broke  communion  with  Rome,  only  the  ''sleep- 
secular  priests  were  married  this  meant  that,  as  a  gen-  less"  monks  of  Studion  remained  Catholic.  On  tne 
eral  rule,  bishops  were  chosen  from  the  monasteries,  whole,  the  monks  were  generally  on  the  Catholic  nde. 
and  so  these  became,  as  thev  still  are,  the  road  through  During  the  Iconoclast  persecution  they  were  so  deter* 
which  advancement  may  oe  attained.  Besides  the  mined  against  the  overthrow  of  the  holy  pictures  that 
communities  in  monasteries  there  were  many  extraor-  the  Iconoclast  emperors  made  the  ablohtion  of  mo- 
dinary  developments  of  monasticism.  There  were  nasticism  part  of  tlieir  progranmie  and  persecuted 
always  hermits  who  practised  various  extreme  *forms  people  for  oeing  monks  just  as  much  as  for  worship- 
of  asceticism,  such  as  binding  tight  ropes  round  their  ping  images  (see  Iconoclasm).  Especially  the  great 
bodies,  very  severe  fasting,  ana  so  on.  A  singular  Studion  monastery  at  Constantinople  had  a  tramtian 
form  of  asceticism  was  that  of  the  Stylites  (arvXirai).  of  unswerving  orthodoxy  and  loyalty  to  Rome.  They 
who  lived  on  colmnns.  St.  Symeon  Stylites  (q.  v.)  alone  kept  communion  with  the  Holy  See  in  the  Aca- 
began  this  practice  in  420.  cian  schism,  they  were  the  leaders  of  the  Image-wor- 
From  the  time  of  Constantine  the  building  and  en-  shippers  in  Iconoclast  times,  and  their  great  aboot  St. 
dowment  of  monasteries  became  a  form  of  good  work  Theodore  (d.  826)  was  one  of  the  last  defenders  of  union 
adopted  by  very  many  rich  people.  Constantine  and  and  the  pope's  rights  before  the  great  sdiism. 
Helen  set  the  example  and  almost  every  emperor  (3)  From  the  schism  to  modem  times, — ^The  schism 
afterwards  (except  Julian)  followed  it  (Marin,  ''Les  made  little  difference  to  the  inner  life  of  the  Bysan- 
moines  de  Constantinople",  chap.  i).  So  monasteries  tine  monasteries.  Like  the  lower  clergy  and  the  peo- 
grew  up  all  over  the  empire.  Constantinople  espe-  pie  they  quietiy  followed  their  bishops,  who  followed 
cially  was  covered  with  them  (see  the  list,  ib.,  23-25).  the  patriarchs,  who  followed  the  (Ecumenical  patri- 
One  of  the  chief  of  these  was  Studion  (LtMiop)  in  the  arch  into  schism.  After  that  their  life  went  on  as  be* 
south-western  angle  of  the  city,  founded  by  a  Roman,  fore,  except  that,  having  lost  the  advantage  of  inter- 
Studius,  in  462  or  463.  It  was  occupied  by  so-callea  course  with  the  West,  they  graduallv  drifted  into  the 
''sleepless"  (diro/juirrot)  monks  who,  divided  into  com-  same  stagnation  as  the  rest  of  the  ()rthodox  Church. 
panies,  kept  an  unceasing  round  of  prayer  and  psalm-  They  lost  their  tradition  of  scholarship,  they  had 
singing  day  and  night  in  their  church.  But  they  were  never  done  any  work  in  parishes,  and  so  they  gradu- 
not  a  separate  order:  there  was  no  distinction  between  all^r  arrived  at  the  ideal  that  the  "angelic  life  meant, 
various  religious  oraers.    St.  Theodore,  the  great  de-  besides  their  immensely  long  prayers,  contemplation 


M0NASTICX8M  471  MOttASnCIBM 

And  fasting,  doing  nothing  at  all.    In  the  dghteenth  The  Vtwunl  kolpopmimI  of  the  (Ecumenical  patriarch- 

oentuiy,  when  an  attempt  was  made  to  found  monaa-  ate  contain  a  chapter  about  monasteries  (pp.  67  sq.j. 

tic  schools,  th^  fiercely  resented  such  a  desecration  of  They  are  divided  into  three  classes,  those  with  more 

their  ideal.    During  the  early  Middle  Ages  the  Or-  than  twenty,  more  than  ten  or  more  than  five  monks, 

thodox  remained  immeasurably  behind  the  Catholic  Only  those  of  the  first  class  (more  than  twenty  monks) 

monks,  who  were  converting    western  Europe  and  are  bound  to  sing  all  the  Divine  office  and  celebrate 

m Airing  their  monasteries  the  homes  of  scholanship.  the  holy  Liturgy  every  day.    Monasteries  with  less 

The  chief  event  of  this  period  is  the  foundation  of  than  five  monks  are  to  be  suppressed  or  incorporated 

the  Athos  monasteries^  destined  to  become  the  centre  in  laiger  ones.    Monastic  property  accumulated  in 

of  Orthodox  monasticism.    When  St.  Athanasius  of  the  East  as  in  the  West.    Many  quarrels  between  the 

Athos  founded  the  great  Laura  there,  there  were  al-  Church  and  State  have  arisen  from  usurped  control  or 

ready  cells  of  hermits  on  the  holy  mountain.    Never-  even  wholesale  confiscation  of  this  property  by  the 

theless  he  is  rightly  looked  upon  as  the  founder  of  various  Orthodox  governments.    The  first  Greek  Par- 

the  communities  that  made  Atnos  so  great  a  centre  of  liament  in  1833  (at  Nauplion)  suppressed  all  mon- 

Orthodoxy(seeATH06,  Mount;  also  KyriakoSf'ExffXiTO'-  asteries  in  the  new  kingdom  that  had  less  than  six 

MffTiKii  Urropla.   Athens,  1898,  III,  74-78;    "Echos  monks.    In  1864  Cusa  confiscated  all  monastic  prop- 

d'Orient'',  II.  321-31).  erty  in  Rumania,  of  which  much  belonged  to  the  mon- 

In  the  tentn  and  eleventh  centuries  the  famous  mon-  asteries  of  Mount  Sinai,  Jerusalem,  and  Athos.  In 
asteries  called  the  Meteora  (Utriupa)  in  Thessaly  were  1875  Russia  confiscated  three-fifths  of  the  property  in 
built  on  their  inaccessible  peaks  to  escape  the  ravaees  Bessarabia  belonging  to  the  monastery  of  the  Holy 
of  the  Slavs.  The  Turidsh  conquest  made  little  oif-  Sepulchre.  Of  the  rest  it  paid  itsdf  one-fifth  for  its 
ference  to  the  monks.  Modems  respect  religious,  trouble  and  applied  two-fifths  to  what  it  described 
Their  Prophet  had  spoken  well  of  monks  (Koran,  Sura  euphemistically  as  pious  puiposes  in  Russia.  Many 
V,  85)  and  had  given  a  charter  of  protection  to  the  monasteries  have  farms  called /ier^xM  in  distant  lands, 
monks  of  Sinai ;  but  they  shared  f uUy  the  degradation  Generally  a  few  monks  are  sent  to  administer  the  meto- 
of  the  Orthodox  Church  under  Moslem  rule.  The  chion  of  which  all  the  revenue  belongs  to  the  mother- 
Turkish  conquest  sealed  their  isolation  from  the  rest  house.  The  most  famous  monasteries  in  the  southern 
of  Christendom;  the  monasteries  became  the  refuge  of  part  of  the  Orthodox  Church  are  Mount  SinaL  the 
peasants  too  lazy  to  work,  and  the  monk  eamea  the  Holy  Sepulchre  at  Jerusalem,  the  Meteora  in  Thes- 
soom  with  which  he  is  regarded  by  educated  people  in  saly,  Sveti  Naum  on  the  Lake  of  Ochrida  and.  most  of 
the  East.  Eugenios Bulgaria  (d.  1800),  one  of  the  chief  all,  Athos.  The  national  quarrels  in  the  Orthodox 
restorers  of  clft^^^l  scholarship  among  the  Greeks,  Church  have  full  development  at  Athos.  Till  lately 
made  a  futile  attempt  to  found  a  school  at  Athos.  the  Greeks  succeeded  in  crushing  all  foreign  elements. 
The  monks  drove  him  out  with  contumely  as  an  athe-  They  drove  the  Georgians  from  Iviron,  the  Bulgara 
ist  and  a  blasphemer,  and  pulled  his  school  down.  Its  from  Philotheos,  Xenophon,  and  St.  Paul's.  Now 
luins  still  stand  as  a  warning  that  study  forms  no  part  they  are  rapidly  losing  ground  and  influence;  Uie 
of  the  ''angelic''  life.  Slavs  are  building  large  Sketai,  and  Russia  here  as 

(4)  Monasticism  in  the  present  Orthodox  Church. —  ever3rwhere  is  the  great  danger  to  the  Greek  element. 
The  fflxteen  independent  Churches  that  make  up  the  The  Russians  have  only  one  laura  (Panteleimon  or 
Orthodox  communion  are  full  of  monasteries.  There  Russiko)  but  with  its  huge  Sketai  it  contains  more 
are  fewer  convents.  One  great  monasteiv,  that  of  monks  than  all  the  Greek  lauras  together.  All  the 
Mount  Sinai,  follows  what  professes  to  be  the  old  rule  Athos  monasteries  are  stauropepa;  only  the  Patriarch 
of  St.  Anthony.  All  the  others  have  St.  Basil's  rule  of  Constantinople  has  an^  jurisdiction.  For  ordina- 
with  the  additions,  expansions^  and  modifications  tions  the  hegumenoi  invite  the  neic^bouiing  IVf  etro- 
made  by  later  emperors,  patriarchs,  and  i^ods.  politan  of  Heraclea.  The  monasteries  have  also  the 
There  is  no  distinction  of  religious  orders  as  m  the  dignity  of  ''Imperial"  lauras,  as  having  been  under 
West,  though  many  lauras  have  customs  of  their  own.  the  protection  of  former  emperors. 
All  monks  are  "Basilians"  if  one  must  give  them  a  (5)  MonasHcism  in  RiLSsia, — ^The  writer  is  indebted 
special  name.  A  monk  is  /tSraxot^  a  priest-monk  to  Mr.  C.  Faminsk^  of  the  Russian  Embassy  Church 
Upofi&vaxos.  A  monastery  is  M^nj  or  XaOpa.  The  at  London  for  the  following  account  and  the  Russian 
novice  (dpxdptof)  wears  a  tunic  called  ^os  with  a  bibliomtphy.  There  have  been  monks  in  Russia 
belt  and  the  kalirruiuchion  of  all  the  clergy^  he  is  often  since  Christianity  was  first  preached  there  in  the  tenth 
called  ^aao^6po%.  After  two  years  (the  period  is  some-  century.  Their  great  period  was  the  fourteenth  cen- 
times shortened)  he  makes  ms  (solemn)  vows  and  re-  tury;  their  decline  began  in  the  sixteenth.  Peter  the 
ceives  the  small  habit  (/<ard^t).  Technically  he  is  Great  (1661-1725)  at  one  time  meant  to  suppress  the 
now  a  fuxpdaxvM^f  though  the  word  is  not  often  used,  monasteries  altogether.  In  1723  he  foroade  new 
After  an  undefined  time  of  perseverance  he  receives  novices  to  be  received.  Under  Catherine  II  ( 1761- 
the  great  habit  (kovkoOXiow)  and  becomes  fuya\A<rxvt*ot,  1796)  a  more  prosperous  era  bep^an;  since  Alexander 
The  popular  Greek  name  for  monk  is  "good  old  man"  I  (1801-1825)  monasteries  flourish  again  all  over  the 
{KokSytpos),  The  election,  the  rights  and  duties  of  the  empire.  The  latest  census  (1896)  counts  495  monas- 
hegumenos  and  other  dignitaries  remain  as  they  were  tenes  and  249  convents  of  nuns.  These  are  divided 
before  the  schism.  The  title  "archimandrite"  ap-  into  4  lauras  (in  Russia  the  name  means  a  certain 
pears  to  be  given  now  to  abbots  of  the  more  important  precedence  and  special  privileges) ;  7  stauropegia 
monasteries  and  also  sometimes  as  a  personal  title  of  (subject  directly  to  the  Holy  S3mod  and  exempt  from 
distinction  to  others.  It  involves  only  precedence  of  the  ordinary's  jurisdiction),  64  monasteries  attached 
rai^.  to  bishops'  palaces.    The  rest  are  divided  into  three 

Most  monasteries  depend  on  the  local  metropolitan,  classes.    There  are  73  of  the  first  class  (which  have  at 

In  the  Orthodox  states  (Russia,  Greece,  etc.)  the  Holy  least  33  monks  or,  if  convents,  52  nuns).  100  of  the 

Synod  has  a  good  deal  to  say  in  their  management,  second  (17  monks  or  nuns)  and  191  of  the  third  (12 

confirms  the  dection  of  the  abbot,  controls,  and  not  monks  or  17  nuns),    lliere  are  further  350  monas- 

unfrequently  confiscates  their  property.     But  certain  teries  not  clasufied.    Catherine  II  introduced  the 

great  monasteries  are  exempt  from  local  jurisdiction  practice  of  drawing  up  official  lists  of  the  monasteries, 

and  immediately  subject  to  the  patrii&rch  or  Holy  She  found  1072  monasteries  in  her  empire  of  which 

Synod.    These  are  called  rravpor^Mi.    One  Ortho-  she  abolished  496  and  classified  the  rest.    In  Russia, 

dox  monastery  (Mount  Sinai)  of  which  the  abbot  is  as  at  Athos,  monasteries  are  either  ccenobic  (obshe* 

also  "Archbishop  of  Sinai",  is  an   autocephalous  jHeVnme)  or  idiorhj^hmic   {nedbsh^iteVnyie)  \    but 

Church,  obeying  only  Christ  and  the  Seven  Councils,  these  latter  are  not  in  favour  with  the  Holy  Synod 


MOKASnCISM 


472 


MONASnOISM 


which  restores  the  ccenobic  rule  wherever  possible. 
Some  monasteries  are  supported  by  government 
(nhiatnyie),  others  have  to  support  themselves.  The 
three  dasses  mentioned  above  concern  the  amounts 
received  by  the  supported  monasteries.  The  stauro- 
pegia  are:  Solovetsky,  at  Archangel,  Simonoff,  Don- 
vkoyiy  Novospassky,  and  Saikonospassky  at  Moscow, 
Voskresensky  or  New  Jerusalem,  opaso-YakovIesky. 
The  census  of  1896  counts  42,940  monks  and  7464 
nuns  in  the  empire.  The  most  famous  Russian 
monasteries  are  Kieff  (Kievsky  Laura)  foimded  in 
1062  by  a  St.  Anthony,  the  largest  of  all;  the  Troitzky 
Laura  near  Moscow,  founded  by  St.  Sergius  in  1335 
and  now  the  home  of  the  first  ''Ecclesiastical  Acad- 
emy" (Seminary)  in  the  empire;  the  Metropolitan 
of  Moscow  is  its  he^menos.  The  Pochaievsky  Laura, 
founded  in  the  thurteenth  centurv  and  famous  for 
its  miraculous  eikon  of  the  Blessed  Virgin;  Solovetsky, 
founded  in  1429;  SuriefiF  (in  the  government  of  Nov- 
gorod) foimded  in  1030;  Tikhvinsy  (in  Novgorod): 
Volokolamsky  (in  the  Moscow  government)  foimded 
by  St.  Joseph  of  Volokolamsk  in  1479,  which  has  an 
important  ubrary  and  has  often  been  used  as  a  state 

gnson,  and  Kyrilla-Bilesersky  (in  Novgorod)  foimded 
y  St.  Cvril  in  1397. 
(6)  Afonasticism  in  the  leaser  Eaeiem  Churchee, — 
Little  need  be  said  of  these  Churches.  All  had  fully 
developed  monasticism  according  to  St.  Basil's  idea 
before  they  went  into  schism,  ana  all  have  monks  and 
nuns  under  much  the  same  conditions  as  the  Ortho- 
dox, thou^.  naturally,  in  each  case  there  has  been 
some  fipecial  development  of  their  own.  The  ATes- 
toriana  once  had  many  monasteries.  Joseph  Simon 
Assemani  in  the  ei^teenth  century  counts  31  {"  Bibl. 
Orientalis'',  III,  Kome,  1725.  xiv,  §2).  Since  the 
fourteenth  century  the  discipline  has  become  so  re- 
laxed that  monks  can  easily  get  dispensed  from  their 
vows  and  marry  (Badger,  ''The  Nestorians  and  their 
Rituab",  London,  1852,  II,  p.  179).  They  now  have 
neither  monasteries  nor  convents;  but  there  are 
monks  and  nuns  who  live  in  their  own  houses  or  wan- 
der about.  The  Copta  have  many  monasteries  ar- 
ranged almost  exactly  like  those  of  the  Orthodox 
(Silbemagl,  "Verfassung  u.  gegenw&rtiger  Bestand 
s&mtl.  Ku-chen  des  Orients",  Ratisbon,  1904,  291- 
293).  The  Ahyaainian  monasteries  are  very  flourish- 
ing (ib.  299-302).  There  are  in  Abyssinia  also  people 
caUed  debterata.  regular  canons  who  say  the  office  in 
common  and  obev  a  superior  called  ne5rat<,  but  may 
marry.  The  Nebrait  of  Aksum  is  one  of  the  most 
powerful  members  of  the  Abyssinian  Church  and 
the  leader  of  the  national  party  against  the  foreign 
(Coptic)  metropolitan.  The  Syrian  JacobiUa  once 
had  a  great  number  of  monasteries.  Down  to  the 
sixth  century  there  were  still  Stylites  among  them. 
They  now  have  onlv  nine  monasteries  in  the  present 
reduced  state  of  their  Church,  most  of  them  idso 
residences  of  bishops.  The  Jacobite  monk  fasts  very 
strictly.  To  eat  meat  is  a  crime  punished  as  equal  to 
adultery  (Silbemagl,  op.  cit.,  313-315).  The  Arme- 
nian Church,  as  being  considerably  the  largest  and  most 
flourishing  of  these  lesser  Eastern  Churches,  has  the 
largest  number  of  monks  and  the  most  flourishing  mo- 
nastic state.  Armenian  monks  follow  St.  Basil's  rule, 
but  are  much  stricter  in  the  matter  of  fasting.  The 
novitiate  lasts  eight  years.  It  is  a  curious  contrast 
to  this  strictness  that  the  abbot  is  often  not  a  monk  at 
alL  but  a  married  secular  priest  who  hands  on  his 
office  to  his  son  by  hereditary  right.  Most  Armenian 
bishops  live  in  monasteries.  Etchmiadsin,  the  resi- 
dence of  the  Katholikos,  is  theoretically  the  centre  of 
the  Armenian  Church.  The  Armemans  have  the 
huge  monastery  of  St.  James,  the  centre  of  their  quar- 
ter of  Jerusalem,  where  their  Patriarch  of  Jerusalem 
lives,  and  the  convent  of  Deir  asseituni  on  Mount  Sion 
with  a  hundred  nims.  Armenian  monks  do  not  as  a 
rule  become  bishops;  the  bishops  are  taken  from  the 


unmarried  Vartabeds,  that  is,  the  higher  class  of 
secular  priests  (doctors).  In  all  the  other  Eastern 
Churches  bishops  are  monks.  All  use  their  monas- 
teries as  places  of  punishment  for  refractory  clergy. 

(7)  Uniate  Monks, — ^The  only  difference  union  with 
Rome  makes  to  Eastern  monks  is  that  there  is  in 
the  Uniate  Churches  a  certain  tendency  to  emulate 
the  Latin  religious  orders.  As  this  generally  means  a 
dispNOsition  to  do  something  more  than  recite  the 
Divine  office,  it  may  be  counted  an  unmixed  advan- 
tage. Uniate  monks,  like  all  the  uniate  clergy,  are 
admittedly  better  eaucated  than  the  schismatics; 
some  of  them  at  least  attend  Western  schools  or 
seminaries  of  Latin  religious  in  the  East.  It  is  a 
Latinising  tendency  that  makes  them  often  use 
special  names  for  their  order  and  even  evolve  into 
something  like  separate  religious  orders.  Thus  most 
Uniate  Byzantine  monks  call  themselves  "Basilians", 
as  the  Latins  use  "Benedictine''  or  "Franciscan". 
Among  the  Melchites  the  two  great  congregations  of 
Salvatorians  and  Shuwerites  (see  Melchites)  are 

Eractically  different  orders.  The  Uniate  Armenians 
ave  the  famous  Mechitarist  Congi-egation,  really  a 
special  religious  order  founded  by  Mechitar  (1676- 
1/49).  The  Mechitarists  have  the  monasteir^  of  San 
Lasaro  at  Venice,  and  a  branch  separated  from  the 
others  in  1774  have  a  house  at  Vienna.  By  thdr 
schools,  missions,  and  literary  activity  they  have 
always  done  great  things  in  educating  and  converting 
their  countrjrmen.  The  Catholic  Chaldeea  have  three 
monasteries.  Rabban  Hormuzd,  Alkosh,  and  Mar 
Yursis  in  Mesopotamia.  The  Maronite  Church  from 
the  beginning  has  been  specially  a  monastic  Church. 
It  was  first  formed  by  the  schism  of  the  monks  of  St. 
John  Maro,  in  the  Lebanon,  from  the  Patriarch  of 
Antioch.  Since  their  union  with  Rome  they  have 
formed  separate  orders.  Till  1757  there  were  two 
such  orders,  those  of  St.  Isaias  and  of  St.  Antony. 
The  St.  Antony  monks  then  split  again  into  two  con- 
negations,  the  Aleppians  (monks  of  Aleppo)  and 
Baladites  (baladiye,  country  monks).  Clement  XIV 
sanctioned  this  separation  in  1770.  All  follow  the 
rule  of  St.  Antony.  For  the  rest  the  Uniate  monks 
of  each  Church  have  the  same  rule  and  customs  as 
the  corresponding  schismatics.  Certain  details  have 
been  revised  anof  abuses  eliminated  by  the  Roman 
authorities.  There  are  Uniate  monasteries  wherever 
there  are  Uniate  Christians.  Uniate  bishops  are  by 
no  means  always  monks  as  there  are  many  of  un- 
married secular  priests.  One  may  note  especially  the 
Uniate  Byzantine  monks  in  southern  Italy  and  in  the 
great  monastery  of  Grottaferrata  outside  Rome. 

Habmack,  Dot  Mitnehthum^  aeine  IdeaU  u.  mum  Oeackiehte  ia 
Redm  v.  Auftdtxe,  I  (Gieasen.  1904),  83-139;  Am^limbau,  //w- 
toire  de  Saint  Pakhome  etde  tea  oommunattUa  in  AnnaUa  du  Musis 
OuinuLXVll  (PariB.  1889);  Mabin,  Lm  Mointa  de  Canatanti- 
nopie  (Paris,  1897) ;  Idbm,  De  Studio  etnobio  conatantinopolitano 
(Paris,  1897);  Zinobrlb,  Laben  u.  Wirken  dea  hi.  Symeon  Stytitea 
(Innsbruok,  1855);  Delbhatb,  Lea  Stylitea:  Comjde  rendu  du 
troiaihna  congr^  adentifique  dea  Calholiqwa  d  Bruxmea  (Brussels, 
1895):  Qabdnsb,  Theodore  of  Studium  (London,  1905);  Lano- 
LOis,  Le  Mont  Athoa  (Paris,  1867) ;  Meyer.  BeitrOge  mr  Kenntnia 
der  neueren  Qeaehichte  u.  dea  gegenxodrtigen  Zuatandea  der  AthM- 
kUaUr  in  ZeiiachriSt  fikr  KirchengeaehiehU  (1890) ;  Rilxt,  Atkoa^ 
or  the  Mountain  of  the  Monka  (London,  1887);  Schmidtkb, 
Daa  Kloatarland  dea  Athoa  (Leipsic.  1903) ;  Qblseb,  Vom  kige$u 
Berge  u,  aua  Makedonien  (Leipsis,  1904);  Vamnutblu,  MonU 
Aihoa  e  la  Meteore  (Rome,  1888)  m  Sguardo  alT  Oriente,  II  and 
XIII;  Kattenbusch,  Lehrbueh  der  vertdeichenden  Confeaaioma^ 
kunda,  1  (Freiburg,  1892),  522-537;  Beth,  Die  orientaliadia 
Chriatenheit  (Berlin,  1902).  322-333;  Silbbbnaol.  Verfaaaungn, 
gegenvodrtiger  Beatand  admitlieher  Kirchen  dea  Orienta  (Ratisboii, 
1904) ;  Pavlov,  latorieheaky  oeherk  aeeulariaakiyi  aerkonUkhjtewm 
«.  Roaaiyi  (Odessa,  1871);    Gobchakoff,  Monaatirakiyi 


(St.  Petersburg,  1868) ;  Kacanbkt,  latoria  Prav.  Ruaa.  Monaahaataa 
(Moscow,  1855) ;  Zyiebxnbkt,  Material  dla  iatorieo-topografidLea 
kago  italiedopaniya  opr.  tnonaatiraeh  (3  vols.,  St.  Petersbuis.  1890) ; 
Pavlovbkt,  Uaeobahiyi  Putievoditd  (Nijnei-Novgorod,  1907):  B 
guide  to  all  Russian  monasteries. 

Adrian  Fortescus. 

rV.  Western  MoNAsncisBr. — (1)  Pre-BenedicHim 
Period. — ^The  introduction  of  monasticism  into  the 
West  may  be  dated  from  about  A.  d.  340  when  Stt 


MONASTICISM 


473 


MONASTICISM 


Athanaaus  visited  Rome  accompanied  by  the  two 
Egyptiaa  monks  Ammon  and  Isidore,  disciples  of  St. 
Anthony.  The  publication  of  the  "Vita  Antonii" 
Gome  years  later  and  its  translation  into  Latin  spread 
the  knowledge  of  Egyptian  monachism  widely  and 
many  were  found  in  Italy  to  imitate  the  example  thus 
set  forth.  The  first  Italian  monks  aimed  at  reproduc- 
ing exactly  what  was  done  in  Egypt  and  not  a  few — 
such  as  St.  Jerome,  Rufinus,  Paula,  Eustochium  and 
the  two  Melanias — actually  went  to  live  in  Egypt  or 
Palestine  as  being  better  suited  to  monastic  life  than 
Italy.  As  however  the  records  of  early  Italian  monas- 
tioism  are  very  scanty,  it  will  be  more  convenient  to 
gjve  first  a  short  account  of  earhr  monastic  life  in  Gaul, 
our  knowledge  of  which  is  mucn  more  complete. 

(a)  Gaul. — ^The  first  exponent  of  monasticism  in 
Gaul  seems  to  have  been  St.  Martin,  who  founded  a 
monastery  at  Ligug^  near  Poitiers,  c.  360  (see  Ligug£; 
Martin  of  Tours,  St.).  Soon  after  he  was  conse- 
crated Bishop  of  Tours;  he  then  formed  a  monastery 
outside  that  city,  which  he  made  his  customary 
residence.  Although  only  some  two  miles  from  the 
city  the  spot  was  so  retired  that  Martin  found 
there  the  solitude  of  a  hermit.  His  cell  was  a 
hut  of  wood,  and  round  it  his  disciples,  who  soon 
numbered  eighty,  dwelt  in  caves  and  huts.  The 
type  of  life  was  simply  the  Antonian  monachism 
of  Eg3rpt  (see  above.  Eastern  Monasticism)  and 
so  rapidly  did  it  ^read  that,  at  St.  Martin's 
funeral  two  thousand  monks  were  present.  Even 
more  famous  was  the  monastery  of  L^rins  (q.  v.) 
which  gave  to  the  Church  of  Gaul  some  of  its  most 
famous  bishops  and  saints.  In  it  too  the  famous  Ab- 
bot John  Cassian  (q.  v.)  settled  after  living  for  seven 
years  among  the  monks  of  Egypt,  and  from  it  he 
founded  the  great  Abbey  of  St.  Victor  at  Marseilles. 
Cassian  was  undoubtedly  the  most  celebrated  teacher 
that  the  monks  of  Gaul  ever  had.  and  his  influence  was 
all  on  the  side  of  the  primitive  Egyptian  ideals.  Con- 
seouently  we  find  that  the  eremitical  life  was  regarded 
as  oeing  the  summit  or  goal  of  monastic  ambition  and 
the  means  of  perfection  recommended  were,  as  in 
Egypt,  extreme  personal  austerities  with  prolonged 
fasts  and  vigils,  and  the  whole  atmosphere  of  ascetical 
endeavour  so  dear  to  the  heart  of  the  Antonian  monk 
(see  Cassian,  John;  France;  CiESARius  of  Arles, 
St.:  L^rins,  etc). 

(b)  Celtic  Monasticism  (Ireland,  Wales,  Scotland). 
— ^Authorities  are  still  divided  as  to  the  origin  of  Cel- 
tic monasticism,  but  the  view  most  commonly  ac- 
cepted is  that  of  Mr.  Willis  Bund  which  holds  it  to 
have  been  a  purely  indigenous  growth  and  rejects  the 
idea  of  any  direct  connexion  with  Gallic  or  Egyptian 
monasticism.  It  seems  clear  that  the  first  Celtic 
monasteries  were  merely  settlements  where  the  Chris- 
tians lived  together — priests  and  laity,  men,  women, 
and  children  alike — as  a  kind  of  religious  clan.  At  a 
later  period  actual  monasteries  both  of  monks  and  nuns 
were  formed,  and  later  still  the  eremitical  life  came 
into  vogue.  It  seems  highly  probable  that  the  ideas 
and  literature  of  Egyptian  or  Gallic  monachism  may 
have  influenced  these  later  developments,  even  if  the 
Celtic  monasticism  were  purely  independent  in  origin, 
for  the  external  manifestations  are  identical  in  all 
three  forms.  Indeed  the  desire  for  austerities  of  an 
extreme  cluuucter  has  always  remained  a  special  fea- 
ture of  Irish  asceticism  down  to  our  own  time.  Want 
of  space  forbids  any  detailed  account  of  Celtic  monas- 
ticism in  this  place  but  the  following  articles  may  be 
referred  to:  (for  Ireland)  Armagh,  Bangor,  Clonard, 
Clonfert,  Clonmacnoise,  Lismore,  Bobbio,  Lux- 
EuiL,  Saints  Patrick,  Carthage,  Columbanus, 
Comoall;  (for  Wales)  Llancarvan,  Bangor,  Saints 
Asaph,  David,  Dubric,  Gild  as,  Kentigbrn;  (for 
Sootlimd)  loNA,  School  of,  Lindisfarnb,  Abbey  or, 
Saints  Ninian,  Columba,  Aid  an.  Undoubtedly, 
however,  the  chief  glory  of  Celtic  monasticism  is  itg 


missionary  work,  the  results  of  which  are  to  be  found 
over  all  northwestern  Europe.  The  observance,  at 
first  so  distinctive,  gradually  lost  its  special  character 
and  fell  into  line  with  that  of  other  countries;  but, 
by  that  time,  Celtic  monasticism  had  passed  its 
senith  and  its  influence  had  declined. 

(c)  Italy. — Like  the  other  countries  of  western  Eu- 
rope, Italy  long  retained  a  purely  Eastern  character 
in  its  monastic  observance.  The  climate  and  other 
causes  however  combined  to  render  its  practice  far 
harder  than  in  the  lands  of  its  origin.  In  consequence 
the  standard  of  observance  declined,  and  it  is  clear 
from  the  Prologue  to  St.  Benedict's  Rule  that  h^r  his 
day  the  lives  of  many  monks  left  much  to  be  desired. 
Moreover  there  was  as  yet  no  fixed  code  of  laws  to 
regulate  the  life  either  of  the  monastery  or  of  the  indi- 
vidual monk.  Each  house  had  its  own  customs  and 
practices,  its  own  collection  of  rules  dependent 
largely  on  the  choice  of  the  abbot  of  the  moment. 
There  were  certainly  in  the  West  translations  of  vari- 
ous Eastern  codes,  e.  g.  the  Rules  of  Pachomius  and 
Basil  and  another  attributed  to  Macarius.  There 
were  also  St.  Augustine's  famous  letter  (Ep.,  ccxi)  on 
the  management  of  convents  of  nuns,  and  also  the 
writing  of  Cassian,  but  the  only  actual  Rules  of  West- 
em  origin  were  the  two  by  St.  Cssarius  for  monks  and 
nuns  respectively,  and  Uiat  by  St.  Columbanus,  none 
of  which  could  be  called  a  working  code  for  the  man- 
agement of  a  monastery.  In  a  word  monachism  was 
still  waiting  for  the  man  who  should  adapt  it  to  West- 
em  needs  and  circumstances  and  give  to  it  a  special 
form  distinct  from  that  of  the  East.  This  man  was 
found  in  the  person  of  St.  Benedict  (480-543). 

(2)  The  Spread  of  St.  BenedicVa  jRufe.— Full  details 
of  St.  Bcnealct's  l^islation,  which  had  such  immense 
effect  on  the  monasticism  of  Western  Europe.  wiU  be 
found  in  the  articles  Benedict  of  Nxtrsia,  St.,  and 
Benedict,  Rule  of  St.  It  is  sufficient  here  to  point 
out  that  St.  Benedict  le^slatcd  for  the  details  of  the 
monastic  life  in  a  wav  that  had  never  been  done  before 
either  in  East  or  West.    It  is  clear  that  he  had  ao- 

guainted  himself  thoroughly  with  the  lives  of  the 
Igyptian  fathers  of  the  desert,  with  the  writings  of 
St.  Basil,  Cassian,  andRufinus;  and  in  the  mainlines 
he  has  no  intention  of  departing  from  the  precedents 
set  b^  these  great  authorities.  Still  the  standard  of 
asceticism  aimed  at  by  him,  as  was  inevitable  in  the 
West,  is  less  severe  than  that  of  Egypt  or  Syria.  Thus 
he  gives  his  monks  good  and  ample  food.  Ue  permits 
Uiem  to  drink  wine.  He  secures  a  sufficient  period  of 
unbroken  sleep.  His  idea  was  evidently  to  set  up  a 
standard  that  could  and  should  be  attained  b^  all  the 
monks  of  a  monastery,  leaving  it  to  individual  inspira- 
tion to  essay  greater  austerities  if  the  need  of  these 
wefe  felt  by  any  one.  On  the  other  hand,  probably  as 
a  safeguard  against  the  relaxations  mentioned  above, 
he  requires  a  greater  degree  of  seclusion  than  St.  Basil 
had  done.  So  far  as  possible  all  connexion  with  the 
world  outside  the  monastery  is  to  be  avoided.  If  any 
monk  be  compelled  by  duty  to  go  beyond  the  monas- 
tery enclosure  he  is  forbidden  on  his  return  to  speak  of 
what  he  has  seen  or  heard.  So  too  no  monk  may  re- 
ceive gifts  or  letters  from  his  friends  or  relatives  with- 
out permission  of  the  abbot.  It  is  true  that  guests 
from  without  are  to  be  received  and  entertained,  but 
only  certain  monks  specially  chosen  for  the  puiposA 
may  hold  intercourse  with  them. 

Perhaps,  however,  the  chief  point  in  which  St. 
Benedict  modified  the  pre-existing  practice  is  his  in- 
sistence upon  the  stabilUas  loci.  By  this  special  Vow 
of  Stability  he  unites  the  monk  for  life  to  the  particu- 
lar monastery  in  which  his  vows  are  made.  ^  This  was 
really  a  new  development  and  one  of  the  highest  im- 
portance. In  the  first  place  by  this  the  last  vestige  of 
personal  freedom  was  taken  away  from  the  mohk 
Secondly  it  secured  in  each  monastery  that  continuity 
of  theory  and  practice  whiph  is  99  ^ss^ntia}  for  th9 


MONA8TICI8M  474  M0NASTICI8M 

family  which  St.  Benedict  desired  above  everything,  quainted  with  the  workinra  of  the  Rule  at  the  foim- 
The  abbot  was  to  be  a  father  and  the  monk  a  child,  tain  head,  and  in  its  turn  Fulda  became  the  model  for 
Nor  was  he  to  be  more  capable  of  choosing  a  new  fa-  all  German  monasteries.  Thus  by  the  rei^  of  Char* 
ther  or  a  new  home  than  any  other  child  was.  After  lemagne  the  Benedictine  form  of  monasticism  had  be- 
all  St.  Benedict  was  a  Roman,  and  the  scion  of  a  Ro-  come  the  norm^  type  throughout  the  West  with  the 
man  patrician  family,  and  he  was  simply  bringing  into  sole  exception  of  some  few  Spanish  and  Irish  cloisters, 
the  monastic  life  that  absolute  dependence  of  aU  the  So  completely  was  this  the  case  that  even  the  memory 
members  of  a  family  upon  the  father  which  is  so  tjrpi-  of  earher  thmgs  had  passed  away  and  it  could  be 
eal  of  Roman  law  and  usage.  Only  at  the  selection  of  gravelv  doubted  whether  monks  of  any  kind  at  all  had 
a  new  abbot  can  the  monks  choose  for  themselves,  existed  before  St.  Benedict  and  whether  there  could 
Once  elected  the  abbot's  power  becomes  absolute;  be  any  other  monks  but  Benedictines, 
there  is  nothing  to  control  hun  except  the  Rule  and  his  At  the  time  of  Charlemagne's  death  in  814  the  most 
own  conscience  which  is  responsible  for  the  salvation  famous  monk  in  western  Europe  was  St.  Benedict  cf 
of  every  soul  entrusted  to  his  care.  Aniane,  the  friend  and  coimsellor  of  Louis  the  new  em- 
^  The  Rule  of  St.  Benedict  was  written  at  Monte  Gas-  peror.  For  him  Louis  built  a  monastery  near  his  im- 
smo  in  the  ten  or  fifteen  years  preceding  the  saint's  penal  palace  at  Aix,  and  there  Benedict  gathered 
death  in  543,  but  very  little  is  Known  of  the  way  in  thirty  monks,  chosen  from  among  his  own  persona] 
which  it  began  to  spread  to  other  monasteries.  St.  friends  and  in  full  sympathy  with  his  ideas.  This 
Gregory  (Dial^  II,  xxii)  speaks  of  a  foundation  made  monasteiy  was  intended  to  l>e  a  model  for  aU  the  re- 
from  Monte  (Jassino  at  Terracina,  but  nothing  is  ligious  houses  of  the  empire,  and  the  fan:ous  Aesenr- 
known  of  this  house.  Again  the  traditions  of  Bene-  bly  of  817  passed  a  series  of  resolutions  whidh  touched 
dictine  foundations  in  Gaul  and  Sicily  by  St.  Maurus  upon  the  whole  range  of  the  monastic  life.  The  ob- 
and  St.  Placid  are  now  generally  discredited.  Still  ject  of  these  resolutions  was  to  secure,  even  in  the 
the  Rule  must  have  become  known  very  soon,  for  by  minutest  details,  an  absolute  uniformity  in  all  the 
the  death  of  Simplicius,  the  third  Abbot  of  Monte  monasteries  of  the  empire,  so  that  it  might  seem  as  if 
Cassino,  in  line  from  St.  Benedict,  it  is  referred  to  as  "all  had  been  taught  by  one  single  master  in  one  sin- 
being  generally  observed  throughout  Italy  (Mabillon,  gle  spot".  As  might  have  been  expected  the  scheme 
"AnntQ.  Bened.",  VII,  ii).  In  the  year  580  Monte  failed  to  do  this,  or  even  anytning  approadiing 
Cassino  was  destroyed  by  the  Lombards  and  the  monks  thereto,  but  the  resolutions  of  the  Assen-bly  are  of 
fled  to  Rome,  taking  with  them  the  autograph  copy  of  high  interest  as  the  first  example  of  what  are  nowa- 
the  Rule.  They  were  installed  by  Pelagius  II  m  a  days  called  ''Constitutions",  i.  e.  a  code,  supplemen- 
monastery  near  the  Lateran  Basilica.  It  is  almost  cer-  tary  to  the  Holy  Rule,  which  shall  regulate  me  lesser 
tain  that  St.  Gregory  the  Great  who  succeeded  Pelap;ius  details  of  everyday  life  and  practice.  The  growth  of 
II  introduced  the  Benedictine  Rule  and  observance  mto  the  Benedictine  monasticism  and  its  development  dur- 
the  monastery  of  St.  Andrew  which  he  founded  on  the  ing  the  period  known  as  the  "Benedictine  centuries" 
Coelian  Hill  at  Rome^  and  also  into  the  six  monaster-  wiU  be  found  treated  of  in  the  article  Benedicttkes, 
ies  he  founded  in  Sicily.  Thanks  to  St.  Gregory  the  but  it  may  be  stated  broadly  that,  while  it  had  of 
Rule  was  carried  to  England  by  St.  Augustine  and  his  course  its  periods  of  vigour  and  decline,  no  serious 
fellow  monks;  and  also  to  the  Frankish  and  Lombard  modification  of  St.  Benedict's  system  was  attempted 
monasteries  which  the  pope's  influence  did  much  to  until  the  rise  of  Cluny  in  the  early  part  of  the  tenth 
revive.    Indirectly  too,  by  devoting  the  second  book  century. 

of  his  "Dialogues'''  to  the  story  of  St.  Benedict's  life  (3)  The  Rise  of  Cluny. — ^The  essential  novelty  in 
and  work,  Gregory  ^ye  a  strong  impetus  to  the  the  Cluniac  system  was  its  centralisation.  Hitherto 
spread  of  the  Rule.  Thus  the  first  stage  in  the  ad-  every  monastery  had  b€«n  a  separate  family,  inde- 
vance  of  St.  Benedict's  code  across  Western  Europe  is  pendent  of  all  the  rest.  The  ideal  of  Quny,  however, 
closely  bound  up  with  the  name  of  the  first  monk-  was  to  set  up  one  great  central  monasteiy  with  depend- 
pope.  ent  houses,  numbered  even  by  the  hundred,  scattered 
in  the  seventh  century  the  process  continued  stead-  over  many  lands  and  formins  a  vast  hierarcny  or  mo- 
ily.  Sometimes  the  Benedictme  code  existed  side  by  nastic  feudal  system  under  the  Abbot  of  Cluny.  The 
side  with  an  older  observance.  This  was  the  case  at  superior  of  eveiy  house  was  nominated  by  the  Abbot 
Bobbio  where  the  monks  lived  either  mider  the  rule  of  of  Cluny,  every  monk  was  professed  in  his  name  and 
St.  Benedict  or  of  St.  Columbanus,  who  had  fomided  with  his  sanction.  It  was  m  fact  more  like  an  anny 
the  monasteiy  in  609.  In  Gaul  at  the  same  period  a  subject  to  a  general  than  St.  Benedict's  scheme  of  a 
union  of  two  or  more  rules  was  often  to  be  found,  as  at  family  with  a  father  to  guide  it,  and  for  two  centuries 
Luxeuil,  Solignac,  and  elsewhere.  In  this  there  was  it  dominated  the  Church  in  Western  Europe  with  a 
nothing  surprising,  indeed  the  last  chapter  of  St.  power  second  only  to  that  of  the  papacy  itself.  (See 
Benedict's  rule  seems  almost  to  contemplate  such  an  Clunt;  Berno,  St.;  Odd,  St.;  Hugh  the  Great.) 
arrangement.  In  England,  thanks  to  St.  Wilfrid  of  Anything  indeed  more  unlike  the  primitive  mo- 
York,  St.  Benedict  Biscop  and  others,  the  Benedictine  nasticism  with  its  caves  and  individuausm  ti^an  this 
mode  of  life  began  to  be  regarded  as  the  only  true  tyjfe  elaborate  S3rstem  with  tiie  pomp  and  circumstance 
of  monachism.  Its  influence  however  was  still  slight  m  which  soon  attended  it  could  hardly  be  imagined,  and 
Ireland  where  the  Celtic  monasticism  gave  way  more  the  instinct  which  prompted  men  to  become  monks 
slowly.  In  the  eighth  century  the  advance  of  Bene-  soon  began  to  tell  against  a  type  of  monasticism  so 
dictinism  went  on  with  even  greater  rapidity  owing  dangerously  liable  to  relapse  into  mere  formaJism.  It 
principally  to  the  efforts  of  St.  Boniface.  That  saint  must  be  understood  however  that  the  observance  of 
IS  known  as  the  Apostle  of  Germany  although  the  Cluny  was  still  strict  and  the  reaction  against  it  was 
Irish  missionaries  had  preceded  him  there.  His  ener-  not  based  on  any  need  for  a  reform  in  morals  or  disci- 
gjes  however  were  divided  between  the  two  tasks  of  pline.  The  abbiots  of  Cluny  during  the  first  two  cen- 
oonvertin^  the  remaining  heathen  tribes  and  bringing  turies  of  its  existence,  with  the  sole  exception  of  Pon- 
the  Christianity  of  the  Insh  converts  into  line  with  the  tins  (1109)  who  was  soon  deposed,  were  men  of  great 
Roman  use  and  obedience.  In  both  these  undertak-  sanctity  and  commandina;  ability.  In  practice  Bow- 
ings he  achieved  great  success  and  his  triumph  meant  ever  the  system  had  resulted  in  crushing  all  initiative 
the  destruction  of  the  earlier  Columban  form  of  mo-  out  of  the  superiors  of  the  subordinate  monasteries 
nasticism.  Fulda,  the  great  monastery  of  St.  Boni-  and  so,  when  a  renewal  of  vigour  was  needed  there  was 
face's  institution,  was  modelled  directly  on  Monte  no  one  capable  of  the  effort  required  and  the  life  waa 
Cassino  in  which  Sturm  the  abbot  had  resided  for  crushed  out  of  the  body  by  its  own  weight.  That  this 
eomc  time  so  that  he  might  become  perfectly  ac-  def^t  w^  the  real  cause  why  the  system  fedled  19  p^ 


MbttAdTtCtSM  475  MdilASTtCiSM 

tain.    Nothing  is  more  remarkable  in  the  history  of  of  many  kinds  but  always  as  a  kind  of  accident, 

Benedictine  monasticism  than  its  iMwer  of  revival  by  or   to   meet  some   immeaiate   necessity,  not  as  a 

the  springing  up  of  renewed  life  from  within.    Again  primary  object  of   their  institute    nor  as  an  end 

and  again,  when  reform  has  been  needed,  the  impetus  m  itself.    Now    however    religious    foundations   of 

has  been  found  to  come  from  within  liie  body  instead  an  active  type  began  to  be  instituted,  which  were 

of  from  outside  it.    But  in  the  case  of  Cluny  such  a  dedicated  to  some  particular  active  work  or  works 

thing  had  been  rendered  practically  impossible,  and  as   a   primary   end    of   their   foundation.    Of  this 

on  its  decline  no  recovery  took  place.  class   were    me   Militarv   Orders^    e.  g.,  the  Tem- 

(4)  RMuAion  against  Gluny, — ^The  reaction  against  plars.  Hospitallers,  and  Teutonic  Knights;  numerous 

Quny  and  the  system  of  centralization  took  various  Institutes  of  canons,  e.  g.,  Augustinians,  Premonstra- 

forms.    Early  in  the  eleventh  centuiy  (1012)  came  tensians,  and  Gilbertines;  the  many  Orders  of  friars, 

the  foundation  of  the  Camaldolese  by  St.  Romuald.  e.  g.  Carmelites,  Trinitarians,  Servites,  Dominicans, 

This  was  a  hark  back  to  the  ancient  Egyptian  ideal  of  and  Franciscans  or  Friars  Minor.    Of  thes«  and  the 

a  number  of  hermits  living  in  a  ^'laura''  or  collection  multitudinous  modem  foundations  of  an  active  char- 

of  detached  cells  which  were  situated  some  consider-  acter,  as  distinct  from  a  contemplative  or  monastic 

able  distance  apart  (see  Camaldolese).    A  few  years  one,  this  article  does  not  profess  to  treat:  they  wUl  be 

later  (1039)  St.  John  Gualbert  founded  the  Order  of  found  fully  dedt  with  in  tne  general  article  Religious 

Vallombrosa  which  is  chiefly  important  for  the  institu-  Orders  and  also  individusuly  in  separate  articles 

tion  of  ''lay  brothers",  as  distinct  from  the  choir  under  the  names  of  the  various  orders  and  congrega- 

monks,  a  novelty  which  assumes  high  imi)ortance  in  tions.    It  must  be  recognized  however  that  Uiese  ao- 

later  monastic   history    (see    Lay -brother;   Val-  tive  institutions  attracted  a  vast  number  of  vocations 

LOMBR08A).    In  1074  came  the  Order  of  Grammont  and  to  that  extent  tended  to  check  ihe  increase  and 

which   however  did  not  move  to  the  place  from  development  of  the  monastic  order  strictly  so  called, 

which  its  name  is  derived  until  1124  (see  (jtRammomt;  even  while  their  fervour  and  success  spiurred  the  older 

Stephen   of   Mitret,   St.).    Far  more  important  institutes  to  a  renewal  of  zeal  in  their  special  observ- 

than  these  was  the  establishment  in  1084  of  tne  Car-  ances. 

thusians  by  St.  Bruno,  at  the  Grand  Chartreuse  near  The  Fourth  Council  of  Lateran  in  1215  passed  cer- 
Grenoble,  which  boasts  that  it  alone  of  the  great  tain  special  canons  to  regulate  monastic  observance 
orders  has  never  required  to  be  reformed  (see  Car-  and  prevent  any  falling  away  from  the  standard  set 
THUSIANS :  Chartreuse,  Le  Grand;  Bruno,  St.).  In  up.  These  directions  tended  to  adapt  the  best  fea- 
all  these  four  institutes  the  tendency  was  towards  a  tiu'es  of  the  Cistercian  system,  e.  g.  the  general  chap- 
more  eremitical  and  secluded  form  of  life  than  thatfol-  ters,  to  the  use  of  the  EUack  monks,  and  they  were  a 
lowed  by  the  Benedictines,  but  this  was  not  the  case  great  step  in  the  path  which  later  proved  so  successful, 
in  the  greatest  of  all  the  foundations  of  the  period.  At  the  time  however  they  were  practically  ignored  by 
viz.  the  Cistercians.  the  monasteries  on  the  Continent,  and  only  in  Eng- 

The  Cistercians  derived  their  name  from  Ctteaux  land  was  any  serious  effort  made  to  put  them  into 

near  Dijon  where  the  Order  was  foimded  about  1098  by  practice.    The  consequence  was  that  the  English 

St.  Robert  of  Molesme.   The  new  development  differed  monasteries  of  Black  monks  soon  formed  themseives 

from  that  of  Cluny  in  this  that,  while  (IHuny  estab-  into    one  national  congregation,    the    observance 

lishcd  one  scattered  family  of  vast  size,  Ctteaux  pre-  throushout  the  coimtry  became  largely  uniform,  and 

served  the  idea  that  each  monastery  was  an  individual  a  far  higher  standard  of  life  obtained  than  was  com- 

family  but  united  all  these  families  into  one  "Order''  mon  in  continental  monasteries  at  the  same  period, 

in  the  modem  sense  of  an  organized  congregation.  The  system  of  periodical  general  chapters  ord^ed  by 

The  Abbot  and  House  of  Ctteaux  was  to  be  pre-emi-  the  Lateran  (Council  was  maintained.    So  too  was  the 

nent  for  ever  over  all  the  monasteries  of  the  order,  subjection  of  all  monasteries  to  the  diocesan  bishops 

The  abbots  of  all  other  monasteries  were  to  assemble  as  a  normal  state  of  affairs :  indeed  only  five  abbeys  m 

at  Ctteaux  in  general  chai)ter  every  year.    The  pur-  all  England  were  exempt  from  episcopd  jurisdiction. 

pose  of  this  was  to  secure  in  every  monastery  a  com-  There  were  of  course  individual  failures  here  and  there, 

plete  imiformity  in  the  details  of  observance,  and  this  but  it  is  dear  that^  from  the  date  of  the  (Ik)uncil  ot 

muformity  was  to  be  made  even  more  certain  by  a  Lateran  up  to  the  tmie  of  their  destruction,  the  Ekig- 

yeariy  visdtation  of  each  house.     The  Abbot  of  Ct-  lish  BeneoicUne  houses  maintained  on  the  whole  a 

teaux  possessed  the  further  right  of  visiting  any  and  good  standard  of  discipline  and  preserved  the  affeo- 

every  monastery  at  will,  and  though  he  was  not  to  in-  tionate  respect  of  the  great  majority  of  the  Luty  in 

terfere  with  the  temporalities  of  any  house  against  the  every  rank  of  life. 

wishes  of  the  abbot  and  brethren,  in  all  matters  of  dis-  (5;  Period  of  Monastic  Decline. — On  the  Continent 
cipline  his  power  was  absolute.  This  elaborate  sys-  the  period  succeeding  the  Fourth  Lateran  Council  was 
tern  was  set  forth  in  the  famous  document  known  as  one  of  steady  decline.  The  history  of  the  time  tells  of 
the  "Carta  Caritatis"  and  in  it  for  the  first  time  the  civil  disturbance,  intellectual  upheaval,  and  a  con  tin- 
expression  "Our  Order"  is  used  in  the  modem  sense,  ual  increase  of  luxury  among  ecclesiastics  as  well  as 
Previously  the  word,  as  used  in  the  phrase  "the  mo-  laymen.  The  wealth  of  the  monasteries  was  tempt- 
nastic  order ''had  denoted  the  mode  of  life  common  to  in^  and  the  great  ones  both  in  Churdi  and  State 
every  monastery.  In  the  "Carta  Caritatis"  it  is  seized  upon  them.  Kings,  nobles,  cardinals,  and  pre- 
used  to  exclude  all  monastic  observance  not  exactly  on  lates  obtained  nominations  to  abbeys  "in  commen- 
the  lines  of  the  "new  monastery",  i.  e.,  Ctteaux,  and  dam"  and  more  often  than  not  absorbed  the  revenues 
subject  to  it.  The  monasteries  of  the  Cistercians  of  houses  which  they  left  to  go  to  ruin.  Vocations 
spread  over  Europe  with  surprising  rapidity  and  from  grew  scarce  and  not  unf reauently  the  communities 
tne  colour  of  their  habit  the  monks  were  called  the  were  reduced  to  a  mere  hanoful  of  monks  livine  on  a 
"White  Monks",  the  older  Benedictines  and  Cluniacs  trifling  allowance  doled  out  to  them  none  too  willingly 
being  known  as  the  "Black  Monks  "(see  (Jistbr-  by  the  layman  or  ecclesiastic  who  claimed  to  be  their 
cianb;  CtTBAUx:  Robert  OF  MoLESBiE,  St.;  Bbrnard  oommendatoiy  abbot.  Efforts  to  check  these  evils 
or  Clairvaux,  St.).  were  not  wanting  especially  in  Italy.    The  Sylves- 

The  impetus  given  by  these  new  foundations  helped  trines,  foimded  by  St.  Sylvester  de  Gozzolini  about 

to  revitahze  the  Benedictine  monasteries  of  the  older  the  middle  of  the  thirteenth  centuiy,  were  organized 

type,  but  at  ihe  same  time  a  new  influence  was  at  on  a  system  of  perpetual  superiors  under  one  head, 

woik  upon  western  monasticism.    Hitherto  the  mo-  the  Prior  of  Monte  Fano,  who  ruled  the  whole  congre- 

nastic    ideal    had    been    essentially    contemplative,  gation  as  general  assisted  by  a  chapter  consisting  of 

CertaiDly  the  monks  had  undertaken  active  work  representatives  from  each  house  (see  Stlvestruobs). 


MONCADA                           476  MOMDIKO 

The  Celestines,  founded  about  forty  years  later  by  St.  stance  the  modifications,  reforms,  etc.,  made  by  the 

Peter  Morone  (Celestine  V),  were  organized  on  much  various  monastic  legislators  have  been  adopted  by 

the  same  plan  but  the  superiors  were  not  perpetual  convents  of  women  as  well  as  by  the  monks.     In 

and  the  head  of  the  whole  Dody  was  an  Abbot  elected  cases  where  any  special  treatment  has  been  thought 

by  the  Gcmeral  Chapter  for  three  years  and  ineligible  necessary,  e.  ^.  the  Carthusian  Nuns,  a  separate  sec- 

for  re-election  for  nine  years  after  his  previous  term  tion  of  the  article  on  the  order  or  conjpiegation  in  que&- 

of  office  (see  Celbstines;  Celestine  V,  St.).    The  tion  has  been  dedicated  to  the  subject.    These  sec- 

Olivetans,  foimded  about  1313  by  Bernardo  Tolomei  tions  should  be  referred  to  in  all  cases  for  detailed 

of  Siena,  mark  the  last  stage  of  development.     In  information.    (For  practical  details  of  the  monastic  life 

their  case  the  monks  were  not  professed  for  any  par-  and  the  actual  working  of  a  monastery  see  the  articles 

ticular  monastery,  but^  like  friars,  for  the  congregation  Monasticism;  Monastery;  Abbey;  Abbot*  Abbess; 

in  general.    The  officials  of  die  various  houses  were  Obedientiaries:  Benedict,  Rule  op  St.;  Benedict 

chosen  by  a  small  committee  appointed  for  this  pur-  of  Nubsia,  St.;  Nun.) 

pose  by  the  general  chapter.    The  abbot-general  was  G.  Roger  Hudlbstdn. 

visitorof  all  monasteries  and ''superior  of  superiors",  «»j-ni_                     ^^           ^-^          «.«^ 

but  his  power  was  held  for  a  very  short  period  only.  Moncada,  Francisco  de,  Count  of  Ospna,  Spanish 

This  system  had  the  very  great  advantage  that  it  JustoriMi,  son  of  the  Governor  of  Sardinia  and  Catar 

rendered  the  existence  of  commendatory  superiors  j!?^a»  d-  at  Valencia,  29  December,  1686;    d.  near 

practically  impossible,  but  it  secured  this  at  the  cost  Goch,  Germany.  1^5.    He  entered  the  army  at  a  very 

of  sacrificing  aU  family  life  in  the  individual  monas-  ??fly  ag®'  ^^  ^  ^^^^'.  ^^  appointed  by  Kmg  Philip 

tery  which  is  the  central  idea  of  St.  Benedict's  legislsr  JV  ambassador  to  the  impenal  court  at  Vienna,  whwe 

tion.    Further,  by  taking  the  right  of  election  away  ^^  soon  succwded  m  acquuing  the  esteem  of  Ferdi- 

from  the  monastic  communities,  it  concentrated  all  J^and  II  and  his  muustere.    In  1629  he  was  recalled 

real  power  in  the  hands  of  a  small  committee,  a  course  ^rom  Vienna  and  sent  to  Brussels  m  place  of  Cardinal 

obviously  open  to  many  possible  dangers  (see  Olive-  de  la  Cueva,  ambassador  to  the  Infanta  Isabella.    His 

tans)  chief  duty  there  consisted  m  keepmg  the  king  posted 

(6)  Monaatie  Revival.— In  the  great  wave  of  reform  ^  regard  to  the  condirions  in  the  Netherlands,  in 

and  revival  which  characterized  the  later  fifteenth  and  ^PTTf "^  ^^^  royal  officials,  and  m  watching  over 

sixteenth  centuries  the  older  institutions  of  Benedic-  the  disbursements  of  Spanish  fund^.    He  soon  discov- 

tines  once  more  gave  proof  of  their  vitality  and  a  spon-  ered  the  chief  fault  of  the  preceding  admmistration 

taneous  renewd  of  vigour  was  shown  throu^out  and  endeavoured  to  concede  to  the  Belgians  a  mudi 

Europe.    This  revival  followed  two  main  lines.     In  ^^  share  m  the  admmistration  of  their  country's 

the  Latin  countries  the  movement  pursued  the  path  ^^^^  *or  he  realized  that  only  by  such  a  show  of 

marked  out  by  the  Olivetans.    Thus  in  Italy  all  the  ^nfidence  could  they  be  kept  loyal  to  the  empire, 

monasteries  of  Black  monks  were  gradually  united  g^  also  proposed,  though  without  succ^,  to  transfer 

together  under  the  name  of  the  Congregation  of  St.  the  general  management  of  Belgian  affairs  from  Mad- 

Justina  of  Padua,  afterwards  called  the  Cassinese  Con-  ndteBrussds.     In  1630  he  wm  appointed  commander- 

gregation  (see  under  Benedictines)  .    Similar  meth-  ^^^At?^  .u  ^2^iu"^  }^  t^  the  entire  army,  imd  m 

ods  were  adopted  in  the  formation  of  the  Conarega-  1?34,  after  the  d^th  of  Uie  Infanta,  jgvemor  of  Bd- 

tions  of  St.  Maur  and  St.  Vannes  in  France,  m  flie  g^^.*  "^^^  relieved  by  the  arrival  of  l>nnce  Cardinal 

two  Congregations  of  Spanish  Benedictines,  and  in  Ferdmand.    His  crownmg  and  final  achievement  as 

the  revival  of  the  Engfish  Congregation.    In  Ger-  military  commander  was  the  liberation  of  Breda,  Uie 

many  ihe  revival  took  a  different^ath;  and,  while  ^^^^^^  of  which  ordered  memonal  corns  struck  m  his 

keeping  closer  to  the  traditions  of  the  past,  united  the  5?°'5"'-    ^^tl^S^^""^  T^l  ^«  ^?p°"P^;«*  ^«  ^' 

existini  monasteries  very  much  in  tlie  manner  oi-  dmal  on  an  expedition  into  the  Duchy  of  Clev^^^ 

dered  by  the  Fourth  Coimcil  of  Lateran  in  1216.    The  ?®  P®^  "^^  £  ^^^^  "^®^  ?^  ^^®  siege  of  Goch.   He 

Union  of  Bursfeld  is  perhaps  the  best  example  of  this  ^^  "?  amiable  character,  knew  how  to  guide  men 

method.    An  example  of  refonn  in  the  seventeenth  according  to  his  own  desir^  and  combined  great 

century  was  the  work  of  Abb6  de  Ranc^  in  instituting  el^wdness  and  finnness  with  wise  moderation.    He 

the  Cwtercian  reform  at  La  Trappe.    In  this  hS  jm)te  a  valuable  history  of  the  e>yedbt^ 

object  was  to  get  as  close  as  possSle  to  the  primi-  ^^'"*^,  ^^  ^'!'^^A'^^'^i7^%Vil^,^^^  ^^ 

tive  form  of  BSiedictine  life,  ^one  can  qu^tion  ^Jf^^l^^^V^^^S;   Madnd    1777,  1805,  1883;   Pans, 

his  sincerity  or  the  singleness  of  his  intentions,  but  de  ^\  ^,     ^esoro  de  los  histonadon^  espanoles'^ 

Ranc^  was  not  an  antiquary  and  had  not  been  trained  Y^-  ^^^^^^^  poss^  from,  his  pen  the     \  ida  de 

as  a  monk  but  as  a  codrti^.    The  result  was  that  he  ^'^ZM^'^'^J:^!!^^^^^^              ^"^'l  '  l^'""}  ^f^ 

interoreted  St.  Benedict's  nJew^^^  the  most  absolute  ^""^^^^I^T^l^'^,,^^^^^^       ^^'  "^  ^^^- 

literalness,  ^nd  thus  succeeded  in  producing  a  cast-  Patricius  Schi«ager. 
iron  mode  of  life  far  more  rigid  and  exactmg  than 

there  is  any  reason  to  believe  St.  Benedict  himself  Mondino  (a  diminutive  for  Raimondo;  Mundinus) 

either  desired  to  or  did  beget.    The  upheaval  of  the  dei  Lucci,  anatomist,  b.  probably  at  Bologna,  about 

French  Revolution  and  the  wars  which  followed  it  1275;   d.  there,  about  1327.    Mondino  performed  a 

seemed  likel^r  to  give  a  death  blow  to  Western  mon-  series  of  public  dissections  at  the  University  of  Bo- 

achism  and  in  fact  did  destroy  monasteries  by  the  logna  in  tne  early  part  of  the  fourteenth  centurv.  He  is 

hundred.    But  nothing  perhaps  is  more  noteworthy,  sometimes  said  to  have  performed  only  two  or  three  dis- 

in  all  the  wonderful  revival  of  Catholicism  which  the  sections,  but  his  own  writings  refute  this.    He  is  often 

last  hundred  ^rears  have  seen,  than  the  resuscitation  of  proclaimed  the  first  to  have  performed  dissections  in 

monastic  life  in  all  its  forms,  not  only  in  Europe,  but  modem  tim3S,  but  Haeser  says  that  many  anatomists 

also  in  America,  Africa,  Australia,  and  other  distant  dissected  before  his  time,  and  that  we  have  even  a 

lands  whose  very  existence  was  unknown  to  the  found-  manual  of  dissection  written  before  this,   by  one 

ers  of  Westeiii  monachism.    Details  of  this  revival  Ricardus.     Mondino   systematized   dissection,   and 

will  be  found  in  the  articles  on  the  various  orders  and  wrote  a  manual  called  **  Anathonua'\  which  was  used 

congregations  referred  to  above.  in  nearly  all  medical  schools  for  three  centuries  i^ter 

No  mention  has  been  made  in  this  article  of  the  his  time.    Its  popularity  can  be  judged  from  the  edi- 

question  of  women   under   Monasticism.     Broadly  tions  issued  after  the  invention  of  printing.    Tbere  is 

speaking  the  history  of  contemplative  nuns,  as  distinct  one  at  Pa  via  ( 1478) ,  Bologna  ( 1482) ,  and  PaduaH  484 ) ; 

from  nuns  of  the  more  recent  active  orders,  has  been  there  are  Venice  editions  of  1494, 1498, 1500,  and  1507; 

identical  with  that  of  the  monks.    In  idmost  every  in-  Leipzig  (1505),  Strasburg  (1509),  and  Marbui^  and 


MONDONEDO 


477 


MOMDONEDO 


Lyons  shortly  afterwards.  His  book  was  considered 
such  an  authority  that  an  old  teacher  declared  that 
medical  students  for  centuries  worshipped  him  as  a 
god.  If  something  found  in  a  dissection  were  not  de- 
scribed in  Mondino's  *' Anathomia",  constantly  open 
before  them  while  dissecting,  it  was  considered  an 
anomaly.  The  work  of  course  has  been  superseded  by 
progress  in  the  science  of  anatomy,  but  it  is  easy  to 
imoerstand  from  it  how  much  practical  anatomy  for 
surgical  piurposes  the  medieval  pnysicians  were  taught. 
Hasssr  in  Biographiaehea  Lexicon  der  hervorragenden  Aerzte; 
BibUooraphie  mSdietue  (Paris,  1826) ;  for  the  Question  of  diaaeo- 
tion  before  and  by  Mondino,  see  Pilchbr,  Tm  Mondino  Myth 
ia  Medical  Library  and  HiMoruxU  Journal  (Brooklyn,  Dec., 
1906);  Waubb,  The  Popee  and  Science  (New  York,  1908). 

James  J.  Walsh. 

Mondoftodo  (Lat.  MoNDUMEnnhi,  or  Mindon), 
DiocESB  OF  (MiNDONiENsis,  also  Britoniensis. 
DuMiENSis,  and  Villabriensis),  comprises  the  civil 
Provinces  of  Lugo  and  Corunna,  and  is  bounded  on 
the  north  by  the  Bay  of  Biscay,  on  the  east  by  the 
Austurias,  on  the  south  by  the  Diocese  of  Lugo,  and 
on  the  west  by  the  Archdiocese  of  Compostela  (or 
Santiago  de  Galicia),  of  which  it  has  been  a  suffragan 
since  1114.  Some  authorities  have  sought  to  fix  the 
date  of  the  foundation  of  this  diocese  (under  its  prim- 
itive name  of  Britonia)  earlier  than  the  second  half  of 
the  sixth  century,  but  the  later  date  seems  the  more 
probable  when  we  consider  that,  at  the  Second  Coun- 
cil of  Braga  (572),  Mailoc,  Bishop  of  Britonia,  was 
ranked  lowest  because  of  the  more  recent  origin  of  his 
see.  It  seems  to  have  been  founded  by  the  Suevian 
king,  Theodomir,  converted  to  Catholicism  by  St. 
Martin  of  Dumio  (see  Martin  op  Braga,  Saint)  and 
to  have  included  in  its  jurisdiction  the  Churches  of 
the  Britones  (a  territory  coinciding  with  that  of 
Mondofiedo)  and  some  of  those  of  the  ^turias.  In  the 
beginning  it  was  a  suffragan  of  Lugo,  until  the  Goths 
placed  Lugo  under  the  jurisdiction  of  Braga.  After 
Mailoc  no  mention  is  found  of  the  bishops  of  Britonia 
for  a  long  time,  doubtless  because  the  great  distance 
from  Toledo  made  it  impossible  for  them  to  assist  at 
the  councils.  In  633  Metopius,  Bishop  of  Britonia, 
assisted  at  the  Fourth  Council  of  Toledo,  presided  over 
by  St.  Isidore.  Sonna,  his  successor,  was  one  of  the 
bishops  who  signed  at  the  Seventh  Council  of  Toledo 
(646)  and  sent  a  representative  to  the  Eighth  Council 
of  Toledo  (16  December,  653).  When  Britonia  was 
invaded  and  destroyed  by  the  Saracens,  the  bishop 
and  priests  took  refuge  in  Asturias.  In  899,  during 
the  reign  of  Alfonso  III,  Theodesimus.  Bishop  of 
Britonia  assisted  with  other  prelates  at  tne  consecra- 
tion of  the  church  of  Santiago.  It  may  also  be  noted 
that,  in  the  repartition  of  the  parishes,  the  church  of 
San  Pedro  de  Nova  was  assigned  as  tne  residence  of 
the  bishops  of  Britonia  and  Orense,  when  they  should 
come  to  assist  at  the  councils  of  Oviedo.  By  that 
time,  however,  the  See  of  Britonia  had  been  trans- 
lated to  the  town  of  Mondumetum  and  the  church  of 
St.  Martin  of  Dumio,  or  Mondofledo.  The  diocese 
has  since  been  most  generally  known  by  this  name, 
although  the  episcopal  residence  has  again  changed. 
After  the  time  of  St.  Martin  it  was  transferred  to 
Villamayor  de  Brea,  from  which  it  derived  the  name 
of  Villabriensis,  and  afterwards  to  Ribadeo,  but  it  was 
nevertheless  known  as  Mindoniense,  as  a  document 
of  the  year  1199  bears  witness.  At  first,  its  patron 
was  St.  Martin  of  Tours,  but  St.  Martin  of  Dumio 
was  afterwards  chosen  patron. 

The  church  of  St.  Martin  of  Mondofiedo,  one  of  the 
best  of  the  ancient  churches  of  this  region,  had  been 
the  cathedral  church  since  866.  The  present  paro- 
chial house  is  a  part  of  the  old  episcopal  palace,  con- 
nected with  the  church  by  a  galleiy  from  what  seems 
to  have  been  one  of  the  episcopal  chambers.  In  1112 
the  queen,  Dofla  Urraca,  transferred  the  episcopal 
residence  to  Brea,  a  valley  about  seven  ana  a  half 
miles  from  St.  Martin  of  Mondofiedo,  in  the  midst  of 


which  is  Villamayor  de  Brea,  where  the  cathedral 
church  of  Santa  Maria  Vallibriense  was  built.  The 
Blessed  Virgin,  under  her  title  of  the  Assuinption, 
was  the  patroness  of  this  church.  Alfonso  VII  gave 
a  charter  to  the  town,  and  the  bishop  resided  there 
until  Ferdinand  II  of  Le6n  transferrea  the  episcopal 
residence  to  Ribadeo.  In  1233  Don  Martin,  suc- 
cessor to  Don  Pelayo,  transferred  it  to  its  present 
location,  Mondofiedo,  now  a  town  of  10,590  inliabi- 
tants.  To  api)ease  the  discontent  occasioned  in 
Ribadeo  by  this  change.  Bishop  Nufio  II  and  his 
chapter  established  a  collegiate  church  in  Ribadeo 
with  a  canon  and  four  prebendaries  {radoneros). 

Many  of  the  bishops  of  Mondofiedo  were  noted  for 
their  sanctity  and  learning.  First  amon^  these  is  St. 
Rosendus,  wno,  in  consideration  of  his  eminent  virtue, 
was  created  a  bishop  when  he  was  very  young,  and 
governed  the  diocese  from  923  to  942.  He  founded  the 
monastery  of  Celanova,  to  which  he  afterwards  re- 
tired to  live  the  life  of  a  monk.  Of  another  abbot  of 
Celanova,  Gonzalvo,  a  legend  has  been  preserved 
which  attributes  to  his  prayers  the  repulse  of  the 
Northmen  who  were  devastating  the  coasts  of  Galicia. 
His  sepulchre  is  in  the  church  of  St.  Martin  of  Mon- 
dofiedo, and  on  the  spot  on  the  shore  where  he  prayed 
a  chapel  has  been  erected  to  which  people  come  in 
great  numbers,  especially  at  Pentecost.  Don  Martin, 
bishop  from  1219  to  1248,  built  the  present  cathedral 
of  Mondofiedo,  except  for  the  present  f agade  and  four 
chapels,  which  form  an  additional  nave  behind  the 
principal  one.  Towards  the  end  of  his  life  he  resigned 
his  see  and  withdrew  to  St.  Martin  of  Mondofiedo  to 
prepare  for  death.  Don  Pedro  Enrlquez  de  Castro 
(1426-45)  is  credited  with  having  built  the  ancient 
cloister,  where  the  coat  of  arms  of  his  family  was 
emblazoned.  Don  Fadrique  de  Guzmdn  (1462-92) 
made  notable  repairs  in  the  cathedral;  Don  Alfonso 
SuArez  de  la  Fuente  del  Salce  (1493-96)  was  named 
inquisitor  general  by  Pope  Alexander  VI;  Don  Pedro 
Pacheco,  son  of  the  Conde  de  Montalban  (1533-37) 
was  created  a  cardinal;  Fray  Antonio  de  Guevara,  a 
classical  writer,  preacher  and  chronicler  for  Charles 
V  shed  lustre  on  the  See  of  Mondofiedo.  Don  Diego 
de  Soto  (1546r49)  completely  renovated  the  cathe- 
dral. 

In  the  church  at  Villamayor  de  Brea,  which  was 
formerly  the  cathedral  of  the  diocese,  there  are  some 
notable  frescoes,  entirely  covering  the  walls  of  the  in- 
terior. Those  on  the  Gospel  side  represent,  in  three 
large  panels,  the  slaughter  of  the  Innocents;  those  on 
the  Epistle  side,  four  scenes  from  the  life  of  St.  Peter. 
Other  paintings,  the  work  of  the  Asturian  painter,  Te- 
r^,  decorate  the  domes  of  the  transept  and  the  main 
chapel.  The  present  cathedral  of  Mondofiedo,  built 
in  the  thirteenth  century  (see  above),  is  one  of  the 
best  examples  of  o^val  art  in  Galicia.  The  Roman- 
esque portid  is,  as  in  many  of  the  churches  of  that 
period,  the  most  ancient  portion.  In  the  seventeenth 
century  a  facade  in  the  Baroque  style  was  added. 
The  church  is  in  the  form  of  a  Latin  cross,  with  three 
naves;  it  has  fine  altars,  choir  stalls  in  the  Flemish 
style,  mural  paintings  of  the  fifteenth  century,  in- 
teresting for  tne  histonr  of  art,  and  two  organs  m  the 
over-decorated  style  of  the  eighteenth  century,  while 
the  sacristy  is  richly  decorated  with  pictures  of  the 
Flemish  school.  The  Capilla  de  los  Hemedios,  built 
in  1738,  by  Bishop  Sarmiento  de  Sotomayor  also 
deserves  mention.  The  monastery  of  San  Salvador 
de  Lorenzana,  formerly  belonging  to  the  Benedictines, 
and  so  called  from  its  proximity  to  the  river  Loren- 
zana, is  one  of  the  most  notable  in  Galicia.  It  was 
founded  on  17  June,  969,  during  the  episcopate  of 
Theodomir,  by  the  saintly  Conde  Osorio  Gutierrez, 
and  was  richly  endowed.  The  remuns  of  the  founder, 
who  became  a  member  of  the  community,  are  interred 
in  the  monastery.  A  very  beautiful  monument  con- 
structed of  rare  marbles,  such  as  are  not  to  be  f  oimd 


ttONDOVi 


478 


MONK 


In  any  other  part  of  Spain,  has  bocn  erected  over  his 
grave.  His  memorv  is  venerated,  and  the  faithful 
visit  his  tomb.  The  convent  of  the  Alcantarines 
(Franciscans  of  the  reform  of  St.  Peter  of  Alcantara), 
founded  in  1731,  is  now  used  as  barracks.  The 
court-house  (1584)  and  the  seminary  are  among  the 
principal  buildings  of  Mondofiedo. 

The  present  seminary  building,  in  the  Huertas  del 
Torrillon,  was  built  by  Bishop  Job6  Francisco  de  Losada 
in  1770-75.  Mondofiedo,  which  until  1836,  was  the 
capital  of  the  province,  numbers  among  her  dis- 
tinguished sons  the  teacher  Pacheco  Febrero,  author 
of  ''Galerfa  de  Escribanos",  Jos6  Cayetano  Suaces, 
Bishop  of  Palencia;  Lucas  Miranda,  author  of  the 
'^Teatro  de  Prelados  de  la  Iglesia  de  Mondofiedo", 
and  the  sculptor  Castro,^  designer  of  the  inspiring 
figure  of  Saint  Francis  in  the  cathedral.  Bishop 
Manuel  Navarrete  wrote  a  long  history  of  Mondofiedo 
and  its  bishops.  The  present  (1910)  Bishop  of  Mon- 
dofiedo,  Don  Juan  Jos6  Sol6s  y  Femdndez,  b.  at 
Oviedo,  1848,  was  consecrated  on  26  May.  1907. 

Fl6rbs.  Stpafki  Sagrada,  XVIII  (2nd  ed.,  Madrid,  1789);  Vi- 
LLAMXL,  Cr&niea  de  la  Fronncia  de  Lugo  (Madrid.  1867) ;  MuBOuf  a, 
Btpa^t  »u»  monumerUot  y  arte*:  Oalieia  (Baroelona,  1888) ;  dm  la. 
FuiiSMTS,  Hietoria  eelendetiea  de  Bepafla  (Barcelona,  1855). 

Ram6n  Ruiz  Amado. 

Mondovi,  DiocESB  of  (Montisregalib),  in  Pied- 
mont, province  of  Cuneo,  northern  Italv.  The  citv  is 
built  upon  three  hills,  at  a  height  of  about  1600  feet 
above  sea-level,  and  dates  from  the  year  1000;  but  the 
suburb  of  Breo,  the  name  of  which  recalls  the  Bredo- 
lensis  colony  mentioned  in  a  Roman  inscription  found 
in  that  neighbourhood,  had  a  castle  in  the  time  of 
Charlemagne.  The  town,  called  Monsvici,  also  Mon- 
teregaJe,  was  under  the  bishops  of  Asti  until  1198, 
when  it  established  itself  as  a  commune,  but  was  com- 
pelled to  strug^e  against  the  bishops  of  Asti.  the 
marquesses  of  Saluzzo  and  of  Monferrato,  and  the 
counts  of  Savoy,  in  turn  recognizing  and  shakingofiF 
the  suzerainty  of  one  or  another  of  those  lords.  The 
conmiune  mamtained  a  war  against  the  marquesses  of 
Civa  ri240-50),  and  finally,  Bressano  di  Vico,  a  pow- 
erful lord  in  Mondovi,  attempted  to  make  himself 
master  of  the  citv,  which  submitted  to  Charles  of 
Anjou  (1260),  ana  from  that  time,  with  some  inter- 
ruptions, remained  imder  the  protection  of  the  kings 
of  r^aples,  until  1366.  In  1396.  having  again  changoi 
lords  several  times,  it  came  under  the  dominion  of  the 
Savoyard  lords  of  Achaia^  and  in  1418,  under  that  of 
the  dukes  of  Savoy,  in  wnose  possession  it  remained. 
In  1476  and  in  1533,  the  inhabitants  of  Mondovl  at- 
tempted to  give  their  allegiance  either  to  the  Marquess 
of  Monferrato  or  to  the  Duke  of  Mantua,  and  the 
French  contested  for  its  possession  with  the  imperial- 
ists (1536-43),  and  with  the  house  of  Savoy  (1543-59). 
The  city  was  at  war  with  the  Duke  of  Savoy  for  the 
salt  monopoly  (1678-99).  Napoleon  defeated  the 
Piedmont^  near  Mondovl  (1796),  thereb]^  assuring 
his  wav  through  the  valley  of  the  ro,  and  in  1799  it 
was  pillaged  by  the  French. 

It  was  the  birthplace  of  the  pious  Cardinal  Bona,  of 
the  celebrated  physicist  Beccaria,  and  of  Marquess 
Ormea,  a  statesman  of  the  eighteenth  centiuy.  Its 
cathedral  contains  paintings  by  Giulio  Romano,  Cam- 
biaso,  and  others.  The  residence  of  the  bishop  is  one 
of  the  noblest  episcopal  palaces  in  Italy.  In  the 
church  of  la  Missione  there  are  frescoes  by  the  Jesuit 
Pozzi.  Oufside  the  city  is  the  sanctuary  of  the  Ma- 
donna del  Pilone,  dating  from  the  fourteenth  century, 
but  finished  later  (1730-49) .  The  palace  of  the  counts 
of  San  Quintino  contained  the  first  printing-office  in 
I^edmont,  and  was  the  seat  of  a  university  (1560- 
1719)  founded  by  Duke  Emmanuel  Philibert,  the  first 
institution  of  its  kind  in  Piedmont.  The  city,  at  first 
part  of  the  Diocese  of  Asti,  became  the  seat  of  a 
bishop,  suffragan  of  the  Archbishop  of  Milan,  but, 
since  1515|  Turin  has  been  its  metropolitan.   In  1817, 


the  territory  of  Cuneo  was  detached  from  tlie  See  of 
Mondovl,  and  made  a  diocese.  The  first  bishop  of 
Mondovl  was  Damiano  Zavaglia,  a  zealous  and  peare- 
loving  prelate;  among  his  successors  were  Percivallo 
di  Palma  (1429),  Amadeo  Romagnano  (1497),  who 
reconstructed  the  cathedxtd  (1550) ;  Michele  Ghislieri, 
O.P.  (1550),  later  Pope  Pius  V;  Cardmal  Vincenzo 
Lauro  (1566),  founder  of  the  seminary,  during  whoee 
incumbency  the  cathedral  and  other  churches  were 
torn  down  to  make  room  for  the  citadel;  Giovanni 
Battista  Isnardi  (1697),  who  restored  the  episcopal 
palace  and  the  church  of  St.  Dalmazio;  Carlo  Fdice 
Sanmartino  (1741),  founder  of  the  new  seminary,  and 
Giovanni  Tonmiaso  Ghilardi,  O.P.  (1842),  a  very 
pious  and  charitable  man.  The  city  contuns  145 
parishes,  with  170,000  faithful,  6  religious  houses  of 
women,  10  educational  establishments  for  boys  and  15 
for  girls;  it  has  three  Catholic  newspapers. 

Cappbluctti,  Le  Chiese  d* Italia  (Venice.  1887).  XIV:  Gvlabm, 
Memorie  hi^oriche  deUa  ehieaa  veseovile  di  Menteregale  (Tuxin, 
1785):  Dblla  Rocca,  Le  Storie  deW  atOioa  eiUd  di  MoniereQole 
otaia  Mondavi  (2  vols.,  Turin.  1894-99). 

U.  Benioni. 

Mone,  Franz,  historian  and  archsoloc^,  b.  at 
Mingolsheim  near  Bruchsal,  Baden,  12  May,  1796;  d. 
at  Karlsruhe,  12  March,  1871.  He  attended  the  gym- 
nasium at  Bruchsal  and  in  1814  entered  Heidelberg, 
where  in  1817  he  was  appointed  tutor  (Privaldazent)  m 
history,  in  1818  secretary^  of  the  university  library,  in 
1810  extraordinary,  and  in  1822  ordinary,  professor, 
and  in  1825  head  of  the  university  library.  F^m 
1827  to  1831  he  was  professor  at  Lou  vain.  On  his  re- 
turn to  Baden  he  edited  for  a  period  the  '^Karlsruher 
Zeitung";  he  became  in  1835  archivist  and  director  of 
the  General  National  Archives  at  Karlsruhe,  and  re- 
tired in  1868.  By  his  ^reat  diligence  and  tireless  en- 
ergv  he  acquired  extensive  knowledge.  His  works  on 
early  history  (''Urgeschichte  des  badischen  Landes'', 
2  vols.,  1845;  ''Untersuchungen  tiber  die  galUsche 
Sprache".  1851;  "Celtische  Forschunpen",  1857)  suf- 
fer from  nis  tendency  to  trace  eveiytning  possible  to 
a  Celtic  origin.  More  important  are  ms  works  on 
literary  historv,  which  include:  "Einleitung  in  das 
Nibelungenlied"  (1818) : "  Geschichte  des  Heidentums 
im  norcflichen  Europa'*  (2  vols.,  1822-3);  "Otnit" 
(1821) :  ''Quellen  una  Forschimgen  ziur  Geschichte  der 
deutscnen  Literatur  und  Sprache"  (1830):  "Unter- 
suchungen  zur  Geschichte  der  deutschen  Heldensage*' 
(1836);  "Uebersicht  der  niederlandischen  VolksUtera- 
tur  alterer  Zeit "  (1838).  In  the  "  Anzeiger  fur  Kunde 
des  deutschen  Mittelalters  "  (1835-9),  he  calls  attention 
to  a  great  mass  of  unknown  materials.  Of  great  value 
for  the  history  of  the  drama  are  his  editions  of  "  Alt- 
deutsche  Schauspiele"  (1841)  and  "Schauspide  des 
Mittelalters"  (2  vols.,  1846).  His  works,  ''Lateiniache 
und  griechische  Messen"  (1850)  and  ''Lateinische 
Hymnen"  (3  vols.,  1853-5),  advanced  the  knowledge 
of  liturgy  and  ecclesiastical  poetry,  and  offer  impoi^ 
tant  liturgical  documents  not  published  elsewhere.  For 
the  history  of  his  native  country  the  following  are  use- 
ful: "BaSsches  Archiv"  (2  vols.,  1826-7);  "Queflcn- 
sammlung  der  badischen  Lande&eeschichte"  (4  vols., 
1848-^7);  the  second  volume  of  the  "Episcopatus 
Constantiensis"  of  Neugart  (1862),  and,  most  particu- 
larly, the  extraordinarily  rich  and  varied  "Zeitschrift 
fQr  die  Geschichte  des  Oberrheins"  (21  vols.,  1850- 
68),  which  was  founded  by  Mone,  and  in  which  most 
of  the  articles  during  these  early  years  were  from  bis 
pen.  It  has  been  continued  since  then  by  the  General 
Archives  and  by  the  Historical  Commission  of  Baden. 
His  industry  and  zeal  in  collecting  were  very  praise- 
worthy, although  he  was  sometimes  deficient  in  accu- 
racy and  critical  judgment;  in  his  works  the  eoonom- 
ico-historical  interest  is  always  in  the  foreground.  He 
was  an  earnest  and  pious  Catholic,  and  took  pari  in 
the  Baden  ecclesiastical-political  strife  during  the  for- 
ties, publishing  the  two  aggressive  anonyiDous  paoh 


MONETA  479  MONGOLIA 

Shlets,  "Die katholischen  Zust&nde  in  Baden"  (1841-    us  were  frozen  so  hard  that,  in  spite  of  a  preliminary 
).  thawing,  the  yolks  were  still  solid  lumps  of  ice  when  the 

Vow  WBwaj,  BMuehs  B^^phUn,!!  {Heldelbe^.  1875) .  8^    whites  Were  perfectly  fried.    Tea  left  in  the  bottom  of 

%iSSi S  liJ^'J^S^SSiSSSie^^^  a  «^P  %the  t«it  was  frozen^  solid  in  a  very  few  min- 


Zmudtr.jar  du  Oesch,  dn  Oberrheifu,  LV  (1901),  422  sqq.,  650  utes.    The  mk  froze  on  one's  pen  as  one  wrote,  and 

■qq. ;  LVll  (1903) ,  458  sqq.  one  had  to  blow  on  it  after  writms  every  two  or  three 

Klbmbns  Lofflbb.  words,  while  each  page  had  to  be  thawed  over  the  lamp 

MoDAto  (MoNBTUs),  theologian,  b.  at  Cremona,  ^[^^  it  could  be  blottjd.  In  the  morning  we  woke 
Italy,  date  unknown:  d.  at  Bologna,  1240.  He  was  ^^'^  ?F  moustaches  fringed  with  lumps  of  ice  and 
one  of  the  first  disciples  of  St.  Dominic.  Previous  to  a  coating  of  ice  alone  the  edge  of  the  bed-clothes 
his  entrance  into  the  order  in  1220,  he  was  professor  of  y*\^*^^-^'^^^  *^  ^^^  (Kidston,  "China",  no. 
philosophy  in  the  university  of  bologna,  where  his  ^»  i?^v?  ''i  -r^*  ,  «.  .,  ,  ,, 
rare  erudition  and  depth  of  thought  as  weU  as  his  The  Kerulon,  or  Kh^relon,  River,  thou^  "an  m 
clearness  of  exposition  won  for  hun  a  wide  repuUtion.  considerable  nyer,  is  the  longest  of  the  vast  and  Easi 
The  eloquence  of  Bl.  Reginald,  the  superior  of  the  Mongol  upland,  and  the  permanence  of  the  pastures 
local  community,  attracted  to  the  order  so  many  re-  aJo^K  ^^  banks  has  always  attracted  a  large  share  of 
nowned  doctors  and  students  that  Moneta  began  to  J*^«  nomad  population;  many  of  the  Tsetsen  pnnces 
fear  for  his  own  prestige,  to  insure  which,  he  care-  *eep  their  headouarters  on  or  dose  to  the  Kerulon" 
fully  avoided  the  preacher  and  exhorted  his  pupils,  by  (Campbell,  24) .  This  nver  rises  on  the  southern  slopes 
word  and  exampfe,  to  do  likewise.  But  yielding  to  of  the  Kentai  Mountains,  near  Mount  Burkhan  Kal- 
lus  punils'  wishes  one  day  he  accompanied  them  to  a  a^*  «? d  enters  the  Dalai  Nor,  five  or  six  miles  south- 
sermon  and  was  so  deeply  moved  by  it  that  he  resolved  f  est  of  the  Altan  Emjl  (Golden  Saddle),  a  pair  of 
to  become  a  religious.  He  was  later  noted  for  his  brown  hills,  famous  m  Mongol  legend,  between  which 
sanctity  no  less  than  for  his  eloquent  and  learned  con-  the  nyer  flows.  The  Dalai,  or  Kulun  Nor,  is  a  lake  in 
trovenaes  with  the  heretics.  His  intense  devotion  to  the  Manchurian  region,  16  miles  from  north-east  to 
study  caused  him  to  lose  his  sight  in  the  latter  days  of  south-west,  and  about  10  miles  from  east  to  west,  near 
his  Me.  He  is  the  author  of  "  Summa  contra  Cathar  the  Transbaikalian  frontier  of  Russia;  it  was  visited  in 
loe  et  Waldenses",  a  widely  read  work  during  his  ^^^  by  Father  Gerbillon.  This  lake  receives  on  the 
time.  It  was  first  edited  in  1743  by  a  religious  of  his  »orth  the  waters  of  the  Dalai  Gol,  which,  united  to  the 
order,  Thomas  Aug.  Ricchmi,  who  supplied  the  work  Khailar  River,  form  the  Argdn  River^  and  this  in  turn 
with  copious  notes.  In  a  biographical  sketch  of  the  J^*°8  the  Shilka.  The  Argdn  and  Shilka  being  united 
author  with  which  he  prefaced  the  work,  we  are  in-  take  the  name  of  Amtir.  or  He-lung-kiang,  the  ereat 
formed  that  Moneta  wrote  also  a  commentary  on  "ver  which  runs  into  the  Okhotsk  Sea.  The  Ursun 
Aristotle's  logic  and  a  "  Summa  casuum  conscientise".  9^*  carries  the  overflow  of  the  Buyr^  or  Bur,  Nor  to 

QxT^nr-EcBARD.  S3,  Ord.  Prod.,  I,  122;  Man.  Ord,  Prctd.  the  Kulun  Nor;  the  Khalka  Gol.  which  nses  m  Lake 

HUL,  I,  160;  DBwrui,  Arehiv.jQrLit.u.  /CircAflMcfc..  II.  232;  Galba,  on  the  westem  slope  ol  the  great  K'ingan 

Br.  dii«.  W  <^  BL  JUotfM.  Eng.  ^^vj^ew  Yo^WT^  «^^  '  g^^  -^^  ^^e  Bu_yr  iTor;  near  iti  on  its  soSth 

JOSBPH  acHBODBR.  ^^^^  ^^^^  ^^^  jj^^  Boshan  Sume  (Monastery  of 

Mongolia. — ^The  name  used  to  designate  an  im-  the  Large  Buddha).    The  Selenga  River  which  runs 

mense  uneven  plateau,  part  of  the  Chinese  Empire,  into  Lake  Baikal,  rises  in  the  Ulan  Taiga  and  Khan 

extending,  rougnly  speaking,  from  the  Tarbagatal  to  Tal^  Mountains;  its  main  tributaries  are  on  the  IdTt, 

the  great  K'ingan  chains.  ■  the  Eke  Gol  flowing  from  the  Koeso  Gol  in  the  middle 

Gboqbapht. — Mongolia  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  of  which  is  the  Buddhist  sacred  island  of  Dalu  Kui; 
the  Siberian  provinces  of  Tomsk,  Irkutsk,  Yeniseisk,  on  the  right  the  Orkhon,  which  springs  from  the  Khan- 
and  Tnmsbaikalia,  as  defined  by  the  Russo-Chinese  gai  chain,  receiving  on  the  left  the  waters  of  the  Tamir 
treaties  of  1689  and  1727;  on  the  east,  by  Manchuria,  and  on  the  right  those  of  the  Tola, 
the  frontier  crossing  the  Nonni  River;  on  the  south,  Thb  PBOPLE.^HQrganua/icm. — ^With  regard  to  the 
the  frontier,  after  following  the  Shara  Muran,  which  word  Monaol,  Mr.  E.  H.  Parker  (Asiatic  Quart.  Rev., 
separates  it  from  the  Chinese  provinces  of  Chi-li,  Shan-  July,  1910;  writes:  "It  is  usually  believed  that  Jen- 
si.  Shen-si,  and,  crossing  the  bend  of  the  Hwang-ho  diiz  Khan  gave  the  name  Mung-Ku  (the  present 
(Ordos Country), Kan-su, includes Ala-shan, following  Chinese  name  for  'Mongol')  to  his  people,  and  the 
part  of  the  Great  Wall;  on  the  southwest  and  west  it  word  is  said  to  mean  'silver*,  just  as  the  Liao 
IS  bounded  by  the  New  Dominion  (Sin  Kiang)  and  the  (Kitan)  dynasty  is  said  to  mean  'iron',  and  the  Kin 
Siberian  province  of  Semipalatinsk  to  Mount  Kaldar  (Niuchen)  dynasty  to  mean  'gold'  ...  In  the  same 
(Altai).  The  population  of  Mon^lia  is  estimated  way,  I  suspect  the  various  forms.  Mungu  or  Mungut, 
variously  at  2,600,000  (Statesman's  Y  ear  Book,  1910),  which  have  an  unbroken  descent  from  a.  d.  600  to  a.  d. 
2,580,000,  or  nearly  2  to  the  square  mile,  and  5,000^-  1200  (before  Jenghiz  rose  to  power),  must  refer  to  some 
000.  Its  area  of  1,367,953  square  miles  may  be  di-  ancient  stream  or  t3rpographicid  peculiarity  in  the 
vided  into  three  regions:  the  central  re^oUj  kaown  as  Onon  region,  near  where  Jenghis  arose."  In  the 
the  Mongolian  SluL-mo,  in  contradistmction  to  the  History  of  the  Ming  Dynasty  (Ming  Shi)  the  Mon- 
Great  Sha-mo,  or  Desert  of  Gobi;  the  north-western  gols  are  styled  Ta-ta  (Tatars)  and  also  Meng-gu. 
region,  a  plateau  connected  with  the  Great  Altai,  in-  The  Mongol  tribes  are  divided  into  Nui  Mung-^ 
eluding  Kobdo  and  Urga,  and  bounded  on  the  S.  E.  by  (Inner  Mongols)  and  Wai  Mung-ku  (Outer  Mongols), 
the  Ektagh  Altai  (or  Mongolian,  or  Southern,  Altai) ;  The  Nui  Mung-ku,  including  torty-nine  banners  {ho 
the  southwestern  region  of  the  great  K'  ingan,  a  long  9hun)^  arose  out  of  the  organization  formed  by  the  de- 
chain  of  mountains,  stretching  from  the  Shara  Muren  scendants  of  Jenghiz  Khan,  which  has  contmued  to 
to  the  Argdn  River,  separating  the  plateau  of  Gobi  the  present  time.  Under  the  Yuan  dynasty  they 
from  the  Manchurian  plains.  were  organized  in  six  divisions  {Djirgughan  Tuman^  or 

The  climate  is  extremely  dry,  and  the  temperature  "Six  Ten  Thousands"),  forming  two  wings,  the  ri^ht 

varies  abruptlv  with  the  season  of  the  year  and  even  occupying  the  westem  portion  of  the  Mongohan 

the  hour  of  the  day.    An  idea  of  the  severity  of  a  territorv,  the  left  the  eastern  portion.    The  Inner 

Mongolian  winter  may  be  gathered  from  the  following  Mongols  are  now  divided  into  six  meng (Chinese) ,  or  cho' 

descnption  of  conditions  m  the  month  of  October:  goLgdn  (Mongol),  including  twenty-four  pu  (Chinese), 

"The  cold  by  this  time  was  almost  Aretic.    All  our  or  aimak  (Mongol),  as  follows:  I.  Cherim  Meng,  or 

provisions  were  frozen  through  and  through;  potatoes  League,  comprising  the  following  pu,  or  tribes:  (1) 

werelUcelumpsof  iron;  meat  had  to  be  broken  rather  Khoreh'in,  6  banners;  (2)   DjaGiid,  1  banner;  (3) 

Um  cut;  and  some  e^  which  we  bftd  brou(^t  with  Turbet,  1  banner;  (4)  Ghorlos,  2  banner?.    11*  Cb^ 


MONGOLIA 


480 


MONGOLIA 


sot'u  League:  (5)  Kharach'in,  3  banners;  (6)  Turned, 
2  banners.  III.  Chao  Uda  League :  (7)  Ao-Khan,  1  ban- 
ner; (8}  Naiman,  1  banner;  (9)  Barin,  2  banners;  (10) 
Djarua,  2  banners;  (11)  Aru  Khorch'in,  2  banners; 
(12)  Ongniod,  1  banner;  (13)  Keshikhteng,  1  banner: 
(14)  Khalka  of  the  Left,  1  banner.  IV.  Silinghol 
Lectfue:  (15)  Uchumuch'in,  2  banners;  (16)  Khao- 
chia,  2  banners;  (17)  Sunid.  2  banners;  (18)  Abaga, 
2  banners:  (19)  Abaganur,  2  banners.  V.  Ulan  Ch^p 
League:  (20)  Sze  Tze  Pu  Lo,  or  Durban  Keuked,  1 
banner;  (21)  Mou  ^ingan,  1  banner;  (22)  Urad,  3 
banners;  (23)  Khalka  of  the  Right,  1  banner;  Vl.Ikh 
Chao  League:  (24)  Ordos,  7  banners.  W.  F.  Mayers 
who  gives  these  particulars  (Chinese  Government) 
adds  that  with  the  tribes  of  the  Ordos  there  are  amal- 
gamated certain  fragments  of  the  T'umed  tribe, 
occupying  the  region  adjacent  to  Kwei  Hwa  Ch'^ng, 
to  the  north-east  of  the  Great  Bend  of  the  Yellow 
River. 

Inner  Mongolia  is  broadly  speaking  "what  is  to  the 
south  of  the  Great  Desert";  it  extends  over  the  pla- 
teau beyond  the  K'ingan  Moimtains  into  the  upper 
valleys  of  the  Manchurian  rivers,  the  Liao  and  the 
Sungari;  it  includes  part  of  Outer  Chi-li.  With  the 
exception  of  the  Ch'ahar  and  the  T'umed.  placed 
under  the  government  of  Manchu  generals,  each 
Mongolian  banner  is  ruled  by  an  hereditary  chieftain 
or  noble  (Dzassak  or  Jassak).  These  nobles  are 
classed  in  six  ranks,  from  taHn  wang,  '^  prince  of  the 
first  order",  to  taickij  or  daidji,  "noble".  They  are 
controlled  by  the  Li  fan  Yuan,  Campbell  writes  (op. 
cit.  supra) :  "The  descent  and  honours  of  every  noble 
are  registered  in  the  Li  Fan  Yuan,  at  Peking,  and  the 
bearers  of  hereditary  titles  indicate  their  successors, 
who  must  be  tsonfirmed  in  the  succession  by  decrees  of 
the  Chinese  Emperor..  On  succeeding  to  a  title,  a 
Jassak  is  summoned  to  Peking  for  audience.  All  the 
nobility  of  the  Inner  Mongol  tribes  pay  visits  to  the 
Chinese  Court  at  New  Year  by  roster,  a  cvcle  of  three 
years  completing  the  roster;  and  those  who  do  not  go 
to  Court  are  required  to  attend  at  the  local  Jaasak's 
residence  on  New  Year's  Day  in  full  Court  dress,  and 

?erform  the  proper  obeisances  in  the  direction  of 
*ddng.  A  jassak  presents  a  sheep  and  a  bottle  of 
milk  spirit  to  the  emperor  on  these  occasions,  and 
a  taicki  gives  a  'scalded  sheep. '  Such  as  visit  Peking 
are  banqueted  and  receive  presents  of  silk,  and  they 
attend  in  the  suite  of  the  Chinese  Emperor  when  he 
goes  forth  to  offer  the  seasonable  sacrifices. " 

The  Wai  Mung-ku,  or  Outer  Mongols,  comprise  the 
Khalkhas  and  the  Kalmiiks,  or  Western  Mongols. 
The  country  stretches  "along  the  Siberian  frontier 
from  near  Liake  Kulun  to  the  Altai,  and  includes  the 
four  Aimak,  or  Khantaes,  of  the  Khaikas,  and  the  west 
Mongol  territories  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Chi- 
nese Militarv  Government  at  Uliasut'^,  Kobdo,  Tar- 
ba^atai,  ana  Uriankhai.  In  the  term  Outer  Mon- 
goha  may  also  be  included  the  Mongols  of  Kokonor 
and  Tsaidam,  who  are  under  the  control  of  an  Im- 
perial agent  stationed  at  Si-ning  Fu"  (Campbell^  op. 
cit.).  The  Khalkhas  constitute  four  great  jni:(l) 
the  T'ush^t'u  Khanate,  20  banners;  (2)  Tsetsen 
Khanate,  23  banners;  (3)  Dzassakt'u  Khanate,  18 
banners;  (4}  Sain-noin  Tribe,  22  banners.  Urga 
(Tarkuren)  is  the  administrative  centre  of  the  East 
IChalkha  Khanates,  within  the  territory  of  the  T'ush6t- 
'u  Khan.  Its  name  represents  the  Kussian  pronun- 
ciation of  the  Mongol  word  drgo  (residence).  Ac- 
cording to  C.  W.  Campbell,  the  full  native  name  is 
Bodgo  Lamain  Khure  (The  God-lama's  Encamp- 
ment); shorter  names  are  Da  Khure,  or  Ikhe  Khure 
(Great  Encampment),  Bogdo  Khure,  and  simply 
IChure;  the  Chinese  call  the  place  K'u-lun,  or  K'u- 
lien,  or  Ta  K'u-lien.  Urga  includes  three  towns  lying 
to  the  north  of  the  Tola  River:  Urga  proper,  the 
Mongol  quarters;  the  Russian  consulate  and  settle- 
m&atf  a  we  md  ^  balf  to  th^  ^ast;  mi  i^k^  ^ast 


Mai-mid  ch^^  the  Chinese  Urga,  the  commercial 
town.  There  is  a  population  of  25,000^  half  of  whom 
are  lamas.  There  is  a  Chinese  commissioner,  styled 
K'vrlun  pan  ski  ta  ch*en  (incumbent  in  1910,  Yen  Chi), 
and  an  assistant  commissioner,  styled  pang  pan  ta  ch'en 
(incumbent  in  1910,  P6ng-ch'u-k'o-ch'^lin).  Urga  is 
also  the  residence  of  the  cheptsundampa  htU'ttkkt'Uf 
or  patriarch  of  the  Khalkha  tribes,  ranking,  in  the 
Lamaist  Church,  next  to  the  Dalai  and  thePanahen 
erdeni  lamas;  this  title  was  conferred  in  liie  middle  of 
the  seventeenth  century  by  the  Dalai  lajna  on  a  son  of 
the  T'ushet'u  khan,  known  in  Mongol  history  as  Un- 
dur  Gegen.  When  the  British  troops  entered  Lhasa, 
the  Dalai  lama  fled  to  Urga,  where  he  arrived  on  the  27 
Nov.,  1904.  Uliasut'ai,  in  the  territoiy  of  the  Sain 
Noin  Khaikas,  is  the  seat  of  a  tsiang  Hun,  or  military 
governor  (in  1910  K'lm  sin),  and  of  two  ts*an  tsan  ta 
ch*&n,  or  military  assistant  governors  (in  1910  Ch'^ 
t^ng-so-no-mu  and  K'uei  Huan.  Kobdo,  on  the 
Bayantu,  has,  subject  to  Uliasut'ai,  a  military  aatsist- 
ant  governor  (in  1910.  P'u  Jun),  and  a  commissioner, 
or  pan  ski  ta  ck^hi  (in  1910  Si  H6ng).  At  Si-ning 
there  is  a  van  ski  ta  ck*en  (in  1910,  Ch'ing  Shu). 

The  Kalmuks.  or  Western  Mongols,  next  in  impor- 
tance to  the  Knalkhas.  include  six  tribes:  (1)  (Mot 
(Eleuths),  Kahnuks;  (2)  Turbet;  (3)  Tuigut;  (4) 
Khoshoit;  (5)  Khoit;  (6)  Ch'oros.  To  these  should 
be  added  the  Ts'ing  Hai  Mung-ku,  Mongols  of  Ko- 
konor, including  29  banners,  all  Kalmidc,  21  banners 
being  Khoshoit:  the  Alashan  Mimg-ku,  Mongols  of 
Alashan,  of  Kalmuk  descent,  with  Ning  hia  as  their 
chief  centre;  the  Yeo  Muh,  nomadic  tribes,  including 
the  Ch'ahar,  near  the  Great  Wall,  the  Bargu  tribe, 
controlled  by  Je-hol  and  Kalgan,  the  Urian^ai,  Min- 
aad,  and  Djakch'in  under  the  Governor  of  uliasut'ai. 
The  Buriat  are  subject  to  Russia,  and  the  Dam  Mon- 
gols live  in  Tsaidam  between  Kokonor  and  Tibet. 

As  a  result  of  the  recent  Russo-Japanese  agreement, 
the  Chinese  Imperial  Grand  Council  studied  the 
means  of  preserving  the  integrity  of  Mongolian  terri- 
tory; it  was  resolved  that  two  divisions  of  modem 
troops  should  be  sent  to  this  country,  that  education 
should  be  established  according  to  Cninese  methods, 
and  that  a  railway  should  be  built  across  Mongolia 
with  its  terminus  at  Peking. 

Religion, — ^The  religion  of  the  Mongols  is  Buddhism 
under  the  Lamaist  form,  introduced  from  Tibet  at  the 
end  of  the  Ming  Dvnasty.  The  lamas  like  the  chept- 
sundampa kiU'ukktru  at  Urga,  have  their  head  clean 
shaven.  Large  monasteries  exist  at  Je-hol  and  I>>- 
lon-nor  (Lama-miao).  and  at  Wu  T'ai  shan,  in  the 
Shan-si  Province.  Tne  Lamaist  organization  in  and 
near  Peking  is  named  Chu  Kin^  Lama;  the  metropoli- 
tan, Chang-chia  Hut'ukht'u  hves  at  Dolon-nor — or 
rather  at  Yung  Ho  Kung — and  controls  the  Mongols 
of  Ch'ahar.  Lamaism  has  certainly  altered  the  char- 
acter of  the  warlike  followers  of  Jenghiz,  who  are  now 
a  peaceful  population  of  herdsmen.  "The  Lamas'', 
writes  Kidston  (op.  cit.,  p.  19),  "exercise  enormous 
influence;  eveiy  tent  has  its  altar,  eveiy  high  ridge  on 
the  plain  has  its  sacred  cairn,  the  repetition  of  prayers 
and  the  telling  of  beads  is  umversal  and  incessant,  and 
almost  every  collection  of  '3rurts'  has  its  prayer  flags, 
fluttering  conveniently  esusy  petitions  with  every 
breeze  that  blows.  Belief  in  the  transmigration  of  the 
soul  and  in  the  utter  unimi)ortanoe  of  the  mere  body 
is  so  strong  that  the  bodies  of  laymen  are  not  buried  at 
all,  but  simply  thrown  out  on  the  plain^  where  the  dogs 
make  short  work  of  them.  The  takmg  of  life  is  re- 
galed with  horror,  though  sheer  necessity  makes  an 
exception  and  provides  quibbling  excuses  for  the 
slaughter  of  sheep.  On  the  whole  journey  we  only 
saw  one  fire-arm,  and  that  was  evidently  intended  for 
show  rather  than  for  use.  It  was  carried  by  one  of  the 
escort  provided  for  us  by  Prince  Ha-la-han,  and,  from 
inquiries,  I  believe  that  it  represented  th9  enti^o  MUM^ 
meat  of  tU^  Principality." 


Li 


MONGOLIA 


481 


MONGOLIA 


Customs,  Languaae,  etc. — ^The  typical  Mongol  is 
flhort  and  stumpy;  tne  head  is  shaven,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  a  tuft  of  haiTi  a  souvenir  of  tne  Manchu  con- 
quest. Family  ties  are  very  loose;  marriage  being  a 
civil  contract  the  binding  force  of  which  is  the  mere 
will  of  the  parties.  Stock-breeding  is  the  occupation 
of  practiciuly  all  Mongols.  They  are  remarkable 
herdsmen,  and  their  ponies  which  are  excellent,  are 
branded.  They  have  nerds  of  camels,  and  yaks  are  to 
be  seen  in  the  mountiunous  parts  of  northern  Mongo- 
lia. Mr.  George  J.  Kidston  (China,  No.  3, 1904)  ob- 
serves: "Both  m  features  and  in  character  they  are 
less  foreign  to  the  European  than  the  Chinese.  Thev 
have  often  almost  ruddy  complexions;  they  lau^h 
more  heartily,  have  none  of  the  endless  formalities 
and  (to  us)  crooked  ways  of  thought  that  distinguish 
the  Chinese,  and  they  have  even  certain  customs  that 
strike  one  as  being  distinctly  Western.  The  women, 
for  instance,  when  they  meet,  embrace  one  another 
and  kiss  on  both  cheeks,  while  the  men  shake  both 
hands.  .  .  .  Perhaps  the  first  thing  that  strikes  a 
stranger  about  the  Mongols^  after  their  exceeding 
filthiness,  is  their  love  of  talking. . . .  Hospitality  is  a 
universal  virtue,  and  one  may  enter  any  'yurt'  on  the 
plain  and  be  sure  of  a  welcome.  .  .  .  They  are  excit- 
able, but  courase  is  not  their  strong  point,  and  dis- 
putes die  out  in  len^hy  warfare  of  words.''  They  are 
also  lazy  and  voracious.  They  live  on  mutton,  milk, 
and  brick  tea;  they  have  neither  flour,  vegetables,  nor 
eggs.  "They  have  one  very  exceUent  preparation 
which  the  Chinese  call '  milknskin';  it  is  made  by  boil- 
ing milk  until  the  cream  settles  in  a  thick  skin  on  the 
top,  and  it  much  resembles  Devonshire  cream.  The 
only  native  strong  drink  is  made  from  fermented 
mare's  milk.  We  were  told  that  it  is  intoxicating  if  par- 
taken of  in  large  quantities.  The  Mongols,  however, 
have  a  decided  weakness  for  Chinese  wine  and  spirits, 
and  the  Chinese  alw^s  speak  of  them  as  a  drunken 
race"  (op.  cit.,  19).  The  Mongol  tent  {gheTf  or  yurt) 
is  made  of  a  trellis  of  wooden  staves  fastened  neatly  to- 
gether with  strings  of  hide,  the  whole  being  covered  with 
felt,  the  best  of  which  comes  from  Russian  Turkestan. 

The  Mongol  language  belongs  to  the  Ural-Altaic 
family,  the  Kalmuk  dialect,  though  containing  a  num- 
ber of  Turkish  words,  being  the  purer.  The  inghtir 
is  the  basis  of  the  modem  Mongol  and  Manchu  chai^ 
acters;  it  is  of  Syriac  origin,  introduced  into  East- 
em  Turkestan  by  the  early  Nestorian  missionaries. 
There  is  a  dialect  poem  in  Uightir,  the  "Kudatku 
bibk",  dating  from  a.  d.  1069,  which  was  published  in 
1870  by  Annmius  Vambery,  and  in  1891  by  W.  Radloff. 

History. — ^When  Jengmz  Khan  died  on  18  Au- 
gust, 1227,  his  dominions  were  divided  among  his  four 
sons.  Juji,  the  eldest  son,  died  before  his  father,  and 
was  replaced  by  his  own  son  Batu,  who  had  for  his 
share  the  plains  of  Kipchak,  the  lower  course  of  the 
Syr-Daria,  the  Aral  and  Caspian  Seas,  the  valleys  of 
the  Don  and  the  Volga,  ana  northward  beyond  the 
Ural  lUv^  Chagatai  had  the  Kingdom  of  Mdvard-un- 
Nahr,  or  Transoxiana,  and  also  what  is  now  Chinese 
Turkestan,  Ferghdna,  Badakhshan,  etc.,  and  his  capi- 
tal was  Almalik;  Okkodai,  the  third  son,  had  the  Mon- 
gol  country  with  the  capital.  Kardkorum;  lastly,  Tu-li 
ad  the  territory  between  tne  Kardkorum  mountains 
and  the  sources  of  the  Onon  River.  Kar^omm 
(A:ara,  black;  A^uren,  a  camp),  was  called  by  the  Chi- 
nese Ho-lin  and  was  chosen  tor  his  capital  by  Jenghiz 
Khan  in  1206.  Its  full  name,  Ha-la  Ho-lin.  was  taken 
from  a  river  to  the  west.  In  the  spring  or  1235,  Ok- 
kodai had  a  wall  built  round  Ho-lin.  After  the  death 
of  Kdbldi,  Ho-lin  was  altered  to  Ho-Ning,  and  in  1320 
the  name  of  the  province  was  changed  into  Lingpe 
("mountainous  North",  i.  e.,  the  Ying-shan  chain, 
separating  China  Proper  from  Mongolia).  Recent 
researches  have  fully  confirmed  the  oelief  that  the 
Erdeni  Tso,  or  Erdeni  Chao,  monastery,  founded  in 
1586,  occupies  the  site  of  Kar^orum,  near  the  bank 
X.— 31 


of  the  Orkhon,  between  this  river  and  the  Kokchin 
(old)  Orkhon.  In  1256,  Mangku  Khan  decided  to  trans- 
fer the  seat  of  govemmei^t  to  Kaiping  f  Uj  or  Shang-tu, 
near  the  present  Dolon  nor^  north  of  Peking.  In  1260. 
KdblAi  transferred  his  capital  to  Ta-tu  (Peking),  and 
it  was  called  Khan-baligh.  The  second  Supreme 
Khan  was  Okkodai  (1229-41),  replaced  by  his  son 
Kuyuk  (third  Great  Khan)  (1246-48),  Turakma  being 
regent  (1241-46);  Ogulgalmish  was  regent  (1248-61). 
The  title  was  then  transferred  to  the  Tu-li  branch  of 
Jenghiz  family,  and  the  fourth  great  Khan  was 
Mangku,  who  was  killed  at  the  mege  of  Ho-chou  in 
Sze-ch'uan  (1251-57). 

Ktibl^,  brother  of  Mangku,  who  succeeded  him  in 
1260,  was  the  fifth  great  Khan  and  the  first  real  Em- 
peror of  China  of  the  Yuan  Dynasty  (1280).  His  an- 
cestors have  the  following  dynastic  titles  or  miao  hao: 
T'ai  Tsu  (Jenghiz),  T^i  Tsung  (Okkodai),  Ting 
Tsung  (Kuyuk),  Hien  Tsung  (Mangku).  Ktibl£ 
himself  has  the  miao  hao  of  She  Tsu  and  the  two 
reign-titles  (nien  hao)  of  Chung  T'ung  (1260)  and  Che 
Yuan  (1264).  The  list  of  his  successors  according  to 
their  miao  hao,  with  nien  hao  in  parentheses,  is  as  fol- 
lows: Ch'6ng  Tsung,  1295  (Yuan  Ch6ng,  1295;  Ta 
Teh,  1297);  Wu  Tsung,  1308  (Che  Ta,  1308);  J6n 
Tsung,  1312  (Hwang  K'ing,  1312;  Yen  Yew,  1314); 
Ying  Tsung,  1321  (Che  Che,  1321);  Tai  Ting  Ti,  1324; 
(Tai  Ting,  1324;  Che  Ho,  1328);  Ming  Tsung,  1329 
[T'ien  Li,  1329);  Wen  Ti,  1330  (T'ien  li,  1330,  Che 
Shun,  1330);  Shim  Ti,  1333  (Yuan  Tung,  1333;  Che 
Yuan,  1335:  Che  Chdng,  1341).  The  misconduct  and 
weakness  of  the  emperors  led  a  Chinese  priest,  Chu 
Yuan-chang,  to  raise  the  standard  of  rebellion  and  ex- 
pel the  Mongols,  in  1368.  This  priest  ascended  the 
throne  under  the  title  of  Hung  Wu,  and  established 
his  dvnasty,  the  Ming,  at  Nan-king.  Of  the  Court  of 
Kt&bmi  Khan  the  Venetian  traveller  Marco  Polo  has 
left  us  a  glorious  accoimt.  China  was  then  divided  into 
twelve  8heng,  or  provinces:  Cheng  Timg,  Liao  Yang, 
Chung  Shu,  Shen-si,  Ling  Pe  (Kar^orum),  Kan  Su, 
Sze-ch'wan,  Ho-nan  Kiang-Pe,  Kiang-che,  Kiang-si, 
Hu-Kwang  and  Yun-Nan. 

The  vounger  brother  of  KtibUi,  Hulaku,  captured 
Basdad,  on  5  Feb.,  1258;  and  the  Khalif  Mostisim 
Billah,  the  last  of  the  Abbasid  sovereigns,  surrendered 
to  the  Mongol  chief  on  10  Fdbruary.  Hulaku  was 
thus  the  founder  of  the  d^oiasty  of  Ilkhans  of  Iran, 
which  included  the  followmg  princes:  Hulaku,  until 
1265;  Abaka  (1265-81);  Nikudar  Ahmed  (1281-84); 
Arghdn  (1284-91);  Gaikhatu  (1291-95);  Baldu 
(1295):  Ghazan  Mahmud  (1295-1304);  Ghiyas  ed- 
din  Oljaitu  Khudabendeh  Mohammed  (1304-16); 
Abusald  Bahadur  (1316-35) ;  Moizz  ed-dunia  we'd-dm 
Arpa  (1335-36);  Musa  (1336);  Mohammed  (1336- 
38);  Togha  Timur  (1338-39);  Izz  ed-din  Djehan- 
Timur  (1339);  Satibeg  (1339);  Suleiman  (1339-44): 
Adil  Anushirwan  (1344-53).  After  the  death  ot 
Abusaid  all  these  princes  were  but  nominal  sovereif^, 
overruled  by  five  small  dynasties:  (1)  Ilkhanian- 
Jelalrid,  at  Bagdad  (1336-1432):  (2)  Beni  Kurt,  m 
Khorasan  and  Herat  (1248-1383);  (3)  Modhaffenan, 
in  Irak,  Pars,  and  Kerman  (1335-92);  (4)  Serbeda- 
rian,  in  Khorasan  (1335-81);  (5)  Jubanian,  in  Azer- 
bwQJ  an  (1337-55) .  They  were  all  destroved  by  Timur 
or  his  successors.  Among  the  first  Bkhans.  Arght&n 
and  Oljaitu  had  relations  with  the  kings  ot  France: 
two  letters  are  preserved  in  the  French  Archives,  one 
from  Arghtin  Knan  (1289),  brought  by  Buscarel,  and 
the  other  from  his  son  Oljaitu  (May,  1305)  to  Philip 
the  Fair.  These  letters  are  both  in  the  Moneol  lan- 
guage, and,  according  to  Abel  R^musat  ana  other 
authorities,  in  the  Uigntir  character,  the  parent  of  the 
present  Mongol  writing;  facsimiles  of  them  are  given 
m  Prince  Roland  Bonaparte's  "  Recueil  des  documents 
de  I'^poaue  mongole".  Under  this  djmasty,  in  1318, 
Pope  Jonn  XXfl  had  created  an  archbishopric  at 
Sulthanyeh,  of  which  Franco  of  Perugia,  William 


MONICA  482  MONICA 

Adam  (1  June,  1323),  John  of  Cora  (1320).  and  others  prefecture  K'u-luan.  The  residence  is  at  Eul  she  sie 

were  the  incumbents,  down  to  Thomas  ae  Abaraner  k'ingti.  Vicar  Apostolic  Alphonsu8Bermyn(b.  2  Aug., 

(19  Dec.,  1425).  1853)  was  consecrated  15  April,  1901,  titular  Bishop 

Chagatai  died  in  1241,  and  was  replaced  by  his  of  Stratonicea.    He  replaced  Alphonse  de  Voe,  titular 

grandson  Kara  Hulaku.    About  1321^  under  Kabak,  Bishop  of  Abdera,  d.  21  Julv,  1888,  and  Ferdinand 

the  realm  of  Chagatai  was  divided  mto  two  parts;  Hamer,  who  was  transferred  from  Kan-su,  30  August, 

M£vaj:d-un-Nalir,  or  Transoxiana,  and  Moghuustan,  1888,  and  martyred  August,  1900.    There  are  45  Eu- 

or  Jatah.    About  fifteen  khans  ruled  Tnmsoxiana,  ropean  and  1  native  priests;   13.896  Christians;   30 

while  confusion  and  discord  were  prevalent,  until  the  churches.     Thb  vicariate  is  the  Ordos  country, 

great  Timur  conquered  the  land  and  restored  order  in  ^  Bbrnh.  JfjLo  has  jranalatod  Mongolian  legend*  M»dt^    into 

r370(A  H.771)    ^fi«tnJerofM«>diuUflt«i(mi)  gTflS.SrKS'irSS.^t^^t'^^S^L^i^^i^ 

was  Isan   Bugha  Kh&n;     after  the  death  of  Sultan  under  the  title.  OeachichU  der  Oti  MongoUn  und  ihret  PikrtUn^ 

Ahmed  Khan  (1504)  a  state  of  anarchy  prevailed  in  *««*•"  (St.  Peteraburg,  1829).   The  latter  author  ha«  also  pub- 

Ahmed,  established  his  authont^  at  Aksu,  Turf  an,  etc.,  1835).    J.  £.  KoYALBvaKX.  DieUonnaim  mona<a-TuaBe-fran(ai»  (3 

and  created  the  Khanate  of  Uighuristdn,  while  the  v©^.  quarto,  Kasan.  1844-49).   Other  Mongolian  scholars  worthy 

mrMz  in  the  rteppes  having  elected  ih^  formed  ^^:^^A^':'' ^^SSi^^  S^^^'SL^^ 

the  Confederation  of  Kazdk-Uzb^.  and  Sultan  Said  china  (1904),  no.  l;  Kiomov.Joumeu  in  Mongolia  in  China  (1904), 

Khan,  third  son  of  Ahmed,  established  a  khanate  in  «»•  8— both  parliamentajy  p^wrs;  Cobdxsb,  Bihliothaoa  Sinioa, 

Kadigar  and  the  western  provinces  (see  Turkestan).  **»p**'  Mongoiui,  tt„^,  n^^r^^r. 

From  Juji,  the  eldest  son  of  Jenghiz  Khan,  descended  ^^^™  ^^RDIer. 

the  following  dsmasties  of  khans:  (1)  Kipchak,  1224-        Monica,  Saint,  widow;  bom  of  Christian  parents 

1502;  (2)  Astrakhan,  1466-1554;  (3)  Great  Bulgaria,  at  Tagaste,  N.  Afnca,  in  333;  died  at  Ostia,  near  Rome, 

1224^1438;    (4)   Kazan,    1438-1552;    (5)   Kaamof,  m  387.    We  are  told  but  little  of  her  chUdhood.    She 

1450-1681 ;  (6)  Crimea,  1420-1783;  (7)  Nogals,  1224-  was  married  early  in  life  to  Patritius  who  held  an  offi- 

1301;  (8)  Kazdk-Uzbegs,  1427-1830;   ^9)  Turan  and  cial  position  in  Tagaste.    He  was  a  pagan,  though  like 

Tiumen,  1225-1659;    (10)  Tiumen  and  Sibir,  1301-  so  many  at  that  period,  his  religion  was  no  more  than 

1588;    (11)  Kharezen,  1515-1805;   (12)  M^var&-un-  aname;his  temper  was  violent  and  he  appears  to  have 

Nahr,  1500-1796.  been  of  dissolute  habits.    ConsequenUy   Monica's 

Catholic  Missions. — In  1838,  the  Vicariate  Apos-  married  life  was  far  from  being  a  happy  one,  more  es- 

tolic  of  liao-tung  was  detached  from  the  Diocese  of  pecially  as  Patritius's  mother  seems  to  have  been  of  a 

Peking.    It  included  both  Manchuria  and  Mongolia.  like  disposition  with  himself.    There  was  of  course  a 

Emmanuel-Jean-Frangois-Verrolles,  of  the  Paris  Alis-  gulf  between  husband  and  wife;  her  almsdeeds  and 

sions  Etrang^res.  was  the  first  vicar  Apostolic.    Five  her  habits  of  prayer  annoyed  him,  but  it  is  said  that 

years  later  (28  August,  1840)  the  new  vicariate  was  he  always  held  her  in  a  sort  of  reverence.     Monica 

divided  into  three  vicariates  Apostolic:  (1)  Liao-tung  was  not  the  only  matron  of  Tagaste  whose  married 

and  Mandiuria;   (2)  Mongolia;   (3)  Kan  su.    Mon-  life  was  unhappy,  but,  by  her  sweetness  and  patience, 

?;olia  had  been  a  dependence  of  the  Diocese  of  Peking  she  was  able  to  exercise  a  veritable  apostolate  amongst 
rom  1690  to  1838,  and  after  1783  had  been  adminis-  the  wives  and  mothers  of  her  native  town;  thev  knew 
tered  by  the  Lazarists;  the  Paris  Missions  EtrangSres  that  she  suffered  as  they  did,  and  her  words  and  exam- 
kept  it  only  two  yearS;  and  when  it  was  made  a  sep-  pie  had  a  proportionate  effect, 
arate  vicanate  Apostohc  (28  August,  1840)  at  the  head  Three  cniloren  were  bom  of  this  marriage,  Angus- 
of  it  was  placed  Joseph  Martial  Moulv^  titular  Bishop  tine  the  eldest,  Navigius  the  second,  and  a  daughter, 
of  Fussola,  who,  on  his  transfer  to  P^mg  (1857).  was  Perpetua.  Monica  had  been  unable  to  secure  bi4>- 
replaced  by  Florent  Daguin,  titular  Bishop  of  Troas,  tism  for  her  children,  and  her  gri^  was  great  when 
who  died  9  May^  1859.  Francis  Tagliabue  was  then  Augustine  fell  ill;  in  ner  distress  she  besought  Patri- 
appointed  pro-vicar  and  superior  of  the  mission.  On  tins  to  allow  him  to  be  baptized;  he  agreed,  but  on 
7  Sept.,  1864,  the  Lazarists  surrendered  Mon^lia  to  the  bo3r's  recovery  withdrew  his  consent.  All  Moni- 
the  Belgian  missionaries,  and  Theophilus  Verbiest  (b.  ca's  anxietjr  now  centred  in  AuKustine;  he  was  way- 
at  Antwerp  in  1823)  was  the  first  superior  and  Pro-  ward  and,  as  he  himself  tells  us,  lazy.  He  was  sent  to 
vicar  Apostolic;  he  died  23  Feb.,  1868,  and  was  sue-  Madaura  to  school  and  Monica  seems  to  have  lit^^y 
ceeded  as  pro-vicar  by  Edward  Smorembourg.  Jao-  wrestled  with  God  for  the  soul  of  her  son.  A  great 
ques  Bax  (b.  1824)  was  appointed  vicar  Apostolic  22  consolation  was  vouchsafed  her — in  compensation 
Oct.,  1874,  was  consecrated  titular  Bishop  of  Adran,  perhaps  for  all  she  was  to  experience  through  Au- 
6  Jan.,  1875,  and  died  4  Jan..  1895.  at  Si-wan-tze.  gustine — Patritius  became  a  Christian.  Meanwhile, 
On  21  Dec.^  1883,  Leo  XIII  oividea  Mongolia  into  Augustine  had  been  sent  to  Carthage,  to  prosecute  his 
three  vicanates  Apostolic,  Eastern,  Central,  and  studies,  and  here  he  fell  into  grievous  sin.  Patritius 
Western  and  Southern  Mongolia,  all  in  the  hands  of  died  very  shortlv  after  his  reception  into  the  Church 
the  Belgian  Missionaries  (Con^r.  Imm.  Cordis  B.  M.  and  Monica  resolved  not  to  marry  again.  AtCartha(|e 
V.  de  Scheutveld).  The  first  Vicar  Apostolic  of  East-  Augustine  had  become  a  Manichean  and  when  on  his 
em  Mongolia  was  Conrad  Abels,  b.  at  Weest,  Um-  return  home  he  ventilated  certain  heretical  proposi- 
burg,  Holland,  31  Jan.,  1856,  consecrated  titular  tions  she  drove  him  away  from  her  table,  but  a 
Bishop  of  Lai^nia,  31  Oct.,  1897:  residence  at  Sung  strange  vision  which  she  had  urged  her  to  recall  him. 
shu  tsuei  tze  (Notre  Dame  des  Pins).  He  was  sue-  It  was  at  this  time  that  she  went  to  see  a  certain  holy 
ceeded  by  ThcKxiore  Hermann  Rutjes,  titular  Bishop  bishop,  whose  name  is  not  given,  but  who  consoled 
of  Eleuteropolis,  who  died  4  August,  1896.  There  are  her  with  the  now  famous  words,  "the  child  of  those 
in  Eastem  Mongolia  39  European  and  12  native  tears  shall  never  perish".  There  is  no  more  pathetic 
priests;  19,864  Christians;  18  churches.  (2)  Central  stoiy  in  the  annals  of  the  Saints  than  that  of  Monica 
Mongolia,  after  the  partition,  in  1883,  remained  under  pursuing  her  wayward  son  to  Rome,  whither  he  had 
Mgr  Bax,  who  was  succeeded  as  vicar  Apostolic  by  gone  by  stealth;  when  she  arrived  he  nad  already  cone 
Jerome  Van  Aertselaer  (b.  1  Nov.,  1845),  consecrated  to  Milan,  but  she  followed  him.  Here  she  found  St. 
titular  Bi^op  of  Zarai,  24  July,  1898,  with  residence  Ambrose  and  through  him  she  ultimately  had  the  joy 
at  Siwan  tze.    There  are  46  European  and  23  native  of  seeing  Augustine  yield,  after  seventeen  years  of  re- 

griests;  25,775  Christians;  37  churches.  (3)  Westem-  sistance.    Mother  and  son  s]3ent  six  months  of  true 

outhem  Mongolia. — To  the  vicariate  created  in  1883  peace  at  Cassiacum,  after  which  time  Augustine  was 

were  added  by  decree  of  12  Oct.^  1886,  the  Prefecture  baptized  in  the  church  of  St.  John  the  Baptist  at 

of  Ning  hia  f rQm  tb^  Kan-9U  vipariat^  and  tb^  Sub-  Mufm^t    Af ripfk  olf^m^  tbem  bQw^ver,  and  tbey  set 


483 


oat  on  their  journey,  stopping  at  Civitji  Vecchia  and 
at  Ostia.  Here  death  overtook  Monica  and  the  finest 
pages  in  his  "Confessions''  were  penned  as  the  result 
of  the  emotion  Augustine  then  experienced. 

St.  Monica  was  buried  at  Ostia,  and  at  first  seems 
to  have  been  ahnost  forgotten,  though  her  body  was 
removed  during  the  sixth  century  to  a  hidden  crypt 
in  the  church  of  St.  Aureus.  About  the  thirteenth 
century,  however,  the  cult  of  St.  Monica  began  to 
spread  and  a  feast  in  her  honour  was  kept  on  4  May. 
In  1430  Martin  V  ordered  the  relics  to  be  brought  to 
Rome.  Many  miracles  occurred  on  the  way,  and  the 
cultus  of  St.  Monica  was  definitely  established.  Later, 
the  Archbishop  of  Rouen,  Cardinal  d'Estouteville, 
built  a  church  at  Rome  in  honour  of  St.  Augustine  and 
deposited  the  relics  of  St.  Monica  in  a  chapel  to  the 
left  of  the  high  altar.  The  Office  of  St.  Monica  how- 
ever does  not  seem  to  have  found  a  place  in  the  Ro- 
man Breviary  before  the  sixteenth  century.  In  1850 
there  was  established  at  Notre  Dame  de  Sion  at  Paris 
an  Association  of  Christian  mothers  under  the  patron- 
age of  St.  Monica;  its  object  was  mutual  prayer  for 
sons  and  husbands  who  had  gone  astray.  This  Asso- 
ciation was  in  1856  raised  to  the  rank  of  an  archcon- 
fratemity  and  spread  rapidly  over  all  the  Catholic 
world,  branches  being  established  in  Dublin,  London. 
Liverpool.  Sidney,  and  Buenos  Ayres.  Eugenius  IV 
had  estiddlished  a  similar  Confraternity  long  before. 

St.  AuauBTiNE.  ConfeasiofUt  IX.  reprinted  m  Svrius.  Qua.]> 
TBBUS,  Canon  Reffiilar  of  Ostia.  who  waa  especially  oharoed  with 
(he  work  of  removing  the  relics  from  Ostia  by  Martin  V,  wrote 
a  life  of  the  saint  with  an  account  of  the  translation.  He  appended 
to  the  life  a  tetter  which  used  to  be  attributed  to  St.  Augustine 
but  which  is  iindoubtedly  spurious;  it  purports  to  be  written  to  his 
sister  Perpetua  and  describes  their  mother's  death.  The  Bollan- 
DUTS  decide  for  the  contemporary  character  of  the  letter  whilst 
denying  it  to  St.  Augustine.  Baboniub,  Ann,  Bcd.^  ad  an.  389; 
BouQAUD,  Hittoire  at  3,  Monique, 

Hugh  T.  Pope. 

MoniBin  (from  the  Greek  fi^Mf,  ''one",  "alone", 
"unique")  is  a  philosophical  term  which,  in  its  various 
meanmgs,  is  opposed  to  Dualism  or  Pluralism. 
Wherever  pluralistic  philosophy  distinguishes  a  multi- 
plicity of  things,  Monism  demes  that  the  manifold- 
ness  is  real,  and  holds  that  the  apparently  many 
are  phases,  or  phenomena,  of  a  one.  Wherever  dual- 
istic  philosophy  distinguishes  between  body  and  soul, 
matter  and  spirit,  object  and  subject,  matter  ana 
force,  the  system  which  denies  such  a  distinction, 
reduces  one  term  of  the  antithesis  to  the  other,  or 
merges  both  in  a  higher  unity,  is  called  Monism. 

I.  In  Metaphysics. — ^The  ancient  Hindu  philos- 
ophers stated  as  a  fundamental  truth  that  the  world 
of  oiur  sense-experience  is  all  illusion  {maya),  that 
change,  plundity,  and  causation  are  not  real,  that 
there  is  but  one  reality,  Grod.  This  is  metaphysical 
Monism  of  the  idealistic-spiritual  type,  tending  to- 
wards msrsticism.  Amon^  the  earlv  Greek  philos- 
ophers, the  Eleatics,  startmg,  like  the  Hindus,  with 
tne  conviction  that  sense-knowledge  is  untrustworthy, 
and  reason  alone  reliable,  reached  the  conclusion  that 
change,  plurality,  and  origination  do  not  reallv  exist, 
that  Bein^  is  one,  inmiutai)le,  and  eternal.  They  did 
not  explicitly  identify  the  one  reality  with  God,  and 
were  not,  so  far  as  we  know,  inclined  to  m3rsticism. 
Their  Monism,  therefore,  may  be  said  to  be  of  the 

Surely  idealistic  type.  These  two  forms  of  metaphysical 
lonism  recur  freauently  in  the  history  of  philosophy; 
for  instance,  the  iaealistic-spiritual  type  in  neo-Plato- 
nism  and  in  Spinoza's  metaphysics,  and  the  purelv 
idealistic  type  in  the  rational  absolutism  of  Hegel. 
B^des  idealistic  Monism  there  is  Monism  of  the  ma- 
terialistic type,  which  proclaims  that  there  is  but  one 
reality,  namely,  matter^  whether  matter  be  an  agglom- 
erate of  atoms,  a  prinutive,  world-forming  substance 
(see  Ionian  School  of  Philosophy),  or  the  so-called 
cosmic  nebula  out  of  which  the  world  evolved.  There 
is  another  form  of  metaphvsical  Monism,  represented 
in  these  days  by  Haeckel  and  his  followers,  which, 


though  materialistic  in  its  scope  and  tendenc^i  pro- 
fesses to  transcend  the  point  of  view  of  materialistic 
Monism  and  unite  both  matter  and  mind  in  a  higjier 
something.  The  weak  point  of  all  metaphysical 
Monism  is  its  inability  to  explain  how,  if  there  is  but 
one  reality,  and  everything  else  is  only  apparent, 
there  can  be  any  real  chances  in  the  world,  or  real 
relations  among  things.  Tnis  difficulty  is  inet  in 
dualistic  svstems  of  philosophy  by  the  doctrine  of 
matter  and  form,  or  potency  and  actuality^  which  are 
the  ultimate  reiEdities  in  the  metaphvsical  order. 
Pluralism  rejects  the  solution  offered  by  scholastic 
dualism  and  strives,  with  but  little  success,  to  oppose 
to  Monism  its  own  theory  of  synechism  or  panpsy- 
chism  (see  Pragmatism).  The  chief  objection  to 
materialistic  Monism  is  that  it  stops  short  of  the  point 
where  the  real  problem  of  metaphysics  begins. 

II.  In  Theology. — ^The  term  Monism  is  not 
much  used  in  theology  because  of  the  confusion  to 
which  its  use  would  lead.  Polvtheism,  the  doctrine 
that  there  are  msny  Ckxls,  has  for  its  opposite 
Monotheism,  the  doctrine  that  there  is  but  one  C^od. 
If  the  term  Monism  is  employed  in  place  of  MonO' 
theism^  it  may.  of  course,  mean  Theism,  which  is  a 
monotheistic  aoctrine,  or  it  may  mean  Pantheism, 
which  is  opposed  to  theism.  In  this  sense  of  the 
term,  as  a  synonym  for  Pantheism,  Monism  main- 
tains that  there  is  no  real  distinction  between  God 
and  the  universe.  Either  God  is  indwelling  in  the 
universe  as  a  part  of  it,  not  distinct  from  it  (pantheis- 
tic Immanentism),  or  the  universe  does  not  exist  at 
all  as  a  reality  (Acosmism).  but  only  as  a  manifesta- 
tion or  phenomenon  of  God.  These  views  are  vigor- 
ously combated  by  Theism,  not  only  on  considerations 
of  logic  and  philosophy,  but  also  on  considerations 
of  human  life  and  conduct.  For  the  ethical  implica- 
tions of  pantheism  are  as  detrimental  to  it  as  its 
shortcomings  from  the  point  of  view  of  consistencv  and 
reasonableness.  Theism  does  not  deny  that  God  is 
indwelling  in  the  universe;  but  it  does  deny  that  He 
is  comprised  in  the  universe.  Theism  does  not  deny 
that  the  universe  is  a  manifestation  of  Gkxi ;  but  it  does 
deny  that  the  universe  has  no  reality  of  its  own.  Theism 
is,  therefore,  dualistic:  it  holds  that  God  is  a  reality 
distinct  from  the  universe  and  independent  of  it,  and 
that  the  universe  is  a  reality  distinct  from  Gkxi, 
though  not  independent  of  Him.  From  another  point 
of  view,  theism  is  monistic;  it  maintains  that  there 
is  but  One  Supreme  Reality  and  that  all  other  reality 
is  derived  from  Him.  Monism  is  not  then  an  ade- 
quate equivalent  of  the  term  Theism, 

III.  In  Psychology. — ^The  central  problem  of 
rational  psychology  is  the  question  of  tne  relation 
between  soul  and  body.  Scholastic  dualism,  following 
Aristotle,  maintains  that  man  is  one  substance,  com- 
posed of  body  and  soul,  which  are  respectively  matter 
and  form.  The  soul  is  the  principle  of  life,  energy, 
and  perfection;  the  body  is  the  principle  of  decay, 
potentiality,  and  imperfection.  These  two  are  not 
complete  substances:  their  imion  is  not  accidental, 
as  Plato  thought,  but  substantial.  They  are,  of 
course,  realty  cfistinct,  and  even  separable;  yet  they 
act  on  each  other  and  react.  The  soul,  even  in  its 
highest  functions,  needs  the  co-operation,  at  least 
extrinsic,  of  the  body,  snd  the  bodv  in  all  its  vital 
functions  is  energized  by  the  soul  as  the  radical 
principle  of  those  functions.  They  are  not  so  much 
two  in  one  as  two  forming  one  compound.  In  popular 
imadnation  this  dualinn  may  be  exa^erated;  in  the 
mind  of  the  extreme  ascetic  it  sometimes  is  exagger- 
ated to  the  point  of  placing  a  too  sharp  contrastbe- 
tween  "the  flesh"  and  "the  spirit",  "the  beast"  and 
"  the  angel ",  in  us. 

Psvchological  Monism  tends  to  obliterate  all  distinc- 
tion between  body  and  soul.  This  it  does  in  one  of  three 
ways.  (A)  Monism  of  the  materialistic  type  reduces 
the  soul  to  matter  or  material  conditions,  and  thus,  in 


MONISM                              484  MONISM 

effect,  denies  that  there  is  any  distinction  between  the  body  and  soul  in  man  are  but  one  instance  of  a 

soul  and  body.    The  Stoics  described  the  soul  as  a  parellelism   which  prevails   evervwhere  in   nature. 

Eart  of  the  material  world-substance:  the  Epicureans  rauLsen  C'Introd.  to  Phil.",  tr.  Thilly,  STsqa.)  holds 
eld  that  it  is  a  compound  of  material  atoms;  modem  that  -'two  propositions  are  contained  in  the  uieory  of 
Materialism  knows  no  substantial  soul  except  the  parsJleUsm:  (I)  Physical  processes  are  never  effects  of 
nervous  system;  Cabanis,  for  instance,  proclaims  his  psvchical  processes;  (2)  Psychical  processes  are  never 
materialiffln  in  the  well-known  crude  formula:  "The  etfects  of  physical  processes."  He  adopts  Fechner's 
brain  dieests  impressions,  and  organically  secretes  panpsychism,  maintaining  that  "everything  coiporeal 
thought.  Psychological  materialism,  as  metaphysi-  points  to  something  else,  an  inner,  intelligible  ele- 
cal  materialism,  closes  its  eyes  to  those  phenomena  ment,  a  beinp  for  itself,  which  is  akin  to  what  we 
of  the  soul  which  it  cannot  explain,  or  even  denies  that  experience  within  ourselves".  £k>th  the  corporeal 
such  phenomena  exist.  (B)  Monism  of  the  idealistic  and  the  "inner"  are  parts  of  the  imiversal  system, 
type  takes  an  entirely  opposite  course.  It  reduces  the  which  is  the  bodjr  of  God,  and,  though  they  do  not 
body  to  mind  or  mental  conditions.  Some  of  the  interact,  thev  act  in  such  a  way  that  harmony  results. 
neo-Platonists  held  that  all  matter  is  non-existent,  Herbert  Spencer  uses  the  word  pardUdism  in  a 
that  our  body  is,  therefore,  an  error  on  the  part  of  slightly  different  sense:  the  separate  impressions  of 
our  minds,  and  that  the  soul  alone  is  the  personality,  the  senses  and  the  stream  of  inner  conscious  states 
John  Scotus  Eriugena,  influenced  by  the  neo-  must  be  adjusted  by  the  activity  of  the  mind,  if  Uie 
Platonists,  held  the  body  to  be  a  resultant  from  two  series  are  to  be  of  any  use  to  the  developing  or 
incorporeal  qualities  which  the  soul,  by  thinking  them  evolving  animal  or  man;  that  is,  there  must  be  a 
and  ssmthesizing  them,  creates  into  a  body  for  itself,  parallelism  between  a  certain  physical  evolution  and 
In  modem  times,  Berkeley  included  the  human  body  the  correlative  psychical  evolution"  (Principles  of 
inhisgeneraldenialof  the  reality  of  matter,  and  main-  Psych.,  n.  179),  while  both  mind  and  matter  are 
tained  that  there  are  no  substances  except  the  soul  mere  "symbols  of  some  form  of  Power  absolutely 
and  God.  The  grounds  for  this  beUef  are  epistemo-  and  forever  unknown  to  us"  (op.  cit.,  n.  63).  This 
logical.  Psychological  Monism  runs  counter  to  com-  idea  finds  favour  among  the  evolutionists  generally, 
mon  sense  and  experience.  Historically,  it  is  a  reaction  and  has  one  distinct  advantage:  it  obviates  uie  neoes- 
against  materialism.  To  refute  materialism  it  is  not  sity  of  explaining  many  phenomena  of  mind  which 
necessary  to  deny  that  the  body  is  a  reality.  The  im-  could  not  oe  accounted  for  by  the  principles  of  mate- 
reflecting  dualism  of  common  sense  and  the  scientific  rialistic  evolution.  Thus,  imder  the  name  "double- 
dualism  which  the  Scholastics  built  on  the  facts  of  ex-  aspect  theory  "  it  is  adopted  by  Clifford,  Bain,  Lewes, 
Eerience  steer  a  safe  and  consistent  course  between  the  and  Huxley.  Among  empirical  psychologists  parallel- 
asty  generalization  of  the  Materialist,  who  sees  noth-  ism  has  been  f oimd  satisfactory  as  a  "  working  nypoth- 
ing  but  body,  and  the  bold  paradox  of  tne  IdeaJist,  who  esis " .  Experience,  it  is  maintained,  tells  us  nothing 
recognizes  no  reality  except  mind.  of  a  substantial  soul  that  acts  on  the  body  and  is  acted 
(C)  A  third  kind  of  psychological  Monism  goes  upon.  It  does  tell  us^  however,  that  psychical  states 
by  the  name  of  psychophysicsl  parallelism.  It  are  apparently  conditioned  by  bodily  states,  and  that 
maintains  two  principles,  the  one  negative  and  the  states  of  body  apparently  influence  states  of  mind.  For 
other  affirmative.  First,  it  denies  catesoricdly  that  the  purposes  of^science,  conclude  the  empiricists,  it  is 
there  is,  or  can  be,  any  oirect  causal  influence  of  the  enough  to  maintain  as  an  empirical  formula  that  the 
soul  on  the  body  or  of  the  body  on  the  soul:  our  two  streams  of  activity  are,  so  to  speak,  parallel. 
thoughts  cannot  produce  the  movements  of  our  though  never  confluent.  There  is  no  need  to  grouna 
muscles,  neither  can  the  action  of  light  on  the  retina  the  formula  on  any  universal  metaphysical  theory, 
produce  in  us  the  "thought"  of  a  colour.  Secondlv,  such  as  the  pan-psychism  of  Fechner  and  Paulsen.  It 
it  affirms  in  some  shape  or  form  that  both  the  body  is  enough  that,  as  Wimdt  points  out.  the  facts  of  ez- 
and  the  soul  are  phases  of  something  else,  that  this  perience  establish  a  correspondence  between  physical 
something  evolves  its  activities  along  two  parallel  and  psychical,  while  the  aissimilarit^r  of  the  physical 
lines,  the  physical  and  the  psychicsl,  so  that  the  and  the  psychical  precludes  the  possibility  of  one  oeing 
thought,  for  instance,  of  moving  my  hand  is  sjmchro-  the  cause  of  the  other.  To  all  these  psu^elistic  ex- 
nous  with  the  motion  of  my  hand,  without  one  in  planations  of  the  relations  between  soul  and  body  the 
any  way  influencing  the  other.  This  is  the  doctrine  Scholastic  dualists  take  exception.  First,  the  scho- 
of  Occasionalists  who,  like  Malebranche,  (q.  v.),  lastics  call  attention  to  the  verdict  of  experience.  Up 
maintain  that  the  union  of  the  soul  and  body  "con-  to  a  certain  point,  the  facts  of  experience  are  capable 
sists  in  a  mutual  and  natural  corresi)ondence  of  the  of  a  parallelistic,  as  well  as  of  a  dualistic,  explanation. 
thoughts  of  the  soul  with  the  processes  of  the  brain,  But  when  we  come  to  consider  the  unity  of  conscious- 
and  of  the  emotions  of  the  soul  with  the  movements  ness,  which  is  a  fact  of  experience,  we  find  that  the 
of  the  animal  spirits"  (Rech.  de  la  V6rit6,  II,  v).  theory  of  parallelism  breaks  down,  and  the  only  ex- 
It  is  the  doctrine  of  Spinoza,  whose  metaphysical  planation  that  holds  is  that  of  dualists,  who  maintain 
Monism  compelled  him  to  hold  that  body  ana  soul  the  substantiality  of  the  soul.  Secondly,  if  the 
are  merely  aspects  of  the  one  substance,  God,  under  parallelistic  theory  be  true,  what,  ask  the  Scholastic 
the  attributes  extension  and  thought,  but  that  they  dualists^  becomes  of  the  freedom  of  the  will  and  moral 
unfold  their  modes  of  activity  in  a  manner  preor-  responsibility?  If  our  mental  and  bodily  states  are 
dained  'to  correspondence  (Eth.,  II,  ii,  schoL).  not  to  be  referred  to  an  immediate  personal  subject. 
Leibniz  meets  the  difficulty  in  his  own  characteristic  but  are  considered  phases  or  ajn)ects  of  a  univenai 
way  by  teaching  that  all  monads  are  partly  material  substance,  a  cosmic  soul,  mina-stuff,  or  unknown 
and  partly  immaterial,  and  that  among  all  monads  "form  of  Power",  it  is  not  easy  to  see  in  what  sense 
and  their  activities  there  exists  a  pre-established  the  will  can  be  free,  and  man  be  held  responsible  for 
harmony  (see  Leibniz;  Monad).    In  the  so-called  his  mental  or  bodily  acts. 

Identit&taphUoaophie  of  some  German  Transcenden-  In  a  minor  sense  the  word  Tnanimn  is  sometimes 

talists,  such  as  Schelling,  reality  is  mind  in  so  far  as  it  used  in  psychology  to  designate  the  doctrine  that 

is  active,  and  matter  in  so  far  as  it  is  passive;  mind  there  is  no  real  distinction  between  the  soul  and  its 

and  matter  are,  therefore,  two  harmonious,  but  in-  faculties.    Psychological  dualism  holds  that  soul  and 


dependent,  series  of  phases  of  reality.    Fechner's    body  are  distinct,  though  incomplete,  substances, 
view  is  similar:  he  holds  that  the  reality  pervading    But  how  about  the  soul  itself?    Plato's  doctrine  tbat 


485 


MONISM 


md  bequeathed  to  the  Schoohnen  the  i)roblem 
whether  these  faculties  are  really,  or  only  notionally, 
distmct  from  the  soul  itself.  Those  who  favour  the 
real  distinctiozi  are  sometimes  called  pluralists  in 
p^chology^  and  their  opponents,  who  say  that  the 
distinction  is  nominal  or,  at  most,  notional,  are  some- 
times called  psychological  Momsts.  The  question 
is  decided  by  mferences  from  the  facts  of  conscious- 
ness. Those  who  hold  real  distinction  of  function 
argue  that  this  is  sufficient  ground  for  a  real  distinction 
of  faculties. 

IV.  In  Epistbmologt,  as  in  psychology,  Mon- 
ism is  used  in  various  senses  to  signifv,  in  a  general 
way,  the  antithesis  of  dualism.  The  Dualist  in 
epistemology  agrees  with  the  ordinary  observer,  who 
cbstuoguishes  both  in  theory  and  in  practice  between 
*'  things "  and  **  thoughts  ",  Common  sense,  or  unre- 
flecting consciousness,  takes  things  generally  to  be 
what  they  seem.  It  acts  on  the  conviction  that  the 
internal  world  of  our  thoughts  corresponds  with  the 
external  world  of  reality.  The  philosophical  dualist 
questions  the  extent  and  accuracy  of  that  correspond- 
ence; he  learns  from  psycholo^  that  many  instances 
of  so-called  immediate  perception  have  in  them  a  large 
share  of  interpretation^  and  are,  in  so  far,  referable  to 
the  activity  of  the  mind.  Nevertheless,  he  sees  no 
reason  to  quarrel  with  the  general  verdict  of  common 
sense  that  there  is  a  worla  of  reality  outside  us,  as 
well  as  a  world  of  representation  within  us,  and  that 
the  latter  corresponds  in  a  measure  to  the  former. 
He  distinguishes,  therefore,  between  subject  and 
object,  between  self  and  not-self,  and  holds  that  the 
external  world  exists.  The  Monist  in  one  way  or 
another  eliminates  the  objective  from  the  field  of 
reality,  obliterates  the  distinction  between  self  and 
not-eelf,  and  denies  that  the  external  world  is  real. 
Sometimes  he  takes  the  cpround  of  idealism,  maintain- 
ing that  thoughts  are  things,  that  the  only  reality  is 
perception,  or  rather^  that  a  thing  is  real  o^  in  the 
sense  that  it  is  perceived,  esse  est  percipi.  He  scorn- 
fully rejects  the  view  of  naive  realism,  refers  with  con- 
tempt to  the  copy-theory  (the  view  tnat  our  thoughts 
represent  things)  and  is  rather  proud  of  the  fact  that 
he  is  in  conflict  with  common  sense.  Sometimes  he  is 
a  solipsist,  holdiiu;  that  self  alone  exists,  that  the 
existence  of  not-self  is  an  illusion,  and  that  the  belief 
in  the  existence  of  other  minds  than  our  own  is  a 
vulgar  error.  Sometimes,  finally,  he  is  an  acosmist: 
he  denies  that  the  external  worla  exists  except  in  so 
far  as  it  is  thou^t  to  exist:  or  he  affirms  that  we 
create  our  own  external  world  out  of  our  own  thoughts. 

However,  the  classical  form  of  epistemolo^cal 
Monism  at  the  present  time  is  known  as  Absolutism. 
Its  fundamental  tenet  is  metaphysical  monism  of  the 
purely  idealistic  type.  It  holds  that  both  subject 
and  object  are  merely  phases  of  an  abstract,  unlimited, 
impersonal  consciousness  called  the  Absolute;  that 
neither  things  nor  thoughts  have  any  reality  apart 
from  the  Aosolute.  It  teaches  that  the  universe 
is  a  rational  and  systematic  whole,  consisting  of  an 
intellectual  ''ground"  and  multiform  " appearances'' 
of  that  ground,  one  appearance  being  what  the  Realist 
calls  tlungs,  and  another  what  the  Resist  calls 
thoughts.  This  is  the  doctrine  of  the  Hegelians,  from 
Hegm  himself  down  to  his  latest  representatives, 
Bradley  and  McTaggart.  All  these  forms  of  episte- 
mological  Monism — ^namely,  idealism,  solipsism,  acos- 
mism,  and  absolutism — ^have,  of  course,  metaphysical 
bearings,  and  sometimes  rest  on  metaphysical  founda- 
tions. Nevertheless,  historically  spealong,  they  are 
traceable  to  a  psychological  assumption  which  is, 
and  always  will  be,  the  dividing  line  between  Dualism 
and  Monism  in  epistemology.  The  Dualists,  in 
their  analysis  of  the  act  of  knowing,  call  attention 
to  the  fact  that  in  every  process  of  perception  the 
object  is  immediately  given.  It  seems  like  emphasiz- 
ing the  obvious  to  say  so,  yet  it  is  precisely  on  this 


point  that  the  whole  Question  turns.  What  I  peroeiva 
IS  not  a  sensation  of  whiteness  but  a  white  object. 
What  I  taste  is  not  the  sensation  of  sweetness  but  a 
sweet  substance.  No  matter  how  much  the  activity 
of  the  mind  may  elaborate,  synthesize,  or  recon- 
struct the  data  of  sense-perception,  the  objective 
reference  cannot  be  the  result  of  any  such  subjective 
activity;  for  it  is  given  originally  in  consciousness. 
On  the  contrary,  the  Monist  starts  with  the  idealistic 
assumption  that  what  we  perceive  is  the  sensation. 
Whatever  objective  reference  the  sensation  has  in 
our  consciousness  is  conferred  on  it  by  the  activity  of 
the  mind.  The  objective  is,  therefore,  reducible  to 
the  subjective;  things  are  thoughts;  we  make  our 
world.  In  the  dualist's  analysis  there  is  immediate, 
presentative  contact  in  consciousness  between  the 
subject  and  the  object.  In  the  Monist's  account  of 
the  matter  there  is  a  chasm  between  subject  and 
object  which  must  be  bridged  over  somehow.  The 
problem  of  Dualism  or  Monism  in  epistemology  de- 
pends, therefore,  for  solution  on  the  question 
whether  perception  is  presentative  or  representative; 
and  the  dualist,  who  nolds  the  presentative  theory, 
seems  to  have  on  his  side  the  verdict  of  introspective 
psychology  as  well  as  the  approval  of  common  sense. 

In  recent  Pragmatist  contnbutions  to  epistemology 
there  is  presented  a  different  view  of  epistemological 
Monism  from  that  given  in  the  preceeding  paragraphs, 
and  a  solution  is  offered  which  differs  entirely  from 
that  of  traditional  dualism.  In  William  James's 
works,  for  instance,  Monism  is  described  as  that 
species  of  Absolutism  which  "thinks  that  the  all-form 
or  collective-unit  form  is  the  only  form  that  is  ra- 
tional", while  opposed  to  it  is  Pluralism,  that  is,  the 
doctrine  that "  the  each-form  is  an  eternal  form  of  real- 
ity no  less  than  it  is  the  form  of  temi)oral  appearance  " 
(A  Pluralistic  Universe,  324  sqq.).  The  multitude 
of  '^ each-forms"  constitute,  not  a  chaos,  but  a  cos- 
mos, because  they  are  "inextricably  interfused"  into 
a  system.  The  unity,  however,  which  exists  among 
the  "each-forms"  of  reality  is  not  an  int^ral  imity 
nor  an  articulate  or  organic,  much  less  a  logical, 
unity.  It  is  a  unity  "of  the  strung-along  type^  the 
type  of  continuity,  contiguity,  or  concatenation" 
(op.  cit.,  325).  Into  this  unfinished  universe,  into 
this  stream  of  successive  experiences,  the  subject 
stepe  at  a  certain  moment.  By  a  process  which  be- 
longs, not  to  logic,  but  to  life,  which  exceeds  logic, 
he  connects  up  these  experiences  into  a  concatenated 
series.  In  other  words,  he  strings  the  single  beads 
on  a  string,  not  of  thought,  but  of  the  practical  needs 
and  purposes  of  life.  Thus  the  subject  makes  his 
own  world,  and,  really,  we  are  not  any  better  off  than 
if  we  accepted  the  verdict  of  the  intellectualistio 
Idealist.  We  have  merely  put  the  practical  reason 
in  place  of  the  theoretical:  so  far  as  the  value  of 
knowledge  is  concerned  the  antithesis  between  Mon- 
ism and  Pluralism  is  more  apparent  than  real,  and  the 
latter  is  as  far  from  the  saneness  of  realistic  Dualism 
as  the  former.  It  is  true  that  the  Pluralist  admits,  in 
a  sense,  the  existence  of  the  external  world;  but  so 
also  does  the  Absolutist.  The  trouble  is  that  neither 
admits  it  in  a  sense  which  would  save  the  distinction 
between  subject  and  object.  For  the  Pluralist  as  well 
as  the  Monist  is  entangled  in  the  web  of  subjective 
Idealism  as  soon  as  he  favours  the  doctrine  that  per- 
ception is  representative,  not  presentative. 

V.  In  Cosmoloot,  the  central  question  is  the 
origin  of  the  universe.  The  early  Ionian  phil- 
osophers assigned,  as  the  cause  or  principle  O^xt 
is  the  Aristotelian  word)  of  the  universe,  a  substance 
which  is  at  once  the  material  out  of  which  the  uni- 
verse is  made  and  the  force  by  which  it  was  made. 
As  Aristotle  says,  they  failed  to  distinguish  between 
the  material  cause  and  the  efficient  cause.  They 
were,  therefore,  dynamists  and  hylozoists.  That  is, 
they  held  matter  to  be  of  its  nature  active,  and  en- 


MONISM  486  MONISM 

dowed  with  life.  Without  the  aid  of  any  extiinsio  VII.  Contemporart  Monistic  Movements  and 
force,  they  said,  the  original  substance,  by  a  process  Schools. — In  current  philosophiciJ  Uterature,  when- 
of  tluckeninf;  and  thinning,  or  by  quenching  and  ever  no  special  qualification  is  added,  Monism  gen- 
kindling,  or  in  some  other  munanent  wa^,  gave  rise  erally  means  the  modified  materidistic  monism  of 
to  the  universe  as  we  now  see  it.  This  primitive  Haeckel.  Modem  materialistic  Monism  in  Germany 
cosmothetic  Monism  gradually  gave  way  to  a  dualistic  begins  with  Feuerbach,  a  disciple  of  Hegel.  Feuerfoadn 
conception  of  the  ongin  of  the  world.  Tentatively  was  followed  by  Vogt  and  Moleschott.  To  these  suo- 
at  first,  and  then  more  decisively,  the  later  lonians  ceeded  Haeckel,  who  combines  Darwinian  evolution 
introduced  the  notion  of  a  primitive  force,  distinct  with  a  materialistic  interpretation  of  Spinoza  and 
from  matter,  which  fashioned  the  universe  out  of  the  Bruno.  Haeckel's  works,  both  in  the  original  and 
primordial  substance.  Anaxagoras  it  was,  who,  by  in  English  translations,  have  had  a  wide  circulation, 
clearly  defining  this  force  and  describing  it  as  mind  their  popularity  being  due  rather  to  the  superficial 
(yovt),  earned  the  encomium  of  being  the  ''first  of  manner  in  which  Haeckel  disposes  of  the  most  serious 
the  ancient  philosophers  who  spoke  sense".  Dual-  questions  of  metaphysics  than  to  any  intrinsic  ex- 
ism,  thus  introduced,  withstood  the  onslaughts  of  cellence  of  content  or  method.  Haeckel  is  honorary 
materialistic  Atomism  and  Epicureanism,  panthe-  president  of  the  Monistenbund  (Society  of  Monists), 
istic  Stoicism  and  emanationistic  neo-Platonism.  It  loundedat  Jena  in  1906,  for  the  purpose  of  propagating 
was  developed  by  Socrates,  Plato,  and  Aristotle,  who  the  doctrines  of  Monism.  The  society  is  openly  anti- 
brought  to  their  description  of  the  world-forming  Christian,  and  makes  active  warfare  against  the 
process  a  higher  notion  of  cosmothetic  mind  than  the  Catholic  Church.  Its  publications,  ''Der  Monist" 
pre-Socratic  philosophers  possessed.  It  was  left  (a  continuation  of  the  Freie  Glocken" — ^first  num- 
for  the  Christian  philosophers  of  Alexandria  and  their  ber,  1906),  **  Blotter  des  deutschen  Monistenbunds" 
successors,  the  Scholastics  of  medieval  times,  to  (first  number.  July,  1906),  and  various  pamphlets 
elaborate  the  doctrine  of  creation  ex  nihUoy  and  thus  (Flugblatter  aes  \lonistenbunds),  are  intended  to  be 
bring  out  more  clearly  the  r61e  played  by  the  Divine  a  campaign  against  Christian  education  and  the  union 
Power  and  Will  in  the  formation  of  the  universe,  of  Church  and  State. 

The  order,  harmony,  and  purposiveness  evident  The  group  of  writers  in  America  who,  under  the 
ever3rwhere  in  nature  are  cited  by  the  creationists  editorship  of  Dr.  Paul  Cams,  have  been  identified 
as  evidence  to  show  that  mind  must  have  presided  at  with  the  ''Monist"  (Chicago,  monthly,  first  number, 
the  origination  of  thin^.  Furthermore,  the  question  of  Jan.,  1891)  are  not,  apparently,  actuated  by  the  same 
dynamism  or  mechamsm  hinges  on  the  problem  of  the  animosity  against  Christianity.  Nevertheless,  they 
nature  of  matter.  This  phase  of  the  question  has  been  hold  Haeckers  fundamental  tenet  that  Monism  as  a 
developed  especially  in  post -Cartesian  philosophy,  system  of  philosophy  transcends  Christianity  as  a  form 
some  maintaining  that  matter  is  essentially  inert  ana  of  belief,  and  is  tne  only  rational  synthesis  of  science 
must,  therefore,  have  acquired  force  and  activity  from  and  religion.  ''Religious  progress  no  less  than 
without,  while  others  as  stoutly  maintain  that  matter  scientific  progress'',  writes  Cams,  "is  a  process  of 
is  by  nature  active  and,  consequently,  may  have  ^wth  as  well  as  a  cleansing  from  mythou>gy.  .  .  . 
developed  its  own  force  from  within. .  Evolution  of  Religion  is  the  basis  of  ethics.  .  .  .  The  ideafof  rdi- 
the  thoroughgoing  type  takes  the  latter  view.  It  gion  is  the  same  as  that  of  science^  it  is  a  liberation 
holds  that  m  the  primitive  cosmic  matter  was  con-  of  the  mythological  elements  and  its  aim  is  to  rest 
tained  ''the  power  and  potency"  of  all  life  and  move-  upon  a  concise  but  exhaustive  statement  of  facts" 
ment,  in  such  a  way  that  no  external  agent  was  re-  (Monism,  It-s  Scope  and  Import,  8.  9).  This  "con- 
quired  in  order  to  bring  it  to  actual  existence.  Here,  cise  but  exhaustive  statement  of  tacts"  is  positive 
as  in  the  question  of  Theism,  Christian  philosophy  is  Monism,  the  doctrine,  namely,  that  the  whole  of 
frankly  dualistic,  although  it  acknowledges  that,  since  reality  constitutes  one  inseparable  and  indivisible 
actuahty  anteceaes  potency  by  nature  and,  as  a  mat-  entirety.  Monism  is  not  the  doctrine  that  one  sub- 
ter  of  fact,  the  world  originated  in  time,  while  God  stance  alone,  whether  it  be  mind  or  matter,  exists: 
is  eternal,  there  was,  before  creation,  but  One  Reality,  such  a  theoiy,  says  Dr.  Cams,  is  best  designated  aa 
VI.  In  Ethics,  the  word  Monism  is  very  little  Henism.  True  Monism  "bears  in  mind  that  our 
used.  In  some  German  works  it  is  employed  to  words  are  abstracts  representing  parts  or  features  of 
designate  the  doctrine  that  the  moral  law  is  autono-  the  Gne  and  All,  and  not  separate  existences"  (op. 
mous.  Christian  ethics  is  essentially  heteronomic:  it  cit.,  7).  This  Monism  is  Positivistic,  because  its  aim 
teaches  that  all  law,  even  natural  law,  emanates  from  is  "the  systematisation  of  knowledge,  that  is,  of  a 
God.  Kantian  ethics  and  Evolutionistic  ethics  hold  descriptionof  facts"  (ibid.).  "Radical  free  thought" 
that  the  moral  law  is  either  self-imposed  or  emanates  is  the  motto  of  this  school  of  Monism:  at  the  same 
from  the  moral  sense  which  is  a  proouct  of  the  struggle  time,  it  disclaims  all  S3naipathy  with  destructive 
for  existence.  In  both  the  Kantian  and  the  Evolu-  Atheism,  Agnosticism,  Materialism,  and  Negativism 
tionistic  systems  there  is  only  one  source  of  the  power  in  general.  Nevertheless,  the  untrained  student  of 
of  moral  discrimination  and  approval.  For  this  philosophy  will  be  likely  to  be  more  profoundly  influ- 
reason  the  word  Monism  is  here  used  in  its  generic  enced  by  the  Monistic  criticism  of  Christianity  than 
sense.  In  English  philosophical  literature,  however,  by  the  constmctive  effort  to  put  something  in  place  o^ 
the  word  has  no  such  signification.    In  accounting  for  the  errors  referred  to. 

the  origin  of  evil,  a  problem  which,  though  it  belongs        All  Monism  may  be  described  as  resulting  from  the 

to  metaphysics,  has  important  bearings  on  ethical  tendency  of  the  human  mind  to  discover  unitary 

questions,  some  philosophers  have  adopted  a  Dual-  concepts  under  which  to  subsume  the  manifold  of 

istic  doctrine   and   explained   that   good   and   evil  experience.     So  long  as  we  are  content  to  take  and 

originate  from  two  distinct  principles,  the  one  su-  preserve  the  world  of  our  experience  as  we  find  it,  with 

premely  ^ood,  the  other  completely  and  absolutely  all  its  manifoldness,  variety,  and  fragmentation,  we 

evil.    This  was  the  doctrine  of  the  ancient  Persians,  are  in  the  condition  of  primitive  man,  and  littJe  better 

from  whom  it  was  borrowed  by  Manes,  the  founder  of  than  bmte  animals.     As  soon  as  we  begin  to  reflect 

the  Manichean  sect.    Opposed  to  this  is  the  Monistic  on  the  data  of  the  senses,  we  are  led  by  an  instinct 

view,  that  God  is  indeed  the  cause  of  all  that  is  good  of  our  rational  nature  to  reduce  manifold  effects  to 

in  the  universe,  and  that  evil  is  not  to  be  assigned  the  unity  of  a  causal  concept.    This  we  first  do  in 

to  any  supreme  cause  distinct  from  God.    Whatever  the  scientific  plane.    Afterwards,  canying  the  process 

explanation  be  given  of  the  existence  of  evil  in  the  to  a  higher  plane,  we  try  to  unify  these  under  philo- 

world,  it  is  maintained  that  a  supreme  principle  of  sophical  categories,  such  as  substance  and  aoadent, 

evil  is  utterly  impossible  and  even  mconoeivable.  matter  and  force,  body  and  mindi  subject  and  object 


MONITA 


487 


MONK 


The  history  of  philosophy,  however,  shows  with  un- 
mistakable clearness  that  there  is  a  limit  to  this  unify- 
ing process  in  philosophy.  If  He^el  were  right,  and 
the  formula,  "The  rational  alone  is  real'',  were  true. 
then  we  should  expect  to  be  able  to  compass  all 
reality  with  the  mental  powers  which  we  possess. 
But,  Christian  philosophy  holds,  the  real  extends 
beyond  the  domain  of  the  (finite)  rational.  Reality 
eludes  our  attempt  to  compress  it  within  the  cate- 
^ries  which  we  frame  for  it.  Consequently,  Dual- 
ism is  often  the  final  answer  in  philosophy;  and  Mon- 
ism, which  is  not  content  with  the  partial  synthesis 
of  Dualism,  but  aims  at  an  ideal  completeness,  often 
results  in  failure.  Dualism  leaves  room  for  faith, 
and  hands  over  to  faith  many  of  the  problems  which 
philosophy  cannot  solve.  Monism  leaves  no  room 
for  faith.  The  onl^r  mysticism  that  is  compatible 
with  it  is  rationalistic,  and  very  different  from  that 
"vision"  in  which,  for  the  Chnstian  mystic,  all  the 
limitations,  imperfections,  and  other  shortcomings  of 
our  feeble  efforts  are  removed  by  the  light  of  faitn. 

See  worka  referred  to  under  Mbtapbysics;  also,  Vsttch,  Dual- 
itm  and  Monitm  (London,  1805) :  Ward,  NaturcUiam  and  Agrut*' 
tiei»m  (2  vole.,  London.  1899);  Rotce,  Th^  World  and  th» 
Individual  (New  York.  1901) ;  Bakbwxll,  Pluraiitm  and  Man- 
iam  in  PhiloB.  Rev.,  VII  (1898).  365  sqq.;  Bowbn.  DuaHnm, 
Materialitm  or  Idealiam  in  Princeton  Rev.,  I  (1878),  423  sqq.; 
GuBNKT,  Monitm  in  Mind,  VI  (1881),  153  sqq.;  Artidea  in 
Moniai  (1891—);  Adickeb.  Kant  contra  Haeckd  (Berlin.  1901); 
GxTTBCBLET,  DcT  mechaniache  Moniamua  (Paderbom,  1893); 
Enobrt,  Der  naturaliatiche  Moniamua  Haeckela  (Berlin,  1907); 
Drxws,  Der  Moniamua  (Leipsig,  1908) ;  Artidea  by  Kunikb  in 
Jahrlmchflir  Phil  u.  Spek.  Theol.  (1905.  1906);  MAursex,  Mo- 
niamo  e  niehiliamo  (2  vole.,  Vittoria^887) ;  Abatb,  II  moniamo 
ndU  diverae  forme  (Catania,  1893) ;  Haeckxl,  Der  Moniamua  ala 
Band  gwiadten  Religion  und  Wiaaenachaft,  tr.  Gilchrist  (London, 
1894);  Idem,  Die  Weltrdthad,  tr.  McCabs  (London,  1900).  On 
Canu's  School  of  Monism,  besides  The  Moniat  (1891 — )  and  The 
Often  Court  ^nb.  fortnightly,  first  number,  Feb.  17,  1887),  cf. 
Cabus,  Primer  of  Philoaophy  (Chicago,  1896) ;  Idem,  Furuiamen' 
tal  ProbUma  (Chicago,  1894) ;  Idem,  Moniam,  Ita  Scope  and  Itn- 
port  (Chicago,  1891). 

William  Turner. 

Monita  Secreta.  a  code  of  instructions  alleged 
to  be  addressed  oy  Acquaviva,  the  fifth  general 
of  ike  Society,  to  its  various  superiors,  and  laying 
down  the  methods  to  be  adopted  for  the  increase  of 
its  power  and  influence.  According  to  them,  every 
means  is  to  be  employed  of  acquiring  wealth  for  the 
order,  by  enticing  promising  young  men  to  enter  it 
and  endow  it  with  tneir  estates;  rich  widows  are  to  be 
cajoled  and  dissuaded  from  remarriage;  every  means 
is  to  be  used  for  the  advancement  of  Jesuits  to  bish- 
oprics or  other  ecclesiastical  dignities,  and  to  discredit 
the  members  of  other  orders,  while  the  world  is  to  be 
persuaded  that  Uie  Society  is  animated  by  the  purest 
and  least  interested  motives:  the  reputation  of  those 
who  quit  it  is  to  be  assailed  and  traduced  in  every 
w^. 

That  the  "Monita"  are  in  reality  what  they  pre- 
tend, cannot  possibly  be  maintained.  They  are  known 
to  be  the  wort  of  one  Jerome  Zahorowski,  a  Pole,  who, 
having  been  a  member  of  the  Society,  had  been  dis- 
charge in  1611.  They  first  appeared  at  Cracow  in 
1612  in  MS.,  purporting  to  be  a  translation  from  the 
Spanish,  ana  were  printed  in  the  same  city  in  1614. 
Various  stories  were  told,  however,  as  to  the  mode  in 
which  these  secret  instructions  were  originally  discov- 
ered; the  credit  being  most  commonly  assigned  to 
Duke  Christian  of  Brunswick  who,  having  been  bom 
in  1599,  was  a  mere  boy  when  they  first  saw  the  light. 
The  place  where  they  were  found  was  variously  set 
down  as  Paderbom,  Prague,  Li^e^  Antwerp,  Glatz, 
and  on  board  a  captured  Eajt  Indiaman.  Attempts 
were  likewise  made  at  various  times,  as  late  even  as 
1783,  to  excite  interest  in  the  work  as  the  result  of  a 
new  discovery;  to  say  nothing  of  an  undated  edition, 
in  the  early  nineteenUi  century,  which  professes  to 
issue  from  the  Propaganda  Press,  and  to  oe  authenti- 
cated bv  the  testimonies  of  various  Jesuit  authorities. 
Th^ee,  nQw^v^r.  fir^  Qianif estly  notlun^  but  impudent 


and  malijsnant  fabrications,  the  general,  "Felix  Aco- 
niti",  being  utterly  unknown  in  the  Annals  of  the 
Society,  and  the  censor  who  approves  the  publication 
bearing  the  ominous  name  "Pasquinelli",  while  the 
titles  which,  it  is  alleged,  should  ensure  the  esteem  of 
men  in  general  for  the  Society,  include  all  the  crimes 
and  abominations  of  eveiy  land — ^immoralities,  con- 
spiracies, murders,  and  regicides — which  their  bitt€a:i3st 
enemies  have  ever  attributed  to  the  Society. 

In  looking  for  more  authentic  evidence  as  to  the 
true  character  of  the  "Monita",  it  is  unnecessary  to 
cite  any  to  whose  testimony  a  suspicion  of  partiality 
might  attach — from  Bishop  Lipski  of  Cracow  (1616), 
through  the  long  list  of  Jesuit  writers  who  have  from 
the  first  denounced  the  fabrication,  and  who  are 
quoted  by  Father  Bernard  Duhr  in  his  "Jesuiten 
Fabeln".  Witnesses  beyond  anv  such  exception  are 
for  example,  the  famous  Fra  Paolo  Sarpi,  the  historian 
of  the  Council  of  Trent,  the  Jansenist  Henri  de  Saint- 
I^nace,  as  well  as  Amauld  and  the  "Nouvelles  Ecc]6- 
siastiques",  to  whom  may  be  added  Pascal  himself, 
whose  negative  testimony  is  sufiicient  to  show  what  he 
thought  on  the  subject. 

To  these  witnesses  may  be  added  such  pronounced 
anti-Jesuits  as  von  Lang,  Ddllinger,  Friedrich  (the 
author  of  Janus)  ^  Huber,  and  Keusch,  as  well  as 
the  Protestant  historian  Gieseler.  In  the  British 
House  of  Commons,  during  the  ddbates  on  Catholic 
Emancipation,  the  fraudulent  character  of  the  "  Mo- 
nita" was  fullv  acknowledged  by  more  than  one 
speaker,  while  the  authorities  of  the  British  Museum, 
and  likewise  the  French  bibliographer  M.  Barbier, 
agree  in  describing  the  work  as    apocryphal". 

The  only  defence  seriously  attempted  on  the  other 
side  is  that  offered  by  the  late  Dr.  Littledale  in  his 
notorious  article  "Jesuits",  in  the  "Encyclopsedia 
Britannica " .  He  acknowledges,  indeed,  that  the  work 
is  in  reality  "both  caricature  and  libel",  but  pleads 
nevertheless  that  it  is  substantially  true^  since  its 
author,  "  a  shrewd  and  keen  observer",  havrn^^  noticed 
how  Jesuits  actually  worked,  deduced  from  his  obser- 
vations the  rules  by  which  they  were  guided.  As  to 
this  remarkable  example  of  "Jesuitical"  argumenta- 
tion, it  is  sufiicient  to  mquire  upon  what  solid  founda- 
tion Dr.  Littledale's  basiEkl  assumption  rests.  Where 
is  the  evidence  that  the  principles  of  the  "Monita" 
animate  Jesuit  practice?  The  official  rules  and  con- 
stitutions of  the  order  plainly  contradict  in  every 
respect  these  supposed  instmctions,  for  they  expressly 
prohibit  the  acceptance  of  ecclesiastical  dignities  by 
its  subjects,  unless  compelled  by  papal  authority,  and 
from  the  days  of  the  founder,  St.  Ignatius  himiself,  it 
is  known  that  every  obstacle  has  been  thrown  by  the 
Society  in  the  way  of  such  promotion.  Moreover,  in 
many  cases,  genuine  private  instructions  from  the 
general  to  subordinate  superiors  have  fallen  into  hos- 
tile hands,  but  while  in  many  cases  they  are  found  to 
give  instructions  directly  contrary  to  those  we  have 
heuxi,  it  is  not  even  alleged  that  in  any  instance  they 
corroborate  them. 

Duhr,  Die  Monita  Secreta  oder  die  qeheimen  Verordnunoen  der 
OeaelUchafl  Jeau;  Saint-HAuer,  Lea  Monita  Seereta  dea  Jiauitea, 
devant  VHiatoire;  Huber,  Der  Jeauitenorden.p.  106;  Rbubch, 
Der  Index  der  Verb^ener  BUcher,  p.  281;  Parkinson  in  The 
Month  (July-Auguat,  1873:  Maroh.  1902);  Gerard,  The  Secret 
Inetruetiona  of  the  Jeauita  (Catholic  Truth  Society  pamphlet). 

John  Gerard. 

Monk. — A  monk  may  be  conveniently  defined  as  a 
member  of  a  community  of  men,  leading  a  more  or  less 
contemplative  life  apart  from  the  world,  under  the 
vows  of  poverty,  chastity,  and  obedience,  according  to 
a  mle  characteristic  of  the  particular  order  to  which  he 
belongs.  The  word  monk  is  not  itself  a  term  com- 
monly used  in  the  official  language  of  the  Church.  It 
is  a  popular  rather  than  a  scientific  designation,  but  it 
is  at  the  same  time  very  ancient,  so  much  so  that  its 
origin  cannot  be  preciselv  determined.  So  far  as  re- 
gards ^e  £)n^hi^  fo^m  of  tl^e  word^  that  undoi^btedl^ 


M0N0QABC7  488  MONOOaAM 

comes  from  the  An^o-Saxon  munuCf  which  has  in  turn        Monogram  of  Ohiist. — ^By  the  Monogram  of  Christ 
arisen  from  the  Latin  monachua,  a  mere  transliteration  is  ordinarily  miderstood  the  abbreviation  of  Christ's 
of  the  Greek  M^vaxot.    This  Greek  form  is  commonly  name  formed  by  combining  the  first  two  letters  of  the 
believed  to  be  connected  with  /t^pot,  lonely  or  single,  Greek  form  XPIZT02,  thus  ^ ;  this  monomm  was 
and  is  suggestive  of  a  life  of  solitude;  but  we  cannot  also  known  as  the  Ckrismon,  «<l^  There  are,  Dowever, 
lose  sight  of  the  fact  that  the  word  hoiHi^  from  a  dif-  besides  this  type  of  monogram,  two  other  monoioBms 
ferent  root,  seems  to  have  been  freely  used,  e.  g.  by  ofChrist— one  of  His  name,  Jesus,  the  other  of  bou  His 
Palladius,  as  well  as  fiopacr-^pior  in  the  sense  of  a  reh-  names  together.    The  most  common  form  (that  first 
gious  house  (see  Butler,  ^'Palladius's  Lausiac  His-  alluded  to),  was  adopted  by  Constantine  the  Great  on 
tory",  passim).   Be  this  as  it  may,  the  Fathers  of  the  his  military  standards.   The  monogram  of  the  famous 
fourth  century  are  by  no  means  a^-eed  as  to  the  labarum(q.  v.),  as  described  by  Eusebius( Vita  Const., 
et^rmological  significance  of  monachits,    St.  Jerome  I,  xxxi),  is  that  given  above.    Lactantius  (De  mont. 
writes  to  Heliodorus  (P.  L.,  XXII,  350),  "Interpret  persec.,  xliv)  describes  it  as  "transversa  X  litters 
the  name  monk,  it  is  thine  own;  what  business  nast  summo  capite  circumflexo",  a  somewhat  obscure  ex- 
thou  in  a  crowd,  thou  who  art  solitary?"    St.  Angus-  piression  interpreted  by  Hauck  ("Realencyk.  fur  prot. 
tine  on  the  other  hand  fastens  on  the  idea  of  unity  Theol.",  s.  w.  Monogramm  Christi)  as  a  X  with  <me 
(ffopdt)  and  in  his  exposition  of  Ps.  cxxxii,  extols  the  of  its  strokes  perpendicular    f  ^  and  the  upper  ann  of 
appropriateness  of  the  words  "Ecce  quam  bonimi  et  this  stroke  roimdedto  form  "^  a  P  ^.  Many  vari- 
quam  iucundum  habitare  fratres  in  unum"  when  ants  of  these  two  forms  exist  in  the  X,  monuments 
cnanted  in  a  monastery,  because  those  who  are  monks  of  the  fourth  and  fifth  centuries.  The  Greek  letters  X  P 
should  have  but  one  heart  and  one  soul  (P.  L..  combined  in  a  monogram  occur  on  pre-Christian  coins 
XXXVII,  1733).   Cassian  (P.  L.,  XLIX,  1097),  and  (e.  ff.  the  Attic  tetradrachma  and  some  coins  of  the 
Pseudo-Dionvsius  (De  Eccl.  Hier.,  vi)  seem  to  have  Ptolemies),  and  in  some  Greek  manuscripts  of  the 
thought  monks  were  so  called  because  they  were  celi-  Christian  period  they  are  employed  as  an  abbreviation 
bate.  of  such  words  as  XP0N02,  XFTSOS,  XFTZOSTOMOZ. 
In  any  case  the  fact  remains  that  the  word  morup'  Lowrie  remarks,  however,  that  when  employed  as  an 
chus  in  the  fourth  century  was  freely  used  of  those  abbreviation  the  X  stands  upright,  i^^  whereas  in  the 
consecrated  to  God,  whether  they  lived  as  hermits  or  monogram  of  Christ  it  lies  on  its  side  rS,  thus  appear- 
in  communities.    So  again  St.  Benedict  a  little  later  inf^  more  symmetical.    The  form  V^  ia  of  Christian 
(c.  535)  states  at  the  beginning  of  his  rule  that  there  origin;  it  came  into  use  in  the  ^r  course    of   the 
are  four  kinds  of  monks  (manachi) — (1)  cenobitee  who  fourth  century,  and  represents  a  stage  in  the  develop- 
live  together  under  a  rule  or  an  abbot,  (2)  anchorites  ment  of  the  monogram  into  the  cross, 
or  hermits,  who  after  lone  tndning  in  the  discipline  of  a        The  opinion  of  Hauck  that  the  monogram,  in  the 
community,  go  forth  to  lead  a  life  of  solitude  (and  of  form  in  which  it  appears  on  the  labarum,  was  well 
both  of  these  classes  he  approves) ;  but  also  (3)  ''sara-  known  in  Christian  society  before  Constantino  would 
bites''  and  (4)  ''girovagi''^  (wandering  monks),  whom  seem,  from  the  circumstances  of  the  case,  to  be  weU 
he  strongly  condemns  as  men  whose  refigious  lue  is  but  foimded;  for  otherwise  how  would  the  emperor  have 
a  pretence,  and  who  do  their  own  wUl  without  the  reco^ised  it  as  a  Christian  symbol?  Yet,  at  the  same 
restraint  of  obedience.    It  is  probably  due  to  the  fact  time  it  must  be  said  that  it  appears  only  rarelv  on  pre- 
that  the  Rule  of  St.  Benedict  so  constantly  describes  Constantinian  monuments,  and  then  generally  as  an 
the  brethren  as  monachi  and  their  residence  as  numon  abbreviation  (compendium  scrintura)  rather  than  as  an 
steriumf  that  a  tradition  has  arisen  according  to  which  emblem;  as,  for  instance,  in  a  third  century  inscription 
these  terms  in  Latin  and  English  (though  not  so  uni-  in  the  Oeitacomb  of  St.  Priscilla:  ZOI  AOSA  EN  ^. 
formly  in  the  case  of  the  corresponding  German  and  The  adoption  of  the  monogram  by  Constantino  for  «^ 
French  words)  are  commonly  applied  only  to  those  use  on  the  imperial  military  standards  and  on  the 
rdigious  bodies  which  in  some  measure  reproduce  the  shields  of  the  soldiers,  as  a  symbol  of  Christiani^,  was 
conditions  of  life  contemplated  in  the  old  Benedictine  the  beginning  of  its  popularity  in  the  empire.   During 
Rule.    The  mendicant  mars,  e.  g.  the  Dominicans,  the  fourth  century  it  was  represented  on  all  manner  ot 
Franciscans,  Carmelites,  etc.,  thoujdi  they  live  in  monuments:  on  public  edincee,  churches,  sarcophagi, 
community  and  chant  the  Divine  Office  in  choir,  are  lamps,  vestments,  clothing,  household  utensils,  etc. 
not  correctl}^  described  as  monks.     Their  work  of  It  appears  frequently  in  association  with  inscriotions 
preaching,  mixing  with  their  fellow  men  in  the  world,  on  tombs,  sometim^  in  relation  with  the  apocalyptio 
soliciting  alms,  and  moving  from  place  to  place,  is  in-  letters  A  and  m,  or  with  the  symbolic  fish,  doves,  pahn 
consistent  with  the  monastic  ideal.    The  same  is  to  be  branches,  and  the  like.    It  rarely  appears  on  Roman 
said  of  the  ''clerks  regular",  like  the  Jesuits,  in  whose  monuments,  however,  after  the  fatal  year  410,  when 
rule  the  work  of  the  apostolate  is  regarded  as  so  im-  the  Eternal  City  fell  into  the  hands  of  Alaric,  but  in 
portant  that  it  is  considered  incompatible  with  the  the  East  it  long  continued  to  enjoy  its  popularitv.   In 
obligation  of  singing  office  in  choir.    Again  members  the  course  of  the  fifth  century,  in  the  West,  the  9 
of  the  religious  congregations  of  men,  which  take  sim-  form  became  the  more  common,  but  in  the  East  ^ti 
pie  but  not  solemn  vows,  are  not  usually  designated  as  the  earlier  form  continued  in  favour, 
monks.   On  the  other  hand  it  should  be  noted  that  in        Monograms    of   Jesus    Christ. — ^A    monogram 
former  days  a  monk,  even  though  he  sang  office  in  formed  of  the  initial  letters  of  both  Christ's  names 
choir,  was  not  necessarily  a  priest,  the  custom  in  this  appears  in  a  Roman  monument  of  the  year  268  or  279 
respect  having  changed  a  ^xxi  deal  since  medieval  ^  P&rt  of  the  inscription  on  a  tomb:  Benemerknti 
times.    Besides  the  Benedictines  with  their  various  (^)  *^^Domi  No.    Two  Gallic  monuments  with  this 
modifications  and  offshoots,  i.  e.  the  Cluniacs,  Cister-  mon.^ogram,bearing  the  dates  491  and  507,are  noted 
cians.  Trappists  etc.,  the  best  known  orders  of  monks  ^X  Le  Blant,  and  once  it  occurs  on  an  ancient  lamp,  in 
are  tne  Carthusians,  the  Premonstratensians,  and  the  association  with  the  apocalyptic  letters  A  and  m.    In  a 
Camaldolese.    The  honorary  prefix  Dom,  an  abbre-  somewhat  different  form  it  occurs  in  several  monuments 
viation  of  Dominus  is  given  to  Benedictines  and  Cai^  of  the  cemetery  of  St.  Callistus:  in  these  the  I  crosses 
thusians.  the  X  horisontally  instead  of  perpendiculariy  V^. 

Hbdibuchkr,  Die  Orden  und  Kongreffaiumen  (Ptkderbora,  1007  The  IX  monogram  (for  IH202  API2T02),  also  TlT 

^^J'vi^^S^^iSuS:^^  appj^  on  «>me  sarcophagi  of  Provens  end^ 

rtcht  (Mains,  1808).  3  sqq.  and  305  sqq.  ^»rcn«»-  ^jj^cle,  thus  forming  a  Star:  the  star  that  ruided  the 

Herbert  T&ubston.  Wise  Men  to  Bethlehem.    The  monogram  IC  XC  oo- 

ours  in  manuscripts  of  the  Scriptures  (the  Codex  Alex- 
Monogamy.    See  Marbiaqb.  andrinus  and  the  Codex  Claromontanus)  as  early  as 


MONOMOTAPA                         489  MONOPHTSFRS 

the  fifth  and  sbcUl  centuries.     Peculiar  to  the  Latin  JoXo  Dob  Santos,   Ethiopia  OHtnlai  (Evora,   1600),  tr. 

Church  is  the  monoaam  IHZ  XP2,  which  occurs  in  T^^^  ^  Record*  of  South-Ba»Urn  Africa,  Vll,  printed  for  the 

\^un^  IB  buo  luutHj^iaiu  ***     ri^j  '  7{r:irJl^  A     ..  Government  of  Cape  Colony.  1901;  Thbal,  Hut.  and  Bthnogr. 

the  sixth  century  Greek-Latin  Lodex  ClaramontanUS,  ^/  south  Africa  before  1796  (London.  1907);  Bknt.  The  Ruit%ed 

as  an  abbreviation  of  both  Our  Lord's  Greek  names.  CiHee  of  Maehonatand  (London,  1896);  Hall,  Prekiatorie  Rho- 

The  Greeks  also  employed  the  letters  m  as  an  abbre-  ''•^  (London.  1909) ;  Wilmot,  Monomoapa  (London.  1896). 
viation  for  the  name  of  Jesusj^ith  a  peculiar  symbolic  Jambs  Kbndal. 
meaning.  According  to  the  Epistle  of  pseudo-Bama-  MonophjBites  and  MonqphysitiBni. — ^The  his« 
bas  the  circumcision  by  Abranam  of  318  men  of  his  tory  of  this  sect  and  of  its  ramincations  has  been  sum- 
household  had  a  mystic  signification.  The  Greek  let-  marized  under  Euttchianism  (the  nickname  somewhat 
ters  I  B  T,  used  as  numeials,  amount  to  318,  and  at  unfairly  given  by  Catholic  controversialists).  The 
the  same  time  the  first  two  of  these  letters  are  abbre-  theology  of  Monophysitism  has  also  been  described 
viations  of  the  Name  of  Jesus,  while  the  third  repre-  under  the  same  heading.  Two  points  are  discussed  in 
sents  the  cross  (Pseudo-Barnabas,  c.  ix).  The  mean-  the  following  article:  first,  the  hterary  activity  of  the 
ingwasadoptedby  the  Greek  Ghiu^h,  and  from  them  Monophysites  both  in  Greek  and  Syriac;  secondly, 
it  was  borrowed  by  the  Latins.  The  familiar  mono-  the  question  whether  th^  can  be  exculpated  from 
gram  I H  S  was  first  popularised  by  St.  Bemardine  of  material  heray  in  their  Christology. 
Siena  in  the  early  fifteenth  century  and  later,  with  the  LrrBRABY  History. — From  many  points  of  view 
addition  of  a  cross  over  the  central  letter,  by  the  the  Monophysites  are  the  most  important  of  early 
Society  of  Jesus.  (See  I.H.S).  heretics,  and  no  heresy  or  related  group  of  heresies 
Ttrwhiit  in  Diet.  ChritA.  Antiq.  (London.  1875-80),  ■.  v.  m^^ii  the  sixteenth  century  has  producea  so  vast  and 

Monogram;    Jjowbib,  Monuments  of  the  Early  Church  (New     . ^^^^4.  «  i:*^..**.,*^       X  i«wjr.^«4^:^,«  ^*  u  :<>  !**«♦. 

YoA?1901);  Piper  kxvcK  in  Realeiicyk.  f.  prot.  Theol,  a.  vv.  important  a  hterature.     A  laige  portion  of  It  IS  lost? 

Monofjmmm  ChrieU  (Ldpng.  1903);  Kraub  in  Reai-eneykio-  some  remams  m  manuscnpt,  and  of  late  vears  im- 

Ur  ekritUiehen  AUerthUmera.  v.  (Freibuig.  1886).  portant  publications  have  Drought  much  of  this  ma- 

Mauricb  M.  Hasbbtt.  Serial  to  the  Ught  of  day.    Nearly  aU  the  Greek  lit- 
erature has  perished  in  its  original  form,  but  much 

Monomotapa.  —  Whatever  be  the   etymolodcal  of  it  survives  in  early  Syriac  translations,  and  the 

meaning  of  the  word  Monomotapa,  the  origin  of  which  Syriac  literature  itself  is  esctant  in  yet  greater  amount. 

is  much  disputed,  it  is  certun,  at  any  rate,  that  the  liie  scientific,  philosophical,  and  grammatical  writ- 

Portuffuese  of  the  sixteenth  centurv  employed  it  to  de-  ings  of  Monophysites  must  for  the  most  part  be  passed 

note  the  paramount  chief  of  the  Makaranga,  a  powerful  over  here.    Ecclesiastical  history  and  oio^pny,  as 

South  African  tribe  dwelling  between  the  Zambesi  and  well  as  dogmatic  and  polemical  writings  will  be  de- 

limpopo  rivers  and  extending  westward  from  the  In-  scribed  for  the  fifth  and  sixth  centuries,  together  with 

dian  Ocean  probably  as  far  as  the  twenty-fifth  parallel  a  few  of  the  chief  works  of  the  centuries  immediately 

of  east  longitude.    ''Some  interest",  says  Mr.  Theal,  following. 

''is  attached  to  this  word  Monomotapa,  inasmuch  as  Dio9curu8  (q.  v.)  has  left  us  but  a  few  fragments, 
it  was  placed  on  maps  of  the  day  as  if  it  were  thaname  The  most  important  is  in  the  "Hist.  Misc.'',  Ill,  i, 
of  a  territoiy,  not  tne  title  of  a  ruler,  and  soon  it  was  from  a  letter  written  in  exile  at  Gangra,  in  which  the 
i4)plied  to  the  entire  region  from  the  Zambesi  to  the  banished  patriarch  declares  the  reality  and  complete- 
mouth  of  the  Fish  River.  Geographers,  who  knew  ness  of  our  Lord's  Human  Bodv,  intending  evidently 
nothing  of  the  country,  wrote  the  word  upon  their  to  deny  that  he  had  approved  the  r^usal  of  Eutyches 
charts,  and  one  copied  another  until  the  belief  became  to  admit  Christ's  consubstantiality  with  us. 
general  that  a  people  far  advanced  in  civilization,  and  Timothy  jElurus  (d.  477)  who  nad  been  ordained 
governed  by  a  mighty  emperor,  occupied  the  whole  of  priest  by  St.  Cyril  himself,  and  preserved  a  profound 
southeastern  Africa.  .  .  .  Such  an  empire  never  ex-  attachment  to  that  saint,  published  an  edition  of 
isted.  The  foundation  upon  which  imagination  con-  some  of  his  works.  He  accompanied  Dioscurus  to 
Btructed  it  is  nothing  more  than  a  Bantu  tribe."  The  the  Robber  Council  of  Ephesus  in  449,  as  he  says  him- 
empire  of  the  Monomotapa  was  called  Mokaranga.  self  "together  with  my  brother  the  blessed  priest 
In  the  fifteenth  century,  it  was  united  and  powerful,  A^natoUus"  (the  secretary  of  Dioscurus,  promoted  by 
but,  when  the  Portuguese  arrived  in  1505,  it  was  in  a  him  to  the  See  of  Constantinople).  It  is  not  neces- 
Btate  of  disruption,  as  the  reigning  Monomotapa,  Ma-  sary  to  infer  that  Timothy  and  Anatolius  were 
komba  by  name,  had  delegated  his  authoritv  over  the  brothers.  When  the  death  in  exile  of  Dioscurup 
more  distant  parts  of  his  ofominions  to  members  of  his  (September,  454)  was  known,  Timothy  assumed  the 
family  who  soon  asserted  their  independence.  The  leaaership  of  those  who  did  not  acknowledge  the  or- 
Makaranga  still  live  scattered  in  different  parts  of  thodox  Patriarch  Proterius,  and  demanded  a  new 
Rhodesia  over  a  territory  which  was  once  their  own.  bi^op.  He  had  with  him  four  or  five  deprived 
In  the  matter  of  civilization  thev  never  had  much  to  bishops.  The  riots  which  followed  were  renewed  at 
lose,  but  th&T  warlike  qualities  have  disappeared,  so  the  death  of  the  Emperor  Marcian,  and  Proterius  was 
that  the  word  Makaranga  is  used  by  their  neighbours  murdered.  Even  before  this,  Timothy  had  been 
as  a  term  of  reproach  and  a  synonym  for  CO wara.  The  consecrated  patriarch  by  two  bishops.  Eusebius 
word  Monomotapa  is  no  longer  known  amon^  them,  of  Pelusium  and  the  famous  Peter  the  Iberian, 
They  are,  at  any  rate,  more  intelligent  and  docile  than  Bishop  of  Maluma,  the  latter  not  even  an  Egyptian, 
their  neighbours,  while  their  features  and  many  of  At  Constantinople  Anatolius  was  scarcely  his  enemv; 
their  customs  point  to  an  infusion  of  Semitic  blood,  the  minister  Aspar  was  probably  his  frieoid;  but  tne 
The  theory  has  lately  obtained  in  some  quarters,  that  Emperor  Leo  certainlv  desired  to  acquiesce  in  the 
they  built  the  Great  Zimbabwe  and  other  ruins  scat-  demands  for  Timothy  s  deposition  adoressed  to  him 
tered  over  their  country.  It  is  far  more  probable,  by  the  orthodox  bishops  of  Egypt  and  bv  Pope  St. 
however,  that  these,  as  well  as  the  numerous  rock-  Leo,  and  he  punished  the  murderers  of  Irotenus  at 
mines  found  in  the  gold  area  of  Rhodesia  and  Portu-  once.  Meanwhile  iElurus  was  expdlin^  from  thdr 
guese  East  Africa,  were  the  work  of  some  Semitic  sees  all  bishops  who  accepted  the  Council  of  Chalce- 
people  who  occupied  the  country  as  gold  seekers  long  don.  It  was  not,  however,  till  Anatolius  was  dead 
Defore  the  arrival  of  the  Bantu.  The  Makaranga  were  (3  July,  458)  and  had  been  succeeded  by  St.  Genna- 
evangelized  in  1561  bv  the  Yen.  Father  (xon^alo  da  Sil-  dius,  that  the  Emperor  put  into  effect  the  opinions 
▼eira,  S.J.,  who  baptized  the  Monomotapa  and  many  he  had  elicited  from  all  the  bishops  of  the  East  in  the 
of  his  people.  But  within  three  months  of  his  arrival  "Encvclia",  by  exiling  ^Elurus  first  to  Gangra  in 
the  converted  chief,  instigated  by  some  Mohammedan  Paphlagonia,  and  then  in  460  to  the  Cheronesus.  Dur- 
refugees  from  Mozambique,  turned  against  the  mis-  ing  the  rdgn  of  Basiliscus  he  was  restored,  at  the  end 
maoary  and  had  him  strangled  on  16  March,  1561.  of  475,  and  Zeno  spared  his  old  age  from  molestation. 


MONOPHTSmS 


490 


MONOPHTSmS 


Under  Euttchianism  something  has  been  said  of 
his  theology,  and  more  wiU  be  found  below.  Of  his 
works  a  fra^ent  on  the  Two  Natures,  is  in  Migne 
(P.  G.,  LX^VI,  273) .  The  unpublished  Syriac  col- 
lection of  his  works  (in  British  Mus.,  MS.  Addit. 
12156,  sixth  cent.)  contains  (a)  a  treatise  against  the 
"Dyophysites"  (Catholics)  which  consists  mainly  of 
a  collection  of  extracts  from  the  Fathers  against  the 
Two  Natures,  the  last  of  the  citations  being  from  let- 
ters of  Dioscurus.  This  is,  however,  but  a  summary 
of  a  laiiger  work,  which  has  recently  been  published 
entire  in  an  Armenian  translation  under  the  title  of 
"Refutation  of  the  Council  of  Chalcedon".  We 
learn  from  Justinian  that  the  original  was  written  in 
exile,  (b)  Extracts  from  a  letter  written  to  the  city 
of  Constantinople  against  the  Eutychianizers  Isaias 
of  Hermopolis  and  Theophilus,  followed  b^  another 
florUeqium  from  "the  Fathers"  (almost  entu^y  from 
Apollmarian  forgeries).  This  letter  is  preserved  en- 
tire by  Zacharias  (in  Hist.  Misc..  IV,  xii,  where  it  is 
followed  by  the  second  letter),  ana  also  in  the  "  Chron- 
icle" of  Michael  the  Syrian,  (c)  A  second  letter 
against  the  same,  (d)  Extracts  from  two  letters  to 
aU  Egypt,  the  Thebaid,  and  Pentapolis  on  the  treat- 
ment of  Catholic  bishops,  priests,  and  monks  who 
should  join  the  Monophysites.  (e)  A  refutation  of 
the  Synod  of  Chalcedon  and  of  the  Tome  of  Leo, 
written  between  454  and  460,  in  two  parts,  according 
to  the  title,  and  concluding  with  extracts  from  the 
"  Acts  "  of  tne  Robber  Synod  and  four  docimients  con- 
nected with  it.  (f)  A  short  prayer  which  Blessed 
Timothy  used  to  malce  over  those  who  returned  from 
the  communion  of  the  Dyophysites.  (g)  Exposition 
of  the  faith  of  Timothy,  sent  to  the  Emperor  Leo  by 
Count  Rusticus,  and  an  abridged  narration  of  what 
subsequently  happened  to  him.  A  similar  supplica- 
tion or  iElurus  to  Leo,  sent  by  the  silentiaiy  Diomede, 
is  mentioned  by  Anastasius  Sin.  The  contents  of  this 
MS.  are  laz^el^r  cited  by  Lebon.  A  translation  into 
Latin  of  patristic  testimonies  collected  by  ^lurus  was 
made  by  Gennadius  Massil,  and  is  to  be  identified 
with  the  Armenian  collection.  A  Coptic  list  of 
Timothy's  works  mentions  one  on  the  Canticle  of 
Canticles.  The  "Plerophoria"  (33,  36)  speaJc  of  his 
book  of  "Narrations",  from  which  Crum  (p.  71)  de- 
duces an  ecclesiastical  history  by  Timothy;  in  twelve 
books.  Lebon  does  not  accept  the  attribution  to 
Timothv  of  the  Coptic  fragments  by  which  Crum 
established  the  existence  of  such  a  work^  but  he  finds 
(p.  110)  another  reference  to  a  histoncal  work  by 
the  patriarch  in  MS.  Addit.  14602  (Chabot,  "Docu- 
menta",  225  sqq.). 

Peter  Mongue  (q.  v.)  of  Alexandria  was  not  a  writer. 
His  letters  in  Coptic  are  not  genuine:  though  a  com- 
plete Armenian  text  of  them  has  been  published, 
which  is  said  to  be  more  probably  authentic.  Peter 
Fullo  (q.  V.)  of  Alexandria  similarly  left  no  writings. 
Letters  addressed  to  him  exist,  but  are  cert^nly  spuri- 
ous. Timothy  IV ,  Patriarcn  of  Alexandria  (617- 
535),  composed  "Antirrhetica"  in  many  books.  This 
polemical  work  was  lost;  but  a  homily  of  his  remains 
and  a  few  fragments.  Theodosius,  Patriarch  of  Alex- 
andria (10-11  Februarv,  535,  and  again  July,  535-537 
or  538)  has  left  us  a  few  fragments  and  two  letters. 
The  Severians  of  Alexandria  were  called  Theodosians 
after  him.  to  distinguish  them  from  the  Gaianites  who 
followed  nis  Licomiptibilist  rival  Gaianus.  The  lat- 
ter left  no  writings. 

Severus:  The  most  famous  and  the  most  fertile  of  all 
the  Monophysite  writers  was  Severus,  who  was  Patri- 
arch of  Antioch  (512-518),  and  died  in  538.  We  have 
his  early  life  written  by  his  friend  Zacharias  Scholasti- 
cus ;  a  complete  biography  was  composed  soon  after  his 
death  by  John,  the  superior  of  the  monastery  where 
Severus  had  first  embraced  the  monastic  life.  He  was 
bom  at  Sozopolis  in  Pisidia,  his  father  being  a  senator 
of  the  city,  and  descended  from  the  Bishop  of  SosopoliB 


who  had  attended  the  Council  of  Ephesus  in  431.  After 
his  father's  death  he  was  sent  to  stud^  rhetoric  at  Alex- 
andria, being  yet  a  catechumen,  as  it  was  the  custom 
in  Pisidia  to  delay  baptism  until  a  beard  i^ould  appear. 
Zacharias,  who  was  his  fellow-student,  testifies  to  his 
brilliant  talents  and  the  great  progress  he  made  in  the 
study  of  rhetoric.  He  was  enthusiastic  over  the  an- 
cient orators,  and  also  over  Libanius.  Zacharias  in- 
duced him  to  read  the  correspondence  of  Libanius  with 
St.  Basil,  and  the  works  of  the  latter  and  of  St.  Greg- 
ory of  Nazianzus,  and  he  was  conquered  by  the  power 
of  Christian  oratory.  Severus  went  to  study  law  at 
Berytus  about  the  autumn  of  486,  and  he  was  fol- 
lowed thither  by  Zacharias  a  year  later.  Severus 
was  later  accused  of  having  been  in  youth  a  worship- 
per of  idols  and  a  dealer  in  magical  arts  (so  the  libeUua 
of  the  Palestinian  monks  at  the  council  of  536),  aid 
Zacharias  is  at  pains  to  r^ute  this  calumny  indirectly, 
though  at  great  length,  by  relating  interesting  stones 
of  the  discovery  of  a  hoard  of  idols  at  Menuthis  in 
Egypt  and  of  me  routing  of  necromancers  and  en- 
chanters at  Berytus;  in  both  these  exploits  the  friends 
of  Severus  took  a  leading  part,  and  Zacharias  asks  tri- 
umphuitly  whether  they  would  have  consorted  with 
Severus  had  he  not  agreed  with  them  in  the  hatred  of 
paganism  and  sorcery.  Zacharias  continued  to  influ- 
ence him,  by  his  own  account,  and  induced  him  to  de- 
vote the  free  time  which  the  students  had  at  their  dis- 
posal on  Saturday  afternoons  and  Sundays  to  the 
study  of  the  Fathers.  Other  students  joined  the  pious 
company  of  which  an  ascetic  student  named  Evagrius 
became  leader,  and  every  evening  they  prayed  to- 
gether in  the  church  of  the  Resurrection.  Severus  was 
persuaded  to  be  baptized.  Zacharias  refused  to  be  Ids 
godfather,  for  he  declared  that  he  did  not  communi- 
cate with  the  bishops  of  Phoenicia,  so  Evagrius  stood 
sponsor,  and  Severus  was  baptizea  in  the  church  of 
the  martvr,  Leontius,  at  Tripolis. 

Alter  his  baptism  Severus  renounced  the  use  of 
baths  and  betook  himself  to  fasting  and  vi^Js.  Two 
of  his  companions  departed  to  become  monks  under 
Peter  the  Iberian.  When  the  news  of  the  death  of 
that  famous  monk  (488)  arrived,  Zacharias  and  sev- 
eral others  entered  his  monastr^  of  Beith-Aphthonia, 
at  the  native  place  of  Zachanas,  the  port  of  Gasa 
(known  also  as  Maluma),  where  Peter  had  been 
bishop.  Zacharias  did  not  persevere,  but  returned 
to  the  practice  of  the  law.  Severus  intended  to  prac- 
tise in  his  own  coimtry,  but  he  first  visited  the  shrine 
of  St.  Leontius  of  Tripolis,  the  head  of  St.  John  Bap- 
tist  at  Emesa.  and  then  the  holy  places  of  Jerusalem, 
with  the  result  that  he  joined  Evagrius  who  was  al- 
ready a  monk  at  Maiuma.  The  great  austerities 
there  did  not  suffice  for  Severus,  and  ne  preferred  the 
life  of  a  solitary  in  the  desert  of  EleutheropoHs.  Hav- 
ing reduced  himself  to  great  weakness  he  was  obliKed 
to  pass  some  time  in  the  monastery  foimded  by  Ko» 
manus,  after  which  he  returned  to  the  laura  of  the  port 
of  Gaza,  in  which  was  the  convent  of  Peter  the  Ibe- 
rian. Here  he  spent  what  his  charities  had  left  of  his 
patrimony  in  building  a  monastery  for  the  ascetics  who 
wished  to  live  imder  his  direction.  His  ouiet  was 
rudelv  disturbed  by  Nephalius,  a  former  leaaer  of  the 
Acephali,  who  was  said  to  have  once  had  30,000  monks 
ready  to  march  on  Alexandria  when,  at  the  end  of  482, 
Peter  Mongus  accepted  the  Henotioon  and  became 
patriarch.  Later  on  Nephalius  joined  the  more  mod- 
erate Monophjrsites,  and  finally  the  Catholics,  accept- 
ing the  Council  of  Chalcedon.  About  507-8  he  came 
to  Maluma,  preached  against  Severus,  and  obtained 
the  expulsion  of  the  monks  from  their  convents.  Se- 
verus betook  himself  to  Constantinople  with  200 
monks,  and  remained  there  three  years,  influatdng 
the  Emperor  Anastasius  as  far  as  he  could  in  the  sim- 
port  of  the  Henoticon,  against  the  Catholics  on  toe 
one  hand  and  the  irreconcilable  Acephali  on  the  other. 
He  was  spoken  of  as  successor  to  the  Patriarch  Mace- 


MONOPHYSmS                        491  M0N0PHTSITE8 

doniuB  who  died  in  August  511.    The  new  patriarch,  lows  St.  Cyril  in  every  point  without  consdous  vaiia" 

Timotheus,  entered  into  the  views  of  Severus,  who  re-  tion. 

turned  to  his  cloister.  In  the  following  year  he  was  A  controversy  with  Sergius  the  Grammarian,  who 
consecrated  Patriarch  of  Antioch.  6  November,  512,  in  went  too  far  in  his  zeal  for  the  ''One  Nature  ,  and 
succession  to  Flavian,  who  was  banished  by  the  em-  whom  Severus  con8e(][uently  styles  a  Eutychian,  is 
I>eror  to  Arabia  for  the  half-heartedness  of  his  conces-  preserved  in  MS.  Addit.  17154.  This  polenuc  enabled 
sions  to  Monophysitism.  Elias  of  Jerusalem  refused  Severus  to  define  more  precisely  the  Monophysite 
to  recognize  ^verus  as  patriarch,  and  manv  other  i>osition,  and  to  guard  himself  against  the  exag^era- 
bishops  were  equally  hostile.  However,  at  Constan-  tions  which  were  liable  to  result  from  the  habit  of 
tinopie  and  Alexandria  he  was  supported,  and  Elias  restricting  theology  to  attacks  on  Chalcedon.  In  his 
was  deposed.  Severus  exercised  a  most  active  epis-  Egyptian  exile  Severus  was  occupied  with  his  contro- 
oopacy,  living  still  like  a  monk,  having  destroyed  the  versy  with  Julian  of  Halicamassus.  We  also  hear  of 
baths  in  his  palace,  and  having  dismissed  the  cooks,  works  on  the  two  natures  "Against  Felicissimus",  and 
He  was  deporcd  in  September,  518^  on  the  accession  of  ''  Against  the  Codicils  of  Alexander  '\  Like  all  Mono- 
Justin,  as  a  preparation  for  reumon  with  the  West,  physites  his  theology  is  limited  to  the  controversial 
He  fled  to  Alexandria.  questions.    Beyond  these  he  has  no  outlook.    Of  the 

In  the  reign  of  Justinian  the  patronage  accorded  to  numerous  sermons  of  Severus,  those  which  he  preached 
the  Monophysites  by  Theodora  raised  their  hopes,  at  Antioch  are  quoted  as  "Homilis  cathedrales'' 
Severus  went  to  Constantinople  where  he  fraternized  They  have  come  down  to  us  in  two  Syriac  transla- 
with  the  ascetical  Patriarch  Anthimus.  who  had  al-  tions;  one  was  probably  made  by  Paul,  Bishop  of 
ready  exchanged  friendly  letters  with  nim  and  with  Callinicus,  at  the  beginning  of  the  sixth  century,  the 
Theodosius  of  Alexandna.  The  latter  was  deposed  other  by  Jacob  Baradai,  was  completed  in  701. 
for  heresy  by  Pope  Agapetus  on  his  arrival  in  Con-  Those  which  have  been  printed  are  of  astonishing 
stantinople  in  536.  His  successor  Mennas  held  a  great  eloquence.  A  diatribe  against  the  Hippodrome  may 
council  of  sixty-nine  bishops  in  the  same  year  after  the  be  especially  noticed,  for  it  is  very  modem  in  its  de- 
pope's  departure  in  the  presence  of  the  papal  legates,  nunciation  of  the  cruelty  to  the  horses  which  was 
solemnly  heard  the  case  of  Anthimus  and  reiterated  involved  in  the  chariot  races.  A  fine  exhortation  to 
his  deposition.  Mennas  knew  Justinian's  mind,  and  frequent  communion  is  in  the  same  sermon.  The  let- 
was  determined  to  be  orthodox:  "We,  as  you  know",  ters  of  Severus  were  collected  in  twenty-three  books, 
said  he  to  the  council,  "follow  and  obey  the  Apostolic  and  numbered  no  less  than  3759.  The  sixth  book  is 
See,  and  those  with  whom  it  communicates  we  have  extant.  It  contains  theolo^cal  letters  besides  many 
in  our  communion,  and  those  whom  it  condemns,  we  proofs  of  the  varied  activities  of  the  patriarch  in  his 
condemn."  The  Easterns  were  consequently  em-  episcopal  functions.  He  also  composed  hymns  for  the 
boldened  to  present  petitions  against  Severus  and  people  of  Antioch,  since  he  perceived  that  they  were 
Peter  of  Apamea.  It  is  from  these  documents  that  f  ond  of  singins.  His  correspondence  with  Anthmius  of 
we  have  our  main  knowledge  of  Severus  from  the  point  Constantinople  is  found  in  "  Hist.  Misc.",  IX,  xxi-xxii. 
of  view  of  his  orthodox  opponents.  One  petition  is  Jvlian,  Bishop  of  Halicamassus,  joined  with  Seve- 
from  seven  bishops  of  S3rna  Secunda,  two  others  are  rus  in  the  intrigue  by  which  Macedonius  was  deposed 
from  ninety-seven  monasteries  of  Palestine  and  Syria  from  the  Patriarchate  of  Constantinople  in  511.  He 
Secunda  to  the  emperor  and  to  the  council.  Former  was  exiled  on  tlie  accession  of  Justin  in  518^  and  re- 
petitions of  518  were  recited.  The  charges  are  some-  tired  to  the  monastery  of  Enaton,  nine  miles  from 
what  vague  (for  the  facts  arc  supposed  known)  of  mur-  Alexandria.  He  was  already  of  advanced  age.  Here 
ders,  imprisonments,  and  chains,  as  well  as  of  heresy,  he  wrote  a  work  "  Against  the  Diphysites"  in  which  he 
Mennas  pronoimcea  the  condemnation  of  these  here-  spoke  incorrectlv  according  to  Severus,  who  neverthe- 
tics  for  contemning  the  succession  from  the  Apostles  less  did  not  reply.  But  Julian  himselSf  commenced  a 
in  the  ApostoUc  See,  for  setting  at  nought  the  patriar-  correspondence  with  him  (it  is  preserved  in  the  Svriac 
chal  see  of  the  royal  city  and  its  council,  the  Apostolic  translation  made  in  528  by  Paul  of  Callinicus,  ana  also 
succession  from  our  Lord  in  the  holy  places  (Jem-  partially  in  the  "Hist.  Misc.",  IX,  x-xiv)  in  which  he 
salem),  and  the  sentence  of  the  whole  Diocese  of  Ori-  oe^ed  his  opinion  on  the  question  of  the  incomipti- 
ens.  Severus  retired  to  Egypt  once  more  and  to  his  bihty  of  the  Body  of  Christ.  Severus  replied,  enclos- 
eremitical  life.  He  died,  8  February,  538,  refusing  to  ing  an  opinion  which  is  lost,  and  in  answer  to  a  second 
take  a  bath  even  to  save  his  life,  though  he  was  per-  letter  from  Julian  wrote  a  long  epistle  which  Julian 
suaded  to  allow  himself  to  be  bathed  with  his  clothes  considered  to  be  wanting  in  respect,  especially  as  he 
on.  Wonders  are  said  to  have  followed  his  death,  and  had  been  obliged  to  wait  for  it  a  year  and  a  month, 
miracles  to  have  been  worked  by  his  relics.  He  has  Parties  were  formed.  The  Julianists  upheld  the  incor- 
always  been  venerated  by  the  Jacobite  Church  as  one  ruptibility  of  the  Body  of  Christ,  meaning  that  Christ 
of  its  principal  doctors.  was  not  naturally  subject  to  the  ordinary  wants  of 

His  literary  output  was  enormous.    A  long  catar  hunger,  thirst,  weariness,  etc.,  nor  to  pain,  but  that 

logue  of  works  is  given  by  Assemani.    Only  a  few  frag-  He  assumed  tiiem  of  His  free  will  for  our  sakes.   They 

ments  survive  in  the  original  Greek,  but  a  great  quan-  admitted  that  He  is  " consubstantial  with  us",  against 

tity  exists  in  Syriac  translations,  some  of  which  has  Eutyches,  yet  they  were  accused  by  the  Severians  of 

been  printed.    The  early  works  against  Nephalius  are  Eutychianism,  Manichsism,  and  Docetism,  and  were 

lost.    A  dialogue.  "Philalethes",  against  the  support-  niclmamed  Phantasiasts,  Aphthartodocetse,  or  Incor- 

ers  of  the  Council  of  Chalcedon  was  composed  during  mpticols.    They  retorted  by  calling  the  Severians 

the  first  stay  of  Severus  at  Constantinople,  50^11.  Phthartolotrse  (Comipticols),  or  Etistolatrse,  for  Se- 

It  was  a  reply  to  an  orthodox  collection  of  250  extracts  verus  taught  that  our  Ix>rd's  Body  was  "  corruptible  " 

from  the  woncs  of  St.  Cjnil.    An  answer  seems  to  have  by  its  own  nature;  that  was  scarcely  consistent,  as  it 

been  written  by  John  the  Grammarian  of  Csesarea,  and  can  only  be  of  itself  "corruptible"  when  considered 

Severus  retorted  with  an  "Apology  for  Philalethes"  apart  from  the  union,  and  the  Monophysites  refused 

(remains  of  the  attack  and  retort  in  Cod.  Vat.  Syr.  140  to  consider  the  Human  Nature  of  Christ  apart  from 

and  Cod.  Venet.  Marc.  165).    A  work  "Contra  Joan-  the  union.   Justinian,  who  in  his  old  age  turned  more 

nem  Grammaticum"  which  had  a  great  success,  and  than  ever  to  the  desire  of  conciliating  the  Monophy- 

seems  to  have  long  been  regarded  by  the  Monophy-  sites  (in  spite  of  his  failure  to  please  them  by  condemn- 

sites  as  a  triumph,  was  probably  written  in  exile  after  ing  the  "  three  chapters"),  was  probablv  led  to  favour 

519.    Severus  was  not  an  original  theologian.    He  Julian  because  he  was  the  opponent  of  Severus,  who 

had  studied  the  Cappadocians  and  he  depended  much  was  universally  regarded  as  the  great  foe  of  orthodoxy. 

on  the  ApoUinarian  forgeries;  but  in  the  main  he  fol-  The  emperor  issura  an  edict  in  565  making  the  "incor- 


MONOPHTSmS                        492  MONOPHTSmS 

ruptibility "  an  obligatoiy  doctrine,  in  spite  of  the  fact  guished  from  an  earlier  grammarian,  alao  called  Phflo- 

that  Julian  had  been  anathematized  by  a  council  at  ponua,  who  flouriflhed  under  Augustus  and  Tiberius. 

Constantinople  in  536,  at  which  date  he  had  probably  Of  his  life  little  is  known.    On  account  of  his  Trithe- 

Deen  dead  for  some  years.  istic  opinions  he  was  smnmoned  to  Ck)n8tantinople  by 

A  commentary  by  Julian  on  the  Book  of  Job,  in  a  Justinian,  but  he  excused  himself  on  account  of  his  age 
Latin  version,  was  printed  in  an  old  Paris  edition  of  and  infirmity.  He  addressed  to  the  emperor  a  treatise 
Origen  (ed.  Genebrardus,  1574).  A  MS.  of  the  origi-  "  De  divisione,  differentia,  et  numero  ",  which  seems  to 
nal  Greek  is  mentioned  by  Mai.  It  is  lazgely  quoted  be  the  same  as  a  treatise  spoken  of  as  "De  differentia 
in  the  catena  on  Job  of  Nicetas  of  Heraclea.  The  quffimanerecrediturinChiistopostunionem'';  but  it 
fxe&t  work  of  Julian  against  Severus  seems  to  be  lost,  is  lost.  He  addressed  an  essay  on  Tritheism  to  Ath»- 
Ten  anathematisms  remain.  Of  his  commentaries,  nasius  Monachus,  and  was  condenmed  on  this  account 
one  on  Matthew  is  cited  by  Moses  Barkepha  (P.  G.,  at  Alexandria.  At  a  disputation  held  by  the  em- 
CXI,  551).  It  is  to  be  hoped  that  some  of  Julian's  peror's  order  before  the  Patriarch  of  Ck)nstantinop]e 
works  will  be  recovered  in  S3niac  or  Coptic  transla-  John  Scholasticus.  Conon,  and  Eugenius  represented 
tions.  An  anti-Julianist  catena  in  the  British  Museum  the  Tritheists;  Jonn  condemned  Philoponus,  and  the 
(MS.  Addit.  12155)  malces  mention  of  Julian's  writ-  emperor  issued  an  edict  against  the  sect  (Photius,  cod. 
ings.  We  hear  of  a  treatise  by  him^  ''Against  the  24).  In  568  Philoponus  was  still  alive,  for  he  pub* 
Eutychianists  and  Manichsans",  which  wows  that  lished  a  pamphlet  against  John,  which  Photius  de- 
Julian,  like  his  great  opponent  Severus,  had  to  be  on  scribes  with  great  severity  (cod.  75).  The  style  of 
his  guard  against  extravagant  Monophysites.  Part  of  Philoponus,  he  says,  is  always  clear,  but  without  dig- 
the  treatise  which  Peter  of  CaUinicuSf  Patriarch  of  nity,  and  his  argumentation  ispucffile.  (For  the  theo- 
Antioch  (578-591),  wrote  against  the  Damianists  is  logical  views  of  the  sect,  see  T^ithisibts.) 
extant  in  Syriac  MSS.  (see  Assemani's  and  Wright's  dmon^  Bishop  of  Tarsus,  though  a  Tritheist  and, 
catalogues).  with  Eugenius,  a  supporter  of  John  Philoponus  before 

The  writers  of  the  Tritheist  sect  (see  TBiTEnBiSTs)  the  emperor,  disagreed  with  that  writer  about  the 

next  demand  our  attention.    The  chief  among  them,  equality  of  tne  three  Persons  of  the  Holy  Trinity  (see 

John  PhiloponuSf  of  C^sesarea,  was  Patriarch  of  the  Trttheistb),  and  together  with  Eugenius  and  Themis^ 

Tritheists  at  Alexandria  at  the  beginning  of  the  sixth  Hus  wrote  a  book,  card  'Itadwpov^  against  his  views  on 

century,  and  was  the  principal  writer  of  his  party.   He  the  Resurrection.   Eugenius  is  callM  a  Cilidan  bishop 

was  a  grammarian^  a  philosopher,  and  an  astronomer  by  John  of  Ephesus,  but  Bar  Hebneus  makes  him 

as  well  as  a  theologian.  His  principal  theological  work,  Bishop  of  Seleucia  in  Isauria  (see  Tiutheistb).   The- 

Aiatriyr^f  4  irept  iwt&o'ttat  in  ten  books,  is  lost.    It  dealt  mistius,  sumamed  Calonymus,  was  a  deacon  of  Alex- 

with  the  Christological  and  Trinitarian  controversies  andria,  who  separated  from  his  patriarch,  Timothy  IV 

of  his  SLge,  and  fra^ents  of  it  are  found  in  Leontius  (517-535),  and  founded  the  sect  of  Agnoete.     He 

(De  sectis,  Oct.  5),  m  St.  John  Damascene  (De  hsr.,  I,  wrote  against  Severus  a  book  called  "  Apology  for  the 

101-107,  ed.  Le  Quien)  and  in  Niceph.  Call.,  XVIII  late  Theophobius",  to  which  a  Severian  monk  named 

(see  Mansi,  XI,  301).   A  complete  Syriac  tranplation  Theodore  replied;  the  answer  of  Themistius  was  again 

is  in  Brit.  Mus.  and  Vat.  MSS.  Another  lost  theo-  refuted  bv  Theodore  in  three  books  (Photius,  cod. 

logical  work,  rtpl  drao-rd^rewf,  described  the  writer's  108).    Other  works  of  Themistius  are  referred  to  by 

theory  of  a  creation  of  new  bodies  at  the  general  resur-  St.  Maximus  (Donfessor,  and  some  f raginents  are  cited 

rection;  it  is  mentioned  by  Photius  (cod.  21-23),  by  in  Mansi.  X,  981  and  1117.   Stephen  Gi^arue  the  Tri- 

Timotheus  Presbyter  and  Nicephorus.    As  a  philos-  theist  is  known  only  by  the  elaborate  analyos  of  his 

opher  Philoponus  was  an  Aristotelian,  and  a  oisciple  book  given  by  Photius  (cod.  232) ;  it  was  a  "Sic  et 

ot  the  Aristotelian  commentator  Ammonius,  son  of  Non"  like  that  of  Abelard,  giving  autiiiorities  for  a 

Hermeas.    His  own  commentaries  on  Aristotle  were  proposition  and  then  for  the  contrary  opinion.   At  the 

'^^^^^A  u,.  Ai^..^  «*  X7^«:«-^  /^«  itT\^  ««.*^-«*:-.w«^  ^i.  ^^A^^^,^  -^--.^  remarks  on  curious  views  of  a  number 

was  evidently,  as  Photius  remarks,  a 
more  labour  tnan  usefulness. 
'^De  anima",  1535;  "Meteorologica",  1, 1551^  ''Met-  ~  History. — ^We  now  turn  to  the  historians.  Zaeha^ 
aphysica",  1583).  He  also  wrote  much  against  the  riae  ofOaza,  brother  of  Procopius  of  Gaza,  the  riieto- 
'£riX«(P^A*a^a  of  Produs,  the  last  great  Neoplatonist:  rician,  Zacharias  Scholasticus,  Zacharias  the  Rheto- 
eighteen  books  on  the  eternity  of  the  world  fVenice.  rician,  Zacharias  of  Mitylene,  are  all  apparently  the 
1635),  composed  in  529,  and  repl  Kofffjoroitat  (printea  same  person  (so  Kugener's  latest  view^  Krtk^,  and 
by  Corderius,  Vienna,  1630,  and  in  Gallandi,  Xll;  new  Brooks).  Of  his  early  life  we  have  a  vivid  picture  in 
ed.  bv  Reichert.  1897),  on  the  Hexsemeron,  in  which  his  memoirs  of  Severus,  with  whom  he  studied  at  Alex- 
he  follows  St.  Basil  and  other  Fathers,  and  shows  a  andria  and  at  Berytus.  His  home  was  at  Uie  port  of 
vast  knowledge  of  all  the  literature  and  science  acces-  Gasa,  near  Uie  monastery  of  the  bishop,  Peter  the 
sible  in  his  day.  The  latter  work  is  dedicated  to  a  cer-  Iberian.  To  the  latter  he  was  greatly  devoted,  and 
tain  Sergius,  who  may  perham  be  identified  with  believed  that  Peter  had  prophesied  lus  unfitness  for 
Sergius  the  Grammanan,  the  jSutychianizin^  coire-  the  monastic  life.  He  in  fact  did  not  become  a  monk, 
spondent  of  Severus.  The  work  was  possibly  written  as  when  his  friends  Evagrius,  Severus,  and  others  did  so. 
early  as  517  (for  617  in  the  editions  is  evidently  a  cleri-  but  practised  law  at  Constantinople,  and  reached 
cal  error).  A ''  Computatio  de  Pascha",  printed  after  eminence  in  his  profession.  Of  his  writings,  a  dialogue 
this  work,  argues  that  the  Last  Supper  was  on  the  13th  "  that  the  world  did  not  exist  from  eternity  "  was  prob- 
of  Nizan,  and  was  not  a  real  passover.  A  lost  theo-  ably  composed  in  youth  while  he  lived  at  Be^tus. 
logical  work  entitled  r/iij/Mra  is  summarized  by  Michael  His  "  Ecclesiastical  History  "  is  extant  only  in  a  Syriac 
the  Syrian  (Chronicle,  II,  69).  A  book  against  the  epitome  which  forms  four  books  (III-VI)  of  the  ''^EQs- 
Coundl  of  Chalcedon  is  mentioned  by  Photius  (cod.  toria  Miscellanea".  It  begins  with  a  short  account 
55).  A  work  "Contra  Andream"  is  preserved  in  a  from  a  Monoph3rBite  point  of  view  of  the  Council  of 
S^ac  MS.  Another  work  "Against  the  Acephali"  Chalcedon,  and  continues  the  history,  mainly  of  Pales- 
exists  in  MS.,  and  may  be  the  work  Philoponus  is  tine  and  Alexandria,  until  the  deatn  of  Zeno  (491). 
known  to  have  written  in  controversy  with  Severus.  From  the  same  history  is  derived  a  curious  statistical 
Jn  gnmrnar  his  master  was  Romanus,  and  his  extant  description  of  Rome  m  "Hist.  Misc.",  X.  xvi.  Tlie 
writings  on  the  subject  are  based  upon  the  KoBokiiHi  very  mteresting  life  of  Severus  carries  tne  author's 
of  Herodian  (rorurd  rofMLyyfKfiAra^  ed.  Dindorf,  1825;  recollections  up  to  the  accession  of  his  hero  to  the  See 
rtpX  tQw  duL^ptat  ropwixdnap^  ed.  E^enolfiF,  1880).  of  Antioch  in  512.  It  was  written  subeequentiy  to  the 
This  sixth  century  Monophymte  is  to  be  distin-  history,  as  the  cubiculariua  Eupraxius,  to  whom  that 


MONOPHTSmS  493  MONOPHYSmS 

work  was  dedicated,  was  already  dead.   His  recoUec-    chad  with  a  continuation;  the  ''Chronicon  ecclesiasti* 
tions  of  Peter  the  Iberian  and  of  Theodore,  Bishop  of    cum"  contains  the  ecclesiastical  history  first  of  West' 


Pitra  in  Greek,  was  probably  written  after  the  edict  of  archs.    The  '*  Chronicle"  of  Elias  of  Niaibia  to  1008  is 

Justinian  against  the  Manichseans  in  527.    He  seems  important  because  it  mentions  its  sources,  but  it  is 

to  have  been  still  a  layman.    Up  to  the  time  he  wrote  very  defective  in  the  early  period  through  the  loss  of 

the  life  of  Severus  he  was  a  follower  of  the  Henoticon;  some  pages  of  the  MS.    Sainl  the  CUician  and  John  of 

this  was  the  easy  course  under  Zeno  and  Anastasius.  JBgea  are  counted  as  Monophysite  writers  by  Ehrhard 

It  would  seem  that  he  found  it  paid  to  revert  to  ortho-  (in  Krumbacher,  p.  53),  but  Photius  clearly  makes 

dozy  under  Justin  and  Justinian,  for  he  was  present  as  them  out  Nestoiians  (cod.  41.  55, 107),  and  it  is  by  a 

Bishop  of  Mitylene  at  the  Council  of  Mennas  at  Con-  slip  that  he  conjectures  Basil  to  be  the  author  of  a 

stantinople  in  536,  where  he  was  one  of  Uie  three  work  against  Nestorius. 

metropolitans  who  were  sent  to  summon  Anthimus  to  Syriac  Writera.-^f  the  Syiiac  Monophysite  writ- 
appear.  His  name  does  not  appear  in  the  incomplete  ers  none  is  more  important  than  PhiUxcentu,  other- 
I>nnted  list  of  subscriptions  to  that  patriarch's  deposi-  wise  Xenaiaa.  who  was  Bishop  of  Mabug  (Hierapolis) 
tion,  but  Labbe  testifies  that  it  is  found  in  some  MSS.  from  485.  for  his  life  and  the  version  of  Scripture 
(Mausi,  VIII,  975) ;  it  is  absent  from  the  condemna-  which  was  made  by  his  order,  see  Philoxenub.  Hjs 
tion  of  Severus  in  a  later  session.  Zacluurias  was  dead  dogmatic  writings  alone  concern  us  here.  His  letter 
before  the  cecumenical  council  of  553.  to  the  Emperor  Zeno,  published  by  Vaschalde  (1902) 

An  important  historical  work  in  anecdotal  form  is  is  of  485,  the  date  of  his  episcopal  consecration  and  of 

the  ''Plerophoria"  of  John  of  Malumay  composed  his  acceptance  of  the  Henoticon.    His  treatises  on  the 

about  515';  it  contains  stories  of  Monophysite  worthies  Incarnation  date  perhaps  before  500;  to  the  same  pe- 

up  to  date,  especially  of  Peter  the  Iberian,  whose  riodbelon^twoshort  works,  "A  Confession  of  Faitn" 

life  was  also  written  by  Zacharias^  but  is  now  lost,  and  ''Against  every  Nestorian''.    He  wrote  also  on 

A  later  life  of  Peter  has  been  pnnted,  which  con-  the  Trimty.    A  letter  to  Marco,  lector  of  Anazarbus, 

tains  curious  information  about  the  Iberian  princes  is  attributed  to  515-^18.    After  he  had  been  eddied  by 

from  whom  the  Monophysite  bishop  descended.    The  Justin  to  Philippolis  in  Thrace  in  518,  he  attacked  tiie 

life  of  the  ascetic  Isaias  by  Zacharias  accompanies  it.  orthodox  patnarch,  Paul  of  Antioch,  in  a  letter  to  the 

The  interesting  ''Historia  Miscellanea",  often  re-  monks  of  Teleda,  and  wrote  another  letter  of  which 

ferred  to  as  Psevao'Zachanaa,  was  composed  in  Syriac  fragments  are  found  in  MS.  Addit.  14533,  in  which  he 

in  twelve  books  by  an  unknown  author  who  seems  to  arKues  that  it  is  sometimes  wise  to  admit  baptisms  and 

have  lived  at  Amida.    Though  the  work  was  com-  ordinations  by  heretics  for  the  sake  of  peace;  the  aues- 

pleted  in  569.  he  seems  to  have  used  part  of  the  history  tion  of  sacramental  validity  does  not  occur  to  mm. 

of  John  of  Ephesus,  which  was  finished  onlv  in  571.  Fragments  of  his  commentaries  on  the  Gospel  are 

Certain  parts  were  written  earlier  (or  are  Sorrowed  found  in  MSS.    Thirteen  homilies  on  religious  life 

from  older  writers),  VII,  XV  before  523;  X,  xii  in  545;  have  been  published  by  Bud^e.    They  scajrcely  touch 

XII,  vii  in  555 j  XII.  iv  in  561.    The  first  book  con-  upon  dogma.    Of  his  three  hturgies  two  are  given  bv 

tains  a  Quantity  of  legendary  matter  from  Greek  Ivenaudot.    Outof  the  great  mass  of  his  works  in  MS. 

sources  which  are  still  extant;  a  few  words  are  added  at  Rome.  Paris,  Oxford,  Cambridge,  London,  only  a 

on  the  Syriac  doctors  Isaac  and  Dodo.    Book  II  has  fraction  has  been  published.    He  was  an  ea^er  con- 

the  stor^  of  the  Seven  Sleepers.    History  bc^gins  in  troversialist,  a  scholar,  and  an  accomplished  writer. 

II,  ii.  with  an  account  of  Eutyches,  and  the  letter  of  His  Syriac  st^le  is  much  admired.    Hjs  sect  had  no 

Pioclus  to  the  Armenians  follows.    The  next  four  more  energetic  leader  until  Jacob  Baradseus  himself. 

books  are  an  epitome  of  the  lost  work  of  Zacharias  He  was  president  of  the  synod  which  elevated  Severus 

Rhetor.  The  seventh  book  continues  the  story  from  to  the  See  of  Antioch.  ana  he  had  been  the  chlc^  agent 

the  accession  of  Anastasius  (491),  and  together  with  in  the  extrudon  of  Flavian.    He  was  an  energetic  foe 

genial  ecclesiastical  history  it  combines  some  inter-  of  Catholicism,  and  his  works  stand  next  in  impor- 

esting  details  of  wars  with  the  Persians  in  Mesopo-  tance  to  those  of  Severus  as  witnesses  to  the  tenets  of 

tamia.    A  curious  chapter  gives  the  Prologue  of  Moro,  their  party.    He  was  exiled  by  Justin  in  519  to  Philip- 

or  Mara,  Bishop  of  Amida  (a  Syriac  writer  whose  polis  and  then  to  Gang^,  where  he  died  of  suffocation 

works  appear  to  be  lost) ,  to  his  edition  of  the  four  Gos-  by  smoke  in  the  room  in  which  he  was  confined. 

peb  in  Greek,  to  which  the  writer  appends  as  a  curios-  James  ofSarugh,  451-521  (q.  v.),  became  periodeutea, 

ity'  the  pericope'of  the  woman  taken  m  adultery  (John,  or  viator,  of  Maura  in  that  district  about  505,  and 

viii)  wmch  Moro  had  inserted  in  the  89th  canon;  "it  is  bishop  of  its  capital,  Batnan,  in  519.    Nearly  all  his 

not  found  in  other  MSS."    Book  VIII.  iii,  g^ves  the  numerous  writings  are  metncal.    We  are  told  that 

letter  of  Simeon  of  Beit-Arsham  on  the  martyrs  of  seventy  amanuenses  were  employed  to  copjr  his  760 

Yemen,  perhaps  an  ^K>cryphal  document.    Book  XI  metrical  homilies,  which  are  in  Wright's  opinion  more 

is  lost,  with  most  of  X  and  All.    Some  of  X  has  been  readable  than  those  of  Ephraem  or  Isaac  of  Antioch. 

restored  by  Brooks  from  the  "Chronicle''  of  Michael  A  good  many  have  been  published  at  various  times, 

the  Syrian  (died  1199).    It  is  necessary  to  mention  the  In  the  Vatican  are  233  in  MSS.,  in  London  140,  in 

"Chronicle  of  Edessa"j  from  495  to  506,  which  is  em-  Paris,  100.    They  are  much  cited  in  the  S3rriac  Lit- 

bedded  in  the  "Chromcle"  attributed  to  Joehua  the  urgy^  and  a  liturgy  and  a  baptismal  rite  are  ascribed 

Stylite  (who  seems  to  have  been  a  Catholic) ;  this  latter  to  mm.    Numerous  letters  of  his  are  extant  in  Brit, 

is  mduded  in  the  second  book  of  the  "Chronicle"  at-  Mus.,  MSS.  Addit.  14587  and  17163.    Though  his 

tributed  to  the  Patriarch  of  Antioch,  Dionysius  of  feast  is  kept  by  Maronites  and  even  by  some  Nesto- 

Tdl'Makret  a  compilation  which  has  a  fourth  book  rians,  there  is  no  doubt  that  he  accepted  the  Henoti- 

(from  the  end  of  the  sixth  century  to  775)  which  is  an  con,  and  was  afterwards  in  relation  with  the  leading 

ori^nal  work  by  the  compiler,  who  was  in  reality  a  Monophysites,  rejecting  the  Council  of  Chalcedon  to 

monk  of  Zoi^enin  (north  of  Amida),  poedbly  Joshua  the  end  of  his  Ufe.    Stephen  bar  Soudsuli  was  an  Edes- 

the  Stylite  himself.  sene  Monophysite  who  fell  into  Pantheism  and  Origen- 

Some  small  chronicles  of  the  sixth,  seventh,  eighth,  ism.    He  was  attacked  by  Philoxenus  and  James  of 

and  ninth  centuries  have  been  published  as  "Chronica  Sarugh,  and  retired  to  Jerusalem.    The  confession  of 

minora"  in  the  "Corpus  Script.  Or."    Of  later  histo-  faith  of  John  of  TeUa  (483-538;  bishop,  519-521)  is  ex- 

ries,  those  of  Bar  Hehrome  (died  1286)  must  be  noted,  tant,  and  so  is  his  commentary  on  the  Trisa^on,  and 

Hia  "Chronicon  Syiiaoum  "  is  an  abridgment  of  Mi-  his  canons  for  the  clergy  and  repties  to  the  questions  of 


MONOPHT8ITS8  494  MONOPHT8ITE8 

the  priest  Sergius — all  in  MSS.  in  the  British  Muaeiim.  nian  literature  is  large,  but  cannot  be  treated  in  an 

The  great  Jamea  BaradcBua,  the  eponymous  hero  of  the  article  like  the  present  one. 

Jacobites,  who  supplied  bishops  and  clergy  for  the        Obthodoxt. — ^Were  the  Monophysites  really  here* 

Monophysites  when  the^  were  definitively  divided  tics  or  were  they  only  schismatics?    This  question 

from  the  Eastern  Cathobcs  in  543,  wrote  but  little:  a  was  answered  in  the  affirmative  by  Assemani.  more 

liturgy,  a  few  letters,  a  sermon,  and  a  confession  of  recently  bv  the  Oriental  scholar  Nau,  and  last  of  all  by 

faith  are  extant  (see  BARADiEUS).    Of  Syriac  transla-  Lebon.  wno  has  devoted  an  important  work,  full  of 

tors  it  is  not  necessary  to  speak,  nor  is  there  need  to  evidence  from  unpublished  sources,  to  the  establish- 

treatof  the  Monophysite  scientist  Sergius  of  Reschaina,  ment  of  this  thesis.    It  is  urged  that  the  Monophy- 

the  writer  on  philosophy,  Ahoudenmieh,  and  many  sites  taught  that  there  is  but  one  Nature  of  Christ,  fda 

others.  ^^<',  because  they  identify  the  words  ^^i s  and  inrS^- 

John  of  Ephesria,  called  also  John  of  Asia,  was  a  roo-tt.    But  in  just  the  same  way  the  Nestorians  have 

Syrian  of  Amida,  where  he  became  a  deacon  in  529.  lately  been  justified.    A  simple  scheme  will  make  the 

On  account  of  the  persecution  of  his  sect  he  departed,  matter  plun: 

and  was  made  administrator  of  the  temporal  affairs  of        Neatoriana:  One  person,  two  hypostases,  two  na- 

the  Monophysites  in  Constantinople  oy  Justinian,  tures. 

who  sent  him  in  the  following  year  as  a  missionary        CathoHca:  One  person,  one  hypostasis,  two  natures, 
bishop  to  the  pagans  of  Asia  Minor.    He  relates  of        MonophysUes     One  person,  one  hypostafds,  one 

himself  that  he  converted  60,000,  and  had  96  churches  nature. 

built.    He  returned  to  the  capital  in  546,  to  destroy        It  is  urged  by  Bethune-Baker  that  Nestorius  and 

idol  worship  there  also.    But  on  the  death  of  Justin-  his  friends  took  the  word  hypostasis  in  the  sense  of 

ian  he  suffered  a  continual  persecution,  which  he  de-  nature,  and  by  Lebon  that  the  Monophysites  took 

scribes  in  his  ''History'',  as  an  excuse  for  its  confusion  nature  in  the  sense  of  hypostasis,  so  that  both  parties 

and  repetitions.    What  remains  of  that  work  is  of  really  intended  the  Catholic  doctrine.    There  is  a 

ereat  value  as  a  contemporary  record.    The  style  is  vrima  facie   aigument    against    both    these   pleas, 

florid  and  full  of  Greek  expressions.    The  lives  of  Granting  that  for  centuries  controversialists  full  of 

blessed  Easterns  were  put  together  by  John  shout  odium  theohgicum  might  misunderstand  one  another 

565-566,  and  have  been  published  by  Land.    They  and  fikht  about  words  while  agreeing  as  to  the  under- 

indude  great  men  lUce  Severus,  Baradffius,  Theodo-  lying  doctrine,  yet  it  remains  that  the  words  person, 

sius,  etc.    (For  an  account  of  these  works  and  for  hypostasis,  nature,  (rpdavrow,  inrharaciy  <pAaK)  had 

bibliography  see  John  of  Ephesus.)  received  in  the  second  half  of  the  fourth  century  a 

Oeorge,  bishop  of  the  Arabians  (b.  about  640;  d.  perfectly  definite  meaning,  as  to  which  the  whole 
724)  was  one  of  the  chi^  writers  of  the  Ass3rrian  Jaco-  Church  was  at  one.  All  agreed  that  in  the  Holy 
bites.  He  was  a  personal  follower  of  James  of  Edessa,  Trinity  there  is  one  Nature  (o^/a  or  ^6ait)  having 
whose  poem  on  the  Hexameron  he  completed  after  the  three  Hypostases  or  Persons.  If  in  Christology  the 
death  of  James  in  708.  In  this  work  he  teaches  the  Nestorians  used  ^Sffraait  and  the  Monoph3rsite8 
Apocatastasis,  or  restoration  of  all  thinm.  indud-  ^<^<t  in  a  new  sense,  not  only  does  it  follow  tnat  their 
ing  the  destruction  of  hell,  which  so  many  Greek  F&-  use  of  words  was  singularly  inconsistent  and  inexcu- 
thers  learned  from  Origen.  Geoige  was  bom  in  the  sable,  but  (what  is  far  more  important)  that  they  can 
Tchouma  in  the  Diocese  of  Antiocn,  and  was  ordained  have  had  no  difficulty  in  seeing  what  was  the  true  mean- 
bishop  of  the  wanderine  Arabs  in  November,  686;  Us  ing  of  Catholic  councils,  popes,  and  theologians,  who 
see  was  at  Akoula.  He  was  a  man  of  considerable  consistently  used  the  words  m  one  and  the  same  sense 
learning.  His  translation,  with  introduction  and  with  regard  both  to  the  Trinity  and  the  Incarnation, 
oommentaiy,  of  part  of  the  ''Or^anon''  of  Aristotle  There  would  be  every  excuse  for  CathoUcs  if  they  mis^ 
("Catagories",  De  Interpretatione''.  and  ''Prior  understood  suchastrange ''derangement  of  epitaphs" 
Analytics **)\a  extant  (Brit.  Mus. ,  MS.  Aadit.  14659),  as  on  the  part  of  the  schismatics,  but  the  schismatics  must 
is  the  collection  he  made  of  scholia  on  St.  Gregory  of  have  ^isily  grasped  the  Catholic  position.  As  a  fact 
Nazianzus,  and  an  explanation  of  the  three  Sacra^-  the  Antiochene  party  had  no  difiScult^  in  coming  to 
ments  (Baptism,  Holy  Communion,  and  consecration  terms  with  St.  Leo;  they  understood  him  well  enoi^, 
of  chrism, — ^foUowing  Pseudo-Dionysius).  His  let-  and  declared  that  they  had  always  meant  what  he 
ters  of  714  till  718  are  extant  in  the  same  MS.  as  this  meant.  How  far  this  was  a  fact  must  be  discussed 
last  work  (Brit.  Mus.,  MS.  Addlt.  12154).  They  deal  under  Nestorianism.  But  the  Monophysites  alwavs 
with  many  things;  astronomical,  exegetical,  lituracal  withstood  the  Catholic  doctrine,  declannf;  it  to  be 

Suestions,  explanations  of  Greek  proverbs  and  fables,  Nestorian,  or  half  Nestorian,  and  that  it  divided 
ogma  and  polemic^  and  contain  historical  matter  Christ  into  two. 
about  Aphraates  andf  Gregory  the  Illuminator.  His  Lebon  urges  that  Severus  himself  more  than  once 
poems  included  one  in  dodecasyUables  on  the  unprom-  explains  that  there  is  a  difference  in  the  use  of  words 
ising  subject  of  the  calculation  of  movable  feasts  and  in  "theology"  (doctrine  of  the  Trinity)  and  in  "the 
the  correction  of  the  solar  and  lunar  cycles,  another  economy"  (Incarnation):  "Admittedly  hypostasis 
on  the  monastic  life,  and  two  on  the  consecration  of  and  oUala  or  ^^(f  are  not  the  same  in  theolo^; 
the  holy  chrism.  His  works  are  important  for  our  however,  in  the  economy  they  are  the  same"  (P.  G., 
knowledge  of  Syriac  Church  and  literature.  His  read-  LXXXVI,  1921),  and  he  alleges  the  example  of  Greg- 
ing  was  vast,  including  the  chief  Greek  Fathers,  with  ory  of  Nazianzus  to  show  that  in  a  new  mjrstery  the 
whom  he  classes  Severus  and  Pseudo-Dionysius  the  terms  must  take  new  significations.  But  surely  these 
Areopagite;  he  knows  the  Pseudo-Clementines  and  very  passages  make  it  evident  that  Severus  distin- 
Josephus,  and  of  Syriac  writers  he  knows  Bardesanes,  guished  between  ^^(f  and  inrSaraais,  Putting  aside 
Aphraates,  and  St.  Ephraem.  His  correspondence  is  uie  Trinity  and  the  Incarnation,  every  ^^(t  is  a 
addressed  to  literary  monks  of  his  sect.  The  canons  (nrharuati^  and  every  (nrbarafftt  is  a  0fc«t, — ^in  this 
attributed  to  George  in  the  "Nomocanon"  of  Bar  statement  all  Catholics  and  Monophysites  agree. 
Hebrsus  are  apparently  extracts  from  his  writings  re-  But  this  means  that  the  denotation  of  the  words  is 
duced  to  the  form  of  canons.  the  same,  not  that  there  is  no  difference  of  connotft- 
James  of  Edesaa  (a.  v.),  about  633-708,  was  the  tion.  ^^it  is  an  abstraction,  and  cannot  exist  ex- 
chief  Syriac  writer  of  his  time,  and  the  last  that  need  oept  as  a  concrete,  that  is  to  say,  as  a  ^^^rotf-tt.  But 
be  mentioned  here.  His  works  are  sufficiently  de-  "admittedly"  in  the  Trinitythe  denotation  as  well  as 
scribed  in  a  separate  article  The  Syriac  literature  of  the  connotation  of  the  words  is  diverse,  it  is  still  true 
the  Monophysites,  however,  continued  throughout  that  each  of  the  three  H3rpo8tases  is  identified  with 
the  middle  ages.    Thdr  Coptic  Arabic,  and  Arme-  the  Divine  Nature  (that  is,  each  Person  is  God);  hmt 


M0N0FH78IT18                         495  MONOPHTSFRS 

if  each  Hypostasis  is  therefore  still  a  ^^<f  (the  one  mains  in  its  natural  state  with  its  own  characteristics 
#0'(f}  yet  tne  ^^tt  is  not  one  but  three  Hy^tases.  ('r  (di^nyrt  ri  xard  ^^ty)  yet  not  as  a  unity  but 
The  words  retain  their  old  sense  (connotation)  yet  as  a  part,  a  ciuality  (roi&rrft  ^v<r(jr^),  not  as  a  *p^tt. 
have  received  a  new  sense  in  a  new  relation.  It  is  All  the  qualities  of  the  two  natures  are  combined  into 
obvious  that  this  is  the  phenomenon  to  which  Sevenis  one  inrdiraait  ffiwOerot  and  form  the  one  nature  of 
referred.  Catholics  would  add  that  in  the  Incar-  that  one  h3rpo8tasis.  So  far  there  is  no  heresy  in  in- 
nation  conversely  two  natures  are  one  hypostasis,  tention,  but  only  a  wrong  definition: — ^that  one  hy- 
Thus  the  meanings  of  ^(^(rit  (abstract =od0^£a)  and  postasis  can  have  onlv  one  nature. 
^daraait  (subsistent  ^^crit^  ^dtf'tt  i^tarOffa  or  ivurh-  But  however  hanmess  the  formula  "one  nature" 
rrarot)  in  the  Holy  Trimty  were  a  common  pos-  might  look  at  first  sight,  it  led  in  fact  immediately 
session;  and  all  agreed  further  that  in  the  created  to  serious  and  disastrous  consequences.  The  Divine 
universe  there  cannot  exist  a  nature  which  does  not  Nature  of  the  Word  is  not  merely  specifically  but 
subsist,  there  is  no  such  thing  as  a  ^<f  drvr^tfrarot.  numerically  one  with  the  Divine  Nature  of  the  Son  and 
(a)  But  Catholics  hold  the  Human  Nature  of  the  Holy  Ghost.  This  is  the  meaning  of  the  word 
Christ  considered  in  itself  to  be  dwvwSffrarot,  to  have  no  6fMo&9tot  applied  to  the  Three  Persons,  and  if  Har- 
human  mrSaraait^  but  that  the  second  Person  of  the  nack  were  right  in  supposing  that  at  the  Council  of 
Holy  Trinity  is  its  ^6<rra(ris.  As  the  infinity  of  the  Constantinople  in  381  the  word  was  taken  to  impljr 
Divine  Nature  is  capable  of  a  threefold  subsistence,  only  three  Persons  of  one  species,  then  that  Council 
so  the  infinity  of  the  Hypostasis  of  the  Word  is  able  accepted  three  Gods,  and  not  three  distinct  but  in- 
to be  the  Hypostasis  of  the  Himian  Nature  assimied  separable  Persons  in  one  God.  Now  if  the  Divine  and 
as  well  as  of  the  Divine.  The  imion  in  Christ  is  not  Human  Natures  are  imited  in  the  Word  into  one 
a  union  of  two  natures  directly  with  one  another,  but  Natiire,  it  is  impossible  to  avoid  one  of  two  conclu- 
a  union  of  the  two  in  one  hypostasis;  thus  they  are  sions,  either  that  the  whole  Divine  Nature  became 
distinct  yet  inseparable,  and  each  acts  in  communion  man  and  suffered  and  died,  or  else  that  each  of  the 
with  the  other.  (/3)  The  Nestorians  argued  thus:  three  Persons  had  a  Divine  Nature  of  His  own.  In 
There  are,  according  to  the  Fathers,  two  natures  in  fact  the  Monophysites  split  upon  this  question. 
Christ;  but  since  every  nature  is  a  hypostasis,  the  ^lurus  and  Severus  seem  to  have  avoided  the  diffi- 
Human  Nature  in  Christ  is  a  hypostasis.  In  order  to  cultv,  but  it  was  not  long  before  those  who  refused 
make  one  Christ,  they  tried  (in  vain)  to  explain  how  the  latter  alternative  were  taimted  with  the  necessity 
two  hypostases  could  be  united  in  one  person  (rp6-  of  embracing  the  former,  and  were  nicknamed  The- 
aunrov).  They  did  not  mean  to  divide  Chnst,  but  their  opaschites,  as  makine  God  to  suffer.  Vehemently 
prosopic  union  leaked  at  every  seam;  it  was  difficult  Beverus  and  his  school  declared  that  they  made  the 
to  express  it  or  argue  about  it  without  falling  into  Divinity  to  suffer  not  as  God,  but  only  as  man;  but 
heresy.  The  Antiochenes  were  glad  to  drop  such  this  was  insufficient  as  a  reply.  Their  formula  was 
inadequate  formuls,  for  it  was  certain  that  ''jperson''  not  "The  Word  made  flesh' ,  "the  Son  of  God  made 
in  the  Holy  Trinitv  was  only  another  name  for  "hy-  man'',  but  "one  Nature  of  the  Word  made  flesh"; 
postasis".  The  C3yrillians  were  shocked,  and  could  — the  Nature  became  flesh,  that  is  the  whole  Divine 
not  be  induced  to  beUeve  (though  St.  Cyril  himself  Nature.  They  did  not  reply:  "We  mean  hypostasis 
did)  that  the  Nestorianizers  did  not  really  mean  two  when  we  say  nature,  we  do  not  mean  the  Divine 
Christs,  two  Sons.  (7)  Conversely,  starting  from  Nature  (which  the  Word  has  in  common  with  the 
the  same  proposition  that  every  ^<f  is  a  ^Zirroffu,  Father  and  the  Holy  Ghost)  but  His  Divine  Person, 
the  Monophysites  amied  that  as  Christ  is  one  Person,  which  in  the  present  case  we  call  His  0(^(f ",  for  the 
one  Hypostasis,  so  Be  is  one  Nature,  and  they  pre-  *^it  roO  0€oO  A670V,  before  the  word  awapKUfUwrf  has 
ferred  "is  one  nature"  to  the  equivalent  "has  one  beenadded,  is  in  the  sphere  of  "theology"  not  of  "the 
nature".  They  alleged  high  authority  for  their  economy",  and  its  signification  could  not  be  doubted, 
formula,  not  omy  St.  Cyril,  but  behind  him  St.  Atha-  Just  -as  there  were  many  "Eutychians"  among  the 
nasius.  Pope  St.  Julius,  and  St.  Gregory  the  Wonder-  Monophysites  who  denied  that  Christ  is  consubstan- 
worker.  These  authorities,  however,  were  but  Apol-  tial  with  us,  so  there  were  found  many  to  embrace 
linarian  forgeries;  the  favourite  formula  of  St.  Cyril,  boldly  the  paradox  that  the  Divine  Nature  has  be- 
the  fda  0^tt  atffopKv/Jpjij  had  been  borrowed  un-  come  incarnate.  Peter  Fullo  added  to  the  praise  of 
wittingly  from  an  Apollinarian  source,  and  had  been  the  Trinity  the  words  "who  was  crucified  for  us",  and 
meant  by  its  original  inventor  in  a  neretical  sense,  refused  to  allow  the  natural  inference  to  be  explained 
Nay,  the  "one  nature"  went  back  to  the  Arians,  and  away.  Stephen  Niobes  and  the  Niobites  expressly 
had  been  used  by  Eudonus  himself  to  express  the  denied  all  distinction  between  the  Human  and  the 
incompleteness  of  the  Human  Nature  of  Christ.  Divine  Natures  after  the  union.  The  Actistetee  de- 
Yet  the  Monophysites  were  far  from  being  Apol-  clared  that  the  Human  Nature  became  "imcreated" 
linarians,  still  less  were  they  Arians;  they  were  careful  by  the  union.  If  the  greatest  theologians  of  the  sect, 
from  the  beginning  to  explain  that  Christ  is  perfect  Severus  and  Philoxenus,  avoided  these  excesses,  it 
Man,  and  that  He  assumed  a  complete  Human  Nature  was  by  a  refusal  to  be  logically  Monophysite. 
like  ours.  Dioscurus  is  emphatic  on  this  point  in  his  It  was  not  only  the  orthodox  who  were  scandalized 
letter  to  Secundinus  (Hist.  Misc.,  Ill,  i)  and  with  by  these  extreme  views.  An  influential  and  very 
need,  since  he  had  acquitted  Eutyches  who  had  de-  learned  section  of  the  schism  rebelled,  and  chose  the 
nied  our  Lord's  "consubstantiality  with  us",  second  of  the  two  alternatives^ — that  of  making  the 
iElurus  is  just  as  clear  in  the  letters  by  which  he  re-  Divine  Nature  itself  threefold,  m  order  to  ensure  that 
futed  and  excommunicated  Isaias  of  Hermopolis  and  the  Human  Nature  in  Christ  was  made  one  with  the 
TheophUus  as  "Eutychians"  (Hist.  Misc.,  IV,  xii).  Nature  of  the  Son  alone  and  not  with  the  whole  Divine 
and  Severus  had  an  acute  controversy  with  Sergius  Nature.  John  Philoponus,  the  Aristotelian  commen- 
the  Grammarian  on  this  very  point.  They  all  de-  tator,  therefore  taught  that  there  are  in  the  Trinity 
clared  with  one  voice  that  Christ  is  fda  4>6au^  but  three  partial  substances  {/lepiKal  odo-tcu)  and  one  com- 
mie d^  ^^«ap  that  His  Divine  Nature  is  combined  mon  substance  (fUa  laMr/j)  thus  falling  into  Polythe- 
with  a  complete  Human  Nature  in  one  hypostasis,  ism,  with  three,  or  rather  four,  gods.  This  Tritheistio 
and  hence  the  two  have  become  together  the  One  party  was  treated  with  leniency.  It  split  into  sections. 
Nature  of  that  one  hypostasis,  howbeit  without  Though  they  were  excommunicated  at  Alexandria,  the 
mixture  or  confusion  or  oiminution.  iElurus  insists  Patriarch  Damian  held  a  view  not  far  different.  He  so 
that  after  union  the  properties  of  each  nature  remain  distinguished  between  the  Divine  o^la  and  the  three 
unchanged;  but  they  spoke  of  "the  divine  and  human  Hypostases  which  partake  (Aier^ovcrti')  in  it.  that  he 
things ' ,  dioina  et  kumanaf  not  natures ;  each  nature  re-  conceded  the  odala  to  be  existent  of  Itself  (^m-o^irrof ), 


M0N0FH78XTS8 


496 


MONOPHTSITES 


and  luB  followers  were  nicknamed  Tetradites.  Thus 
Peter  Fullo,  the  Actistets,  and  the  Niobites  on  the  one 
hand,  and  the  Tritheists  and  Damianists  on  the  other, 
developed  the  Monoph^site  formulfB  in  the  only  two 
possible  directions.  It  is  obvious  that  formulas  which 
mvolved  such  alternatives  were  heretical  in  fact  as 
well  as  in  origin.  Severus  tried  to  be  orthodox,  but  at 
the  expense  of  consistency.  His  "  comiptibilist ''  view 
is  true  enough,  if  the  Human  Nature  is  considered  in 
the  abstract  apart  from  the  union  (see  Euttchian- 
ism),  but  to  consider  it  thus  as  an  entitv  was  certainly 
an  admission  of  the  Two  Natures.  All  clumge  and 
suffering  in  Christ  must  be  (as  the  Julianists  and  Jus- 
tinian nghtly  saw)  strictlyvoluntary,  in  so  far  as  the 
union  gives  to  the  Sacred  Hunumity  a  right  and  claim 
to  beatification  and  (in  a  sense)  to  deification.  But 
Severus  was  willing  to  divide  the  Natures  not  merely 
''before''  the  union  (that  is,  logicallv  previous  to  it) 
but  even  after  the  union  ''theoretically^',  and  he  went 
so  far  in  his  controversy  with  the  orthodox  John  the 
Grammarian  as  to  concede  9^  4>^m  iw  dvapta.  This 
was  indeed  an  immense  concession,  but  considering 
how  much  more  orthodox  were  the  intentions  of  Seve- 
rus than  his  words,  it  is  scarcely  astonishing,  for  St. 
Cyril  had  ooncedea  much  more. 

But  though  Severus  went  so  far  as  thb,  it  is  shown 
elsewhere  (see  Euttchianism,  Maxdcus  Confessob. 
and  especiall^r  Monothelitism)  that  he  did  not  avoid 
the  error  of  giving  one  activity  to  our  Lord,  one  will, 
and  one  knowledge.  It  is  true  enough  that  ne  had  no 
intention  of  admitting  any  incompleteness  in  the 
Humanity  of  Christ,  and  that  he  and  all  the  Mono- 
phj^sites  started  merely  from  the  proposition  that  all 
activity,  all  will,  and  intelligence  proceed  from  the  per- 
son, as  ultimate  principle,  and  on  this  ground  alone 
they  asserted  the  unity  of  each  in  Christ.  But  it  was 
on  this  ground  that  Monothelitism  was  condemned. 
It  was  not  supposed  by  the  best  Catholic  theologians 
who  attacked  that  doctrine  that  the  Monoph3rsites 
denied  Christ  to  have  exercised  human  activities, 
human  acts  of  the  will,  human  acts  of  cognition;  the 
error  was  clearly  recognized  as  lying  in  the  failure  to 
distinguish  between  the  human  or  tne  mixed  (thean- 
dric)  activitv  of  Christ  as  Man,  and  the  purely  Divine 
activity,  will,  knowledge,  which  the  Son  has  in  common 
with  the  Father  and  the  Holy  Spirit,  and  which  are  in 
fact  the  Divine  Nature.  In  spj^Udng  of  one  activity, 
one  wiU,  one  knowledge  in  Christ,  Severus  was  reduc- 
ing Monophysitism  to  pure  heresy  just  as  much  as  did 
the  Niobites  or  the  Tntheists  whom  he  certainly  held 
in  horror;  for  he  refused  to  distinguish  between  tibe 
human  faculties  of  Christ — activity^,  will,  intellect — 
and  the  Divine  Nature  itself.  This  is  not  Apollina- 
rianism,  but  is  so  Uke  it  that  the  distinction  is  tneoreti- 
cal  rather  than  real.  It  is  the  direct  consequence  of 
the  use  of  Apollinarian  formula.  St.  Cyril  did  not  so 
so  far;  and  m  this  Monothelite  error  we  may  see  tne 
essence  of  the  heresy  of  the  Monophysites;  for  all  fell 
into  this  snare,  except  the  Tritheists,  since  it  was  the 
logical  result  of  their  mistaken  point  of  view. 

For  genera]  literature  aee  EuTicuiAifmi.  In  P.  0.  there  are 
more  fracmente  than  complete  writings.  Important  oolleetions 
are  Absbmani.  Bibliolheea  Orimtalit  (Rome,  1719-28);  Chabot 
and  others,  Corp.  Script.  Ckritt.  Orient.,  Script.  Syri:  GBAimr 
AND  Nau,  Patrologia  Orient.  (1905 — ,  in  jprogrees);  alsoDB  La- 
GABDB,  AnaUela  Syriaca  (LeipEig,  1858) ;  Land,  Aneedota  Syriaea 
(Leyden,  1870).  For  the  very  numerous  Monophysite  whUngs 
contained  in  Svriao  MSS.  see  especially  the  following  catalogues: 
AsaBUANX,  BiM,  Medicaa  Laurenliana  et  Palatina  MS.  OrienL 
eataL  (Florence,  1742);  Idbii,  BiU.  ApoH.  Vatic,  eatal.,  part  I, 
▼oL  II-III  (Rome,  1758-9);  Wrigrt,  Catal.  of  the  SvriaeMS.  in 
the  Brit.  Mue.  acquired  eince  1858  (London,  1870-2) ;  Wright  and 
Cook,  Catal.  of  Syriae  MSS.  of  the  Unie.  of  Cambridge  (Cam- 
bridge, 1901) ;  Sacrau,  HandeehrifUVeneichnieee  der  K.  BUd.  su 
Bef^n,  XXIII,  Syritche  MSS.  (Berlin.  1899).  etc.  On  the  literar 
ture  in  general  see  Assbii ani,  op.  cit.,  II.  Dieeertatio  de  Monophyei- 
tie;  GiBSELBR,  Commentatio  qua  Monophyeitarum  veterum  erroree 
ex  earum  eeriptie  reeene  ediiie  iUuetrantwr  (GAttingen,  1835-8): 
WKiaBT.Syr%ac  Literature  (Encydop.  Brit.,  9th  ed.,1887;  published 
separately  as  A  Short  Hiatoru  of  Syr.  Lit.,  London,  1894);  Dutal, 
La  Uttirature  Syriague  (3rd  ed..  Paris.  1907);  many  excellent 
articles  by  KbOgbb  m  ReaUneyelapddie, 


On  Tmonrr  Mlvkub  see  CRVif,  BueAiue  and  CapHe  Ckurdk 
Hiet.  in  Proe.  ofSoe.  ofBibl.  Arch.  (London.  1902) ;  Tsb-Mbkevi^ 
tbchian  and  Tbb-Minassxantb,  Tim.  JSlurue*  dee  Patriarchen 
eon  Alexandrien,  Widerlequng  der  auf  der  Synods  tu  Chaieedon 
fettqeeetaten  Lehre,  Armenian  text  (Leipsig,  1908);  Lxbok.  La 
Chrietologie  de  Tim.  Mlure  in  Reeue  drhiet.  eecL  (Oct..  1906): 
Idbm,  Le  Monophyeieme  eMrien  (Louvain,  1909).  98-111. 

For  French  tr.  of  the  letters  of  Petbb  Fullo  see  RAvtllovt  in 
Reeue  dee  Queetione  Hiet.,  XXII  (1877).  83.  and  (in  Coptic  and 
French)  AmAunbau,  Mon.  pour  eervir  d  Fhiet.  de  VBoypte  dtrH. 
(Paris,  1888);  the  Armenian  text  in  Ibmxrbanx.  7A«  book  ^  Let- 
tere,  Armenian  only  (Tiflis,  1901) ;  the  letters  to  Peter  Mongos  are 
in  Mansi.  Vll,  1109  sqq.;  in  favour  of  their  genuineneas  aee 
Pagx*s  notes  to  Babonxus.  ad  ann.  485,  No.  15;  agunst.  Valbsiub. 
Obeerv.  eccUe.,  4  (in  his  edition  of  EvAGBxna,  Paris.  1673;  P.  O., 
LXXXYI).  and  Tillbiiont.  XVI.  Greek  fragments  from  the 
homilies  of  Txiiotht  IV  in  Coemae  Indieopieuetee  {P.  O., 
LXXXVIII).  an  entire  homily  in  Max.  Script.  ecL  noea  cetL,  V 
(1831),  and  P.  Q.,  LXXXVI.  Fragments  of  Tbbodo«iu8  in  Cos- 
mat  (ibid.),  and  of  letters  to  Severus  in  P.  O.,  LXXXVI;  see  also 
Mansi.  X,  1117  and  1121.  A  letter  from  Theodostos  to  Sevenia 
and  one  to  Anthimus  in  Hiet.  Miec.,  IX,  24,  26. 

On  SBVBRua  see  Assbmanx;  KbOger  in  RealencykL  s.  ▼.;  Vbh- 
ABLBS  in  Diet.  Chriat,  Biog.;  Spanxtth.  Zachariae  Rhetor,  JDos 
Leben  dee  Seterue  (Syr.  text,  Gl5ttingen.  1893) ;  lives  by  Zacbammam 
and  John  of  BBrrB-ApBTHONiA.  followed  by  a  collection  of  doco- 
ments  concerning  Severus.  edited  by  Kugbnbb  in  PalroL  OrienL, 
II;  The  Conflict  of  Seeerue,  by  Athanabxtts.  Ethiopic  text  with 
English  transl..  ed.  by  Goodbpbbd.  together  with  Coptic  frag- 
ments of  the  same  work,  edited  by  Cbum.  in  PatroL  Onent.,  Ill; 
DxTVAL,  HomUiee  eathidralee  de  SMre,  52-7.  Syriac  and  Frendi, 
in  Patr.  Orient.,  II;  Bbooxb.  Sixth  book  ofeeUet  letteretjTSeeeniaim 
the  Syriac  vereion  of  Athanaeiue  of  Nieibie  {Text  and  TraeteL  See., 
London,  1904) ;  EusTRATioa.  2«v4«o«  6  Uove^veints  (Leipsig.  1894) ; 
PBX8KEB,  Seierue  eon  Antiochien,  ein  Kritieeher  Qudtenbetrao  siir 
Oeechichte  dee  Monophyeiemue  (Halle.  1903);  and  espedally  Lb- 
BON,  Le  Monophyeieme  eivirien,  largely  founded  on  the  atiidy  of 
unpublished  Ssniao  MSS.  in  the  Brit.  Mus.  (Lonvain,  1909). 

On  JuxxAN  see  Fabbxcxxtb.  Cavb.  GxBaxLBB,  Dobnbb.  Ha»- 
nack:  also  Davxxm  in  Diet.  Chriet.  BitM.  {1S82) ;  KbOobb  in  Asal- 
eneyd.  (1901);  Lxbtxhann.  Catenen  (Freiburg,  1897);  Idbm.  a' 
Julian  eon  Hal.  in  Rheiniech.  Mue.,  LV  (1900).  821.  On  J< 
PmiiOPONTTB  see  Cavb,  Fabricixts,  Assbmanx,  Dobnbb,  •«*.. 
ScHARFBNBBBo.  Dieeort.  de  Joanne  Philop.  (Leipag.  1768);  Datdb 
in  Diet.  Chriet.  Bioq.;  Nauck  in  AUgemeine  Bnc^d.;  StOckl  in 
Kirehenlex.,  s.  v.  Johannee  Philoponuej  Gabs  and  Mbtbb  in  Asal- 
encyd.;  Rxttbr.  Oeech.  der  PhUoe.,  VI;  Kbttmbagbbb.  Geeek.  der 
bye,  Liu.  (2nd  ed.,  1897),  53  and  681,  etc.;  Lvdwxcb.  De  Jeaeme 
PhUopono  grammatico  ^KOnipberg,  1888-9).  On  Zacbabiab  see 
Kdgbnbb.  La  compiUUton  hietorique  de  Pe.-Zach.  le  rhUeur  in  12e- 
vue  de  VOrieni  ChrU.,  V  (1 900)  ,201 ;  Idbii,  ObeertoHone  eurlanede 
Vaecke  leale  et  eur  lee  nee  de  Pierre  Vlb.  et  de  Tkfodore  dTAnHnoi 
par  Zach.  le  SchoL  in  Bytant.  ZeiUdir.,  IX  (1900).  464;  in  thsaa 
articles  Kugbnbr  distinguishes  the  Rhetor  from  the  Scholastie. 
whom  he  identifies  with  the  bishop;  but  he  has  changed  his  miDa 
aoc  to  KbOobb.  Zach.  Scht^,  in  Bealeneyd.  (190Q. 
low  under  Hietoria  Miecellanea. 

The  Plerophoria  of  John  or  MAfuMA 
abridgement  in  the  Chronide  of  Micbabl  Btb.  'A  Frenefa 
lation  by  Nau.  Lee  PUrophoriee  de  Jean,  Mque  de  MaUnuma  in 
iZsnMdsrOrMfUcArir.  (1898-9.  and  separately.  Paria.  1899).  Tbe 
life  of  Pbtbr  tbb  Ibbrxan,  Kaabb.  Peirue  der  Iberer  (Leipaac. 
1896) ;  Bboobb.  Vita  virorum  apud  MonophvaUae  uhhttVimmmm 
in  Corp.  Script.  Orient.,  Script.  Syri,  3rd  senes.  25,  inchiding  the 
life  of  Isaias.  which  is  also  in  Land.  Ill  (Paris,  1907):  aT 
version  of  this  biography  publ.  by  Mabx  (St.  PctenoniE,  11 
Kdgbnbb  in  Bytant.  Zetteehr.,  I A  (Leipsig,  1900).  464; 
Pierre  Flbirien  d'aprie  une  rioenU  puUteaieon  in  Beem  de  VOriead 
2a<m.III(1895).8. 

The  Hietoria  MieceOanea  of  PbbitixkZacrabxab  was  published  by 
Land.  Ioc  eU.,  III.  in  Syriac:  German  tr.  by  Abbbkb  and  Kxtqlbb, 
Die  eogennante  Kirehengeackichte  von  Zadi.  JKA.  (Letpsig.  1899); 
Hamxuton  and  Brooks.  The  Syriac  chronide  known  ae  thai  ^ 
Zach.  of  MityUrne  (London,  1899,  English  onlv) ;  see  Kugbnbb,  m. 
eU.  For  Mxchabl  tbb  Syrian,  Chabot,  Chroniq^ee  de  Miekelle 
Syrian  (Paris.  1901-2.  in  progress).  There  is  an  abxidged  latin 
translation  of  the  Chronide  of  Joshua  in  Abrbm ani,  Ioc  ciL,  I, 
262-283;  Syriac  and  French  by  Martin.  CAnmisiis  de  Joeui  le  SL 
in  AbhantUungen  fQr  die  kunde  dee  Morgeniandee,  VI  (Ldpsn, 
1876),  1;  in  Syriac  and  EnBlish  bv  Wright.  The  Chronide  ^J.tke 
St.  (Cambridge,  1882) ;  Synao  and  Latin  (Chronide  ofBdeeaa  only) 
in  Corpua  Script.  Orient.,  Chronica  minora  (Puia>  1902);  H<iijibb, 
Untertuehungen  Hber  die  Bdeeeenieche  Chronik  m  Tette  «pid  Un^ 
tere.,  IX  (Leipsig.  1892) .  1 ;  Nau  in  Bulletin  critique,  26  Jan..  1807; 
Idbii,  Analyee  dee  parttea  inidiUa  de  la  ^ronique  attribute  A  Dsnye 
de  TeO^^nahri  in  Suppl  to  Revue  de  r Orient  diaM.  (1897):  Tuix- 
BERO,  Dionyaii  TeUmahrenaie  chroniei  Ub.  I  (Upsala.  1851);  Oia- 
bot.  Chronique  de  Denye  de  T.,  quatrihne  ftartie  (Paris.  1886); 
Bbdjan.  BarhArai  Chronioon  ayriacum  (with  Latin  tr..  PBiis. 
1890):  Abbbxjoos  and  Lamt,  Barhebran  Chron.  eedee.  (with  Latin 
tr..  Lottvain.  1872-7) ;  Lamt.  EUe  de  Niaibe,  aa  ehromolegie  (aariier 
portion,  with  French  tr..  Brussels.  1888). 

On  PmuoxBNUs  see  Assbmanx.  Wbxgbt,  Ditval;  KB<taHR*a 
good  article  in  RealencycL;  Bxn>GB,  The  Diaeoureee  of  Philaeemma, 
Biehop  of  Mabbdgh,  Syriac  and  English,  with  introduetkA  con- 
taining many  short  dogmatic  writings,  and  a  list  ol  the  works  of 
Philoxenus,  in  vol.  2  (London,  1894) ;  Vabchaldb.  Three  leUere  ef 
Philoxenue  Biehop  of  M.,  Syr.  and  Eng.  (Rome.  1902) ;  Idbm,  ~ ' 
loxeni  Mdbbugenaie  tractatue  de  Trinitate  et  Ineamatione  in  C< 


Seript.Or.,Scriptoree  iSyr»,XXVII(Paris and  Rome.  1907) ;  Dutau 
Hiet.  politique,  rdiqieut9etmirairad^Bdeaae(JPBriM,19M)iQvwh 


MONOPOU  497  MONOPOLY 

La.  Idtmu  <2c  FUo—eno  at  Monaei  d%  TeU  Adda  in  Mem.  ddC  Aead,  or  the  poeadbOity  that  people  may  get  On  Without 

dn  Ltnem  (1886);   aee  especially  Lbbon,  op.  cU.»  111-118.  and  pUU^-  ftft  sirfiplA  op  a.  mihcrtifnfA       Rnt  in  all  aaam 

poMtm.    On  Jambs  or  Sabuo  see  Abbbloob,  Devitad  Bcriptu  s.  ciiiiier  tne  arucie  OT  a  suDBUtute.    ijut  in  au  cases 

Jaeobi  (with  three  ancient  Syriac  biographies.  Louvain.  1867);  monopoly  imphes  the  abuity  debberatelv  to  regulate 

Absbm ANi.  Wbiqht,  Duval,  loc  eit.;  Ada  83.,  29  Oct.;  Babdbn-  supply  and  prices  beforehand,  and  to  fix  both  at  some 

mBB  '^R^c^^^.'l  Nbstij  in  ReaUncud.:  UABjifjJjJn  Mqfie  ^     ^^^  ^^  ^^     j^  j^       ^^  j^^    t^j^  reached 

poke  au  V'  d  VI*  nedet  in  Revue  dee  Seieneee  ecd,  (Oct.,  Nov.,  vM*»^4#vf***w  wu<»u  uuwv  vtauv/u  *Tvua«A  y**/^  ^v     ***«"*^^ 

1876);  Idbm,  Correepondanee  do  Jacquee  de  Sarcuq  avee  Ue  moinee  by  the  natural  action  01  tne  marlcet  Under  normal 

dejiar  Baesui  in  Zataehr,  der  deutechen  Morganiandl.GeeMuJ^,  Competition.     However  inexpedient  a  monopoly  may 

5?^/^l2?^V^^^*'  l^^%8y. "\  La^?  ^  ^"/'^iSTLf'c^Jfe.^'  be,  ft  is  not  in  itself  immoral.    Its  moral  character 

eo«.,  II,  356;  Zinqbrlb,  Seeke  Komilten  dee  h.  Jaetm  von  S.  (Bonn,  j  »  *"  tr  ""*:,,  *«»«^  **»**«v*«.     *.vo  «uv*<m  mmhcm^vw 

1867);  Bboj AN,  rotfomito  fsisete  Afar  JocoMiS.  (Paris  and  Leip-  depends  entu^ly  upou  its  actions  and  its  effects, 

■ig.  1905-6) ;  single  homilies  are  found  in  various  publications;  More  specifically,  its  morality  is  determined  by  the 

"TS^^ISr^^il^f&ST^rS;^^^^.  ana  «.  vAc^  ^a^^m^  «md  the  methods  that  it 

book  of  Hieroiheoe  (Leyden.  1886).    On  John  of  Tblla.  Klbtn.  employs  toward  actual  Or  potential  competitors. 

Hd  leven  van  Johannee  van  Telia  ^Leyden.  1882) ;  another  life  in  \,     MONOPOLISTZC  PBICBS.^AoOOrdlng  tO  the  oldOT 

^riSi^Xrjr6^^i.i%^1S^^^'K^^  S««l  theolopana.  monopoly  prices  were  oigust  when 

WBiGBT.  Duval,  a  good  article  by  Rtsbbl  in  Realencyd.  (1899);  they  were  hlfther  than  the  pnces  that  would  have 

Idbm,  Bin  Brief  Qeorge,  Biethop  der  Ar,  an  den  Preth.  Joeua  aue  prevailed  Under  competition  (cf.  LugO|  "De  Justitia 

i3^1KStr&*^«ra^'!r8^1it.'S*^  et  de  J'i«'".  ^-  «?.  «»•  72).  ,wBle  this  nile  waa 


leoa;  pan  oi  poem  on  onnsni  in  VyAROAHi.  u%ner  uieaaun  aeane  t       »       "                xi-ij^j              i.         xt.                     i-x* 

porfiooSyrorum  (1876):  the  whole,  with  that  on  the  monastic  life,  *^  '^m   acceptable  tO-day,   When  the  Competitive 

ed.  by  Rybbbl  in  AUi  della  R.  Aead,  dei  Lineei,  IX  (Rome,  1892),  price  IS  often  tOO  loW  tO  provide  a  jUSt  retum  tO  the 

mteOs  meeure  lee  JaooMUe  eont-ile  MonophyeHeet  in  Remu  de  Well  as  lOr  mODOpoly  pnceSy  the    Objective  rule  Of 

VOrieni  ekrUien.  1905,  no.  2,  p.  113;  Lbbon,  op.  cii,,  pcumm.  justice  is  that  a  thing  ahould  be  SOld  at  a  price  suffi- 

JoHN  Chapman.  ciently  high  to  remunerate  f airiy  all  who  nave  con- 

WMi«k««^H    r\rr^^^^  ««  nir.M^.>«.>rTm.*T.\    ,v  4^s^  tributed  to  the  production  of  the  thing;  the  subjective 

Monopoli.  Diocese  op  (MoNOPom-ANA)^  the  ^^  ^  justice  is  the  aodall  estimatS,  the  price  ap- 

Province  of  film,  m  Apuha,  south^^^^            The  city  ppyed  V  competent  and  fair-miided   men   (5. 

has  a  small  but  good  harbour  on  the  Adnatic.   It  sue-  ^'anouerev   "  De  Justitia''   776)     K  the  monopoly 

ceeded  the  ancient  Egnatia,  the  ruins  of  which  are  not  ^^^  ^^  ]^  exceed  these  limits,  it  is  not  unjustly 

far  from  the  modem  town.    In  the  eighth  and  ninth  Witrh,  even  thoush  it  be  hisher  Uian  the  price  that 

^turiw,  Monopoli  wMoften  ravaged  by  OieSaraoms.  hS^tained  orwould  haTOobtained  under  the  atragp 

^<JfSv*]l?  *^'?''**  «  *^®  Nonnan  oounta,  it  became  j  competition.    Since  the  different  daasea  that  belp 

(1042)  tlie  seat  of  Hugues.   During  the  war  between  TL  ^niMeAmM^vva^A^^M^tvhLveT^L 

France  and  Spain  for  tiie  possession  of  the  Kingdom  to  a  fair  letum  for  thor'^rviom.  and  nnoe  this  le. 

Of  Naples  Monopoli  was  taken  twice  by  the  Vene-  iSiS2SSSS^fi^K^2?wUdft&^ 

^and^^e^'Sl'tmS'^Setiaa^  SSi^v^ffitn S? Sri« SJ'^,Sdl 

r*'"i^!si'°'''*°''i^tp'si**^r"rar  ^  c^otge?arthSst?o^i<^^^ 

^1.'?.*]'^  ,?SJ?  ^*!^»te.,*^«  _'^?°i-^.'!^?P'  monopoly  to  iuatify  a  eeliin«  price  that  is  more  than 

etum 

i*m'mmi"atplv  *"  proaucuon.     ineae  propoeiuons  are  acceptea  oy 

s^jecttothefloivSee;it-has"ei^htp  '^ri!^lf^i^^xS 

inhabitants,  and  three  educational  institutes  for  girls.  g!fS^L  *^'^i?®  ^  wT J^^        wW  ^-^^I^^J^^f «rn 

Capp«ll«tJi,  Le  Chieee  d^ Italia,  XXI  (Venice,  1887).  ^  ficultv  IS  to  d^OTume  precwely  what  IS  a  fair  retum 

U.  Benigni.  to  each  of  the  different  agents. 

Putting  the  matter  as  briefly  and  as  summarily 

ICimopoly,  Moral  Aspects  of. — ^According  to  as  possible,  we  may  say  that  a  just  remuneration 
its  etymology,  monopoly  (fwpartaXla)  signifies  ex-  to  the  agents  of  production  comprises:  (1)  a  Uvinjg 
elusive  sale,  or  exclusive  privilege  of  selUng.  Present  wage  for  all  labourers,  and  something  more  than  this 
usage,  however,  extends  the  term  to  any  degree  of  for  those  workers  who  possess  exceptional  ability 
unified  control  over  a  commodity  sufficient  to  enable  or  skiU,  who  put  forth  unusual  efforts,  who  perform 
the  person  or  corporation  in  control  to  limit  supply  disagreeable  tasks,  or  who  turn  out  exceptionally 
and  fix  price.  The  proportion  of  the  supply  of  an  large  products;  (2)  fair  profits  for  the  business  man, 
article  that  must  be  controlled  in  order  to  attain  on  account  of  Mb  activities  as  director  of  industry; 
these  ends,  depends  upon  man^^  factors,  and  differs  (3)  a  fair  rate  of  interest  on  the  actual  capital  in- 
considerably in  different  industries.  In  the  majority  vested  in  the  business.  Fair  recomp^ise  for  the 
of  monopoused  businesses,  it  is  somewhere  between  captain  of  industry  in  a  monopoly  will  generally 
70  and  90  per  cent,  although  there  are  cases  in  which  mean  the  amount  that  he  could  obtain  in  retum  for 
the  unified  control  of  a  little  more  than  one  half  the  the  same  services  in  a  competitive  business.  Al- 
supply  of  the  commodity  seems  to  suffice.  In  most  though  comjietition  is  not  of  itself  a  determinant 
of  the  cases  in  which  the  monopoly  controls  less  than  of  fair  wages  in  liie  case  of  ordinaiv  labour,  inasmuch 
three-fourths  of  a  business,  the  independent  dealers  as  it  often  forces  remuneration  below  the  level  of 
seem  to  have  the  power  to  overthrow  the  monopoly  decent  Uving,  it  is  generally  fair  to  the  director  of 
but  prefer  to  take  advantage  of  the  higher  prices  and  industry,  inasmuch  as  it  enables  him  not  merely 
steadier  market  conditions  established  by  the  domi-  to  obtain  a  decent  livelihood,  but  to  maintun  him- 
nant  concern.  They  are,  consequently,  passive  fac-  self  in  accordance  with  that  higher  standard  of 
tors  in  the  monopohzed  condition  of  the  trade.  No  living  to  which  he  has  a  reasonable  claim.  And  it 
matter  how  great  the  degree  of  control  which  the  yields  even  more  than  this  to  those  business  men 
monopoly  enjoys,  its  power  over  sunply  and  prices  is  whose  ability  is  exceptional.  A  fair  rate  of  interest 
not  absolute.  Many  economic  ana  prudential  con-  on  monopoly  capital  will  be  the  rate  that  prevails  in 
siderations  will  restrain  a  monopoly  from  exercising  competitive  businesses  that  are  subject  to  a  like 
this  power  to  the  extent  that  it  might  desire — ^for  amount  of  risk.  The  capitalist  or  interest  receiver 
example,  the  fear  of  potential  competition,  the  dis-  as  such,  does  not  work,  but  is  free  to  earn  his  liveli- 
covery  of  a  substitute  for  the  monopolized  article,  hood  by  his  labour  from  other  sources.  Thus,  since 
X.— 32 


MONOPOLY 


498 


MONOPOLY 


interest  is  not  his  sole  means  of  fivelihood,  the  just 
rate  of  interest  is  not  determined  by,  nor  does  it 
bear  any  definite  relation  to,  the  content  of  a  decent 
livelihood  in  the  individual  case.  Consequently, 
competition  may  be  the  proper  rule  of  lustice  for 
the  mterest  receiver,  as  well  as  for  the  director  of 
industry,  although  it  is  not  always  a  just  rule  for 
the  ordmary  wage-earner. 

What  are  the  grounds  for  the  assertion  that  the 
investor  in  a  monopoly  has  no  right  to  more  than  the 
competitive  or  prevailing  rate  of  interest?  The  an- 
swer to  this  question  is  bound  up  with  the  more  funda- 
mental question  concerning  the  basis  of  the  right  of 
any  investor  to  receive  any  interest  at  all.  But, 
no  matter  what  answer  we  g^ve  to  this  latter  question, 
no  matter  what  justification  of  interest  we  may 
adopt,  we  cannot  prove,  xre  can  have  no  ground  upon 
which  to  erect  the  begLmings  of  a  proof,  that  the 
capitalist  has  a  right,  as  capitalist,  to  more  than  the 
prevailing  or  competitive  rate  of  interest.  If  we 
assume  that  interest  is  justified  as  the  product  or 
fruit  of  capital,  we  have  no  reason  to  assert  that  the 
so-called  product  has  a  higher  value  than  men  at- 
tribute to  it  in  the  open  market  under  competitive 
conditions.  If  we  regard  interest  as  the  due  reward 
of  the  capitalist's  sacrifices  in  saving,  we  have  no 
ground  for  maintaining  that  these  are  not  fully  re- 
munerated in  the  cmrent  rate.  If  we  adopt  the 
theory  that  seems  to  be  most  satisfactory  and  least 
assailable,  namely  that  interest  is  chiefly  justified  on 
grounds  of  social  utility,  inasmuch  as  the  community 
would  probably  not  have  sufficient  capital  unless  men 
were  encouraged  to  save  by  the  hope  of  interest,  we 
must  likewise  conclude  that  the  current  competitive 
rate  is  sufficiently  high,  since  it  brings  forth  sufficient 
saving  and  sufficient  capital  for  society^s  needs. 
The  argument  based  upon  this  theory  may  be  stated 
summarily  as  follows:  Since  interest  on  capital 
cannot  be  shown  to  be  imjust  on  individual  groimds, 
that  is  as  a  payment  from  the  purchaser  of  the  prod- 
uct of  capital  to  the  owner  of  capital  (for  it  must  be 
remembered  that  the  consumer  is  the  real  and  final 
provider  of  interest  on  capital),  it  will  be  justified 
on  social  grounds  if  it  is  necessary  in  order  to  evoke 
sufficient  social  capital;  and  there  is  an  overwhelm- 
ing probability  that  it  is  necessary  for  this  purpose. 
Since  interest  is  justified  only  for  this  purpose  and 
to  this  extent,  the  just  rate  of  interest  cannot  be 
higher  than  the  rate  that  attains  this  end,  which  in 
our  time  is  the  competitive  rate. 

The  doctrine  that  capital  has  no  right  to  more  than 
the  competitive  rate  of  interest  is  accepted  by  the 
social  estimate  everywhere  (see  Final  Bieport  of  the 
U.  S.  Industrial  (Dommission,  p.  409).  It  is  implic- 
itly asserted  in  the  teaching  of  the  theologians  that  the 
competitive  rate  is  the  just  rate  in  the  case  of  money 
loaned  (cf.  Tanquerey,  "De  Justitia",  n.  906). 
Where  the  risk  and  other  circumstances  are  the  same, 
men  do  not  value  an  investment  any  higher  than  a 
loan;  they  will  put  their  money  into  the  one  or  the 
other  indifferently;  consequently,  it  would  seem  clear 
that,  when  the  circumstances  just  referred  to  are  the 
same,  a  fair  return  on  invested  money  need  not  exceed 
a  fair  return  on  loaned  money.  To  be  sure,  investors 
and  business  men  do  obtain  more  than  the  competi- 
tive rate  of  interest  in  some  years  and  in  some  enter- 
E rises,  even  where  competition  is  active  and  constant; 
ut  this  advantage  is  either  offset  by  exceptionally  low 
rates  in  other  years,  or  it  is  due  to  unusual  business 
ability,  or  it  arises  from  an  increase  in  the  value  of  the 
land  connected  with  the  enterprise.  In  all  these  cases 
the  exceptionally  high  rate  is  undoubtedly  lawful 
morallv,  but  the  excess  is  due  to  other  factors  than  the 
capital  pure  and  simple.  Since  the  previdling  or  com- 
petitive rate  is  sufficiently  high  to  satisfy  the  demands 
of  justice  in  businesses  that  are  subject  to  competition, 
there  seems  to  be  no  good  reason  why  it  is  not,  gener- 


ally speaking,  sufficiently  high  in  monopolistic 
cems.  The  owner  of  a  monopoly  has  no  more  right  to 
take  advantage  of  the  helplessness  of  the  consumer  in 
order  to  extort  an  exceptionally  high  rate  of  interest 
on  his  investment  than  the  money-lender  has  to  ex- 
ploit the  distress  of  the  borrower  in  order  to  exact  an 
exorbitant  rate  of  interest  on  the  loan.  It  would  seem 
that  the  only  exception  to  this  nde  would  occur  when 
the  monopoly,  while  paying  a  fair  wage  to  labour  and 
a  fair  price  to  those  from  whom  it  buys  materials,  in- 
troduces economies  of  production  which  enable  it  to 
sell  its  goods  at  less  than  the  prices  charged  by  its  com- 
petitors, and  yet  make  unusual  profits  and  interest  on 
its  investment.  In  such  a  case  it  seems  reasonable 
that  a  monopolistic  concern  (more  properly,  its  active 
directors,  who  alone  have  effected  the  productive 
economies)  should  receive  some  of  the  benefits  of  the 
cheaper  methods  of  production.  On  the  other  hand, 
there  is  no  good  reason  why  the  monopoly  should  ap- 
propriate aU  the  benefits  of  the  improvement.  If  it 
does  not  share  them  with  the  consumer  by  reducing 
prices  below  the  competitive  level,  it  renders  no  sodiu 
service  to  compensate  for  the  social  danger  which  is 
inherent  in  every  monopolistic  enterprise.  As  a  mat- 
ter of  fact,  the  great  majority  of  existing  monopties  do 
not  pay  higher  wages  nor  higher  prices  for  material 
than  competitive  concerns,  and  yet  they  diaige  the 
consumer  higher  prices  than  would  have  prevailed 
under  competition  (cf .  Final  Report  of  the  Industrial 
Commission,  pp.  621,  625,  660). 

In  the  preceding  paragraphs  reference  is  liad  to 
monopolistic  concerns  that  fix  prices  without  any 
supervision  or  restriction  by  the  State.  When  the 
public  authority  exercises  adequate  control  over  the 
charges  of  public  service  monopoties,  such  as  gas 
and  street-itdlwav  companies,  and  determines  these 
freely  and  honestly,  it  would  seem  that  the  monpolis- 
tic  corporation  has  a  right  to  collect  the  full  amoimt  of 
the  charses  established  by  the  public  authorities,  even 
though  they  should  yield  imusual  profits  on  the  invest- 
ment, for  the  presumption  is  that  such  charges  are 
fair  to  both  producer  and  consumer.  No  such  pre- 
sumption extends  to  those  cases  in  which  the  state 
control  over  charges  is  only  mildly  corrective  and  par- 
tial, instead  of  fundamental  and  thorough. 

II.  MoNOPOUSTic  Methods. — ^The  methods  and 
practices  employed  by  monopolies  in  dealing  with  their 
rivals  did  not  occupy  the  attention  of  the  older  moral 
theologians  who  wrote  on  the  subject  of  monopoly. 
Nor  have  recent  writers  ffiven  this  phase  of  the  sub- 
ject the  attention  that  it  deserves.  As  a  consequence, 
authoritative  ethical  teaching  is  as  yet  silent,  whereas 
public  opinion  regards  as  immoral  most  of  the  prao- 
tices  by  which  monopolistic  concerns  harass  and  Simi- 
nate  their  competitors.  Ainon^  the  most  notable  of 
these  methods  are  discriminative  imderselling,  the 
factor's  agreement,  and  railway  favouritism. 

Discriminative  underselling  occurs,  when  the  mon- 
opoly sells  its  goods  at  unprofitably  low  prices  in  the 
territory  in  which  it  wishes  to  destroy  competition, 
while  imposing  unreasonably  high  pnces  elsewhere. 
While  the  independent  dealer  who  is  driven  out  of 
business  by  this  device  has  no  strict  right  to  the  pat- 
ronage of  the  customers  who  are  drawn  away  from 
him  through  the  low  prices  established  by  tibe  mo- 
nopoly, he  has  a  right  not  to  be  deprived  of  that  pat- 
ronage by  imjust  methods.  According  to  a  general 
and  far-reachm^  moral  principle,  a  man  is  unjustly 
treated  when  he  is  prevented  by  imjust  means  from  ob- 
taining an  advantage  which  he  has  a  right  to  pursue 
(cf.  Lehmkuhl,  "Theolopa  Moralis",  I,  n.  974;  Tan- 
querey, "De  Justitia",  n.  588).  Amonff  the  unjust 
means  enumerated  by  the  moral  theologians  are: 
force,  fraud,  deception,  falsehood,  intimidation,  and 
extortion.  Now  when  a  manufacturer  or  a  merchant 
is  deprived  of  the  patronage  of  his  customers  throuf^ 
ruinously  low  prices,  which  the  monopoly  is  enabled  to 


MONOTHEISM 


499 


MONOTHEISM 


miLinfAifi  by  means  of  the  exorbitantly  high  prices  that 
it  establishes  at  another  place  or  time,  he  is  dei>rived 
oi  this  advantage  by  unjust  means.  The  unjustly 
high  prices  are  as  tnuy  the  means  by  which  the  inde- 
pendent dealer  is  injured,  as  the  lying  reports  brou^t 
to  a  would-be  benefactor  are  the  means  by  which  nis 
intended  beneficiary  is  deprived  of  a  legacy.  This  is 
the  stock  example  used  b^  the  moral  theologians  to 
illustrate  the  general  principle  stated  above.  When, 
however,  a  business  concern  eliminates  a  competitor 
by  lowering  prices  universally,  and  keeping  them  low 
even  after  the  latter  has  gone  out  of  busmess,  no  injus- 
tice is  done,  because  no  unjust  means  are  employed. 
Even  when  a  monopolistic  concern  lowers  prices  every- 
where at  the  same  time,  and  raises  them  to  an  unjust 
level  only  after  its  competitors  have  been  driven  from 
the  field,  the  latter  would  seem  to  be  victims  of  injus- 
tice. For,  although  the  unjust  prices  do  not  come 
into  existence  untu  after  the  injury  has  been  accom- 
plished, thev  are  as  certainly  the  means  whereby  the 
mjuirv  was  done,  as  though  they  had  been  established 
simultaneously  with  the  ruinously  low  prices.  In 
both  cases  the  exorbitant  prices  operate  as  the  moral 
cause  of  the  act  by  which  the  unprofitably  low  prices 
are  established. 

The  factor's  agreement  is  exemplified  when  a  mer- 
chant engages  to  nandle  no  goods,  or  no  goods  of  a  cer- 
tain kind,  except  those  manufactured  by  a  monopoly; 
should  the  merchant  decline  to  enter  into  this  agree- 
ment, the  monopolistic  concern  will  refuse  to  sell  him 
any  goods  at  all.  If  the  agreement  is  established,  the 
result  is  that  the  rivals  of  the  monopolistic  manufac- 
turing concern  are  deprived  of  the  patronage  of  the 
merchant  through  intimidation.  It  is  a  species  of 
secondary  bovcott,  inasmuch  as  the  monopolv  re- 
fuses to  have  business  intercourse  with  the  merchant, 
unless  the  latter  refuses  to  do  business  with  the  inde- 
pendent manufacturer.  It  seems  sufficientlv  clear 
that  boycotts  of  this  kind  are  imreasonable  ancl  unjust 
whenever,  as  in  this  instance,  there  exists  no  sufficient 
reason  for  the  intimidation  and  the  refusal  of  inters 
course  (see  Labour  Unions,  Moral  Aspects  of). 
Indeed,  the  motive  of  the  monopolv  is,  as  a  rule,  not 
merely  lacking  in  reasonableness,  but  positively  un- 
just; for  its  ultimate  aim  is  not  simply  to  acquire  the 
patronage  that  now  goes  to  its  rivals,  but  in  addition 
to  raise  prices  to  the  consumer  after  its  rivals  have 
been  eliminated. 

Railway  favouritism  is  the  most  important  of  all  the 
methods  of  monopoly.  It  has  in  all  probability  been 
as  effective  in  creating  and  maintaining  monopolies  as 
all  the  other  methods  combined.  It  appears  under 
many  forms,  but  its  essence  is  found  in  the  tact  that 
the  goods  dealt  in  by  a  monopoly  are  carried  by  the 
railroad  at  a  rate  so  much  below  that  charged  to  mde- 
pendent  dealers  that  the  latter  must  either  go  out  of 
business  or  be  content  with  insufficient  profits.    This 

Cractice  is  undoubtedly  immoral:  (1)  because  it  is  for- 
iddcn  by  the  civil  law;  (2)  because  the  railroad,  as  a 
quasi-public  agency,  is  under  obligation  to  treat  all  its 
patrons  with  the  same  distributive  justice  that  the 
state  itself  would  be  obliged  to  accord  them  if  it  were 
the  owner  of  the  railroads;  (3)  because  the  lower 
charges  collected  from  the  monopoly  imply  unjustly 
high  charges  extorted  from  the  independent  shippers. 
As  a  violation  of  the  civil  law,  railway  favouritism  is 
agunst  legal  justice;  as  unequal  treatment  of  different 
patrons,  it  is  a  violation  of  both  distributive  and  com- 
mutative justice,  precisely  as  the  unequal  imposition 
of  taxes  violates  both  these  forms  of  justice.  If  the 
rate  accorded  to  the  monopoly  for  carrying  its  goods 
is  sufficiently  high  to  be  just,  the  higher  rate  imposed 
upon  its  rivals  exceeds  the  limits  of  justice.  If  the 
former  rate  is  so  low  as  to  be  unremunerative  to  the 
railroad;  the  injustice  done  to  the  independent  deal- 
en  is  still  greater,  inasmuch  as  they  are  compelled  to 
bear  a  part  of  the  charges  that  should  be  defrayed  by 


the  monopoly.  The  favours  accorded  to  the  latter 
are  not  deducted  from  the  normal  revenues  and  prof- 
its of  the  railway  company. 

As  a  matter  of  purely  natural  justice,  a  railroad 
might  concede  somewhat  lower  carrying  rates  to  a 
monopolistic  concern  because  the  monopoly  ships 
fooda  in  larger  lots.  The  cost  of  such  transportation 
IS  always  snialler  than  when  the  same  volume  of  goods 
is  carried  in  separate  lots  for  several  different  concerns. 
Nevertheless,  even  this  degree  of  favouritism  is  a  vio- 
lation of  legal  justice,  and  frequently  a  violation  of 
charity  as  regards  the  smaller  shipping  concerns.  In- 
asmuch as  the  practice  of  railway  favouritism  to  mo- 
nopolies is  seldom  confined  within  these  narrow  limits, 
the  question  raised  in  this  paragraph  is  not  of  much 
practical  importance.  Agam,  the  railroad  mi^t  be 
absolved  from  the  charge  of  violating  natural  justice 
if  the  lower  rates  which  it  extended  to  the  monopoly 
did  not  fall  below  the  lowest  level  (pretium  infimum)  of 
justice,  while  the  charges  exacted  from  the  indepen- 
dent shippers  did  not  exceed  the  highest  level  (pretium 
9ummum)  sanctioned  by  justice.  A  private  enter- 
prise, such  as  a  mercantile  concern,  could  probably  be 
absolved  from  the  stigma  of  injustice  if  it  indulg^  in 
this  practice  toward  its  different  customers.  But,  as 
we  have  seen  above,  a  railway  is  not  a  purely  private 
concern.  Since  it  performs  a  quasi-public  function, 
it  would  seem  to  be  bound  by  the  same  rules  of  dis- 
tributive justice  that  would  govern  the  State,  if  the 
latter  were  operating  the  busmess  of  transportation. 
The  share  of  the  monopoly  in  the  immorality  and  in- 
justice connected  with  railway  favouritism  consists  in 
the  fact  that  it  requests,  urges,  and  sometimes  intimi- 
dates the  railway  to  indulge  in  the  practice.  The 
monopoly  is  therefore  a  co-operator.  In  the  language 
of  the  moral  theolo^ns,  it  is  a  mandans,  or  principal, 
and  likewise  a  farticipanSf  or  beneficiaiy  (frequently 
the  only  beneficiary)  of  the  injustice  done  to  its  rivals 
throu^  overcharges  for  transportation. 

While  monopoly  is  not  necessarily  unjust,  and  while 
any  particular  monopoly  may  be  free  from  imjust 
practices,  ei^rienoe  shows  that  the  power  to  commit 
mjustice  which  is  included  in  monopoly  cannot  be  un- 
reservedly entrusted  to  the  average  human  being  or 
group  of  human  beings.  Consequently,  it  is  the  duty 
of  public  authority  to  prevent  the  existence  of  un- 
necessary monopohes,  and  to  exercise  such  supervision 
over  necessary  monopolies  as  to  render  impossible 
monopolistic  mjustice,  whether  against  the  indepen- 
dent business  man  through  unjust  methods,  or  the  con- 
sumer through  unjust  prices.  Many  of  the  moral 
judgments  enunciated  m  this  article  will  perhaps 
strike  the  reader  as  lacking  in  positiveness,  inasmuch 
as  they  are  modified  by  such  phrases  as  '4t  would 
seem,''  ''it  is  probable,  ''it  is  reasonable".  Yet  no 
other  course  was  possible.  Concerning  most  of  the 
specific  questions  discussed  in  the  foregoing  pages, 
there  exists  no  specific  teaching  by  the  Church,  or 
even  by  the  unanimous  voice  of  theologians.  There 
are  not  even  well-defined  bodies  of  theological  opinion. 
All  that  can  be  done  is  to  draw  conclusions  from, 
and  make  specific  applications  of,  the  more  general 
principles  of  justice  as  found  in  approved  Cathoho 
sources. 

Elt,  Mtmopoliea  and  Tru$U  (New  York,  1000) :  Riplbt,  Trtutt, 
PooUf  and  Corporalion*  (New  York,  1005);  KeporU  of  U,  3* 
Industrial  CommiBtion,  I.  IX  (Washington.  1003) ;  Hows.  Frtri- 
Uge  and  Democracy  in  America  (New  York,  1010) ;  Buss,  New 
Bncydovedia  of  Social  Reform,  b.  v.  Trtute;  Sulteb  in  Irieh  Theo* 
logical  Quarterly  (July,  1006);  Rtak.  Und,  (July.  1008);  Lnoo, 
De  JuBtitia  el  de  Jure  (Lyons,  1670) ;  Tanquerkt,  De  Juatitia 
(New  York.  1004);  Lkhmxuhl,  Theologia  Moralie,  I  (Freiburs, 
1803);  VxBMESBflCH.  Qucutionee  de  Juttitia  (Bruoes.  1001); 
Jamnst.  Le  Capital,  la  SpSeulation  el  la  Finance  (Pans,  1802). 

John  A.  Rtan. 

Monotheism  (from  the  Greek  m^ms  ''only'',  and 
6t69  ''god")  is  a  word  ccnned  in  comparatively  modem 
times  to  designate  belief  in  the  one  supreme  God,  the 


MONOTHEISM                         500  MONOTHEISM 

Creator  and  Lord  of  the  world,  the  eternal  Spirit,  Nor  is  there  anything  in  sound  science  or  philosophy 

All-powerful,  All-wise,  and  AU-good,  the  Rewarder  to  invalidate  this  teaching  that  Monotheistic  belief 

of  good  and  Punisher  of  evil,  the  Source  of  our  happi-  was  imparted  by  God  to  primitive  man.    While  it 

ness  and  perfection.  It  is  opposed  to  Polvtheism,  which  may  be  true  that  human  lite  in  the  beginning  was  on 

is  belief  in  more  gods  than  one,  and  to  Atheism,  which  a  comparatively  low  plane  of  materi^  culture,  it  is 

is  disbelief  in  any  deity  whatsoever.    In  contrast  with  also  true  that  the  first  men  were  endowed  with  reason. 

Deism,  it  is  the  recognition  of  God's  presence  and  ao-  i.  e.  with  the  ability  to  conceive  with  sufficient  dis- 

tivity  in  every  part  of  creation.    In  contrast  with  tinctness  of  a  being  who  was  the  cause  of  the  manifold 

Pantheism,  it  is  belief  in  a  God  of  conscious  freedom,  phenomena  presented  in  nature.    On  the  other  hand, 

distinct  from  the  physical  world.    Both  Deism  ana  a  humble  degree  of  culture  along  the  lines  of  art  ana 

Pantheism  are  religious  philosophies  rather  than  re-  industry  is  quite  compatible  witn  right  religion  and 

ligions.  morality,  as  is  evident  in  the  case  of  tribes  converted 

On  the  other  hand.  Monotheism,  like  Polytheism,  to  Catholicism  in  recent  times;  while  retaining  much 

18  a  term  applying  primarily  to  a  concrete  system  of  their  rude  and  primitive  mode  of  living,  they  have 

of  religion.    The  grounds  of  reason  imderlying  mono-  reached  very  clear  notions  concerning  God  and  shown 

theism  have  already  been  set  forth  in  the  article  remarkable  fidelity  in  the  observance  of  His  law.    As 

God.    These  grounds  enable  the  inquiring  mind  to  to  the  bearing  of  the  Evolutionistic  hypothesis  on  this 

recosnize  the  existence  of  God  as  a  monuly  certain  question,  see  Fetishism. 

truth.    Its  reasonableness  acquires  still  greater  force  It  is  tnus  quite  in  accordance  with  the  accredited 

from  the  positive  data  associated  with  the  revelation  results  of  physical  science  to  maintain  that  the  first 

of  Christianity.     (See  Revelation.)  man,  created  by  God,  was  keen  of  mind  as  well  as 

Primitive  Monotheism. — Was  monotheism  the  sound  of  body^  and  that,  through  Divine  instruction, 

religion  of  our  first  parents,  and  hence  the  primitive  he  began  life  with  right  notions  of  God  and  of  his  moral 

form  of  religion?  Many  Evolutionists  and  Rationalist  and  religious  duties.    This  does  not  necessarily  mean 

Protestants  answer  No.    Rejecting  the  very  notion  that  his  conception  of  God  was  scientificallv  and  phi- 

of  positive.  Divine  revelation,  they  hold  that  the  loeophically  profoimd.    Here  it  is  that  scholars  are 

mind  of  man  was  in  the  beginnine  but  little  above  wide  of  the  mark  when  they  argue  that  Monotheism  is 

that  of  his  ape^like  ancestors,  and  hence  incapable  a  conception  that  implies  a  philosophic  grasp  and 

of  grasping  so  intellectual  a  conception  as  that  of  training  of  mind  absolutely  impossible  to  primitive 

Monotheism.  man. 

They  assert  that  the  first  religious  notions  enter-  The  notion  of  the  supreme  God  needed  for  re- 
tained by  man  in  his  upward  course  towards  civiliza-  ligion  is  not  the  highlv  metaphysical  conception  de- 
tion  were  superstitions  of  the  grossest  kind.  In  a  manded  by  right  philosophy.  If  it  were,  but  few 
word,  primitive  man  was,  in  their  opinion,  a  savage,  could  hope  for  salvation.  The  God  of  religion  is  the 
differing  but  little  from  existing  savages  in  his  intel-  unspeakably  great  Lord  on  whom  man  depends,  in 
lectual,  moral,  and  religious  life.  Catholic  doctrine  whom  he  recognizes  the  source  of  his  happmess  and 
teaches  that  the  religion  of  our  first  parents  was  mon-  perfection;  He  is  the  righteous  Judge,  rewarding 
otheistic  and  supernatural,  being  the  result  of  Divine  &^  c^d  punishing  evil;  the  loving  and  merciful 
revelation.  Not  that  primitive  man  without  Divine  Father,  whose  ear  is  ever  open  to  the  prayers  of  His 
help  could  not  possibly  have  come  to  know  and  wor-  needy  and  penitent  children.  Such  a  conception  of 
diip  God.  The  first  man,  like  his  descendants  to-day,  God  can  be  readily  srasped  by  simple,  unphilosophic 
haa  by  nature  the  capacity  and  the  aptitude  for  re-  minds — ^by  childre^,  oy  the  umetteied  peasieuit,  by  the 
ligion.    Being  a  man  in  the  true  sense,  with  the  use  of  converted  savage. 

reason^  he  had  the  tendency  then,  as  men  have  now,  to  Nor  are  these  notions  of  a  supreme  being  utterly 
reoG^mze  in  the  phenomena  of  nature  the  workings  of  lacking  even  where  barbarism  still  reigns.  Bishop 
a  mind  and  a  will  vastly  superior  to  his  own.  But,  as  Le  Roy,  in  his  interesting  work,  "  Religion  dee  primi- 
he  lacked  experience  and  scientific  knowledge,  it  was  tifs"  (Paris.  1909),  and  Mr.  A.  Lang,  in  his  ''Making 
not  easv  for  him  to  unify  the  diverse  phenomena  of  of  Religion^'  (New  York,  1898),  have  emphasised  a 
the  visible  world.  Hence  he  was  not  without  danger  point  too  often  overlooked  b^  students  of  religion, 
of  going  astray  in  his  religious  interpretation  of  nature,  namely,  that  with  all  their  rehgious  crudities  and  su- 
He  was  liable  to  miss  the  important  truth  that,  as  na-  perstitions,  such  low-grade  savages  as  the  Pygmies  of 
ture  is  a  unity,  so  the  God  of  nature  is  one.  Revela-  the  Northern  Congo,  the  AustnJians,  and  the  natives 
tion  was  morally  necessary  for  our  first  parents,  as  it  of  the  Aildaman  Islands  entertain  very  noble  concep- 
is  for  men  to-aay,  to  secure  the  possession  ot  true  tions  of  the  Supreme  Deity.  To  say,  then,  that  prim- 
monotheistic  belief  and  worship.  itive  man.  fresn  from  the  hand  of  God,  was  incapable 

The  conception   that  Almighty  God  vouchsafed  of  monotneistic  belief,  even  with  the  aid  of  Divine 

such  a  revelation  is  eminently  reasonable  to  every-  revelation,  is  contrary  to  well-ascertained  fact.    From 

one  who  recognizes  that  the  end  of  man  is  to  know,  the  opening  chapters  of  Genesis  we  gather  that  our 

love,  and  serve  God.    It  is  repugnant  to  think  that  first  parents  recognized  God  to  be  the  author  of  all 

the  first  generations  of  men  were  left  to  grope  in  the  things,  their  Lord  and  Master,  the  source  of  their  hap- 

dark^  ignorant  alike  of  the  true  God  and  of  their  piness,  rewarding  good  and  punishing  evil.    The  sim- 

religious  duties,  while  at  the  same  time  it  was  God's  plicity  of  their  life  made  the  range  of  their  moral 

will  that  they  should  know  and  love  Him.    The  in-  obligation  easy  of  recognition.    Worship  was  of  the 

struction  in  religion  which  children  receive  from  their  simplest  kind. 

parents  and  superiors,  anticipating  their  powers  of  Mosaic  Monotheism. — ^The  ancient  Hebrew  le- 

mdependent  reasoning,  and  puidin^  them  to  a  right  ligion,  promulgated  by  Moses  in  the  name  of  Jehovah 

knowledge  of  God^  being   impossible  for  our  first  (Jahwdi),  was  an  impressive  form  of  Monotheism, 

parents,  was  not  without  a  fitting  substitute.    The^  That  it  was  Divinely  revealed  is  the  unmistakable 

were  set  right  from  the  first  in  the  knowledge  of  their  teaching  of  Holy  Scripture,  particularly  of  Exodus  and 

rehgious  duties  by  a  Divine  revelation.    It  is  a  Catho-  the  following  book^  which  treat  exphcitly  of  Mosaic 

lie  dogma,  intimately  connected  with  the  dogma  of  legislation.    Even  non-Catholic  Scriptural  scholars, 

original  sin  and  with  that  of  the  Atonement,  that  our  who  no  longer  accept  the  Pentateuch,  as  it  stands,  as 

first  parents  were  raised  to  the  state  of  sanctifying  the  literary  production  of  Moses,  recognize,  in  great 

grace   and   were  destined   to   a  supernatural  end,  part,  that,  in  the  older  sources  which,  according  to 

namely,  the  beatific  vision  of  God  in  heaven.    This  them,  go  to  make  up  the  Pentateuch,  there  are  ]>ortions 

necessarily  implies  supernatural  faith,  which  could  that  reach  back  to  the  time  of  Moses,  showing  the 

oome  only  by  revelation.  existence  of  Hebrew  monotheistic  worship  in  his  day. 


MONOTHEISM 


501 


MONOTHEISM 


Now.  the  transcendent  superiority  of  this  Monotheism 
tau^t  by  Moses  offers  a  strong  proof  of  its  Divine 
origin.  At  a  time  when  the  neighbouring  nations 
representing  the  highest  civilization  of  that  time — 
Egvpt,  Babylonia,  Greece — were  giving  an  impure 
and  idolatrous  worship  to  many  deities,  we  find  the 
insignificant  Hebrew  people  professing  a  religion  in 
which  idolatry,  impure  rites,  and  a  degrading  m3rthol- 
ogv  had  no  legitimate  place,  but  where,  instead,  be- 
lidt  in  the  one  true  God  was  associated  with  a  dignified 
worship  and  a  lofty  moral  code.  Those  who  reject 
the  claim  of  Mosaic  Monotheism  to  have  been  re- 
vealed have  never  yet  succeeded  in  giving  a  satis- 
factory explanation  of  this  extraordinary  phenomenon. 
It  was,  however,  pre-eminently  the  religion  of  the  He- 
brew people,  destined  in  the  fullness  of  time  to  give 
nlace  to  the  higher  monotheistic  religion  revealed  by 
Christ,  in  which  all  the  nations  of  the  earth  should  find 
peace  and  salvation.  The  Jewish  people  was  thus 
God's  chosen  people,  not  so  much  by  reason  of  their 
own  merit,  as  because  they  were  destined  to  prepare  the 
way  for  the  absolute  and  universal  relipon,  Christian- 
ity. The  God  of  Moses  is  no  mere  tnbal  deity.  He 
is  the  Creator  and  Lord  of  the  world.  He  gives  over 
to  His  chosen  people  the  land  of  the  Chanaanites. 
He  is  a  jealous  God,  forbidding  not  only  worship  of 
strange  gods,  but  the  use  of  images,  which  might  lead 
to  abuses  in  that  age  of  almost  universal  idolatry. 
Love  of  God  is  made  a  duty,  but  reverential  fear  is 
the  predominant  emotion.  The  religious  sanction  of 
the  law  is  centred  chiefly  in  temporal  rewards  and 

Euniahments.    Laws  of  conduct,  though  determined 
y  justice  rather  than  by  charity  and  mercy,  are  still 
eminently  humane. 

Christian  Monotheism. — The  sublime  Monothe- 
ism taught  by  Jesus  Christ  has  no  parallel  in  the  his- 
tory of  rehgions.  God  is  presentea  to  us  as  the  lov- 
ing, merciful  Father,  not  of  one  privileged  people,  but 
of  all  mankind.  In  this  filial  relation  with  God — a  re- 
lation of  confidence,  gratitude,  love— Christ  centres 
our  obligations  both  to  God  and  to  our  fellow-men. 
He  lays  hold  of  the  individual  soul  and  reveals  to  it  its 
high  destiny  of  Divine  sonship.  At  the  same  time, 
He  impresses  on  us  the  corresponding  duty  of  treating 
others  as  God's  children,  ana  hence  as  our  brethren, 
entitled  not  simply  to  justice,  but  to  mercy  and  chcur- 
ity.  To  complete  this  idea  of  Christian  fellowship, 
Jesus  shows  Himself  to  be  the  eternal  Son  of  God^  sent 
by  His  heavenly  Father  to  save  us  from  sin,  to  raise  us 
to  the  life  of  grace  and  to  the  dignity  of  children  of 
God  through  the  atoning  merits  of  His  life  and  death. 
The  love  of  God  the  Father  thus  includes  the  love  of 
His  incarnate  Son.  Personal  devotion  to  Jesus  is  the 
motive  of  right  conduct  in  Christian  Monotheism. 
Co-operating  in  the  sanctification  of  mankind  is  the 
Holy  Ghost,  the  Spirit  of  truth  and  life,  sent  to 
confirm  the  faithful  in  faith,  hope,  and  charity. 
Tliese  three  Divine  Persons,  distinct  from  one  an- 
other, equal  in  all  things,  Father,  Son,  and  Holy 
Ghost,  are  one  in  essence,  a  trinity  of  persons  in  the 
one,  undivided  Godhead  (see  Trinitt,  The).  Such 
is  the  Monotheism  taught  by  Jesus.  The  guaranty  of 
the  truth  of  His  teaching  is  to  be  foimd  in  His  supreme 
moral  excellence,  in  the  perfection  of  His  ethical  teach- 
ing, in  His  miracles,  especially  His  bodily  resurrection, 
and  in  His  wonderful  influence  on  mankind  for  all 
time.  (Cf.  John,  xvii,  3;  I  Cor.,  viii.  4.)  As  Chris- 
tianity in  its  beginnings  was  surrounded  by  the  poly- 
theistic beliefs  and  practices  of  the  pagan  world,  a 
clear  and  authoritative  expression  of  Monotheism  was 
necessary.  Hence  the  symbols  of  faith,  or  creeds, 
open  with  the  words:  "I  [we]  believe  in  God  [^e6r 
deumy  or,  more  explicitly,  "I  [we]  believe  in  one  God 
riM  $e6wj  unum  deum[^\  (See  Denziger-Bannwart, 
''Enchiridion",  1-40;  cf.  Apostles'  Creed;  Athana- 
siAN  Creed  ;  Nicene  Creed.  )  Among  the  early  here- 
sies, some  of  the  most  important  and  most  directly  op- 


posed to  Monotheism  arose  out  of  the  attempt  to 
account  for  the  origin  of  evil.  Good  they  ascribed  to 
one  divine  principle,  evil  to  another.  (See  Gnosti- 
cism; MANicHiBiBM;  Marcionites.)  Thcsc  dualistic 
errors  gave  occasion  for  a  vigorous  defence  of  Mono- 
theism l>y  such  writers  as  St.  IrensBus,  Tertullian,  St. 
Augustine,  etc.  (see  Bardenhewer-Shahan,  ''Patrol- 
oe^',  St.  Louis,  1908). 

The  same  doctrine  naturally  held  the  foremost 
place  in  the  teaching  of  the  missionaries  who  con- 
verted the  races  of  Northern  Europe;  in  fact,  it 
may  be  said  that  the  diffusion  of  Monotheism  is  one 
of  the  great  achievements  of  the  Catholic  Church. 
In  the  various  concihar  definitions  regarding  the 
Trinity  of  Persons  in  God,  emphasis  is  laid  on  the 
unity  of  the  Divine  nature;  see,  e.  g..  Fourth  Coun- 
cil of  Lateran  (1215),  in  Denzinger-Bannwart,  '^ En- 
chiridion ' ' ,  428.  The  medieval  Scholastics,  taking  up 
the  traditional  belief,  brought  to  its  support  a  long 
array  of  arguments  based  on  reason;  see,  for  instance, 
St.  Thomas,  ''Contra  Gentes'',  I,  xlii;  and  St.  Ansehn, 
"Monol.'^  iv.  During  the  last  three  centuries  the 
most  conspicuous  tendency  outside  the  Catholic 
Church  has  been  towards  such  extreme  positions  as 
those  of  Monism  (q.  v.)  and  Pantheism  (q.  v.),  in 
which  it  is  asserted  that  all  things  are  really  one  in  sub- 
stance, and  that  God  is  identical  with  the  world.  The 
Churcn,  however,  has  steadfastly  maintained,  not 
only  that  God  is  essentially  distinct  from  all  things 
else,  but  also  that  there  is  only  one  God.  "  If  any  one 
deny  the  one  true  God,  Creator  and  Lord  of  all  things 
visible  and  invisible,  let  him  be  anathema''  (Cone. 
Vatican.,  Sess.  Ill,  "De  fide",  can.  i). 

Mohammedan  Monotheism. — Of  Mohammedan 
Monotheism  little  need  be  said.  The  Allah  of  the 
Koran  is  practically  one  with  the  Jehovah  of  the  Old 
Testament.  Its  keynote  is  xaUxmf  submissive  resigna- 
tion to  the  will  of  God,  which  is  expressed  in  eveiy- 
thing  that  happens.  Allah  is,  to  use  the  words  of  the 
Koran,  ''The  Almighty,  the  All-knowing,  the  All-just, 
the  Lord  of  the  worlds,  the  Author  of  the  heavens  and 
the  earth,  the  Creator  of  life  and  death,  in  whose  hand 
is  dominion  and  irresistible  power,  the  great  all-power- 
ful Lord  of  the  glorious  throne.  God  is  the  Mighty, 
.  .  .  the  Swift  in  reckoning,  who  knoweth  every  ant's 
weight  of  good  and  of  ill  that  each  man  hath  done,  and 
who  suffereth  not  the  reward  of  the  faithful  to  perish. 
He  is  the  King>  the  Holy,  .  .  .  the  Guardian  over  His 
servants,  the  Shelterer  of  the  orphan^  the  Guide  of  the 
erring,  tne  Deliverer  from  every  affliction,  the  Friend 
of  the  bereaved,  the  Consoler  of  the  afflicted,  .  .  .  the 
generous  Lord,  the  gracious  Hearer,  the  Near-at-hand. 
the  Compassionate,  the  Merciful,  the  Fomying'' 
(cited  from  "Islam  ,  by  Ameer  Ali  Syed).  The  in- 
fluence of  the  Bible,  particularly  the  Old  Testament, 
on  Mohammedan  Monotheism  is  well  known  and  need 
not  be  dwelt  on  here. 

Monotheism  and  Polytheistic  Religions. — 
What  has  thus  far  been  said  leads  to  the  conclusion 
that  Christian  Monotheism  and  its  antecedent  forms. 
Mosaic  and  primitive  Monotheism,  are  independent 
in  their  origin  of  the  Poljrtheistic  religions  of  the  world. 
The  various  forms  of  polytheism  that  now  flourish,  or 
that  have  existed  in  tne  past,  are  the  result  of  man's 
faultv  attempts  to  interpret  nature  by  the  light  of  un- 
aided reason.  Wherever  the  scientific  view  of  nature 
has  not  obtained,  the  mechanical,  secondary  causes 
that  accoimt  for  such  striking  phenomena  as  sun, 
moon,  lightning,  tempest,  have  invariably  been  mis- 
taken for  personal,  hving  causes.  The  thunder  has 
Bu^ested  the  thunderer;  the  tempest,  a  mysterious 
Uvmg  being  of  destructive  tendencies;  the  sun,  moon, 
and  stars  have  been  viewed  either  as  living  beings,  or 
as  inert  bodies  kept  in  movement  by  invisible,  intelli- 
gent agents.  This  personalizing  of  the  striking  phe- 
nomena of  nature  was  common  among  the  highest 
pagan  nations  of  antiquity.    It  is  the  common  view 


MONOTHELinSM 


502 


MONOTHEUnSM 


among  peoples  of  inferior  culture  to-day.  It  is  only 
since  modem  science  has  brought  all  these  phenomena 
within  the  reign  of  physical  law  that  the  tendency  to 
view  them  as  manifestations  of  distinct  personahties 
has  been  thoroughly  dispelled.  Now  such  a  person- 
alizing of  nature's  forces  is  compatible  with  Monothe- 
ism so  long  as  these  different  intelligencies  fancied  to 
produce  the  phenomena  are  viewed  as  God's  creatures, 
and  hence  not  worthy  of  Divine  worship.  But  where 
the  light  of  revelation  has  been  obscured  in  whole 
or  in  part,  the  tendency  to  deify  these  personal- 
ities associated  with  natural  phenomena  has  asserted 
itself. 

In  this  way  pol3rtheistic  nature-worship  seems  to 
have  arisen.  It  arose  from  the  mistaken  application 
of  a  sound  principle,  which  man  everywhere  seems  nat- 
urally to  possess,  namely,  that  the  great  operations 
of  nature  are  due  to  the  agency  of  mind  and  will.  Pro- 
fessor George  Fisher  observes:  "The  polytheistic  re- 
ligions did  not  err  in  identifying  the  manifold  activities 
of  nature  with  voluntary  agency.  The  spontaneous 
feelings  of  mankind  in  tms  particular  are  not  belied  by 
the  principles  of  philosophy.  The  error  of  polytheism 
lies  m  the  splintering  of  that  will  which  is  immanent  in 
all  the  operations  of  nature  into  a  plurality  of  personal 
agents,  a  throng  of  divinities^  each  active  and  domi- 
nant within  a  province  of  its  own''  ("Grounds  of 
Christian  and  Theistic  Belief",  1903,  p.  29).  Poljr- 
theistic  nature-worship  is  to  be  found  among  practi- 
cally all  peoples  who  nave  lacked  the  guiding  star  of 
Divine  revelation.  Such  history  of  these  individual 
religions  as  we  possess  offers  little  evidence  of  an  up- 
ward development  towards  Monotheism:  on  the  con- 
trary, in  almost  every  instance  of  known  historic  devel- 
opment, the  tendency  has  been  to  degenerate  further 
and  further  from  the  monotheistic  idea.  There  is,  in- 
deed, scarcely  a  Polytheistic  religion  in  which  one  of 
the  many  deities  recognized  is  not  held  in  honour  as 
the  father  and  lord  of  the  rest.  That  this  is  the  result 
of  an  upward  development,  as  non-Catholic  scholars 
very  generally  assert,  is  speculatively  possible.  But 
that  it  may  as  well  be  the  outcome  of  a  downward  de- 
velopment from  a  primitive  monotheistic  belief  can- 
not De  denied.  Tne  latter  view  seems  to  have  the 
weight  of  positive  evidence  in  its  favour.  The  ancient 
Chinese  religion,  as  depicted  in  the  oldest  records, 
was  remarkably  close  to  pure  Monotheism.  The 
gross  Polytheistic  nature-worship  of  the  Eg3rptians  of 
later  times  was  decidedly  a  degeneration  from  the  ear- 
lier quasi-Monotheistic  belief.  In  the  Vedic  religion 
a  strong  Monotheistic  tendency  asserted  itself,  only  to 
weidcen  later  on  and  change  into  Pantheism.  The  one 
happy  exception  is  the  upward  development  which  the 
ancient  Aryan  Polytheism  took  in  the  land  of  the 
Iranians.  Through  the  wise  reform  of  Zoroaster,  the 
various  gods  of  nature  were  subordinated  to  the  su- 
preme, omniscient  spirit,  Oimuzd,  and  were  accorded 
an  inferior  worship  as  his  creatures.  Ormuzd  was 
honoured  as  the  creator  of  all  that  is  good,  the  revealer 
and  guardian  of  the  laws  of  religious  and  moral  con- 
duct, and  the  sanctifier  of  the  faithful.  The  sense  of 
sin  was  strongly  developed,  and  a  standard  of  morality 
was  set  forth  tnat  justly  excites  admiration.  Heaven 
and  hell,  the  final  renovation  of  the  world,  including 
the  bodily  resurrection,  were  elements  in  Zoroastrian 
eschatology.  A  nobler  religion  outside  the  sphere  of 
revealed  religion  is  not  to  be  found.  Yet  even  this  re- 
ligion is  rarely  classed  by  scholars  among  monotheis- 
tic religions,  owing  to  the  polytheistic  colouring  of  its 
worship  of  the  subordinate  nature-spirits,  and  also  to 
its  retention  of  the  ancient  Aryan  rite  of  fire-worship, 
justified  by  Zoroastrians  of  modem  times  as  a  form  of 
symbolic  worship  of  Ormuzd. 

The  so-caUed  survivals  in  higher  relifpons,  such  as 
belief  in  food-eating  ghosts,  pain-causing  spirits, 
witchcraft^  the  use  of  amulets  and  fetishes,  are  often 
cited  as  evidence  that  even  such  forms  of  Monotheism 


as  Judaism  and  Christianity  are  but  outgrowths  of 
lower  religions.  The  presence  of  the  greater  part  of 
these  superstitious  beliefs  and  customs  in  the  more 
ignorant  sections  of  Christian  peoples  is  easily  ex- 
plained as  the  survival  of  tenacious  customs  that 
flourished  among  the  ancestors  of  European  peoples 
long  before  their  conversion  to  Christianity.  Again, 
many  of  these  beliefs  and  customs  are  sucn  as  might 
easily  arise  from  faulty  interpretations  of  nature,  un- 
avoidable in  unscientific  grades  of  culture,  even  where 
the  monotheistic  idea  prevailed.  Superstitions  like 
these  are  but  the  rank  weeds  and  vines  growing  around 
the  tree  of  relision. 

Kribg,  Dtr  ManiolthnMmua  d,  Offmbanmg  u.  daa  Heidtnium 
(Mains,  1880);  Boxddbb,  NatiauL  ThtUon  (New  York.  1891); 
Dribcoll«  Chruiian  Philo$ophy.  God  (New  York,  1900):  Homt- 
BEiM ,  InatitutioMM  Theodicaa  (Freiburg,  1893) ;  Lillt,  TIu  Onai 
Enioma  (2Dd  ed.,  London,  1893);  Rickabt.  Of  Ood  and  Hi9 
Creaturet  (St.  Louis,  1898) ;  Michclbt,  Dieu  et  ragnoalieitnu  eow- 
temporain  (PariB,  IflOO) ;  dk  la  Paqucrxk,  BlhnenU  d'apologHigme 
(Paria,  189B) ;  QARRiaou-LAORANOK  in  Dtdionnairt  apctoifHiqu^ 
d4  lafoi  cathoHque  (Paris,  1910),  a.  ▼.  Dieu;  Fisher,  The  GroundM 
of  TheUic  and  Christian  Belief  CSew  York.  1897) ;  Cairo.  The 
Evolution  of  Religion  (2  vols..  Glasgow,  1899):  Gwatkin.  The 
KnowUdae  of  Ood  and  ita  Hiatarie  Development  (Edinburgh,  1906) ; 
FuNT,  Theiem  (New  York,  1896);  Idem.  Anti-Theieiie  Theorim 
(New  York,  1894) :  Ivbrach,  Theiem  in  the  Light  of  Preeent  Science 
and  Philoeophy  (New  York.  1899);  Orr,  The  Chrielian  View  of 
Ood  and  the  World  (New  York,  1907) ;  Rashdall,  Philoeophy  and 
Religion  (New  York,  1910) ;  Schttriiann,  Belief  in  Ood,  iU  Origin, 
Nature,  and  Baeie  (New  York,  1890). 

Chables  F.  Aiken. 

MonotheHtism  and  MonotheHtes  (sometimes 
written  Monothelbtes,  from  nopodtXiiriu  but  the  if 
is  more  naturally  transliterated  into  late  Latin  by  t), 
a  here^  of  the  seventh  century,  condemned  in  the 
Sixth  General  Council.  It  was  essentially  a  modifi- 
cation of  Monophysitism,  proi)agated  within  the 
Catholic  Church  m  order  to  conciliate  the  Monophy- 
sites,  in  hopes  of  reunion. 

The  Thbolooical  Question. — ^The  Monophysites 
were  habitually  represented  by  their  CaUiohc  oppo- 
nents as  denying  all  reality  to  the  human  nature  of 
Christ  after  the  union.  This  was  perhaps  a  logical 
deduction  from  some  of  their  language,  but  it  waa 
far  from  being  the  real  teaching  of  their  chief 
doctors. 

Yet  at  least  it  is  certain  that  they  made  the  unity  of 
Christ  (on  which  they  insisted  against  real  and  sup- 
posed Nestorianizers)  imply  only  one  principle  of  in- 
tention and  will,  and  only  one  kind  of  activity  or 
operation  {ip^pyeia).  Personality  seemed  to  them  to 
be  manifested  in  will  and  action;  and  they  thought  a 
single  personality  must  involve  a  single  will  and  a 
single  category  of  action.  The  Person  of  Christ, 
being  divino-human.  must  therefore  involve  one  di- 
vino-human  will  ana  one  divino-human  activity  (see 
Euttchianibm;  Monophysites  and  Monofhtbit- 
ism). 

A.  The  ttoo  WiUa. — ^The  Catholic  doctrine  is  simple, 
at  all  events  in  its  main  lines.  The  faculty  of  wilung 
is  an  integral  part  of  human  nature:  therefore,  our 
Lord  had  a  human  will,  since  He  took  a  p^ect  human 
nature.  His  Divine  will  on  the  other  hand  is  numer- 
ically one  with  that  of  the  Father  and  the  Holy  Ghost. 
It  is  therefore  necessary  to  acknowledge  two  wills  in 
Christ. 

But  if  the  word  wiU  is  taken  to  mean  not  the 
faculty  but  the  decision  taken  h}r  the  will  (the  wiU 
willed,  not  the  will  willing),  then  it  is  true  that  the  two 
wills  always  acted  in  harmony:  there  were  two  wills 
willing  and  two  acts,  but  one  object,  one  will  willed;  in 
the  phrase  of  St.  Maximus,  there  were  9^  OtMiftara 
though  /da  ypvfi'^.  The  woitl  will  is  also  used  to  mean 
not  a  decision  of  the  will,  but  a  mere  velleity  or  wish, 
uolurUas  ttt  naiura  (OeXijait)  as  opposed  to  uoluntas  tU 
ratio  (po^-nait).  These  are  but  two  movements  of 
the  same  faculty;  both  exist  in  Christ  wiUiout  amr 
imperfection,  and  the  natural  movement  of  Hu 
human  will  is  perfectly  subject  to  its  rational  or  free 
movement.    Lastly,  the  sensitive  i4>petite  is  tJao 


MONOTHSUnSM                     503  M0N0THKUTI8M 

Bometimes  entitled  wiU.  It  is  an  integral  part  of  ing  that  all  the  actions,  human  and  divine,  of  the  in- 
human nature,  and  therefore  exists  in  the  perfect  camate  Son  are  to  be  referred  to  one  agent,  who  is  the 
human  nature  of  Jesus  Christ,  but  without  any  of  the  God-man;  but  they  were  wrong  in  inferring  that  con- 
imperfection  induced  by  orlgintd  or  actual  sin :  He  can  sequently  His  actions,  both  the  human  and  the  Divine, 
have  no  passions  (in  that  sense  of  the  word  which  im-  must  all  be  called  'Hheandric"  or  ''divino-human", 
plies  a  revolt  against  the  reason),  no  concupiscence,  no  and  must  proceed  from  a  single  divino-human  ivifinf€ia, 
"will  of  the  flesh''.  Therefore  this  "lower  will''  is  to  St.  Sophronius,  and  after  him  St.  Maximus  and  St. 
be  denied  in  Christ,  in  so  far  as  it  is  called  a  will,  be-  John  Damascene,  showed  that  the  two  iydpyeuu  pro- 
cause  it  resists  the  rational  will  (it  was  in  this  sense  duce  three  classes  of  actions,  since  actions  are  complex, 
that  Honorius  was  said  by  John  IV  to  have  denied  and  some  are  therefore  mingled  of  the  human  ana  the 
that  Christ  had  a  lower  will);  but  it  is  to  be  asserted  divine.  (1)  There  are  Divine  actions  exercised  by 
in  Him  so  far  as  it  is  called  will,  because  it  obeys  the  God  the  Son  in  common  with  the  Father  and  the 
rational  will,  and  so  is  volunUia  per  participcUionem:  in  Holy  Ghost  (e.  g.  the  creation  of  souls  or  the  con- 
fact  in  this  latter  sense  the  sensual  appetite  is  less  servation  of  the  universe)  in  which  His  human  nature 
improperly  called  will  in  Christ  than  in  us,  for  quo  bears  no  part  whatever,  and  these  cannot  be  called 
perfecHor  est  volenSf  eo  magia  sensualitas  in  eo  de  idivino-human,  for  they  are  purelv  Divine.  It  is  true 
volufUate  hahet.  But  the  strict  sense  of  the  word  will  that  it  is  correct  to  say  that  a  child  ruled  the  universe 
(polufUas,  Oikiifta)  is  always  the  rational  will,  the  free  (by  the  communicatio  idiamalum),  but  this  is  a  matter 
will.  It  is  therefore  correct  to  sav  that  in  Christ  there  of  words,  and  is  an  accidental,  not  a  formal  predication 
are  but  two  wills:  the  Divine  will,  which  is  the  Divine  — He  who  beccune  a  child  ruled  the  universe  as  God, 
nature,  and  the  human  rational  will,  which  always  acts  not  as  a  child,  and  by  an  activity  that  is  wholly  Divine, 
in  harmony  with  and  in  free  subjection  to  the  IMvine  not  divino-human.  (2)  There  are  other  Divine 
will.  The  denial  of  more  than  one  will  in  Christ  by  actions  which  the  Word  Incarnate  exercised  in  and 
the  heretics  necessarily  involved  the  incompleteness  through  His  human  nature,  as  to  raise  the  dead  by  a 
of  His  human  nature.  Thev  confounded  the  will  as  word,  to  heal  the  sick  by  a  touch.  Here  the  Divme 
faculty  with  the  decision  of  tne  faculty.  They  argued  action  is  distinguished  from  the  human  actions  of 
that  two  wills  must  mean  contrary  wills,  which  shows  touching  or  speaking,  though  it  uses  them^  but 
that  they  could  not  conceive  of  two  distinct  faculties  through  this  close  connexion  the  word  iheandric  is  not 
having  the  same  object.  Further,  they  saw  ri^tty  out  of  place  for  the  whole  complex  act,  while  the 
that  we  Divine  will  is  the  ultimate  governing  princi-  Divine  action  as  exercised  through  the  human  may 
pie,  t6  iffe/MviKSy,  but  a  free  human  will  acting  under  be  called  formally  theandric,  or  divino-human.  (3) 
its  leadership  seemed  to  them  to  be  otiose.  Yet  this  Again,  there  are  purely  human  actions  of  Christ,  such 
omission  prevents  our  Lord's  actions  from  being  free,  as  walking  or  eating,  but  these  are  due  to  the  free 
from  being  human  actions,  from  being  meritorious,  in-  human  will,  acting  m  response  to  a  motion  of  the 
deed  makes  His  human  nature  nothing  but  an  irra-  Divine  will.  These  are  elicited  from  a  human  poten^ 
tional,  irresponsible  instrument  of  the  Divinity — a  tia,  but  under  the  direction  of  the  Divine.  Therefore 
machine,  of  which  the  Divinitv  is  the  motive  power,  they  are  also  called  theandric,  but  in  a  different 
To  Severus  our  Lord's  knowledge  was  similarly  of  one  sense — they  are  materially  theandric,  humano-divine. 
kind — He  had  only  Divine  knowledge  and  no  human  We  have  seen  therefore  that  to  some  of  our  Lord's 
cognitive  faculty.  Such  thoroup^going  conclusions  actions  the  word  theandric  cannot  be  applied  at  all;  to 
were  not  contemplated  by  the  inventors  of  Mono-  some  it  can  be  applied  in  one  sense,  to  others  in  a 
thelitism,  and  Sergius  merely  denied  two  wills  in  different  sense.  Tne  Lateran  Council  of  649  anathe- 
order  to  assert  that  there  was  no  repugnance  in  matized  the  expression  una  deivirilis  operaiiOf  yda  tfeav- 
Christ's  human  nature  to  the  promptings  of  the  Di-  Spcirfy  Mpytia,  by  which  all  the  actions  divine  and 
vine,  and  he  certainly  did  not  see  the  consequences  human  are  performed.  It  is  imfortunate  that  the  re- 
of  his  own  disastrous  teaching.  spect  felt  for  the  writings  of  Pseudo-Dionysius  Areo- 
B.  The  two  operations, — Operation  or  energy,  activ-  pagita  has  prevented  theologians  from  proscribine  the 
ity  (Mpytia,  operatio)^  is  parallel  to  will,  in  mat  there  expression  deivirilia  cperaiio  altogether.  It  has  been 
is  but  one  activity  of  God,  ad  extra,  common  to  all  tiie  shown  above  that  it  is  correct  to  speak  of  deivirUea 
three  Persons;  whereas  there  are  two  operations  of  actus  or  actionee  or  iy€pyijfMTa.  The  icaitr/j  Otavipucfi 
Christ,  on  account  of  His  two  natures.  The  word  Mpn/^ia^  of  Pseudo-Dionysius  was  defended  b^r  So- 
4p4py€ia  is  not  here  employed  in  the  Aristotelean  phronius  and  Maximus  as  referring  to  the  Divine 
sense  (actu8f  as  opposed  to  potentia,  dAwofus),  for  this  Mpym  when  producing  the  mixed  (formally  thean- 
would  be  practically  identical  with  eeee  (exiatentia),  dric)  acts;  theandric  thus  becomes  a  correct  epithet 
and  it  is  an  open  question  amonflst  Catholic  theolo-  of  the  Divine  operation  under  certain  circumstances, 

Sians  whether  there  is  one  esse  in  Christ  or  two.    Nor  and  that  is  all. 
oes  MpTftM,  here  mean  simply  the  action  (as  Vasques, 

followed  by  de  Lugo  and  others,  wrongly  held)  but  . 

the  faculty  of  action,  including  the  act  of  the  faculty,  the  Lateran  Council  tells  us  that  a  certain  CoUuthus 

Petavius  has  no  difficulty  in  refuting  Vasquez,  by  re-  would  not  go  even  so  far  as  this,  for  he  feared  lest 

f erring  to  the  writers  of  the  seventh  century;  but  he  ''theandric"  might  leave  some  operation  to  the  hu- 

himseu  speaks  of  duo  genera  operationum  as  equiva-  man  nature;  he  preferred  the  word  0€Kor pdirrts^  Deo 

lent  to  duo  operaiiones^  which  introduces  an  unfortu-  decibUis  (Mansi,  X,  982).    The  denial  of  two  opera- 

nate  confusion  between  ivdpytta  and  irpd^tit  or  ivtpnr^  tions,  even  more  than  the  denial  of  two  wills,  makes 

/Mira,  that  is  between   faculty   of  action   and   the  the  human  nature  of  Christ  an  inanimate  instrument 

multiple  actions  produced  by  the  faculty.    This  con-  of  the  Divine  will.    St.  Thomas  points  out  that  though 

fusion  of  terms  is  frequent  in  modem  theolo^ans,  and  an  instrument  participates  in  tne  action  of  the  agent 

occurs  in  the  ancients,  e.  g.  St.  Sophromus.    Hie  who  uses  it,  yet  even  an  inanimate  instrument  has  an 

actions  of  God  are  innumerable  in  Creation  and  Provi-  activity  of  its  own;  much  more  the  rational  human 

dence,  but  His  ip^py^ia  is  one,  for  He  has  one  nature  nature  of  Christ  has  an  operation  of  its  own  under 

of  the  three  Persons.    The  various  actions  of  the  in-  the  higher  motion  it  receives  from  the  divinity.    But 

camate  Son  proceed  from  two  distinct  and  uncon-  by  means  of  this  hi^^er  motion,  the  two  natures  act  in 

fused  MpyfMif  because  He  has  two  natures.     All  concert,  according  to  the  famous  words  of  St.  Leo's 

are  the  actions  of  one  subject  (agent  or  principium  Tome:  ''Agit  enim  utraque  forma  cuin  alterius  com- 

quod)f  but  are  either  divine  or  human  accoraing  to  the  munione  quod  proprium  est;  Verbo  scilicet  operante 

nature  {principium  quo)  from  which  they  are  ^dted.  quod  Verbi  est,  et  came  exseauente  ouod  camis  est. 

The  MonophyaiteB  were  therefore  quite  right  in  say-  Unum  horum  coruscat  miraculis,  aliua  suocumbit  ia- 


Thou|^  the  Monophysites  in  general  spoke  of  ''one 
theandnc  operation' ,  yet  a  speech  of  St.  Martin  at 


MONOTHELTTISM 


504 


MONOTHELinSM 


juriis"  (Ep,  28,  4).  These  words  were  quoted  by 
Cyrus,  Sergius,  Sophronius,  Honoriusi  Maximus,  etc., 
and  played  a  large  part  in  the  controversy.  This  in- 
tercommunication of  the  two  operations  follows  from 
the  Catholic  doctrine  of  the  wtpixofp^Uj  circuminsessio, 
of  the  two  unconf  used  and  inseparable  natures,  as  aeain 
St.  Leo:  "Exprimit  quidem  sub  distinctis  actionibus 
veritatem  suam  utraque  natura,  sed  neutra  se  sJb 
alterius  connexione  disjungit"  (Serm.  liv,  1).  St. 
Sophronius  (Mansi,  XI,  480  sqq.)  and  St.  Maximus 
(Ep.  19)  expressed  this  truth  at  tne  very  outset  of  the 
controversy  as  well  as  later:  and  it  is  insisted  upon  bv 
St.  John  Damascene.  St.  Thomas  (III,  Q.  xix,  a.  1)  well 
explains  it:  '' Motum  participat  operationem  moven- 
tis^  et  movens  utitur  operatione  moti,  et  sic  utrumque 
agit  cum  commimicatione  alterius''.  KrQger  culd 
others  have  doubted  whether  it  could  be  said  that  the 
question  of  two  operations  was  already  decided  (as 
Loofs  held),  in  Justinian's  time.  But  it  seems  that 
St.  Leo's  words,  yet  earher,  were  clear  enough.  The 
writings  of  Severus  of  Antioch  assumed  that  his 
Catholic  opponents  would  uphold  two  operations, 
and  an  obscure  monk  in  the  sixth  century,  Eustathius 
(De  duabus  naturis,  P.  G.,  LXXXVI,  909)  accepts 
the  expression.  Many  of  the  numerous  citations  from 
the  Greek  and  Latin  Fathers  adduced  at  the  Lateran 
Council  and  on  other  occasions  are  inconclusive,  but 
some  of  them  are  clear  enough.  Really  learned  theo- 
logians like  Sophronius  and  Maximus  were  not  at  a 
loss,  though  Cyrus  and  Honorius  were  piuzled.  The 
Patriarch  Eulogius  of  Alexandria  (580-607)  had  writ- 
ten against  those  who  taught  one  will,  but  his  work 
was  unknown  to  Cyrus  ana  Sergius. 

History. — ^The  origin  of  the  Monothelite  contro- 
versy is  thus  related  by  Sergius  in  his  letter  to  Pope 
Honorius.  When  the  Emperor  Heraclius  in  the  course 
of  the  war  which  he  began  about  619,  ccunc  to  Theo- 
dosiopolis  (Erzeroum)  in  Armenia  (about  622),  a 
Monoph3rsite  named  Paul,  a  leader  of  the  Acephali, 
made  a  speech  before  him  in  favour  of  his  heresy. 
The  emperor  refuted  him  with  theological  aijguments, 
and  incidentally  made  use  of  the  expression  ''one 
operation"  of  Christ.    Later  on  (about  626)  he  in- 

auired  of  Cyrus,  Bishop  of  Phasis  and  metropolitan  of 
le  Lazi,  whether  his  words  were  correct.  Cynis  was 
uncertain^  and  by  the  emperor's  order  wrote  to  Seigius 
the  Patnarch  of  Constantinople,  whom  Heraclius 
greatly  trusted,  for  advice.  Sei^us  in  reply  sent  him 
a  letter  said  to  have  been  written  by  Mennas  of  Con- 
stantinople to  Pope  Vigilius  and  approved  by  the 
latter,  in  which  several  authorities  were  cited  for  one 
operation  and  one  will.  This  letter  was  afterwuds 
declared  to  be  a  forgery  and  was  admitted  to  be  such 
at  the  Sixth  General  Coimcil.  Nothing  more  occurred, 
according  to  Seigius,  until  in  June,  631,  Qyrus  was 
promoted  bv  the  emperor  to  the  See  of  Alexandria. 
The  whole  of  Egypt  was  then  Monophysite,  and  it  was 
constantly  threatened  by  the  Saracens.  Heraclius 
was  doubtless  very  anxious  to  unite  all  to  the  Catholic 
Church,  for  the  countiy  was  greatly  weakened  by  the 
dissensions  of  the  heretics  amon^  themselves,  and  by 
their  bitterness  against  the  official  religion.  Former 
emperors  had  maofe  efiforts  for  reunion,  but  in  the  fifth 
century  the  Henoticon  of  Zeno  had  been  condemned 
by  the  popes  yet  had  not  satisfied  all  the  heretics,  and 
in  the  sixth  century  the  condemnation  of  the  three 
Chapters  had  nearly  caused  a  schism  between  East 
and  West  without  m  the  least  placating  the  Mono- 
physites.  Cyrus  was  for  the  moment  more  successful, 
imagining,  no  doubt,  as  all  Catholics  imagined,  that 
Monophysitism  involved  the  assertion  that  the  hu- 
man nature  of  Christ  was  a  nonentity  after  the  Union, 
he  was  delighted  at  the  acceptance  by  the  Monophy- 
ntes  of  a  series  of  nine  CapituUif  in  which  the  Chal- 
cedonian  ''in  two  natures"  is  asserted,  the  "one 
compomte  hypostasis",  and  ^vcudi  iml  Ka$*  bwharo/ffw 
f MM^it,  togeUier  with  the  adverbs  Aavyx^vtt  drpArrwt, 


dpaWou&rtn.  St.  Cyril,  the  great  doctor  of  the  Mono- 
physites,  is  cited;  and  all  is  satisfactoiy  until  in  the 
seyenlii  proposition  our  Lord  is  spoken  of  as  "working 
His  Divme  and  His  human  works  by  one  theandrio 
operation,  according  to  the  divine  Dionysius".  This 
famous  expression  of  the  Pseudo-Dionysius  the  Ako- 
pagite  is  taken  by  modem  critics  to  show  that  he  wrote 
under  Monophysite  influences.  But  Cyrus  believed 
it  to  be  an  orthodox  expression,  used  by  Mennaa, 
and  M>proved  by  Pope  Vigilius.  He  was  triumphant 
therefore  at  the  reunion  to  the  Church  of  a  laige  num- 
ber of  Theodosian  Monophysites,  so  that,  as  Sei^ua 
phrases  it,  all  the  people  of  Alexandria  and  neariy  all 
Egypt,  the  Thebaid,  and  Libya  had  become  of  one 
voice,  and  whereas  formerly  they  would  not  hear  even 
the  name  of  St.  Leo  and  of  the  Council  of  Chaloedon, 
now  they  acclaimed  them  with  a  loud  voice  in  the  holy 
mysteries.  But  the  Monophysites  saw  more  cleariy, 
and  Anastasius  of  Mount  Sinai  tells  us  that  they 
boasted  "they  had  not  communicated  with  Chaloe- 
don,  but  Chaicedon  with  them,  by  acknowledging  one 
nature  of  Christ  through  one  operation". 

St.  Sophronius,  a  much  venerated  monk  of  Palee- 
tine,  soon  to  become  Patriarch  of  Jerusalem,  was  in 
Alexandria  at  this  time.  He  strongly  objected  to  the 
expression  "one  operation",  and  unconvinced  by 
Qyrus's  defence  of  it,  he  went  to  Constantinople,  and 
uiged  on  Sergius.  upon  whose  advice  the  expreaaon 
had  been  used,  that  the  seventh  capitulum  must  be 
withdrawn.  Sergius  thought  this  too  hard,  as  it  woukl 
destroy  the  union  so  gloriously  efifected :  but  he  was  so 
far  impressed  that  he  wrote  to  Cyrus  that  it  would  be 
Well  for  the  future  to  drop  both  expressions  "one 
operation"  and  "two  operations",  ana  he  thought  it 
necessaiy  to  refer  the  whole  question  to  the  pope. 
(So  far  his  own  stoiy.)  This  last  proceeding  must 
warn  us  not  to  judge  Sergius  too  harahly.  It  may  be 
invention  that  he  was  bom  of  Monophysite  parents 
(so  Anastasius  of  Sinai)  j  at  all  events  he  was  an  <^ 
ponent  of  the  Monophysites,  and  he  based  his  defence 
of  "one  operation"  on  the  citations  of  Fathers  in  the 
spurious  letter  of  his  orthodox  predecessor  Mennas, 
which  he  believed  to  have  had  tne  approval  of  Pope 
Vidlius.  He  was  a  politician  who  evidently  knew 
little  theology.  But  he  had  more  to  answer  for  than 
he  admits.  Cjrrus  had  not  reaUy  been  doubtful  at 
first.  His  letter  to  Sergius  with  great  politeness  ex- 
plains that  he  had  said  the  emperor  was  wrong,  and 
had  quoted  the  famous  words  of  St.  Leo's  Tome  to 
Flavian:  "Agit  utraque  natura  cum  alterius  oom- 
munione  quod  proprium  est"  as  plainly  defining  two 
distinct  but  inseparable  operations;  Serous  was  re- 
sponsible for  leadinghim  into  error  b^  sending  him  the 
letter  of  Mennas.  Further,  St.  Maximus  telb  us  that 
Sergius  had  written  to  Theodore  of  Pharan  asking 
his  opinion:  Theodore  agreed.  (It  is  probable  that 
Stephen  of  Dora  was  mistaken  in  making  Theodore  a 
Monothelite  before  Seigius.)  He  also  worked  upon 
the  Severian  Paul  the  one-eyed,  the  same  with  whom 
Heraclius  had  disputed.  He  had  requested  George 
Anas,  a  Monophysite  follower  of  Paul  the  Black  of 
Antioch,  to  furnish  him  with  authorities  for  the  "one 
operation",  saying  in  his  letter  that  he  was  ready  to 
make  a  unbn  on  this  basis.  The  Alexandrian  St.  J<^in 
the  Ahnsgiver  (609  or  619)  had  taken  this  letttf  fnmi 
Anss  with  his  own  hand,  and  was  only  prevented  fay 
the  irruption  of  the  Saracens  (619)  from  uong  it  to 
obtain  the  deposition  of  Sergius. 

In  the  letter  to  Honorius,  Serpus  unwittingly  de- 
velops another  heresy.  He  admits  that  "one  opera- 
tion", though  used  by  a  few  Fathers,  is  a  strange 
expression,  and  might  suggest  a  denial  of  the  unoon- 
fused  union  of  two  natures.  But  the  "  two  operations" 
are  also  dangerous,  by  suggesting  "two  contraxv  willa, 
as  thou^  when  the  Wordof  God  wished  to  fulfil  Hk 
saving  Passion,  His  humanity  resisted  and  contra- 
dicted His  will,  and  thus  two  contrary  wills  would  be 


MOmOTHELinSM                      505  MONOTBILmSM 

introduoed,  which  is  impious,  for  it  is  impossible  that  having  oondenmed  the  Ecthesis.  John  IV,  who  suo- 
in  the  same  subject  there  should  be  two  wills  at  once,  oeeded  him  in  December,  bst  no  time  in  holding  a 
and  contrary  to  one  another  as  to  the  same  thin^'\  synod  to  condemn  it  fonnally.  When  Heraclius,  who 
So  far  he  is  ri^^t;  but  he  continues:  ''For  the  savmg  had  merely  intended  to  give  effect  to  the  teaching  of 
doctrine  of  the  holy  Fathers  clearly  teaches  that  the  Honorius,  heard  that  the  document  was  rejected  at 
intellectually  animated  flesh  of  the  Lord  never  per-  Rome,  he  disowned  it  in  a  letter  to  John  IV^and  laid 
forms  its  natural  movement  apart  from,  and  b^  its  the  blame  on  Sergius.  He  died  Feb.,  641.  The  pope 
own  impetus  contrariwise  to,  l^e  direction  of  the  wrote  to  the  elder  son  of  Heraclius,  saying  that  tne 
Word  of  God  hypostatically  united  to  it,  but  only  at  Ecthesis  would  doubtless  now  be  withdrawn,  and 
the  time  and  in  tne  manner  and  to  the  extent  that  the  i^wlogixing  for  Pope  Honorius,  who  had  not  meant  to 
Word  of  God  wishes,"  just  as  our  body  is  moved  by  teach  one  numan  will  in  Christ.  St.  Maximus  Con- 
our  rational  soul.  Here  Sersdus  speaks  of  the  natural  fessor  published  a  edmilar  defence  of  Honorius,  but 
will  of  the  flesh,  and  of  the  Divine  will,  but  makes  no  neither  of  these  apologists  says  anvthing  of  the  oris- 
mention  of  the  higher  free  will,  which  indeed  is  wholly  inal  error,  the  forbidcung  of  the  "two  operations  . 
subject  to  the  Divine  wUl.  He  may  indeed  be  under-  which  was  soon  to  become  once  more  the  principal 
stood  to  include  this  intellectual  will  in  **  the  intellec-  point  of  controversy.  In  fact  on  this  point  no  defence 
tually  animated  flesh'',  but  his  thought  is  not  clear,  of  Honorius  was  possible.  But  Pyrrhus,  the  new  Par 
and  his  words  simply  express  the  heresy  of  one  will,  triarch  of  Constantinople,  was  a  supporter  of  the 
He  concludes  that  it  is  best  simply  to  confess  that "  the  Ecthesis  and  confirmed  it  in  a  great  council,  which  St. 
only  begotten  Son  of  God,  who  is  truly  both  God  and  Maximus,  however,  reproves  as  irregularly  convoked. 
Man,  works  both  the  Divine  and  the  human  works,  and  After  the  death  of  Constantine  and  the  exUe  of  his 
from  one  and  the  same  incarnate  Word  of  God  proceed  brother  Heracleonas,  Pyrrhus  himself  was  exiled  to 
indivisibly  and  inseparably  both  the  Divine  and  the  Africa.  Here  he  was  persuaded  in  a  famous  contro- 
human  operations  as  St.  Leo  teaches:  A^t  enim  versy  with  St.  Maximus  (q.  v.)  to  renounce  the  appeal 
utraque,  etc."  If  these  words  and  the  quotation  from  to  Vigilius  and  Honorius  and  to  condemn  the  Ecthesis; 
St.  Leo  mean  anything,  they  mean  two  operations;  he  went  to  Rome  and  made  his  submission  to  Pope 
but  S^gius's  error  lies  precisely  in  deprecating  this  Theodore,  John  IV  having  died  (Oct.,  642). 
expression.  It  cannot  be  too  carefully  Dome  in  mind  Meanwhile  protests  from  the  East  were  not  want- 
that  theological  accuracy  is  a  matter  of  definition,  and  ing.  St.  Sophronius,  who,  after  becoming  Patriarch  of 
definition  is  a  matter  of  words.  The  prohibition  of  the  Jerusalem,  died  just  before  Sergius,  had  yet  had  time 
ri^t  words  is  always  heresy,  even  though  the  author  to  publish  at  his  enthronization  a  formal  defence  of  the 
of  the  prohibition  has  no  heretical  intention  and  is  dogma  of  two  operations  and  two  wills,  which  was 
merely  shortsighted  or  confused.  Honorius  replied  afterwards  improved  by  the  sixth  council.  This  re- 
reproving  Sophronius,  and  praising  Sergius  for  reject-  markable  document  was  the  first  full  exposition  of  tiie 
ing  his  new  expression"  of  ''two  operations".  He  Catholic  doctrine.  It  was  sent  to  all  the  patriarchs, 
^proves  the  recommendations  made  by  Sergius,  and  and  St.  Sophronius  hun^ly  adced  for  corrections, 
has  no  blame  for  the  capitula  of  Cyrus.  In  one  point  His  references  to  St.  Leo  are  interesting,  especiidly  his 
hegoes  further  than  either,  for  he  uses  the  words:  statement:  ''I  accept  all  his  letters  and  teachings  as 
"Wherefore  we  acknowledge  one  Will  of  our  Lord  proceeding  from  the  mouth  of  Peter  the  Coryphieus, 
Jesus  Christ."  We  may  easily  beUeve  the  testimony  and  I  loss  them  and  embrace  them  with  all  my  soul", 
of  Abbot  John  Symponus,  who  wrote  the  letter  for  Further  on  he  speaks  of  receiving  St.  Leo's  definitions 
Honorius,  that  he  intended  only  to  deny  a  lower  will  as  those  of  Peter,  and  St.  C^yrril's  as  those  of  Mark, 
of  the  fl^  in  Christ  which  contradicted  His  higher  He  also  made  a  large  collection  of  testimonies  of  the 
will,  and  that  he  was  not  referring  at  all  to  His  Divine  Fathers  in  favour  of  two  operations  and  two  wiUs. 
will j  but  in  connexion  with  the  letter  of  Serpus  such  He  finally  sent  to  Rome  Stamen,  Bishop  of  Dora,  tiie 
an  mterpretation  is  scarcely  the  more  obvious  one.  first  bishop  of  the  patriarchate^  who  has  given  us  a 
It  is  clear  that  Honorius  was  not  any  more  a  wilful  moving  description  of  the  way  m  which  the  saint  led 
heretic  than  was  Seigius,  but  he  was  equally  incorrect  him  to  the  holy  place  of  Calvary  and  there  chmred 
in  his  decision,  and  ms  position  made  the  mistake  far  him,  saying:  ''Thou  shalt  ^ve  an  account  to  the  God 
more  disastrous.    In  another  letter  to  Sergius  he  says  who  was  crucified  for  us  m  this  holy  place,  in  His 

he  has  informed  Qyrus  that  the  new  expressions,  one  ^orious  and  awful  advent,  when  He  snail  come  to 

and  two           '            ^    ^    j          j  ^     •         ^  *  »     .,    ,.  .          j  .,     ,     ,.,.,,,          ,    „ 

most 


to  the  pope's  letter  by  the  issue  of  an  "Exposition"  cens  which  is  come  upon  us  for  our  sins.   Swiftiy  pass, 

composed  by  Sergius  and  authorized  by  the  emperor:  then,  from  end  to  end  of  the  world,  until  thou  come  to 

it  is  Known  as  the  Ecthesis  of  Heraclius.   Sergius  died  the  Apostolic  See,  where  are  the  foundations  of  the 

9  Dec.,  a  few  days  after  having  celebrated  a  council  in  holy  doctrines.    I^ot  once,  not  twice,  but  many  times, 

which  the  Ecthesis  was  acclaimed  as  "truly  agreeing  make  clearly  known  to  aJl  those  holy  men  there  all 

with  the  Apostolic  teaching",  words  which  seem  to  be  that  has  be^  done;  and  tire  not  instantly  urging  and 

a  reference  to  its  being  founded  on  the  letter  of  Hono-  beseeching,  until  out  of  their  apostolic  wisdom  th^ 

rius.    Qyius  received  the  news  of  this  council  with  bring  forth  judgment  unto  victory."   Urged  by  almost 

great  rejoicings.    The  Ecthesis  itself  is  a  complete  all  the  orthodox  bishops  of  the  East,  Stephen  made  his 

profession  of  Faith  according  to  the  five  General  first  journey  to  Rome.  On  tiie  death  of  St.  Sophronius. 

Councils.    Its  peculiarity  consists  in  adding  a  prohi-  his  patriarchal  see  was  invaded  by  'the  Bishop  of 

bition  of  the  expression  one  and  two  operations,  and  Joppa,  a  supporter  of  the  Ecthesis.    Another  heretic 

an  assertion  of  one  will  in  Christ  lest  contraiy  wills  sat  m  the  See  of  Antioch.    At  Alexandria  the  union 

should  be  held.    The  letter  of  Honorius  had  oeen  a  with  the  Monophysites  was  ^ortlived.    In  640  the 

grave  document,  but  not  a  definition  of  Faith  binding  city  fell  into  tiie  hands  of  the  Arabians  under  Amru, 

on  the  whole  Church.    The  Ecthesis  was  a  definition,  and  the  unfortunate  heretics  have  remained  until  to- 

But  Honorius  had  no  cognizance  of  it,  for  he  had  died  day  (save  for  a  few  months  in  646)  under  the  rule  of 

on  12  Oct.    The  envoys  who  came  for  the  emperor's  tiie  infidel.    Thus  the  whole  of  the  Patriut^ates  of 

confirmation  of  the  new  Pope  Severinus  refused  to  Constantinople,  Antioch,  Jerusalem,  and  Alexandria 

recommend  the  Ecthesis  to  the  latter,  but  promised  were  separated  from  Rome.    Yet  no  doubt,  except  in 

to  lay  it  before  him  for  judgment  (see  Maximus  of  Egypt,  the  great  number  of  the  bishops  ana  the  whole 

Constantinople)  .    Severinus.  not  consecrated  until  oftheir  flocks  were  orthodox  and  had  no  wish  to  accept 

May,  640,  died  two  months  later,  but  not  without  the  Ecthesis. 


MONOTHELITISM  506  M0N0THKLITI8M 

The  bishops  of  Cyprus,  independent  of  any  patri-  in  accordance  with  the  teaching  of  Pope  Honorius.   It 

arch,  held  a  synod  29  May,  643,  against  the  Ectnesis.  would  be  a  measure  of  peace,  and  East  and  West 

They  wrote  to  Pope  Theodore  a  letter  of  entreaty:  would  be  again  united.    Paul  tnerefore  persuaded  the 

"Clurist,  our  God,  has  instituted  your  Apostolic  chair,  emperor  to  withdraw  the  Ecthesis,  and  to  substitute 

O  holy  head,  as  a  God-fixed  and  inmiovable  foundi^  for  that  elaborate  confession  of  Faith  a  mere  disciplin-^ 

tion.    For  thou,  as  truly  spake  the  Divine  Word,  art  ary  measure  forbidding  all  four  expressions  under  the 

Peter,  and  upon  thy  u>undation  the  pillars  of  the  severest  penalties;  none  of  the  emperor's  orthodox 

Church  are  fixed,  and  to  thee  He  committed  the  keys  subjects  nave  any  longer  permission  to  quarrel  over 

of  the  kingdom  of  Heaven.    He  ordered  thee  to  bind  them,  but  no  blame  is  to  attach  to  any  who  may  have 

and  loose  with  authority  on  earth  and  in  heaven,  used  either  alternative  in  the  past.    Transgression  of 

Thou  art  set  as  the  destroyer  of  profane  heresies,  as  this  law  is  to  involve  deposition  for  bishops  and  clerics, 

Coryphsus  and  leader  of  the  orthodox  and  unsullied  excommunication  and  expulsion  for  monks,  loss  of 

Faith.    Despise  not  then,  Father,  the  Faith  of  our  office  and  dignity  for  oflicials,  fines  for  richer  laymen. 

Fathers,  tos»ed  by  waves  and  imperilled:  disperse  the  corporal  punishment  and  permanent  «dle  for  the 

rule  of  the  foolish  with  the  light  of  thy  divine  knowl-  poorer,    hy  this  cruel  law  heresy  is  to  be  blameless 

edge,  O  most  holy.    Destroy  the  blasphemies  and  in-  and  orthodoxy  forbidden.    It  is  known  as  the  Type  of 

solence  of  the  new  heretics  with  their  novel  expres-  Constans.    It  is  not  a  Monothelite  document,  for  it 

sions.    For  nothing  is  wanting  to  your  orthodox  and  forbids  that  heresy  just  as  much  as  the  Catholic  Faith, 

pious  definition  and  tradition  for  the  augmentation  of  Its  date  falls  between  Sept.  648  and  Sept.  649.    Pope 

the  Faith  amongst  us.    For  we — O  inspired  one,  you  Theodore  died  5  May  of  the  latter  year,  and  was  suo- 

who  hold  converse  with  the  holy  Apostles  and  sit  with  ceeded  in  July  by  St.  Martin  I.    In  October  St.  Mar- 

them— believe  and  confess  from  of  old  since  our  veiy  tin  held  a  great  council  at  the  Liateran,  at  which  105 

swaddling  clothes,  teaching  according  to  the  holy  and  bishops  were  present.     The  pope's  opening  roeech 

God-fearing  Pope  Leo,  and  declaring  that '  each  nature  ^ves  a  histoiy  of  the  heresy,  and  condemns  the  Ecthe- 

works  with  the  communion  of  the  other  what  is  proper  sis^  Cyrus,  Sergius-Pyrrhus,  Paul,  and  the  Type.  John 

to  it'",  etc.    They  declare  themselves  ready  to  be  IV  had  spoken  of  Sergius  with  respect;  and  Martin 

martyred  rather  than  forsake  the  doctrine  of  St.  Leo:  does  not  mention  Honorius,  for  it  was  obviously  im- 

but  their  Archbialiop  Sendus,  when  the  persecution  possible  to  defend  him  if  the  Tvpe  was  to  be  oon- 

arose,  was  found  on  the  side  of  the  persecutors,  not  of  demned  as  heresy.    Stephen  of  Dora,  then  on  his 


the  martyrs.  It  is  abundantly  clear  that  St.  Maxi-  third  visit  to  Rome,  presented  a  long  memorial,  full  of 
mus  and  his  Constantinopolitan  friends,  St.  Sophro-  devotion  to  the  Apostolic  See.  A  deputation  fol- 
nius  and  the  bishops  of  Palestine,  Sergius  and  his  suf-  lowed,  of  37  Greek  abbots  residing  in  or  near  Rome, 
fragans,  had  no  notion  that  the  Apostolic  See  had  been  who  had  apparently  fled  before  the  Saracens  from 
compromised  bv  the  letters  of  Honorius,  but  the^  look  their  various  homes  in  Jerusalem,  Africa,  Annenia^ 
to  it  as  the  only  port  of  salvation.  Similarly  m  646  Cilicia,  etc.  Thev  demanded  the  condemnation  oc 
the  bishops  of  Africa  and  the  adjoining  islands  held  Sergius,  Pyrrhus,  Paul,  and  Cyrus  and  the  anathema- 
councils,  m  the  name  of  which  the  primates  of  Nu-  tising;  of  the  Type  by  the  Apostolic  and  head  See.  The 
midia,  Byzacene  and  Mauritania  sent  a  joint  letter  to  heretical  documents  read  were  part  of  a  letter  of  Theo- 
Pope  Theodore,  complaining  of  the  Ecthesis: ''  No  one  dore  of  Pharan,  the  seventh  proposition  of  Cyrus,  the 
can  doubt  that  there  is  in  the  Apostolic  See  a  great  letter  of  Serous  to  Cyrus,  excerpts  from  the  syuodB 
and  unfailing  foimtain  pouring  forth  waters  for  all  hcdd  by  Sergius  and  I^rrhus  (who  had  now  repented 
Christians  *\  and  so  forth.  They  enclose  letters  to  the  of  his  repentance),  and  the  approval  of  the  Ecthesis  by 
emperor  and  to  the  patriarch  Paul,  to  be  sent  to  Con-  Cyrus.  The  letter  of  Scrmus  to  Honorius  was  not 
stantinople  by  the  pope.  They  are  afraid  to  write  read,  nor  was  anything  saia  about  the  correspondence 
directly,  for  the  former  governor,  Gregoiy  (who  had  of  the  latter  with  Sergius.  St.  Martin  summed  up; 
presided  at  the  disputation  of  his  friend  St.  Maximus  then  the  letter  of  Pam  to  Pope  Theodore  and  the 
with  Pyrrhus)  haa  revolted  and  made  himself  em-  Type  were  read.  The  council  admitted  the  good  in- 
peror,  and  had  just  been  defeated;  this  was  a  blow  to  tcoition  of  the  latter  document  (so  as  to  spare  the  em- 
orthodoxy,  which  it  brought  into  discredit  at  Con-  peror  while  condemning  Paul),  out  declared  it  hereti- 
stantinople.  Victor,  elected  primate  of  Carthage  cal  for  forbidding  the  teaching  of  two  operations  and 
after  the  letters  were  written,  added  one  of  his  own.  two  wills.  Numerous  excerpts  from  the  Fathers  and 
Paul,  the  patriarch  whom  the  Emperor  Constans  from  Monophysite  writers  were  read,  and  twenty 
had  substituted  for  Pyrrhus,  had  not  been  acknowl-  canons  were  agreed  to,  the  eighteenth  of  whidi  oon- 
edged  by  Pope  Theodore,  who  demanded  of  him  that  demns  Theodore  of  Pharan,  dyrus,  Sergius.  I^niiua, 
Pyrrhus  should  first  be  tried  by  a  council  before  two  Paul,  the  Ecthesis,  and  the  Type,  under  anatnema.  A 
representatives  of  the  Holy  See.  Paul's  reply  is  pre-  letter  to  the  emperor  was  signed  by  all.  An  encyclical 
served :  the  views  he  exposes  are  those  of  Uie  Ecthesis.  letter  was  sent  throu^out  the  Church  in  the  name  of 
and  he  defends  them  by  referring  to  Honorius  ana  St.  Martin  and  the  council,  addressed  to  all  biahopa, 
Sergius.  Theodore  pronounced  a  sentence  of  depoai-  priests,  deacons,  abbots,  monks,  ascetics,  and  to  Uie 
tion  against  him,  and  Paul  retaliated  by  destroying  entire  sacred  fulness  of  the  Catholic  Chureh.  Tliia 
the  Latin  altar  which  belonged  to  the  Roman  See  in  was  a  final  and  complete  condemnation  of  the  Con- 
the  palace  of  Placidia  at  Constantinople,  in  order  that  stantinopolitan  policv.  Rome  had  spoken  ex  cathedra, 
the  papal  envoys  might  be  unable  to  offer  the  Holy  Stephen  of  Dora  nad  been  before  appointed  papal 
Sacnfice;  he  also  persecuted  them,  together  with  many  vicar  m  the  East,  but  he  had  by  error  been  informed 
orthodox  laymen  and  priests,  by  imprisonment,  exile,  only  of  his  duty  to  depose  heretical  bidiope,  and  not 
or  stripes.  But  Paul,  in  spite  of  this  violence,  had  no  that  he  was  authorisea  to  substitute  orthodox  bishops 
idea  of  resisting  the  definitions  of  Rome.  Until  now,  in  their  place.  The  pope  now  ^ve  this  commission  to 
Honorius  had  not  been  disowned  there,  but  defended.  John,  Bishop  of  Phuadelphia  in  Palestine,  who  was 
It  was  said  that  he  had  not  taught  one  will;  but  the  ordered  to  appoint  bishops,  priests,  and  deacons  in  the 
prohibition  in  the  Ecthesis  of  two  operations  was  but  patriarchates  of  Antioch  and  Jerusalem.  Martin  also 
an  enforcement  of  the  course  Hononus  had  approved,  sent  letters  to  these  patriarehates,  and  to  Peter,  who 
and  nothing  had  as  yet,  it  seems,  been  off  cially  pub-  seems  to  have  been  governor,  asking  him  to  support 
lished  at  Rome  on  this  point.  Paul,  somewhat  natur-  his  vicar;  this  Peter  was  a  friend  and  correroondent  of 
ally,  thought  it  would  oe  sufficient  if  he  dropped  the  St.  Maximus.  The  pope  deposed  John,  Archbishop 
teaching  of  one  will,  and  prohibited  sJl  reference  to  of  Thessalonica,  and  declared  the  appointments  <m 
one  will  or  two  wills  as  well  as  to  one  operation  or  two  Macarius  of  Antioch  and  Peter  of  Alexandria  to  be 
operations;  it  could  hardly  be  urged  that  this  was  no^  null  and  YQid.    CooetMS  retaliated  by  having  St. 


MONOTHILlTtSM 


607 


MONOTHELinSM 


Martin  kidnapped  at  Rome,  and  taken  a  prisoner  to 
Constantinople.  The  saint  refused  to  accept  the 
Ecthesis,  and  after  suffering,  many  of  which  ne  has 
himself  related  in  a  touchmg  document,  he  died  a 
martyr  in  the  Crimea  in  March,  055  (see  Martin  I, 
Pope).  St.  Maximus  (662),  his  disciple  the  monk 
Anastasius  (also  662),  and  another  Anastasius,  a  papal 
envoy  (666),  died  of  ill-treatment,  martyrs  to  their 
orthodoxy  and  devotion  to  the  Apostolic  See. 

While  St.  Martin  was  bein^  insulted  and  tortured 
at  Constantinople,  the  patriarch  Paul  was  d^g. 
"Alas,  this  will  increase  the  severity  of  my  judg- 
ment ,  he  exclaimed  to  the  emperor,  who  paid  him  a 
visit;  and  Constans  was  induceid  to  spare  the  pope's 
life  for  the  moment.  At  Paul's  death  PVrrhus  was  re- 
stored. His  successor  Peter  sent  an  ambig[uous  letter 
to  Pope  Eugenius,  which  made  no  mention  of  two 
operations,  thus  observing  the  prescription  of  the 
Type.  The  Roman  people  raised  a  riot  when  it  was 
read  in  Sta.  Maria  Magi;iore,  and  would  not  permit 
the  pope  to  continue  his  Mass  until  he  promised  to  re- 
ject the  letter.  Constans  sent  a  letter  to  the  pope  by 
one  Gregory,  with  a  gift  to  St.  Peter.  It  was  ru- 
moured at  Constantinople  that  the  pope's  envoys 
would  accept  a  declaration  of  ''one  and  two  wills" 
(two  because  of  the  natures,  one  on  account  of  the 
union).  St.  Maximus  refused  to  believe  the  report. 
In  fact  Peter  wrote  to  Pope  Vitalian  (667-672)  profess- 
ing ''one  and  two  wills  and  operations"  and  adding 
mutilated  quotations  from  the  Fathers;  but  the  ex- 
planation was  thought  unsatisfactory,  presumiU>ly  be- 
cause it  was  only  an  excuse  for  upholding  the  TVpe. 
In  663  Constans  came  to  Rome,  intendhig  to  make  it 
his  residence,  on  account  of  his  unpopularity  at  Con- 
stantinople, for  besides  putting  the  pope  to  death  and 
groscribing  the  orthodox  faith,  he  nad  miuxiered  his 
rother  Theodoeius.  The  pope  received  him  with  all 
due  honour,  and  Constans,  who  had  refused  to  confirm 
the  elections  of  Martin  and  Eugenius,  ordered  the  name 
of  Vitalian  to  be  inscribed  on  uie  diptvchs  of  Constan- 
tinople. No  mention  seems  to  have  been  made  of  t^e 
Tvpe.  But  Constans  did  not  find  Rome  agreeable. 
After  spoiling  the  churches,  he  retired  to  Sidly.  where 
he  oppressedf  the  people.  He  was  miuxierea  in  his 
bath  in  668.  Vitahan  vigorously  opposed  rebellion  in 
Sicily,  and  Constantine  Fogonatus,  the  new  emperor, 
found  the  island  at  peace  on  his  arrival.  It  does  not 
seem  that  he  took  any  interest  in  the  Type,  which  was 
doubtless  not  enforced,  though  not  aliolisned,  for  he 
was  fully  occupied  with  his  wars  against  the  Saracens 
until  678,  when  he  determined  to  summon  a  general 
council  to  end  what  he  regarded  as  a  quarrel  between 
the  Sees  of  Rome  and  Constantinople.  He  wrote  in 
this  sense  to  Pope  Donus  (676-78),  who  was  already 
dead.  His  successor  St.  Agatho  thereupon  assembled 
a  synod  at  Rome  and  ordered  others  to  be  held  in  the 
West.  A  delay  of  two  years  was  thus  caused,  and  the 
heretical  patriarchs  Theodore  of  Constantinople  and 
Macarius  of  Antioch  assured  the  emperor  that  tne  pope 
despised  the  Easterns  and  their  monarch,  and  they 
tried,  but  unsuccessfully,  to  get  the  name  of  Vitalian 
removed  from  the  diptychs.  The  emperor  asked  for 
three  representatives  at  least  to  be  sent  from  Rome, 
with  twelve  archbishops  or  bishops  from  the  West  ana 
four  monks  from  each  of  the  Greek  monasteries  in  the 
West^  perhaps  as  interpreters.  He  also  sent  Theo- 
dore into  exile,  probably  oecause  he  was  an  obstacle  to 
reunion. 

The  first  session  of  the  Sixth  (Ecumenical  Council 
took  place  at  Constantinople  (7  Nov.,  680),  Constan- 
tine Poffonatus  presiding  and  having  on  his  left,  in  the 
place  of  honour,  the  papal  legates.  Macarius  of  An- 
tioch was  the  only  prelate  who  stood  up  for  Monothe- 
litism,  and  he  was  m  due  course  condenmed  as  a  here- 
tic (see  Macarius  of  Antioch).  The  letters  of  St. 
Agatho  and  of  the  Roman  Council  insLsted  on  the  deci- 
sions of  the  Lateran  Council,  and  repeatedly  affirmed 


the  inerrancy  of  the  Apostolic  See.   These  documents 
were  acclaimed  by  tne  council,  and  accepted  by 
George,  the  new  Patriarch  of  Constantinople  and  his 
suffragans.    Macarius  had  appealed  to  Honorius:  and 
after  his  condemnation  a  packet  which  he  had  deliv- 
ered to  the  emperor  was  opened,  and  in  it  were  found 
the  letters  of  Sergius  to  Honorius  and  of  Honorius  to 
Sergius.    As  these  were  at  best  similar  to  the  T3rpe, 
alreadv  declared  heretical,  it  was  unavoidable  that 
th^  should  be  condemned.    The  fifth  coimcil  had  set 
the  example  of  condemning  dead  writers,  who  had 
died  in  Catholic  communion,  but  Geoige  suggested 
that  his  dead  predecessors  might  be  spared,  and  only 
their  teaching  anathematized.    The  legates  might 
have  saved  the  name  of  Honorius  also  had  they  agreed 
to  this,  but  they  evidently  had  directions  from  Rome 
to  make  no  objection  to  his  condemnation  if  it  seemed 
necessary.    The  final  dogmatic  decree  contains  the  de- 
cisions of  the  five  preceding  general  councils^  con- 
demns the  Ecthesis  and  the  Type,  and  heretics  by 
name,  including  Honorius,  and  'greets  with  uplifted 
hands"  the  letters  of  Pope  Agatho  and  his  council 
(see  HoNORTOB  I,  Pope) .    The  address  to  the  emperor, 
signed  by  all  the  bisnops,  declares  that  they  have  fol- 
lowed Agatho,  and  he  the  Apostolic  teaching.    "  With 
us  foup^t  the  prince  of  the  Apostles,  fof  to  assist  us  we 
had  his  imitator  and  the  successor  to  his  chair.    The 
ancient  city  of  Rome  proffered  you  a  divinely  written 
confession  and  caused  the  dayhght  of  dogmas  to  rise 
by  the  Western  parchmenU  And  the  ink  shone,  and 
by  Agatho,  Peter  spoke;  and  you^  the  autocrat  king, 
voted  with  the  Almighty  who  reigns  with  you."    A 
letter  to  the  pope  was  also  signed  by  all  the  Fathers. 
The  emperor  gave  effect  to  the  decree  in  a  lengthy 
edict,  in  which  he  echoes  the  decisions  of  the  council, 
adding:  ''These  are  the  teachings  of  the  voices  of  the 
Gospds  and  the  Apostles,  these  are  the  doctrines  of 
the  noly  synods  and  of  the  elect  and  patristic  tongues; 
these  have  been  preserved  untainted  by  Peter,  the 
rock  of  the  faith,  the  head  of  the  Apostles;  in  this  faith 
we  live  and  reign."    The  emperors  letter  to  the  pope 
is  full  of  such  expressions;  as  for  example:  "Gloiy  be 
to  God,  Who  does  wondrous  things.  Who  has  kept 
safe   the   Faith   among  you   unharmed.    For  how 
should  He  not  do  so  in  tnat  rock  on  which  He  founded 
His  Chureh,  and  prophesied  that  the  gates  of  hell,  all 
the  ambushes  of  heretics,  should  not  prevail  against 
it?    From  it,  as  from  the  vault  of  heaven,  the  word  of 
the  true  confession  flashed  forth,"   etc.    But  St. 
Agatho,  a  worker  of  many  miracles,  was  dead,  and  did 
not  receive  the  letter,  so  that  it  fell  to  St.  Leo  II  to 
confirm  the  council.    Thus  was  the  E^ast  united  aj^ain 
to  the  West  after  an  incomplete  but  deplorable  schism. 
It  would  seem  that  in  687  Justinian  II  believed  that 
the  sixth  coimcil  was  not  fully  enforced,  for  he  wrote 
to  Pope  Conon  that  he  had  assembled  the  papal  en- 
voys, the  patriarehs,  metropolitans,  bishops,  the  sen- 
ate and  civil  officials  and  representatives  of  his  vari- 
ous armies,  and  made  them  sign  the  original  acts 
which  had  recently  been  discovered.    In  711  the 
throne  was  seized  by  PMlippicus  Bardanes,  who  had 
been  the  pupil  of  Abbot  Stephen,  the  disciple  "or 
rather  leaaer    of  Macarius  of  Antioch.    He  restored 
to  the  diptychs  Sergius,  Honorius,  and  the  other  here- 
tics conoemned  by  the  council;  he  burned  the  acts 
(but  privately,  in  the  palace),  he  deposed  the  Patri- 
arch Cyrus,  and  exiled  some  persons  who  refused  to 
subscribe  a  rejection  of  the  council.    He  fell,  4  June, 
713,  and  orthodoxy  was  restored  by  Anastasius  II 
(713-15).    Pope  donstantine  had  refused  to  recog- 
nize Bardanes.    The  intruded  patriarch,  John  VI, 
wrote  him  a  long  letter  of  apology,  explaining  that  he 
had  submitted  to  Bardanes  to  prevent  worse  evils,  and 
asserting  in  many  words  the  headship  of  Rome  over 
the  universal  Chureh.    This  was  the  last  of  Mono* 
thelitism. 
The  chief  aneieiit  authoiitiea  for  our  knowledfe  of  the  Moo» 


tlHUtaa  ■»  tba  KOta  of  th 

Iba  work<  of  »i.  Maiihi 

%nd  the  Callxtanta  at  Ahabtauub  H 

voHu  only   ■   Eev  lued    ba   HipGi 

Attetarium  nantm,  II  f/f  Mfona  Mun<MnrfKaruni  m  i/ufi 

pro  ixMi  V;  tynidi  (Puu,  1643);    Pbtiviiih,  Oe  /• 

VlII,  IX:    HmLB.  Hial.  of  CoundU,  V   (Eng.    '    ' 

1,  ViWKlriKWt  Eza — ' -■ —  "i-" 


■ynod  *nd  of  tb«  lUtfa  ooandl. 

BiBunrnmimiH.    Of  modBm 
mrd:    CoHBtns. 


,   _., , flrur  Schn/l  da  kalriarchr, 

Mulegiia  kd  AUtandria  [in  ^AidIdii.  UuurUiicAri/l,  ISOO,  no.  78) 
OwBinuf,  Oil  SnMckuiwiiKicAuUt  da  MmalhtlrtitmuM  aaa 
■JbrnOuUnmiraAlLaipiic,  1S9T).    B«  iUki  Honouuk  I.  Port 

•Bd  MAXmUB  or  CoNBTAimHOrLB. 

John  Cbapman. 


city  is  built  in  a.  commanding  situation  over  the  port 
of  Palenno.    It  was  &  {jleasure  resort  of  the  Norman 
longs,  to  whom  it  owes  ila  foundation.    In  1167  Wil- 
liam tl  built  there  the  church  of  Santa  Maria  Nuova, 
with  its  adjoining  monastery  for  the  Benedictines  of 
Cava  dei    Tirreni — 
ibe  moflt  superb  mi>- 
nastic  building  of  the 
Benedictine  Order  in  . 
,   famous  for 
loister   and    ita 


I  cloist* 


E resent  time  only  the 
iwer  portion  of  the 
convent  is  in  the  pos- 
session of  the  monks. 
The  church  (now  the 
cathedral)  is  the 
noblest  in  Sicily. 
though  the  portico  oi 
its  facade  has  been 
restored  in  a  st^Ie 
not  in  harmony  with 
the  remainder  of  the 
building.  Its  bronie 
doors,  the  work  of 
Bonanno  of  Pisa 
(1186),  are  notable, 
'  )  the  a 


beeques  of  the  portals. 
The  mterior  has  three  naves,  and  the  columns  of  E^p- 
tian  marble  have  foiled  and  figured  capitals,  each  differ- 
ent from  the  others.  The  apse  and  the  lateral  walla  are 
covered  with  beautiful  mosaics,  representing  scenes 
from  the  Old  and  New  Testaments.  The  high  altar 
is  covered  with  worked  sheets  of  silver  (seventeenth 
century),  and,  in  a  chapel  to  its  right,  are  the  tombs  of 
William  I  the  Wicked  and  of  William  II.  The  chapd 
of  Saint  Benedict  contains  sculptures  by  Marabitti 
(eighteentli  century).  In  1811  a  fire  destroyed  the 
loof,  which  was  restored  in  a  way  to  leave  the  rafters 
exposed  to  view.  On  the  mountain  beyond  the  city 
is  the  monastery  of  San  Martino  of  the  Cas^eee 
Benedictines,  whose  cburah  is  rich  in  works  of  art; 
farther  on  is  the  castle  of  San  Benedetto,  biult  by  the- 
Saracens.  In  1174  the  abbey  of  Monreale  was  de- 
clared a  "  pnetatura  nulliua  "  1  two  years  later  its  abbot 
was  vestea  with  the  title  and  jurisdiction  of  a  bishop, 
and  in  1182  he  became  the  metropolitan  of  Cata- 
nia ukd  of  Syracuse.  At  first  the  arehbiahops  were 
elected  by  the  monks,  but  were  not  always  Benedic- 
tines; since  1275,  however,  the  election  has  been  re- 
served to  itself  by  the  Holy  See.  In  time  Gii^enti  and 
Caltagirone  also  became  suffragan  to  Monreale;  but 
Syracuse,  in  1844,  and  Catania,  in  I860,  became  ai^ 
cniepiscopal  sees.  The  former  having  become  the 
Metropolitan  of  Caltagirone,  Monreale  received  the 
new  Diocese  of  Caltanisetta  (1860),  which  see  and 
Girfienti  are  now  its  only  suflra^ns.  Among  the 
arehbishope  of  thia  see  have  been  Cardinal  Giovanni 
Proccamazia  (1278);  Cardinal  Au^o  Despuig  de 
Podio  (1458);  Cardinal  Pompco  Colonna  (1531);  Car- 
dinal Ippolito  de'  Medici  (1532);  Aleesandro  Famese 


(1536);  Ludovico  de  Torres  (1584),  founder  of  the 
Baninafy;  Cardinal  Vitaliano  Visconti  (1070);  Car- 
dinal Traian  d'Acquaviva  d'Araoona  (1739),  From 
1775  to  1802  Monreale  and  Palermo  were  united. 
The  archdiocese  has  30  parishes  with  228,600  inhabit* 
ants;  352  secular  and  66  regular  priests;  26  convmts 
of  men  and  one  of  women;  three  educational  institutes 
for  male  students  and  three  for  girls. 

Cappillbtti.  CAiui  d'llalia,  XXICVenioa,  ISGT];  '"i". 
Biilona  ddJa  iMaa  di  ManreaU  (Rome.  ISOO). 

U.  Bbnigni. 

Honroo,  Jaues,  soldier,  convert,  b.  in  Albemarle 
county,  Virginia,  U.  S.  A.,  10  Sept.,  1799;  d.  at  Orange, 
New  Jersey,  7  Sej>t.,  1870.  He  was  the  son  of  An- 
drew a  brother  of  President  James  Monroe,  and  greatly 
resembled  his  illustrious  uncle.  After  the  usual 
course  at  the  U.  S.  Military  Academy  at  West  Point, 
he  graduated  in  1815, 

sioned  a  lieutenant 
of  artillery.  In  the 
war  with  the  Alge- 
rian pirates  he  was 
wounded,  17  June, 
1815,  while  directing 
Uie  guns  of  the  frigate 
La  Guerri^  in  a 
battle  off  Cape  dc 
Gata,  Sptun.  As  an 
aide  to  General  Scott 
he  served  during 
1817-22,  and  did  ga> 
rison  duty  as  a  first 
lieutenant  of  the  4th 
Artillery  to  30  Sept., 
1832,  when  he  re- 
signed from  the  army. 
Settling  in  New  York 
he  entered  public  life, 
being  elected  to  the 
„„  „  Board  of  Aldermen, 

Moinuu  1833-35,  and  to  Con- 

gress, 1839-41.  He 
was  nominated  to  Congress  also  in  1846,  but  the  elec- 
tion being  contested  and  a  new  election  ordered  he  de- 
clined to  run  ag^n.  In  1850-52  he  was  a  member  of 
the  New  York  legislature,  and  then  retired  from  pub- 
lic life  on  the  death  of  his  wife.  Previous  to  the  out- 
break of  the  Civil  War  he  visited  Richmond  and 
sought  by  speeches  and  personal  influence  to  prevent 
the  secession  of  his  native  State,  Virginia.  All  through 
the  war  he  was  a  staunch  upholder  of  the  Union.  His 
brother  Andrew  F.  Monroe,  b.  at  Charlottesville, 
Va..  5  March,  1824,  after  graduating  at  the  U.  8. 
Naval  Academy  served  during  the  Mexican  War,  and 
while  on  a  naval  expedition  to  China,  in  1853,  also  be- 
came a  convert.  He  joined  the  Society  of  Jesus  in 
1854  and  was  ordained  priest  in  1860,  He  was  for  a 
number  of  years  one  of  the  faculty  of  St.  Francis 
Xavier's  CoU^e,  New  York,  where  he  died  2  Aug., 
1872. 

CcttDK.  Bioff,  Rrtnttir  of  Iht  OlUrm  and  Qradiuilit  Bf  O^  V.  8. 
UiliUrg  Acadrm]/.  I  (New  York,  1891)^  Hbitkui,  Niil.  Regultr 
and  Didtmary  aj  ikt  V.  S.  Armii  (WubiuUm,  IB03).  t.  v.; 
//alionat  Bncud.  of  Am.  BioQ.,  L  v.;  Tilt  CMUgt  of  St.  Froneit 
Xatur  (New  York.  1807). 

Thomas  F.  Mekban. 

Honubrf,  JAGQUEa-MARiE-Louia,  celebrated  pul- 
pit orator,  b.  at  Blois,  France,  10  Dee.,  1827;  d.  at 
Havre,  21  Feb.,  1907,  He  was  ordained  as  a  secular 
priest  15  June,  1851,  but  soon  felt  he  had  a  reU^< 


thought  seriously  of  entering  the  Society  of  Jesus. 
Four  days  later,  nowever,  the  feast  of  St,  Dominic,  he 
decided  to  become  a  Dominican  and  immediately 


Churoh,  XII  Centuiy— Poitioo,  XVI  Cmtmy 


MONSEiaNEUB 


509 


M0N8ELL 


wrote  a  letter  of  application  to  P^re  Lacordaire.  He 
had  to  wait  four  years  for  release  from  the  diocese,  as 
the  bishop  had  received  authorization  from  the  Holy 
See  to  withhold  that  long  his  permission  for  newlv  or- 
dained priests  to  enter  a  religious  order.  In  Ma^r, 
1855,  he  received  his  dimissorials,  entered  the  noviti- 
ate at  Flavigny,  received  the  habit  on  the  thirty-first 
of  the  same  month  and  one  year  later  made  his  simple 
profession.  A  few  days  later  he  was  sent  to  the  house 
of  studies  at  Chalais,  where  he  spent  a  year  in  solitude 
and  praver.  In  the  winter  he  was  appointed  to 
preacn  the  Lenten  sermons  in  the  church  of  St.  Ni- 
xier,  at  Lyons,  where  he  gave  the  first  indication  of 
that  eloquence  which  was  later  to  illuminate  all 
France.  After  preaching  the  Lenten  sermons  in 
Lyons,  Monsabr6  was  assigned  to  the  convent  of  St. 

Thomas,  in  Paris, 
where  he  began  to 

S've  conferences, 
fter  interrupting 
this  ministry  for 
several  years  he 
took  it  up  again. 
In  the  Advent  of 
1867  he  gave  con- 
ferences in  the 
convent  church. 
He  preached  then 
for  a  number  of 
years  in  the  prin- 
cipal cities  of 
France,  Belgium, 
and  even  in  Lon- 
don, conducting 
retreats,  novenas, 
andtriduums.  His 
reputation,  how- 
ever, was  really 
first  made  by  the 
course  of  Advent 


Bishop  of  Angers,  he  was  invited  to  fill  the  vacancy  in 
the  Chamber  of  Deputies,  but  declined.  In  1871  he 
was  sent  to  the  General  Chapter  of  Ghent  to  represent 
his  province  and  in  1898  to  that  of  Avila  as  Definitor. 
His  apostolic  labours  closed  with  the  magnificent 
oration  delivered  at  Reims  on  the  occasion  of  the 
fourteenth  centenary  of  the  baptism  of  Clovis,  King 
of  the  Franks.  Since  1903  he  hved  in  retirement.  In 
that  year  the  Dominican  convent  in  which  he  lived 
was  confiscated  by  the  government,  and  he  was 
obUged  to  take  refuge  in  a  modest  little  nome  in  which 
hecfied. 

VAnnie  Dominieaine,  April.  1907.  146;  July.  1907.  289;   Th§ 


Rotary  Mttgatine,  XXX 


,  Apn 
.469. 


Joseph  Schrobdeb. 


Jaoquks-Mabib-Louib  MonsabbA 


sermons  which  he  preached  in  the  Cathedral  of  Notre 
Dame,  Paris,  in  1869,  as  successor  of  the  unfortimate 
Carmelite,  P^re  Hyacinthe  Loyson.  The  success  of 
these  conferences  brought  the  invitation  to  preach  the 
Lenten  sermons  in  Notre  Dame  in  1870,  succeeding 
Pdre  F6Iix  of  the  Society  of  Jesus.  During  the  siege  of 
Paris  by  the  Prussian  troops,  the  conferences  at  Notre 
Dame  were  interrupted.  On  the  capitulation  of 
Metz,  Monsabr6  preached  from  one  of  its  pulpits. 
Meanwhile  the  Archbishop  of  Paris,  Monsisnor  Dar- 
boy .  had  fallen  a  victim  to  the  Commune  ana  was  suc- 
ceMed  by  Monsignor  Guibert,  who  lost  no  time  in 
inviting  Monsabr6  to  occupy  the  pulpit  of  his  cathe- 
dral. From  this  time  on,  P^re  Monsabr6  preached  in 
the  Cathedral  of  Notre  Dame  for  twenty  years  and 
proved  Idmself  a  worthy  successor  of  Bossuet,  Lacor- 
daire and  all  the  other  great  preachers  whom  the 
French  Church  has  produced.  He  conceived  and  exe- 
cuted the  gigantic  plan  of  expoimding  the  whole  sys- 
tem of  Catholic  dogmatic  theology.  Not  often,  per- 
haofl  never  before,  did  a  preacher  succeed  in  holding 
so  large  an  audience  completely  under  the  sway  of  his 
eloquence  for  so  long  a  time. 

The  classic  and  elegant  form  of  Monsabr6's  dis- 
courses attracted  the  educated  class  of  France.  '^  His 
intense  love  of  souls  and  apostolic  zeal  made  his  dis- 
courses throb  with  life,  and  his  clear  and  profoundly 
theologicsJ  mind  enabled  him  to  shed  light  even  upon 
the  most  abstruse  tenets  of  the  faith,  while  his  earnest 
and  impassioned  appeals  to  all  the  noblrat  impulses  of 
man  always  met  with  an  enthusiastic  response." 
Monsabr^'s  published  works  consist  of  forty-eight 
volumes,  the  "  L*exposition  du  Dogme  Catholique" 
being  famous  for  its  eloquence  and  popular  exposition 
f^  Catholic  dogma.  In  1890  he  preached  the  Advent 
sermons  in  Rome.  In  1891  he  gave  the  same  course 
in  Toulouse.    On  the  death  of  Monsignor  Freppel, 


Monaeignmir  ^from  mon,  "my"  and  seianeur, 
"elder"  or  "lord",  like  Lat.  senior),  a  French  hono- 
rific appeUation,  etymologicaUy  corresponding  to  the 
English  "my  lord",  and  the  Italian  monaignore.  It  is, 
after  aU,  nothing  but  the  French  monsieur;  but,  while 
the  latter  has  b^ome  current  as  applied  to  every  man 
who  is  in  good  society,  Monseigneur  has  retained  its 
honorific  force.  In  ecclesiastical  usage  it  is  reserved 
for  bishops  and  archbishops,  and  is  chiefly  emploved 
when  speieJdng  or  writing  to  them.  It  is  used  oefore 
the  name  (thus  abridged :  Mgr  Dupanloup) .  Former- 
ly it  was  not  prefixed  to  the  title  of  dignity,  but  it  is 
now,  as  "MgrT^vdauedeN  ..."  The  term  Monsei" 
gneur  is  also  used  as  tne  e^qui valent  of  the  Italian  Monsi' 
gnore,  and  as  the  latter  title  is  given  to  Roman  prelates, 
some  confusion  results;  in  Italy,  however,  no  incon- 
venience arises  from  this  usage  as  in  that  country 
bishops  have  the  title  of  EcceCkmay  i.  e.,  Excellency. 
In  France,  only  the  Archbishop  of  Reims,  as  legcUus 
nattis,  has  the  title  of  Excellency  (see  Monsionor). 

HiRicouRT,  Let  loU  eccUnattigua  de  Prance,  £.  V,  22. 

A.   BOUDINHON. 

ModmU,  William,  Baron  Emlt,  b.  21  Sept.,  1812; 
d.  at  Tervoe,  Co.  Limerick,  Ireland,  20  April,  1894. 
His  father  was  William  Monsell  of  Tervoe;  his  mother, 
Olivia,  daughter  of  Sir  John  Walsh  of  Ballykilcavan. 
He  was  educated  at  Winchester  (1826-1830)  and  Oriel 
College,  O^ord,  but  he  left  the  university  without 

eroceeding  to  a  d^ree.  As  his  father  had  died  in  1822 
e  succeeded  to  the  familv  estates  on  coming  of  age 
and  was  a  popular  landlord.,  the  more  so  as  he  was  resi- 
dent. In  1836  he  married  Anna  Maria  Ouin,  daugh- 
ter of  the  second  Earl  of  Dunraven,  but  tnere  was  no 
issue  of  the  marriage.  After  her  death  in  1855  he  mar- 
ried Bertha,  youngest  daughter  of  the  Comte  de 
Martigny  (1857),  bv  whom  ne  had  one  son  and  one 
daughter.  In  1847  he  was  retiuned  to  Parliament  as 
member  for  the  County  of  Limerick  in  the  Liberal 
interest  and  represented  the  constituency  till  1874.  In 
1850  he  became  a  Catholic  and  thereafter  took  a  prom- 
inent part  in  Catholic  affairs,  especially  in  Parliament. 
As  a  friend  of  Wiseman,  Newman,  Montalambert^  W. 
G.  Ward,  and  other  eminent  Catholics,  he  was  inti- 
mately acquainted  with  the  various  interests  of  the 
Church,  and  his  parliamentary  advocacy  was  often  of 
great  aavantage  to  the  hierarchy.  In  the  House  itself 
he  was  successful  and  filled  many  offices.  He  was 
clerk  of  the  ordnance  from  1852  to  1857;  was  ap- 
pointed privy  councillor  in  1855;  was  vice-president 
of  the  board  of  trade  in  1866;  under-secretary  for  the 
colonies,  1868-1870;  postmaster-general,  Jan.,  1871, 
to  Nov.,  1873.  Finally  he  was  raised  to  the  peerage  as 
Baron  Eml^  on  12  Jan.,  1874.  He  lost  much  of  hip 
popularity  in  Ireland  during  his  later  years,  owing  to 
nis  opposition  to  the  land  league  and  to  the  Home  Rule 
movement.  His  work  being  chiefly  parliamentaiy,  he 
wrote  little,  but  published  some  articles  in  the  ''Home 
and  Foreign  Review''  and  a  ''Lecture  on  the  Roman 
Question'*^  (1860). 

Ward,  W.  Q.  Ward  and  the  Oxford  Movement  (London,  1800); 
Idbm,  W,  G,  Ward  and  the  Catholic  Revival  (London,  1803);  Iokm 


MONSiaNOR 


510 


MONSiaNOR 


W*  of  Cardinal  Wiaeman  (London,  1898) ;  Pubcbll,  Lift  cf  Car^ 
dinal  Manning  (London.  1895) ;  Idbm ,  Lift  of  Ambroae  PhiUippa 
<U  LiaU  (London,  1900);  Courtnet  in  Did.  Nat,  Biog.,  Supp. 
Vol.  Ill  (London.  1901). 

Edwin  Burton. 

Monsignor  {dominus  mens;  monaeigneur,  My  Lord). 
— Aa  early  as  the  fourteenth  century  it  was  the  custom 
to  address  persons  high  in  rank  or  power  with  the 
title  Monseigneur  or  Monsignore.  In  the  intercourse 
of  seculars,  either  of  equals  or  of  superiors  with  in- 
feriors, there  was  no  fixed  rule.  Until  the  seventeenth 
century  French  nobles  demanded  from  their  subjects 
and  dependents  the  title  of  Monseigneur.  In  interna- 
tional intercourse  two  titles  gradually  won  general  rec- 
ognition, "Monsieur''  as  the  title  of  the  eldest  brother 
of  the  King  of  France  (if  not  heir  presumptive)  and 
"Monsci^eur"  for  the  Dauphin,  or  eldest  son  of  the 
French  king,  who  was  also  crown  prince,  or  for  what- 
ever male  member  of  the  family  was  recognized  as  heir 
presumptive  to  the  throne.  ActuaUy  all  Bourbon  pre- 
tenders assume  this  title  as  a  matter  of  course,  e.  g.  the 
late  Don  Carlos  Duke  of  Madrid,  his  son  Don  Jaime,  the 
Count  of  Caserta,  the  Duke  of  Orl6ans^  etc.  Moreover, 
the  custom  often  obtains,  especially  in  Spain,  France, 
and  Italy,  of  extending  by  courtesy  the  title  Monseig- 
neur to  the  adult  members  of  the  Bourbons  and  closely 
allied  families  usuaUy  addressed  as  "Your  Royal  High- 
ness ".  In  official  usage,  however,  this  would  scarcely 
be  permissible.  At  present  the  title  is  no  longer  borne 
by  other  persons  of  civil  rank,  and,  so  far  as  the  author 
of  this  article  is  aware,  no  one  else  lays  claim  to  it. 
Among  ecclesiastics  the  title  Monsignore  implies 
simply  a  distinction  bestowed  by  the  hif;nest  ecclesias- 
tical authority,  either  in  conjunction  with  an  office  or 
merely  titular.  In  any  case  it  bears  with  it  a  certain 
prescribed  dress.  To  coimteract  a  widely  spread  mis- 
conception we  m£^  state  here  that  the  pope  does  not 
bestow  the  title  Monsignore,  but  a  distinction  of  some 
sort  to  which  this  title  is  attached.  Accordingly  it  is 
quite  incorrect  to  say  that  any  one  has  been  appointed 
a  Monsignor  by  the  pope.  If  we  may  be  permitted  to 
use  a  comparison,  Monsignor  in  the  spiritual  order 
corresponds  to  the  word  officer  in  the  military.  The 
highest  general  and  the  youngest  lieutenant  are 
equally  officers,  and  the  most  venerable  patriarch 
bears  the  title  Monsignor  as  well  as  the  simplest  hon- 
orary chaplain.  Thus  among  prelates,  both  higher 
and  lower,  it  is  no  badge  of  distinction  except  as  it 
denotes  in  a  very  general  way  an  elevation  above 
the  ranks  of  the  cier^.  Those  only  bear  the  title  of 
Monsignor,  who  arefamiliarea  8ummi  pontificiSf  those 
who,  by  virtue  of  some  distinction  oestowed  upon 
them,  belong  as  it  were  to  the  family  and  the  retinue 
of  the  Holy  Father.  These  famUiarea  are  entitled  to 
be  present  in  the  cappella  pontifida  (when  the  pope 
celeorates  solemn  Mass),  and  to  participate  in  all 
public  celebrations  purely  religious  or  ecclesiastical 
m  character,  at  whicn  the  pope,  the  cardinals,  and  the 
papal  retinue  assist.  It  is  assumed  that  they  will 
appear  in  the  robes  corresponding  to  their  respective 
offices. 

Up  to  1630,  when  Urban  VIII  reserved  the  title 
Eminence  {EminentissiTnus)  for  the  exclusive  use  of 
cardinals,  the  latter  bore  the  title  Monsignor  in  com- 
mon witn  the  other  prelates  of  high  rank,  and  in 
France  it  is  still  customary  to  address  a  cardind  as 
Monseigneur.  In  all  other  languages  this  usage  has 
completely  disappeared,  so  that,  practically  speaking, 
cardinals  are  no  longer  to  be  counted  among  the 
Monsignori.  All  other  prelates,  from  patriarchs 
down,  who  have  received  a  papal  distinction  or  are 
archbishops,  bishops,  or  mitred  abbots  (among  the 
secular  cleror  only),  have  a  right  to  this  title.  The 
fact  that  it  has  lapsed  in  usage  in  many  countries,  so 
far  as  these  are  concerned,  does  not  affect  the  Question. 
Instead  of  addressing  patriarchs  as  ''Vostra  Beatitu- 
dine",  archbishops   as  ''Your  Grace",  bishops  as 


"My  Lord",  abbots  as  "Gracious  Lord",  one  may 
without  any  breach  of  etiquette  salute  all  equally  as 
Monsignor.  Following  is  a  list  of  official  and  honor- 
ary prelates  exclusive  of  those  already  mentioned: 
(1)  tne  college  of  the  seven  official  prothonotaries 
Apostolic  de  numero  parUdpantium  (of  the  number  of 
participants);  (2)  the  supernumerary  prothonotaries 
{supra  numerum)f  including,  (a)  the  prelate  canons  of 
the  three  patriarchal  basilicas  of  Rome,  (b)  the  prel- 
ate canons  of  certain  cathedral  churches,  while  in 
office;  (3)  prothonotaries  Apostolic  ad  inatar  parti- 
ciparUium  (after  the  manner  of  participants),  includ- 
ing, (a)  prelate  canons  of  certain  cathedral  cnurches, 
as  above,  Cb)  prothonotaries  appointed  ad  personam 
(individuaUy) ;  (4)  the  College  of  the  Auditors  of  the 
Sacra  Rota  Romana,  these  are  official  or  delegated 
prelates;  (5)  the  college  of  official  clerics  of  the 
Apostolic  Camera;  (6)  all  other  prelates  not  members 
of  any  of  the  above  named  colleges,  the  numerous 
domestic  prelates  scattered  throughout  the  world. 
AU  the  above-mentioned  prelates  are  entitled  to  wear 
the  mantelletta  and  rochet;  (7)  the  private  cham- 
berlains constituting  the  official  college  of  pontifical 
masters  of  ceremonies;  (8)  the  officiid  private  cham- 
berlains known  as  partidpanies;  (0;  the  super- 
numerary private  chamberlains  (camerieri  seareti 
8oprannumerari)f  of  whom  there  are  several  hundred 
in  various  parts  of  the  Catholic  world;  (10)  the 
honorary  chamberlains  in  violet;  (11)  the  honorary 
chamberlains  extra  urbem  (outside  the  city),  who  are 
not  received  in  their  official  capacity  in  Uie  papal 
court  when  held  at  Rome;  (12)  the  official  college 
of  private  chaplains;  (13)  the  honorary  private 
chaplains;  (14)  the  honorary  chaplains  extra  urbem 
(see  11);  (15)  the  private  clerics;  and  (16)  the  offidal 
college  of  papal  chaplains. 

In  the  case  of  certain  of  the  above-mentioned 
classes  liie  honorary  office  (t(^ether  with  the  cor- 
responding title  and  distinctive  dress)  lapses  at  the 
death  of  the  pope.  This  is  particularly  true  wiUi 
regard  to  the  supemumeraiy  private  and  honorary 
Chamberlains.  The  reason  for  this  is  self-evident. 
It  is  possible  to  be  prothonotary  of  the  Holy  Roman 
Church  or  cleric  of  the  Apostolic  Camera,  etc.;  but 
one  cannot  be  chamberlain  to  the  Holy  Roman 
Church,  but  simply  chamberlain  to  a  particular 
pontiff,  whose  death  dissolves  the  relatbn  between 
the  two.  Unless  the  newly  elected  pontiff  renews 
the  appointment  the  former  chamberlain  returns 
permanently  to  the  general  ranks  of  the  clergy.  Nor 
IS  there  inconsistency  in  the  fact  that  certain  lay 
chamberlains  continue  in  the  papal  service  imme- 
diately after  a  papal  election.  Their  services  are 
necessary  to  the  new  pontiff  and  he  naturally  recog- 
nizes such  persons,  wnich  amounts  practically  to  a 
tacit  appointment.  It  is  regrettable  tnat  occasionally 
persons  thus  distinguished  by  the  pope  either  assume 
a  dress  arranged  according  to  their  own  notions  or, 
being  dissatisfied  with  the  dress  conceded,  ^propri- 
ate  that  of  a  higher  office.  The  farther  a  oountiy 
is  from  Rome,  the  more  apt  are  such  unfortunate 
thinm  to  occur.  It  should  be  noted  that  members 
of  religious  orders  may  use  the  title  "Monsignor"  only 
if  they  are  bishops  or  archbishops.  All  other  ranks 
of  the  prelacy  are  of  course  closra  to  them,  if  we  ex- 
cept the  Master  of  the  Sacred  Palace,  who  being 
always  a  Dominican,  is  one  of  the  prelates,  but  may 
not  be  addressed  as  Monognor.  The  custom  in- 
troduced in  the  sixteenth  century  of  giving  the  gen- 
erals of  religious  orders  the  title  "Monsignor"  was 
of  short  duration. 

Bouix.  De  Curia  Romana  (Paris,  1880) :  Banobn,  Dm  r&miaehm 
Curie  (MOnster.  1854);  Humphrbt,  Urht  et  Orhi*  (Londoo« 
1899),  359-60;  Sickeu  Bin  Ruolo  di  Famiglia  dn  Pap&Ut  Fiua 
IV  in  MitUiUungen  de»  InaOtuU  fUr  mtUrT^iekimM  Ofckiekt^eir^ 
tchung,  suppl.  vol.  IV  (Iniuibnick,  1893).  See  alao  London  ToMil, 
Mareh  12,  26.  April  9,  10,  May  14.  21, 1910. 

Paul  Mabia  Baumoastkn. 


PIETA 

BARTOLO«MEO   HONTAONA,    VATIi 


MONSTRANCE 


511 


MONTAQNA 


MonitranGe.    See  Obtensoriitm. 

Monstrelet,  Enquerrand  db,  a  French  chron- 
icler, b.  about  1390  or  1395;  d.  in  July,  1453.  He  was 
most  probably  a  native  of  Monstrelet,  a  village  situ- 
ated in  the  present  department  of  the  Somme.  His 
life  was  spent  at  Cambrai  in  the  service  of  Philip, 
Duke  of  Burgundv,  who  was  also  Count  of  Flanders. 
The  cartulary  of  the  church  of  Cambrai  proves  that  in 
1436  Monstrelet  was  lieutenant  of  the  gavenier;  as 
such  it  was  his  duty  to  collect  in  the  Cambr^s  the 
tax  called  "gavenne  .  which  was  paid  to  Philip  by  the 
tenants  of  the  churches  there  in  return  for  the  pro- 
tection which  he  gave  them.  From  20  June.  1436,  to 
January,  1440,  he  was  bailifiP  (hatUi)  of  the  chapter  of 
Cambrai  and  he  was  provost  {privdi)  of  Cambrai  from 
1444  to  1446  (not  until  his  death,  as  Dacier  says);  he 
became  bailiff  of  Walincourt  on  12  March,  1445,  an 
office  which  he  held  till  his  death.  Monstrelet,  who 
lived  during  an  a^tated  period,  did  not  take  personal 
part  in  the  conflicts  of  the  day.  To  him,  perhaps, 
applies  a  letter  of  pcurdon  granteid  in  1424  to  a  certain 
Ejiguerrand  de  Monstrelet  by  Henry  IV  of  England, 
who  then  ruled  a  part  of  France:  Enguerrand,  accord- 
ing to  this  letter,  had  committed  certain  highway 
robberies,  believing  that  he  had  a  sufficient  excuse 
because  he  robbed  the  Armagnacs,  enemies  of  the 
Duke  of  Burgundy.  However  this  may  be,  his  atti- 
tude in  his  "Chronicle '^  is  that  of  an  mipartial  nar- 
rator. He  sp^iks  of  himself  but  once,  when  he  relates 
in  the  eighty-sixth  chapter  of  the  second  book  that  he 
was  present  at  the  interview  which  Joan  of  Arc,  taken 
prisoner  before  Compidgne,  had  with  Philip  of  Bur- 
gimdy;  and  with  his  usual  sincerity  and  modesty  he 
declares  that  he  does  not  remembier  well  the  words 
of  the  duke. 

The  ''Chronicle"  of  Monstrdet  opens  with  a  men- 
tion of  the  coronation  of  Charles  VI^  which  took 
place  in  1380;  but  its  true  starting-point  is  Easter-day, 
1400,  when  the  history  of  Froissart  finishes,  and  it 
extends  down  to  1444.  While  Froissart  confined  him- 
sdf  almost  entirely  to  events  which  took  place  in 
France,  Monstrelet  deals  also  with  other  countries, 
giving  many  documents.  He  treats  not  only  of  mili- 
ta^  history,  but  also  gives  interesting  details  of  ^eat 
rcdi^ous  events  such  as  the  Councils  of  Pisa,  Con- 
stance, and  Basle.  We  feel,  moreover,  that  the  rav- 
ages of  war  and  the  sufferings  of  the  people  therefrom 
cause  him  real  pain,  and  he  is  not  over-enthusiastic 
about  great  feats  of  arms.  He  is  occasionally  guilty 
of  chronological  errors  and  confusing  proper  names. 
Finally,  the  literary  merit  of  the  book  is  mediocre; 
the  narrative  is  often  heavy,  monotonous,  diffuse, 
and  lacks  the  charm  of  Froissart.  In  the  early  edi- 
tions of  Monstrelet — of  which  the  first,  published  at 
Paris  towards  1470  in  three  foUo  volumes,  goes  back 
almost  to  the  invention  of  printing — the  dironicles 
contain  a  third  book,  relating  the  events  which 
took  place  between  April,  14&,  and  the  death  of 
the  Duke  of  Burgundy  m  1467.  But  the  "N6crologe 
des  Cordeliers  de  Cambrai''  and  the  "Memoriaux" 
of  Jean  le  Robert  prove  that  Monstrelet  died  in  July, 
1453,  80  that  all  this  book  could  not  possibly  have 
been  written  by  him.  Furthermore,  the  history  of 
years  1444-53,  given  in  this  third  Dook^  is  so  bald 
that  it  contrasts  sin^arly  with  the  prohxity  of  the 
first  two  books.  It  is,  besides,  mudi  more  partial  to 
the  House  of  Burgundy  than  the  first  two,  and,  in 
contrast  to  these,  scarcdy  contains  a  sinde  document. 
Whereas  the  first  two  books  are  preceded  by  a  preface, 
the  third  has  none;  finally,  the  historian,  Matthieu 
d'Escouchy,  in  the  prologue  to  his  own  chronicle, 
states  that  Monstrdet's  ''  Chronicle  "  ends  at  20  May, 
1444.  Modem  scholars  unanimouslv  accept  the  state- 
ment of  Matthieu  d'Escouchy  and  hold  that  this  so- 
called  third  book  was  not  written  by  Monstrelet. 

Chronique  iPBngturrand  de  Mmutrelel,  «d.  d'Aroq  (0  voU., 
FM»  lW-e9) :  Chnmiqut  de  Matthiw  ^  grouchy,  «d.  Vumvm 


DB  Bbaucottut,  I  (Paris,  1863).  2-3;  Dacixr,  Mhiunrea  d%  IUf 
tirature  iirit  dst  rtgiatret  de  VAeadhnie  royale  dee  Inecrtptume  el 
BeUea^ettree,  XLIII  (Paris,  1786),  635-62.  There  ia  an  Engliah 
tranalation  of  Monstrelet  by  Jornb8  (Hafod,  1810). 

Georges  Gotau. 

Montagna,  Bartolomeo,  Italian  painter,  chief 
representative  of  the  Vicenza  School,  b.  at  Orzinuovi 
about  1450;  d.  at  Vicenza,  11  October,  1523.  Very 
little  is  known  concerning  his  life.  His  work  presents 
not  a  very  original,  but  happy  combination  of  the 
dual  influence  of  Padua  ana  Venice.  The  forms, 
draperies,  grandeur,  and  often  the  energy  of  expres- 
sion betray  the  action  of  Montagna,  but  the  order  of 
his  altar-pieces,  their  harmonious  symmetry,  and  the 
beauty  of  their  colouring  recall  Giovanni  Bellini  or 
Carpaccio.  Perhaps,  he  even  surpassed  these  two 
masters  as  regards  power  of  tone,  and  resembles  Cri- 
velli  more  closely.  Two  Madonnas  in  the  gallery  of 
Vicenza  and  a  smaller  one  in  the  Lochis  Gallery  at 
Bergamo  (1487)  are  characteristic  of  his  early  man- 
ner, which  is  not  free  from  stiffness  and  a  certain  dry- 
ness. Here  the  artist  still  retains  the  old  process  of 
distemper.  His  best  period  was  from  1490  to  1505, 
his  years  of  work  and  travel,  during  which  he  was 
busily  occupied  throughout  all  the  district.  At  Ve- 
rona he  painted  house  facades  in  fresco,  and  executed 
the  miceful  painting,  unhappily  much  damaged,  of 
the  Chapel  of  St.  Blaise  in  the  Church  of  Sts.  Nazzaro 
and  Celso  (1493),  of  which  Salconetto  was  the  archi- 
tect. There  is  little  logic  in  the  construction,  but  the 
details,  despite  the  dilapidation  of  the  whole,  still  pre- 
sent a  charming  effect.  In  the  cupola  there  are  two 
circles  of  panels  with  figures  of  angels  under  figures  of 
saints  between  pilasters,  and  a  frieze  with  a  proces- 
sion of  Nereids.  The  whole,  supported  by  the  Evan- 
gelists painted  on  pendentives,  is  a  brilliant  example 
of  the  delightful  inconsistency  of  the  Renaissance. 
There  are  frescoes  by  Montagna  in  the  Scuola  del 
Santo  at  Padua.  His  best-known  works  are  his  altar- 
pieces,  painted  in  oil  in  the  manner  of  Bellini. 

The  large  retable  of  the  Brera  (1499),  the  Madonna 
enthroned  in  a  magnificent  chapel  with  two  saints  on 
each  side  and  three  angels  playing  on  the  steps  of  the 
throne,  is  perhaps  his  masterpiece.  Whether  for  its 
architecture,  its  dignity,  the  sweetness  of  its  figures, 
or  for  the  depth  and  power  of  its  colouring,  it  is  in  all 
respects  one  of  the  most  beautiful  canvases  produced 
at  that  period  in  Upper  Italy.  The  '*  Piet^  * '  of  Monte 
Berico  (1500)  is  ot  a  quite  different  character:  it  is  a 
startling  picture  of  grief,  the  ^sures  being  of  a  violent, 
almost  orutal  naturalness.  'llie  Academy  of  Venice 
possesses  some  works  in  his  later  manner;  the  tone 
grows  subdued,  becoming  brown  and  slightly  hard  and 
duU.  Such  is  the  ''  Madonna  enthroned  between  St. 
Roch  and  St.  Jerome".  But  there  is  still  a  deep  sen- 
timent of  mystical  adoration  in  the  "Christ  between 
St.  Roch  and  St.  Sebastian''.  Vicenza  is  especially 
rich  in  Montagna's  works,  no  less  than  ten  being  found 
at  the  Academy,  not  to  mention  the  frescoes  of  the 
Duomo  of  S.  Lorenzo  and  some  altar-pieces,  such  as 
that  of  Santa  Corona.  Nearly  all  are  late  works. 
Outside  of  Italy  may  be  mentioned  the  "Ecce  Homo'' 
of  the  Louvre  and  especially  the  charming  piece,  as 
tender  and  delicate  as  a  Carpaccio,  the  ''Three  Angelic 
Musicians" ;  a  large  and  magnificent  retable  of  15%  at 
the  Museum  of  Berlin:  a  beautiful  bust  of  the  Ma- 
donna at  Bremen;  a  ''Holy  Family"  at  Strasburg  and 
some  other  less  important  works  in  England  (Butler, 
Farrer,  and  Samuelson  collections,  and  at  the  home  of 
Lord  Cowper  at  Panshanger). 

Bartolomeo  had  a  son,  Benedetto,  who  was  chiefly 

notable  as  an  en^ver.    As  a  painter  he  is  little  more 

than  a  feeble  imitator  of  his  father,  as  is  proved  bv  a 

Madonna  at  Milan  and  a  "Trinity"  in  the  Cathedral 

of  Vicenza.    He  flourished  from  1490  to  1541. 

RxDOLR,  MeratioUe  deXC  Arte  (Venice.  1648);  Crowb  and 
Cat4M:a9SU«.  Hi9L  of  PaiiUing  in  N.  Italy  CUodoo.  1391): 


MONTAaNAIS 


512 


MONTAiaNX 


BuBCKHABDT,  Cicerone,  Fr.  ed.  (Paris,  1802);  Mobblxj,  Italian 
PainUrMt  tr.  (2nd  ed.,  London.  1000) ;  Berbnson,  Venetian  Paint- 
ere  of  the  Renaieeanee  (3rd  ed.,  London  and  New  York,  1006). 

Louis  Gillbt. 

Montagnaifl  Indiaiui,  Quebec,  French  for  ''Moun- 
taineerB",  the  collective  designation  of  a  number  of 
bands  speaking  dialects  of  a  common  language  of 
Algonquian  stock,  and  ranging  along  the  shores  of  the 
St.  Lawrence  River  and  Gulf,  from  about  the  St. 
Maurice  River  to  below  Cape  Whittle,  and  inland  to 
about  the  main  divide  at  the  heads  of  the  rivers.  Thev 
are  closely  allied  and  considerably  intermixed  with 
the  cognate  Nascapee  (q.  v.),  who  wander  generally 
farther  inland  in  the  interior  of  the  Labrador  Penin- 
sula, but  frequent  the  same  trading  and  mission  sta- 
tions along  the  St.  Lawrence.  Among  the  Montagu- 
ais  bands  or  tribes,  when  Champlain  first  met  them 
at  the  mouth  of  the  Sasuenay,  in  1603,  were  the  Atti- 
kame^e,  or  ''Whitefish",  about  the  head  of  the  St. 
Maurice;  the  Kakouchac,  or  '^ Porcupine '^  on  Lake 
St.  John;  the  Tadousac  about  the  mouth  of  the  Sague- 
nay;  the  Bersamite,  farther  east;  the  Papinachois, 
north  of  the  last-named;  the  Gumamiwek,  farther 
east,  along  the  St.  Lawrence;  the  Chisedec,  about  the 
Bay  of  Seven  Islands.  They  were  without  agricul- 
ture or  pottery,  subsisting  entirely  by  hunting  and 
fishing.  Polygamy  was  common,  with  divorce  at 
will,  descent  being  held  in  the  female  line.  Their 
dwellings,  ss  well  as  their  canoes,  were  of  birch  bark 
or  brushwood.  They  were  good  tempered,  patient, 
peaceable,  honest,  and  musical  under  instruction. 

Hie  Montagnais  obtained  their  first  knowledge  of 
Christianity  at  Tadousac,  a  French  trading  post. 
R^^ar  missionary  work  was  bepim  among  t£em  by 
the  ReooUet,  Fr.  Jean  d'Albeau,  m  1615.  Ten  years 
later  the  Jesuits  were  invited  to  help.  Fr.  Jean  du 
Quen,  S.J.,  established  the  mission  at  Tadousac  in 
1640;  later,  stations  were  erected  by  the  Jesuits  at 
Gaspd  and  Trois-Rivi^res.  The  Iroquois  raids  drove 
them  from  the  St.  Lawrence,  and  a  smallpox  epidemic, 
in  1670,  greatly  reduced  them,  practically  destroying 
the  AttiKamegue.  In  consequence,  the  Montagnais 
began  to  resort  to  the  mission  at  Sillery,  near  Quebec. 
The  whole  tribe  is  now  civilized  and  Catholic,  with  the 
exception  of  forty-eight  officially  reported  (1909)  as 
Angucan.  They  still  depend  mainly  on  the  fur  trade 
for  subsistence,  but  also  work  at  lumbering  and  the 
making  of  canoes;  snow-shoes,  and  moccasins.  A  few 
of  them  are  successful  farmers.  Apart  from  drunken- 
ness, they  are  moral,  devout,  industrious,  and  said  to 
be '  *  improving  every  year '  * .  Their  largest  settlements 
are  at  Pointe  Bleue,  on  the  west  shore  of  Lake  St. 
John,  Bersimis,  Seven  Islands,  Romaine,  and  Mingan. 
Their  total  number  is  probably  at  least  2.5(X).  Father 
Pierre  Laure,  S.J.  (d.  1738),  compiled  a  grammar, 
dictionary,  and  other  works  in  the  Montagnais  lan- 
guage, most  of  which  are  still  in  manuscript. 

Dept,  Ind.  Affaire,  Canada,  annual  repte.  (Ottawa);  Hind, 
Latrador  Penineula,  II  (London,  1863) ;  Piluno,  BiUiog.  of  the 
Algonquian  Languages  (Waahington,  1891);  Speck,  The  Mon- 
tagnais Indians  in  Southern  Workman,  XXXVIII  (Hampton, 
Va..  March,  1009);  Jes.  RdaHone:  Thwattes  ed.  (Cleveland, 
1896-1901). 

James  Moonet. 

Montagnais  Indians,  a  name  given  in  error  to  the 
Chippewatans,  owinp  to  a  fancied  resemblance  to 
the  above.  Hie  Chippewayans  are  really  a  D6n^ 
tribe,  and  derive  their  name  from  the  Cree  words 
diijnvaw  (pointed)  and  iveyan  (skin  or  blanket), 
alluding  to  the  original  form  of  the  main  article  of 
their  oress.  Their  habitat  is  Lakes  Cold,  IIe-&-la- 
Crosse,  Heart,  and  Caribou,  and  the  elevated  land 
in  the  vicinity  of  Methy  Portage  and  the  Eng- 
lish River.  To  the  natives  frequenting  these  locah- 
ties  may  be  added  the  Athabascans,  who  have  for 
habitat  Lake  Athabasca,  the  basin  of  Slave  River, 
and  the  outlying  lands  to  the  east  of  Great  Slave 


Lake.  The  total  population  of  the  two  divisions  is 
about  4000,  the  majority  of  whom  are  nomadic  hunt- 
ers, though  not  a  few  have  of  late  taken  to  a  more 
settled  life,  and  cultivate  potatoes  The  tribe  eagerly 
welcomed  the  first  Catholic  missionaries  in  1845,  and 
ever  since  they  have  been  noted  for  their  attachment 
to  the  Faith.    They  are  practically  all  Catholics. 

The  Chippewayans,  or  Montagnais,  are  in  reality 
the  prototype  of  the  entire  D^nd  family,  in  that  sense 
that  they  have  given  it  their  own  name  {dini,  *  *  men  ")  • 
They  were  the  first  of  the  northern  D€ni^  to  come 
under  the  notice  of  the  whites,  through  the  travels 
and  journal  of  Samuel  Heame.  At  the  present  day, 
the  flourishing  mission  of  He  k  La  Crosse,  where  about 
one  thousand  Montagnais  live  happy  and  contented 
under  the  sgis  of  religion,  is  one  of  the  best  evi- 
dences of  the  civilizing  power  of  the  Catholic  Church. 

Heabnb,  a  Journey  from  Prince  of  Wales  Port  to  the  Northern 
Ocean  (Dublin,  1796) ;  Richardson,  Arctic  Seardiing  Bxpediiion 
(London,  1851).  See  also  Father  Petitot's  works  enumerated 
after  the  article  on  the  DiNis. 

A.  G.  MoRiCB. 

Montaigne,  Michel-Etqxten  de,  writer,  b.  at 
the  chateau  of  Montaigne,  in  P^rigord,  France,  on 
28  Feb.,  1533;  d.  there,  13  Sept.,  1592.  His  great- 
grandfather had  been  a  Bordeaux  merchant  of  wines, 
salt  fish,  etc.,  and  it  was  he  who  purchased  the  estate 
of  Montaigne.  His  father  entered  the  anny  and 
married  Antoinette  de  Louppes  or  Lopes,  of  Jewish 
origin,  and  for  two  years  was  mayor  of  Bordeaux. 
At  an  early  age  Michel  had  a  German  tutor,  who  waa 
obliged  to  speak  to  him  in  Latin  only.  At  the  age 
of  six  and  a  half  he  was  sent  to  the  College  of  Guyenne 
at  Bordeaux,  where  he  remained  seven  years.  Little 
is  known  of  the  ensuing  years.  It  is  believed  that 
he  studied  logic  and  dialectics  for  two  years  at 
the  Bordeaux  Faculty  of  Arts,  with  Maro-Antoine 
de  Muret  as  tutor.  He  afterwards  studied  law, 
possibly  at  Bordeaux,  more  probably  at  Toulouse. 
Having  become  counsellor  at  the  Cour  des  Aides 
of  P^ngord.  he  was  soon  incorporated  like  his  col- 
leagues in  tne  Parlement  of  Bordeaux.  But  the  new 
counsellor  had  no  liking  for  his  profession,  and  he  was 
often  absent  from  the  Parlement.  From  1561  to 
1563  he  attended  the  court.  From  1559  he  knew  La 
Bo^tie,  his  chosen  friend,  and  like  himself  a  counsellor 
in  the  Parlement  of  Pdrigord  and  his  elder  by  tax 
years;  but  death  soon  separated  them  (1563). 

Two  years  later  Montaigne  married  Frangoise  de 
la  Chassmgne,  the  daughter  of  a  parliamentary  ad- 
vocate. Tney  had  five  daughters,  only  one  of  whom 
survived  him.  In  1570  at  the  age  of  tMrt^-eeven 
he  sold  his  post  of  counsellor,  and  in  the  following  vear 
retired  to  the  chateau  de  Montaigne.  There,  from 
1571  to  1580,  he  wrote  his  "Essays".  The  first 
edition  of  this  work  contained  only  two  books.  He 
then  set  out  on  a  journey  which  lasted  a  year  and  a 
half,  of  which  he  has  wntten  in  his  "Journal".  He 
went  to  Lorraine  and  Alsace,  started  for  Switzerland, 
crossed  Bavaria  and  came  down  to  the  Tyrol,  saw 
Venice  and  reached  Rome,  the  end  of  his  journey, 
where  he  received  letters  of  cituEenship.  During  ms 
absence  he  had  been  made  mayor  of  Bordeaux,  wnidi 
office  he  held  for  four  years  (1581-85),  his  duties  com- 
ing to  an  end  when  the  pest  broke  out.  Montaigne 
bemg  absent  from  the  town  did  not  feel  obliged  to  re- 
turn to  it.  In  1588  he  published  a  new  edition  of  his 
"Essays",  corrected  and  augmented  by  a  third  book. 
He  continued  to  revise  his  work  until  his  death. 
In  1595  Mile  de  Goumay,  the  young  woman  who  at 
the  age  of  twenty-two  became  his  enthusiastic  ad- 
mirer, and  whom  he  called  his  daughter,  issued  a  new 
edition,  in  which  she  inserted  the  revisions  and  ad- 
ditions which  he  had  indicated  in  a  copy  in  1588. 

It  is  impossible  to  analyse  the  "Essays".  Tliey 
are  a  long  conversation  in  which  the  author  sets  forth 
in  haphazard  fashion  his  memories  and  his 


HOMULonro  5 

His  memories  are  the  leeult  of  hia  personal  ezperienoe 
and  especiEtlly  of  his  very  extensive  reading.  According 
to  his  own  expreasionhe  himself  is  "the  subject  of  his 
book".     But  what  excuses  him  is  doubtless  the  fact 
that  in  depictjng  himself  he  often  depiota  human  na- 
ture  in  general.    He  is  a  cbarmine  conversatiooalist, 
a  writer  full  of  pith  and  colour,  srUesBnees,  grace,  and 
life.    His  literary  merits  odd  to  the  dangers  of  his 
book,  which  is  deliberately  lascivious  and  as  a  whole 
openly  favourable  to  the  Pyirhonians.    He  bos  even 
written  that  it  is  "a  slack  ear  for  a  shapely  head". 
However,  on  the  other  hand,  he  thanked  "our  sove- 
reign Creator  for  having  staved  our  trust  on  the  ever- 
lasting foundation  of  His  holy 
woid  .     He  also  said  that 
outMde  of  the  path  pointed 
out  by  the  Church  reason  "ia 
lost,  embarrassed,  shackled". 
In  a  letter  he  relates  in  a 
Christian  manner  the  Chrift. 
tian  death  of  his  friend  La 
Bo^tie.     He  himself,  as  soon 
as  he  became  ill,  would  not 
send  tor  a  priest,  and  in  his 
last  illneea  did  not  depart  from 
this  custom.    Fasquier  relates 
that  he  "caused  Mass  to  be 
sud  in  his  chamber  and  when 
tlw  priest  came  to  the  ele- 
vation  the  poor  gentleman 
raised  himscu  aa  well  as  be 
could  in  bed  with  hands  joined 
and  thus  yielded  his  soul  to 
God".    He  died  therefore  in 
a  supreme  act  of  faith. 

BoNNiroH,  Uimtaignt  il » 


HontAldno,  Diocebb  or 
(Ilcinsnbib). — Montalcino  is 
a  small  town  about  twm'^ 
miles  from  Siena,  some  1000 
feet  above  sea-level  and  over- 
looking the  vallev  of  the  Ombrone.  In  the  neighbour- 
hood are  mineral  nirings  and  chalk  quarries.  In  the 
ninUi  century  it  beloi^ed  to  the  E^bey  of  San  Antonio. 
In  1212  it  was  taken  by  the  Sienese,  but  soon  af  terwaids 
the  inhabitants  declued  themselves  in  favour  of  Flor> 
cnoe.  In  1260,  i^ter  the  battle  of  Montaperti,  it  once 
more  fell  into  the  bands  of  the  Sienese,  who  made  it  a 
etronghold.  In  152£  it  was  beeieged  by  the  imperial 
troops;  in  1555,  when  Siena  was  ann^ed  by  Tuscany, 
Pietjo  StroEzi  with  the  ^d  of  French  ttoojpa  endeav- 
oured to  set  up  a  free  republic  at  Montaknno,  but 
in  1556  the  French  were  obliged  to  retreat  and  the 
town  submitted  to  Cosimo  I.  Earthquakes  have  not 
been  unfrequent,  the  last  being  in  1909.  Montalcino 
belonged  originally  to  the  Diocese  of  Arestio;  in  the 
eleventh  century  the  abbots  of  San  Antonio  had 
quau-epiecopal  jurisdiction  over  it;  in  1462  it  was 
made  a  diocese  and  united  with  the  See  of  Pienza, 
which,  howevK,  became  in  1563  a  separate  diocese. 
Its  first  bishop  was  Giovanni  Cinughi;  Francesco 
^ccolomini  (Fius  III)  administered  the  see  at  one  time. 
Thedioceee  is  directly  subject  to  the  Holy  See;  it  has  34 
parishes  and  39,130  souls,  1  convoit  for  men  and  two 
for  womoi.  

Cifruxvm,  It  CMui  (T/Iolu,  XVIII  (Vcoios,  1857). 

U.  Bekigni. 


1870,  Hia  father.  Marc  Reni  had  fought  in  the  army 
of  Cond6,  and  bad  afterwards  served  in  an  English 
cavalry  refdment',  he  was  chosen  by  the  Prince 
B«gent  of  England  to  announce  to  Louis  XVIII  the 


13  HOHTALEMBSEIT 

restoration  of  the  French  monarchy,  and  he  became 
under  tJie  RestoraUon  plenipotentiary  minister  to 
Stuttgart,  and,  later,  to  StocKholro.  His  maternal 
Rraniuather,  James  Forbes,  belonged  to  a  very  old 
Scotch  Protestant  family  and  had  made  many  im- 
portant ioumeys  to  Inifia,  which  he  related  in  the 
fourvolumes  of  bis  "Oriental  Memoirs",  published  in 
1813;  he  also  wrote  in  1810  a  volume  entitled  "Re- 
flections on  the  character  of  the  Hindus  and  the 
necessity  of  converting  them  to  Christianity". 

Montalembert's  mother,  converted  by  AbM  Busson 

and  Pfire  MacCarthy,  made  her  abjuration  of  heresy 

to  Cardinal  de  Latil  in  1822.    The  early  years  of 

Montalembert's    '-'' 


Bourbon  and  at  the  CoU^ 
Sainte-Barbe  at  Paris,  where 
out  of  twenty  pupils  in  the 
sixteenth  year  of  their  age 
hardly  one  was  a  practical 
Catholic.  At  Sainte-Barbe 
young  Montalembert  made  a 
Iriend  of  L^n  Comudet,  who 
was  also  a  Catholic,  and  the 
letters  the  boys  exchanged  in 
their  seventeenth  year  have 
remained  famous.  At  that 
earlyage  Montalembert  wrote: 
"Would  it  not  be  a  splendid 
thing  to  show  that  religion  is 
the  mother  of  libertyl",  a 
phrase  which  was  to  become 
the  motto  of  his  whole  life. 
In  1829hewrotetoRio:"my 
age,  my  tastes,  my  future  caU 
me  to  support  the  new  ideal: 
but  my  religious  beliefs  ana 
moral  emotions  cause  me  to 
lament  bitterly  the  bygone 
days,  the  agc9  of  f  aJth  and  self- 
sacrifice.  If  Catholicism  is  to 
triumph  it  must  have  libniiy 
as  its  ally  and  tributary  sul^ 
DaMoHTuoKB  jg^j.,    Soon  after  its  establish- 

ment in  1820  by  Cara£,  Caialfs,  and  Augustin  do 
Meaux,  with  the  motto  (borrowed  from  Canning): 
"Civil  and  Religious  Liberty  for  the  whole  world", 
the  review  "Le  Correspondant"  had  Montalembert 
as  a  contributor.  In  September  and  October,  1830, 
he  travelled  in  Ireland,  where  he  met  O'Conniell;  be 
was  thinking  of  assisting  the  cause  for  which  O'Connell 
was  struggling  by  writing  a  history  of  Ireland,  whoi  he 
learned  that  the  House  of  Commons  bad  passed  the 
Irish  Emancipation  Act. 

WMle  he  was  in  Ireland  he  recaved  the  prospectus 
of  the  new  paper  "L'Avenir'j  founded  in  October, 
1830,  by  Lamennais.  On  26  Oct.,  1830,  he  wrote  to 
Lamennais:  "All  that  I  know,  and  all  that  I  am  able  to 
do  I  lay  at  your  feet".  On  5  November,  1830,  he  met 
Lamennais  in  Paris,  and  on  12  November  at  Lamen- 
nais's  house  he  met  Lacordaire.  At  timee,  Monta- 
lembert had  to  smooth  over  some  of  the  risky  things 
Lamennais  allowed  himself  to  be  led  into  writing 
agiunst  the  royalists  in  the  paper;  on  the  other  hand 
be  was  engaged  in  controversy  with  Lacordaire,  whose 
idea  of  aristocracy  and  the  past  glory  of  the  French 
nobles  he  considered  too  narrow.  It  was  Montalem- 
bert who^  the  day  after  the  sack  of  St.  Germiua 
I'Auxerrois  by  the  Pariwan  mob,  published  in 
"L'Avenir"  an  eloquent  article  on  the  Croes  of  Christ, 
"which  has  ruled  over  the  destinies  of  the  modem 
world."  He  especially  distinguished  himself  in  the 
"L'Avenir"  by  hia  campaigns  in  favour  of  freedom 
tor  Ireland  and  Poland,  ana  for  these  he  received  the 
congratulations  of  Victor  Hugo  and  Alfred  de  Vigny. 
In  1331  he  thought  of  ^ing  to  Pohui4  and  joining  tw 


KONTAUMBKBT  514  HONTAUKBIBT 

Iiunitgenta.    When  the  "Agence  g^n^rale  pour  la  d£-  Church  to  owd  property;  in  Dec.,  1S38,  wfaoi  ae- 

fense  dela  liberty  religieuso"  (Central  committee  for  clenastical  buriaf  had  been  refused  to  Montlosier  by 

the  safeguarding  of  rcrieiouB  liberty),  founded  by  the  Bishop  F^ron  of  Clermont,  he  replied  in  the  oome  of 

editors  of  "  LMveair",  nad  solemnly  declared  war  on  the  liberty  of  the  Church  to  those  who  Baaailed  this 

the  monopoly  of  the  French  University  by  opening  a  purely  ecclesiastical  act.     He  seconded  mth  all  his 

primary  school  (9  May,  1831),  Montalcmbert  was  mfluence  the  re-establishment  of  the  Benedictines  by 

mdicted.     As  at  this  time  by  his  father's  death  on  20  Dom  Gu^ranger,  and  of  the  Dominicans  by  Lacor* 

June,  1S31,  he  became  a  peer  of  France,  he  demanded  daire,  and  in  1S41  he  obtmned  from  Martin  du  Nord, 

that  he  be  tried  by  the  House  of  Peers;  and  the  Minister  of  Worship,   permission  for  Lacordjure  to 

famous  "Free  School  Case"  was  heard  before  that  wear  his  monastic  dress  m  the  pulpit  of  Notre  Dame. 

assembly,  19  and  20  September,  1831.  "L'tlnivers  Religieux",  ft  daily  paper  founded  in  1834 

The  speech  delivered  by  Montalembert  on  that  oo  byAbbJM!gne,oweditsBolvencyin  1838  to  pecuniary 

camon  was  a  gem  of  eloquence.     The  trial  ended  in  his  sacrifices  made  by  Montalembert,  and  it  soon  pawed 

condemnation  to  a  fine  of  one  hundred  francs;  but  his  into  the  hands  of  Louie  Veuillot.   In  June,  1845  Monta- 

doquence  succeeded  in  calling  public  attention  to  the  lembert  q^uestioned  the  government  concerning  the 

question  of  freedom  of  teaching,  which  was  destined  measures  it  was  about  to  take  against  the  Jesuits,  and 

not  to  he  solved  until  1850.    When  the  last  number  of  a  few  days  later,  when  the  concessions  made  hy  the 


"L'Avenir"  appeared  (15  November,  1831),  Monto-  Holy  See  to  Rossi,  whom  Guizot  had  sent  to  Romiis 

letnbert  accompanied  LACordaire  and  Lamennais  to  had  brought  about  the  partial  dispersion  of  the  French 

Rome.    While  in  Jesuits,  he  loudly  expressed  his  surprise  and  sorrow. 

March,   1S32,  La-  "You  are  our  father,  our  support,  our  friend",  wrote 

cordaire     divined  PSre  de  Ravignon  to  him.    In  tne  House  he,  mor^ 

thewishesof  Greg-  over,  defended  the  interetrts  of  foreign  Catholics;  in 

OTy  XVI,  and  re-  1845,  at  the  time  of  the  Lebanon  massacres,  he  que«- 

turned  to  France,  tioned  Guizot  as  to  what  France  was  doing  to  protect 

Montalembert  Christians  in  the  East;  in  1846  he  questioned  him 

pernsted     in     re-  concerning  the  mnasacrea  committed  by  Austria  i 


ig  in  Rome  Golicio,  and  the  cruelties  practised  against  the  Poles 

with  Lamennais,  of  that  province:  on  ll  January,  1848,  he  enthusiss- 
who  insisted  on  a  tically  praised  the  hopes  Pius  JX  held  out  to  the 
public  decision  by  Italian  people,  and  reproached  the  government  of 
' '  e  pope  concern-  France  for  the  lukewarm  support  it  gave  the  new  pope 
g  ''^L'Avenir".  against  Mettemich:  on  14  January,  1848  in  a  speech 
..  was  not  until  on  the  Sonderbund,  the  finest,  perhaps,  he  ever  ut- 
July  that  they  left  tared,  he  impeached  European  radicalism,  and  pro- 
Rome,  and  the  claimed  that  France,  in  the  face  of  Radicalism,  was 
Encyclical "Mirari  "destined  to  uphold  the  flag  and  safeguard  the  rights 
Voh'',  which  over-  ot  liberty".  Never  did  a  speech  so  carry  men  away, 
took  them  at  Mu-  wrote  Sainte-Beuve. 

nich,wasacauseof        But  it  was  especially  to  secure  liberty  of  teaching 

0eat    sorrow    to  (see  Fhance  and  Fallotix  du  Coudrat)  that  Monta- 

nunrr^LMMnwitr  wcm.   Montolcm-  lembert  devoted  his  efforts.     In  1839  he  addressed  an 

bert  submitted  at  eloquent  letter  to  Villemain,  minister  of  public  in- 

once,  and  when  early  in  1833  Lamennws  announced  his  strurtion,  demanding  that  Uberty;  in  1841  under  preas- 

intentioD  of  again  taking  uji  his  editorial  work,  except-  ure  from  the  episcopate,  he  compelled  Villemain  to 

ing  the  field  oi  theology,  a..d  concerning  himself  only  withdraw  a  bill  on  education  because  it  was  not  suffi- 

with  social  and  political  questions,  Montalembert  did  ciently  liberal;  in  his  pamphlet"  Du  DevcnrdesCatho- 

ail  he  could  to  dissuade  him  from  so  imprudent  a  step,  liques  dans  la  question  dela  liberty  d'ensdnjiement", 

When  GrcEory  XVI  by  his  Brief  dated  5  October  published  in  1843,  he  summoned  the  CatholiM  to  take 

1833,  found  fault  with  the  "long  and  violent  preface''  part  in  the  struggle.     On  16  April,  1844,  in  the  House 

Montalembert  had  written  for  Mickiewicz's  "Livre  of  Peers,  he  undCTtook  the  defence  of  the  bishops  who 

des  Peierins  Polonws"  and  when  at  the  end  of  that  had  attacked  a  second  bill  brought  in  by  Villemain, 


same  year  Lamennais  broke  away  from  the  Church,  and  he  replied  to  Dupin,  who  demanded  the  puniah- 

Montalembert  pa^ed  through  a  period  of  much  aor-  ment  of  the  bishops:    We  are  the  sons  of  the  crusad- 

row,  during  which  the  advice  of  Lacordaire  helped  him  ets;  and  we  shall  never  yield  to  the  sons  of  VoltMre"; 

greatly.    He  tried  in  1834  to  dissuade  Lamennws  from  then  amm  he  took  an  active  part  in  the  discusnon  of 


C"  "ishing  "Lea  Paroles  d'un  Croyant",  and  in  vain  the  bilTTwhich  owing  to  Villemain's  mental  infirmity 

u^t  him  to  submit  to  the  Encyclical  "Singulari  was  abandoned.     Between  1845  and  1846  he  soUdted 

nos"  of  7  July,  1834.     He  submitted  to  all  Gregory's  petitions  among  the  l^ty  in  support  of  liberty  of  edu- 

decisions  (8  December,  1834)  and  his  correspondence  cation,  and  he  succeeded  in  havmg  140  supporten  ol 

with  Lamennais  ceased  definitely  in  1838.  educational  liberty  elected  as  deputies  in  1846.     Id 

In  1836  he  published  his  "Vie  de  Saint»i  Elizabeth  1847  he  renewed  the  attack  on  the  bill  introduced  by 

de  Hongric"  which  restored  hagiography  in  France  Salvandy  and  declared  it  unacceptable.    The  July 

and  brought  back  to  Catholics  a  taste  tor  the  super-  monarchy  fdl  before  the  question  was  settled.    The 

natural  as  shown  in  the  lives  of  the  saints.     On  16  Revolution  of  1848  respected  the  rights  of  the  Church 

August,  1836,  Abbe  Gerbet  blessed  his  marriage  with  and  Pius  IX,  26  March,  1848,  wroU  to  Montalem- 

MlledeM^rode,  daughter  of  the  Felix  deM6rcSe  who  bert:  "We  gladly  believe  that  it  is  in  partowingto 

had  taken  such  an  important  part  in  the  insunBCtion  your  eloquence,  which  has  endeared  your  name  to 

of  the  Belgian  Catholics  against  the  government  of  your  generous  countrymen,  that  no  harm  has  been 

*he  Low  Countries,  and  who  was  descended  from  Saint  done  to  relipon  or  its  ministers".      ... 

Elizabeth  of  Hungary.    She  was  the  sister  ot  Xavier  Under  the  Second  Republic  Montalanbert,  m  reply 

de  Mfirode,  afterww^  minister  of  Pius  IX.  toVictorHugO|  who  criticized  the  sendingot  a  French 

In  the  House  of  Peers,  Montalembert  took  pride  in  expedition  to  aid  Pius  IX,  declared  amid  the  applause 

presenting  himself  as  a  Catholic  first  of  all,  at  a  time  of  two-thirds  of  the  Constituent  Assembly  that  the 

whenas  he  himself  wrote,  "to  profess  or  defend  the  Church  is  "a  mother,   the  mother  of  Europe,   the  ■ 

Catholic  faith  one  had  to  face  marked  unpopularity",  mother  of  modern  society".    Once  more  he  took  up  , 

In  Mi^,  1837,  he  spoke  io  favour  of  the  right  of  the  the  strug^e  for  liberty  ot  education;  m  1849,  togetber  % 


MOMTALEBOEBT 


515 


MOMTALKBSBEBT 


with  Dupanloup  he  was  the  chief  instigator  of  the 
negotiations  between  the  Catholics  and  a  number  of 
liberals  such  as  Thiers,  which  resulted  in  spite  of  the 
ahaip  attacks  of  Louis  VeuiUot  in  the  definitive  grant 
of  liberty  of  education  by  the  Falloux  Law.  When  in 
October,  1850,  Montalembert  went  to  Rome,  Pius  IX 
congratulated  him,  and  caused  him  to  be  named  Civis 
Romanus  by  the  municipality  of  Rome.  After  the 
Coup  d'Etat,  2  Dec.,  1851,  in  an  open  letter  to  the 
"Univera",  he  invited  the  Catholics  to  rally  to  Louis 
Napoleon;  this  manifesto,  which  he  afterwards  re- 
gretted, was  the  result  of  an  idea  he  had  that  it  was  un- 
wholesome for  Catholics  to  abstain  from  taking  part 
in  the  life  of  the  State.  But  when  in  1852  he  had  ap- 
pealed in  vain  to  Louis  Napoleon  to  abrogate  the  or- 
ganic articles,  to  grant  liberty  of  higher  education,  and 
freedom  of  association,  he  refused  to  epier  the  Senate. 
He  was  deputy  for  Besangon  to  the  legislature  of  1852- 
1857,  but  fidled  to  be  re-elected  in  1857  owing  to  the 
defection  of  many  Catholic  voters.  He  cut  mmseif 
off  entirely  from  Louis  Veuillot  and  the  "Univers", 
which  he  thought  accepted  with  too  great  compl»- 
cencsr  all  the  acts  of  the  new  government  curtailing 
certain  political  liberties. 

The  break  began  in  1852  when  Montalembert's 
pamphlet  ''Les  Int^rdts  Catholiques  au  XIXoob 
Si^e"  was  attacked  by  Dom  Gueranger  and  Louis 
Veuillot;  it  became  more  marked  in  1855  when  Mon- 
talembert, taking  from  Lenormant's  hands  the  man- 
agement of  the  Correspondant''.  which  had  at  the 
time  only  672  subscribers,  made  that  review  an  organ 
of  the  political  opposition,  and  took  up  the  side  known 
as  "lioeral"  in  contradistinction  to  the  views  sup- 
ported by  the  '^Univers^'.  As  an  organ  of  the  oppo- 
sition ''  Le  Correspondant "  was  often  at  odds  witii  the 
imperial  government:  in  1858  an  article  Montalem- 
b^  wrote  entitled  *'Un  d^bat  sur  Tlnde  au  Parle- 
ment  anglius''  led  to  his  prosecution,  and  in  spite  of 
the  defence  set  up  by  Benyer  and  Duf aure.  ne  was 
sentenced  to  three  months'  imprisonment,  which  the 
emperor  remitted.  In  1859  his  article  on  "Pie  IX  et 
la  France  en  1849  et  1859",  in  which  he  attacked  the 
partiality  of  the  empire  towards  Italy  and  all  the  op- 
ponents of  the  temporal  power^  caused  some  d^uiet 
m  court  circles,  ana  won  for  hun  the  congratulations 
of  Pius  IX.  His  two  letters  to  Cavour,  Oct.,  1860, 
and  April.  1861,  in  which  he  attacked  the  centralizing 
spirit  of  those  who  were  bringing  i^ut  Italian  unity, 
and  took  up  the  defence  of  the  Holy  See.  drew  from 
Pius  IX  the  enthusiastic  exclamation  of  **  Vivat.  vivat ! 
our  dear  Montalembert  has  surpassed  himself''.  But 
the  hostility  between  the  ''Correspondant"  and  the 
"Univers"  was  growing,  and  in  the  heat  of  the  strug- 
de  Montalembert  wished  to  profit  by  the  Congress  of 
Belgian  Catholics  at  Mechlin  (August,  1863)  to  pour 
out  his  whole  soul  concerning  the  future  of  modem 
society  and  the  Church. 

His  first  speech  aimed  to  show  the  necessity  of 
Christianizing  the  democracy  by  accepting  modem 
liberties.  His  second  speech  dealt  with  uberty  of 
conscience,  and  the  conclusion  he  drew  was  that  the 
Church  could  be  in  perfect  harmony  with  religious  lib- 
erty and  with  the  modem  state  which  is  founded  on 
that  liberty,  and  that  everyone  is  free  to  hold  that  the 
modem  state  is  to  be  preferred  to  the  one  which  pre- 
ceded it.  The  future  Cardinal  Pie,  Bishop  of  Poitiers, 
the  future  Cardinal  Ledochowski,  Nuncio  at  Brussels, 
Mgr.  Talbot,  Chamberlain  to  Pius  IX,  Louis  Veuillot, 
and  the  Jesuits  who  edited  the  "Civiltil  Cattolica'* 
were  alamied  at  these  declarations.  On  the  other 
hand  Cardinal  Sterck,  Archbishop  of  Mechlin,  the  fu- 
ture Cardinals  Guibert  and  Lavigerie,  many  well- 
known  Paris  Jesuits,  such  as  Pdres  de  Ponlevoy,  Oli- 
vaint,  Matignon,  and  especially  Bishop  Dupanloup  of 
Origans,  supported  him  and  took  up  his  defence.  At 
the  end  of  March,  1864,  he  received  a  letter  from  Car- 
dinal   Antonelli    finding   fault    with    the    Mechlin 


speeches.  When,  on  8  Dec.,  1864,  the  Encyclioal 
'%2uanta  Cura"  and  the  Syllabus  were  issued,  Monta- 
lembert resisted  the  advice  given  him  by  the  Protes- 
tant lAoa  de  MaUeville  to  protest  pubUcly  against 
these  pontifical  documents  as  a  political  measure;  and 
the  conmientaiy  on  the  Syllabus  which  Dupanloup 
pubMied,  and  Pius  IX  approved  of,  4  Feb.,  1865,  met 
with  his  joyous  adhesion. 

When  the  Vatican  Council  drew  near  he  feared  that 
the  council  would  infer  from  the  Syllabus  and  define 
as  articles  of  faith  certain  affirmative  propositions  con- 
cerning liberty  and  touching  on  the  State.  He  en- 
couraged the  authors  of  the  Coblenz  manifesto  who 
raised  doubts  as  to  the  opportimeness  of  the  infallibil- 
ity question,  and  he  drew  up  under  the  heading  "  (Ques- 
tions au  futur  concile"  a  i^eat  nimiber  of  disquieting 
¥ievances  which  he  circulated  among  the  bishops, 
he  three  hundred  pages  he  wished  to  insert  in  the 
''Correspondant"  on  the  causes  of  Spanish  decadence, 
and  in  which  he  made  a  lively  attack  on  the  '^Civiltli 
Cattolica",  were  refused  by  the  **  Correspondant",  and 
so  Montalembert  broke  off  his  connexion  with  that 
review. 

His  letter  to  the  lawyer  Lallemand,  published  in 
the  ''Gazette  de  France",  7  Mareh,  1870,  was  m- 
tended  to  reconcile  his  former  ''ultramontanism" 
with  his  present  state  of  feeling,  which  had  been  st^^led 
Gallicanism.  In  that  letter  he  spoke  of  ''The  idol 
which  the  lav  theologians  of  absolutism  had  set  up  in 
the  Vatican"''.  The  impression  left  by  this  letter, 
which  Abb^  Combalot  in  the  pulpit  of  San  Andrea 
della  Valle  styled  a  "satanic  work",  was  still  fre^  in 
the  mind  of  Hus  IX,  when  Montalembert  died,  13 
Mareh,  1870.  Pius  DC  refused  to  allow  a  solenm  ser- 
vice to  be  held  for  him  in  the  Ara  Coeli ;  but  a  few  days 
later  he  gave  orders  that  an  office  should  be  sun^  m 
Santa  Maria  Transpontina,  and  he  attended  there 
himself  in  one  of  the  barred  galleries. 

The  letter  (published  very  much  later)  which  on  28 
September^  1869;  he  wrote  to  M.  Hyacinthe  Loyson  to 
disisuade  him  from  leaving  the  Chureh,  is  in  the  opin- 
ion of  M.  Emile  OUivier  "one  of  the  most  pathetic  ap- 
peals that  ever  came  from  the  himian  heart" ;  and  the 
future  Cardinal  Perraud,  when  pronouncing  the  pane- 
gyjic  of  Montalembert  in  the  Sorbonne^  could  say  that 
even  his  latest  writings,  however  danng  they  mi^t 
be,  were  filled  with  "a  noble  passion  of  love  for  the 
Church". 

A  member  of  the  French  Academy  from  9  Januaiy, 
1851,  Montalembert  was  both  an  orator  and  a  histo- 
rian. As  early  as  1835  he  had  planned  to  write  a  life  of 
St.  Bemard.  He  was  led  to  publish  in  1860,  under  the 
title  "Les  Moines  d'Occident",  two  volumes  on  the 
origin  of  monasticism;  then  followed  three  voliunes  on 
the  monks  in  England;  he  died  before  he  reached  the 
period  of  St.  Bemard.  But  he  left  among  his  papers, 
on  the  one  hand,  a  manuscript  entitled  "Influence  de 
I'ordre  monastiaue  sur  la  noblesse  f^dale  et  la  soci^t^ 
lalque  jusqu'^t  la  On  du  Xl^me  si^cle",  and  on  the 
other  hand  a  work  on  Gregoiy  VII  and  the  conflict  of 
investitures:  and  these  two  MSS.,  published  in  1877 
by  his  friend  Foisset  and  his  son-in-law  the  Vicomte  de 
Meaux,  made  up  the  sixth  and  seventh  volume  of  the 
"Moines  d'Occident".  His  work  on  "L'Avenir  po- 
litiaue  de  I'Angleterre",  published  in  1856,  drew  a 
briUiant  picture  of  the  parliamentary  institutions  of 
En^and,  and  rejoiced  in  the  ascendant  march  of  Cath- 
olicity in  the  British  Empire. 

Finally,  Montalembert  was  one  of  the  writers  who 
did  most  to  foster  in  Europe  re^rd  and  taste  for 
Gothic  Art.  His  letter  to  Victor  Hugo  on  "Vand»- 
lisme  en  France",  published  1  March.  1833.  made  a 
strong  impression  ever3rwhere,  and  nelpea  to  save 
many  Gothic  monuments  from  impending  ruin. 
Auguste  Reichensperger  and  the  Catholics  of  jtlhenish 
Prussia  profited  by  the  artistic  lessons  of  Montalem- 
bert.   In  1838  he  addressed  to  the  French  clergy  an 


1I6MTALT0 


516 


iCOMTAttA 


eloquent  appeal,  in  which  he  praised  the  German 
school  of  Overfoeck,  and  lament^  that  French  Chris- 
tian art  was  debased  by  pagan  infiltrations.  He  in- 
terested himself  in  the  dilapidated  condition  of  the 
Cathedral  of  Notre  Dame,  and  caused  the  House  of 
Peers  in  1845  to  vote  a  sum  of  money  to  repair  it.  His 
speech  on  vandalism  in  works  of  art.  before  the  same 
assembly,  27  June,  1847,  denounced  the  demolitions 
and  ignorant  restorations  carried  on  by  government  ar- 
chitects, and  brought  about  a  change  for  the  better.  It 
was  partlv  due  to  him  that  in  1837  the  Historical  Com- 
mittee of  Arts  and  Monuments,  for  the  preserving  of 
works  of  art,  was  estcJi)lished;  and  on  the  other  hfmd, 
churchmen  laid  such  weight  on  his  artistic  opinions, 
that  even  from  far-off  Kentucky  Mgc  Flaget,  Bishop 
of  Bardstown,  wrote  to  him  askmg  him  to  draw  up  a 
plan  for  the  cathedral  he  was  about  to  biuld  at  Louis- 
viUe. 

Montalembert's  "Speeches'*  have  been  published 
in  three  volumes;  his  "Polemics"  in  three  volumes 
also. 

LacANUvr,  Monlaltmbert  (3  vols.*  Paria,  1805-1905);  db 
Mbaux.  MonlaUmbmi  (Paria.  1900);  Foluolbt,  MonUUmnbvi  «f 
Mor  Pariaia  (Paris,  1906) ;  Ouphamt,  Memoir  of  Count  de  MorUo' 
imiibert  (2  you.,  London). 

Gborqbs  Gotau. 

Montalto,  Dick^sb  of  (Montib  Alti),  in  Ascoli 
Piceno.  The  situation  of  the  little  town  of  Montalto 
is  very  attractive.  Originally  (1074)  under  the  juris- 
diction of  the  abbots  of  Farfa,  it  was  annexed  in  1571 
by  Pius  V  to  the  Diocese  of  Ripatransone.  In  1586 
Sixtus  V,  a  native  of  Montalto,  made  it  an  episcopal 
see.  The  first  bishoo  was  Paolo  Emilio  Giovannmi; 
other  bishops  were  Orazio  Giustiniani  (1640).  later 
a  cardinal,  and  Francesco  Saverio  Castiglioni  (1800), 
who  became  pope  under  the  name  of  Pius  VII.  The 
diocese  has  33  parishes  with  29,000  inhabitants: 
79  secular  and  4  regular  priests;  1  religious  house  ot 

men,  and  1  of  sisters. 
Cafpbllviti.  Chieu  (T Italia,  III  (Venioe,  1887). 

U.  Beniqni. 

Montana,  the  third  largest  of  the  United  States  of 
America,  admitted  to  the  Union  8  November,  1889; 
called  the  ''Treasure  State". 

Boundaries  and  Area. — ^Its  northern  boundary 
line,  which  divides  it  from  Canada,  extends  along  the 
forty-ninth  parallel  from  meridian  27  west  of  Wasii- 
ington  (104  west  of  Greenwich),  its  eastern  boundary, 
to  meridian  39—that  is,  549  miles.  Starting  from  the 
east,  the  forty-fifth  parallel  marks  its  southern  boun- 
darv  as  far  as  meridian  34,  where  the  line  drops  sout^ 
to  tne  crest  of  the  main  range  of  the  Rocky  Mountains, 
which,  with  the  extreme  summits  of  the  Bitter  Root 
and  the  Coeur  d'Aldne  Mountains,  divides  it  from 
Idi^o  on  the  southwest  and  west  until  meridian  39 
is  reached.  This  last  meridian  then  becomes  the 
western  dividing  line  to  the  international  boundiuy. 
The  area  of  the  state  is  146,080  square  miles. 

Phtbicsal  Charactteribtics. — Ab  its  name  suggests, 
the  state  is  mountainous  in  character,  being  crossed 
from  north  to  south  by  the  ^stem  Imown  coUectively 
as  the  Rocky  Mountams.  Yet  it  would  be  erroneous 
to  regard  the  state  as  evei]ywhere  mountainous.  The 
eastern  half  of  the  state  is  an  expanse  of  plain  and 

Srairie,  though  there  are  few  places  within  it  which 
o  not  reveal  on  the  horison  elevations  sufficiently 
imp(>sinff  to  be  called  mountains.  The  highest  moun- 
tain in  the  state  is  Granite  Peak,  the  elevation  of  which 
is  12,6(X)  feet.  The  Northern  Pacific  railroad  crosses 
the  continental  divide  twenty  miles  west  of  Helena,  at 
an  elevation  of  5573  feet;  me  Great  Northern  main 
line  crosses  at  an  elevation  of  5202,  and  the  Montana 
Central,  a  branch  of  the  last-named  sjrstem,  near 
Butte,  at  an  elevation  of  6343.  The  eastern  portion 
of  the  state  has  a  mean  elevation  of  from  2000  to  3000 
feet.  The  state  is  blessed  with  many  magnificent 
dver  QTBtems.   The  Missouri  and  its  tributanee  ""  ~'~ 


Sbal  op  Montana 


the  eastern  portion,  and  the  confluents  of  the  Colum- 
bia the  western.  The  former  is  formed  by  the  junctioii 
of  the  Jefferson.  Madison,  and  (Gallatin,  the  two  last- 
named  having  their  source  in  the  Yellowstone  National 
Park  and  the  other  in  the  mountains  in  the  extreme 
south-western  part  of  the  state.  The  main  tributary 
of  the  Missouri,  the  Yellowstone,  likewise  takes  its  rise 
in  the  park,  in  a  lake  of  the  same  name.  Another  trib- 
utary of  the  Missouri,  the  Milk  River,  has  its  origin  in 
the  north-western  section  of  the  state,  which  is  noted 
for  its  scenic  beauty.  From  the  summit  of  the  moun- 
tains there  one  may  overlook  a  country  within  which 
are  the  head-waters  of  three  great  continental  river- 
systems — the  Mississippi-Missouri,  the  Saskatche- 
wan, and  the  Columbia.  This  region  has  lately  been 
made  a  national  reservation  under  the  name  of  Glacier 
Park.  The  Missouri  traverses  the  state  from  Three 
Forks,  named  from 
its  location  at  the 
confluence  of  the 
three  rivers  men* 
tioned  above,  a 
distance  of  ap- 
proximately 5  50 
miles.  The  Yel- 
lowstone, follow- 
ing a  course  rough- 
ly parallel  to  the 
mam  stream, 
makes  a  waterway 
within  Montana^ 
borders  450  miles 
long.  The  Koo- 
tenai drains  a  por- 
tion of  the  extreme 
northwestern  part  of  the  state,  but  the  great  bulk  of 
the  western  waters  in  that  region  comes  south,  by  the 
Flathead,  to  meet  with  those  from  the  southern  por- 
tion which  flow  north  and  west  to  make  the  Missoula. 
These  two  streams  unite  to  form  the  Clark's  Fork  of 
the  Columbia.  The  Flathead  feeds  and  empties,  in 
its  course,  Flathead  Lake,  the  laneest  fresh-water  lake 
between  the  Mississippi  and  the  Pacific. 

The  climate  is  vezv  similar  in  character  throughout 
the  state,  except,  of  course,  on  the  lofty  mountains, 
where  snow  lies  perpetually  or  far  into  the  smnxner — a 
providential  condition,  in  consequence  of  which  waUst 
for  irri^tion  is  suppUed  in  comparative  abundance  in 
the  period  of  drought.  The  extremes  of  temperature 
are  not  quite  so  great  and  rain  falls  somewhat  more 
abundantly  on  the  western  slope  of  the  mountains. 
The  climate,  except  for  brief  periods  in  the  winter 
season,  is  mild  and  agreeable.  In  the  northern  part 
of  the  state  the  seventy  of  the  colder  months  is  tem- 
pered by  an  occasional  warm  west  wind,  known  as  the 
Chinook,  which  tempers  the  climate  without  bringing 
excessive  moisture.  A  very  low  temperature  is  en- 
dured with  much  less  discomfort  than  in  repons  whne 
the  atmosphere  is  more  dense,  the  humidity  greater, 
and  the  sunshine  less  abundant.  The  mean  tempera- 
ture at  Helena  is  65°  (Fahr.)  for  the  months  of  June. 
July,  and  August;  44°  for  September,  October,  and 
November;  22?  for  December,  January,  and  Febniaiy. 
and  41°  for  March,  April,  and  May.  The  mean  annual 
rainfall  for  the  entire  state,  based  on  reports  for  ten 
years,  is  15.57  inches. 

History. — The  state  has  an  interesting  historjr. 
About  a  third  of  a  century  before  the  Revolution,  m 
1742,  it  was  visited  by  a  party  of  French  exf^orers 
headed  by  two  young  sons  of  Pierre  Gautluer  de 
Varennes  de  la  Verendrye,  on  a  quest  (cr  a  river  lead- 
ing to  the  Pacific.  They  started  from  Fort  La  Reine, 
one  of  the  most  remote  of  a  chain  of  posts,  which  the 
elder  de  la  V6rendrye  had  established  m  the  wilderaeas 
north  and  west  of  Lake  Superior  in  an  effort  to  reach 
the  western  sea.  The  wanderings  of  the  youthful  ad- 
venturers led  them  from  Fort  La  Reine  on  tbe  Aasin^ 


MONTANA                             517  MONTANA 

boine,  west  of  Winnipeg,  to  the  village  of  the  Mandanfl  supported  immense  nimibers  of  buffalo  and  antelope, 

on  the  Missouri  River,  near  the  present  city  of  Bis-  and  of  the  parks  in  the  moimtains,  where  deer  and  elk 

marck,  North  Dakota,  whither  their  father  had  pre-  abounded,  invited  the  pursuit  of  raising  cattle,  sheep, 

ceded  them  four  years  before.    Thence,  proceeding  in  and  horses. 

a  general  southwesterly  direction  through  the  coun-  Long  before  this  period,  however,  as  early  as  1840, 
ties  of  Oister  and  Rosebud,  they  crossed  the  rivers  Father  Peter  J.  De  Smet,  S.J.,  had  come  from  St. 
falling  into  tiie  Yellowstone  imtil  they  reached  the  Big  Louis  in  response  to  an  invitation  conveyed  by  a  depu- 
Hom  Mountaias,  near  or  across  the  Wyoming  line,  tation  from  the  Flathead  Indians  to  Christianize  that 
Sixtv-two  years  later,  the  expedition  of  Lewis  and  tribe.  He  established  St.  Mary's  Mission  in  the  Bitter 
Clark  gave  to  the  world  authentic  information  of  the  Root  valley  near  the  present  town  of  Stevensville.  In 
cotmtry.  It  followed  the  Missouri  to  the  Three  Forks,  1S44  he  foimded  the  Mission  of  St.  Ignatius  in  the 
then  ascended  the  Jefferson  to  its  source  in  the  Bitter  midst  of  a  beautiful  valley,  within  what  is  now  the 
Root  range,  and  crossed  the  mountain  barrier.  Re-  Flathead  Reservation.  Father  Nicholas  Point  preached 
tuminff,  the  leaders  travelled  together  until  they  to  the  Blackfeet  in  the  winter  of  1846-7,  laying  the 
reached  the  Big  Blackfoot,  a  tributary  of  the  Missoula,  foundations  of  St.  Peter's  Mission  which  however  was 
Here  they  parted,  Lewis  ascending  that  stream  to  its  not  permanently  established  imtil  1850.  Father  A. 
source  and  reaching  the  Missouri  in  the  neighbourhood  Ravalli,  who  sl^^ures  the  veneration  in  which  the  mem- 
of  Great  Falls,  whence  he  returned  by  the  route  the  ory  of  the  founder  of  St.  Mary's  la  held,  came  to  that 
part^  had  come.  Guided  by  the  Shoshone  woman  mission  in  1845.  The  coimty  in  which  it  was  located 
Sacajawea,  whom  the  expecution  picked  up  on  the  is  named  in  his  honour.  The  western  part  of  the  state 
outwurd  journey  among  the  Mandans,  whither  she  had  was  successively  a  part  of  Oregon  Temtory,  Washing- 
been  carried  as  a  captive  when  a  child,  Clark  piuisued  ton  Territory,  and  Idaho  Temtory.  The  eastern  por- 
the  route  later  followed  in  the  construction  of  the  tion  became  a  part  of  the  Louisiana  Territory  on  the 
NorUiem  Pacific  Railroad  to  the  Yellowstone  near  cession  of  the  latter  to  the  United  States,  and  was 
Livingston,  and,  descending  that  stream,  rejoined  his  attached  to  various  territories  organized  out  of  that 
companion  at  its  mouth.  region.  But  there  was  no  organized  government  any- 
Tne  Astor  expedition,  which  set  out  for  the  mouth  where.  Even  after  the  rush  consequent  upon  the  gold 
of  the  Columbia  in  1811.  purposed  following  the  route  discoveries,  though  nominally  subject  in  those  parts 
which  had  been  opened  up  oy  the  Lewis  and  Clark  to  the  government  of  Idaho  Territory,  the  constituted 
party.  But  the  nerce  Blackfeet  being  on  the  war-  authorities  were  so  remote  that  the  people  themselves 
path,  they  abandoned  the  river  near  the  mouth  of  the  administered  a  rude  but  effective  justice  throueh 
Cheyenne  and  set  out  over  the  plains  with  the  aid  of  miners'  courts  and  vigilance  committees.  In  1864  the 
horses  purchased  from  the  Indians.  After  proceeding  Territory  of  Montana  was  organized  with  boundaries 
some  distance  to  the  northwest,  doubtless  into  Mon-  identical  with  those  which  now  define  the  limits  of  the 
tana,  they  pursued  a  more  southerly  route  and  reached  state.  Hon.  Sidney  Edgerton  was  appointed  govex^ 
the  headwaters  of  the  Columbia  as  they  issue  from  the  nor.  The  first  legislative  assembly  convened  at  Baji- 
Yellowstone  National  Park.  The  Astor  project,  in  its  nack  on  12  December,  1864.  The  next  session  was 
commercial  aspect,  took  form  later  in  the  organization  held  at  Virginia  City  in  1866,  from  which  place  the 
of  the  American  Fur  Company.  But  it  was  antici-  capital  was  moved  to  Helena  in  1874,  the  migrations 
pated  by  the  daring  Manuel  Lisa  of  St.  Louis,  who  as  of  the  seat  of  government  indicating  to  some  extent 
early  as  1807  established  a  fort  at  the  mouth  of  the  the  variations  m  the  centres  of  population.  General 
Big  Horn  River.  Clark  the  explorer,  the  brothers  Thomas  Francis  Meagher  was  appointed  secretary  of 
Chouteau,  and  others  imited  with  him  in  the  organiza-  the  territory  in  1865  and,  in  the  aosence  of  the  gover- 
tion  of  the  Missouri  Fur  Company.  In  1832  the  steam-  nor,  assumed,  under  the  law,  the  duties  of  that  office, 
boat  "Yellowstone,"  owned  by  the  American  Fur  Com-  which  he  continued  to  discharge  until  his  unfortunate 

Emy,  which  had  absorbed  its  rival,  ascended  the  death  by  drowning  in  1867.    Sonuel  McLean  was  the 

issouri  to  Fort  Union,  near  the  mouth  of  the  river  first  delegate  to  Congress  from  the  territory.    The 

after  which  the  craft  was  named.    The  region  east  of  state  was  admitted  to  the  Union  by  proclamation  of 

the  mountains  was  a  part  of  the  Louisiana  Purchase,  President  Harrison  on  8  November,  1880,  pursuant  to 

over  which  the  United  States  acquired  dominion  by  an  Act  of  Congress  approved  on  22  Feb.,  1889,  the 

the  treaty  with  Napoleon  in  1803.    The  western  slope  constitution   having   been   meanwhile   framed  and 

constituted  a  part  of  that  ill-defined  district  known  as  adopted. 

the  *'  Oregon  Country  ".  The  confiicting  claims  of  the  In  1880  the  Utah  and  Northern  Railroad  Company, 
United  States  and  Great  Britain  to  this  country  were  subsecjuently  merged  in  the  Union  Pacific  system, 
not  settled  until  1846.  Meanwhile  hunters  and  trap-  built  into  Butte  from  Ogden.  Three  years  later  the 
pers  bearing  allegiance  to  both  nations  overran  the  Northern  Pacific  completed  its  line  across  the  tern- 
country.  A  few  homebuilders  established  themselves  tory  aided  by  a  grant  made  by  Congress  in  1864,  by 
within  the  borders  of  the  State  in  the  late  fifties,  but  the  which  it  acquir^  every  alternate  section  of  land 
history  of  the  development  of  the  commonwealth  be-  within  forty  miles  of  its  line.  The  Great  Northern  was 
gins  with  the  discovery  of  gold  at  Gold  Creek  and  Ban-  completed  to  the  coast  across  Montana  in  1801,  and 
nack  in  1862.  The  Alaer  Gulch  placers  were  discovered  the  year  1909  witnessed  the  construction  of  another 
in  1863,  giving  rise  to  Vii^ginia  City,  and  those  of  Last  transcontinental  line  crossing  the  state  from  east  to 
Chance  Gulch  in  1864,  bringing  Helena  into  existence,  west, — ^that  of  the  Chicago,  Milwaukee,  and  Puget 
The  storv  of  the  fabulous  wealth  of  these  deposits  Soimd  Railway  Company.  The  Montana  Central, 
attracted  a  great  multitude,  who  made  the  journey  since  a  part  of  the  Great  Northern  system,  was  built 
either  by  ox-teams  from  Omaha,  or  came  up  the  river  in  the  very  heart  of  the  mountain  country  in  1887,  to 
by  boat  to  Fort  Benton,  which  was  established  in  connect  the  mines  at  Butte  with  the  smelters  at  Great 
1846.  Every  promising  gulch  in  the  state  was  quickly  Falls.  Since  the  opening  of  the  railroads,  resulting  in 
prospected,  many  of  them  proving  very  remunerative,  the  extinction  of  tne  buffalo,  the  main  reliance  of  the 
The  source  of  the  placer  oeposits  was  soon  sought  in  Indians  for  subsistence,  the  task  of  keeping  them  in 
the  ledges,  and  quartz-minmg  speedily  began.  The  check  on  the  reservations  has  become  comparatively 
enormous  price  which  food-stuffs  commanded  oper-  simple.  In  the  struggle  with  them  theretofore,  three 
ated  as  an  incentive  to  those  having  some  skill  in  events  attain  special  prominence — the  brush  with 
agriculture  to  engage  in  ranchine,  ana  the  fertile  val-  General  Sully  at  the  Bad  Lands  in  1864,  while  escort- 
leys  of  the  Gallatin,  the  Deer  Lodge,  the  Bitter  Root,  ing  a  party  of  250  emigrants  from  Minnesota  bound 
and  the  Prickly  Pear  were  subjected  to  tillage.  The  for  the  mines  of  Montona;  the  Custer  Massacre  in 
abimdant  nutritious  grasses  of  the  plains,  &at  had  1876,  and  the  raid  of  Chief  Joseph  after  the  Battle  of 


MONTANA  518  MONTANA 

the  Big  Hole  and  his  masterly  retreat,  followed  by  his  still  in  its  infancy,  but  is  destined  to  a  great  growth 

capture  in  the  Bear  Paw  Mountains  in  1877  by  General  owing  to  the  extent  of  available  water-power.     Three 

Mues.  power  dams  now  turn  the  flow  of  the  Bliraouri  River, 

Resouiices. — ^The  industry  which  gave  rise  to  the  and  three  more  are  in  process  of  construction.     An- 

original  settlement  of  Montana  was  mining.    In  1863  other  lai^  dam  utilizes  in  part  the  energy  of  the 

goLa  valued  at  $8,000,000  came  from  the  sluices.   The  Madison  Kiver.    The  Flathead  River  timibles  over 

next  year  produced  double  that  amoimt.    The  total  seven  miles  of  cascades,  as  it  issues  from  Flathead 

production  of  gold  up  to  and  including  the  year  Lake,  offering  stupendous  opportunities  for  power 

1876  is  conservatively  estimated  at  $140,000,000.     At  development. 

about  that  time  silver  mining  began  to  assmne  para-  State  Institutions. — The  capitol  at  Helena  was 
mount  importance,  but  about  1890  it  yielded  pre-  erected  in  1900  at  a  cost  of  $350,000.  The  growth  of 
eminence  to  copper,  which  is  at  present  the  chief  metal  the  state  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  additions  were 
produced.  Tho  copper  mines  are  at  Butte,  while  the  authorised  by  the  last  session  of  the  lesislature  to  cost 
smelters  are  located  at  Anaconda  and  Great  Falls.  A  half  a  million  dollars.  The  funds  for  we  original  con- 
silver  and  lead  smelter  is  in  operation  at  East  Helena,  struction,  as  well  as  the  work  now  to  be  undertaken. 
In  1907  there  was  produced  copper  to  the  value  of  are  derived  from  lands  donated  to  the  state  on  its  ad- 
$44,021,758,  silver  $6,149,619,  and  ^old  $3,286,212.  mission  to  the  Union  by  the  general  government.  The 
Montana's  stores  of  coal  are  very  great.  Estimates  state  maintains  a  university  at  Mi^ula,  an  agricui- 
made  by  the  authorities  of  the  United  States  Geolo^-  tural  college  at  Boseman,  a  school  of  mines  atButte, 
cal  Survey  give  the  area  of  bituminous  and  lignitic-  anormal  school  at  Dillon,  a  soldiers' home  at  Columbia 
bituminous  coal  at  13,000  square  miles,  and  the  limite  Falls,  a  deaf,  dumb,  and  blind  asyrlum  at  Boulder,  a 
areas  at  from  25,000  to  50,000  square  miles.  Coal-  reform  school  at  Miles  City,  anci  a  penitentiary  at 
mining  is  extensively  carried  on  m  the  counties  of  Deer  Lodge.  The  insane  are  cared  for  at  a  private  in- 
Carbon,  Gallatin,  Cascade,  and  Fergus.  Lumbering  stitution  at  Warm  Springs.  The  usual  system  of  public 
is  an  industry  of  the  western  portion  of  the  state,  schools  prevails,  and  nearly  all  the  towns  of  oonse- 
where  there  are  dense  forests  of  pine,  fir,  larch,  cedar,  quence  maintain  public  Ubraries. 
and  hemlock.  It  is,  however,  iy  no  means  confined  Education. — ^In  1908  tiiere  were  enrolled  61,928  of 
to  that  region,  as  all  the  mountains  of  any  consider-  the  77,039  children  of  school  age.  The  total  expense 
able  height  bear  a  more  or  less  abundant  growth  of  for  all  school  purposes  was  $2,178,322.90.  The  aver- 
timber.  Nearly  20,000,000  acres  of  the  public  lands  age  monthly  salary  paid  to  male  teachers  was  $99,  and 
withm  the  state,  of  which  there  are  about  50,000,000,  to  f  enxaJe  teachers  $60.  The  educational  interests  of  the 
are  included  within  the  national  forest  reserves.  state  are  imder  the  direction  of  a  state  superintendent 

Stock-raising  early  assumed  an  important  place  in  and  a  state  board  of  education,  consisting  of  that  offi- 
the  business  life  of  the  state.  Vast  herds  or  cattle,  cer,  the  governor  and  the  attorney-general,  and  eight 
horses,  and  sheep  were  reared  and  matured  on  the  other  members  appointed  by  the  governor.  County 
jpen  range  with  little  or  no  provision  for  feeding  even  superintendents  supervise  the  administration  of  the 
in  the  depth  of  winter.  The  appropriation  of  the  pub-  school  system  in  the  rural  communities,  and  city  super- 
lie  domam  by  settlers  has  progressed  to  such  an  ex-  intendents  in  the  municipalities.  The  chief  revenues 
tent,  however,  as  to  enforoe  a  radical  change  in  the  are  derived  from  taxes  collected  by  the  county  treas- 
method  by  which  the  business  is  carried  on.  Provision  urer.  The  school  fund  consists  of  the  revenues  from 
for  feeding  is  now  almost  imiversally  made,  but,  ex-  grants  of  lands  made  bv  the  general  ^vernment,  and 
cept  in  stormy  weather,  sheep  especially  thrive  with-  other  grants  from  the  federal  authority,  the  avails  of 
out  much  regard  to  temperature  on  the  native  ffrasses  escheated  estates,  and  fines  for  violations  of  various 
that  cover  the  plains  and  foot-hills,  cured  by  uie  hot  laws.  The  fimd  must  be  kept  intact  and  only  the 
sun  of  the  summer  season  when  comparatively  little  income  used.  The  state  umversity  has  a  srant  of 
rain  faUs.  The  annual  production  of  wool  in  the  state  45,000  acres  from  the  nation,  which  may  be  sokl  at  not 
is  about  40,000,000  pounds,  the  clip  of  approximately  less  than  $10  per  acre.  The  avails  constitute  a  fund 
five  and  a  half  million  sheep.  The  number  of  cattle  in  the  income  of  which  only  is  subject  to  use.  For  the 
the  state  is  in  excess  of  600,000.  Agriculture  is  under-  year  1909  there  were  appropriated  for  its  support 
going  a  marvellous  development,  both  as  to  the  area  $67,500,  and  it  has  otiier  revenues  amounting  to  about 
under  cultivation  and  the  methods  of  farming.  All  $75,000  in  all.  Its  corps  of  professors  numbers  twenty, 
the  cereals  yield  bountifully.  Recent  immigration  to  In  1908  it  had  184  students,  exclusive  of  t^ose  doing 
the  state  has  been  markedly  to  the  more  promising  special  work  and  not  including  those  taldng  the  course 
agricultural  sections  which,  within  the  past  two  years,  at  the  biological  station,  which  is  maintained  in  con- 
have  received  an  influx  hitherto  imknown.    In  earlier  nexion  with  it. 

years  irrigation  was  universally  resorted  to,  but  more        Early  Missionaribb  and  Mibsionb. — It  is  not  in^ 

recently  great  areas  have  been  cultivated  with  marked  probable  that  Father  C.  G.  Co<^uart,  S.  J.,  accompanied 

success  by  the  "dry  farming"  system.    Eight  great  the  V^rendyre  brothers  on  their  expedition  into  Mon- 

works  of  irrigation  are  being  carried  on,  or  have  been  tana.    He  was  a  member  of  the  party  when  they  set 

completed  by  the  government  reclamation  service,  out  from  Montreal  on  their  great  enterprise  and  is 

The  state  is  directing  others  under  the  Carey  Land  quoted  as  saying  that  the  V^rendyres  on  some  of  their 

Act,  and  private  corporations  are  engaged  in  many  excursions  went  bevond  the  great  fidls  of  the  Missouri, 

similar   enterprises.     Montana   produced   in    1908:  and  as  far  as  the  Gate  of  the  Mountains  near  Helena. 

3,703,000  bushels  of  wheat  on  153,000  acres;  10,556,-  The  establishment  of  the  early  missions  has  been  men- 

000  bushels  of  oats  on  254,000  acres;  and  875,000  tioned.    Besides  those  referred  to,  the  Holy  Family 

bushels  of  barley  on  25,000  acres.    Fruit-raising  is  a  Mission  among  the  Blackfeet,  originally  a  dependency 

profitable  business  in  many  parts  of  the  state,  particu-  of  St.  Peter's,  became  a  fixed  establishment  in  1885. 

larly  in  the  counties  of  Ravalli,  Missoula,  and  Flat-  St.  Paul's,  another  offspring  of  St.  Peter's,  was  estab- 

head,  where  it  is  extensively  carried  on.    Apples  are  lished  about  the  same  time  among  the  Gros  Ventres 

the  staple  fruit  crop,  the  quality  being  excellent  and  and  Assiniboines  on  the  Fort  Belknap  Indian  Reaerva- 

the  yield  laige.    The  culture  of  suear  oeets  has  been  tion.    St.  Labre,  the  mission  amon^the  Cheyennes, 

stimulated  by  the  construction  of  a  factory  at  Billings,  dates  from  1884,  when  Rev.  Joseph  Eyler  came  from 

which  has  been  in  operation  since  1896.    It  will  be  Cleveland  with  six  members  of  the  Ursuline  Sister* 

supplied  (in  1910)  with  over  115,000  tons  of  beets,  hood,  wi^  Mother  Amadeus  at  their  head  in  response 

The  abundance  of  sunshine  and  the  character  of  the  to  a  call  issued  by  Bi^op  Gilmore  at  the  appeal  of 

soil  gives  to  the  Montana  beet  an  exceptionalljr  high  Bishop  Brondel,  lately  appointed  to  the  newly  created 

percentage  of  saccharine  znatter.    Manufacturing  is  See  of  Montana.   St.  Xavier's,  among  the  Crows,  dates 


MONTANA                             619  MONTANA 

from  1887.  Schools,  as  a  matter  of  course,  are  main-  Freedom  of  Worahip. — Freedom  of  religion  is 
tained  at  all  the  missions,  those  at  St.  Ignatius  partio-  guaranteed  bv  the  following  provision  of  the  constitu- 
ularly  being  models.  The  Ursulines  have  a  convent  at  tion:  "  Art.  Ill,  Sec.  4.  The  free  exercise  and  enjoy- 
St.  Peter's.  The  Jesuits  were  the  pioneer  missionaries  ment  of  religious  profession  and  worship,  without 
to  both  Indians  and  whites  in  Montana.  The  minis-  discrimination,  shall  forever  hereafter  be  guaranteed, 
trations  of  Father  De  Smet  extended  to  all  the  tribes  and  no  person  shall  be  denied  any  civil  or  political 
that  have  been  mentioned,  and  he,  as  well  as  all  of  his  right  or  privilege  on  account  of  his  opinions  concern- 
associate  "black  robes'',  was  held  in  the  highest  rever-  ing  religion,  but  the  liberty  of  conscience  hereby 
ence  by  them.  His  labours  were  prodi^ous.  In  1869  secured  shall  not  be  construed  to  dispense  with  oaths 
he  induced  five  sisters  of  the  commimity  of  Leaven-  or  affirmations,  excuse  acts  of  licentiousness,  h}r  biga- 
worth  to  come  to  Helena,  where  they  foimded  St.  mous  or  polygsonous  marriage,  or  otherwise,  or  justify 
Vincent's  Academy.  practices  inconsistent  with  the  good  order,  peace  or 

Dioceses. — In  the  earlier  territorial  days,  the  west-  safety  of  the  state^  or  opposed  to  the  civil  authority 

em  part  of  the  state  was  included  in  the  Vicariate  of  thereof,  or  of  the  Unitea  States.    No  person  shall  be 

Idaho,  and  the  eastern  part  in  that  of  Nebraska.    An  rec^uired  to  attend  any  place  of  worship  or  support  an^ 

episcopal  visit  was  made  to  tiiese  then  remote  regions  ministry,  religious  sect  or  denomination,  against  his 

by  Bisnop  James  O'Connor  of  Omaha  in  1877,  and  by  consent;  nor  shall  any  preference  be  given  oy  law  to 

Archbishop  Charles  J.  Seghers  of  the  Province  of  Ore-  any  religious  denomination  or  mode  of  worship."   The 

gon  in  1879  and  again  in  1882.    Upon  the  urgent  reo-  diversion  of  the  public  funds  to  the  promotion  of  sec- 

ommendation  of  the  last-named  prelate,  Montana  was  tarian  purposes  is  forbidden  by  the  following:  "Art.  V, 

made  a  vicariate  on  7  April,  1883,  and  the  Rt.  Rev.  Sec.  35.    No  appropriation  shall  be  made  for  charita- 

John  B.  Brondei,  then  Bishop  of  Victoria,  Vancouver  ble,  industrial,  educational  or  benevolent  purposes  to 

Island,  was  appointed  administrator.    On  7  March,  any  person,  corporation  or  community  not  under  the 

1884,  the  Diocese  of  Helena  was  created,  embracing  absolute  control  of  the  state,  nor  to  any  denomina- 

the  whole  of  Montana,  and  Bishop  Brondei  was  ap-  tional  or  sectarian  institution  or  association." 

pointed  to  the  see.    He  was  at  the  head  of  its  affairs  Oaths. — Eveiy  court  or  officer  authorized  to  take 

until  his  death  in  1903,  when  the  diocese  was  divided,  testimony  or  decide  on  evidence  may  administer  oaths 

the  eastern  part  of  the  state  becoming  the  Diocese  of  or  affirmations,  the  witness  being  entitled  to  elect 

Great  Falls  and  the  remainder  continuing  as  the  Dio-  whether  he  shall  be  sworn  or  shall  simply  affirm. 

cese  of  Helena.    The  Rt.  Rev.  John  P.  Carroll,  D.D.,  Sunbat  Observance,  etc. — Sunday  is  a  holiday, 

was  then  appointed  bishop  of  the  latter,  and  the  Rt.  as  is  Christmas,  New  Year's,  and  Columbus  Dav  (12 

Rev.  l^thias  Lenihan,  D.D.,  of  the  former  diocese.  October).    If  Christmas  or  New  Year's  Diw  fails  on 

Catholic  Popttlation. — ^The  Catholic  population  Sunday,  the  day  following  is  a  holiday.  Whenever 
of  the  Great  Falls  diocese  is  about  15,000;  of  the  any  secular  act,  other  than  a  work  of  necessity  or 
Helena  diocese  about  50,000.  Thirty  priests  minister  meroy,  is  appointed  by  law  or  contract  to  be  done  on 
to  the  people  of  the  new,  fifty-three  to  those  of  the  old  a  certain  day,  and  it  so  happens  that  such  a  dav  is  a 
diocese.  Ino  statistics  are  available  giving  the  nation-  holiday,  it  may  be  done  on  the  day  following  with  like 
ality  or  ancestrv  of  either  the  Catholic  population  or  effect  as  if  done  on  the  day  appointed.  It  is  a  misde- 
that  of  the  whole  people  of  the  state.  Among  the  for-  meanour  to  keep  open  or  maintain  on  Sunday  any 
mer,  the  dominant  blood  is  probably  Irish,  a  very  laige  barbernshop,  theatre,  play-house,  dance-house,  race- 
percentage  of  the  adults  being  native  Americans.  But  track,  concert  saloon,  or  variety  hall.  It  is  likewise  a 
almost  every  Catholic  coimti^  of  Europe  has  contrib-  misdemeanour  to  disturb  any  assembly  of  people  met 
uted  to  the  truly  cosmopolitan  citizenship  of  Montana,  for  religious  worship  by  profane  discourse  or  in  an^ 
China  and  Japan  have  added  to  some  extent  to  the  other  manner.  Neither  blasphemy  nor  profanity  is 
popidation.    In  recent  years  Italians,  Austrians,  Bui-  otherwise  made  punishable. 

earians,  and  Servians  have  come  in  considerable  num-  I^iater  in  the  Legislatube. — ^The  law  provides 

bers.    Most  of  these  are  more  or  less  closely  attached  for  the  election  of  a  chaplain  of  each  house  of  the  legis- 

to  the  ancient  Faith.  lature  and  the  daily  sessions  are  opened  with  prayer 

CHARrTABLE    INSTITUTIONS. — Hospltals   are   con-  by  that  officer.    The  Bannack  session  seems  to  have 

ducted  by  sisters  of  various  orders  at  Great  Falls,  had  no  chaplain,  but  Rev.  Joseph  Giorda,  S.J.,  offici- 

Billings,  Fort  Benton,  Lewistown,  Helena,  Anaconda,  ated  in  that  capacity  for  both  nouses,  apparently,  at 

Butte,  and  Missoula.    There  are  a  House  of  the  Good  the  second  session  held  at  Virginia  City  in  1866.    Kev. 

Shepherd  and  an  orphanage  at  Helena,  and  academies  L.  Palladino,  S.J.,  the  historian  of  the  Montana  Mis- 

at  Lewistown,  Miles  City,  St.  Peter's,  Helena,  and  Deer  sions,  universally  revered  for  his  saintly  life,  who  came 

Lodge.    The  parochial  schools  enrolled  5536  pupils  in  to  Saint  Imatius  in  1867,  acted  in  the  same  capacity 

1908,  not  including  those  attending  the  mission  schools  at  tiie  ninth  session. 

on  the  reservations.  Seal  of  Confession. — ^Disclosures  made  in  the 

DisnNGTTisHED  CATHOLICS. — The  spirit  of  religious  confessional  are  held  sacred  by  express  statute.    A 

intolerance  has  had  scant  encoursjo^ement  in  Montana,  deigyman  will  be  neither  compelled  nor  permitted 

and  many  Catholics  have  occupied  prominent  posi-  to  testify  as  to  them. 

tions  in  her  industrial  development  and  political  his-  Incorporation  of  Churches. — Special  provision 

tory.    Among  those  who  have  served  in  high  official  is  made  for  the  incorporation  of  religious  bodies  and 

station  are  General  Thomas  Francis  Meagher,  acting  congregations.    The  method  is  simple.    At  a  meeting, 

governor  from  1865  to  1867;  Hon.  James  M.  Cavar  trustees  cvre  elected  and  they  are  authorised  by  resolu- 

naugh,  dele^te  in  Congress  from  1867  to  1872;  Hon.  tion  to  file  articles  with  the  coimty  clerk  or  the  secre- 

Martin  Maginnis,  delenite  in  Congress  from  1873  to  tary  of  state,  according  as  the  organization  is  to  be 

1885;  Hon.  Thomas  H.  Carter,  delegate  in  Congress  local  or  general  in  its  nature.    The  articles  stete  the 

from  Mareh  to  November,  1889,  and  representative  name  of  the  corporation,  its  purpose,  and  the  number 

from  the  admission  of  the  stete  to  1891 ;  afterwards,  of  trustees.    It  then  has  continual  succession,  and  the 

from  1895  to  1901  United  Stetes  Senator,  and  now  usual  powers  of  a  corporation.    Another  act  provides 

serving  his  second  term,  having  been  asain  elected  in  for  the  organization  of  corporations  sole  *' whenever 

1905;    and  Hon.  Thomas  C.  Power,  United  Stetes  the  rules,  regulations  or  discipline,  of  any  religious 

Senator  from  1889  to  1895.    Among  those  who  have  denomination,  society  or  Churcn,  permit  or  require  the 

written  their  names  lar^  in  the  industrial  histoiy  of  estete,  property,  temporalities,  and  business  thereof, 

the  state  are  Marcus  Daly,  Thomas  Cruse,  Peter  Lar-  to  be  held  in  the  name  of,  or  managed  by  a  bishop, 

son,  and  John  D.  Ryan,  the  latter  being  at  present  at  chief  priest,  or  presiding  elder,  of  such  religious  de- 

tb«  hiQ84  of  tiie  Amalgamated  Copper  Company.  nomination,  oocie^  or  caurch."   The  passage  of  this 


MONTAfMS  520  MONTAfite 

act  was  procured  by  Bishop  Brondel  who  incorporated  for  bv  contract  or  in  the  will,  or  unless  the  will 

under  the  name  of  the  "Roman  Catholic  Bishop  of  pressly  excludes  her  from  taking. 

Helena".  Charitable  Bequests. — Charitable  bequests  con- 

EbcEMPTioN  OF  Clergtmen  AND  Chttrch  Pbop-  tslned  in  wills  made  within  thirty  days  of  the  death  of 

EBTT. — ^All  clergymen  are  exempt  from  jury  duty,  the  testator  are  void.    If  the  aggregate  of  such  be- 

The  constitution  declares  that '*  such  property  as  may  quests  in  any  will  exceed  in  amount  one-third  the 

be  used  exclusively  for  agricultural  and  norticultural  value  of  the  estates,  and  the  testator  have  legal  heirs 

societies,  for  educational  piuposes,  places  for  actual  thev  are  scaled  down  until  their  s\mi  does  not  exceed 

religious  worship,  hospitals  and  places  of  burial  not  such  amoimt. 

used  or  held  for  private  or  corporate  profit,  and  insti-        Cemeteries. — ^A  law  applicable  specially  to  that 

tutions  of  purelypubUc  charity  may  oe  exempt  from  subject  authorizes  the  incorporation  of  cemetery  asso- 

taxation  "  (Art.  XII,  Sec.  2),  and  the  statutes  declare  ciations.   Burial  without  a  certificate  of  death  is  made 

the  exemptions  in  the  same  terms.  punishable,  as  is  violation  of  sepulture,  defacing  of 

Marriage  and  Divorce. — ^Marriase  may  be  con-  graves  or  monxmients,  or  neglecting  to  buiy  the  bodies 

tracted  by  mutual  consent  followed  By  a  solemniza-  of  dead  kindred. 

tion  or  public  assiunption  of  the  marital  relation.    The  ^  ^orU.  Rev.  Statuiea  of  lOOT;   HiMorieal  SocUfyof  Monima 

marriageable  a«e  «  eighteen  in  the  case  of  males,  and  g32Sf?2L.^5^n3U^«51ff^rn.°i^oS^ 

sixteen    m    females.      Marriages    between    ancestors  York):    Dts,  Tfu  Conquest    (New    York);    IrtznOj    Astoria 

and  descendants  of  every  degree,  between  brothers  (New  Yorkj;  CraTTKNOKN.  Earh/  steamboat  Naviacoion  of  the 
and  8i8te«  of  the  half  as  weU  as  the  whole  blood,  and  fc^iJ^!l»S;SiJ?rA±W'?SS^.^°*'  **^  " 
between  aunts  and  nephews  or  imcles  and  nieces,  are  X.  J.  Walsh. 
declared  void  cib  initio.  So  likewise  are  marriages  be- 
tween a  white  person  on  one  side,  and  a  negro  or  a  Montafitfs,  Juan  MAirrfNEz  (d.  1640),  a  noted 
person  part  negro,  or  a  Chinese  or  Japanese,  on  the  Spanish  sculptor  of  l^e  seventeenth  century,  some- 
other  side.  Marriages  contracted  without  the  state  times  called  'the  SeviUian  Phidias''.  Like  many  of 
and  valid  where  contracted  are  valid  within  the  his  coimtrymen,  he  confined  himself  almost  exclu- 
state.  Licences  are  required  to  be  issued  by  the  sively  to  sculpture  in  wood.  According  to  Palomino, 
clerk  of  the  court  of  the  county  where  the  marriage  he  was  bom  at  Seville;  according  to  GordiUo,  his 
is  to  be  solemnized,  and  a  return  must  be  made  by  contemporary,  at  Alcald  la  Real.  He  studied  under 
the  oflSciating  cleigyman  or  officer.  Licences  cannot  Pablo  de  Rojas  at  Granada;  and  later  settled  at  Se- 
be  granted  to  minors  without  the  written  consent  ville  where  most  of  his  works  are  to  be  foimd.  One  of 
of  the  parents  or  guardian.  Marriage  may  be  solem-  the  earliest  is  a  charming  Infant  Jesus  (cathedral 
nized  oy  a  justice  of  the  Supreme  Court,  judge  of  sacristy,  Seville)  bearing  Uie  date  1607  and  the  sculp- 
the  district  court,  justice  of  the  peace,  priest  or  tor's  signature.  In  1610  he  modelled  the  head  and 
minister  of  any  denomination,  or  mayor  of  the  city,  hsjids  of  tixe  statue  of  St.  Ignatius  Loyola — used  in  the 
or  by  religious  societies.  It  need  not  be  solemnized  religious  celebrations  of  the  beatification  of  the  saint 
at  all  if  the  parties  make  and  file  a  joint  dec*  (chapel  of  the  university,  Seville).  This  image, 
laration  giving  their  names,  the  fact  of  marriage,  clothed  and  coloured  by  Pacheco,  is  esteemed  one  of 
the  date  of  marriage,  and  that  it  has  not  been  soiem-  the  truest  and  most  Aesthetic  representations  ever 
nized.  Marriages  licensed  and  not  solemnized  as  pro-  made  of  the  soldier  saint.  The  St.  Francis  Xavier  in 
vided  by  law  are  forbidden,  but  are  expressly  declared  the  same  place  is  attributed  to  Montafi^.  In  1612  he 
not  to  DC  void.                                            ^  executed  for  the  Hieronymite  monastery  of  S.  Isidro  del 

Divorces  are  authorized  for  six  causes,  viz.  adulteiy,  Campo,  near  Seville,  the  life-size  penitent  St.  Jerome, 

extreme  cruelty,  wilful  desertion,  wilful  nexlect,  habit-  one  of  Ids  most  masterly  productions,  and  the  rere- 

ual  intemperance,  and  conviction  of  felony.     The  dos  and  statues  for  the  altar;  in  1614  tne  famous  large 

constitution  forbids  the  passage  by  the  legislature  of  crucifix  for  the  CarUiusians  of  S.  Maria  de  las  Cuevas; 

any  special  law  granting  divorce,  or  separation  a  1617  to  1618  two  reredos  in  the  lay  choir  of  the  same 

menaa  et  iorOf  or  oecrees  for  separate  maintenance,  a  monastery,withstatuesof  Our  Lady,  the  two  St.  Johns, 

power  the  early  territorial  legislatures  freely  exercised,  figures  representing  the  theolocical  virtues,  and  lovely 

Kesidence  in  the  state  one  year  by  the  plaintiff  is  a  reliefs  of  the  Adoration  of  the  Magi  and  Shepherds;  the 

requisite  of  jurisdiction.  expressive  St.  Bruno,  now  in  the  museum,  was  made  for 

Liquor. — ^The  sale  of  liquor  is  permitted  under  the  Carthusians  in  1620.    In  1635  the  sculptor  went  to 

licences  issued  by  coimties  and  cities.    Local  option  Madrid  and  spent  seven  months  there  modelling  a 

is  authorized  by  law,  but  the  traffic  is  not  prohioited  portrait  of  Phuip  I V^  which  was  to  be  used  by  Pietro 

in  any  county.    The  employment  of  women  in  places  Tacca  for  his  equestrian  statue  of  the  king,  finished  in 

where  liquor  is  sold  is  forbidden,  as  is  its  sale  in  places  Florence,  1640,  and  now  in  Madrid  (Plaza  del  Oriente). 


ship 

are  permitted  to  enter.  '  or  of  New  Spain"  (America).  This  promise  was  ful- 
Wills  and  Testaments. — Wills  may  be  made  by  filled  to  the  sculptor's  widow  and  children  after  his 
any  person  over  eighteen.  If  in  his  own  handwriting  death  in  1649.  ^  Other  works  at  Seville  are  the  St. 
it  neisd  be  neither  witnessed  nor  attested;  if  not,  it  Dominic  of  heroic  size  in  the  museum,  from  the  con- 
must  bear  the  signatures  of  two  witnesses.  A  nimcu-  vent  of  Portaceli;  a  beautiful  St.  John  Evangelist  in 
{>ative  will  may  be  made  orally  disposing  of  an  estate  the  church  of  San  Juan  de  las  Palmas;  the  high  altar 
ess  than  $1000  in  value,  when  the  testator  is  in  actual  of  the  church  of  San  Lorenzo  and  a  statue  of  the 
military  service  in  the  field,  or  doing  duty  on  ship-  patron  saint;  and,  at  the  cathedral  (Seville),  a  veiy 
board  and  in  peril  or  fear  of  death,  or  when  he  is  fine  life-size  Immaculate  Conception,  a  larse  cru- 
expecting  deatn  from  injury  received  the  same  day.  cifix  in  the  Sacristy  of  the  Chalices,  and  that  re- 
A  wife  has  a  dower  right  in  her  husband's  real  estate,  nowned  "Christ  bearing  the  Cross"  carried  in  Holy 
but  he  has  no  interest  in  her  property  except  that  she  Week  processions,  so  vivid  and  sorrowful,  the  sculp- 
cannot  without  his  written  consent  deprive  him  by  tor  would  station  himself  at  the  comers  of  streets  to 
will  of  more  than  two-thirds  of  her  estate.  The  will  see  it  pass,  "absorbed  and  wondering  at  the  work  of 
of  an  unmarried  woman  is  revoked  by  her  subsequent  his  own  hands".  Montands  is  noted  for  the  maj- 
marriage,  as  is  that  of  a  man  made  before  he  marries  esty  and  religious  character  of  his  typea,  his  pn>- 
by  his  9ub9e<)u^t  marriage,  unless  |iis  wife  is  provided  found  e^n^  of  b^uty^  and  his  elegant  and  correct 


M0NTANXST8                         521  MONTANISTS 

modelling.    His  child  forms,  infant  and  cherub,  are  Epiphanius's  authority  counted  the  years  of  emperors 

peculiarly  happy.    He  woula  not  consent  that  any  of  from  the  September  preceding  their  accession  (as 

nis  figures  should  be  tinted  except  under  his  own  Hegesippus  seems  to  have  done),  and  therefore  the 

supervision.  nineteenth  year  of  Pius  would  be  Sept.,  155-Sept., 

Palomino  t  Yklabco,  Vidas  de  los  Pintores  y  Eatatuarioa  156.   Even  if  the  later  and  Western  mode  of  reckon- 

tSrlSi^t'Zi'^^uJJJ^^tLfJI^^l^^  m  f«»a  the  Januaor  af t«-  accession  is  u«d.  the  vear 

en  Espafia  (Madrid,  1800);  Montanbr  t  Sim6n.  Diccionario  157  can  be  reconciled  With  the  proconsulship  of  Quar 

BncidopMico  Hiapano-Americanot  XII   (Barcelona.    1893);  dratus  in  155,  if  we  remember  that  Epiphanius  merely 

fS^ISi'SlS^T^SSSl^SSi^^  says  -'about  the  mneteenth  yejr  of  f  ius"    mthout 

I9(j8j.                                                             *—»     >  vouching  for  stnct  accuracy.    He  tells  us  further  on 

M.  L.  Handlet.  that  Maximilla  prophesied:  ''After  me  there  shaJl  be 

no  prophetess,  but  the  end",  whereas  he  was  writing 

Montaniflts,   schismatics  of  the  second  centuiy,  after  290  years,  more  or  less,  in  the  year  375  or  376. 

first  known  as  Phrygians,  or  "those  amon^  the  Phry-  To  correct  the  evident  error  Hamack  would  read  190, 

gians"  (oi  fcard  $p^as),  then  as  Montanists,  Pepu-  which  brings  us  roughly  to  the  death  of  Maximilla 

zians.  and  (in  the  West)  Cataphiygians.   The  sect  was  (385  for  379).    But  ^Karop  for  d(a«:6<rta  is  a  big  change, 

founded  by  a  prophet,  Montanus,  and  two  pro^et-  It  is  more  likely  that  Epiphanius  is  calculating  from 

esses,  Maximilla  and  Prisca,  sometimes  called  Pris-  the  date  he  had  himself  given,  19th  of  Pius=  156,  as  he 

cilia.  did  not  know  that  of  Maximilla's  death;  his ''more  or 

C^RONOLOGT. — An     anonymous     anti-Montanist  less"  corresponds  to  his  former  "about".    Soweshall 

writer,  cited  by  Eusebius,   addressed  his  work  to  with  Zahn  adopt  Scaliger's  conjecture  5io«:A<rta  ^fwoico*- 

Abercius  Marcellus.  Bishop  of  Hieropolis,  who  died  SiKa  for  duiKdaia   ipev-fiKovra^  which  brings   us  from 

about  200.    Maximilla  had  prophesied  continual  wars  156  to  376=219  years.    As  ApoUonius  wrote  forty 

and  troubles,  but  this  writer  declared  that  he  wrote  years  after  the  sect  emerged,  his  work  must  be  dated 

more  than  thirteen  years  £^ter  her  death,  yet  no  war,  about  196. 

general  or^partial,  had  taken  place,  but  on  the  con-  Montanism  in  Asia  Minor. — Montanus  was  a  re- 

-    -    ■    ■           '       •                             ■'         '  .,.«.,               prophesy  in  the 

3  said  by  Jerome 
rbele;  but  this  is 

twelveandahallyearsofCommodus  (17  March,  180 —  perhaps  a  later  invention  intended  to  connect  his 

31  December,  192).   The  wars  between  rival  emperors  ecstasies  with  the  dervish-like  behaviour  of  the  priests 

began  early  in  193,  so  that  this  anonymous  author  and  devotees  of  the  "great  goddess".     The  same 

wrote  not  much  later  than  January,  193.  and  Maxi-  prophetic  gift  was  believed  to  have  descended  also 

odlla  must  have  died  about  the  end  of  1/9^  not  long  upon  his  two  companions,  the  prophetesses  Maxi- 

before  Marcus  Aurelius.    Montanus  and  Pnscilla  had  milla  and  Prisca  or  Priscilla.    Their  headquarters 

died  yet  earlier.     Consequently  the  date  given  by  were  in  the  village  of  Pepuza.    The  anonymous  oppo- 

Eusebius  in  his  "Chronicle" — eleventh  (or  twelfth)  nent  of  the  sect  describes  the  method  of  prophecy 

year  of  Marcus,  i.  e.  about  172 — for  the  first  appear-  (Eusebius,  V,  xvii,  2-3) :  first  the  prophet  appears  dis- 

ance  of  Montanus  leaves  insufficient  time  for  the  traught  with  terror  (h  wapeKirTdffti)^   then  follows 

development  of  the  sect,  which  we  know  further  to  quiet  (AdtM  xal  dtpo^la,  fearlessness);  beginning  by 

havebeenof  great  importance  in  177,  when  the  Church  studied  vacancy  of  thought  or  passivity  of  intellect 

of  Lyons  wrote  to  Pope  Eleutherius  on  the  subject.  (iKo6irios  dfUiBla)^  he  is  seized  by  an  uncontrollable 

Agsun,  the  Montanists  are  co-or(inated  with  the  mar-  madness  (dxadatos  fiavla  ^j^x'?*)-    The  prophets  did 

tj^Thraseas,  mentioned  chronologically  between  Poly-  not  speak  as  messengers  of  God:   "Thus  saith  the 

carp  (155)  and  Sagaris  (under  Sergius  Paulus,  166-7)  Lord, "  but  described  themselves  as  possessed  by 

in  we  letter  of  Polvcrates  to  Pope  victor;  the  date  of  God  and  spoke  in  His  Person.     " I  am  the  Father,  the 

Thraseas  is  therefore  i^ut  160,  and  the  oridn  of  Word,  and  the  Paraclete, "  said  Montanus  (Didy- 

Montanism  must  be  yet  earlier.    Consequently,  Zahn.  mus.  "De  Trin.",  Ill,  xli);  and  asain:  "I  am  the 

Hamack.  Duchesne,  and  others  (against  V5lter  ana  Lord  God  omnipotent,  who  have  descended  into  a 


year  of  Antoninus  Pius"  (that  is,  about  the  year  156  not  me,  but  hear  Christ"  (ibid.);  and:  "I  am  driven 

or  157).  off  from  among  the  sheep  like  a  wolf  [that  is,  a  false 

Bonwetsch,  accepting  Zahn's  view  that  previously  prophet — cf.  Matt.^  vii,  15];  I  am  not  a  woLf,  but  I 

(Hser.,  xlvi,  1)  Epiphanius  had  given  the  twelfth  am  speech,  and  spirit,  and  power."  This  possession 

year  of  Antoninus  Pius  where  he  should  have  said  M.  by  a  spirit,  which  spoke  while  the  prophet  was  in- 

Aurelius,  wishes  similarly  to  substitute  that  emperor  capable  of  resisting,  is  described  by  the  spirit  of  Mon- 

here.  so  that  we  would  get  179,  the  very  date  of  the  tanus:  "Behold  the  man  is  like  a  lyre,  and  I  dart 

death  of  Maximilla.    But  the  emendation  is  unneces-  like  the  plectrum.    The  man  sleeps,  and  I  am  awake" 

saiy  in  either  case.   In ' '  Hseresee  *  * ,  xlvi,  1 ,  Epiphanius  (Epiphanius,  ' '  Hser. ' ' ,  xl  viii,  4) . 

clearly  meant  the  earlier  date,  whether  ri^t  or  wrong;  We  hear  of  no  false  doctrines  at  first.    The  Parar 

and  in  xlviii,  1,  he  is  not  dating  the  death  of  Maximilla  clete  ordered  a  few  fasts  and  abstinences;  the  latter 

but  the  first  appearance  of  the  sect.    From  Eusebius,  were  strict  xerophagice,  but  only  for  two  weeks  in  the 

V,  xvi,  7,  we  learn  that  this  was  in  the  proconsulship  of  year,  and  even  then  the  Saturdays  and  Sundays  did  not 

Gratus.     Such  a  proconsul  of  Asia  is  not  laiown.  count  (Tertullian,  "De  jej.",  xv).     Not  only  was  vir- 

Bonwetsch  accepts  Zahn's  suggestion  to  read  "Qua-  ginity  strongly  recommended   (as   always    by   the 

dratus".andpomtsout  thatthere  was  aQuadratusin  Church),   but   second  marriages  were  disapproved. 

155  (if  that  is  the  year  of  Polycarp's  death,  which  was  Chastity  was  declared  by  Priscilla  to  be  a  preparation 

mnder  Quadratus),  and  another  in  166,  so  that  one  of  for  ecstasy:  "The  holy  [chaste]  minister  knows  how  to 

these  years  was  the  real  date  of  the  birth  of  Monta-  minister  holiness.    For  those  who  purify  their  hearts 

nism.     But   166  for  Quadratus  merely  depends  on  [reading  purificantes  enim  cardan  oy  conjecture  for 

Schmid's  chronology  of  Aristides,  which  nas  been  purificantia  enim  concordaJ]  both  see  visions,   and 

rejected  by  Ramsay  and  others  in  favour  of  the  earlier  placing  their  head  downwanis  (!)  also  hear  manifest 

chronology  worked  out  by  Waddington,  who  obtained  voices,  as  saving  as  they  are  secret"  (Tertullian.  "Ex- 

155  for  the  Quadratus  of  Aristides  as  well  as  for  the  hort."  X,  in  one  MS.).    It  was  rumoured,  however, 

Quadratus  of  Polycarp.   Now  it  is  most  probable  that  that  Priscilla  had  been  married,  and  had  left  her  hue- 


MONTANISTS 


522 


MONTANISTS 


band.  Martyrdom  was  valued  so  highly  that  flight 
from  persecution  was  disapproved,  and  so  was  the 
buying  off  of  punishment.  ''You  are  made  an  out- 
law?" said  Montanus,  "it  is  good  for  you.  For  he 
who  is  not  outlawed  among  men  is  outlawed  in  the 
Lord.  Be  not  confounded.  It  is  justice  which  hales 
you  in  public.  Why  are  you  confounded,  when  you 
are  sowing  praise?  rower  comes,  when  you  are  staied 
at  by  men."  And  again:  "Do  not  desire  to  depart 
this  life  in  beds,  in  miscarriages,  in  soft  fevers,  but 
in  martyrdoms,  that  He  who  suffered  for  you  may 
be  glorified"  (Tertullian,  "De  fuga",  ix;  cf.  "De 
anima",  Iv).  Tertullian  says:  "Those  who  receive 
the  Paraclete,  know  neither  to  flee  persecution  nor 
to  bribe"  (De  fuga,  14),  but  he  is  unable  to  cite  any 
formal  prohibition  by  Montanus. 

So  far,  the  most  tnat  can  be  said  of  these  didactic 
utterances  is  that  there  was  a  slight  tendency  to 
extravagance.  The  people  of  Phrygia  were  accus- 
tomed to  the  orgiastic  cult  of  Cybele.  There  were 
doubtless  maiw  Christians  there.  The  contemporary 
accounts  of  Montanism  mention  Christians  in  other- 
wise unknown  villages:  Ardabau  on  the  Mysian  bor- 
der, Pepuza.  Tymion,  as  well  as  in  Otrus,  Apamea, 
Cumane,  Eumenea.  Early  Christian  inscnptions 
have  been  found  at  Otrus,  Hieropolis,  Pepuza  (of 
260),  Trajanopolis  (of  279),  Eumenea  (of  249)  etc. 
(see  Hamack,  "Expansion  of  Christianitjr".  II,  360). 
There  was  a  council  at  Synnada  in  the  tmrd  century. 
The  "Acta  Theodoti"  represent  the  village  of  Malus 
near  Ancvra  as  entirely  Christian  under  Diocletian. 
Above  all  we  must  remember  what  crowds  of  Chris- 
tians were  found  in  Pontus  and  Bith3mia  by  Pliny  in 
112,  not  only  in  the  cities  but  in  coimtry  places.  No 
doubt,  therdore,  there  were  numerous  Christians  in 
the  Phrygian  villages  to  be  drawn  by  the  astounding 
phenomena.  Crowds  came  to  Pepuza,  it  seems,  and 
contradiction  was  provoked.  In  the  very  first  days 
Apollinarius,  a  successor  of  St.  Papias  as  Bishop  of 
Uierapolis  in  the  southwestern  comer  of  the  prov- 
ince, wrote  against  Montanus.  Eusebius  knew  this 
letter  from  its  being  enclosed  by  Serapion  of  Antioch 
(about  191-212)  in  a  letter  addressed  by  him  to  the 
Christians  of  Caria  and  Pontus.  Apolinarius  related 
that  ^lius  Publius  JuUus  of  Debeltum  (now  Burgas) 
in  Thrace,  swore  that  "Sotas  the  blessed  who  was  in 
Anchialus  [on  the  Thracian  coast]  had  wished  to  cast 
out  the  demon  from  Priscilla;  but  the  hypocrites 
would  not  allow  it."  Clearly  Sotas  was  dead,  and 
could  not  speak  for  himself.  The  anonymous  writer 
tells  us  that  some  thought  Montanus  to  be  pos- 
sessed by  an  evil  spirit,  and  a  troubler  of  the  people; 
they  rebuked  him  ana  tried  to  stop  lus  prophesy- 
ing: the  faithful  of  Asia  assembled  in  many  places, 
ana  examining  the  prophecies  declared  them  pro- 
fane, and  conaemnea  the  her^,  so  that  the  dis- 
ciples were  thrust  out  of  the  Church  and  its  com- 
munion. 

It  is  diflicult  to  say  how  soon  this  excommunication 
took  place  in  Asia.  Probably  from  the  beginning 
some  bishops  excluded  the  followers  of  Montanus,  and 
this  severity  was  growing  common  before  the  death  of 
Montanus;  but  it  was  hardly  a  general  rule  much  be- 
fore the  death  of  Maximilla  in  179;  condemnation  of 
the  prophets  themselves,  and  mere  disapproval  of 
their  disciples  was  the  first  stage.     We  hear  of  holy 

Sersons,  including  the  bishops  Zoticus  of  Cumana  and 
ulian  of  Apamea,  attempting  to  exorcize  Maximilla 
at  Pepuza,  doubtless  after  the  death  of  Montanus. 
But  Themison  prevented  them  (Eusebius,  V,  xvi,  17; 
xviii,  12).  This  personage  was  called  a  confessor  but, 
according  to  the  anonvmous  writer,  he  had  bought 
himself  off.  He  published  "a  catholic  epistle,  in 
imitation  of  the  Apostle",  in  support  of  his  part  v. 
Another  so-called  martyr,  called  Alexander,  was  for 
many  years  a  companion  of  Maximilla.  who.  though  a 
prophetess,  did  not  know  that  it  was  for  robbery,  and 


not  "for  the  Name"^  that  he  had  been  condemned  l^ 
the  proconsul  iEmilius  Frontinus  (date  unknown)  in 
Ephesus;  m  proof  of  tlus  the  public  archives  of  Aaa 
are  appealed  to.  Of  another  leader,  Alcibiades,  noth- 
ing is  known.  The  prophets  are  accused  of  taking 
gius  under  the  guise  of  offerings;  Montanus  sent  out 
salaried  preachers;  the  prophetesses  painted  thdr 
faces,  dy^  their  eyelids  with  stibium,  wore  ornaments 
and  played  at  dice.  But  these  accusations  may  be 
untrue.  The  great  point  was  the  manner  of  prophesy- 
ing. It  was  denounced  as  contrary  to  custom  and  to 
tradition.  A  Catholic  writer,  Miltiades,  wrote  a 
book  to  which  the  anonymous  author  refers,  "How  a 
prophet  ought  not  to  speak  in  ecstasy  ".  It  was  urged 
that  the  phenomena  were  those  of  possession,  not  those 
of  the  Old  Testament  prophets,  or  of  New  Testament 
prophets  Uke  Silas,  Agabus,  and  the  daughters  of 
Philip  the  Deacon ;  or  of  prophets  recently  known  in 
Asia,  Quadratus  (Bishop  of  Athens)  and  Ammia, 
prophetess  of  Philadelphia,  of  whom  the  Montanist 
prophets  boasted  of  being  successors.  To  speak  in 
the  first  person  as  the  Father  or  the  Paraclete  ap- 
peared blasphemous.  The  older  prophets  had  spoken 
"in  the  Spirit",  as  mouthpieces  of  the  Spirit,  but  to 
have  no  free  will,  to  be  helpless  in  a  state  of  madness, 
was  not  consonant  with  the  text:  "The  spirits  of  the 
prophets  are  subject  to  the  prophets."  Montanus 
declared:  "The  Lord  hath  sent  me  as  the  chooser, 
the  revealer,  the  interpreter  of  this  labour,  this  prom- 
ise, and  this  covenant,  bein^  forced,  willingly  or  un- 
willingly, to  learn  the  gnosis  of  Cxod."  The  Mon- 
tanists  appealed  to  Gen.,  ii,  21:  "The  Lord  sent  an 
ecstasy  {(icraaiv]  upon  Adam";  Ps.  cxv,  2:  "I  said 
in  my  ecstasy";  Acts,  x,  10:  "There  came  upon  him 
[Peter]  an  ecstasy";  out  these  texts  proved  neither 
that  an  ecstasy  of  excitement  was  proper  to  sanctity, 
nor  that  it  was  a  right  state  in  which  to  prophesy. 

A  better  argument  was  the  declaration  that  the  new 
prophecy  was  of  a  higher  order  than  the  old,  and  there- 
fore unlike  it.  It  came  to  be  thought  higher  than  the 
Apostles,  and  even  beyond  the  teaching  of  Christ. 
Priscilla  went  to  sleep,  she  said,  at  repuza,  and 
Christ  came  to  her  and  euept  by  her  side  "in  the  form 
of  a  woman,  clad  in  a  bright  garment,  and  put  wisdom 
into  me,  and  revealed  to  me  that  this  place  is  holy, 
and  that  here  Jerusalem  above  comes  down  ".  "  My»- 
teries"  (sacraments?)  were  celebrated  there  publicly. 
In  Epiphanius's  time  Pepuza  was  a  desert,  and  the 
village  was  ^one.  Marcellina,  surviving  the  other 
two,  prophesied  continual  wars  after  her  death — ^no 
other  prophet,  but  the  end. 

It  seems  on  the  whole  that  Montanus  had  nopartic- 
ular  doctrine,  and  that  his  prophetesses  went  further 
than  he  did.  The  extravagances  of  his  sect  were  after 
the  deaths  of  all  three;  but  it  is  diffxult  to  know  how 
far  we  are  to  trust  our  authorities.  The  anonjTi'OUff 
writer  admits  that  he  has  onlv  an  uncertain  report  f(  r 
the  story  that  Montanus  and  ^^  aximiUa  both  Lai  f  •  d 
themselves,  and  that  Themison  was  carried  into  tl  e 
air  by  a  devil,  flung  down,  and  so  died.  Ibe  Fcct 
gained  much  popularity  in  /  sia.  It  would  seem  that 
some  Churches  were  wholly  K  cntanist.  The  anony- 
mous writer  found  the  Church  at  Ancyra  in  193 
ereatly  disturbed  about  the  new  prophecy.  TertuJ- 
uan's  lost  writing  "De  Ecstasi",  in  defence  of  their 
trances,  is  said  by  Prsedestinatus  to  have  been  an  an- 
swer to  Pope  Soter  (Har.,  xxvi,  bcxxvi),  who  had  con- 
demned or  disapproved  them;  but  the  authority  is  not 
a  good  one.  He  has  presumably  confounded  Soter 
with  Sotas,  Bishop  of  Anchialus.  In  177  the  Churches 
of  Lyons  and  Vienne  sent  to  the  Churches  of  Asia  and 
Phrygia  their  celebrated  account  of  the  martjrrdoms 
that  had  been  taking  place.  Eusebius  tells  us  that  at 
the  same  time  they  enclosed  letters  which  had  been 
written  in  prison  bv  the  martyrs  on  the  question  of 
the  Montanists.  They  sent  the  same  by  Irena^us  to 
Pope  Eleutherius.    Eusebius  says  only  that  they  took 


MONTANI8T8 


623 


MONTANI8T8 


ft  pnideot  and  most  orthodox  view.  It  is  probable 
that  they  disapproved  of  the  prophets,  but  were  not 
inclined  to  extreme  measures  agamst  their  followers. 
It  was  not  denied  that  the  Montanists  could  count 
man^r  martyrs;  it  was  replied  to  their  boast,  that  all  the 
heretics  had  many,  and  especially  the  Marcionites, 
but  that  true  martyrs  like  Gaius  and  Alexander  of 
Eumenea  had  refused  to  communicate  with  fellow- 
martyrs  who  had  approved  the  new  prophecy  (Anon, 
in  Eusebius,  V,  xvi,  27).  The  acts  of  Carpus,  Papy- 
lus,  and  Agathonice  (the  last  of  these  threw  herself  into 
the  fire),  martyrs  of  Thyatira  under  Marcus  Aurelius 
(about  I61~0),  may  exhibit  an  influence  of  Montan- 
ism  on  the  martyrs. 

MoNTANiSM  IN  THE  West. — ^A  sccond-centuiy  pope 
(more  probably  Eleutherius  than  Victor)  was  inclined 
to  approve  the  new  prophecies,  according  to  Tertul- 
lian.  but  was  dissuaded  by  Praxeas  (q.  v.).  Their  de- 
fender in  Rome  was  Proclus  or  Proculus,  much  rever- 
enced by  Tertullian.  A  disputation  was  held  by 
Gaius  agunst  him  in  the  presence  of  Pope  Zephyrinus 
(about  202-3,  it  would  seem).  As  Gaius  supported 
the  mde  of  the  Churchy  Eusebius  calls  him  a  Cnurch- 
man  (II,  xxv^  6),  and  is  delighted  to  find  in  the  min- 
utes of  the  discussion  that  Gaius  rejected  the  Johan- 
nine  authorship  of  the  Apocalypse,  and  attributed  it 
to  Cerinthus.  But  Gaius  was  the  worse  of  the  two, 
for  we  know  from  the  commentary  on  the  Apocalypse 
by  Bar  Salibi,  a  Syriac  writer  of  the  twelfth  century 
(see  Theodore  H.  Robinson  in  ''Expositor",  VII,  sixth 
series.  June,  1906),  that  he  rejected  the  Gospel  and 
Epistles  of  St.  John  as  well,  ana  attributed  them  all  to 
CerinUius.  It  was  against  Gaius  that  Hippolytus 
wrote  his  "Heads  against  Gsdus"  and  also  his  ''^De- 
fence  of  the  Gospel  and  the  Apocal3rpse  of  John''  (un- 
less these  are  two  names  for  the  same  work).  St. 
Epiphanius  used  these  works  for  his  fifty-first  heresy 
(cf.  Fhilastrius,  "Hser.*',  bc)^  and  as  the  heresy  had  no 
name  he  invented  that  of  AXo70i,  meaning  at  once 
"the  unreasoning"  and  "those  who  reject  the  A^toi ". 
We  gather  that  Giuus  was  led  to  reject  the  Gospel  out 
of  opposition  to  Proclus,  who  taught  (Pseudo-Tertul- 
lian,  ^*  De  Prsesc.",  lii)  that  **  the  Holy  Ghost  was  in  the 
Apostles,  but  the  Paraclete  was  not,  and  that  the 
Paraclete  published  through  Montanus  more  than 
Christ  revved  in  the  Gospel,  and  not  only  more,  but 
also  better  and  greater  things";  thus  the  promise  of 
the  Paraclete  (John,  xiv,  16)  was  not  to  the  Apostles 
but  to  the  next  age.  St.  Irenseus  refers  to  Gaius  with- 
out naming  him  (III,  xi,  9):  "Others^  in  order  that 
they  may  mistrate  the  gift  of  the  Spint,  which  in  the 
last  days  has  been  poured  upon  the  human  race  ac- 
cording to  the  good  pleasure  of  the  Father,  do  not  ad- 
mit that  form  [the  lion]  which  corresponds  with  the 
Gos^  of  John  in  which  the  Lord  promised  to  send 
the  Paraclete;  but  they  reject  the  Gospel  and  with  it 
the  prophetic  Spirit.  Unhappy,  indeed,  in  that,  wish- 
ing to  have  no  false  propnets  [reading  with  Zs^ 
pseudoprophetaa  esse  nolurU  for  pseudoprovhetcB  esse 
volunt]f  they  drive  away  the  grace  of  propnecy  from 
the  Church;  resembling  persons  who,  to  avoid  those 
who  come  in  hypocrisy,  withdraw  from  communion 
even  with  brethren."  The  old  notion  that  the  Alogi 
were  an  Asiatic  sect  (see  Aloqi)  is  no  longer  tenable; 
they  were  the  Roman  Gaius  and  his  followers,  if  he 
had  any.  But  Gaius  evidently  did  not  venture  to  re- 
ject the  Gospel  in  his  dispute  before  Zephyrinus,  the 
account  of  wnich  was  known  to  Dionysius  of  Alexan- 
dria as  well  as  to  Eusebius  (cf.  Eusebius,  III,  xx,  1,  4). 
It  is  to  be  noted  that  Gaius  is  a  witness  to  the  sojourn 
of  St.  John  in  Asia,  since  he  considers  the  Johannine 
writings  to  be  forgeries,  attributed  by  their  author 
Cerinthus  to  St.  John;  hence  he  thinks  St.  John  is 
represented  by  Cerinthus  as  the  ruler  of  the  Asiatic 
Churehes.  Another  Montanist  (about  200),  who 
seems  to  have  separated  from  Proclus,  was  ^schines, 
who  taught  that  ''the  Father  is  the  Son",  and  is 


counted  as  a  Monarchian  of  the  type  of  Noetus  oy 
Sabellius. 

But  Tertullian  (q.  v.)  is  the  most  famous  of  tue 
Montanists.  He  was  bom  about  150-6,  and  bccxne  a 
Christian  about  190-5.  His  excessive  nature  led  Lini 
to  adopt  the  Montanist  teaching  as  soon  as  he  knew 
it  (about  202-3).  His  writings  from  this  date  on- 
wards grow  more  and  more  bitter  against  the  Catholic 
Church,  from  which  he  definitively  broke  away  about 
207.  He  died  about  223,  or  not  much  later.  Ills 
first  Montanist  work  was  a  defence  of  the  new  proph- 
ecy in  six  books,  "DeEcstasi",  written  probably  in 
Greek;  he  added  a  seventh  book  in  reply  to  Apollonius. 
The  work  is  lost,  but  a  sentence  preserved  by  Praedes- 
tinatus  (xxvi)  is  important:  "In  this  alone  we  differ, 
in  that  we  do  not  receive  second  marriage,  and  that 
we  do  not  refuse  the  prophecy  of  Montanus  concern- 
ing the  future  judgment."  In  fact  Tertullian  holds 
as  an  absolute  law  the  recommendations  of  Montanus 
to  eschew  second  marriages  and  fii^t  from  persecu- 
tion. He  denies  the  possibility  of  forgiveness  of  sins 
by  the  Chureh;  he  insists  upon  the  newly  ordained 
fasts  and  abstinences.  Catholics  are  the  Psychici  as 
opposed  to  the  "spiritual"  followers  of  the  Paraclete; 
the  Catholic  Chureh  consists  of  gluttons  and  adulter- 
ers, who  hate  to  fast  and  love  to  remarry.  Tertullian 
evidently  exaggerated  those  parts  of  the  Montanist 
teaching  whicn  appealed  to  himself,  caring  little  for 
the  rest.  He  has  no  idea  of  making  a  pilgrimage  to 
Pepuza,  but  he  speaks  of  joining  in  spirit  with  the 
celebration  of  the  Montanist  feasts  in  Asia  Minor. 
The  Acts  of  Sts.  Perpetua  and  Fclicitas  are  by  some 
thought  to  reflect  a  period  at  Carthage  when  the 
Montanist  teaching  was  arousing  interest  and  sym- 
pathy, but  had  not  yet  formed  a  schism. 

The  following  of  Tertullian  cannot  have  been  large; 
but  a  Tertullianist  sect  survived  him  and  its  remnants 
were  reconciled  to  the  Chureh  by  St.  Augustine  (Hser., 
Ixxxvi).  About  392-4  an  African  lady,  Octaviana, 
wife  of  Hesperius,  a  favourite  of  the  Duke  Arbogastcs 
and  the  usurper  Maximus,  brought  to  Rome  a  Tertul- 
lianist priest  who  raved  as  if  possessed.  He  obtained 
the  use  of  the  church  of  Sts.  Processus  and  Martini- 
anus  on  the  Via  Aurelia,  but  was  turned  out  by  Theo- 
dosius,  and  he  and  Octaviana  were  heard  of  no  more. 
Epiphanius  disting^uished  a  sect  of  Montanists  as 
Pepuzians  or  Quintillians  (he  calls  Priscilla  also  Quin- 
tilla).  He  says  they  had  some  foolish  sayings  which 
sakve  thanks  to  Eve  for  eating  of  the  tree  of  knowl^lge. 
They  used  to  sleep  at  Pepuza  in  order  to  see  Christ  as 
Priscilla  had  done.  Often  in  their  church  seven  vir- 
gins would  enter  with  lamps,  dressed  in  white,  to 
prophesy  to  the  people,  whom  by  their  excited  ac- 
tion they  would  move  to  tears;  this  reminds  us  of 
some  modem  missions  rather  than  of  the  Irvingite 
"speaking  with  tongues",  wjth  which  the  Montanist 
ecstasies  have  often  been  compared.  These  heretics 
were  siud  to  have  women  for  their  bishops  and  priests, 
in  honour  of  Eve.  They  were  called  Artotyrites", 
because  their  sacrament  was  of  bread  and  cheese. 
Prsedestinatus  says  the  Pepuzians  did  not  really  differ 
from  other  Montanists,  but  despised  all  who  did  not 
actually  dwell  at  the  "new  Jerusalem".  There  is  a 
well-known  story  that  the  Montanists  (or  at  least  the 
Pepuzians)  on  a  certain  feast  took  a  baby  child  whom 
they  stuck  all  over  with  brazen  pins.  They  used  the 
blood  to  make  cakes  for  sacrifice.  If  the  child  died  it 
was  looked  upon  as  a  martyr;  if  it  lived,  as  a  high- 
priest.  This  story  was  no  doubt  a  pure  invention, 
and  was  especially  denied  in  the  "  De  Ecstasi"  of  Ter- 
tullian. An  absurd  nickname  for  the  sect  was  ToscO' 
drugUcBf  from  Phrygian  words  meaning  peg  and  nose, 
because  they  were  said  to  put  their  forenn^er  up  their 
nose  when  praying  "in  order  to  appear  dejected  and 
pious"  (Epiphanius,  Haer.,  xlviii,  14). 

It  is  interesting  to  take  St.  Jerome's  account,  writ- 
ten in  384,  of  the  doctrines  of  Montanism  as  ne  be- 


UONTAUBAN           524  UONTAUBAN 

Keved  them  to  be  in  hia  own  time  (Ep.,  Xli).     He  do-  Funk  in  Kirchenfex,  (1893).  «.  r.  MontanUmua:  JuucHM,  Fi« 

scribes  them  as  SabeUians  in  their  idea  of  the  Trinity,  To;l\ri!i^^^ 

as   forbidding   second   mamage.    as   Observmg   three  Wxinkl,  Die  Wirkungen  de»  OeitUa  und  der  Qtiater  im  naekapoU. 

Lents   "as   though   three  Saviours  had  suffered".  ZeitaUer  bit  auf  irmdiu  (;FTtihwg.  isw^^ 

Above  bishops  they  have  ';Cenones"  (probably  not  S^S^^ti.?2?1jSS.^^^ 

KOitwvolj  but  a  Phrygian  word)  and  patnarchs  above  TixAbont.  Hist,  de»  dogmn,  I,  2IO;  Bativfol.  UlgliM  naUmmU 

these  at  Pepuza.    They  close  the  door  of  the  Church  (3rd  od.,  1909),  261 ;  DucKKsxra,  HiH,  andmne  d€  rEglite,  1. 270. 

to  almost  every  sin.    They  say  that  God,  not  being  John  Chapman. 
able  to  save  the  world  by  Moses  and  the  Prophets, 

took  flesh  of  the  Virg^  Marv,  and  in  Christ,  His  Son,  Montanban,  Diocbsb  of  (Montis  Albani),  suffra- 
preached  and  died  for  us.  And  because  He  could  not  gan  of  Toulouse,  comprises  the  entire  department  of 
accomplish  the  salvation  of  the  world  by  this  second  Tarn  and  Garonne.  Suppressed  in  1802  and  divided 
method,  the  Holy  Spirit  descended  upon  Montanus,  between  the  three  neighbouring  dioceses  of  Toulouse, 
Prisca,  and  Maximilla.  giving  them  the  plenitude  which  Agen,  and  Cahors,  Montauban  was  re-established  by 
St.  Paul  had  not  (I  Cor.,  xiii,  9).  St.  Jerome  refuses  imperial  decree  of  1809,  but  this  measure  was  not  ap- 
to  believe  the  story  of  the  blood  of  a  baby;  but  his  ac-  proved  by  the  Holy  See.  Re-established  by  the  con- 
count  is  already  exaggerated  beyond  what  the  Mon-  cordat  of  1817,  it  was  filled  only  in  1824. 
tanists  would  have  admitted  that  they  held.  Origen  In  820  the  Benedictine  monks  had  founded  the 
(''Ep.  ad  Titum"  in  ''Pam{)h.  A|)ol.'',  I  fin.)  is  uncer-  Abbey  of  Montauriol  under  the  patronace  of  St.  Mar- 
tain  whether  they  are  schismatics  or  heretics.  St.  tin;  subsequentl}r  it  adopted  the  name  of  its  abbot  St. 
Basil  is  amazed  that  Dionvsius  of  Alexandria  admitted  Theodard,  Archbishop  of  Narbonne,  who  died  at  the 
their  baptism  to  be  valid  (Ep.,  clxxxii).  According  abbey  in  893.  The  Count  of  Toulouse,  Alphonse 
to  Philastrius  (Haer.,  xlix)  they  baptized  the  dead.  Jourdan,  took  from  the  abbey  in  1144  its  lands 
Sozomen  (xviii)  tells  us  that  they  observed  Easter  on  on  the  heights  overlooking  the  risht  bank  of  the  Tarn, 
6  April  or  on  the  following  Sunday.  Germanus  of  and  founoed  there  the  city  of  Montauban;  a  certain 
Constantinople  (P.  G..  XCvIII,  44)  sa3rs  they  taught  number  of  inhabitants  of  Montauriol  and  serfs  of  the 
eight  heavens  and  eight  degrees  of  damnation.  The  abbey  formed  the  nucleus  of  the  population.  The 
Christian  emperors  from  Constantine  onwards  made  monks  protested,  and  in  1149  a  satisfactory  agreement 
laws  against  them,  which  were  scarcely  put  into  exe-  was  concluded.  Notwithstanding  the 'sufferings  of 
cution  in  Phrygia  (Sozomen,  II,  xxxii).  But  gradu-  Montauban  during  the  Albigensian  wars,  it  grew  rap- 
ally  they  became  a  small  and  secret  sect.  The  bones  idly.  John  XXII,  by  the  Bull  "Salvator"  (25  June, 
of  Montanus  were  dug  up  in  861.  The  numerous  1317),  separated  from  the  ecclesiastical  province  of 
Montanist  writings  (/3</3Xot  dTccpot,  **  Philosoi)humena",  Narbonne,  the  See  of  Toulouse,  made  it  an  archiepisco> 
VIII,  xix)  are  all  lost.  It  seems  that  a  certain  Asterius  pal  see,  and  gave  it  as  suffragans  four  dioceses  created 
Urbanus  made  a  collection  of  the  prophecies  (Euseb.,  within  its  territory:  Montauban.  St.-Papoul,  Rieux, 
y,  xvi,  17).  ^  ^  Lombez.  Bertrand  de  Puy,  abbot  at  Montauriol, 
A  theory  of  the  orisin  of  Montanism,  originated  by  was  first  Bishop  of  Montauban.  Montauban  counts 
Ritschl,  has  been  followed  by  Hamack,  Bonwetsch,  among  its  bishops:  Cardinal  Georges  d'Amboise 
and  other  (jrerman  critics.  The  secularizing  in  the  (1484-1491),  minister  of  Louis  XII,  and  Jean  de 
second  centuiy  of  the  Church  by  her  very  success  and  Lettes  (1539-1556),  who  married  and  became  a 
the  disappearance  of  the  primitive  ''Enthusiasmus"  Protestant.  Despite  the  resistance  of  Jacques  des 
madeaoifficulty  for ''those  believers  of  the  old  school  Pr^Montpezat  (1556-1589),  a  nephew  of  Jean  de 
who  protested  in  the  name  of  the  Gospel  against  this  Lettes  who  succeeded  him  as  bishop,  the  Calvinists 
secular  Church,  and  who  wished  to  gather  together  a  became  masters  of  the  city;  in  1561  they  interdicted 
people  prepared  for  th^r God  regardless  alike  of  num-  Catholic  worship;  the  destruction  of  the  churches, 
bers  ana  circumstances''.  Some  of  these  ''joined  an  and  even  of  the  cathedral,  was  beKun  and  carried  on 
enthusiastic  movement  which  had  originated  amongst  until  1567.  In  1570  Mont%Qban  became  one  of  the 
a  small  circle  in  a  remote  province,  and  had  at  first  a  four  strongholds  granted  the  Protestants  and  in  1578^ 
merely  local  importance.  Then,  in  Phrygia,  the  cry  1579,  and  1584  harboured  the  synods  held  by  the 
for  a  strict  Christian  life  was  reinforced  by  the  belid  d6put^  of  the  Reformed  Churches  of  France.  For  a 
in  a  new  and  final  outpouring  of  the  Spirit.  .  .  .  The  short  time,  in  16(X),  Catholic  worship  was  re-estab- 
wish  was,  as  usual,  father  to  the  thought;  and  thus  so-  lished  but  was  soon  suppressed;  Bishop  Anne  Carrion 
cieties  of  'spiritual'  Christians  were  formed,  which  de  Murviel  (1600-1652)  withdrew  to  Montech  during 
served,  especially  in  times  of  persecution,  as  rallying  the  neater  part  of  his  reign  and  administered  thenoe 
points  for  all  those,  far  and  near,  who  sighed  for  the  the  Church  of  Montauban.  In  spite  of  the  unsucoess- 
end  of  the  world  and  the  excessiu  e  scBciUOf  and  who  ful  siege  of  Montauban  by  Louis  XIII  (August- 
wished  in  these  last  days  to  lead  a  holy  life.  These  November.  1621),  the  fall  of  La  Rochelle  (1629) 
zealots  hailed  the  appearance  of  the  Paraclete  in  entailed  tne  submission  of  the  city,  and  Riciielieu 
Phrygia,  and  surrendered  themselves  to  his  guidance"  entered  it  on  20  August,  1629.  Other  bi^ops  of 
(Hamack  in  "Encycl.  Brit.",  London,  1878,  s.  v.  note  were :  LeTonnellierdeBreteuil  (1762-1794),  who 
Montanism).  This  ingenious  theory  has  its  basis  died  during  the  Reign  of  Terror  in  the  prison  of  Rouen, 
only  in  the  ima^ation,  nor  have  any  facts  ever  been  after  converting  the  philosopher  La  Harpe  to  Catholi- 
advanced  in  its  favour.  cism;  the  future  Cardinal  ae  Chevenis  (q.  v.),  1824- 

TXLLBMONT,    Mtmoirea,   II;    Schwkolbr,   Der   MorUaniamuB  ^'—.      ^^        ,-•»*.               «                 .!•.,..     --.— 

rrabinsen,  1841);  Ritbchl,  BrUstehung  der  AUkatholischerJnrehe  The  Church  of  MoiSSaC,  whose  portal  built  m  1107 

fend  ed.,  Bonn,  1857);  Bonwetbch,  Gaeh.  dee  Monianismu*  jg  a  veritable  museum  of  Romanesque  sculpture,  de- 

terS;  ZH^^^iirM  £^i;S3LX..'^"(i8lS)r?6S;  serves  notice;  ite  .clobter  (1100-1108)  k  one  d  the 

Idem  in  Realeneydop.  fur  proi.  Thed.  (1903).  a.  v.  Montanismus;  most  remarkable  m  France.     Legend  attributes  to 

WEUBkcKm  in  Theol.  liu.  Zeitung  (1882),  74;  Salmon  in  Diet.  Clovis  the  foundation  of  the  Abbey  of  Moissac  in  506, 

^i::^c\^%\UnSi^Si^^'^^^^  but  St.  Amand  (594^75)  seems  to  have  been  the  first 

(London,  1880) ;   VOlteb.  Der  Ursvrungsjahr  de*  Mont,  in  ZeU-  abbot.    The  abbey  grCW,  and  in  a  feW  yeaiS  itS  pOtPCB 

•^r.  far  ufi»s.  theol,,  XXVll,  23;  Harnack  in  Encyd.  Britanniea  gions  extended  to  the  gates  of  Toulouse.    The  threats 

{r4';1'i:^fz"*^.^^"XV.T'^«'±fT.1^r&i  and  incuraions  of  the  Saracens    Hunpiriana,  and 

1888);  Idem.  Forsehungen,  V,  3-57:  Die  Chronologie  dee  Mont.  Northmen   brought   the   monks   of  MoiSSaC  tO  elect 

gEriangen,  1893) ;  Voigt,  Bine  vertchottme  Urkunde  dee  anHnumt.  "  knight  abbotS  "  who  Were  laymen,  and  whoee  miflsion 

tli^^X.Zs^:!i^T^^M^^tsS,r:SSf;'tM.:  wa^  to  defend  th«n    Fiom  the  tenth  to  the  thirU«nUi 

D%*  ctnontn  d$r  Umt.  in  Ztittchr./or  «vmi.  7A«0(.,  Ill  (I89S),  480;  cciituiy  several  of  the  counts  of  Toulouae  were  knight- 


UONTAULT 


525 


M0NTB0X8SIEB 


abbots  of  Moiasac:  the  death  of  Alfonso  II  (1271) 
made  the  King  of  France  the  legitimate  sucoessor  of 
ihe  ooimts  of  Toulouse,  and  in  this  way  the  abbey 
came  to  depend  directly  on  the  kings  of  France,  hence- 
forth its  "knight-abbots".  Some  of  the  abbots  were 
saints:  St.  Ausbert  (66^-678);  St.  L^tadius  (678- 
601);  St.  Patemus  (691-718);  St.  Amarandus  (718- 
720) .  The  imion  of  Moissac  with  Clunv  was  begun  by 
Abbot  Stephen  as  early  as  1047,  and  completed  in 
1063  imder  Abbot  Durand.  Four  filial  abb^  and 
numerous  priories  depended  on  the  Abbey  of  Moissac. 
Among  the  commendatory  abbots  were  Louis  of  Lor- 
raine, Cardinal  de  Guise  (1556-1578);  Charles  of 
Lomdne,  the  Cardinal  de  Vaudemont  (1578-1590). 
In  1618  Moissac  was  transformed  into  a  collegiate 
church  which  had,  among  other  titulars.  Cardinal 
Mazarin  (1644-1661),  and  Cardinal  de  Liom^nie  de 
Brienne,  minister  of  Louis  XVI  (1775-1788).  On 
25  July,  1523,  fifteen  inhabitants  of  Moissac,  after 
they  hiui  made  a  pilgrimage  to  Compoetdla,  grouped 
themselves  into  a  confraternity  "k  Thonneur  de  Dieu, 
de  Notre  Dame  etMonseigneur  Saint  Jacques".  This 
confraternity,  reorganized  in  1615  by  letters  patent  of 
Louis  XIII,  existed  for  many  vears.  As  late  as  1830 
"pilgrims"  were  still  seen  in  the  Moissac  processions. 
In  fact  Moissac  and  Spain  were  long  doseiy  united;  a 
monk  of  Moissac,  St.  G^rault,  was  Archbishop  of 
Braga  from  1095  to  1109.  The  general  s3mod  of  the 
Reformers  held  at  Montpellier,  in  May,  1598,  decided 
on  the  creation  of  an  academy  at  Montauban;  it  was 
opened  in  1600,  was  exclusively  Protestant,  and  gath- 
ered students  from  other  countries  of  Europe.  In  1632 
the  Jesuits  established  themselves  at  Montauban,  but 
in  1659  transferred  the  Academy  to  Puylaurens.  In 
1808  a  faculty  of  Protestant  theology  was  created  at 
Montauban  and  still  exists. 

The  principal  pilgrimages  of  the  diocese  are:  Notre 
Dame  de  Livron  or  de  1&  Deliverance,  visited  by 
Blanche  of  Castille  and  Louis  XIII;  Notre  Dame  de 
Lorm,  at  Castelferrus,  dating  from  the  fifteenth  cen- 
tury; Notre  Dame  de  la  Pe3rrouse,  near  Lafran^aise. 
Before  the  application  of  the  law  of  1901  as  to  associar 
tions,  the  oiocese  counted  Jesuits,  Redemptorists, 
Marianists,  and  various  orders  of  School  Brothers. 
Among  the  congregations  of  women  which  originated 
in  the  diocese  we  mention:  Sisters  of  Mercy,  hospital- 
lers and  teachers,  founded  in  1804  (mother-house  at 
Moissac);  Sisters  of'^the  Guardian  Angel,  hospitallers 
and  teachers,  founded  in  1839  at  Quillan  in  the  Diocese 
of  Carcassonne  by  P^  Deshayes,  Superior  of  the 
Daughters  of  Wisdom,  whose  mother -house  was 
transferred  to  the  chftteau  of  La  Molle,  near  Montau- 
ban in  1858.  At  the  beginning  of  the  twentieth  cen- 
tury the  religious  congregations  had  charge  of:  1 
cr^e,  24  day  nurseries,  10  girls'  orphanages.  1  refuge 
(cmvre  de  rihabilitcUion),  2  houses  for  the  rebef  of  the 
poor,  11  hospitals  or  asylums,  30  houses  for  the  care 
of  the  sick  in  their  own  nomes.  In  1908  the  Diocese 
of  Montauban  counted  188,563  inhabitants,  of  whom 
7000  were  Protestants;  31  parishes;  296  succursal 
parishes;  58  vicariates. 

Guttia  ChriHiana,  XIII  (lumz,  1785).  226-260.  inttrumenia, 
181-224:  Daux.  R«eiifieai%on9  et  additioru  au  tome  XIII*  du 
Ottilia  CkruiUana  idiooUe  de  Montauban)  in  Bulletin  de  la  SocUU 
arehSofogioue  de  Tarn  et  Oaronne,  TV  (1876),  105-112;  Idbm, 
Hietoire  de  FSoliae  de  Montauban  (2  vols.,  Montauban,  1879- 
1886);  RunN.  Lee  CloUree  et  FAhbaye  de  Moieeae  (Paris,  1807); 
Daux,  Le  pUerinage  d  CompotUUe  et  la  eonfririe  dee  ^lerine  de 
Mcnemgneur  Saint  Jacquee  de  Moieeae  (Paris,  1808). 

Gborobs  Gotau. 

Montaiilt,  Xavibb  Babbibr  de,  b.  at  Loudun,  6 
February,  1830;  d.  at  Blaslay,  Vienne  (France),  29 
March,  1901.  He  came  of  a  noble  and  large  family, 
and,  when  only  eight  years  old,  was  confic^  to  the 
care  of  his  great-uncle,  Mgr  Montault  des  Isles, 
Bishop  of  Angers.  He  studied  theology  at  the  Semi- 
nary of  St.  Sulpice,  and  went  to  Rome  to  continue  his 
studies  in  theology  and  furchsology  9,\  thQ  Sc^ieoza 


and  the  Roman  College.  After  four  years  his  health 
obliged  him  to  return  to  France  (1857),  where  he  was 
appointed  historiographer  of  the  Diocese  of  Angers. 
He  searched  the  archives  of  the  diocese  with  great  dili- 
gence, studied  its  inscriptions  and  monuments,  and 
founded  a  diocesan  museum,  a  project  in  which  de 
Caumont  took  a  lively  interest.  Another  sojourn  of 
fourteen  years  in  Rome  (1861-75)  enabled  him  to 
augment  nis  already  extensive  knowledge  of  liturgy 
and  Christian  antiquities.  Meanwhile  he  was  of  great 
service  to  different  French  bishops  as  canonical  con- 
suitor,  and  at  the  Vatican  Council  acted  as  theologian 
to  Mgr  Desfldches,  Bishop  of  Angers.  His  first  ar- 
chseological  study  appeared  in  1851  in  the  "Annales 
arch^logiques",  and  Didron  assigned  him  the  task  of 
making  an  mdex  for  this  publication.  Mgr  Barbier  de 
Montault  was  one  of  the  most  prolific  contributors  to 
the  "Revue  de  Tart  chr^tien"  from  the  inception  of 
this  periodical,  his  articles  continuing  to  appear  until 
1903  (two  years  after  his  death).  He  also  wrote  nu- 
merous articles  for  other  reviews  as  well  as  several 
separate  works  on  iconography,  ecclesiastical  fumi- 
ture^  liturgy,  canon  law,  etc.  In  1889  he  began  to 
reprmt  his  scattered  works,  classifying  them  according 
to  subjects.  This  publication  was  to  comprise  sixty 
volumes,  but  went  no  further  than  the  sixteenth,  and 
is  to  be  recommended  more  for  its  erudition  than  for 
its  critical  value.  Works:  "(Euvres  completes"  (un- 
finished): I.  "Inventaires  eccl^iastiques'':  II.  "Le 
Vatican";  III.  "Le  Pape";  IV-V.  ''Droit  papal"; 
VI-VIII.  "Devotions  populaires";  IX-XVI.  "Hagi* 
ographie"    (Rome.    1889-1902);     "Traits    d'icono- 

graphie  chr^tienne ''  (2  vols.,  Paris,  1890) ;  "  Collection 
es  d^crets  authentiques  des  ss.  congregations  ro- 
maines"  (8  vols.,  Rome,  1872). 

HcLBiQ,  Mgr  Xavier  Barbier  de  Montault  in  Revue  de  Vart  ekrttien, 
(1901).  357-60;  Gibom,  Mgr  X.  B.  de  Montault,  bio-bibl,,  Hbnunes 
(1910). 

R.  Mabrb. 

Montboissier,  Peteb  of  (better  known  as  Peteb 
THE  Venerable),  Blessed,  bom  in  Auvergne,  about 
1092;  died  at  Cluny,  25  December,  1156.  His  mother, 
Blessed  Rain^arde,  offered  him  to  God  in  the  monas- 
tery of  SauxiUanges  of  the  Congr^ation  of  Cluny, 
where  he  made  his  profession  at  the  age  of  seventeen. 
He  was  only  twenty  year^ld  when  he  was  appointed 

grof essor  and  prior  of  the  monastery  of  V^aelajr,  and 
e  discharged  his  duties  in  that  house,  and  later  in  the 
monasteiy  of  Dom^ne,  with  such  success  that  at  the 
age  of  thirty  he  was  elected  general  of  the  order.  The 
Older,  which  then  counted  not  less  than  2000  houses 
throughout  Europe,  was  in  need  of  reform.  The  ab- 
bot had  be^n  tnis  work  when  his  predecessor,  the 
Abbot  Pontius,  who  had  been  deposed  by  the  pope,  at- 
tempted to  be  reinstated  in  his  office  by  violence.  Our 
saint  had  to  face  other  attacks  made  on  his  order  by 
St.  Bernard  himself,  who  did  not  fail  however  to  ac- 
knowledge the  eminent  virtue  of  Peter  and  was  the 
first  to  call  him  Venerable.  Peter  resisted  the  at- 
tacks with  both  firmness  and  meekness,  and  took  oc- 
casion of  them  to  write  the  rules  of  the  Congregation 
of  Cluny,  one  of  the  most  complete  and  perfect  codes 
of  religious  life.  He  was  prominent  in  resisting  the 
schism  caused  by  the  Antipope  Anacletus  II,  after  the 
death  of  Honorius  II  (1130).  With  St.  Bernard,  he 
was  the  soul  and  the  light  of  the  General  Council  of 
Pisa  (1134),  and  having  encouraged  Innocent  II  to 
stand  firm  in  the  midst  of  persecutions,  he  predicted 
the  end  of  the  schism,  which  happened  in  1138. 

During  a  visit  to  Spain  (1139)  he  became  interested 
in  Mohammedanism  and  had  the  Koran  for  the  first 
time  translated  into  Latin.  He  made  several  ]our<* 
neys  to  Rome,  where  the  popes  entrusted  him  with 
delicate  missions,  and  he  accompanied  Eugene  III  to 
the  Council  of  Reims  (1147),  where  the  doctrines  of 
Gilbert  de  la  Por^  were  condemned.  Kin^  and  em- 
perors came  to  him  for  advice  and  in  tb9  midst  Qf  hie 


UONTCALM-aOZON                    526  UONTK 

labours  he  found  time  to  write  numerous  letters,  valu-  tion  of  New  France.    Although  a  first  encounter  (5 

able  theological  works  on  the  questions  of  the  day,  July.  1758)  had  proved  disastrous  to  the  French,  the 

the  Divinity  of  Christ,  the  Real  Presence,  against  the  death  of  the  valiant  young  Lord  Howe,  the  real  nead 

Jews  and  the  Mohammedans,  and  concerning  the  of  the  English  troops,  deprived  Abercrombv  of  hia 

statutes  and  the  privileges  of  his  order,  besides  ser-  chief  support.   On  the  8th  the  onslaught  of  the  entire 

mons  and  even  verses.    Theologians  praise  the  pre-  Anglo-American  army  was  rendered  impossible  by  the 

cision  of  his  teaching.     When  Abelard  s  doctrine  nad  earthworks  and  complicated  barricade  of  felled  trees 

been  condemned  at  Soissons,  Peter  opened  his  mon-  protecting  Fort  Canllon;    while  a  deadly  fire  deci- 

astery  to  him,  reconciled  him  with  St.  Bernard  and  mated  the  assailants.    When  the  fray  was  over  2000 

with  the  pope,  and  had  the  joy  of  seeing  him  spend  English  soldiers  lay  killed  or  wounded,  while  the 

the  rest  of  his  life  under  lus  guidance.    He  died  on  French  losses  were  only  104  killed  and  248  wounded; 

Christmas  Day,  according  to  nis  wish,  ''after  a  sub-  3800  men  had  repulsed  15.000.    In  thanksgiving  to 

lime  sermon  to  his  brethren  on  the  mystery  of  the  the  Gkxl  of  Hosts,  Montcalm  raised  a  cross  with  an 

day''.    Honoured  as  a  saint  both  by  thepeople and  inscription. 

his  order,  he  was  never  canonized;  Pius  DC  confirmed  After  arresting  the  invasion  by  land,  Montcalm  had 

the  cult  offered  to  him  (1862).  to  face  the  atti^k  of  the  naval  forces.    During  the 

Trf'^\.^*^'^^'?.,?'^rJ^r^-r,^-4,£i?^^^?i  RoD^"*"^*  sicgc  of  Quebcc  by  Wolfe,  Montcalm  with  L^vis  won 

Vita  Petrt  Venerabilts  m  P.  L„  CLXXXIX,  &-27;   Mabib  and  _  iP   x  -^x^„-  o*  TVyr«,«*^**~aw»/.,r  1?<kl1o    «r:4^l«  a  1<^<»  ^f 

rhjcHMN..  Biblioiheea  ciuniaUn»i».  58»-6i8:  MabtAnu,  Amr  »  first  Victory  at  Montmorency  Falls,  witti  a  lose  ^ 

vliuima  CoUectio,  VI,  1187-1202;  GaUia  Chr%9tiana,  IV,  1137-  450  to  the  English  (31  July,  1759).    But  the  final  act 

1140;  PioNOT,  HiHoirede  Fordre  de  ciuny,  III,  49-509;  Dbmi-  was  drawing  nigh,  which  was  to  Seal  the  fate  of  New 

^rii.^896)'.      ^**^~*''  •*  *"  ~*  monastyiue  au  Xll^  nMe  YrBUce,   On  13  Sept.  the  enemy  stealthUy  scaled  the 

A.  FouRNBT.  Heights  of  Abraham,  and  at  early  mom  was  ranged  in 

battle.    Montcalm,  thimderstruck  by  the  unexpected 

Montcalm-Gozon,  Louis-Joseph.  Mabquis  de,  a  tidings,   hurried  from    Beaufort  and  arrayed   his 

French  general,  b.  28  Feb.,  1712,  at  Candiac,  of  Louis-  troops.    Though  about  equal  in  numbers,  they  were 

Daniel  and  Maiie-Th^r^  de  Lauris;  d.  at  Quebec  14  doomed  to  defeat  for  several  reasons,  including  sur- 

Sept.,  1759.    He  was  descended  from  Gozon,  Grand  prise,  hardship,  privation,  fatigue,  and  a  disadvan- 

Master  of  Rhodes  of  legendary  fame.    The  warlike  tageous  position.    Both  generals  fell,  Wolfe  dying  on 

spirit  of  his  ancestors  had  given  rise  to  the  saying:  the  battle-field, , and  Montcalm  the  next  morning. 

'War  is  the  tomb  of  the  Montcalms."    Thoug^  less  This  battle,  considered  in  its  results,  was  one  of  the 

clever  than  a  younger  brother,  a  prodigy  of  leamins  at  ^atest  events  of  the  eighteenth  century.    It  saved 

seven,  Louis-Joseph  was  a  classical  scholar.  A  soldier  Canada  from  the  French  Revolution  and  heralded  the 

at  fifteen,  he  spent  his  leisures  in  camp  reading  Greek  dawn  of  American  Independence.    Montcalm  was  a 

and  German.    He  served  successively  at  the  sieges  of  brave  and  generous  commander,  a  high-minded  and 

Kehl  and  Philipsbourg,  and  became  a  knight  of  St.  disinterested  patriot;   a  faithful  ChriHtian  giving  to 

Louis  (1741)  after  a  campaign  in  Bohemia,  and  was  God  the  glor^  of  his  victories.    His  memory  is  cner- 

appointed  colonel  of  the  Auxerrois  regiment  (1743).  ished  in  the  Old  and  the  New  World.    In  Canada  he 

He  received  five  wounds  at  the  battle  of  Piacenza.  shares  the  honours  awarded  to  his  victor,  as  the  fol- 

In  1736  he  had  married  Ang^lique-Louise  Talon  de  lowing  inscription  on  their  joint  monument  testifies: — 

Boulay,  grand-niece  of  the  famous  intendant  of  that  Mortem  virtus 

name.   Of  this  union  were  bom  ten  children.   In  1755  Communem  famam  historia 

he  succeeded  the  ill-fated  Dieskau,  in  the  command  of  Monumentum  posteritas  dedit. 

the  French  army  in  Canada,  under  governor  Vau-  — a  tribute  dulv  anticipated  by  the  French  Academy 

dreuil.    The  dissonance  of  character  between  the  two  in  the  last  words  of  the  hero's  epitaph  in  the  chapel  of 

chiefs  was  to  cause  much  friction  during  this  trying  the  Ursuline  monastery: — 

period.    Unlike  his  superior,  Montcalm  was  quick  in  (xalli  lugentes  deposuerunt  et  generosse  hostium  fidei 

conception,  fearless,  generous  and  impulsive,  self-  commendarunt. 

reliant  and  decisive  in  action.    Intendant  Bigot's  un-  (The  French  mourned  and  buried  him  and  commended 

scrupulous  dishonesty,  the  apathy  of  the  French  court  him  to  the  enemies'  generosity), 

for  the  "few  arpents  of  snow",  an  impoverished  col-  „  Cabobain,  AforUaOm  h  Um  (Toure.  1898);  Douohtt.  The 

ony  an  ill-fed.  iU-clad  and  badly  provided  armv,  f^^?^ §^:!Z:rL%^%t.^^^^ ^'1!/:L^^ 
ail  this  enhances  Montcalm  s  heroic  courage  and  faith-  ?i909) ;  Cakoxok.  Au  payt  de  Montoaim  in  La  Nouv^Oe-FrancB 
fulness  to  duty.  He  was  ably  seconded  by  the  skilful,  (1909).  Lionel  Lindsay. 
I>rudent  and  brave  chevalier  de  L^vis.  The  dispropor- 
tion in  numbers  and  resources  between  the  belligerent  Monte  Oassino,  Abbey  of.  an  abbey  nuQitM  situ- 
forces  rendered  more  ajduous  the  problem  to  be  solved,  ated  about  eighty  miles  south  of  Rome,  the  cradle  of 
Yet  it  was  only  after  a  record  of  three  brilliant  victo-  the  Benedictine  Order.  About  529  St.  Benedict  left 
ries  that  he  was  to  end  his  ^orious  career  on  the  Plains  Subiaco,  to  escape  the  persecutions  of  the  jealous 
of  Abraham.  First  in  order  of  time  comes  the  cap-  priest,  Florentius  (see  Benedict  of  Nursia,  Saint). 
ture  of  Chouaguen  (Oswego),  an  undertaldng  wherein  Accompanied  by  a  chosen  band,  among  them  Sts.  Mau- 
all  the  odds  were  against  the  besiegers.  Overcoming  rus  ana  Placid,  ne  journeyed  to  Monte  Cassino.  one  of 
all  diffidence,  Montcalm  succeeded  (14  Aug.,  1756),  the  properties  made  over  to  him  b;^  Tertullus^  St. 
thereby  winning  the  region  of  Ontario  to  the  domina-  Placid's  father.  The  town  of  Cassmum  (Cassmo). 
tion  of  France,  and  with  a  few  badly  armed  troops  lying  at  the  foot  of  the  moimtain,  had  been  destroyed 
taking  1600  prisoners,  5  flags,  100  guns,  at  the  cost  of  by  the  Goths  some  thirty-five  years  earlier,  but  a  tern- 
only  30  killed  and  wounded!^  Attnbuting  his  success  pie  of  Apollo  still  crowned  the  summit  of  the  moun- 
to  God,  he  raised  a  cross  with  the  inscription :  '*  In  hoc  tain,  and  the  few  remaining  inhabitants  were  still  sunk 
signo  vincunt."  In  connexion  with  a  later  triumph,  in  idolatry.  Benedict's  first  act  was  to  break  the 
the  capture  of  Fort  William  Henry  (9  Aug.,  1757),  image  of  Apollo  and  destroy  the  altar,  on  the  site  of 
Montcalm  has  been  accused  of  tolerating  the  massacre  which  he  built  a  church  dedicated  to  St.  John  the 
by  the  Indians  of  the  English  prisoners.  Yet,  even  Baptist,  and  an  oratory  in  honour  of  St.  Martin  of 
Bancroft  admits  that  he  exposed  himself  to  death  to  Tours.  Around  the  temple  ih&te  was  an  enclosing 
stop  the  savages  infuriated  by  the  rum  given  them  by  wall  with  towers  at  intervals,  the  arx  (citadel)  of  the 
the  English  contrary  to  his  orders.  The  last  and  destroyed  city  of  Cassinum.  In  one  of  these  towers 
greatest  of  Montcalm's  victories,  shared  by  L^vis  and  the  saint  took  up  his  abode,  and  to  this  fact  its  preser- 
Eiourlamaque,  was  at  Carillon  (Ticonderoga),  a  battle  vation  is  due,  for,  while  the  rest  of  the  Roman  arz  has 
which  waa  to  result  dtber  in  the  salvation  or  destruo-  been  destroyed,  this  tower  has  been  carefully  pre- 


MONTE  537  HOHTB 

served  &nd  eoulosed  in  the  later  buildin^B.    Outade    Abbot  Desideriua,  who  nilecl  from  1058  until  1087, 
the  existine  monaatery.  however,  there  still  remuna  &     when  he  waa  elected  pope  under  the  title  of  Victor  III 
conaiderable  part  of  a  lar  more  ancient  enclosure,  viz.     (q.  v.).     Under  this  abbot,  the  most  famous  of  all  the 
a  Cyclopean  wall  some  twenty-six  feet  high  and  four-     series  after  St.  Benedict  himself,  the  number  of  monks 
teen  and  a  half  feet  in  thickness,  which  once  ran  down    rose  to  over  two  hundred,  and  the  school  of  copyists 
the  mountflin  side  enclosing  a  large  triangular  space     and  miniature  painters  became  famous  throughout 
that  contained  the  Cassinum  of  pre-Roman  times,     the  West.    The  biuldings  of  the  monastery  were  re- 
Ooceestablishedat  Monte  Caasino,  St.  Benedict  never     constructed  on  a  scale  of  great  magnificence,  artiata 
left  it.    There  was  wri:ten  the  Rule  whose  mfluence 
was  to  spread  over  all  Western  monachism:  there  he 
received  the  visit  of  Totila  in  542,  the  only  date  in  his 
life  of  which  we  have  certain  evidence;  there  he  died, 
and  was  buried  in  one  tomb  with  his  sister,  St.  Scho- 
lastica.     After  the  s^nt's  death,  the  abbey  continued 
to  flourish  until  580,  when  it  was  pillaged  and  burned 
by   the   Lombards,   the  surviving  monks  fleeing  to 
Rome.     Here,  welcomed  by  the  pope,  Pelagius  II,  and 

g^rmitted  to  establish  a  monastery  be«de  the  Laterao 
asiliea,   they  remained   for  a  hundred  and   thirty 


regular  community  existed  there.  To  this  period  also 
is  assigned  the  much  discussed  translation  of  St. 
Benedict's  body  to  Fleury  in  France,  the  truth  of 
which  it  seems  almost  impossible  to  doubt.  (See 
Flburt,  Abbey  3f.) 

The  restoration  of  Monte  Cassino  took  place  in  718, 
when  Abbot  Petronax,  a  native  of  Brescia,  was  en-  ciamna  of  ihe  SriTOM  ua  FicioB  or  thi  Abbst 

trusted  with  this  task  by  Gregory  II.    Aided  by  some  Chdbch.  Mo.-nx  Camino 

of  the  monks  from  the  L'a'ieran  monastery,  Petronax 

restored  the  buildings  at  Monte  Cassino  and  built  a  bein^  brought  from  Amalti,  Lombardy,  and  even  Con< 
new  church  over  the  tomb  of  St.  Benedict.  This  stantinople  to  supervise  the  various  works.  The  ab- 
was  consecrated  in  748  by  Pope  Zachary  in  person,  bev  church,  rebuilt  and  decorated  with  the  utmost 
who  at  the  same  time  confirmed  all  the  gifts  made  to  splendour,  was  consecrated  in  1071  by  Pope  Alexan- 
the  monastery  and  exempted  it  from  episcopal  juris-  der  11^  who  was  assisted  by  ten  archbishops,  forty- 
diction.  The  fame  of  the  abbey  at  this  perioa  was  four  bishops,  and  so  vast  a  crowd  of  princes,  abbots, 
great,  and,  among  the  monks  professed,  may  be  men-  monks,  etc.  that,  the  enthusiastic  chronicler  declares, 
tiooed  Carloman,  the  son  of  Charles  Martel,  Rachis.  "it  would  have  been  easier  to  number  the  etsrs  of 
brother  oF  the  great  I>imbard  Duke  Astolf,  and  Paul    heaven  than  to  count  so  great  a  multitude."    A  d^ 


ninth  century  the  Saracens  overran  this  part  of  Italy  (see  Pertz,  "Mon.  Germ.  Hist.  Scriptores",  VII). 
and  Monte  Cassino  did  not  escape.  In  884  Abbot  From  this  date  a  decline  set  in.  The  unsettled 
Iterth&rius  and  some  of  his  monks  were  killed,  the  rest  condition  of  Italy  and  the  groat  strategical  value  of 
fleeing  to  Teano.  Within  two  years  the  restoration  Monte  Caasino  involved  the  abbey  in  the  constant 
of  Monte  Cassino  wa«  begun,  but  Teano  retained  the  political  struggles  of  the  period.  In  1239  the  monks 
were  driven  out  of  their  cloister  by  Frederick  II,  but 
returned  thither  under  Charles  of  Anjou.  In  1294 
Cclestine  V  endeavoured  to  unite  Monte  Caasino  to 
hia  new  order  of  Celestinea  (q.  v.),  but  this  scheme 
collapsed  on  his  abdication  of  the  papacy.  In  1321 
John  XXll  made  the  church  of  Monte  Cassino  a 
cathedral,  the  abbot  becoming  bishop  of  the  newly 
constituted  diocese,  and  his  monks  the  chapter.  There 
is  no  doubt  that  this  waa  done  with  the  best  of  in- 
tentions, aa  an  additional  honour  to  the  great  abbey; 
in  practice,  however,  it  proved  disastrous.  The 
bishops  of  Monte  Cassino,  nominated  at  Avignon,  were 
secular  prelates  who  never  visited  the  diocese,  but 
who  appropriated  the  income  of  iJie  abbey  to  their 
person^  use.  The  number  of  monks  thus  dwindled, 
the  observance  declined,  and  utter  ruin  became  a 
mere  question  of  time.  In  view  of  this  danger  Urban 
V,  who  was  a  Benedictine  monk,  proclaimed  himself 
Abbot  of  Monte  Caasino,  collected  monks  from  other 

,,, _  houses  to  reinforce  the  community,  and  in  1370  ap- 

CHoi^StALu..  Ai^iT  Chdbch.  MoBTi  Cuuiiro  pointed  Andrew  of  Faenza,  a  Camaldolese,  as  superior. 

bulk  of  the  community  intil  fl49,  when  Abbot  Ali-  The  revival,  however,  was  short-hved;  in  1454  the 
gemuB  effected  the  return.  The  autograph  copy  of  systemof  commendatoryabbots  waareintroducedand 
St.  Benedict's  Rule,  which  had  been  preserved  till  now  lasted  until  1504,  when  Julius  11  tinited  Monte  Oaa- 
through  all  the  vicisdtudes  of  Uie  community's  exist'  wno  to  the  recently  established  Congregation  of  St. 
ence,  perished  in  a  fire  during  the  stay  at  Teano.  The  Justina  of  Padua  (see  Benedictimeb),  which  was 
high  state  of  discipline  at  Monte  Cassino  about  this  thenceforth  known  ae  the  Caasineee  Congregation. 
time  is  vouched  for  by  St.  Nilus,  who  vi^ted  it  in  the  In  1790  the  abbey  was  taken  and  plundered  by  the 
tatter  half  of  the  tenth  century  and  agun  by  St.  Odilo  French  troops  who  had  invaded  the  Kingdom  <A 
of  Cluny  some  fifty  years  later.  The  abbey's  reputa-  Naples,  and  m  1866  the  monastery  was  suppressed  in 
tiim  reached  its  lemth,  however,  during  the  reign  of    common  with  all  other  ItaUan  relif^ous  housee.    Ai 


MomsffeLnto 


528 


ICONTEFELTBO 


the  present  day  Monte  Cassino  is  the  property  of 
the  Italian  Government,  which  has  declared  it  a 
national  monumentj  the  abbot,  however,  is  recog- 
nized as  Guardian  in  view  of  his  administration  of 
the  diocese.  The  reigning  abbot  is  Dom  Gregorio 
t)iamare  (elected  1909);  the  community  (1909)  con- 
sists of  thirty-seven  choir  monks  and  thirty  lay 
brothers.  The  vast  buildings  contain,  besides  the 
monastery,  a  lay  school  with  126  boarders  and  two 
seminaries,  one  open  to  all  and  the  other  reserved  for 
the  Diocese  of  Monte  Cassino  with  76  and  50  pupils 
respectively.  In  the  management  of  these  institu- 
tions the  monks  are  assisted  by  a  number  of  secular 
priests. 

The  present  buildings  form  a  vast  rectangular  pile 
externally  more  massive  than  beautiful.  The  ancient 
tower  of  St.  Benedict,  now  a  series  of  chapels  elabo- 
rately decorated  by  monastic  artists  of  tne  Beuron 
school,  is  the  only  portion  dating  back  to  the  founda- 
tion 01  the  abbey.  The  entrance  gate  leads  to  three 
square  court-yards  opening  out  of  one  another  with 
arcades  in  the  Doric  order.  These  date  from  1515 
and  are  attributed,  on  somewhat  slight  evidence,  to 
Bramante.  From  the  middle  court-yard  an  immense 
flight  of  steps  leads  to  the  atrium  or  forecourt  of 
the  basilica.  This  Quadrangle  has  an  arcade  sup- 
ported by  ancient  columns  taken  from  the  basilica 
of  Abbot  Desiderius,  and  probably  once  in  the  de- 
stroyed temple  of  Apollo  on  the  site  of  which  the 
present  church  stands.  The  existing  church,  the 
fourth  to  occupy  the  site,  is  from  the  designs  of  Cosi- 
mo  Fansaga.  It  was  begun  in  1649,  and  was  conse- 
crated in  1727  by  Benedict  XIII.  In  richness  of 
marbles,  the  interior  is  said  to  be  surpassed  only 
by  the  Certosa  at  Pavia,  and  the  first  impression 
is  certainly  one  of  astonishing  magnificence.  On 
closer  inspection,  however^  the  style  is  found  to  be 
somewhat  decadent,  especially  in  the  plasterwork  of 
the  ceiling,  while  the  enormous  profusion  of  inlaid 
marble  and  gilding  produces  a  slightly  restless  effect. 
Still  it  is  undoubtealy  the  finest  example  of  Floren- 
tine mosaic  work  in  Europe,  and  the  general  colour 
scheme  is  excellent.  The  church  is  cruciform  in  plan, 
with  a  dome  at  the  crossing,  beneath  which  is  the  nigh 
altar.  Behind  this  altar  is  the  choir  with  its  elabo- 
rately carved  stalls.  The  tomb  of  St.  Benedict  is  in 
a  crypt  chapel  beneath  the  eastern  portion  of  the 
church,  but  it  is  extremely  doubtful  whether  any 
relics  of  the  saint  now  remain  there.  This  chapel  has 
recently  been  decorated  with  mosaics  from  designs  by 
artists  of  the  Beuron  school,  the  severity  of  which  con- 
trasts markedly  with  the  slightly  Rococo  paintings  by 
Luca  Giordano  in  the  church  above.  The  sacristy 
contains  the  ancient  pavement  of  opus  alexandrinum, 
which  was  formerly  in  the  basilica  of  Abbot  Desiderius. 
In  the  left  transept  is  the  monument  of  Pietro  di 
Medici,  son  of  Lorenzo  the  Magnificent,  and  brother 
of  Leo  X.  This  tomb,  which  is  by  the  great  archi- 
tect Antonio  di  Sanffallo,  is  unquestionably  the  most 
beautiful  and  dignified  work  in  the  whole  building. 
The  great  west  door,  a  bronze  piece  of  the  twelfth 
century,  is  engraved  with  the  names  of  all  the  parishes 
in  the  Diocese  of  Monte  Cassino.  The  kitchens  are 
approached  from  the  ground-floor  by  a  long  covered 
passage  on  an  incUned  plane,  large  enough  for  two 
mules  laden  with  provisions  to  pass.  This  curious 
structure  dates  from  the  twelfth  century  and  is  lit  by 
an  exquisite  marble  window  of  four  arches  in  the  style 
known  as  Cosmat^que.  The  buildings  as  a  whole 
produce  an  effect  of  great  dignity  and  magnificence, 
all  the  more  unexpected  from  the  inaccessible  posi- 
tion of  the  monastery  and  the  extreme  severity  of  the 
exterior.  The  view  from  the  "Loggia  del  Paradiso" 
or  forecourt,  is  one  of  the  most  famous  in  Southem 
Italy. 

Tlie  archives  (arckmum),  besides  a  vast  number  of 
documents  relating  to  the  history  of  the  abbey,  con- 


tains some  14(X)  manuscript  codices  chiefly  patristic 
and  lustorical.  many  of  which  are  of  the  greatest 
value.  The  ubraxy  contains  a  fine  collection  of 
modem  texts  and  apparatus  crilicus,  which  is  alwavH 
most  courteously  put  at  the  disposal  of  scholars  who 
come  to  work  on  the  manuscripts.  When  the  abbey 
was  declared  a  national  monument,  orders  were  given 
to  transport  the  whole  collection  of  manuscripts  to 
the  National  Library  at  Naples;  but,  owing  to  the 

Sersonal  intercession  of  Mr.  Gladstone,  then  Prime 
iinister  of  England,  the  order  was  reversed,  and  in- 
stead on3  of  the  community  was  appointed  as  Archi- 
vist with  a  salary  from  the  Government,  an  arrange- 
ment which  still  continues. 

The  Diocese  of  Monte  Cassino  includes  most  of  the 
Abruzzi,  and  is  one  of  the  most  extensive  in  Italy.  It 
was  formed  by  uniting  seven  ancient  dioceses,  a  fact 
which  is  borne  in  mind  by  the  interesting  custom  that, 
when  the  abbot  sin^gs  pontifical  High  Mass,  he  uses 
seven  different  precious  mitres  in  succession.  As  or- 
dinary the  abbot  is  directly  subject  to  the  Holy  See, 
and  tne  choir  monks  take  rank  as  the  chapter  of  the 
diocese,  of  which  the  abbatial  basilica  of  Monte  Cas- 
sino is  the  cathedral.  The  conferring  of  sacred  orders, 
blessing  of  Holy  Oils,  and  administration  of  the  Sacra- 
ment of  Confirmation  are  the  only  pontifical  functions 
which  the  abbot  does  not  exercise.  The  vicar-genera) 
is  usually  one  of  the  conmmunity. 

AnnaUa  Cannemes  in  Psrts,  Afon.  Oarm,  Biit,  8cripi.»  III, 
VII,  XIX:  Oattula.,  Hut.  abbatia  Catin.  (4  vols.,  Venioe,  1733); 
Marqarinub,  BvMar,  Catin,  (2  vols.,  Venice,  1650) ;  Axumuaku 
BiU.  Bfn€dtetino-<!annensia  (Aaaiai.  1732) ;  GBOesi,  La  devoid  c 
la  bibliogrckfia  d%  MorUe  Catnno  <Naple8,  1820);  Tovn.  Storie 
deOa  Badia  di  MorUe  Ccunno  (3  voIb.,  Naples.  1842);  Van  dbm 
Nkst,  Naples  0l  U  Mont  Caann  (Antwerp,  1850);  Quillaumb, 
Description  .  .  .  du  MorU  Catein  (Monte  Cassino,  1874);  Iobm, 
Moni  Caetin  ei  le  XIV*  centenaire  de  8t,  BenaU  (Paris,  1880); 
Babtolini,  Uantieo  Ccaaino  «  H  primitivo  monaelero  di  S.  Btna- 
detto  (Monte  Cassino,  1880) ;   Claubss,  Lee  oriifinee  bhUdietine^ 

Sftris.  1890);  UoHELU,  Italia  Sacra,  II  (Venice,  1647),  1027-35; 
NoraLLOW  in  Atlantic  Monthly,  XXXV  (1876),  161;  Bn- 
KARDi,  Uarchivio  e  la  hibliatheea  di  M,  C,  (Monte  Cassino.  1872); 
Diet,  dee  MSS,,  II  (Migne,  1853),  923-52;  Spicilegium  CaeinenM 
(Monte  Cassino,  1893 — )i  PisciCELU-TAEoai,  La  p(deograJla 
artietiea  di  M,  C,  (5  vols.,  Monte  Cassino.  1878-83). 

G.  Roger  Hudleston. 

Montefeltro,  Diocese  op  (Ferstrana),  in  the 
province  of  Urbino,  in  the  Marches,  Central  Italy. 
The  earliest  mention  of  it,  as  Mons  Feretri,  is  in  the 
diplomas  by  which  Charlemagne  confirmed  the  grants 
of  Pepin  the  Short  to  the  Holy  See.  Montefdtro^  waa 
then  the  seat  of  counts,  who  became  imperial  vicars 
in  1135,  and  Counts  of  Urbino  in  1213.  Their  rule 
was  interrupted  from  1322  to  1375,  when  Ederigo  I  of 
Montefeltro  amd  Urbino  lost  possession  of  the  city. 
This  prince  and  his  successors  made  several  attempts 
to  recover  Montefeltro,  from  which  Cardinal  Albomos 
(1359)  again  expelled  them  in  the  person  of  Nolfo. 
The  elder  Guido  of  Montefeltro,  a  famous  Ghibelline 
captain,  finally  became  a  Franciscan,  and  died  in  1298. 

The  first  known  bii^op  of  Montefeltro  was  Agatho 
(826),  whose  residence  was  at  San  Leo;  other  bishops 
were  Valentino  (1173),  who  finished  the  cathedral; 
Benvenuto  (1219),  deposed  as  a  partisan  of  Count 
Ederigo;  Benedetto  (1390).  a  Benedictine  monk, 
rector  of  Roma^a  and  Duke  of  Spoleto:  the  Fran- 
ciscan Giovanm  Seclani  (1413),  who  built  the  epis- 
copal palace  of  Calamello;  Cardinal  Ennio  Filonardi 
(1549);  Giovanni  Francesco  Sarmani  (1567),  founder 
of  the  seminary  of  Pennabilli,  thenceforth  residence  of 
the  bishops,  the  episcopal  see  having  been  transfeired 
to  that  town  from  San  Leo,  an  important  fortress  oi 
the  Pontifical  States.  Under  Bi^op  Flaminioe  Dondi 
(1724)  the  see  was  again  transferred  to  San  Leo,  but 
later  it  returned  to  Pennabilli.  This  diocese  is  Biiffra-> 
gan  of  Urbino,  and  has  120  parishes,  173  secular 

Eriests,  30  regulars,  60,350  Catholics,  91  reli^ous 
ouses  of  men,  9  of  women,  2  educational  institutes 
for  male  students,  and  3  for  girls. 
Cafpbllbitx,  Le  CfUeee  d^Italia,  III  (Venice.  1857). 

tJ.  Beniqnz, 


MOMtxruscom 


,  DiocBBB  or  (MoNTiB  Falibci),  in 
the  province  of  Rome.  The  city  is  Bituated  nearly 
2000  feet  above  sea-level,  on  a  tufa  mass  that  over- 
kokfi  tjie  Lake  of  Bolaena;  it  is  famoue  for  ita  wine. 
The  town  ia  of  Etruscan  origin  and  whs  called  Falia- 
oodunum.  Some  believe  that  it  is  the  ancient  Fanum 
Voltumnie.  For  the  Faliscans,  and  later  for  the 
popes,  it  was  s  most  important  strategic  position; 
Gr%oty  IX  fortified  it  in  1235  against  Frederick 
11,  but  the  town  auirendered  to  that  prince  in  1240, 
and  thenceforth  never  regmned  its  earber  importance. 
The  castle,  now  in  ruins,  was  restored  by  Leo  X.  The 
eathedralie  the  work  of  Samaiicheli  (1519).  Outside  the 
dty,  on  the  road  to  Bolaena,  is  the  faraoua  double  ba- 
sihcaof  San  Flaviano,thelower  portion  of  which  datce 
from  1030,  while  the  upper  basiticSj  dating  from  1262, 
presents  the  interesting  feature  of  alternating  ogive 
and  round  arches.  There  also  is  the  tomb  of  that  fa- 
mous drinker  whom 
the  wine  of  Monto- 
fiascone  brought  to 
his  death  (Est,  Est, 
Est),  and  who.  con- 


tra^ U)  re] 
ueiUier  a  o 


one  of  the  Fugger 
family  of  Augsburg. 
Montefiascone  ia  the 
birthplace  of  the  poet 
Giairibattista  Casti, 
who  died  in  1802. 
This  city,  originally 
in  the  Diocese  of  Ba- 
gnorea,  was  made  an 
episcopal  see  in  1369^ 
its  first  biahop  was 
the  French  Augustin- 
ian  Pierre  d'^iguis- 
cen  (1376),  a  parti- 
san of  the  antipope 

Clement    VII.      In  Piun  or  m  Ptasi 

1435  the  see  was 
united  with  that  of  Conteto,  and  so  temped  until, 
in  1854,  Cometo  became  a  part  of  the  Diocese  of 
Civitaveochia. 

Among  ita  bishops  were  Aleasandro  Famese  (1499), 
later  Paul  III;  the  two  brothers  and  cardinals  Paolo 
Emilio  Zaccfaia  (1601)  and  Ludovico  Zacchia  (1605), 
boUi  of  whom  did  much  for  the  building  of  the  cathe- 
dral; Cardinal  Paluiio  Alberloni  Altieri  (1666), 
founder  of  the  seminary  and  restorer  of  the  cathednu, 
which  was  dama^  by  a  fire  in  1670;  the  learned  car- 
dinal M.  Antonio  Barbarigo  (1687),  who  was  trans- 
ferred later  to  Padua;  he  gave  great  assistance  aft«r 
the  earthquake  of  1695;  Cardinal  Pompeo  Aldobran- 
dini  (1734);  the  learned  Giuseppe  Garampi  (1776). 
who  gave  its  library  to  the  seminary,  and  Cardinal 
Giovanni  Sifredo  Manzy  (1794);  the  attitude  of  this 
prelate  towards  Napoleon  was  not  imitated  by  his 
clersy,  who  therefore  suffered  imprisonment  and  exile. 
The  diocese  is  directly  dependent  on  the  Holy  See;  it 
oonttuns  18  parishes,  74  secular  priests,  21  regulars, 
26,147  inhabitants,  3  religious  houses  of  men,  14  of 
women,  and  3  convent  schools  for  girls. 

CkFTiLLrrn,  Li  CMm  d'ltalia  (Vetiim,  1887)',  db  Anqius. 
Commtni^wio  wlxs-itA-frHwo  tu  TorvjiTU  e  U  viande  di  MmUfiJuooiu 
(MontefiuDoiu,  IStl). 

U.  Benioni. 

Hoatami^or  (MoNTBudR),  Jobqe  pk,  writer,  b. 
Kt  Montein6r,  province  of  Coimbra,  Portugal,  about 
1S20;  d.  at  Turin,  26  February,  1561.  Althou^  of 
^nrtugueae  birth,  Montemayor  occupies  a  pronunent 

Etace  in  the  history  of  Spanish  letters.    Little  is 
nown  of  his  life.    We  are  informed,  however,  that  he 
was  not  a  man  of  umvetrdty  truning,  being  not  even 
acquainted  with  Latin. 
The  woriE  which  has  given  him  fame  is  his  pastoml 


novel  "La  Diana",  published,  according  to  common 
report,  at  Valenwai,  m  1542,  but  thought  by  others, 
itota  allusions  in  the  work  itself,  to  have  been  pub- 
lished after  1654,  probably  in  1568  or  1569.  This 
book,  which  for  a  lon^  time  served  as  a  model  for 
novels  of  its  Idnd,  is  written  in  good  Spaniafa,  and  in  it 
the  author  describes  certain  incidents  in  his  own  life, 
among  others  an  unfortunate  love  aiftur.  The  por- 
tions written  in  verse  are  not  as  meritorious  as  those 
written  in  prose.  The  author  promises  a  sequel 
which  never  appeared.  Three  Other  "Dianas"  ap- 
peared, however,  which  purported  to  be  continuations 
of  Montemayor's.  One  by  Alonzo  Perei,  a  physician 
of  Salamanca,  who  claimed  that  Montemayor  had  en- 
trusted to  him  his  plans  for  finishing  the  work,  ap- 
peared in  1564  and  was  a  ftulure.  The  two  othera,  by 
Ga^ar  Gil  Polo  in  1564  and  by  Jer6nimo  de  Tajada 
in  1627,  were  more  deserving  of  praise. 

The  "Diana"  ei^ 


imitations  by  famous 
authors,  notably  "La 
Arcadia"  of  Lope  de 
Vega,  and  "La  G(v 
latea"  of  Cei-vantea, 
and  it  issiud  that 
Shakespeare     based 


Diana".  It  went 
through  many  edi- 
tions both  in  and  out 
of  Spain.  There  are 
six  French,  two  Ger- 
man, and  one  Eng- 
lish translation  of  the 
book,  the  latter  the 
work  of  Bartholo- 
mew Young  (Lon- 
don, 1598).  Mon- 
temayor has  also  left  a  number  of  jyrie  poems,  pub- 
lished in  1554  under  the  title  of  "Cancionero  ,  and 
rejirinted  in  1562,  1572,  and  1588.  Tliese  are  tdso 
written  in  Spanidi,  but  are  not  of  any  particular 

Rmu  Huvanioat  (Puu,  ISSfi);  FlnHiiDRtCB-Kiu.T,  A  Hit- 
(»r*o/SpannA  tttamftin  (Nbw  York.  1906);  TiCKKoa,  A  Hit- 
bmi  0/  Sraniih  LOeralm  (BMtoa,  ISSS). 


:■,  Cbtihjk,  Montckbobo 


VWJTUHA  FdZNTEB. 

__ .,  _.  — the  Balkan  Peiunsu] a, 

the  east  coast  of  toe  Adriatic  Sea;  the  territory 
waa  in  ancient  times  a  portion  of  the  Roman  province  of 
Dalmatia.  Emperor  Diocletian  made  Southern  Dal- 
matia  a  separate  province,  Pwevalis  (Dioclea,  EHo- 
clitia)  with  Dioclea  as  its  capital.  From  the  seventh 
century  the  north-western  portion  of  the  peninsula 
began  to  be  invaded  by  Slav  tribes;  one  of  these,  the 
Serbs,  settled  in  the  territory  which  they  atill  possess, 
and  founded  there  several  principalities  (Zupanale), 
the  most  southern  of  which  wascalled^  Zeta,  or  (after 


Servian  Empire  attained  its  greatest  power  (aee 
Servia).  Stefan  I  Nemanja  was  recogniced  as 
Chief  Zupan  by  Emperor  Manuel  I,  in  1165;  having 
reduced  into  submission  the  stubborn  lesser  Zupans, 
be  embraced  the  Orthodox  Faith,  and  then  began  to 
organize  the  Servian  Church.  His  youngest  son, 
Sawa,  or  Sabas,  after  being  appointed  first  Orthodox 
Archbishop  of  Servia  in  1221,  founded  a  see  for  Zeta 
in  the  monastery  of  St.  Michael  near  Cattaro.  In  Uie 
Empire  of  the  ^rbs,  each  heir  apparent  to  the  throne 
was  first  appointed  administrator  of  the  Province  of 
Zeta.  However,  under  King  Stefan  Duian  (1331-56) 
ft  member  of  the  Balaoiot  family  waa  named  Governor 


MONTUnCttO                         530  MOHTUnaBO 

atZf-ta.    From  1360  to  1421  this  family  ruled  in  Zeta,  with  the  leiga  of  Vladilca  Peter  I  Fetrovid  (1777- 

notwithfltanding  the  constant  Oppontion  of  the  Cei^  1830),  who  repelled  unaided  a  fierce  attack  of  the 

nojevid  family,  settled  in  Upper  Zeta.    On  Lhe  do-  Turks  in  1796  and  rendered  valuable  ud  hi  the  Rua- 

atniction  of  the  Great  Servian  Empire  by  the  Turks  aians  against  the  French  during  the  Napoleonic  wais. 

after  the  battle  of  Amrfeld  in  1389  Zeta  became  the  Because  of  his  glorioue  reiga,  Peter  was  proclaimed 

refuge  of  the  most  valiant  of  the  Serbs,  who  refused  to  a  saint  by  the  people  in  1334.    He  was  succeeded  by 

submit  to  the  Turkish  yoke.  Peter  II  Fetrovid  (1830-51),  who  was  educated  at 

At  the  beginning  of  the  fifteenth  century,  the  Ve-  St.  Petersburg:  this  monarch,  who  was  a  distingiU^ed 

netians  eetsAlisbea  a  settlement  on  the  eastern  coast  poet,  renderwl  valuable  services  to  I^  country  by 

of  the  Adriatic,  and  conquered  a  portion  of  the  Ser-  raising   its   intellectual   and   commerdal   condition, 

vian  Empire  in  spite  of  the  opposition  of  the  people.  Having  abolished  the  office  of  governor,  which  had 

As  vassal  of  the  Venetians,  Iwan  Cemojewid,  the  son  been  too  frequently  the  occasion  of  strife,  he  took  into 

of  St^an  (brother-in-law  of  Skanderbeg),  secured  (or  his  own  hands  the  secular  administration,  founded 

himself  aoverei^  authority.    He  founded  the  mon-  schools,  instituted  a  system  of  taxation,  organised 

aateiy  of  Cetinje  about  1478  or  1485.    It  was  dur-  a  guard  as  the  nucleus  of  a  standing  army,  and  ea- 

Ing  this  period  that  the  land  received  the  name  of  t^lished  a  aenat«  of  twelve  members.    His  successoi 

Cmagora,  or  Montenegro.    Under  Iwan's  son,  George  and  nephew,  Danilo  (1851-60),  changed  Montenegto 

(1490—),  IJie  first  Slav  litmwcal  books  were  printed  into  a  secular  state,  dispensed  with  episcopal  conse- 

at  Obod  (1493-5).     In  1516  he  abdicated  ajid  the  cration,   and   undertook   the    administration   as   a 

people  invested  the  bishop  (vladika),  who  was  also  secular  prince.    At  a  national   assembly   held   at 

superior  of  the  mon-  Cetinje     on     21 

astery    at    Cetinje,  March,    1852,   the 

with  supreme  secular  separation  of  the 

authority.        Subae-  qiiritual  and  secular 

quently  the  bishop,  powers  of  the  vladika 

who  until  1697  was  was  decreed,  and  the 

always  chosen  by  the  supreme  ecclesiBsti- 

"■■'■'■  cal  authority  e 


National  Assembly, 
was  both  spiritual 
and  temporal  ruler 
of  the  Uttle  Btat& 
althou^  be  named 
a  secular  governor 
to  conduct  war  and 
administer  justice. 
The  Turks  made  re- 
peated attacks  dur- 
ing the  fifteenth  cen- 
tury on  the  freedom 
of  the  mountain 
Idngdom.  TheMon- 
ten^rins,  notwith- 
standing tbeii  heroic 
opposition,  were  fi- 
i^y  foreed  to  make  N*™>i.u.  C!o«tomi  Cmm™,  M< 


trusted  to  the  archi- 
mandrite of  the  mon> 
asteryofOstros.  In 
the  same  year  Rusna 
and  Austria  tooog- 
nized  Mont«iegro 
as  an  hereditary, 
secular,  and  indepai- 
dent  state.  The 
Forte,  however, 
which  still  regarded 
the  country  as  "a 
portion  of  its  Ra- 
jahs temporarily  in 
revolt",  refused  ita 
recognition  and  sent 
an  expedition  of  60,- 


theirsubm 

from  about  1530  had  to  pay  tribute  to  the  Sanjak  Whenthelandseemedabouttobeoverwbelmedbysuch 

of  Scutari.     In  domestic  affairs,  however,  they  re-  hugeforcee,  Austria  interfered  in  its  behalf jandcoia- 

tnained  independent,  and  the  soveredgnty  of  the  pelled  the  Forte  to  discontinue  the  war.    The  politi* 

Forte  was  mostly  of  a   purely  nominal  character,  cal  position  of  the  land,   however,  remained  still 

Frequently  the  httle  nation,  which  (according  to  the  undefined.    In  1858,  when  the  Turks  attacked  Mont«- 

description  of  the  Italian  Mariano  Bolisza  in  1611)  negro  without  any  declaration  of  hostilities,  the  Eun>* 

then  contained  90  settlements  and  8027  armed  men.  pean  Great  Powers,  especially  France  and  Russia, 

engsged  in  war  witlt  ^e  Turks,  being  often  asmstea  came  forward  as  its  protectors,  and  a  commissioD  of 

wiui  moneyand  arms  by  the  Venetians.  the  Powers  fixed  the  frontiers  of  the  country,  whose 

In  1696  Danilo  Fetrovid,  of  the  Nj^oS  family,  was  t«rritory  was  increased  by  a  few  districts. 
dected  vladika,  and  made  the  episoopaTdi^ty  hered-  In  1860  Danilo  was  shot  by  a  Montenegrin  deserter, 
itary  in  his  house,  the  vladika,  who  as  bishop  could  and,  as  he  left  behind  only  a  daught«r  two  years  old, 
not  marry,  bung  succeeded  on  his  death  by  his  his  widow  secured  on  14  August,  1860,  the  election  of 
nephew  or  brother.  As  prince  of  a  nation  recognizing  the  youngest  son  of  Damlo's  brother,  who  still 
the  Orthodox  Church,  Danilo  inaugurated  closer  rela-  regns.  Mon4«negTO's  participation  in  the  insurrec- 
tions withRumia.  which  held  the  samereli^ousbehefs,  tion  of  Herzegovina  led  in  1862  to  a  war  with  Turkey, 
and  Peter  the  Great  undertook  the  protectorate  of  during  which  the  Turks  invaded  the  land  and  oocu- 
Montenegro  in  1710.  Since  that  date  the  Montene-  pied  Cetinje.  The  Peace  of  Scutari  conceded  to  the 
grins  have  always  shown  themselves  the  faithful  allies  Turks  various  fortresses  along  the  road  leading  from 
of  Russia  in  its  wars  against  the  Turks,  although  at  Hera»ovina  through  Montenegro  to  Scutari.  In 
the  end  of  these  wars  they  usually  reaped  no  aovan-  1870,  however,  the  Porte  surrendered  its  right  to  oo- 
tages.  The  Russians,  however,  often  made  large  con-  cupy  these  fortresses.  In  1875,  when  the  insurrection 
bwutions  of  money  t«  their  poor  allies:  in  1714  Peter  occurred  in  Bosnia,  Nikita.  who  controlled  an  army 
I  contributed  10,000  rubles  towards  the  relief  of  those  of  15,000  well-armed  troops,  formed  an  alliance  with 
whose  prop^y  had  been  burnt  and  for  the  rebuilding  the  Bosnians  ag^nst  the  Turks,  and  prosecuted  the 
of  the  destroyed  monasteries;  in  1715  he  assigned  an  war  with  succesa  until  1878.  Not  only  did  be  nj>A 
annua]  contribution  of  500  rubles  and  other  presents  all  the  Turkish  attacks,  but  he  even  succeeded  in 
to  the  monastery  of  Cetinje;  and  in  1837  Emperor  capturing  Antivari  (thus  securing  a  long-desired 
Nicholas  I  asragned  to  the  prince  a  fixed  annual  in-  maritime  outlet  for  his  country)  and  Dulcigno  in  1878. 
oome  of  9000  ducats.  At  the  Congress  of  Berlin  Turkey  reoogniaed  the 

The  moit  piasperous  era  of  Mont«negio  opened  political  ind^tendenoe  of  Montenegro  (13  July,  1878), 


the  tenitoiy  of  which  was  now  more  th&n  doubled. 
According  to  Article  29  of  the  Treaty  of  Berlin,  how- 
ever, Monten^ro  might  neither  keep  ehipe  ot  war, 
nor  fortify  the  coaat,  and  was  obliged  to  recognise  the 
right  of  Austria  to  police  the  coast.  It  was  onlv  in 
1909  that  the  country  secured  a  release  from  tneee 
conditiona.  When  Austria-Hungary  annexed  Bosnia 
and  Hencsovina  in  October,  1908,  and  thereby  an- 
nihilated the  dreams  of  Monten^ro  and  Servia  of  a 
United  Servian  Empire,  Montenegro  protested  in 
common  with  Servia  and,  encouraged  by  Russia, 
demanded  from  Austria  the  annulment  of  Article  20 
of  the  Treaty  of  Berlin  and  the  evacuation  of  Spina. 
In  April,  1909,  Austria  agreed  to  the  abrogation  of 
Article  29,  but  refused  to  surrender  Spizia,  and  se- 
cured the  retention  of  that  portion  ot  the  Berlin 
Treaty,  which  forbade  the  traaaformation  of  An- 
tivari  into  a  naval  station.  In  1905  Nikita  granted 
the  country  a  constitution  and  a  national  assembly 
elected  by  popular  suffrage.  Although  the  economi- 
cal resources  of  the  land  are  small,  and  its  cultural 
conditions,  notwithstanding  the  great  progress  made 
in  the  last  liftjj  yearB,  leave  much  to  be  desired,  it 
occupies  a  podtion  of  increased  consideration  and 
importance  with  regard  to  the  Balkan  politics  of  the 
European  powers  on  account  of  the  abihty  of  its  ruler 
and  Its  intimate  relations  with  Rusia,  Italy,  and 
Ser\-ia.  In  1900  Prince  Nikita  received  the  title  of 
Royal  HiKhnesB,  and  in  August,  1910,  with  the  con- 
sent of  all  the  powers  he  had  himself  crowned  king. 
On  that  occasion  Russia  save  expreaaon  to  the  an- 
cient friendship  existing  between  the  countries  hy 
naming  the  new  king  General  Field-Marshal,  the  hai- 
apparent  Major  General,  and  Prince  Mirleo  Iieutei> 
ant  Colonel  of  the  Russian  Army- 
Montenegro  has  an  area  of  3630  sq.  miles  and  a  pop- 
ulation of  250,000  inhabitanta,  of  whom  the  great  ma- 
jority are  of  unmixed  Serb  stock.  About  223,500 
belong  to  the  Greek  Orthodox  Church;  12,900  are 
Catholics  (mostly  Albaniana),  and  about  14,000  are 
Mohammedans.  The  capital  is  Cetinje.  The  earlier 
plenary  power  of  the  prince  has  not  been  aubatantially 
lessened  by  the  Constitution  of  6  (19)  December,  1906. 
The  members  of  the  popular  assembly  (Skupachtina) 
are  elected  by  public  direct  suffrage  every  four  years; 
the  assembly  includes  twelve  ex-officio  members, 
among  whom  are  the  Orthodox  metropoUtan,  the 
Catholic  Arehbiehop  of  Antivari,  the  Mufti  of  Mon- 
tenegro, the  president  of  the  Supreme  Court  of  Jus- 
tice, etc.  The  state  religion  is  the  Greek  Orthodox; 
all  other  relipous  bodies  recogniced  by  the  State  are  at 
Uberty  (o  practice  their  religion,  but  every  attempt  on 
their  pert  to  gain  converts  from  among  the  Ortiiodax 
is  forbidden.  The  Orthodox  Church  of  Monten^ro 
is  autocephalous,  i.  e.,  independent  of  the  Patriarch  of 
Constantinople;  its  spiritual  head^ho  bears  the  titles 
of  Metropolitan  of  SkanderiaandParathalassIa,  Arch- 
bishop of  Tsetinia,  etc.,  is  choaen  by  the  National  Aa- 
sembly  from  the  ranks  of  the  native  unmarried  secular 
clergy  or  monka,  and  is  consecrated  by  the  Russian 
Holy  Synod  at  St.  Petersburg.  He  reeidee  at  the  mon- 
astery of  St.  Peter  at  Cetinje.  In  1877  a  second  aee, 
that  of  Brda  and  Ostrog,  was  erected.    The  proto- 

Kabyterates  number  17,  and  the  parishes  about  160. 
e  priestly  ofHce  is  as  a  rule  hereditary,  since  each 
priest  trains  his  son  for  the  priesthood;  the  office  of 

firotopresbyter  is  similarly  in  the  poeeeeson  of  certain 
amilies. 

Sinoe  the  convention  between  the  Holj^  See  and  the 
Prince  of  Montenegro  of  18  August  (ratified  8  Octo- 


1  KOHTIPULCUNO 

tion  of  the  Convention  and  without  conniltjng  the 
Roman  authorities,  reduced  the  number  to  seven. 
The  archiopiscopal  see  is  at  present  (1910)  vacant,  its 
administration  t>eing  carried  on  by  Don  Metodio 
O.S.F.  Negotiations  concerning  the  filling  of  the  see 
and  the  alteration  of  the  Convention  are  bong  carried 
between  the  Holy  See  and  the  Montenegrin  Gov- 
■  (1910). 

Tba  svliu  liUntun)  will  ba  lound  Id  VuMHTntmLU.  BOtie- 

ernfla  dalia  Datrnalia  ■  cU  Monientfro  (Zasmbru,  ISAA;  Supple 


MI).    Con 
f  (Vi.nn», 


(Puis.  ISeS):  Drurroii,  Uantmtart.  iii  i't/iU and  HiU^aliaD- 
doD.lSTn:  Crvjoiha,  Storia dtt  ItoiUmm da' Uwipi atUtcU  fin* 
a'nottri  OpmUU),  1SS2) ;  CooDlLLS.  HUloiri  d»  ilanUniaro  il  •!• 

laBatnit(Pti\-  ""'"■  " "  "_. .-■ ■—■-. 


VerganBinSril  und  Onnwari  ISl.  Peleraburt,  I00«),  in  Rub 
ScHwiu.  MmUntgn  (L«puc,  18S8):  HiUEBT,  Britragi  fur 
pJiviiKkcn  OxvrapAu •on  UdHMMimCGotlu,  ISfiS),  with lublloc- 
nphy;  Hxmin.  /(  Umltnten  (Ronw,  1S97);  Wtoh  mo 
Pbahci.  Thm  Ijod  a/  Ou  Blatk  If suXnfn  (London.  1903} ;  Pa>- 
UKOa,  Dalmatim  v>d  itori.  (Lapiic,  1004):  Itanimtar^  vai 
tan  HtmcAtrSaut  (1000):  Paqluho.  La  emHOuiioiu  rU  UonL 
(Rome,  1906):  NoLTI.  Amb  fw  le  UimL  (Puis,  1907). 

JOBEFH  LlNB. 

Honte  OliTflto  VUgglon.    See  Ouvetaks. 

>  MONTEPELOSO, 


Hontopnlelano,  Diocese  op  (Montis  Poutiaki^, 
in  the  province  of  Siena,  in  Tuscany  The  dty  la 
built  on  the  summit  of  Monte  Poliziano.    It  b  the 


See.  There  are  13  secular  priests,  10  n^ular  priests, 
27  churches  and  chapels,  and  eleven  elementary 
schools.  The  number  of  mrishee  is  thirteen,  but  a 
law  recently  passed  by  the  Skupschtina,  in  contraven- 


PjkbUIO  PDBIUCO,  MDKTBnjLCUHO 

XlVCantury 

ancient  Etiuacan  city  of  Nocera  Alfatema,  which  in 
306  B.  c.  made  an  alliance  with  Rome  a«sinst  the 
Samnites.  In  the  Middle  Ages  it  acknowledged  the 
auieraintv  of  Florence,  but  was  conquered  by  Siena  in 
1260.  The  cathedra!  was  built  in  1619,  from  plans  by 
Scalzo;  until  the  eighteenth  century  it  held  tne  tomD 
of  Bartolomeo  Arragaiii,  secretary  of  Martin  V,  a 
woric  of  Micheloiio.  The  church  of  the  Madonna  di 
San  Bia^o  is  a  notable  structure  planned  by  Antooio 
da  SangaUo  (1618-37).     The  fagados  of  the  ohuroh  of 


Baint  Agoetino  and  of  the  Oratorio  della  Miaeiicordia  lisbed  were  retuned,  and  thue  it  b  that  so  many  ol  Oe 
are  wotthv  of  mentjon.  Among  the  civic  buildings  towns,  rivers,  and  mountains  atill  bear  the  names  of 
are  notable  the  Tarugi  palace,  like  the  Mereato  a    various  s^nta.    The  most  noted  among  the  early  mis- 


whi^  conttuns  a  small  galleiy  of  Sienese  and  of  Um-  16u,  his  bic^rapher  and  the  historian  of  the  early  mis- 

brian  art.    The  moat  famous  men  of  Montepulciano  aionary  penod;  Fr.  Fermin  de  Lasuen,  the  wiae  aod 

are  Cardinal  Bellarmine,  Pope  Marcellus  II,  Cervini,  firm  successor  of  Fr.  Serra;  Fr.  Luis  Jayme,  the  first 

Angelo  Ambrog^ni,  better  known  as  Poliziano  (1454-  martyr;  Fr.  Juan  Crespi,  one  of  the  discoverets  of  San 

1404),  and  the  humanist  Bartolomeo  of  Montepul-  Francisco  and  Monterey  Bays  and  author  of  a  lengthy 

oano.    St.  Agnes  of  Mont«pulciano  died  in  1137.  description  of  the  expedition;  Fr,  Buenaventura  Sit- 

The  city  belonged  originally  to  the  Diocese  of  jar,  author  of  a  dictionary  of  the  Telame  language 
Arecio,  and  bad  a  coUegjate  church,  whose  archprieat  (New  York,  1861) ;  Fr.  Geronimo  Boacana,  author  of 
became  a  mitred  abbot  in  IVXS;  in  1480  it  became  a  "Chinigcbinig",  an  account  of  the  Indian  character 
jwwfaJura  nttUiua,  and  in  1561  was  made  the  seat  of  and  customs  {New  York,  1846) ;  Fr.  Felipe  Arroyo  de 
a  bishop.  Its  first  la  Cuesta,  author  of 
bishop  was  Spinello  a  dictionan  of  2884 
Benci  (1562);among  woids  and  expreo- 
the others  the  follow-  sions  in  the  Mutsun 
ing  are  well  known:  language(New  Voric. 
Talento  de'  Talenti  1862);  Fr.  Vinrentc 
(1640),  a  ^reat  sav-  de  SarriA,  first  com- 
ant;  Antonio  Cervini  Uario-^efteto  and 
(1663),who  did  much  eminent  for  learning 
for  the  cathedral  and  and  piety;  Fr.  Mar- 
the  episcopal  palace;  iano  Payeraa,  author 
Pictro  Francesi  of  an  Indian  cate- 
{1737)  opposed  the  chism;  Fr.  Narciso 
novelties  of  the  Duran;  Fr.  Magin 
Council  of  Florence  Catali;Fr. Francisco 
m  1787;  Fellegrino  DumeU;  Fr.  Joa6 
Maria  Carletti  Sefian;  Fr.  Eet^van 
(1802),  author  of  Tapis;  and  Fr.  Joa« 
several  works  and  of  Maria  Gonsalei 
^ghteen  letters  on  Rlibio,administi«tor 
the  National  Coun-  of  the  dioceae  after 
dl  of  Paris  ot  1810,  Bishop  Diego'a 
at  which  he  assisted.  I  death.  The  first 
The  diocese  is  im-  Cathedr*i,  Mohtbfulcuho  bishop  ot  both  Cab- 
mediately  dependent  fornias,  Rt.  Rev. 
on  the  Holy  See,  and  haa  18  porishe^  15,879  inhabi-  Frandsco  Garcia  Diego  y  Moreno,  O.F.M.,  was 
tanta,  two  religiouB  houses  of  men,  and  two  of  women,  consecrated  4  October,    1840,    and  died   30  April, 

CAFraujTn.  L(  Chiae  d'llatia,  XIII  CVeoioB,  1BS7].  1846,  at  Santa  Barbara  Mission,   where  his  remains 

U.  Beniosi.  were  interred  on  the  Epistle  aide  of  the  altar.     Dur- 
ing his  administration  the  first  seminary  for  the  edu- 

Hontotey  and  Los  Angelee,  Dioh:ebb  of  (Mon-  cation  of  secular  priests  on  the  western  coast  was 
TKRBTENSia  BT  Anqblobdm),  comprisea  that  part  of  opened  4  May,  1844,  at  Minsion  Santa  Inei;  Fr.  Joo6 
the  State  of  California  which  lies  south  of  37°  5' N.lat.  Joaquin  Jimeno,  O.F.M.,  was  the  first  rector.  Veir 
and  covers  on  area  of  80,000  square  miles.  It  thus  Rev.  Jos6  Maria  GonEalei  RAbio,  O.F.M.,  was  ad- 
embraces  eighteen  of  the  twenty-one  Indian  missions  ministrator  from  1846  to  1851  when  Bishop  Alenkony 
which  made  California  famous.  Originally  the  whole  arrived.  Fr.  Riibio  was  later  proposed  tor  a  diocese 
state  with  the  peninsulaofLowerCalitomia  formed  the  but  declin^  the  mitre.  While  in  chaise  ot  the  See  of 
I^cese  of  Both  Californias  whose  first  bishop  was  the  Monterey,  which  included  both  Caliloniias,  he  eo- 
Rt.  Rev.  Francisco  Garcia  Diego  y  Moreno.  On  his  joyed  the  privily  of  administering  the  sacrament  of 
arrival  in  Upper  California  he  established  his  residence  Confirmation,  Unable  to  procure  priests  to  replace 
at  Santa  Barbara  Mission,  On  1  May,  1850,  the  pope  the  old  missionaries  who  were  fast  dying  away,  Fr. 
organized  the  Diocese  of  Monterey  and  named  Rt.  Rdbio  in  1849  invited  the  Jesuit  Fathers  to  come  to 
Rot.  Joseph  Sadoc  Alemony,  O.P,,  its  Srst  bishop,  California  and  found  a  college  in  the  torritory.  They 
but  Lower  California  was  not  withdrawn  from  his  consented  and  opened  thdr  college  in  1851,  He  waa 
jurisdiction  until  21  Dec.,  1S51.  In  1853  the  penin-  bom  at  Guadalajara,  Mexico,  in  1804,  and  entered  the 
aula  waa  placed  under  the  administration  of  the  Franciscan  Order  at  Zap6pan  in  1824.  In  1833  hear- 
Metropolitan  of  Mexico.  When  on  29  July,  1853,  rived  in  California  and  was  given  choige  of  Misnoa 
the  Archdiocese  ot  San  Francisco  was  erected,  the  San  Job6,  In  1842,  at  the  request  of  the  bishop,  here- 
boundw^  of  the  Monterey  Diocese  were  drawn  as  moved  to  Santa  Barbara,  and  lived  there  continuously 
they  exist  at  present.  Archbishop  Alemany  on  29  until  his  death  2  November,  1875.  His  remains  were 
July,  1853,  was  promoted  to  the  See  of  San  Franciaco,  buried  in  the  vaults  of  the  mis»on  church. 
and  on  the  same  date  Rt.  Rev.  Thaddeus  Amat,  Rt.  Rev,  Thaddeus  Amat,  CM.  (q.  v.),  after  bis 
CM.,  was  appointed  Bishop  ot  Monterey,  The  new  consecration  at  Rome,  12  March,  1854,  reached  Coli- 
bi^op  resided  at  Santa  Barbara,  however,  until  9  fomiain  1855.  In  1856  he  called  the  Sisters  of  Charitv 
July,  1859,  on  which  date  the  pope  permitted  him  to  (Vincentions)  to  the  dioceee.  They  founded  and  stUl 
remove  bis  residence  to  Los  Angeles,  but  with  instruc-  conduct  the  orphan  asylums  at  Loa  Angeles.  Santa 
tiona  to  retain  the  old  title,  Barbara,  and  Santa  Cruz,  and  an  academy  at  HoIIis- 

Around  the  former  miasione  and  the  four  militaiv  ter.     He  also  brouffht  the  Laxarists  or  Vincmtian 

garrisons  in  the  course  of  time  immigrants  from  al-  Fathers  to  LosAngcleswheretheyerected  St.  Vincent's 

moat  every  part  ot  the  world  took  up  thdr  abode  and  College.    At  his  request  the  Sisters  of  the  Immaculate 

founded  cities,  but  ^e  names  of  the  saintfl  under  Heart  of  Mary  came  from  Spun  fo  California,  30 

wboee  invocation  the  Irn^on  missione  had  been  estab-  August,  1871,  and  opmed  schools  for  giila  at  Urn 


MONTEREY                             533  M0NTEBE7 

Angdes,  San  Luis  Obtspo,  and  San  Bernardino.  In  leek,  County  Cavan,  Ireland,  1  August,  1847,  and 
iS'n.  Bishop  Amat  laid  the  oomerstone  for  the  cathe-  came  to  America  with  his  parents  in  1850.  He  at- 
dral  at  Los  Angeles,  and  placed  it  and  the  diocese  tended  the  home  schools  of  Taunton,  Mass.,  grad- 
under  the  patronage  of  St.  Vibiana  (Bibiana),  virgin  uated  from  Hoty  Cross  College,  Worcester,  Mass.,  in 
and  martyr.  The  ouilding  was  completed  and  dedi-  1869,  was  ordamed  priest  at  Montreal  Seminary  21 
cated  30  June,  1876.  In  1870  he  attended  the  Vatican  December,  1872,  was  made  assistant  at  St.  John's 
Council.  Owing  to  constant  ill-health  he  asked  for  a  Church.  Worcester,  Mass.,  1  January,  1873,  and  pas- 
coadjutor  who  was  given  him  in  the  person  of  Rt.  Rev.  tor  of  tne  church  of  the  Sacred  Heart,  Worcester,  10 
Francis  Mora.  Bishop  Amat  died  12  May,  1878.  January,  1880.  During  these  years  he  was  actively 
His  remains  lie  buried  in  the  cathedral  which  he  engaged  in  the  cause  of  total  abstinence  and  educa- 
erected.               ...  *^^^*   He  was  president  of  the  Total  Abstinence  Union 

Rt.  Rev.  Francis  Mora  was  bom  at  Vich,  Catalonia,  of  America,  and  for  several  years  president  of  the 

Spdn,  25  Nov.,  1827:  he  attended  the  seminary  of  his  Catholic  Summer  School  at  Cliff  Haven.   At  dififerent 

native  city;  in  1855  ne  accompanied  Bishop  Amat  to  times  he  was  elected  to  public  positions  of  trust  in  the 

California,  and  was  ordained  priest  at  Santa  Barbara  city  of  Worcester.    On  10  January^  1897,  he  was  ap- 

19  March,  1856.   From  July  of  that  year  to  the  end  of  pomted  Rector  of  the  Catholic  University,  Washing- 

1860  he  was  stationed  at  the  Indian  mission  of  San  ton,  D.  C,  by  Leo  XIII.    On  1  November.  1897,  he 

Juan  Bautista,  and  from  September,  1861,  to  July,  was  made  domestic  prelate,  and  14  July,  1901,  named 

1866,  he  had  charge  of  Mission  San  Luis  Obispo,  titular  Bishop  of  Samos,  and  was  consecrated  at  the 

After  that  he  resided  at  Los  Angeles.    On  20  May,  cathedral,  Baltimore,  21  November,  1901,  by  Cardi- 

1873,  Father  Mora  was  consecrated  Bishop  of  Mosy-  nal  Gibbons.     On  27  March,  1903,  he  was  appointed 

nopolis  in  partibus  infidelium  and  made  coadjutor  of  Bishop  of  Monterey  and  Ix)s  Angeles  to  succeed 

Bishop  Amat.   At  the  death  of  the  latter  he  succeeded  Bishop  Montgomery.    The  influx  of  unmigrants  from 

to  the  See  of  Monterey  and  Los  Anjgeles.    In  1894  he  the  East,  especially  into  the  city  of  Los  Angeles,  has 

asked  for  a  coadjutor,  who  was  appointed  in  the  person  been  phenomenal.    From  his  arrival  in  the  latter  part 

of  Rt.  Rev.  George  Montgomery.    On  1  February,  of  1903  to  the  latter  part  of  1910  twelve  new  parishes 

1896,  Bishop  Mora  resigned,  and  when  Rome,  20  June,  have  been  added  to  tne  episcopal  city,  and  nine  parish 

accepted  his  resignation  he  returned  to  Spain.    He  schools  have  been  erected  in  various  parts  of  the  dio- 

died  at  Sarria,  Catalonia,  3  August,  1905.    During  his  cese  for  2500  additional  pupils.   The  number  of  priests 

administration  the  Sisters  of  St.  Joseph  and  of  St.  has  increased  from  101  in  1903  to  206  in  1910,  73  of 

Dominic  were  invited  into  the  diocese  to  open  schools,  whom  belong  to  eight  different  religious  orders.    The 

Bishop  Mora  was  remarkable  for  his  financial  ability,  character  of  the  Catholic  population  numbering  100,- 

and  succeeded  in  paying  ofP  many  of  the  important  000,  of  whom  60,000  live  in  Los  Angeles,  is  cosmo- 

debts  of  the  diocese,  and  by  his  careful  investments  politan.    The  percentage  of  Ca^olics  to  the  inhab- 

left  it  in  a  splendid  financial  condition.  itants  of  the  diocese  is  about  one-sixth.    Besides  the 

Rt.  Rev.  George  Montgomery  was  bom  in  Daviess  English-speaking  races,  there  are  large  colonies  of 
County,  Kentucky,  30  December,  1847,  and  was  or-  Spaniards  or  Mexicans,  Germans.  Italians,  Portu- 
daineci  priest  at  Baltimore,  20  December,  1879.  He  guese,  Poles,  Slavonians,  French,  Basques,  Lithuani- 
held  the  post  of  Chancellor  of  the  Archdiocese  of  San  ans,  and  Syrians.  Churches  and  priests  are  caring 
Francisco  until  his  consecration  as  titular  Bishop  of  for  the  spiritual  interests  of  these  different  nationali- 
TuDji  8  April,  1894,  when  he  became  coadjutor  to  ties.  One  feature  of  the  diocesan  work  is  the  care  of 
Bishop  Mora.  Two  years  later  he  succeeded  to  the  the  Indians^  most  of  whom  are  descendants  of  the 
see  and  at  once  displayed  remaricable  energy.  At  this  former  Mission  Indians.  About  4000  are  cared  for  by 
period  immigrants  from  the  eastern  States  began  to  seven  priests  who  devote  themselves  entirely  or  to  a 
nock  to  soutnem  California  in  great  numbers.  Los  great  extent  to  their  spiritual  needs,  i^eeJicing  to  the 
Angeles  more  than  doubled  its  population.  New  needs  young  people  in  English  and  to  their  defers  in  Spanish, 
arose  which  it  was  the  endeavour  of  the  bishop  to  which  is  generally  understood  by  the  natives.  Churches 
meet  by  building  churches  and  schools,  and  by  calling  have  been  built  for  them  at  all  reservations.  A  church 
to  his  aid  more  priests  and  religious.  In  season  and  and  parochial  residence  have  also  been  erected  near 
out  of  season  Bishop  Montgomery  insisted  on  the  the  Government  Indian  School  at  Sherman,  and  a 
necessity  of  educating  children  in  Catholic  schools,  priest  acts  as  chaplain  for  the  Catholic  children  of  that 
It  was  ms  fearless  attitude  which  compelled  the  Com-  institution.  The  Catholic  Indian  Bureau  maintains  a 
missioner  of  Indian  Affairs  to  recognize  the  right  of  lar^e  boarding  school  for  Indian  children  at  Banning 
Indian  parents  and  guardians  to  send  their  children  to  which  is  in  charge  of  the  Sisters  of  St.  Joseph.  As  the 
the  schools  of  their  choice  independent  of  the  reserviv-  diocese  annually  receives  its  i^are  of  the  Pious  Fimd 
tion  agent.  Subsequently  this  same  view  was  adopted  of  Mexico,  it  has  been  able  to  provide  for  many  of  the 
by  the  Government,  and  made  the  rule  for  all  the  religious  necessities  of  the  Indians,  but  there  are  many 
Indians  in  the  United  States.  The  bishop  thus  in  demands  calling  for  diocesan  help.  The  rapidly  grow- 
every  way  manifested  a  watehful  solicitude  for  the  ing  population  of  the  diocese  impelled  Bishop  Conaty  to 
spiritual  and  temporal  welfare  of  the  diocese.  His  call  to  his  assistance  the  following  additional  religious 
personality  won  friends  for  the  Church  on  all  sides,  orders  and  congregations:  Benedictine  Fathers  for  the 
^ilst  his  vigorous  defence  of  Catholic  doctrine,  as  Basques,  Fathers  of  the  Society  of  the  Divine  Saviour 
well  as  his  clean-cut,  outspoken  advocacy  of  Ameri-  for  tne  Poles^  Sons  of  the  Immaculate  Heart  of  Mary 
can  rights  and  duties,  gave  to  the  Church  in  southern  for  the  Mexicans,  Jesuit  Fathers,  Redemptorist  Fa- 
California  a  great  onward  movement  and  prepared  the  thers,  Sisters  of  tne  Good  Shepherd,  Little  Sisters  of 
way  for  Bishop  Conaty's  administration.  In  1903  the  Poor,  Missionary  Sisters  of  the  Immaculate  Heart 
Biiuiop  Mont0C>mery  was  appointed  Archbishop  of  (Italian),  and  Sisters  of  St.  Francis. 
Orino  in  pariwus  and  made  coadjutor  to  the  Arch-  Statistics. — Besides  the  items  already  mentioned 
bi^op  of  San  Francisco.  He  died  10  January,  1907,  above,  there  are  166  churches  and  chapels,  43  stations 
sincerely  lamented  bv  all  classes,  especially  by  the  without  churches,  33  ecclesiastical  students,  1  semi- 
poor.  During  his  administration  the  following  con-  naiy  for  Franciscan  Fathers,  2  colleges  for  young  men 
flregations  of  religious  were  received  into  the  diocese:  with  407  students,  1  college  and  16  academies  for  girls 
Christian  Brothers,  Sisters  of  Mercv,  Sisters  of  the  and  young  ladies,  29  parochial  schools  with  (including 
Holy  Cross,  Sisters  of  the  Holy  Names.  Sisters  of  the  pupils  of  the  academies)  5424  children,  9  orphan 
Notre  Dame,  Sisters  of  the  Presentation,  and  the  asylums  with  1048  inmates,  1  Catholic  Indian  board- 
Ursuline  Sisters.  ing  school  with  118  pupils,  2  Government  Indian 

Rt.  Rev.  Thomas  James  Conaty  was  born  in  Kilna-  echools  with  355  Catholic  pupils.  5  hospitals  and  8 


nrhich  will  be  worthy  of  the  city  of  Los  Angeles.  &ccomptuued  seven^  hundred  ootonuts  under  the 

Sania  Barbara  Mutim  Ardixm;  Bithop:  AtAita  (Lm  An-  leadership  of  Ayllon  to  Guftndftpe,  probably  where 

i^rin^  Mi"!;^e"';  REu»"BSjrc,^.  o/STaw-X  "/  '■'■^  English  Bubsequently  founded  Jameatown;  or,  aa 

Oit  u.  a.  (MitmukH,  igBSJi  Caiimiic  DirKtora.  some  Ere  inclined  to  think,  proceeded  even  bh  f ar  aa 

Zephtbin  Enoklbabot.  New  York.    In  either  case,  Lowever,  we  are  safe  in 

__     ^          ..                „                     —,  -          ,  aBaertine  that  Holy  Mass  was  celebrated  for  the  firtrt 

Monteam,  Milttart  Ordbr  of.— This  order  vim  time  in  the  present  territory  of  the  United  States  by 

established  m  the  Kingdom  of  Aragon  to  take  the  theae  Dominicans.    On  the  death  of  AyUon  (Oct., 

place  of  the  Order  of  the  Temple,  of  which  It  was  in  a  1526)  the   colony   abandoned  the  country  and   ro- 

certain  sense  the  contmuatiqn.    It  derived  its  title  turned  to  San  Domingo.    AccordingtoHelpa,  "Span- 

from  St.  George  of  Montesa,  ita  pnncipal  stronghold,  igh  Conquest  in  America",   he  went  to  VEneiuela 

The  Templars  about  1528  with  twenty  of  his  brethren.    Nothing 

were    received  more  is  known  of  him  except  the  sligbt  informatioD 

with    enthuBiaam  tumishod  by  a  note  in  the  margin  of  the  registry  of 

in    Aragon    from  his  profession  in  the  convent  of  St.  Stephen  at  t^alv 

iheirvery  founda-  manca,  which  says:  "Obiit  martyr  in  Indiis".     He  ia 

tion  (1128).    Be-  the  authorof  "Intotmatio  iuridica  in  Indorum  defei  - 

rengerlll,  Count  sionem". 

of     Barcelona,  qchrr-EcHAHD.  SS.  Ord.  Prod..   II.  133:    BMum.   Sfanu' 

wished    to    die    in  CohjumI    in    Amrrim    (New    Yofk).    pudm;    M*eN(jrr,    Ult 

fho    hahit    nf  o  tf  i"   f"<"   (Nb»  York),     panm;    Todkob.   Horn.   «.  i4 

ine    n  a  D  I  l    OT    a  fg^„  g  oaminupu.  IV  (Pk».  1747),  »9-tS:  Bni*.  Autory  aj 

Templar     (1130).  Ou  CaiMic  CInadi  m  tiu  Vniltd  Stata.  1  (Nsw  Yoik.  w  d.), 

King   Alfonso   I,  Wi-OB- 

"The     Fighter",  Joseph  ScHBoxnEB. 
having  no  direct 

heir,  bequeathed  HontesinoB,  Lma  dk,  Spanish  theologian,  date 
his  dominions  to  and  place  of  birth  unknown;  d.  7  Oct.,  1621.  He  en- 
be  divided  among  tered  the  Dominican  Order  and  studied  philosophy  and 
the  Templars,  the  theology  in  the  Spanish  universities  where  he  gained  a 
Hoapitallers,  and  reputation  for  sound  scholarship  and  solid  piety  that 
the  Canons  of  the  made  him  illuatrious  among  the  savants  ot  his  time. 
Holy  Sepulchre,  Beginning  his  career  as  professor  of  philosophy,  he  was 
but  naturally  this  gradually  promoted  to  the  most  important  chairs, 
beauest  was  an-  Be  was  tne  foremost  exponent  of  Thomistictheolc^y  at 
nulled  by  his  sub-  the  University  of  AIcbIa.     His  vast  erudition,  power 

¥'  eta  (1131).  The  of  penetration,  and  clearness  of  exposition  won  for  him 

emplars  had  to  the  surname  Doctor  darux.     He  poss^sed  a  singular 

— be  contented  with  charm  of  manner  which  secured  tor  him  at  once  love 

A  KmoHi  or  Mohtcu                 certain  castles,  the  and  respect.     Such  was  his  success  in  teaching  that 

chief  of  which  was  Monson.     Although  the  Aragonese  his  lecture  hall,  though  one  of  the  largest  in  Spain,  was 

branch  of  the  order  waa  pronounced  innocent  at  the  too  small  to  admit  his  audiences.     For  thirty  yean  ho 

famous  trid  of  the  Templars,  Clement  V's  Bull  of  sup-  taught  with  untiring  feal  and  devotion,  refusing  all 

Sreseion  was  applied  to  them  in  spite  of  the  protests  of  eccleaiastica!  honours.     Though  threatened  with  total 

!!ng  James  IT  (1312).    By  way  of  compensation,  blindness  in  his  latter  years,  he  continued  to  teach  till 

however,  this  monarch  obt^ned  from  ^pe  John  his  death.    He  is  the  author  of  "Commmentaria  in 

X3CII  authority  to  dispose  of  the  possessions  of  the  primani  eecundc  S.  Thorns"  (AlcalA,  1622). 

Templars  in  his  Kingdom  of  Valencia  in  favour  of  a  Joseph  Schroedee. 
mihtary  order  not  essentially  differing  from  that  of 

the  Templars,  which  should  be  charged  with  the  de-  Montea  Piatatls  are  charitable  inatitutlona  of 
fenceof  his  frontier  against  the  Moors  and  the  pirates,  credit  that  lend  money  at  low  rates  of  interest,  or 
It  was  affiliated  to  the  Order  of  Calatrava,  from  which  without  interest  at  all,  upon  the  security  of  objecta 
its  first  recruits  were  drawn,  and  it  was  maintained  in  left  in  pawn,  with  a  view  to  protecting  persons  in 
dependence  upon  that  order.  The  first  of  the  four-  want  from  usurers.  B^ng  charitable  establishmenta, 
teen  grand  masters,  who  ruled  the  Order  of  Montesa  they  lend  only  to  people  who  are  in  need  of  funds  to 
until  the  office  was  united  with  the  Crown  by  Philip  pass  through  some  financial  crisis,  as  in  cases  of  gen- 
ii in  1687,  was  Guillermo  d'Eril.  eral  scarcity  of  food,  misfortunes,  etc.  On  the  other 
Luimm.  jtfaiUMa  iiimirota  (V»i™ci»,  1869);  Drfniriimt  it  la  hand,  these  institutiona  do  not  seek  financial  profit, 

srsf.SSr;«sisir"°-  '""'■  ■"*"""■  ""■  but «« an  oreBt.  *«  ■».> .«™  t,  u,™  to,  a. 

Ch.  Moeller.  payment  of  employees  and  to  extend  the  scope  of 
their  charitable  work.     Formerly  there  were  not  only 

Hontasino,  Antonio,  Spanish  missionary,  date  of  pecuniary  montes  (numarii)  which  lent  money,  but 

birth  unknown;  d.  in  the  west  Indies,  1545.     Of  his  also  grain  montes  (spantalici),  flour  montes,  etc.     In 

early  life  little  ia  known.    He  entered  the  Order  of  St.  the  history  of  these  establishments  it  may  be  ob- 

Dominic  and  made  his  religious  profession  in  the  con-  served  that  the  word  mom,  even  in  ancient  I«tia 

vent  of  St.  Stephen,  Salamanca,  where  in  all  probabil-  (Plautus,  Prudentius),  was  used  to  signify  a   'grut 

ity  he  studied.    Hewasnotedfor  his  exemplary  piety,  ouantity",  or  heap,  with  reference  to  money,  while 

ma  love  of  strict  observance,  his  eloauence,  and  moral  tJie  juridio  term  for  a  monetary  "fund"  waa  nther 

oourage.     In  September.  1510,  under  the  leadership  mosni;  and  long  before  the  creation  of  the  monte* 

of  Pedro  de  Coraova,  he  landed  with  the  first  band  of  pietatis  the  word  mont  (in  Italian,  monU)  was  uaed 

Dominicans  in  Hispaniola.     He  was  the  first,  in  151 1,  to  dcsi^piate  collected  funds,  destined  to  various  ends, 

to  denounce  publicly  in  America  the  enslavement  and  which   in   time   came  to  be  called  montes  profani. 

oppression  of  the  Indians  as  sinful  and  disf^wMifuI  to  Thus  the  public  debt  that  was  contracted  by  the 

the  Span iah  nation.     Being  censured  for  this,  he  was  Republic   of   Venice    between   1164   and    1178   was 

cited  to  Spain  in  1612,  where  he  pleaded  the  cause  of  called  Mods  or  Imprestita,  and  similar  montes  were 

the  Indians  so  successfully  that  the  king  took  immedi'  created  by  Genoa  (1300)  and  by  Florence  (1346) ;  the 

Site  measurea  towards  amehorating  their  condition,  stock  companies  of  the  Middle  Ages,  also,   were 


MONTIS 


535 


M0NTB8 


called  montes,  as,  for  example,  the  ''mons  alumina- 
rius",  which  operated  the  alum  deposits  of  Tolfa. 
The  same  was  true  of  insurance  societies  and  of  the 
banks  of  exchange  or  of  credit  that  for  the  greater 
part  were  in  the  hands  of  Jews  or  of  the  so-called 
Lombards.  As  these  banks  often  lent  money  on 
objects  delivered  to  them  in  pawn,  the  charitable 
institutions  which  were  created  for  transactions  of 
Uiat  class  also  took  the  name  of  mona,  pietaJLU  being 
added  to  express  the  fact  that  the  establishments  in 
question  were  bcaieficent  and  not  speculative. 

In  the  Middle  Ages  it  was  very  difficult  to  obtain 
monev^  as  much  on  account  of  its  scarcity  as  of  the 

{>rohibitions  by  which  Christians  were  bound  in  re- 
ation  to  usury,  which  second  condition  gave  a  spe- 
cies of  monopoly  of  the  credit  business  to  the  Jews, 
who  were  excluded  from  all  other  kinds  of  trade 
or  industry,  and  who  were  often  accorded  great  priv- 
ileges by  the  towns,  on  condition  of  the  establishment 
of  pawn  banks.  They  lent  money  at  excessive  rates 
of  mterest — as  much  as  60  per  cent — or,  when  that 
was  prohibited,  as  at  Florence,  where  they  were  not 
allowed  to  charge  more  than  20  per  cent,  they  re- 
sorted to  subtenuges  that  made  it  possible  for  them 
to  obtain  as  high  rates  as  elsewhere.  And  in  this 
way,  they  soon  became  rich  and  hated.  Not  less 
hated,  however,  were  the  so-called  coarsini  (named 
not  alter  the  city  of  Cahors  in  France,  but  after 
that  of  Gavour  in  Piedmont) ;  likewise  the  Lombards, 
who  were  a  kind  of  travelling  bankers,  and  whose  ex- 
tortions were  often  even  greater  than  those  of  the 
Jews,  their  usual  rate  of  interest  being  43  H  P^f  cent, 
and  frequentlv  as  high  as  80  per  cent.  It  was  often 
a  question,  (luring  the  Middle  Ages,  of  finding  a 
remedy  for  this  exploitation  of  the  misfortime  of 
others;  althou^^  it  is  not  true  that  St.  Anthony  of 
Padua  founded  a  mons  pietatis.  The  celebrated 
Doctor  Durand  de  Saint  Pour^ain,  Bishop  of  Mende. 
proposed  that  the  magistrates  of  cities  be  compelled 
to  fend  money  at  low  rates  of  interest.  It  is  not 
known  whether  this  proposition  was  accepted  or 
not.  but,  in  either  event,  it  did  not  suggest  tHe  idea 
of  tne  monte,  for  there  lacked  the  condition  of  objects 
pawned,  which  was  the  case,  also,  in  the  institution 
of  the  "Mont  de  Salins",  established  later  than  1350. 
The  first  true  mons  pietatis  was  founded  in  London, 
where  Bishop  Michael  Nothburg,  in  1361,  left  1000 
marks  of  silver  for  the  establishment  of  a  bank 
that  should  lend  money  on  pawned  objects,  without 
interest,  providing  that  the  expenses  of  the  institution 
be  defrayed  from  its  foundation  capital.  In  this  way. 
of  course,  the  capital  was  eventually  consumed,  ana 
the  bank  closed.  In  1389  Philippe  de  Maisi^res 
published  his  project  for  the  establishment  of  an 
institution  that  should  lend  mone;y  without  in- 
terest, but  should  receive  remuneration  from  those 
who  might  profit  by  its  loans;  this  project,  however, 
was  not  realized.  Finally  (1462),  the  first  mons 
pietatis  was  established  at  Perugia,  and  in  a  few 

fears  there  were  similar  institutions  throughout 
taly.  The  establishment  and  dissemination  of 
montes  pietatis  is  one  of  the  brightest  glories  of  the 
followers  of  the  "Poverello"  of  Asmsi,  lor  the  mons 
pietatis  of  Perugia  was  founded  in  consequence  of 
the  preaching  at  that  city  of  the  Franciscan  Michele 
Carcano  of  Milan,  who  mveighed  against  the  usury 
of  the  Jews  (1461).  The  fund  for  that  charitable 
establishment  was  made  up  in  part  by  voluntary  con- 
tributions and  in  part  by  money  lent  by  the  Jews 
themselves.  But  the  idea  of  the  mons  pietatis  was 
devised  by  the  Franciscans  Bamab6  da  Temi  and 
Fortunato  Coppoli  of  Perugia.  In  fact  it  seems  that 
for  a  lon^  time  the  preachers  of  the  Franciscan  Order 
had  considered  the  problem  of  appMng  an  effectual 
remedy  to  the  evils  of  usury  (cf.  Holzapfel,  32  sq.). 
The  assistanoe  and  the  influence  of  the  Apostolic 
delegate  to  Perugia^  Ennolao  BarbarOi  Bishop  of 


Verona,  greatly  facilitated  the  work  at  the  former 
town,  and  it  was  soon  repeated  at  Orvieto  (1463) 
through  the  action  of  the  Franciscan  Bartolommeo 
da  (Dolle,  and  also  at  Gubbio  and  at  other  towns  of 
Umbria.  In  the  Marches  the  first  mons  was  es- 
tablished at  Monterubbiano,  in  1465,  through  the 
efforts  of  the  Franciscan  Antonuzzo  and  the  Domini- 
can Cristoforo;  the  first  city  of  the  Papal  States 
that  established  a  mons  pietatis  was  Viterbo  (1469): 
in  Tuscany,  Siena  (1472);  in  Liguria,  Savona,  ana 
Genoa  (1480),  and  in  the  Milanese  territory,  Milan 
(1483);  everywhere  it  was  the  Franciscan  Observants 
who  took  the  initiative.  But  the  greatest  develop- 
ment was  given  to  this  work  by  Blessed  Bernardino 
da  Feltre^  whose  apostolic  journeys  were  marked  by 
montes  pietatLs,  either  instituted  or  re-established.; 
he  introduced  them  at  Mantua  (1484)  and  at  various 
cities  of  the  Venetian  Republic,  where  they  had  to 
stru^le  against  the  ill-will  of  the  Government;  he 
earned  them  also  to  the  Abruzzi,  to  Emilia,  and  to 
Romagna. 

The  montes  pietatis  were  either  autonomous  es- 
tablishments, or,  as  at  Perugia,  municipal  corpora- 
tions; they  nad  a  director,  called  depositarius,  an 
appraiser,  a  notariua  or  accountant,  salesmen^  and 
otner  employees;  and  all  were  paid  either  with  a 
fixed  salary  or  with  a  percentage  m  the  profits  of  the 
establishment.  It  should  be  noted  that  in  the  be- 
giiming  the  montes  did  not  lend  money  gratuitously, 
but,  on  the  contrary,  the  exprrased  intentiqn  of  the 
founders  was  that  the  money  should  be  lent  at  interest, 
varying  from  4  per  cent  to  12  per  cent.  After  opposi- 
tion had  been  shown  to  these  establishments  montes 
Qraiuiii  were  instituted  iu  some  places,  especially  in 
Lombardy,  but  as  these  charities  were  not  setf-support- 
ing  they  were  altered  to  establishments  that  lend  with 
interest,  for  Blessed  Bernardino  da  Feltre  always  in- 
sisted on  the  necessity  of  interest  to  ensure  the  per- 
manency of  the  institution.  At  the  end  of  each 
month  or  of  each  year  the  net  profits  were  applied  to 
the  capital,  and  if  they  were  considerable,  tne  rate 
of  interest  was  lowered.  In  order  to  increase  the 
fimds  of  these  institutions  in  some  cities,  collections 
were  regularly  taken  on  appointed  days — at  Padua 
on  Easter  day — or  boxes  were  set  up  for  contributions, 
as  at  Gubbio  and  Orvieto.  At  Gubbio  there  was  a  tax 
of  1  per  cent  on  all  property  bequeathed  by  will,  and  at 
SpeUothe  notanr  was  required  to  remind  the  testator 
that  he  should  leave  something  to  the  monte. 

At  first  the  sums  loaned  were  very  small,  the 
maximum  limit  at  Perugia  being  six  florins,  and  at 
Gubbio  four.  Thus  it  was  hoped  that  speculation  and 
extravagance  would  be  avoided,  but  little  by  little 
the  limit  was  increased  in  some  places  to  100  and 
even  to  ICXX)  ducats.  The  amount  of  a  given  loan 
was  eaual  to  two-thirds  the  value  of  uie  object 
pawned,  which,  if  not  redeemed  within  the  stipulated 
time,  was  sold  at  public  auction,  and  if  the  price  ob- 
tained for  it  was  greater  than  the  loan  with  the  in- 
terest, the  surplus  was  made  over  to  the  owner. 

The  opposition  to  the  montes  which  has  been  referred 
to  came  m  the  first  place  from  those  whose  interests 
were  affected,  the  Jews  and  the  Lombards,  who 
were  able  to  prevent  the  introduction  of  these  char- 
ities into  some  cities,  as  Venice  and  Rome,  until 
1539.  At  Florence  their  efforts  were  directed  to  the 
same  end,  but  the  people  rising  in  tumult  obtained 
the  recall  of  Blessed  Bernardino  da  Feltre  to  the  city. 
At  Aquila  the  Jews  sent  a  commission  to  Blessed 
Bernardino  to  ask  him  not  to  appear  in  the  pulpit. 
But  the  most  serious  opposition  the  montes  encoim- 
tered  was  from  certain  uieologians  and  canonists,  who 
censured  these  establishments  because  they  lent 
money  at  interest,  which  in  those  times  was  con-^ 
sidered  illicit  even  by  the  promoters  of  the  montes. 
The  controversy  was  long  and  bitter.  The  opposition 
was  not  directed  against  the  montes  pietatis  as  sudii 


itonnsQuxsv                 53G  MONnsomsv 

but  merely  against  the  condition  of  requiring  in-  nance  prescribed  the  creation  of  montes  pietatis  in 

terest.    It  was  not  admitted  that  the  use  of  the  in-  all  the  cities  that  mi^ht  need  them.    However,  they 

terest  to  maintain  the  charity  justified  the  usury,  were  not  merely  chantaJ^le  institutions,  because  they 

since  a  good  end  could  not  justify  evil  means,  and  were  bound  to  lend  money  to  all  applicants,  wheUier 

it  was  held  that  lending  money  at  interest  was  in-  in  need  or  not,  while  not  infrequently  the  rate  of 

trinsically  bad,  money  being  unfruitful  by  its  nature,  interest  was  high.    They  were  reorganized  by  the 

and    since    Christ    expressly    forbids    the    practice  law  of    1851,   with   the  special  feature  that  their 

(Luke,  vi,  33).    The  term  interest  was  not  readily  directors    be    appointed    by    the    Government.    In 

admitted  by  the  friends  of  the  montes,  who  replied  Germany  and  in  Austria  the  montes  pietatis  were 

that  there  were  in  reaUty  two  contracts  between  introduced  at  the  end  of  the  fifteenUi  century.     At 

the  montes  and  the  borrower:  one  that  of  the  loan,  present  they  are  municipal  establishments— although 

which  should  be  ^atuitous,  the  other  implying  the  some  of  them  belong  to  the  Government — and  their 

custody  of  the  object  pawned,  therefore,  the  use  of  net  profits  are  applied  to  the  account  of  public 

space  and  personcu  responsibility,  which  should  not  charities.    The   first   mons   pietatis   in   Spain   was 

be  gratuitous;  and  it  was  precisely  on  account  of  created  in  1702  at  Madrid.     In  England  this  form 

these   two   conditions   that   interest   was   charged,  of  charity  never  obtained  a  foothold,  on  the  contrary 

The  loan,  therefore,  was  regarded  merely  as  a  conr-  it  was  held  in  aversion  on  accoimt  of  its  connexion 

ditio  sine  qua  non,  and  not  as  a  direct  cause  of  the  with  the  papacy;  an  attempt  to  establish  such  an 

interest.    On  the  other  hand,  even  the  adversaries  institution  at  London  in    1797  failed  in  less  than 

of  the  montes  admitted  that  the  damnum  emergens  twenty  years,  through  defaidt  on  the  part  of  its 

or  the  lucrum  cessans  were  legitimate  titles  upon  managers. 

which  to  require  interest;  and  these  two  principles  The  aversion  in  which  montes  pietatis  are  held  by 

may  be  applied  to  the  mons  pietatis.     Many  other  many,  even  in  our  own  day,  leads  to  the  question  of 

objections  to  which  it  was  easy  to  reply  were  ad-  the  advantages  and  of  the  defects  of  these  institu- 

duced,  and  in  these  disputations  the  friends  of  the  tionsjit  is  held  that  they  promote  carelessness  in  con- 

montes  were  victorious.      Only  at  Faenza,  in  1494,  tractmg  debts,  that  they  oestroy  love  for  labour,  incite 

was  the  defender  of  the  montes  imable  to  answer  the  to  theft,  are  often  the  cause  of  financial  ruin,  and, 

objections  of  the  Au^ustinian  Bariano,  who  is  the  lastly,  that  they  are  contrary  to  the  principle  of  free 

author  of  a  work  entitled  ''De  Monte  Impietatis".  competition.    On  the  other  hand,  they  are  a  neces- 

It  was  among  the  Dominicans,  however,  that  the  sity;  for  without  them  the  needy  would  be  exposed 

montes  found  a  greater  number  of  antagonists,  nota-  either  to  the  extortions  of  private  lenders  or  to  ruin, 

bly  the  young  Tommaso  de  Vio,  who  became  Gar-  into  which  they  might  be  plunged  by  some  misfortune 

dinal  Csetano.    It  cannot  be  said  that  the  order  from  which  a  momentary  loan  mi^t  save   them, 

as  a  whole  was  opposed  to  these  institutions,  for  Their  disadvantages  are  imdeniable,  but  disadvan- 

several  of  its  members  favoured  the  establishment  tages  are  common  to  all  human  contrivances.     For 

of  tJie  montes  as  has  been  seen  in  the  case  of  Monte-  the  rest  the  montes  pietatis,  besides  the  reUef  that 

nibbiano,  and  as  was  the  case  at  Florence,  where  they  brought  to  the  pcKDr,  exerted  great  influence  upon 

Savonarola  (1495)  reopened  the  montes  which  had  the  ideas  concerning  interest  on  loans;  for  tiie  ngid 

been  established  in  1484.     Meanwhile  other  Domini-  views  of  the  theologians  of  the  Middle  Ages  in  that 

cans,  e.  g.   Annio  da  Viterbo  and  Domenico  da  connexion  underwent  a  first  modification,  which  pre- 

Imola,  wrote  juridicial  opinions  in  favour  of  the  pared, the  way  for  a  generalization  of  the  principle 

montes,  but  the  writer  who  most  exerted  himself  that  moderate  interest  might  justly  be  charged,  and 

in  their  defence  was  the  Franciscan  Bernardino  de  also  the  mere  existence  of  the  montes  pietatis  com- 

Bustis   (Defensorium  Montis  Pietatis).    The  legal  pelled  private  speculators  to  reduce  their  rates  of  in- 

and  theological  faculties  of  the  universities,  as  well  terest  from  the  usurious  rates  that  had  hitherto  pre- 

as  individual  jurists,  gave  opinions  favourable  to  the  vailed. 

montes.     The  popes  had  approved  of  several  of  these  Holiapfbl,  Dte  Anfange  d*r  MorUea  PieUUU  (Munich.  1903): 

institutions   tnat   appeal^   to   ine   noiy   Oee,   eitner  igji^     Bbtbrunk.  Magnum  Theatrum  vita  humoM,  Mona  Pi^ 

for  Its  sanction,  m  general,  or  for  special  concessions;  tatU  (Lyons.  1666);  Blamb.  Dm  MonU  de  PUU  He.  (Paris.  1856); 

Holzapfel  (10  sq.)  refers  to  sixteen  of  these  acts,  an-  Cra^rn,  Sloria  deiMonHdi  Pwtd  (Padua,  1762)  Fr.  tr.  (Padua. 

teriortoti»eBi5?;'IntermultipUck"  of  I^X  (4^^^^^  ffi  Vll'^^'^lS^fr^^^'S::^'^^  tSLl^^^^SSi 

1515).      By  this  Bull  the  pope  and  the  Lateran  C}Oim-  (Tabingen,  1876) :   Jankkt.  Le  crMit  pojnUaire  el  Ui  bantuM  «» 

cil,  which  took  up  the  case  of  the  montes  in  its  tenth  fyuuduXy*auXVlll'*iide(Pa,na,i^)\  Manassb.  BarnoM 

oAOflinn     HprUmH   fh«  innfifiitinnn  in   miMfinn  in   no  da  Temi  e  %  awn  Montx  dt  Putd  m  BuU.  Stona  Patna  per  C  Uwtbria, 

^®^9S?   aeciarea  tne  mstltutions  in  question  in  no  vill.  faso.  iii  (Perugia.  1902);   Scalvanti.  Il  M<me  PieUUia  di 

way  llhcit  or  sinful,  but  on  the  contrary  mentonous,  Pengia  (PeWa.  1892) ;  Iobm .  Il  Mona  PietaHa  di  OtMno  (Peru- 

and  that  whosoever  preached  or  wrote  against  them  ©a,  1896);  Vanlaer.  Lea  MmUadePifU  enF^nee  (Ulle.  1895); 

in  the  future^incurred  ex«>inmunica.tiom    pis  BuU  S^T^iSi^JSli.'I'iil^Vl'pSSL^""™-  "^''  ^^ 

also  provided   that  montes  estabhshed   thereafter  -[j,  Benigni. 

dioula  obtain  the  Apostolic  approbation.    The  Bishop  - 

of  Ti^uii  was  the  only  member  of  the  council  who  MonteBqizien»    Ch ART.KfhLouis     db     Sbcondat, 

spoke  against  the  montes,  and  Cardinal   Csetano,  Babon  db,  French  writer  and  publicist,  b.  in  the 

general  of  the  Dominicans,  who  was  absent  at  that  Chftteau  de  la  BrMe  near  Bordeauxes  January,  1689: 

session,   subsequently   abandoned   his   position   on  d.  at  Paris,  10  February,  1755.    His  family  was  oi 

the  subject  of  tnese  establishments.  noble  rank;  his  grandfather,  President  of  the  Bor- 

The  question  of  moral  right  having;  been  deter-  deaux  Parliament,  his  father,  a  member  of  the  royal 

mined  in  their  favour,  the  montes  pietatis  spread  bodyguard,  and  his  mother,  Marie  de  Penel,  who  died 

rapidly,  especially  in  Italy,  where,  in   1896   there  when  he  was  eleven,  traced  her  ancestry  to  an  old  Eng- 

were  656  of  them,  with  a  combined  capital  of  nearly  lish  family.    Yoimg  Charles  de  la  BrMe,  as  he  was 

72,(XK),000  Ure.     Outside  of  Italy  the  first   mons  then  known,  was  sent  to  the  Oratorian  College  at 

pietatis  to  be  established  was  at  Ypres  in  Belgium,  Juilly  (1700-11),  where  he  received  a  wholly  literary 

(1534)  but  the  institution  did  not  develop  in  that  and  classical  education  in  which  religion  held  but  a 

country  imtil  1618,  when  the  Lombards  were  for-  minor  place.    When,  at  twenty-five  years  of  age  he 

bidden  to  receive  objects  in  pawn;  since  1848  the  returned  home,  after  having  been  called  to  the  bar,  he 

law  has  transformed  the  montes  into  municipal  es-  received  from  nis  paternal  uncle  the  style  and  title  of 

tablishments.    In  France-  the    first  mons  pietatis  Baron  de  Montesquieu,  by  which  he  was  afterwarda 

appeared  at  Avignon,  then  a  papal  possession  (1577);  known,  and  became  councillor  of  the  Bordeaux  Par- 

tne  next  at  Beaucaiie  (1583);  and  in  1626,  an  ordi-  liament.    He  married  a  Protestant,  Jeanne  Lartigue^ 


KONTSSQUIEn                            537  MONTESQUIEn 

■nd  iliey  had  three  chitdreD;  but  aeither  his  profestDon  vimta  to  Paria,  and  mixed  with  liter^r  men  and  tbcit 
iiur  tiie  family  seem  to  have  claimed  much  of  liis  at-  friends  in  the  salons  of  Madame  de  Tencin,  Madame 
isation.     At  the  end  of  nine  years  he  sold  his  office,  Gcoffrin,  and  Madame  du  DefFand.    Vet  he  Htudiausty 
and  gave  bimeelf  up  entirely  to  study  which  hence-  avoided  over  familiarity  with  what  was  known  as  the 
Forth  i>ccame  his  life  B  one  and  only  passion.  "Study",  philosophical  set.     Though  hia  religious  convictions 
he  wrote  afterwards,  "has  been  my  sovereign  remedy  were  not  deep,  his  serious  and  moderate  turn  of  mind 
against  the  worries  of  life.    I  have  never  had  a  care  had  nothing  m  common  with  the  noisy  and  aggressive 
that  an  hour's  reading  could  not  dispel".     As  a  mat-  impiety  of  Voltaire  and  his  friends. 
ter  of  fact  the  story  of  his  life  is  but  the  chronicle  of  Henceforth  his  great  aim  in  life  was  to  write  the 
the  preparation  and  composition  of  his  books.    Hia  "Esprit  des  loia",  and  all  his  spare  time  in  the  studi- 
earliest  productions  were  read  before  the  Academy  of  ous  seclusion  at  La  BtMe  was  devoted  to  it.    To  be- 
Bordeaux,  of  which  he  became  a  member  (1716).  pn  with,  ancient  Rome  gave  bim  ample  material  for 
They  deal  with  a  variety  of  subjects,  but  mainly  with  UiouRht,  but  took  up  bo  much  apace  in  hia  work  that 
scientific  topics,  hiatorv,  and  politics.    For  a  time  he  in  order  not  to  mar  the  proportions  of  his  book  he  pub- 
thought  of  writing  a    physical  history  of  the  Earth"  iished  all  that  concerned  it  as  a  diatinct  work,  "Lee 
for  which  he  began   collecting  material   (1719).  but  Conaidfrations  sur  lea  cauaes  de  la  grandeur  et  de  la 
two  years  later  was  busy  in  a  very  different  oirec-  ddcadence    des 
tion,  publishing  the  "Lettres  persanes"  (Amsterdam,  Romains"     (Am- 
172t),  BO  named  because  it  pretended  to  be  a  corre-  sterdam,      1734). 
spondence  between  two  Persian  gentlemen  travdhng  In  this  book   he 
in  Europe,  and  their  friends  in  Asia,  who  sent  them  shows  successively 
(Jhe  gossip  of  their  seraglio,  the  glorious  prog- 
Under  this  fictitious  ^ise  the  writer  goes  on  to  ress  and  slow  de- 
describe  or  rather  satirize  French,   and  especially  cay    which    the 
Parisian  mannera  between  I710andl720.     The  king.  Empire   enperi- 
the  absolute  monarchy,  the  Parliament,  the  Academy,  enced    from     the 
the  University,  are  all  very  transparently  ridiculed;  foundation     of 
but  it  wa.1  the  Catholic  religion,  its  dogmaa,  its  prac-  Rome  to  the  cap- 
tices,  its  ministers  from  pope  to  monks  that  came  in  ture  of  Constan- 
for  his  bitterest  raillery.    Because  of  its  ideal  of  celi-  tinople  by   the 
bacv,  the  Catholic  Church  is  accused  of  being  a  cause  Turks.    He    does 
of  depopulation,  and  because  of  its  teaching  concern-  not  narrate  events, 
ing  this  world's  goods,  it  is  charged  with  weakening  but  supposii^  that 
the   prosperity   of   the   nation,    while   its   intolerant  they   are   already 

S-oselytism  is  a  source  of  disturbance  to  the  state,  known,  he  seeks  to 

n  the  other  hand  Protestantism  is  held  up  as  more  discover  the  links 

favourable    to   material   progress.      Coming   ostcnsi-  in   the    chain    of 

bly  from  Mohammedans   these  criticisms  may  have  events,   and    to 

seemed  leas  shocking  to  thoughtless  minds,  but  they  point    out    the 

were  none  the  less  one  of  the  flrst  and  rudest  attacks  sourcesfrom  which 

directed  against  the  Church  durine  the  eighteenth  they     sprang, 

century.  In  them,  he  showed  himself  as  incapable  of  choosing  preferably  political  causes,  that  is,  inatitu- 
understanding  the  Church's  dogmas  as  he  was  of  tions.  By  exhibiting  them  m  their  natural  relation- 
appreciating  her  services  to  society.  Though  in  later  ships  he  throws  unexpected  light  on  certain  events  of 
y«re  he  was  to  find  a  juatcr  point  of  view,  his  witty  ancient  history  and  those  of  more  recent  date.  Bos- 
criticisma  in  their  lively  setting  of  romance  and  sen-  suet  had  already  devoted  two  chapters  of  his  "His- 
Bualism,  quite  to  the  taste  of  that  age,  assured  a  great  toire  Univcrselle"  to  explaining  the  sequence  of 
success  for  the  "Lettres  persanes  .  Eight  editions  changes  at  Rome".  Montesquieu  treats  the  same 
were  published  within  a  year,  Montesquieu  had  subject  in  a  larger  way  and  with  closer  correlation  of 
not  signed  hia  name  to  them,  but  the  author  was  facts.     His  point  of  view  ia  that  of  the  statesman 

auickly  discovered,  and  the  public  nominated  him  for  rather  than  of  the  moralist,  and  eveiy  religious  pre- 

le  French  Academy-     He  was  elected  in  1726,  but  occupation  is  left  aside.     Such  indeed  is  his  indiner- 

owing  to  the  scandal  the  "Lettres  persanes"  had  ence  that  he  has  not  a  word  about  religion.    This 

caused,  the  king  did  not  approve  and  an  excuse  was  concession  to  the  prejudices  of  his  age  was  a  mistake, 

given  that  the  author  did  not  live  in  Paris,  as  the  as  modern  criticism  has  shown,  especially  in  the  works 

rules  of  the  Academy  required.    Whereupon  Montes-  of  Fustel  de  Coulanges,  that  religion  played  a  greater 

quieu  took  up  his  residence  in  Paris,  and  was  elected  part  in  the  political  conduct  of  the  Romans  than 

once  more,  and  admitted  in  1728,  Montesouieu  credited  it  with. 

Side  by  side  with  their  frivolous  levity  the  "Lettres  "Les  Conaidf  rat  ions"  was  but  an  advance  chapter 

Eraanea      contain   some  profound   observations  on  of  "L'Esprit  des  lois"  which  Montesquieu  pubUabed 

(tory  and  politics.    They  show  even  then  Monte*-  after  twenty  years  of  labour  (2  vols,,  Geneva,  1748). 

quieu  B  meditation  on  the  laws  and  customs  of  man-  In  this  second  work  the  author  studies  human  laws  in 

kind,  from  which  was  to  result  his  later  work,  "I,'E«-  their  relationships  with  the  government,  climate,  and 

prit  des  lois".     As  a  preparation  for  this  work  he  set  general  charact^  of  the  country,  its  customs,  and  its 

out  (1^8)  on  a  long  seHcs  of  travels  through  Europe,  relidon.    He  undertakes,  not  to  examine  various  laws 

Utd  visited  Vienna,  and  Hungary,  spent  some  time  in  anddiscover  their  meaning,  but  to  point  out  their 

Venice,  Florence,  Naplis,  (ii'iioa,  and  Rome,  where  underlying  principles  and  to  lay  down  the  conditions 

he  was  received  by  Cardinal  de  Polignac  and  Benedict  which  must  be  verified  if  such  laws  are  to  work  for  the 

XIIL     In  the  suite  of  Ix)rd  Chesterfield  he  went  to  happiness  of  man  in  society.     In  his  judgments  and 

England  where  he  remained  eighteen  months,  and  conclusions  Montesquieu  is  careful  to  tate  into  ac- 

waa  the  guest  of  Prime  Minister  Walpole,  of  Swift,  and  count   experience   and   tradition.     He   believes   that 

Pope.     Wherever  he  went  he  made  the  acquaintance  laws  can  be  enacted  only  for  men  in  definitely  known 

of  statesmen,  took  copious  Qot«s  of  what  he  saw  and  conditions  of  time  and  place.    In  so  far  he  diners  from 

heard,  and  read  with  avidity.     After  an  absence  of  the  theorizers  and  Utopians  of  his  day  and  of  a  later 

three  years  he  returned  to  his  family,  his  business,  his  age,  who  had  no  hesitation  in  drafting  laws  for  man  in 

vineyards  and  the  farming  of  his  ^al«s  at  Chftteau  iheabstractorforahumanityfreedfromallspBlialand 

de  a,  3r£de.    As  a  relaxation  he  paid  occasional  t^nporal  determinations,  and  who  took  a»  tb«  ^a^ 


MONTIVEftDI                         538  MONTI 

of  their  deductions  either  the  idea  of  a  social  contract  Bngland  (London.  1908);   Dbdisu.  Montemieu  tt  la  tndiHom 

bx  prinutive  tim«,  or  of  a  state  of  n*ture  which  had  S?;S?%."2gJS3'JliSTy  5?^^!^^^:  ^«?L!S^ 

to  be  developed  or  restored.     He  thus  avoids  the  F.  R.  CouDaur  (London  and  New  York,  laOO).   For  hit  ittfhienea 

errors  of  Hoboes,  Locke,  and  Jean-Jacques  Rousseau.  opo°  tbe  foanden  of  the  United  stttes,  ase  The  FadtnUtt, 

His  personal  sympathies  went  rather  with  the  Ub-  =""••  ™°^"'  "88.  ed.  Qibmic  (WuUnsum.  18I8). 

eral  ideas  which  have  triumphed  ahnost  everywhere  ANToinii  i^EaEBT. 

in  the  civilized  world  of  to-day,  but  which  were  novel-       »«__*.„«^.   n. j-  *•      •  v  j        •  •      v 

tiesthen.  He  declared  himse¥  in  favour  of  separating  ..^ttlftf'  ^^  ^' *fV?*^^  m""''^^- 
the  executive,  legislative,  and  judiciary  pow^  (Xf  ?*  *^"3?Sf'  ^^f^'  }^^'  <*•  ?*  Venice,  29  Nov.,  1M3. 
vi),  condemn4dllavery  knd  t6rture,  inradvockteci  5^„^^'^  '^'^^  Ingegnen  (composer  of^e  "Be- 
geiltler  treatment  of  cnminals,  toleration  in  reUgious  3^22*^^*'  *'^}  ™V'  recently  were  regarded  as  by 
Belief,  and  freedom  of  worehip  But  in  this  wor"  he  £tlf*i??L'  ««d  »* /he  age  of  axteen  he  pubbshed  » 
treats  the  religious  issue  witfi  more  gravity  than  he  ^^  "^  cansonets  followed  by  four  volumes  of  mad- 
haddoneinthe-'Lettrespeisanes".  True,  he  passes  ^f^\  Althoughthemajontyof  his  early  works  show 
over  the  truth  of  its  teac^  and  the  sanctity  of  its  ^'"K  *'?«l  °^*i}f  mvenUve  gemus  whidi  afterward* 
moral  precepts,  and  treats  of  it  "only  as  regirds  its  ^T?"*""!?^  }^^  prev^ent  q^tem.  of  hartnonv,  one 
advantages  W  civic  life".  But  faf  fromthinking  ?!  ^  madngals,  .pnnt«l  m  1592,  is  remarkable  for 
that  the^  can  be  a  conflict  between  religion  andsoc^  i^  P^^.  suspensions  of  the  dominant  seventh,  and 
ety,  he  insists  that  the  one  is  useful  to  the  other.  l^j'^.I^lJfrjit^-rV'"^?'*?^  ♦^''*^i,  °f  m""  f*" 
"SimethinB".  he  says,  "must  be  fixed  and  perma-  Pf™*^  ?i5*?^7«?i  ^*PPl"*»!3  *^^  P^*"  of  Mantua 
nent,  and  rSigion  is  that  somethmg. "  He  8ays^wain,  "» 1602,  and  in  1613,  was  elected  Maestro  at  Vemoe  m 
mor^  clearly:  "What  a  wonderful  thing  is  the  Chris^  ^^T°\*^  Martm^go,  at  a  salaiy  of  three  hun- 
tian  relirioni  it  seems  to  aim  only  at  happiness  in  a  sPl,l'i£?hfc  Jtf  Iai^  WLJT?^  ♦^  appreciated  at 
future  lile,  and  yet  it  secures  our  fiappineSin  this  life  ?*,•  ^fflf  l5l.* ' Vii*i the  Procipaton  increased  hw 
also."  rie  doe^  not  dream  of  sepaiiting  Church  and  Si*S  t?  ^Y*L^*^ '*"<***•  F«>»  th**  date  until 
State,  nor  of  subjecting  the  forier  to  flie  latter:  "I  ^i^***  ''^  produced  numerous  choral  compositions, 
have  never  claim^  that  the  interests  of  religion  should  "  f^T'^fi'^^if'  *>?"«*»'""<»*  °^  ^^^  '^^*' 
give  way  to  those  of  the  State,  but  that  tLey  should  S??^^.,*'!^;^  ^"'JSS?*!'^'  *•**  '^"*  "K^  'P**? 
go  hand  in  hand."  Nevertheless  on  varioii  points  •  ^^  '.fc"?**?*^-  ^?*v'^ '^'"^  I?'™  *** '"'  *?•* 
He  seriously  misunderstood  Catholic  teaching:^Les  ».?H'te  sufficient  t«  mdicate  the  inventive  powers  of  a 
NouveUes  Eccl^siastiques"  (Oct.,  1749)  caUed  atten-  ST^  i*"  ^"'"'^S'^  from  the  trammels  of  the 
tion  to  several  statements  of  thik  sort,  and  the  Sor-  '>'1^„!!£~l?°**  *?***?* ''S*'*^i''^>*  *»'^-  .  .. 
bonne  drew  up  a  list  of  passages  from  hii  writing  that  jJi**Jil!^^5  "".^  only  showed  his  gemus  m  his 
seemed  to  cS  for  ceMmelAugust,  1752).  Before  ??^*1.7"J"f  but  in  the  employment  of  new  i*- 
this  (Mareh,  1752),  "L'Esprit  des  lois"  had  been  ftrumentaleffMts,andtheoomWtwnofin8tnrm«^^ 
placed  on  tte  RonU  Index.  But  these  measures  £.jLlWl?.'L^i  Inhwintorlude  written  for  the 
created  no  great  stir.  The  success  of  the  book  was  J^^IS*  f^J^lS^t'^  Girolamo  Mocenigo,  he  em- 
enormous,  fte  political  influence  world-wide.  The  Pfcj^^^^^^*'^'^  °lu*°  instrumental  tremolo.  tiU 
early  American  statesmen  were  very  familiar  with  H^".'^*"^,^  Another  novel  effect  wm  his  employ- 
"L'Esprit  des  lois"  and  from  it  (XI,  ^^)  derived  much  ?^°^..*^°i*^*  ^■^^^^'^V^w  5'?"t  **** 
of  their  idea  of  federal  government.  Jefferson,  the  ,^95^1  Pj  \^'^>  J?^^'  A*  *'^  ^!S  ^.J^ 
author  of  the  DeclaraUon  of  Independence,  HamUton,  fo'i^y*"!.'*"  *^*'  pnesthood,  and  he  was  ordamed  in 
Madison,  and  Jay  who  wrote  in  the  " Federalist "  ii^  }^:  ^"^ ^T" ^*^',^a  «>5?P°*<*  *",<*R*'*^ ^*»?* 
defence  of  the  new  Constitution,  were  all  enthusiastic  l^T  *^*  ^^J^  ^k  Tw  ^u  C8«iano  f opowed  by  two 
readers  of  Montesquieu.  Montesquieu's  reputation  VSf"'  S?**  *  ?  •  *  ^?'  *''*'  carnival  at  Piacensa,  m 
became  universal,  and  he  was  abUto  enjoy  p«wef  uUy  ^®*^-  J?'! •  ««»dunng  fame  consista  m  his  use  of  im- 
the  homage  it  brought  him  until  his  de4th,1^hich  §'^«ed  discords,  his  unprovement  of  recitative,  his 
he  prepiSd  himseBby  receiving  the  sacraments  of  development  of  orchestra  resources  and  his  reyolu- 
theX!huroh,  and  showing  every  outward  mark  of  per-  !l*'V'  uwtrumentation.  He  may  justly  be  claimed  as 
feet  obedience  to  her  lawi.  The  influence  of  his  idws  ««  founder  of  dratnjrticmuaic,  as  we  now  understand 
was  to  be  felt  long  afterwards  both  in  France  and  *>  ?"<*.P®  anticipated  Wagner  m  the  employment  of 

^n!!i:j^' tk^  ™«.Uo  „v:»i,  ™»  u        _     *•     -j        j  Edwabm,  H«.  o/«*«0|>«ro  (London,  1862);  Emi«B,  OiMflm 

Besides  the  works  which  we  have  mentioned,  and  £«zt*<>a  (Lnpiis.  1000-04);  L».  story  of  Opera  (London.  iao9). 

which  are  the  most  important,  Montesquieu  left  a  few  W.  H.  Grattan-Flood. 
papers  which  he  read  before  the  Academy  of  Bor- 
deaux, and  a  few  incomplete  writings.  "Le  temple  de  Monte  Vwgina  (Montis  Viroinib),  an  abbey  in 
Guide",  a  short  novel  of  a  sensuous  turn  written  for  the  province  of  Naples,  Italy,  near  the  town  of  Avel- 
the  licentious  society  of  the  Regency  epoch,  does  him  lino,  commanding  a  magnificent  view  of  the  Mediter- 
little  credit.  He  wrote  an  "Eesai  sur  le  goOt",  a  ranean  along  the  Bays  of  Naples,  Salerno,  andOaeta, 
"Dialogue  de  Sylla  et  d'Eucrate",  "Arsace  et  Is-  and  inland  as  far  as  the  Abruzzi  Mountains.  Monte 
m^nie",  an  uninteresting  novel,  and  over  one  hundred  Vergine  was  formeriy  known  as  Mons  Sacer  because 
letters.  These  have  all  been  collected  in:  the  "CEu-  of  a  temple  sacred  to  Cybele  that  stood  there:  also  as 
vres  completes  de  Montesquieu",  edited  by  Edward  Mons  Virgilianus,  from  the  legend  that  Virm  retired 
Laboulaye  (7  vols.,  Paris,  1875-79);  ''^M^Ianges  thither  to  study  the  Sibylline  books.  St.  Fe&cofNol* 
in^dits  de  Montesquieu"  published  by  Baron  de  is  said  to  have  taken  refuge  there,  and  in  the  seventh 
Montesquieu  (Bordeaux,  1892);  "  Voyages  de  Montes-  century  St.  Vitalian  of  Capua  erected  on  the  hill  a 
quieu'',  published  by  the  same  (Bordeaux,  1894-  chapel  to  the  Blessed  Virgm  Mary,  called  "SancU 
96);  "Pensete  et  fragments  inMits  de  Montesquieu",  Maria  de  Monte  Vergine".  Whatever  the  oridn  of 
published  by  the  same  (Bordeaux,  1899-1901:  two  the  name  it  is  certain  that  a  pagan  shrine  existed  there, 
volumes  have  appeared;  others  are  in  course  of  and  the  ruins  of  the  temple  of  Cybele  lie  all  about  the 
preparation).  hill.  In  1119  St.  William  of  Vercelli  built  a  monastery 
i7UryiS!^'mSS^Jft::3:^  "Tld.rliriZ  ».  of strictobserv«mceMidperpetualabstinen«onMo^^ 
B»u!..»tid.»urjtf<mie.9ttMu(P«ii.i874):  aomuMonu»q^  Vergine,  and  in  1149  his  successor  Blessed  Robert, 
(Pari*.  1887);  Z<tort,  MonUnpiieu  (Puis,  1887);  LBrtvRB-  with  the  approval  of  Alexander  III,  gave  it  to  the 
/.^'SjiS:.^  d«  Af<m^.^«u  (Chiteaudun,  1891):  FAorw.  Benedictines.    According  to  Castellain,  St.  William 

LapolUmu  eompartt  dt  Mmttiimtu,  Rou—mu  »t  YoUam  (Paris,  _..  --„_„;.-j  u„  ti,:„  ,^,,5..  „^  j  l:_  /.^^  s-  i,„_.  „_  oe 

19g);  Barckhacskn,  Monttutuitu  «t  idta  tt  —  amret  (Paris!  ^^S  Canomzed  bv  this  DOpe,  and  his  feast  IS  kept  on  25 

WW)  i  dUTBTOH  Rollins,  Vottain,  Iff^f^uieu,  qn4  Itouttau  m  JwWt     A»  WU-ly  «p  U91  tl)e  ftbbey  18  spokep  9f  W  ^ 


MONnvmco                 53d  monttavoon 

Innging  <<ad  Dominum  Papam  specialiter''.    It  re-  vows,  instituted  civil  marriage,  and  made  it  a  crimd 

oeived  throughout  the  Middle  Ages  many  marks  of  to  baptise  a  child  before  its  birth  was  registered  civilly, 

consideration  from  the  kings  of  the  Two  Sicilies,  To-day,  however,  the  Church  is  flourishing,  and  the 

within  whose  domains  there  were  at  one  time  no  less  archdiocese  contains    many  congregations  of  men 

than  one  hundred  monasteries  of  this  branch  of  the  (Jesuits,  Capuchins,  Redemptorists,  Salesians,  etc.), 

Benedictine  order.    After  many  vicissitudes,  laxity  and  over  300  nuns  engaged  in  teaching  and  chari- 

of  rule  threatened  ruin  to  the  abbey,  and  in  the  six-  tablework.    The  diocese  contains  72,2 10 square  miles, 

teenth  century  Clement  VIII  charged  Blessed  John  and  about  1,103,000  inhabitants  (in  19()6),  almost 

Leonard,   founder    oi    the  Clerks    Regular  of '  the  all  Catholics,  of  whom  308,(XX)  were  in  the  Depart- 

Mother  of  God,  to  restore  the  monastic  spirit.    The  ment  of  Montevideo.    There  are  46  parishes.  7  filial 

new  constitutions  were  approved  by  Paul  V  in  1611,  cures,  122  priests,  and  about  100  chi^)els  and  churches, 

and  included  among  other  things  a  regulation  that  Thepresentoccupantof  the  see  is  Mgr.  Mariano  Soler. 

the  monks  of  Monte  Vergine  should  use  the  Camaldo-  b.  at  San  Carlo,  Uruguay,  25  March,  1846;  elected 

lese  Breviarv.    The  habit  of  the  monks  was  to  be  bishop,  29  Jime,  1891;   consecrated  archbishop,  19 

white,  and  they  were  to  wear  a  white  scapular.  April,   1897;    he  has  two  auxihary  bishops:    Mgr. 

From  the  banning  the  abbey  seems  to  have  been  Ricardo  Isasa  (titular  Bishop  of  Anemurium),  b.  at 

freed  from  diocesan  control,  and  its  abbots  had  the  Montevideo.  7  February,  1847;  elected,  15  February, 

faculty  of  conferring  the  four  minor  orders  and  confir-  1891;  and  Mgr.  Pio  Gaetano  Secondo  Stella  (titular 

mation.    Between  1440  and  1515  it  was  held  in  com-  Bishop  of  Amizona),  b.  at  Paso  del  Molino,  Uruguay, 

mendam  by  five  cardinals,  and  in  that  year  was  united  7  August,  1857;  elected,  22  December,  1893.   Almost 

with  the  Hospital  of  the  Nunsiata  at  Naples.    The  all  the  inhabitants  are  Catholics,  there  is,  however,  a 

governors  of  tne  hospital  sent  as  their  representative  small  Piedmontese  Waldensian  agricultural  colony  in 

to  Monte  Vergine  a  sacristan  who  interifered  with  the  the  East  of  Colonia. 

discipline  of  the  place,  and  from  this  indignity  the  Among  the  noteworthy  buildings  of  the  City  of 

mouKs  were  freed  by  St.  Pius  V  in  1557.    In  1579  Montevideo  may  be  mentioned  the  cathedral,  h^san 

Gregory  XIII  gave  them  chiu^e  of  St.  Agatha's  in  in  1803,  completed  and  restored  in  1905;  and  the 

Subura,  Rome;  Paul  V  made  it  a  privileged  abbey,  Jesuit,   Redemptorist,    and    Franciscan    churches, 

and  it  remained  in  their  care  until  Gregory  aVII  gave  Within  recent  years  conferences  of  St.  Vincent  de  Paul 

it  to  the  Irish  students  (see  Irish  College,  Rome).  have  been  established  in  all  the  city  parishes;  likewise 

The  monastery  chapel  contains  an  ancient  Bysan-  an  excellent  Catholic  club;  and  an  institute  for  Cath- 

tine  picture  of  the  Blessed  Virgin  Mary,  said  to  have  olic  working-men.  The  city  dates  back  to  early  in  the 

come  originally  from  Antioch.    The  dark  features  of  seventeenth  century;  a  small  fort,  San  Jos6,  was  built 

the  Blessed  Virgin  standing  out  from  a  background  of  there  in  1724;  in  January,  1728,  the  town  was  founded 

bright  gold  have  won  for  it  from  peasants  and  pil-  by  Bruno  de  Zabala  with  the  name  San  Felipe  y 

Dims  the  name  of  "Schiavona".    The  story  runs,  Santiago;  in  1807  it  was  captured  by  the  British;  in 

that  the  head  of  the  pictiu^  was  cut  from  its  frame  b^  1828  it  oecame  the  capital  of  the  republic;  from  1842  to 

Baldwin,  the  Latin  Emperor  of  Jerusalem,  to  save  it  1851  it  withstood  the  nine  years'  siege  by  Oibe  and  his 

from  desecration,  that  it  was  found  among  his  posses-  Argentine  allies.   Montevideo  has  witmn  recent  years 

sions  by  his  grand-niece  Catherine  of  Valois  (who  lies  grown  to  be  one  of  the  seven  greatest  seaports  in  the 

buried  in  the  chapel),  and  that  she  gave  it  to  Monte  world  (see  Uruouat).   San  Job6  de  Mayo  (9000)  con- 

Verii^e.    The  lower  portion  of  the  picture  as  it  ex-  tains  a  magnificent  church,  more  massive  than  the 

lats  in  the  shrine  was  added  at  a  later  date  by  the  cathedral;  and  also  the  college  of  the  Sisters  of  Nues- 

brush  of  Montana  di  Arezso.    The  church  is  also  said  tra  Sefiora  del  Huerto,  which  has  a  very  pretty  chapel 

to  contain  relics  of  the  bodies  of  the  young  men,  Si-  attached.    (For  the  early  Uruguayan  missions  among 

drach,  Misach,  Abdenago,  who  were  saved  from  the  tiie  Indians  see  Rbductigns  of  Paraguay.) 

fiery  furnace.    These  relics  were  brought  from  Jem-  „A«a6jo.  Oeoprafja  nacional  (Montevideo,   1892);,  Muxjbaui, 

Mlem  by  Frederick  II.    Penteoost  «»S  the  eighth  of  ^SS!:S::'c^aJS'i^"Sl::e.&1SJ^^^^  "^'' 

September  are  the  two  great  days  of  pilgrimage  and  \^  A.  Mac£2blban. 
re)oicinx  at  Monte  Vergine.    The  nearest  town  is 

Meroosfiano  and  on  these  days  its  population  is  more  Montfaucon,   Bbbnabd  de,  French  scholar,  b. 

than  doubled.    The  present  abbot  is  Mgr.  Victor  Cor-  in  1655,  at  the  chllteau  de  Soulatge,  Department 

vaia,O.S.B.,bomatPalermo,  19  Jime,  1834,  succeeded  of  Aude,  arrondiasement  of  Carcassonej  d.  m  Paris, 

18  January,  1884.   The  chapter  consists  of  15  canons,  at  the  Abbey  of  St-Germain-des-Pr6s,  m  1741.     He 

The  abbot's  jurisdiction  extends  over  7  parishes  form-  was  the  son  of  Timol^n  de  Montiauoon  and  of 

ing  part  of  four  commimes  in  the  border  provinces  of  Flore  de  Maignan.    His  family,  originally  of  Gas- 

Avellino   and   Benevento.     There   are   27  chapels  cony,  had  settled  in  Languedoc  after  the  Albicpasian 

within  the  prelacy,  and  the  population  of  8070  souls  is  Crusade   of   the   thirteenth   century;   its   pnncipal 

ministered  to  by^  31  secular  pnests  and  18  regulars.  seat  was  the  chAteau  of  Roquetaillade  (arranaiasemerU 

Ftto  5.  GWteZmt  Abbott*  in  iirta  55.,  June,  V;  QioBDAifo,  of  Limoux),  where  Bernard  was  reared.    He  was  in- 

£2Sf*V?;  5i"^J^'5t«i2S'V%^.  vZ^V^  ft^cted  by.  Pa^dllon.  Bfahop  <rf  AJeth,  hja  fatha's 

1840);  Cbawford,  Southern  Italy  and  SieUy  (London,  1906);  fnend,  and  m  1672,  at  the  age  of  thirteen,  he  entered 

noinf^  ***'***^*^  (1008);  Qerarehia   (1910);  Ann.  PonL  the  Academic  des  Cadets  at  Perpignan.  to  prepare 

^^^^^>'                                                    j^  Q^  Grbt  ^^^  *  mihtary  career.    After  his  fathers  death,  he 

left  home  with  his  relative,  the  Marquis  d'Hautpol, 

Mont0TideOi  Archdiocese  of  (Montisvidei).  in  a  captain  of  grenadiers  in  the  Regiment  of  Langueaoc, 

Urujsuay,  comprises  the  whole  of  the  republic.    This  and  served  as  a  volunteer  under  Turenne  (1673). 

territory  was  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Paraguayan  He  went  throu^  the  campedgn  of  Alsace,  was  at  the 

Church  till  1620.  when  it  became  subject  to  Buenos  battle  of  Manenthal,  and  fell  dangerously  ill  at 

Aires.   In  1828  tne  Holy  See  erected  it  mto  a  vicariate  Saveme.    In   pursuance  of  a  vow   made   to   the 

Apostolic.   On  15  July,  1878,  it  was  reused  to  episcopal  Blessed  Virgin,  he  then  returned  to  his  own  country, 

rank.  Mgr.  Hyacinth  Vera  being  first  bishop;  on  19  resolved  upon  entering  religion.    On  13  May,  1676, 

April,  1897,  it  was  made  an  archdiocese.    It  was  de-  he  made  his  profession  in  tne  Benedictine  monastery 

cided  at  that  time  to  erect  two  suffraffan  sees,  Melo  and  of  Durade,  at  Toulouse.    Being  sent  to  the  Abbey 

Salt6,  but  no  appointments  have  vet  been  made  (1910).  of  Sor^ze,  he  there  learned  Greek,  making  rapid  prog- 

Since  colonial  days  ended,  the  Church  has  been  perse-  ress.    He  next  spent  eight  years  at  the  j>riory  of 

cuted  at  times,  especially  between  1880  and  1890  under  la  Grasse  (Aude).    Claude  Martin,  assistant  superior 

8aat0S|  who  toibade  leligiouB  under  forty  to  make  of  the  Congregation  of  St-Maur,  noted  his  seal  and 


ItONTTOftT                          540  MOHTTOftT 

caused  him  to  be  sent  to  the  Abbey  of  S^te-Croix  observations.    His    great    '' PalsBographla    Gneca" 

at  Bordeaux.    Finally,  in  1687,  he  was  transferred  (folio,  Paris,  1706)  inaugurated  the  scientific  study  of 

to   Paris,   to   the  Abbey    of    St-Germain-des-Pr^,  Greek  texts.    Another  auxiliary  science  of  history, 

which,  under  the  rule  of  Mabillon,  had  become  one  that  of  bibliography,  owes  to  him  a  work  still  <^ 

of  the  chief  centres  of  French  erudition.     He  was  considerable  value,  ttie  ''Bibliotheca  bibliothecarum 

then  chosen  to  assist  in  preparing  the  edition  of  the  manuscriptorum  nova"  (2  vols.,  folio,  Paris,  1739), 

Greek  Fathers  which  the  Benemctines  had  under-  a  catalogue  of  the  Gredc  manuscripts  of  the  chief 

taken.    To  perfect  his  own  training,  he  also  began  libraries  of  Europe.    Lastly,  Montfauoon  intuitively 

the  study  of  Hebrew,  Chaldean,  Syriac,  and  Coptic,  saw  what  benefit  might  accrue  to  history  from  the 

as  well  as  that  of  numismatics,  and  in  1694  was  study  of  figured  monuments,  and,  if  he  was  not  the 

appointed  curator  of  the  numismatic  collection  at  creator  of  archsology,  he  was  at  least  the  first  to 

St-Oermain-des-Pr^.  show  what  advantages  might  be  derived  from  it. 

In  1690  Montfaucon  had  published  a  treatise  on  Two  of  his  works  show  him  to  be  an  originator. 
"La  v^rit^  de  Thistoire  de  Judith''.  The  monu-  In  1719  he  published  ''L' Antiquity  expUqu^e  et 
mental  edition  of  the  works  of  St.  Athanasius,  on  representee  en  figures"  (10  vols.,  folio,  Paris),  in 
which  he  laboured  with  Dom  Pouget  and  Dom  which  he  reproduces,  methodically  grouped,  all  the 
Lopin,  appeared  in  1698  and  was  well  received  (3  ancient  monuments  that  might  be  of  use  m  tne  study 
vols.,  lolio,  Paris;  reproduced  in  P. G.,XXV-XXVIII).  of  the  reli^on^  domestic  customs,  material  life, 
Before  undertaking  new  patristic  labours,  he  re-  military  institutions,  and  funeral  rites  of  the  ancients, 
solved  to  study  the  manuscripts  in  the  libraries  of  Of  this  work,  which  contains  1120  plates,  the  whole 
Italy.  Obtaimng  permission  m  1698,  he  set  out  with  edition  of  1800  copies  was  exhausted  in  two  months^ 
Dom  Paul  Briois.  At  Milan  he  made  the  acouaint-  in  spite  of  its  enormous  size.  The  regent,  Philippe 
ance  of  Muratori;  at  Venice  he  was  receivea  very  d'Orl^ans,  desired  that  the  author  should  become  a 
coldly,  and  was  not  even  allowed  to  see  the  manu-  member  of  the  Academic  des  Inscriptions  et  Belles- 
scripts  in  the  Benedictine  monasteries  of  San  Lettres,  and  he  was  elected  to  replace  P^re  Letellier 
Giomo  Maggiore  and  San  Marco.  On  the  other  (1719).  Montfauoon  then  conceived  a  more  daring 
hand,  he  was  welcomed  at  Mantua,  Ravenna,  and  idea,  a  work,  similar  to  "T Antiquity  expliqu6e  , 
especially  at  Rome  by  Innocent  XI.  Having  been  which  should  embrace  the  entire  history  of  France, 
named  by  his  superiors  procurator  general  at  Rome  This  work,  the  ''Monuments  de  la  monarchie  fran- 
of  the  Order  of  St.  Benedict,  certain  difficulties  with  (aise",  dedicated  to  Louis  XV,  appeared  from  1729 
the  Jesuits  led  to  his  resignation  of  that  office  which  to  1733  (5  vols.,  folio,  Paris).  In  it  Montfauoon 
brought  with  it  so  many  distractions  from  his  chief  studies  the  history,  as  it  is  shown  in  the  monuments, 
work,  and  in  1701  he  secured  his  recall  to  France,  of  each  successive  reign  down  to  that  of  Henir 
The  scientific  results  of  his  journey  were  embodied  IV.  His  reproductions  are  inexact,  and  the  wonk 
in  the  quarto  volume  of  his  "Diarium  Italicum''  remained  incomplete.  On  19  December,  1741, 
(Paris,  1702).  He  also  collected  the  notes  of  his  he  read  before  the  Academy  of  Inscriptions  a  plan  for 
companion,  Dom  Paul  Briois,  who  had  died  on  the  completing  this  work;  two  days  later  he  passed  away 
journey  (edited  by  Omont,  ''Revue  des  Biblio-  tranquilly,  without  any  premonitonr  svmptoms  of 
thdques'',  XIV,  IQCfi).  illness.    An  indefatigable  scholar,  a  bold  thmker,  an 

In  the  full  matunty  of  his  powers,  at  liberty  to  originator  of  scientific  methods,  he  left  after  him  a 

satisfy  his  passion  for  work,  with  a  large  experience  mighty  generation  of  disciples  to  form  the  connecting 

of  life  and  an  immense  fund  of  geneitd  information,  link  between  the  old  Benedictine  learning  and  modem 

Montfaucon  now  took  up  his  abode  at  the  Abbey  ot  scholarship. 

St-Germain-des-Pr^,  where  he  spent  the  last  forty  .!>»  Broolub.  r«  5oc«tf  d€  St^ennain-dgS'Ptfa  au  XV^ 

vAaMi  rxt  U\a  Mft%.       TTaxa   a    nVk^i^  Urwlv*  ^^  a<tk^law>  necU:  BeTTMrd  dt  M<mt/aueim  el  ut  Bernardtvu  1716^1750  {2  vm»^ 

years  of  his  life.    Here  a  choice  body  of  scholars  ^.^^  iggi).  qj^^^^  ^„  ^  BirUdictins  de  la  <»n(rsj^um  di 

gathered  aroimd  him,   his  avowed   disciples,   whose  St-Maur,  17O6-174I  (2  vols.,  PariB,  1893);   Omont.  Bernard  d» 

afifection  for  their  master  prompted  them  to  take  ^<?*Sfe««»f*' ~  ■^«*J»*''«  ?*  •«•  ?r?*^ 

the   name   of   "Bernardms^'.    Among   these   were  iiJf^^i^i  ^Lrk.Ts?)?'             **              ''^ 

Claude  de  Vic  and  Joseph  Vaissette,  authors  of  the  '                '                              Louis  Br^hikr. 
"Histoire   de   Languedoc''.    the   hellenist    Charles 

de  la  Rue  (his  favourite  disciple),  Dom  Lobineau,  Montfort,  Simon  de,  Earl  of  Leicester,  date  of 

the  historian  of  Brittany,  and  even  the  Abb4  Provost,  birth  unknown,  d.  at  Toulouse,  25  June,  1218.   Simon 

who  was  then  a  collaborator  on  the  ''Gallia  Christ-  (IV)  de  Montfort  was  descended  from  the  lords  of 

iana".    Montfaucon,  moreover,  corresponded  with  Montfort  FAmaury  in  Normandy,  being  the  second 

scholars  all  over  Euroi>e,  and,  in  spite  of  the  heavy  son  of  Simon  (III)i  and  Amicia,  dau^ter  of  Robert  de 

tasks  he  took  upon  himself,  he  succeeded,  thanlcs  Beaumont,  third  Earl  of  Leicester.   Having  succeeded 

to  his  abstemious  and  regular  life^  in  working  almost  his  father  as  Baron  de  Montfort  in  1181,  in  1190  he 

to  his  last  day.    During  this,  his  most  productive  married  Alice  de  Montmorency,  the  daughter  of 

period,  he  supplemented  the  former  edition  of  the  Bouchard  (III)  de  Montmorency.    In  1199  while  tak- 

Greek  Fathers  with  a  ''Collectio  nova  patrum  et  log  part  in  a  tournament  at  Ecnr-eur-Aisne  in  the 

scriptorum  grsecorum"  (2  vols.,  folio,  Paris,  1706).  province  of  Champagne  he  heanl  FuUc  de  Neuilly 

In  1709  he  translated  into  French  the  ''De  vita  con-  preaching  the  crusade,  and  in  company  with  Count 

tcmplativa"  of  Philo  Judsus,  and  essayed  to  prove  Thibaud  de  Champagne  and  many  other  nobles  and 

that  the  Therapeutte  there  mentioned  were  Chris-  knights  he  took  the  cross.    Unfortunately,  the  crusade 

tians.    Next  appeared  the  edition  of  Origen  (2  vols.,  got  out  of  control,  and  the  French  knights,  instead  of 

fol.,  Paris,  1713)  and  that  of  St.  John  Chivsostom  co-operating  with  the  pope,  decided  on  a  campaign  in 

(13  vols.,  folio,  Paris,  1718),  prepared  with  the  assis-  Egypt,  and  on  their  arrival  at  Venice  entered  on  a 

tance  of  FrauQois  Faverolles,  treasurer  of  St-Denis,  contract  for  transport  across  the  Mediterranean.    Be> 

and  four  Beneidictines,  who  spent  thirteen  years  in  ing  unable  to  fulfil  the  terms  of  tJie  contract,  they 

collating  300  manuscripts.  compoimded  by  assisting  the  Venetians  to  capture 

The  thoroughly  scientific  bent  of  Montfaucon's  Zara  in  Dalmatia.    In  vain  the  pope  urged  them  to 

mind  led  him  to  elaborate  a  new  auxiliary  science  out  set  out  for  the  Holy  Land.    They  preferred  to  march 

of  the  studies  he  had  made  for  the  verification  of  his  on  Constantinople,  though  Simon  ae  Montfort  offered 

Greek  texts.    As  Mabillon  had  created  the  science  of  energetic  opposition  to  this  proposal.    Notwithstand- 

diplomatics,  so  Montfaucon  was  the  father  of  Greek  ing  his  efforts,  the  expedition  was  undertaken  and  Uie 

paLsography,  the  principles  of  which  he  established  pope's  plans  were  defeated, 

by  the  rigour  ctf  his  method  in  grouping  his  personal  In  1204  or  1205  Simon  succeeded  to  the  Earldom  ol 


UOKTOOLTtllt  541  ICOKTOOtnKfi 

Leiceater  and  large  estata  in  England,  for  on  the  land  was  shown  by  his  efforts  to  diaauade  LottU  of 

death  of  the  fourth  Earl  of  Leioeater  in  that  year,  hie  France  from  invading  England  in  July,  1216,  ic  which 

honour  of  Leicester  devolved  on  his  aister  Alicia,  matter  he  was  seconded,  though  fruitlessly,  by  the 

Simon'a  mother;    and  oa  her  husband,  Simon  (III),  legate  Gualo.    Having  at  this  time  raised  more  troops 

and  her  eldest  son  were  already  dead,  the  earldom  in  Paris,  Simon  returned  to  the  south  of  France,  where 

devolved  on  Simon  himself.    But  though  he  was  reoog-  he  occupied  himself  in  waging  war  at  Nlmea,  until  id 

niied  by  King  John  as  Earl  of  Leicester,  he  was  never  1217  a  rebelUon  broke  out  in  Provence,  where  Count 

formally  invested  with  the  earldom,  and  in  February,  Raymond's  aon  re-entered  Toulouse.    Simon  hastened 

1207,  the  king  aeized  all  hia  En^iah  estates  on  pretext  t«  bedese  the  city,  but  washampered  by  lack  of  troops. 

of  adebtduefromhim.   Shortly  afterwards  they  were  On  2fl  June,  1218,  wiiile  he  was  at  Mass  he  learned 

restored,  only  to  be  eonfiacated  again  before  the  end  of  that  the  bedded  had  made  a  aortie.    Refusing  to 

the  year.    Simon,  content  with  the  Norman  estates  he  leave  the  church  before  Mass  was  over,  he  arrived  late 

had  inherited  from  the  de  Montforts  and  the  de  Beau-  at  the  acene  of  action  only  to  be  wounded  mortally, 

montfl,  remained  in  France,  where  in  1208  he  was  He  expired,  commending  his  soul  to  God,  and  waa 

made  captain -general  of  the  French  forces  in  the  Cru-  buried  in  the  Monastery  of  Haute-Bruy^re.    He  left 

sade  againal  the  Albigensca.    At  firat  he  declined  this  three  aona,  of  whom  Almeric  the  eldest  ultimately  m- 

lionour,  but  the  pope's  legate,  Arnold,  Abbot  of  heritedhisFrenchcstatea;  theyoungeetwasSimonde 

(.lieaux,  ordered  hun  in  the  pope's  name  to  accept  it,  Montfort,  who  succeeded  him  as  Earl  of  Leiceater,  and 

and  he  obeyed.  who  waa  to  play  so  great  a  part  in  English  history. 

Simon  thus  received  control  over  the  territoir  oon- 
nuered  from  Raymond  (VI)  of  Toulouse  and  by  his 


ffi 


J.  Mnn;/Drt  {FbiL, .     , 

l<  d€  Mnnl/ori  (■.  ].  k.) ;  MOLiniEH.  Calalaffut  da  aclu  id 
m  tt  d'ATTUturi  d>  Itoniforl  in  Bibtiotii.  rfz  I'lcali  da  CharUt 
9),  XXXIV  (Piru.  1874) ;  Noboati  In  Dxit.  Nal.  Biag..  a.  v. 
m  (V)  de  Monl/BTt. 

Edwin  Bdrton. 

Mont^lflBr,  JoasPH-MicHBL,  inventor;  b.  at  Vi- 
dalon-Iei-Annonay,  Department  of  Ard&che,  France, 
26  August,  1740;  d.  at  Balaruc-lea- Bains,  Depart- 
ment of  Hfirault,  France,  26  June,  1810.  His  father 
was  a  prosperous  paper-manufacturer,  who  brought 
up  nine  children,  presenting  to  them  an  example  of 
high  virtue,  honesty,  economy,  and  piety.  Joseph 
was  educated  at  the  local  college  in  a  very  unaatis- 
faotory  manner.  When  he  returned  home  he  found 
in  the  manufacture  of  paper  aubjecCs  of  study  more 
to  his  liking.  He  set  up  an  independent  establiah- 
ment  with  his  brother  Augustine  in  order  to  exercise 
the  inventive  faculties  that  were  held  in  check  by 
bis  economical  father.  His  numerous  ideas  and  pro- 
jects and  hia  simphcity  of  character  exposed  him  to 
financial  losses,  and  eventually  broughl,  udod  him  an 
unjupt  temporary  imprisonment. 

He  improved  the  manufacture  of  paper,  invented  a 
method  of  stereotyping,  and  constructed  an  air-pump 
military  ekilt,  Berce  courage,  and  ruthlessneaa  he  swept  for  rarefying  the  air  u  the  moulds.  Numerous  ob- 
the  countnj.  His  success  won  for  him  the  admiration  iects  of  everyday  life  occupied  his  inventive  genius, 
of  the  En^isb  barons,  and  in  1210  King  John  received  His  most  important  work,  however,  was  in  connexion 
information  that  they  were  plotting  to  elect  Simon  with  hydraulics  and  aeronautics.  He  interested  his 
King  of  England  in  ms  stead.  Simon,  however,  con-  brother  Etienne  in  these  so-called  chimerical  projects. 
centrated  bis  fierce  ener^es  on  his  task  in  Toulouse,  They  inven(«d  the  hydraulic  ram,  which  uses  the 
and  in  1213  he  d^eated  Peter  of  Aragon  at  the  battle  eoerKy  from  a  copious  flow  of  water  under  a.  small 
of  Muret.  The  Albigenaes  were  now  crushed,  but  headin  order  to  force  a  small  portion  of  that  water 
Simon  carried  on  the  cainpaign  as  a  war  of  conquest,  to  a  considerable  height.  Observations  on  the  be- 
being  appointed  by  the  Council  of  Montpellier  lord  haviour  of  a  sheet  hung  over  a  fire  led  them  to  attempt 
over  all  the  newly-acquired  territory,  as  Count  of  a  number  of  experiments  with  balloons  made  of 
Toulouse  and  Duke  of  Narbonne  (1215).  The  pope  taffetas  and  filled  with  heated  air.  On  5  June,  1783, 
confirmed  this  appointment,  understanding  that  it  a  aucceasful  exhibition  took  place  before  the  Estates 
would  effectually  complete  the  auppresaion  of  the  of  Vivarais,  asscAnbled  at  Annonay.  A  globe,  110 
heresy.  It  is  ever  to  be  deplored  that  Simon  stained  feet  in  circumference  and  weighing  about  600  pounds, 
his  many  great  quaUties  by  treachery,  harshness,  and  waa  filled  with  air  half  as  heavy  as  the  atmosphere. 
bad  faitn.  His  severity  became  cnieltv,  and  he  de-  This  balloon  rose  to  a  height  of  6600  feet  and  come 
Uvered  over  many  towns  to  (ire  and  pillage,  thus  in-  down  very  gently  at  a  distance  of  a  mile  and  a  half, 
volving  many  innocent  people  in  the  common  ruin.  Thia  attempt  naturally  excited  enormous  interest 
lliiaia  the  more  to  be  r^retted,  as  his  intrepid  zeal  for  throughout  the  civilized  world.  Joseph  left  to  his 
the  Catholic  faith,  the  severe  virtue  of  his  private  Ufe,  brother  the  honour  and  duty  of  reporting  to  the 
Andhiseourageandskillin  warfare  marked  him  out  as  Academy  of  Sciences  at  Paris  and  of  repeating  ex- 
•  great  man.  periraents  at  the  expense  of  the  Government.    Bal- 

Meviwhile  the  pope  had  been  makinK  efforts  to  toons  were  conatructed  that  carried  with  them  a  fui^ 
•ecure  for  him  the  r^itution  of  his  English  estates,  nace  for  the  purpose  of  keeping  the  ajr  heated  and 
The  surrender  of  hia  landa  by  John  was  one  of  the  therefore  light,  and  two  courageous  physicists,  Biot 
conditions  for  reconciliation  laid  down  by  the  pope  in  and  Gay-Luaaac  made  a  successful  ascent.  At  Lyons, 
1213;  but  it  was  not  till  July,  1215,  that  John  reluct-  Josep!)  and  six  others  went  up  in  a  balloon  126  feet 
antljr  yielded  the  honour  of  Leiceater  into  the  hands  high  and  102  feet  in  diameter.  On  20  August,  1783. 
of  Bimon'a  nephew,  Ralph,  Earl  of  Chester,  "for  the  the  brothera  were  placed  by  acclamation  on  the  list  or 
benefit  of  the  said  Simon"     8<mon'a interest  in  Eng-    correspondents  of  tiie  Academy,  "ae  scientists  to 


MONTHS  542  BIOHTBS 

whomweareindsbtedfor  a  new  art  that  will  make  fui  dulgencea,  three  hundred  days  daily  for  thn«e  wbc 

epoch  in  the  history  of  human  Bcienoe",    Ktienne  re-  privately  or  publicly  (ifrl'orm  some  pious  practice  io 

ceived  the  decoration  of  Saint-Michel  for  hiniBelf,  and  Konour  of  St.  Joseph,  during  the  month,  a  plenary  in- 

lett«TB  of  nobility  for  his  father.     Joseph  obtained  a  dulgence  on  any  day  of  the  month  under  the  usual 

pension,  and  40,000  livrea  for  the  construction  of  an  conditions  (Piua  IX,  "Rescript  Congr.  Indulg.",  27 

experimental  dirigible  balloon.    This  he  was  unable  April,  1865).   This  month  of  devotions  may  commence 

to  realise.  in  February  and  be  concluded  19  March  (Pius  IX,  18 

He  was  noted  for  extraoidinary  bodily  strength  and  July,  1877).    March  can  be  replaced  by  any  other 

for   courageous   plulanthropy.     During   the   stormy  month  in  case  of  legitimate  impediment  (RaccoltA, 

days  of  the  Revolution  lie  offered  and  ensured  pro-  404).   ThepracticeoTatriduumbeforethefeastof  St. 

tection  and  asylum  to  many  proscribed  persons,  who  Joseph  has  been  recommended  by  Leo  XIII  (Encycl. 

were    often     not  "Quamquampluries",  15  August,  1889).   (3)Ma^,the 

k  n  ow  n   to    him  Blessed  Virgin  Mary.    The  May  devotion  in  its  present 

even     by    name,  form  originated  at  Rome  where  Father  Latomia  of  the 

"Siding  with  no  Roman  Collide  of  the  Society  of  Jesus,  (o  counteract 

faction,    he   sub-  infidelity  and  immorality  among  the  students,  made 

mitted  to  the  po-  a  vow  at  the  end  of  the  eighteenth  ceniury  to  devot* 

litical  laws  unless  the  month  of  May  to  Mary.     From  Rome  the  prac- 

they  were  in  op-  tice  spread  to  the  other  Jesuit  colleges  and  thence  to 

Kition     to    the  nearly  every  Catholic  church  of  the  Latin  rite  (.-Vlbera, 

8  of  humanity,  "Bluethenkriinie",  IV,  631  aq.).     This  practice  is  the 

and  awaited  with  oldest  instance  of  a  devotion  extending  over  an  entire 

confidence  the  re-  month.     Indulgences,  three  hundred  Jays  each  day, 

turn   of    order",  by  assisting  at  a  public  function  or  performing  the 

His  business  hav-  devotion  in  private,  plenary  indulgence  on  any  day  of 

ing  been  ruined,  the  month  or  on  one  of  the  first  r.ight  days  of  June 

he  went  to  Paris,  under  the  usual  conditions  (Pius  VII,  21  March,  1815, 

where     the    new  for  ten  vears;  IB  June,  1823  in  perpeluum). 
Government  wel-         (4)  June,  the  Sacred  Henrt.     This  devotion,  long 

corned     and     re-  privately  practised,  was  approved  by  Pius  IX,  8  May, 

warded  him.    He  1873  (Rescr.auth.,n.  409),  and  urgently  recommended 

was  called  to  the  by  Leo  XUI  in  a  letter  addressed  bv  the  Cardinal  i'r«- 

consulting  bureau  feet  S.R.C.  to  all  the  bishops,  21  July,  1800.     Indul- 

of  arts  and  manu-  zencee:  (a)  seven yearsandsevenqua^antine^)en,chday 

.-_ _  — „.—      factures,   was  (or  performing  the  devotion  publicly  orprivalely;  (b) 

MONTOOLnu  named  demon-  if  the  devotion  is  practised  daily  in  private,  or  if  aper- 
strator  of  the  Conservatory  of  Arts  and  Trades,  was  son  ssusts  at  least  ten  times  at  a  public  function,  a 
received  at  the  Institute,  1807,  as  the  successor  of  plenary  indulgence  on  any  dav  in  June  or  from  1-8 
Coulomb,  and  was  made  a  Kmght  of  the  Legion  of  July  (Deer.  Urbis  et  orbis,  30  May,  1002) ;  (c)  the  in- 
Honour.  dulgencefottes  qruilUaoa  the  thirtieth  of  June  or  the 
Apart  from  a  few  memoirs  in  "Journal  des  Minee"  last  Sunday  of  June  (23  Jan.,  190S)  in  those  churches 
and  "Joumd  de  I'Ecole  polytechnique".  he  pub-  where  the  month  of  June  is  celebrated  solemnly, 
lished  very  httle,  vii.;  "Discours  aur  1  aerostat"  Pius  X  (8  Aug.,  1906)  urged  a  daily  sermon,  or  at 
(with  his  brother  Etienne),  Paris,  1783;  "Voyageurs  least  for  eight  days  in  the  form  of  a  mission  (26  Jan., 
airiens"  (with  Etienne),  Paris,  1784;  "M^moireasur  1903);  (d)  to  those  priests,  who  preach  the  sermons  at 
la  machine  a^rostatioue",  Pans,  1784;  "Notes  sur  le  the  solemn  functions  in  June  in  honour  of  the  Sacred 
b^lier  hydraulicgue",  Paris,  1803.  Heart  and  to  the  rectors  of  the  churches  where  these 
.°"'^i'.?.",?i  "f"'?^.'?,  -"S**"*! '''  "•^^•^-  *^«r*!  "»":  f  functions  are  held,  the  privilege  of  the  Gregorian  Al- 
JX"imov  "'  Wu.,3v.i™^^«-™a«(B.(Phj,d^  taronthethirtiethof  June(PiusX,8Aug..l90fi);  (e) 
William  Fox.  plenary  indulgence  for  each  Communion  m  June  and 
to  those  who  promot«  the  solemn  celebration  of  the 
Uonths,  Speciai.  Dbvotions  fob. — During  the  month  of  June  ("Acta  Pontificia",  IV,  3.'<8.  8  Aue., 
Middle  Ages  the  public  functions  of  the  Church  and  1906).  (5)  July,  the  Precious  Blood  (reaat  of  the 
the  popular  devotions  of  the  people  were  intimately  Precious  Blood,  &rst  Sunday  of  July).  This  devotion 
connected.  The  laity  assisted  at  the  daily  psalmody,  was  propagated  by  Bl.  Caspar  Buffalo  (d.  at  Rome.  28 
the  sacrifice  of  the  Mass,  the  numerous  processions,  Dec.,  1837).  founder  of  the  CongrcgatJon  of  the  Pre- 
and  were  quite  familiar  with  the  liturgy.  Those  few  cious  Blood  of  JeausChrist.  Indulgences,  for  the  pub- 
religious  practices  outside  of  official  services,  e.  g.  the  lie  devotion :  seven  years  and  seven  quarantines  each 
Rosary  (asubstitute  for  the  150  Psalms)  oripnated  in  day;  plenary  indulgence  on  any  dajr  in  July  or  1-8 
the  hturgy.  Later,  however,  especially  since  the  six-  August,  after  having  assisted  ei^t  times  at  a  public 
teentb  century,  popular  devotion  followed  its  own  function  under  the  usual  conditions;  if  the  devotion 
channels;  unliturpcal  practices  like  the  Stations  of  the  be  held  privately  three  hundred  days  each  day  with 
Cross,  the  Quarani  'Ore,  various  htaniea  and  rosaries  plenaty  indulgence  on  31  July,  or  1-^  of  August  (Pius 
(cototue),  prevailed  everywhere;  novenas  and  series  of  IX,  4  June,  1850).  For  this  practice  any  other  month 
Sundays  and  week-days  m  honour  of  particular  saintA  or  any  period  of  thirty  days  during  the  year  may  be 
or  mysteries  were  instituted.  Entire  month?  of  the  chosen  (Raccolta,  178).  (6)  Seplemlier,  the  Seven 
year  were  given  over  to  special  devotions.  Following  Dolours  of  the  Blessed  Virgin  Mary  (feast  of  the  Seven 
IS  a  list  of  the  more  common  devotions  with  the  in-  Dolours,  third  Sunday  in  September);  indulgences, 
dulgencee  attached:  (1)  January,  the  Holy  Name  of  three  hundred  days  each  day  and  the  devotions  may 
Jesus  (feast  of  the  Holy  Name,  second  Sunday  after  be  performed  in  public  or  private;  plenary  indulgence 
Epiphany);  indulgences,  one  hundred  days  each  day  on  any  dav  of  September  or  1-8  October  under  the 
if  the  devotion  is  made  privately,  three  hundred  days  usual  conditions  (Leo  XIH,  "Raccolta",  27  Jan., 
each  day.  if  the  devotion  be  in  a  public  church  or  1888,  232). 

chapel,  plenary  indulgence  for  daily  assistance  at  the        (7)  October,  the  Holy  Rosary  (feast  of  the  Holy 

"■''■'       ''  'er  the  usual  conditions  (Leo  XI"  "     --'■    ■  "..    <       ■    ^.i      .      ...ir.... 

801;  "Acta  S.  Sedis",  XXXI 
.  Joseph  (feaat,  19  March):  : 


MONTI  543  MONTMIRAIL 

dedicate  the  month  of  October  to  the  Queen  of  the  our  of  King  Louis,  of  the  queen-mother,  and  the  psr 

Holy  Rosary  in  order  to  obtain  through  her  interces-  tron  saints  of  Paris,  and  of  his  order.    With  him  had 

sion  the  grace  that  God  may  console  and  defend  His  come  several  noble  families  destined  to  contribute  to 

Church  in  her  sufferings,  and  for  nineteen  years  he  the  country's  development  and  renown.    During  his 

pubHshed  an  encyclical  on  this  subject    By  the  de-  administration  were  built  the  Jesuit  Colleee  (founded 

cree  of  the  Congregation  of  Rites  (20  Aug.,  1885;  26  1635),  the  Ursuline  monastery,  and  H6tel-Dieu  (1639). 

Aug.,  1886;  2  Sept.,  1887)  he  ordained  that  every  year  Isle  J6sus,  lying  parallel  to  Montreal,  was  first  called 

during  the  entire  month  of  October,  including  the  first  by  the  Jesmt  Lejeune  Ide  MorUmagny  in  his  honour, 

and  second  of  November,  in  every  cathedral  and  paro-  from  the  outset,  he  was  ardent  for  the  conversion  of 

chial  church,  and  in  all  other  cnurches  and  chapels  the  aborigines.    In  1636  was  begim  the  reduction  of 

which  are  d^cated  to  the  Blessed  Vir^n  Mary,  five  Sillery,  where  Montmafpy  strove  to  have  the  Indians 


decades  of  the  Rosary  and  the  Litany  of  Loreto  are  instructed.  When  Maisonneuve,  in  the  autimm  of 
to  be  recitedj  in  the  morning  during  Mass  or  in  the  1641,  came  with  forty  colonists  to  found  Montreal, 
afternoon  whilst  the  Blessed  Sacrament  is  exposed,  and    Montmagny  kept  them  for  the  winter,  and  in  the 


by  the  encyclical  letter  of  15  Auffust,  1889,  a  prayer  in  spring  personally  escorted  them  to  their  destination, 
honour  of  St.  Joseph  was  added.  Indulgences  (S.  C.  He  built  Fort  Rjchelieu  (now  Sore!)  at  the  mouth  of 
Indulg.,  23  July,  1898):  (a)  seven  years  and  seven  the  river  of  the  same  name,  where  he  victoriously  re- 
quarantines  every  day  for  the  public  or  private  recita-  prulsed  the  onslaught  of  700  Iroquois.  At  the  expira- 
tion of  five  decades;  (b)  plenary  indulgence  on  the  tion  of  a  third  term  of  office,  he  was  replaced  by 
feast  of  the  Holy  Rosary  or  during  the  octave  for  Daillebout  (1648).  and  departed  sincerely  regretted  by 
those  who  during  the  entire  octave  recite  daily  five  all  and  leavmg  behind  him  an  undying  reputation  for 
decades  and  fulfil  the  other  usual  conditions;  (c)  plen-  prudence  and  wisdom.  He  had  efficaciously  aided  in 
ary  indulgence  on  any  other  day  of  the  month  for  the  progress  of  the  colony  by  the  concession  of  twenty 
those  who.  after  the  octave  of  the  feast,  recite  for  at  large  domains  to  the  enterprising  heads  of  aa  many 
least  ten  days  five  decades  ("Raccolta",  354;  Albers,  noble  families.  Shortly  after  his  return  to  France,  he 
"Bluethenkranze",  III,  730  sq.).  Also  in  October  was  sent  to  St.  Christopher  in  the  Antilles,  a  posses- 
there  are  devotions  in  honour  of  St.  Francis  of  Assisi  sion  of  his  order,  where  ne  died.  He  lies  buried  in  the 
(feast,  4  Oct.) ;  indulgences,  three  hundred  da3rs  each  church  of  Basseterre.  Parkman  accuses  him  of  being 
aay  by  assisting  at  the  public  devotions  in  honour  of  a  tool  in  the  hands  of  the  Jesuits,  but  his  refusal  to 
St.  Francis  in  a  church  or  public  oratory;  plenary  in-  develop  actively  their  missions  in  the  region  of  the 
dulgence  on  the  feast  of  St.  Francis  or  dunng  the  oo-  Great  Lakes,  to  the  detriment  of  the  interests  of  Que- 
tave  (11  Jime,  1883,  for  ten 
perpetuum;  "Acta  Minorum' 
month  may  be  selected  instead 
vember,  the  Holy  Souls  in  Purgatory  (2  Nov.,  Com-  lationof  his  name,  Montmagny,  Monsmagnus).  F^ 
mem.  of  all  the  Faithful  Departed) ;  indulgences,  was  withal  mild,  courteous,  and  affectionate,  winning 
seven  years  and  seven  quarantines  each  day;  plenary  the  attachment  of  both  Indians  and  whites.  He  was 
indulgence  on  any  day  of  month  under  the  usual  con-  charitable  and  sincerely  pious,  free  alike  from  bigotry 
ditions  (Leo  XIII,  17  Jan.,  1888).  Popular  devotion  and  dissimulation, 
has  also  selected  other  mysteries  and  has  dedicated  ,.J"?*^?'>«.?<7*»'«  d*Hiatoir«  du  Canada  (Quebee,  1882);  Rot, 

Taniiarv  fn  tha  TTnlv  PliilHhnoH  atiH  fliP  liiHHpTi  lifp  of  ^  Ordr4  de  Make  «n  Amirique  (Quebec,  1888)  i  iDXif  in  Nou- 

J  anuary  to  tne  iioiy  ^^nuanooa  ana  tne  maaen  me  oi  ^^  p^^^  (March,  April.  1906) ;  Albzxb  in  AoumUc  Prance  (Oct., 

Jesus  accordmg  to  the  Gospel  of  the  first  Sunday  after  Nov.,  Dec,  1908). 

Epiphany;  March,  to  the  Holy  Familv,  on  account  of  Lionel  Lindsay. 

the  feast  of  St.  Joseph  and  the  Annimciation  (25 

March) ;  August,  to  tne  Maternal  Heart  of  Mary        Montmirail  (Monte-Mirabili),  John  db,  son  of 

(feast  on  the  Sunday  after  twenty-second  of  Aupist) ;  Andrew,  Lord  of  Montmirail  and  Fert6-Gaucher,  and 

October,  to  the  Holy  Angels  (feast,  2  Oct.);  Decem-  Hildiarde  d'Oisy,  b.  in  116.5;  d.  29  Sept..  1217.    He 

ber,  to  the  Immaculate  Conception  (feast,  8  Dec.)  or  was  trained  in  piety  by  his  mother,  and  well  instructed 

to  the  Holy  Child  in  the  stable  at  Bethlehem  (25  in  the  secular  sciences.    Whilst  young  he  embraced 

Dec.).    These  practices,  however,  are  not  formally  a  military  career,  and  was  presentea  at  the  RoyaJ 

approved  by  the  Church,  nor  enriched  with  indulg-  Court,  where  he  formed  a  lasting  friendshipwith  Philip 

ences.  Augustus,  later  King  of  France.    The  dissipations 

These  devotions,  of  course,  vary  with  conditions  in  of  court  life  led  him  to  neglect  the  training  of  his 

different  countries.    Though  there  is  a  wide  variety,  youth:  even  his  marriage  with  a  most  estimable  lady, 

constantly  chan^ng,   the  prayers  more  commonly  Helviae  de  Dampierre,  f idled  to  effect  a  change  for  the 

used  are  the  litanies  of  the  Holy  Name,  Sacred  Heart,  better.    However,  in  his  thirtieth  year  he  met  Jobert. 

St.  Joseph,  the  Blessed  Virgin,  the  indulgenced  pray-  Prior  of  St-Etienne  de  Montmirail,  whose  words  ot 

ers  of  the  Raccolta,  the  rosary  of  the  Domimcans.  counsel  proved  sufficient  to  cause  his  conversion;  and 

For  the  May  and  June  devotions,  a  short  sermon  or  he  turned  to  God  with  generosity  and  fidelity.    He 

instruction  usually  follows,  with  Benediction  of  the  built  an  hospital  for  the  sick  of  all  kinds,  but  the  ob- 

Blesed  Sacrament  concluding  the  services.  jects  of  his  predilection  were  the  lepers,  and  those 

BsRiNOER,  ZHe  ii6i««f  (13th  ed^aderbom.  1906);  Scrwuo-  hopelessly  afflicted.    He  loved  the  poor  as  brothers, 

HOFwi,  Ahlau^Bre^  (Munich  1907^  xTni  wirrir  anrpro>aded  for  them.    He  was  severe  on  himself, 

a  REDERiCK  u.  noLWBCK.  rearing  a  coarse  hair^irt,  passing  frequently  entire 

Monti  di  Pieti.    See  Montes  Pibtatis.  pights  in  prayer.    Not  satisfied  with  a  life  of  holineM 

m  the  world,  nor  with  that  of  a  recluse,  which  he  tried 

Montmagnv,  Charles  Huault  de,  second  French  for  a  while,  he  entered  the  Cistercian  monastery  of 

Governor  of  Cfanada,  b.  in  France  towards  the  end  of  Lon^pont,  after  having  distributed  amongst  the  poor 

the  sixteenth  century,  of  Charles  Huault  and  Antoi-  all  his  possessions  not  needed  by  his  wife  and  family; 

nette  du  Drac;  d.  in  the  Antilles  after  1651.    Edu-  and  he  gave  himself  wholly  to  prayer  and  penance,  so 

cated  by  the  Jesuits,  he  joined  the  Order  of  Malta  in  much  so  that  he  had  to  be  reprimanded  ror  going  to 

1622,  and  fought  against  the  Moslems  and  the  cor-  excess.    He  had  to  bear  every  kind  of  insult  from  his 

sairs  of  Africa.     Appointed  to  replace  Champlain  former  friends;  even  members  of  his  own  family 

before  the  annoimcement  of  the  latter's  death,  he  abused  him  for  having  abandoned  honour  and  wealth 

reached  Quebec  on  15  June,  1636.    He  rebuilt  Fort  for  poverty  and  subjection.    But  none  of  these  things 

St-Louis,  and  traced  the  plan  of  the  city,  giving  to  its  could  weaken  the  fervor  with  which  he  sought  perfect 

four  primitive  streets  the  naitad^s  they  still  b^AT  m  hQO-  ti99*    Jiipim^emble  mir^lC9  w^r^  wrought  at  his 


KONTMOBINCT 


Leo  Xlli  granted  a  special  office  in  hia  honour  for  I 
Diocese  of  SoIbboob. 

UhwUmt  Cittrdtn  (Solnt-Biieue.  \»9S);  Chalbhot,  Strin 
83.  .  .  Ord.  Cit.  (Puii,  IBTO);  SiRTomna.  CiHcreium  Bit. 
Ttrtivm  (Pracue,  1700);  A<la  33..  Sept.,  Vlll.  180  aqq.;  Mah- 
BiauB,  AntuMla  Cuto-eunKi.  IV  (Lyani.  IS.'ini. 

Edmond  M.  Obbecht. 

Utmtmonncy,  Akne,  First  Duke  of,  b.  ni  Chan- 
my,  15  March,  1492;  d,  at  Paris,  12  NovcmixT,  1567. 
He  belonged  to  that  family  of  Mantmarcn-:y  whose 
membere  from  1327  held  tne  title  of  F.rat  Barons  of 
France.  Educated  with  the  future  Francis  1,  ap- 
p<unted  marshal  in  1522  as  a  reward  for  his  servircs  in 
the  capture  ot  Novara,  hia  succeaaful  efforts  to  obtdn 
the  freedom  of  Francis  1,  taken  prisoner  at  Pavia 
(1S25),  assured 
him  of  hia  favour. 
He  immediately 
became  ^I'^'id 
mBHterofthcroyal 
house  and  Gover- 
nor of  Languedoc. 
To  his  cleverness 
was  due  the  treaty 
ofCambrai{1529), 
by  which  the  two 
SODS  of  Francb  I, 
rctfljned  as  hos- 
tages by  Charles  V 
since  1526,  were 
released;  in  1530 
his  power  became 
unlimited.  He  in- 
augurated a  new 
policy ;  hia  f ore- 
Amn  DB  MDimioBBHCT  most  mm  was  that 

France  should  re- 
ttun  her  strength  and  live  at  peace  with  the  emperor 
and  the  pope.  He  arranged  the  interview  at  Mar- 
seilles (1533)  between  Francis  I  and  Clement  VII 
in  which  the  marriage  of  Catherine  de  M6dicis  with 
Prince  Henry,  the  second  son  of  the  king,  was  ar- 
ranged. The  continued  friendship  of  Francis  I  with 
certain  German  princes  and  his  ambitions  in  Italy 
which  were  opposed  to  those  of  the  emperor,  made  an 
imderatanding  with  Charles  V  very  oifficuJt.  With 
the  outbreak  of  war  in  1538,  Montmorency  adopted 
the  tactics  of  never  giving  battle;  he  Imd  waste  Pro- 
vence ao  that  when  the  imperial  forces  invaded  that 
province  they  were  obliged  by  famine  tti  retreat.  The 
articles  of  agreement  which  Charles  V  and  Francis  I 
ugned  (July,  1538),  were  the  work  of  Montmorency, 
who  declared  afterwards  that  "the  interests  of  both 
might  be  considered  identical".  The  Journey  of 
Charles  V  to  France  (January,  1540)  led  Francia  I  to 
believe  that  the  emperor  was  about  to  cede  Milan  to 
him ;  but  he  was  aoon  undeceived.  Montmorency,  con- 
stable since  1538  was  disgraced  (June,  1541)  through 
the  influence  of  the  favourite,  Mme.  d'Etampes. 
In  1547  Henry  II,  hardly  become  king,  recalled 
Montmorency  and  made  him  really  his  favourite: 
Charles  V  made  advances  to  the  constable  who  in  1551 
became  a  duke  and  a  peer.  He  soon  found  himself 
opposed  to  the  Guises.  In  spite  of  the  military  glory 
of  occupying  Meti  (April,  1552),  his  one  desire  was  to 
secure  peace  between  France  and  the  Empire,  and  in 
1555  he  made  a  vain  effort  lo  bring  this  about  through 
the  mediation  of  Mary  Tudor.  The  war  was  pro- 
longed: at  Saint^uentin  (August,  1557)  Moutmo- 
lency,  defeated,  was  taken  prisoner;  it  was  in  prison 
that  he  commenced  the  negotiations  which  termi- 
nated in  the  treaty  of  Cateau-Cambrfisis  (April,  1559) 
by  which  France  obtained  Meti,  Toul,  Verdun,  and 
(ilais  but  renounced  any  claim  to  Italy,  Savoy,  Bres- 
da,  and  Bugey.  Montmorency,  in  retirement  during 
thereign  of  Fr       '    "         '      "  '"  "' 


.3 II,  under  the  re^pucy  of  Catherine 


B  if  he  ought  to  have  sustained  that  policy  of  totera- 
ion  t^wai^  the  Protestants  at  first  inaugurated  by 
[he  queen-regent;  but  his  Catholic  convictions  led  him 
with  the  Duke  of  Guiae  and  the  Mar^cha]  de  Saint- 
Andr^  to  form  a  triumvirate  {6  Auguat.  1561)  to  save 
Catholicism.  Wounded  and  captured  by  the  Hugue- 
nots at  the  battle  of  Dreux  (19  December,  1562) 
after  the  peace,  he  joined  with  the  Protestant  Cond^ 
in  the  ^ort  to  take  Havre  from  the  English  (30  July, 
1663).  In  the  second  war  of  religion  he  again  op- 
posed Cond6;  and  it  was  a  follower  of  Cond^  who  mor- 
tally wounded  him  at  the  battle  of  Saint-Denis  (10 
November,  1567). 

Of  indomitable  courage,  his  croelty  towards  con- 
quered soldiers  was  shocking.  He  prderred  defensive 
to  offensive  warfare.  Although  definitively  the  first 
of  the  great  French  lords,  he  worked  towards  the  de- 
velopment of  royal  absolutism;  under  Francis  I  and 
Henry  II  he  showed  himself  a  faithful  defender  of  the 
royal  authority  and  suspected  the  Guisea  of  being  its 
enemies.  A  conservative  in  religion,  be  could  not 
understand  the  intn^es  of  Catherine  de  M^dicis  and 
throughout  the  religious  wars  he  fought  vigorously  for 
Catholicism  under  the  same  banner  as  the  Guises 
whom  he  detested.  An  enlightened  and  generous  pro- 
tector of  the  writers  and  artists  of  the  Ren^ssancc,  in 
his  castle  at  Chantilly  finished  in  1530,  he  gathered 
together  a  numismatic  collection  which  later,  after  the 
condemnation  of  the  Duke  of  Montmorency,  the  de- 
scendant of  Anne,  Louis  XIII  gave  to  his  brother, 
Gaston  d'Orl^ana,  and  which  was  the  beginning  of  the 
Cabinet  des  M^ulles  of  the  national  library  ol  Paris. 
The  library  of  Chantilly  as  formed  by  Anne  contained 
wonderful  copies,  luxuriously  edited,  of  the  first 
French  translations  of  Latin  authors.  The  Instilut 
de  France  in  1900  bought  "LesHeuresdu  oonniStable" 
to  add  them  agun  to  this  hbrary  from  which  they  had 
been  taken;  they  form  one  of  the  most  admirable  illu- 
minated manuscripts  of  the  sixteenth  century,  and  we 
find  in  them  a  vei^  beautiful  prayer  to  Sunt  Christo- 
pher, composed  by  Anne  himself  during  his  years  of 
disgrace;  this  manuscript  was  completed  in  1549. 
During  hia  diwrace  Anne  built  the  chateau  of  Ecouea 
where  Jean  Goujon,  Rosso,  and  Bernard  Palissy 
worked,  and  where  were  to  be  found  two  slaves  in  mar- 
ble of  Michael  Angelo. 
Jean  dm  LuxxupnuRQ,  La  triompht  H  Itt  gtMa  da  tigr  Avu  de 

MonlmormcB.  ed.  Dbuslb  tP«ii».  19WI:  Deublt    '-' ■'-- 

cmnHobU   Aimt  dt   Morlmaremni   nil   tfixti   Co— 

1000);  DB  LuTETUB.  Un  eraHd  t«ruw  dii  XVI-  litclt:  L. 

tiMtMtdiMoTamortTuniiVant.lSm-.IiscwnK.Aitiuda  Uomlm*- 
rmcjf.  orand  moUre  H  connHabU  de  Franet  A  la  cnr.  oux  armtet.  tt 
au  coiunl  dii  rai  PraTKoit  I-  (Puu.  I88S)  ;  Idbk.  Anm^  dac  it 
Mmlmatmtu.  toimUabU  tt  pair  dt  rraace  low  Im  raw  Htmri  II. 
Pmncou  II  «  Cluirla  IX  (Fuu.  1S80).  S«  tha  bibUocnpIv 
uikder  Ouibb  uul  CiraBKiMB  Bi  Mtoicn. 

GEoaaBB  GoTAtt. 
M ontor,  Alexib-Fbancois  Abtaud  ue,  diplomat 
and  historian,  b.  at  Paris,  31  July,  1772;  d.  at  Faris, 
12  Nov.,  1849.  An  hnigri  during  the  Revolution,  he 
was  entrusted  by  the  royal  princes  with  minions  to 
the  Holy  See  and  served  during  the  campaign  (rf 
Champagne  in  Condi's  army.  Bonaparte  made  him 
secretary  of  the  French  I<ega1ion  at  Rome;  Artaud  oc- 
cupied this  post  under  Cacault,  left  Rome  for  a  short 
time  when  Cardinal  Fesch,  Cacault' a  succesnor, 
brought  Chateaubriand  with  him,  and  returned  to 
Rome  in  the  same  capacity  after  Chateaubriand  had 
resigned,  AppointedctargSd'affaircsofFranceto Flor- 
ence in  1805  he  wa"  recalled  in  1807  because  he  was 
wrongfully  suspected  of  having  employed  hia  power  in 
behalf  of  the  Queen  ot  Etruria  whose  poesessioDs  Napo- 
leon wished  to  give  to  Elisa  Bonaparte.  Made  censor 
duringthe  last  yeaisofthcempire,  he  became  under  the 
Restoration  secretary  of  the  embassy  at  Vienna,  then 
again  at  Rome.  In  1830  he  retired  upon  a  pension  to 
devote  himself  exclusively  to  literary  works.     Bcaidee 


■  CotuU  (CbuliDr. 


momtpxllub  545  hontpkluee 

hktronsktioaof  Dttnte'B"DivinaCommedia"  (1811-  but  to  be  sold  for  exportation  to  the  mercIuLate  of  the 

1813)  which  wu  nMd  very  highly,  Art«ud  de  Montor  Mediterranean. 

left  important  hietorical  worics:  "Machiavel,  son  gtaie  In  July,  1204,  Montpellier  passed  into  the  hands  of 

etseseiTBun"  (Paria,  1833>;thevoIumeonthehistoiy  Peterof  Aragon^n-in-lawofthelaBtof  theGuillems; 

of  Italy  in  the  collection  of  the  "Univerepittoresque  Jaime  I,  son  of  Peter  II,  united  the  city  to  the  Kin^- 

(PwB,  1834);  "Histoire  du  p^>e  Pio  VII"  (2  vols.,  dom  of  Majorca.    In  12S2  the  King  of  Majorca  paid 

Fario,  1S36);  "Histoire  de  Dante  Alighieri"  (Paris,  homage  to  the  King  of  France  for  Maguelonne. 

1841);  "Histoire  dee  souverains  pontifee  romains"  (S  B^r^iger  de  FiMoI,  Bishop  of  Maouelonne,  ceded 

Tob.,  Paris,  1842);  "Histoire  de  Uon  XU"  (Paris,  MontpeUier  to  Philip  IV  (1292).    J^e  III  of  Ma- 

1843);  "  Histoire  de  Pie  VIII"  (Paris,  1843).    ShorUy  jorca  aold  Montpellier  to  Philip  VI  (1349);  and  the 

before  his  death,  he  published  in  1849  when  Pius  IX  city,  save  for  the  period  from  1365  to  1382^  was  hence- 

waa  banished  to  Gata,  a  worlc  entitled:  "  La  papaut^  forth  French.    Uroan  V  (Guillaume  de  Gnmoard)  had 

et  leadmeutes  romainee".    His  recollections  and  bis  studied  theology  and  canon  law  at  MontpeUier  and 

obserratioDa  ea  a  diplomat  form  the  valuable  featu[«  was  crowned  pope  by  Cardinal  Ardouin   Aubert, 

of  Artaud  de  Mentor's  historical  works.    He  was  a  nephew  of  Innocent  Vl,  and  Bishop  of  Maguelonne 

monber  of  the  Acad^mie  dea  Inscriptions  et  belles  from  1362  to  1354;   hence  the  attachment  of  Pope 

lettres  from  17  Dec.,  1830.  Urban  for  this  dioceee  which  he  favoured  greatly.    Id 

Quiuxo.  LaUubatvifrancautiotiUmtKraiiu.  I  (Puii.  IStO). 
TS-^i    LoBsm,  Calaloeut  ahi4ral  dt  la  LUrraiH'  Francaiu.  I 

(P«ii.  1893),  7S.  Gboeqbb  Gotad. 

BtantpelUsr,  Diocnsn  of  (Montib  PEsain,Ain), 
comprises  the  department  of  H^rault,  and  is  a  sulTr^ 
gan  of  Avignon.  When  the  Concordat  of  1802  re- 
established this  dioccee,  it  accorded  to  it  also  the 
department  of  Tarn,  which  was  detached  from  it  in 
1822  by  the  creation  of  the  Archdiooeee  of  Albi;  and 
from  1802  to  1822,  Montpellier  was  a  suffragan  of 
Toulouse.  A  Brief  of  16  June,  1877,  authorised  the 
bishops  of  Montpellier  to  call  themselves  bishops  of 
Montpellier,  Biiiers,  Agde,  LodSve,  and  Saint-Pons, 
in  memory  of  the  different  dioceeea  united  in  the  pres- 
ent Diocese  of  Montpellier. 

(A)  Diocese  of  Montpellier. — Maguelonne  was  the  i 

oriKinal  diocese.  Local  traditions,  recorded  in  1583  by 
AbM  Gariel  in  his  "  Histoire  dea  ^vAques  de  Mague- 
lonne", affirm  that  fit.  Simon  the  Leper,  having 
landed  at  the  mouth  of  the  Rhdne  with  St.  Laiarus 
and  his  sisters,  was  the  earliest  a^tle  of  Maguelonne. 
Gariel  invokes  in  favour  of  this  tradition  a  certain 
manuscript  brought  from  Bysantium.  But  the  chron- 
icler. Bishop  Amaud  de  Verdale  (1339-1352)  was 
ignorant  of  this  alleged  Apostolic  origin  of  Mague- 
lonne. It  is  certain  that  the  tombstone  of  a  Christian 
woman  named  Vera  was  found  at  Maguelonne;  Lo 
Blant  asrigns  it  to  the  fourth  century.  The  first  his- 
torically known  Bishop  of  Maguelonne  was  Bcetius, 
who  assisted  at  the  Council  of  Narbonne  in  589. 
Maguelonne  was  completely  destroyed  in  the  course 
of  the  wars  between  Charles  Martel  and  the  Saraceos. 

The  dioceee  was  then  transferred  to  Subatantion,  but  

Bishop  Amaud  (1030-1060)  brought  it  back  to  Ma-  Caihmdbu,  HoHrnLun 

guelonne  which  he  rebuilt.  Near  Maguelonne  had  1364  he  caused  the  foundation  at  MontpeUier,  of  a 
grown  up  by  degrees  the  two  villages  of  MontpeUier  Benedictine  monastery  under  the  patronage  of  St. 
and  MontpeUieret.  According  to  legend,  they  were  in  Germain,  and  came  himself  to  MontpeUier  to  see  the 
the  tenth  century  the  property  of  the  two  sisters  of  St,  new  church  (9  Jan,-8  March,  1367),  He  caused  the 
Fulcran,  Bishop  of  Lod^e.  About  975  they  gave  city  to  be  surrounded  by  ramparts,  in  order  that  the 
them  to  Ricuin,  Bishop  of  Maguelonne.  It  is  certain  scholars  might  work  there  in  safety;  and  finally  he 
that  about  990  Ricuin  possessed  these  two  villages;  caused  a  large  canal  to  be  begun  by  which  Montpellier 
he  kept  MontpeUieret  and  gave  Montpellier  in  fi^  to  might  communicate  with  the  sea.  At  the  request  of 
the  family  of  the  Guillcms.  In  1085  Pierre,  Count  of  King  Francis  I,  who  pleaded  the  epidemics  and  the 
Subatantion  and  Melgueil,  became  a  vnseal  of  the  ravages  of  the  pirates  which  constantly  threatened 
Holy  See  for  this  countahip,  and  relinquished  the  right  Maguelonne,  Paul  III  transferred  the  see  to  Mont- 
of  nomination  to  the  Diocese  of  Maguelonne.  Urban  pelher  (27  March,  1536).  Montpellier,  into  which 
II  charged  the  Bishop  of  Maguelonne  to  exercise  the  Calvinism  was  introduced  in  Feb..  1560,  by  the  pastor, 
papal  Buserainty,  ana  he  spent  five  days  in  this  town  Guillaume  Mauget,  was  much  troubled  b^  the  wan  of 
when  he  came  to  France  to  preach  the  Crusade.  In  religion.  Under  Henry  HI  a  sort  of  Calvinistic  repub- 
121S  Innocent  III  gave  the  countship  of  Melgueil  in  lie  was  installed  there.  The  city  was  reconquered  by 
fief  to  thu  Bishop  ch  Maguelonne,  who  thus  became  a  Louis  XIII  (October,  1622). 
temporttl  lord.  Among  the  64  bishops  of  Maguelonne,  and  the  18 bish< 

Ftom  that  time  the  Bishop  of  Maguelonne  had  ope  of  Montpellier,  may  be  mentioned:  Blessed  Louis 
the  right  of  coinage.  Clement  IV  reproached  (1266)  Aleman  (1418-23),  later  Bishop  of  Aries;  Guillaume 
Bishop  B^rengcr  de  FrWoI  with  causing  to  be  struck  Pellicier  (1527-68).  whom  Francis  I  sent  as  an  am- 
in  his  diocese  a  coin  called  "  Miliarensis",  on  which  baasador  to  Venice,  and  whose  learning  as  a  humanist 
was  read  the  name  of  Mahomet;  in  fact  at  that  date  and  naturalist  made  him  after  Sc^vole  de  Sainte- 
the  bishop,  as  well  as  the  King  of  Arsgon  and  the  Marthe,  "the  moat  learned  man  of  his  century";  the 
Count  of  Toulouse,  authorised  the  coinage  of  Arabic  preacher  Pierre  Fenouillet  (1608-62);  Francois  de 
voney,  not  intended  for  circulation  in  Magueloonei  Bosquet  (1657-76),  whose  tustorical  labours  were 
X.-35 


MONTPELLIBB                         545  MONTPILLIKB 

verv  us^ul  to  the  celebrated  Baltue:  the  bibliophile  St.  G^raud  d'AuriUac.    By  a  Bull  of  18  F^.,  1318, 

Colbert  de  Croissy  (1696-1738),  who  induced  the  John  XXII  raised  the  abbey  to  a  see. 

Oratorian  Poueet  to  compose  in  1702  the  famous  Special  honour  is  paid  in  the  present  Diocese  of 

"Catechism  of  Montpellier',  condemned  b3rthe  Holy  Montpellier  to  St.  Pons  (Pontius)  de  Cimies,  martyr 

See  in  1712  and  1721  for  Jansenistic  tendencies;  Four-  under  Valerian,  patron  of  St-Ponfhde-Thomi^res;  Sts. 

nier  (1806-34),  who  in  1801  was  confined  for  a  time  in  Tiberius  and  Modestus  and  St.  Florence,  martyrs  at 

the  madhouse  at  Bio^tre  at  the  command  of  Napoleon,  Agde  under  Diocletian;  St.  Severus,  Aobot  of  St. 

for  a  sermon  a^inst  the  Revolution.    Among  the  Andr6,  at  Afide  (d.  about  500);  St.  Maxentius,  a 

numerous  councils  and  synods  held  at  Montpellier,  native  of  Agcte  and  founder  of  the  Abbey  of  St-Maix- 

the  following  merit  mention:  the  council  of  1162  in  ent,  in  Poitou  (447-515);  St.  Benedict  of  Aniane,  and 

which  Alexander  III  excommunicated  the  antipope,  his  disciple  and  first  historian,  Saint  Ardo  Smaragdus 

Victor;  the  provincial  synod  of   1195,   which  was  (d.  in  843);  St.  Guillem,  Duke  of  Aquitaine,  who  in 

occupied  with  the  Saracens  of  Spain  and  the  Aibi-  804,  founded  near  Lod^ve,  on  the  advice  of  St.  Bene- 

genses;  the  council  of  1215,  which  was  presided  over  diet  of  Aniane,  the  monastery  of  Gellone  (later  8t- 

y  Peter  of  Benevento,  legate  of  the  Holy  See  and  Guillem  du  D6sert),  died  there  in  812,  and  under  the 

passed  important  canons  concerning  discipline,  and  name  of  "Guillaume  au  Court  Nea"  became  the  hero 

declared  atso  that  subject  to  the  approval  of  the  pope,  of  a  celebrated  epic  chdnson;  St.  Etienne,  Bishop  of 

Toulouse  and  all  the  other  towns  taken  from  the  Apt  (975-1046),  bom  at  Agde;  Blessed  Guillaume 

Albigenses  should  be  given  to  Simon  de  Montfort:  Vl,  Lord  of  Montpellier  from  1121  to  1149  and  who 

the  council  of  1224,  which  rejected  the  request  ot  died  a  Cistercian  at  Grandselve;  Bl.  Peter  of  Castel* 

Ra3rmond,  Count  of  Toulouse,  who  promised  to  pro-  nau,  Archdeacon  of  Maguelonne,  inquisitor  (d.  in 

tect  the  Catholic  Faith  and  demanded  that  Amaury  1208);  St.  Gerard  (or  G&i),  Lord  of  Lunel  (end  of 

de  Montfort  withdraw  his  claims  to  the  countship  of  thirteenth  century) ;  the  celebrated  pilgrim,  St.  Roch, 

Toulouse;  the  council  of  1258,  which  by  permitting  who  was  bom  at  Montpellier  about  the  end  of  the 

the  seneschal  of  Beaucaire  to  arrest  ecclesiastics  taken  thirteenth  century,  saved  several  cities  of  Italy  from 

in  the  act  of  crime,  in  order  to  hand  them  over  the  pest,  and  returned  to  Montpellier  to  live  as  a  her- 

to  the  bishop,  made  way  for  royal  magistrates  to  mit,  where  he  died  in  1325.    Tne  Benedictine  Abbev 

exercise  a  certain  power  within  the  limits  of  ecclesi-  of  Aniane  (see  Benedict  of  Aniane)  was  in  the  ninth 

astical  jurisdiction  and  thus  inaugurated  the  move-  century  a  centre  of  monastic  reform.    The  Benedic- 

ment  as  a  result  of  which,  under  the  name  of  ''privi-  tine  Abbey  of  Valmagne  was  founded  in  1138  by  Ray- 

leged  cases" J  a  certain  number  of  offences  committed  mond  of  Trencavel,  Viscount  of  B^ziers.    As  eariy  as 

by  ecclesiastics  became  amenable  to  lay  justice.  1180  the  Hospital  of  the  Holy  Ghost  at  Montpdlier 

(B)  Diocese  of  Agde. — Local  traditions  designate  as  received  exposed  or  abandoned  children. 

the  first  Bishop  of  Agde,  St.  Venustus,  said  to  have  The  chief  pilgrimages  of  the  diocese  are:  Notre 

suffered  martyrdom  during  the  legendary  invasion  of  Dame  de  TErmitage  at  St-Guillem  du  Desert  (four- 

the  barbarian,  Chrocus,  about  407  or  408.    The  first  teenth  century);  Notre  Dame  de  Gr&ce  at  Gignac,  on 

historically  known  Bishop  of  Agde  is  Sophronius  who  the  site  of  a  sanctuary  built  by  St.  Flour,  first  Bishop 

assisted  at  the  Council  of  Agde  in  506.  of  Lod^ve;  Notre  Dame  de  Grau  near  Agde,  on  the 

(C)  Diocese  of  B^ziers. — Local  traditions  assign  as  site  of  an  oratory  built  in  456  by  St.  Severus;  Notre 
the  &rst  Bishop  of  B^ziers  the  Egyptian  saint,  Aphro-  Dame  de  Moug^res  at  Moug^res  (fifteenth  century); 
disius,  said  to  nave  sheltered  the  Holy  Family  at  Her-  Notre  Dame  de  Montaigu  at  Ceyras.  a  pilgrimace 
mopolis  and  to  have  become  a  disciple  of  Christ,  also  founded  by  the  Franciscans  in  the  first  half  of  the 
to  nave  accompanied  Sergius  Paulus  to  Gaul  when  the  seventeenth  century;  Notre  Dame  de  Roubignac 
latter  went  tJbither  to  found  the  Church  of  Narbonne,  (datinp;  from  the  tenth  century) ;  Notre  Dame  du  Sue 
and  to  have  died  a  martyr  at  B^ziers.  The  first  his-  at  Bnssac,  established  by  the  Benedictines;  Notre 
torically  known  bishop  is  Paulinus  mentioned  in  418;  Dame  de  Tr6dos,  a  pilgrimage  already  in  existence  in 
St.  Guiraud  was  Bishop  of  B^ziers  from  1121  to  1123;  1612;  Notre  Dame  des  Tables  at  Montpellier,  datins 
St.  Dominic  refused  the  See  of  B^ziers  to  devote  him-  from  the  ninth  century,  and  particularlv  developed 
self  to  the  crusade  against  the  Albigenses.  after  miracl^  in  1189.    The  Church  of  Notre  Dame 

Among  the  fifteen  synods  held  at  B^ziers  must  be  des  Tables  disappeared  after  the  Revolution;  but  the 

mentioned  that  of  356  held  by  Satuminus  of  Aries,  cult  transferred  to  the  chapel  of  the  Jesuits  is  still  in 

Arian  archbishop,  against  St.  Hilary;  those  of  1233,  vogue,  and  in  1880,  Mgr  de  Cabri^res  crowned  the 

1246,  and  1255  against  Uie  Albigenses.  statue  in  the  name  of  the  pope.    Before  the  applica- 

Local  traditions  made  St.  Aphrodifiius  arrive  at  tion  of  the  Law  of  1901  there  were  in  the  diocese,  Car- 
Bdziers  mounted  on  a  camel.  Hence  Uie  custom  of  thusians,  Jesuits,  Franciscans,  Lazarists,  Mission- 
leading  a  camel  in  the  procession  at  B^ziers  on  the  arics  of  la  Salette,  Carmelites.  Salcsians  of  Dom 
feast  of  the  saint:  this  lasted  until  the  Revolution.  Bosoo,  and  various  orders  of  teaching  brothers.    Con- 

(D)  Diocese  oi  Lod^ve.— Since  the  fourteenth  cen-  gregations  of  women  native  to  the  diocese  are:  The 
tury  local  tradition  has  made  St.  Florus  first  bishop  of  Augustinian  Sisters  of  Charity  of  Our  Lady,  ho^tal- 
Loddve,  and  relates  that  as  a  disciple  of  St.  Peter,  he  lers.  founded  at  B^ziers  in  1646;  Sisters  of  Christian 
afterwaras  evangeUzed  Haute-Auvergne  and  died  in  Doctrine,  founded  in  1853  (mother-house  at  Ceilhes) : 
the  present  village  of  St-Flour.  It  is  historically  cer-  Dominican  religious  founded  in  1855  (mother-house  at 
tain  that  bishops  of  Lod^ve  have  existed  since  ^1;  Cette);  the  Nursing  Sisters  of  Notre  Dame  auxilia- 
the  first  historically  known  bishop  is  Matemus,  who  trice,  founded  1845  by  the  Abb^  Soulas  (mother-house 
was  present  at  the  Council  of  Agde  in  506.  Among  at  Montpellier).  At  the  befpnning  of  the  twentieth 
itte  Dishops  of  Lod^ve  are:  St.  George  (863-884),  century  the  congregations  directed  in  the  diocese  2 

Previously  a  Benedictine  monk:  St.  Fulcran  (94S^  creches,  53  infant  schools,  1  school  for  the  blind,  1 

006),  who  in  975  dedicated  the  cathedral  of  St.  school  for  deaf  mutes,  8  orphanages  for  bojrs,  15 

Gen^  and  founded  the  Abbey  of  St.  Sauveur;  the  orphanages  for  girls,  1  institution  of  preservation,  1 

Dominican  Bernard  Guidonis  (1324-1331);  Cardinal  establishment  for  correction,  1  institution  of  rehabili- 

Guillaume  d'EstoutevUle  (1450-1453),  who  played  an  tation,  8  houses  of  mercy,  15  establishments  for  nuis- 

important  part  as  papal  legate,  also  in  the  renahili-  ing  the  sick  in  their  homes,  1  hospital  for  the  insane, 

tation  of  Joan  of  Arc;  the  brothers  Guillaume  Bri-  6  hospitals  or  infirmaries, 

sonnet  (1489-1516)  and  Denis  Brigonnet  (1516-1520).  In  1908  the  diocese  numbered  482,779  inhabitants, 

(E)  Diocese  of  Siunt-Poas-de-Thomi^res. — The  43  parishes,  310  chapels,  27  vicariates. 

Abbey  of  St-Pons  was  founded  in  936  by  Raymond,  Qattia  Chrittiana.  VI  (nova,  1789),  223-256.  293-383.  525-579, 

Count  of  Toulouse,  who  brought  thither  the  iponks  pf  9^706,  727-931»  1123;  and  »n«fr»m«nlo.  73-102.  127-166.  ?63« 


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MONTBKAL 


M,  311-40.  341-411;  FiBQUvr,  France  poniifieaU:  MontpMUr  (2 
vou..  PariB.  1868);  Duchsbnb,  FatUa  #pMeopoua;,  I;  QBonwar, 
Hiat.  du  dioeiM  de  Monipdlier  dan»  lu  premitrn  nidea  (Montpellier. 
1903) ;  Charles  d'Aiobevbuillb,  HiH.  de  la  tUle  de  MorUpMun , 
ed.  La  PuAiioikRB  (4  vols.,  Montpellier,  187&-82);  Abnaud  db 
Vbbdalb,  Catalogue  Bpieeoporum  Magaloneneiumt  ed.  Gbbmain 
(Montpellier.  1881);  FABRioB.  Hiet.  de  MapueUmne  (2  vols.. 
Montmllier,  1894-1900) ;  Cartibr,  Notice  etar  la  monnaie  frappie 
au  Xill'  etide  par  lee  M^uee  de  Maguelonne  atee  le  nom  de  Moi^ 
komei  in  Revue  numiemati^ue,  XX  (1865).  199-227:  Guiraud, 
Lee  fondalione  du  pape  Urbain  V  d  Montpwier  (3  vols.,  Montpel- 
Her.  1889-91) ;  Carttdaire  dee  aJbbayee  d'Aniane  el  de  QtUone,  ed. 
Alaub,  Cassan,  and  Mbtnial  (Montpellier,  1898);  Sabatibr. 
Uiei,  de  la  wiUe  et  dee  Mquee  de  Binere  (B^iiers,  1854);  Paris, 
Hiet,  de  la  eille  de  Lodhe,  de  eon  ancien  dioeiee  ot  de  eon  Hablieeo' 
ment  aduel  (MontpelUer,  1851) ;  Martin,  Hiet.  de  la  tiOe  de  Lodhe 
(2  vols.,  Montpellier,  1900) ;  Soupairac,  Petit  diet.  g4og.  et  hiet. 
du  dioeiee  de  MontpeUier:  arrondieeement  de  Saini-Pone-de-Tho~ 
mihee  (Montpellier,  1880) ;  Bonnbt,  BibL  du  diockee  deMotUpMier 
in  MUangee  de  lift,  et  dhiet.  religieuee  publiSe  d  Voccaeion  dujuhili 
de  Mgr  de  Cabriiree,  III  (Paris,  1899). 

Georqbb  Gotau. 

Untversity  of  Montpellucr. — It  is  not  knovv^  ex- 
actly at  what  date  the  schools  of  literature  were  founded 
which  developed  into  the  Montpellier  faculty  of  arts; 
it  may  be  that  they  were  a  direct  continuation 
of  the  Gallo- Roman  schools.  The  school  of  law 
was  founded  by  Placentinus,  a  doctor  from  Bologna, 
who  came  to  MontpelUer  in  1160,  taught  there  during 
two  different  periods,  and  died  there  in  1192.  The 
school  of  medicine  was  founded  perhaps  by  a  graduate 
of  the  Spanish  medical  schools;  it  is  certain  that,  as 
early  as  1137,  there  were  excellent  physicians  at 
Montpellier.  The  statutes  given  in  122^)  by  Cardinal 
Conrad,  legate  of  Honorius  III,  which  were  completed 
in  1240  by  Pierre  de  Conques.  placed  this  school 
under  the  direction  of  the  Bisnop  of  Maguelonne. 
Nicholas  IV  issued  a  Bull  in  1289,  combining  all  the 
schools  into  a  university,  which  was  placed  under  the 
direction  of  the  bishop,  but  which  in  fact  enjoyed 
a  large  measure  of  autonomy.  Theology  was  at 
first  taught  in  the  convents,  in  which  St.  Anthony  of 
Padua,  Ra^ond  Lullus,  and  the  Dominican  Bernard 
de  la  Treille  lectured.  Two  letters  of  King  John 
prove  that  a  faculty  of  theology  existed  at  Mont- 
pellier independently  of  the  convents,  in  January, 
1350.  By  a  Bull  of  17  December,  1421,  Martin  V 
panted  canonical  institution  to  this  faculty  and  united 
it  closely  with  the  faculty  of  law. 

In  the  sixteenth  century  the  faculty  of  theology 
disappeared  for  a  time,  when  Calvinism,  in  the  reign 
of  Henry  11^  held  complete  possession  of  the  city. 
It  resumed  its  functions  after  Louis  XIII  had  re- 
established the  royal  power  at  Montpellier  in  1622: 
but  the  rivalries  of  Dominicans  and  Jesuits  interfered 
seriously  with  the  prosperity  of  the  faculty,  which 
disappeared  at  the  Revolution.  The  faculty  num- 
bered among  its  illustrious  pupils  of  law  Petrarch, 
who  spent  four  years  at  Montpellier,  and  among  its 
lecturers  Guillaume  de  Nogaret,  chancellor  to  Philip 
the  Fair,  Guillaume  de  Grimoard.  afterwards  pope 
under  the  name  of  Urban  V,  ana  Pedro  de  Luna, 
antipope  as  Benedict  XIII.  But  after  the  fifteenth 
century  this  faculty  fell  into  decay,  as  did  also  the 
faculty  of  arts,  although  for  a  time,  under  Henry 
IV,  the  latter  faculty  had  among  its  lecturers  Car 
saubon.  The  Montpellier  school  of  medicine  owed 
its  success  to  the  ruling  of  the  Guilhems,  lords  of 
the  town,  by  which  any  Ucensed  physician  might 
lecture  there;  there  was  no  fixed  limit  to  the  number  of 
teachers,  lectures  were  multiplied^  and  there  was  a 
great  wealth  of  teaching.  Rabelais  took  his  medical 
degrees  at  Montpellier.  It  was  in  this  school  that 
the  biological  theory  of  vitalism,  elaborated  by 
Barthez  (1734-1806),  had  its  origm.  The  French 
Revolution  did  not  interrupt  the  existence  of  the 
faculty  of  medicine.  The  faculties  of  science  and  of 
letters  were  re-established  in  1810;  that  of  law  in  1880. 
It  was  on  the  occasion  of  the  sixteenth  centenary  of 
the  university,  celebrated  in  1889,  that  the  Govem- 
me .  a  of  France  announced  its  intention — ^which  has 


since  been  realized — of  reorganizing  the   provincial 
univendties  in  France. 

Cartulaite  de  VUnitereiU  de  M.,  I  (Montpellier,  1890);  Fovb 
NXXB,  Statute  et  prinOgee  dee  univereiUe,  II  (Paris,  1891).  1-300; 
III  (1892),  641-6;  Boisszbb,  Le  eixikme  centenaire  de  Vuniv,  de  M, 
in  Revue  dee  Deux  Mondee  (July,  1890) ;  Gbricaxn,  La  faeuUi  de 
Thiol,  de  M.  (Montpellier.  1883) ;  Astbuc.  Mhn.  pour  eervir  d 
rhieL  de  la  facuUS  de  midedne  de  M.  (Paris,  1767). 

Georgss  Gotaxt. 

Montreal,  Archdiocbbb  of.  Metropolitan  of  the 
ecclesiastical  Province  of  Montreal.  Suffragans:  the 
Dioceses  of  Saint-Hyacinthe,  Sherbrooke,  Valley- 
field,  and  Joliette.  CathoUc  population,  470^000; 
clergy,  720,  of  whom  395  are  secular  priests.  Prot- 
estant population,  80,000,  composed  of  different 
sects.  The  diocese,  separated  from  Quebec  by 
Gregory  XVI  (1836),  has  a  maximum  length  of 
sixty  and  breadth  of  fifty-two  miles.  (See  the  official 
reports  of  His  Grace  the  Archbishop  to  the  Holy  See, 
in  the  Archives  of  Montreal.) 

The  present  article  will  be  divided  into:  I.  History: 
II.  Present  Conditions.  Division  I  will  be  subdivided 
by  periods:  A.  Before  the  Ossion  (1763);  B.  From 
the  Cession  to  the  Formation  of  the  Diocese  (1836); 
C.  From  1836  to  the  present  time  (1910),  in  the 
last  subdivision  including  an  account  of  the  Eucharis- 
tic  Congress  of  1910. 

I.  History. — A.  Before  ike  Cession. — On  his  sec- 
ond voyage  (1535),  Jacques  Cartier,  the  discoverer 
of  Canada,  after  stopping  at  Stadacond  (Quebec), 
went  up  the  St.  Lawrence  to  the  savage  village  ot 
Hochelaea,  now  Montreal.  It  was  Cartier,  who 
bestowed  the  beautiful  and  well  deserved  name  of 
Mont  Royal  on  the  mountain  that  overhangs  the 
present  city.  In  1608  Quebec  was  founded  by 
Samuel  de  Champlain.  While,  in  Canada,  the 
youthful  colony  was  endeavouring  to  live  under  the 
rather  weak,  because  too  selfish  and  mercantile,  gov- 
ernment of  the  Compagnie  des  Cent-Associ^s,  the 
Compagnie  de  Notre-Dame-de-Montr^  was  being 
formed  in  France.  Two  men  of  God,  M.  Olier,  of 
Saint-Sulpice,  and  M.  de  la  Dauversi^re,  were  the  life 
of  this  Compagnie  de  Montreal.  They  offered  them- 
selves without  imi)06ing  any  burden  on  the  king, 
the  clergy,  or  the  people,  having  as  their  sole  aim, 
the  glory  of  God  and  the  establishment  of  religion 
in  New  France.  This  association  having  addr^sed 
itself  to  M.  Chomodey  de  Maisonneuve,  found  in 
him  one  who  would  carry  out  its  wishes  faithfully. 
The  island  of  Montreal  was  purchased  from  the  Com- 
pagnie des  Cent-Assodds,  for  purposes  of  coloniza- 
tion (7  August,  1640).  On  18  May,  1642,  M.  de 
Maisonneuve  arrived  at  the  foot  of  Mount  Royal,  and 
landed  with  Mile  Jeanne  Mance,  the  future  foundress 
of  the  H6tel-Dieu.  Ville-Marie,  as  he  first  named 
Montreal,  was  then  founded.  (See  Canada.)  For 
thirty  years  an  heroic  struggle  had  to  be  carried  on 
against  the  Iroquois.  In  1653  there  arrived  Margue- 
rite Bourgeoys,  who  a  little  later  established  the  Sisters 
of  the  diongreqgation.  In  1657  the  first  Sulpicians, 
sent  by  M.  OUer  on  his  death-bed,  settled  under  the 
direction  of  M.  de  Queylus.  From  that  time  the 
spiritual  wants  of  Montreal  have  been  entrusted 
mainly  to  the  Fathers  of  Saint-Sulpice  (see  Saint- 
SuLPicB,  Congregation  of).  It  was  at  Montreal 
that  Dollard  formed  his  famous  battalion  in  1660. 
There  also,  Lemoyne  and,  before  him,  Lambert 
Closse,  after  Maisonneuve.  had  won  great  distinction. 

M.  de  Queylus,  the  Sulpician,  had  come  to  Can- 
ada as  Vicar-General  of  Rouen  (1657).  Rightly  or 
wrongly,  the  Archbishop  of  Rouen  believed  that 
Canada  was  subject  to  him  in  spiritual  matters,  as  the 
missionaries  had  gone  thither  from  his  diocese; 
neither  the  pope  nor  the  king  had  raised  any  objection. 
Mgr  de  Laval  arrived  at  Quebec  in  1659.  M.  de 
Queylus.  not  having  been  informed  directly,  either 
by  the  Court  or  by  the  Holy  See,  of  the  nomination  of 
liaval  by  Alexander  VII,  hesitated  a  moment  before 


s 


MOHT&UL  548  HOHTftUL 

LeldiDB  up  tho  spiritual  rights  which  he  believed  to  1793  there  remained  only  two,  who  were  scptuagenv 
-a  his  (see  Laval,  Saint^vlpice).  On  28  October,  rioos.  The  British  Governmeut,  however,  at  th&t 
Wre,  Mgr  de  Laval  erected  canonically  the  parish  time  allowed  the  French  priests  who  were  driven  out 
of  Notre-Dame  at  Montreal,  which  was  naturally  by  the  Revolulion  to  settle  in  Canada,  and  of  the 
confided  to  the  Sulj>icianB,  From  that  time  to  the  thirty-fourwhocametwelve wereSulpicians.  Inl767 
ceaaion,  the  successive  cur£s  were  MM.  Francis  theCollegeof  Montreal  was  founded  by  theSulpidan, 
DollierdeCaaeon  (300ct.,  ie78);FrangoiBVachonde  M.  Curatteau  de  la  BUiserie.  In  1765,  the  HAtel- 
Bellemont  (28  Sept.,  1701);  Louis  Normant  (25  May,  Dieu,  and  in  1769  the  eotablishment  of  the  SeUn 
1732);  Etienne  MontgolGer  (21  June,  1769).  The  of  theConffreeation,  which  had beenbunit,aroMfrom 
third  successor  of  Mgr  de  Laval,  Mgr  Doequet,  from  their  ruins,  thanks  to  Saintr^ulpice.  In  1801,  Mgr 
1725  till  1739  Coadjutor,  and  later  Bishop,  of  Quebec,  Plessis  (b.  at  Montreal  in  1763)  was  consecrated  at 
was  an  old  Sulpician  from  Montreal.  In  1682,  the  Quebec.  This  was  the  great  bishop  (1801-1815)  who 
Etecollects  were  called  to  Montreal.  From  the  time  fought  so  ably  and  so  resolutely  for  religious  liberty, 
of  their  arrival  at  Quebec  in  I61S.  these  religioua  had  The  clergy  of  Montreal  supported  him.  Mgr  neaais, 
been  travelling  through  the  countrv,  and  one  of  their  having  asked  for  auxiliaries,  obtained,  among  others 
number.  Father  Viel,  had  periahea,  with  his  disciple  Mgr  Provencher  for  the  West  and  Mgr  Lartigue,  a 
Ahuntsic,  in  the  8ault-au-RScoUet,  near  MontreaJ,  Sulpician,  for  Montreal.  The  latter  was  consecrated 
both  victims  of  the  treachery  of  a  Huron.  Bishop  of  Telmessus  m  1820.     In  1809  the  CoUe^ 

The  Jesuit  miaaionaries  constantly  joumey^ns  of  St.  Hyacinthe  was  founded  by  M.  Girouard;  m 
throngh  these  regions,  frequently  passea  by  Montreal  1825  the  College  of  Saint-Tb^r^,  by  M.  Duchanne; 
in  these  early  days.  It  was  in  1669  that  the  Prairie  in  1832,  the  CoU^  of  the  Aeaumptjon,  by  M. 
Francois  Labelle.  This  was  the  answer  pven  to 
the  English  Protestants,  who,  with  their  Institution 
Roysle,  wished  to  monopoUxe  education  in  all  ila 
branches.  In  1 824  tbeftdmqvea  (administrative  coun- 
cils in  charge  of  church  revenues)  were  authoriied 
to  acquire  and  hold  property  for  the  support  of  the 
schools.  In  1838  normal  schools  were  established 
by  the  help  of  the  clergy.  In  1832,  and  a^a  in 
1834,  a  cholera  epidemic  afforded  opportunities  tor 
the  display  of  heroic  leal.  In  1836  tne  Society  tor 
the  Propagation  of  the  Faith  was  establiahed  at 
Montretu,  on  the  model  of  the  society  founded  at 
Lyons  in  1822,  with  which  it  became  affiliated  in 
I  1843,  but  from  which  it  separated  in  1876.     Mgr 

!  Pleesis  was  succeeded  in  the  See  of  Quebec  by  Mar 

,  Panet,  in  1825,  and  Mgr  Signay  (Sinai)  followed  m 

I  1832,     Finally,  on  13  February,  1836,  Montreal  waa 

I  erected  into  a  diocese  by  Pope  Gregory  XVI. 

C.    From  18S6  to  the  Pretenl  Time  (1910).— This 
„         „  ,  „  waa  a  disturbed,   but  very  fruitful  and   prosperous 

No™.Dam>  di  Loubbm.  MoNTWAi,  period.     After  the  unfortunate  events  of  1837-38 

de  la  Magdelone  was  established  south  of  Montreal,  (when  several  Montreal  villages,  on  the  RicheUeu  and 
TlUB  Jesuit  Mission  was  transferred  later  ta  Sault-  at  Deux  Montagncs,  inspired  by  a  noble-hearted  gen- 
Saint-Louis,  now  Caughnawsga.  The  house,  and  the  erosity  rather  than  by  prudence,  rose  up  in  anna 
deek  at  which  the  cetebrated  P^re  Charlevoix  wrote  i^ainst  the  encroachments  of  British  bureaucracy) 
bis  "Relationa  ",  are  slill  to  be  seen  there.  It  was  there  followed  the  period  called  the  Union  of  the  Two 
tiiere,  too,  that  the  saintly  Iroquois,  Catherine  Canadas  (1S40--S7).  Parliamentaiv  institutions  d»- 
T^akwitha,  hved.  The  In>quois  rmssion  of  Caugb-  pendent  on  the  people  were  established  by  the  efforts 
nawaga  has  lately  been  again  taken  under  the  care  of  Lafontaine  and  Cartier.  The  Confeaeration  waa 
of  the  Jesuits,  Mile  Mance  had  founded  the  Hdtel-  established  in  1867.  (See  Canada).  Duriiu  this 
Dieu,  on  her  arrival,  in  1642.  In  1658  the  Venerable  period  the  bishops  and  archbishops  of  Montrealwere: 
Marguerite  Bourgeoys  established  the  Sisters  of  the  Mgr  Lartigue,  consecrated  in  1821,  titular  in  1836, 
Congregation,  for  the  instruction  of  young  pris.  d,  1840;  Mgr  Bourget,  coadjutor  in  1837,  titular  in 
Then,  in  1738,  Venerable  Marguerite  Dufrost  de  la  1840,  rented  in  1876,  d.  1885;  Mgr  Fabre,  coadjutor 
Jemmerais  (the  widow  d'Youville)  laid  the  foun-  in  1873,  titular  bishop  in  1876.  archbishop  in  1886, 
dationa  of  the  Institute  of  the  Grey  Sisters.  The  d.  1896;  Mgr  Bruchdsi,  archbishop  from  1897  to  the 
superiors  of  Ssint-Sulpice,  in  addition  to  being  cur^s  present  time.  The  superiors  of  Saint-Sulpice,  after 
of  Notre-Dame,  were  also  vicars-general  of  the  M.  Quiblier,  were  MM.  Bilandfile  (1S46),  Granet 
Bishop  of  Quebec.  After  the  victory  of  Wolfe  over  (1856),  Bayle  (1866),  Colin  (1881),  and  Lecmi  (1902). 
Montcalm  on  the  plains  of  Abraham  and  the  capitula-  The  foundation  of  the  Grand  S^minaire  at  Montreal 
tion  of  Quebec  (1760),  Mgr  de  Pontbriant,  the  last  took  place  in  1840;  of  the  Canadian  CoUe^  at  Rome, 
bishop  of  the  French  period,  withdrew  to  the  Sulpi-  in  1888:  of  the  S^minaire  de  Fhilosophie,  near  tbe 
dans  at  Montreal.  Grand  S^min^re,  at  Montreal,  in  charge  id  the  Sul- 

B.  From  tJte  Cesnon  to  tht  Formation  o/ tht  Dioeete  piciana,  in  I8S4,  The  Brothers  of  the  Chtisttan 
(1836). — Montreal  remained  a  part  of  the  Diocese  of  Schools  arrived  in  1837;lheOblatesof  Mary  Immacu- 
Ouebec  until  1836,  The  curSa  of  Notre-Dame  during  late,  in  1841.  The  Jesuits  returned  in  1842,  their 
tuis  period  were  after  M.  Montgolfier,  MM.  Jean  nontiate  was  opened  in  1843,  and  the  Coll^  Sainte- 
Braasier  (30  August,  1791);  Jean-Auguste  Rome  (24  Marie,  in  1848.  The  Viateurs  and  the  Fathera  ot  the 
Oct.,  1798);  Joseph-Vincent  Quiblier  02  April,  1831).  Holy  Cross  arrived  in  1847.  Of  the  commuma«s  of 
The  Treaty  of  Paris  (1763)  provided  that  the  Cana-  women,  the  Religious  of  tbe  Society  of  the  Sacnd 
diansshouldenjoy  "the  free  exercise  of  their  relMon,  Heart  arrived  from  France  in  1842;  the  Siatenof  the 
as  for  aa  is  permissible  under  the  laws  of  Great  Good  Shepherd  of  Angers,  for  teaching  and  estabtisb- 
Britain".  A  great  struggle  followed.  The  Sulpi-  ing  homes  for  penitents,  arrived  in  1843;  ia  tbe 
dans  of  Montreal,  as  wellas  the  Recollects  and  the  same  year  the  Sist«rs  of  Providence  were  founded  bj 
Jesuits,  were  forbidden  to  receive  any  additions  to  Madame  Oamelin,  for  t«aching  and  wo^  of  chuity. 
their  ranks.    They  had  numbered  30  in  1763.  but  in    ae  were  the  teaching  Sisters  of  the  ^dy  Names  of 


HOHTBUL  5^  MOnntUL 

jMUsand  Mai?;  the  Sisten  of  the  Holj' Crow,  also  &    teota.    Onthendeof  Mont  Royal,  in  the  Pare  Manoo, 
low^un^iiutitute  from  Fnuc^  arrived  in  lS47:m  1848    an  immense  park  in  the  form  of  an  amphitheatre,  a 
theinatitute  of  Bcsurade  la  Mis^ricorde  were  founded     monumental  altar  had  been  erected;  there  Masa  waa 
fortheoareof  MagdaleneaandiDlSfiOtheSlHterBofSt.     celebrated  in  the  open  air  on  10  September,  and  there 
a,  for  teftohing.   CoUegM  wwe  founded  at  Joliette    on  the  following  day,  the  great  proceasion  terminat«d, 
>t,  by  Uie  Clerics  of  Sunt-Viateur,  in  184ft    when  nearly  800,000  Christians  assembled  to  welcome 
ana  ibou;  at  Sunt-LaurMtt,  by  the  Fathers  of  the    Jeaus  in  the  Eucharist  held  in  the  bands  of  the  cardi- 
Holy  Cion,  in  18i7.     (For  the  LavaJ  University,    nal  l^te,  blearing  Montreal,  Canada,  America,  and 
ebart«nd  in  ISK,  and  its  succuraal  at  Montreal,  see    the  whole  world.     Besidee  the  literary  reunions  al- 
LayiU.UNIVKRSrrTOrQlIIBEC.)     InlS52theDioceee     ready  mentioned,  two  great  meetings  were  held  on 
of  St.  Hvacinthe  was  erected,  and  in  1874  that  of     Friday  and  Saturday  evening  at  Notre-Dame,  where 
SierbrooLe;  both  of  these  became  Hu£Fragan  of  Mont-     speeches  in  honour  of  the  ChriBtiaji  Faith  and  the 
real  in  1886,  when  Montreal  became  a  metropoli-     BlesBe<lSacramentweredeliveredby;CardinalVaanu- 
tan  SM.     Idb  other  two  euffragans,  Valley&eld  and     telli,  Cardinal^  Logue,_ArchbiBbop8  Bniohtei,  BouiDB^ 
Joliette,  were  a«cted  in  1892  and  1904  respectivply. 
Other  notable  events  were:  in  1840,  the  missions  of 
Mgr  ForUn  Janson,  and  the  Act  granting  separate 
Bohoola  (denominational);  in  1843,  the  preaching  of 
temperance;  in  184S,  the  eatablisliment  of  colomza- 
tion  sodeties  (celebrated  later  under  the  direction  of 
Mgr  Labelle,  jHtrish  priest  of  St.  J^rfime)  to  coun- 
teract the  enugration  movement  towards  the  United 
Statea;  in  186^  diviaon  <rf  the  pariah  of  Notre-Dame 
(rinoe  (tivided  further  into  more  than  50  pariBhea); 
m  ISBSt,  the  condemnation  by  Biahop  Bourget,  con- 
firmed by  the  Holy  See,  of  the  "Institut  Canadien", 
a  club  which  by  means  of  its  books  and  its  lectures 
bad  become  a  centre  of  Voltaireanism  and  irreligion; 
also  "the  Guibord  affair",  a  famous  lawsuit  in  refer- 
ence to  Uie  burial  in  consecrated  ground  of  a  member 
of  the  same  club.     About  1884,  b^anat  Montreal  the 
Lenten  lectuita  in  Notre  Dame,  then  those  in  the 
OesMnd  lastly  those  in  the  cathedral  (in  189S)  under 
Mgr  Bruchfai.     In  ISQH  Loyola  College  was  founded 
bv  the  Jesuits  for  English-speaking  Catholics;  in  1005, 
Mgr  Radcot  was  appointed  auxiliary  biahop  to  the 
Archbishop  of  Montreal. 

ITie  Eucharistic  Congreea  of  1910.— The  Twenty- 
first  International  Kucharietic  Congress  was  held  at 
Montreal,  7-11  September.  1910.  (For  the  origin 
and  object  of  these  congresaes,  see  Conoresseb, 
Catholic:  Irttematumal  Confrresset.)  At  the  Eucha- 
riatio  C^ongreaa  of  London,  in  1908,  the  Committee 
offered  Mgr  Bruch£ei  the  opportunity  to  hold  the 
C<mgreB8  of  1010  in  his  archiepiscopal  city.  For 
a  year  the  various  committees  at  Montreal  worked 

eiunelieally   in   preparation  for  the  event.     IHus  ■., i,.™™_„  -,,1 

X  sent  as  legate  a  laltre  nis  Kmmence  Vmcenio 

Vaanut«lli,  Cardinal-Bisbop  erf  Palestrina.  AH  the  TridLaurier,  SirLomerGouin,  Hon.  Thomas  Chapaii, 
biflhops  of  Canada  and  the  United  States  and  a  large  Judge  Doherty,  Deputy  TeUier,  Judge  CySullivan, 
number  from  Europe  were  present  in  person  or  sent  Deputy  Henri  Bourassa,  M.  Gerher,  and  many  other 
thdr  leprewotatives.  Three  cardinals,  one  hundred  diatingiuahed  eccleaastice  and  laymen  of  the  Old 
and  twenty  archbiehops  and  bishops,  between  three  and  New  World.  These  memorable  displays  of  elo- 
and  four  thousand  priests,  and  more  than  a  half  quence  made  a  deep  impreeson  in  the  souls  of  the 
nullion  lay  vlsitoTB  came  to  Montreal.  The  Uterory  re-  twelve  to  fifteen  thoueand  auditors.  Alao  in  the  church 
unions  of  the  iWieh-speaking  section  were  held  at  the  of  Notre-Dame,  at  the  first  hour  of  Thursday,  8  Sep- 
bouse  <rf  Uie  Fathers  of  the  Blesaed  Sacrament,  Laval  tember,  as  a  reii^ous  prelude  to  the  Uterary  afances, 
Univenity,  and  the  National  Monument,  #hile  those  an  impoaiag  midnight  Maaa  waa  celebrated,  at  which 
of  tiie  Esdidi-qieakinE  section  took  place  at  the  thousands  of  men  received  Holy  CJommunion,  the  Maw 
Convent  «  the  Sacred  Heart,  Windsor  Hall,  and  having  been  preceded  by  an  hour's  solemn  adoration 
Sttuiley  Hall.  More  than  a  hundred  studies  on  the  under  the  direction  of  members  of  the  Association 
Bkased  Eucharist — in  relation  to  dogma,  moral.  Adoration  Nocturne  of  Montreal.  The  ceremony  of 
history,  disdpline,  pious  practices,  devotions,  and  the  official  reception  of  the  papal  legale,  the  apecial 
MBodations— were  read  and  diacussed.  Each  stance  Maaa  on  Thuroday,  8  September,  in  favour  of  the 
was  presided  over  by  a  bishop.  Special  reunions  for  numerous  religious  communities  of  Montreal,  and  also 
priests,  men  and  women,  and  for  the  young  were  held  the  high  Maes  on  Sunday,  11  September,  sung  by  the 
with  great  success.  cardinal  legate,  at  which  Cardinal  Gibbons  and  Mgr 

A  splendid  gathering  of  twenty  thousand  jroung  Touchet  preached,  all  took  place  in  the  cathedral  d 
men  received  the  papal  legate  with  enthumasm;  St.Jamea.  Attheopen-airMBaaonSaturday.lOSep., 
tUrty  tbousaad  sebool-childr«i  passed  in  review  be-  sung  by  Mgr.  Farley,  the  preacheis  were  Mgr  O'Con- 
fore  nim.  It  is  estimated  that  a  hundred  thousand  nell  and  the  Rev.  Father  Ha^. 
men  marched  in  proceadon  on  the  occasion  of  the  What  specially  distin^ished  the  Congees  of 
solemn  closing  of  the  Congress,  Sunday,  11  Septem-  Montreal  irom  any  previous  Eucharistic  Congress 
bo',  in  the  presence  of  700,000  spectators.  The  was  the  official  participation  of  the  civil,  federal,  pro- 
streets  of  the  city  were  magnificently  decorated  for  vincial,  and  municipal  authorities.  The  Canadian 
the  occasion  with  triumphal  arches,  draperies,  and  Pacific  Riulway  Company  had  sent  a  representa- 
flaid,  onider  the  direction  of  the  committee  of  archi-     tive  to  meet  the  legate  in  Rome,  and  His  Emineaos 


MONTBXUIL 


550 


MONTBIUIL 


oroflsed  the  ocean  on  board  one  of  the  Empress 
Unere  of  the  same  company.  At  Quebec  the  Federal 
Government  yacht  met  the  cardinal  and  his  suite,  and 
conveyed  them  thence  to  Montreal.  All  dong  the  route, 
the  population  on  the  banks  of  the  river  greeted  the 
legate  as  he  passed.  At  Montreal,  despite  most  in- 
clement weather,  an  immense  crowd  gave  him  an 
enthusiastic  reception.  Mayor  Guerin  presented  ad- 
dresses of  welcome  in  French  and  English.  During  the 
congress,  the  Federal  Government,  the  Provincial' 
Government,  and  the  City  of  Montreal  each  held  a 
reception  for  the  legate  and  other  official  personages. 
Under  the  immediate  direction  of  Archbishop 
Bruch^  and  the  more  remote  direction  of  the  Per- 
manent Conmiittee  of  the  Eucharistic  Confesses, 
presided  over  by  Mgr  Heylen,  Bishop  of  Namur, 
four  great  conmuttees  laboured  to  organize  the  Con- 
sress  of  Montreal:  Committee  of  Works:  president. 
Canon  Gauthier;  vice-presidents,  MM.  Leco<i,  Mc- 
Shane,  Perrier,  and  Auclair.    Committee  of  Finance: 

President,  Canon  Martin;  vice-presidents.  Sir  Thomas 
haughnessy  and  Hon.  L.  J.  Forget.  Committee 
of  R^eption:  presidents,  Canon  Dauthand  Father 
Donnelley;  vice-presidents.  Canon  Roy  and  Father 
Troie.  Conmiittee  of  Decorations  and  Procession: 
president.  Canon  Le  Pailleur;  vice-presidents.  Fathers 
D^langer,  Laforce,  Piette,  Rusconi,  O'Reilley,  Martin, 
Deschamps,  Heffeman.  To  these  committees  there 
had  been  added  for  press  piuposes  a  special  commit- 
tee presided  over  by  Father  Elie  J.  Auclair. 

Present  Conditions. — ^The  Diocese  of  Montreal, 
at  the  present  time  (1910)  is  under  the  direction  of 
Mgr  Paul  Bruchdsi,  with  an  auxiliary  bishop  (at 

S resent  the  Rt.  Rev.  Mgr  Zotique  Racicot,  titular 
iishop  of  Pogla),  and  a  cathedral  chapter.  The 
Catholic  population  is  about  470,000,  served  by  720 
priests;  the  non-Catholics,  about  80,000 j  there  are 
150  piuishes  or  missions,  66  of  which  are  in  the  city 
and  suburbs.  Besides  Laval  University  (see  above), 
the  seminaries  and  colleges  are:  the  Grand  S^minaire, 
with  350  students:  the  Seminarv  of  Philosophv,  120; 
the  Montreal  College,  300;  and  Sacerdotal  College, 
recently  founded  and  under  the  direction  of  the 
SiUpicians;  St.  Mary's  and  Loyola  (Dollege.  under  the 
direction  of  the  Jesuits;  those  of  Ste  Tn6r^  and 
I'Assomption.  under  secular  priests,  and  of  Saint 
Laurent,  under  the  Fathers  of  the  Holy  Cross.  In 
all,  some  2000  boys  and  young  men  are  trained  in 
these  colleges.  In  addition  to  these,  64,000  children 
are  taught  in  the  schools  or  convents  of  religious 
orders,  and  24,000  by  lay  Catholic  teachers,  men  and 
women.  Some  1500  Brothers,  and  more  than  3700 
Sisters  devote  themselves,  in  the  diocese,  to  works  of 
teaching  or  of  charity.  There  are  nearly  60  hospices, 
asylums,  or  orphanam^  where  some  45,000  old  people, 
orphans,  sick,  and  innrm  are  charitably  cared  for. 
Moreover,  according  to  the  latest  official  diocesan  re- 
port, from  which  the  above  details  are  gathered,  more 
than  200  secular  priests  from  this  diocese  ana  more 
than  4000  Sisters  minister  or  teach  in  other  parts  of 
Canada  or  in  the  United  States. 

In  1909,  there  were  some  390  secular  priests  in  the 
diocese,  80  Sulpicians,  150  Jesuits,  20  Oblates  of 
Mary  Immaculate,  30  Franciscans  (in  Montreal  since 
1890),  30  Trappists,  50  Redemptorists  (in  Montreal 
since  1884),  30  Fathers  of  the  Holy  Cross,  20  of  the 
Holy  Sacrament  (1890),  8  of  St.  Viator,  5  of  the 
Company  of  Marv,  10  Dominicans  (1901),  2  Brothers 
of  St.  Vincent  de  Paul  (1908).  It  would  be  impossible 
to  give  all  the  details  of  this  useful  and  fruitful  reli- 
flious  life.  The  Carmelites  (1875)  and  the  Sisters  of  the 
Precious  Blood  (1874)  are  vowed  to  the  contemplative 
life.  To  these  communities  have  been  added  the  Little 
Sisters  of  the  Poor  (1887),  the  Sceurs  de  TEspdrance 
(1901),  the  Sisters  of  the  Immaculate  Conception 
(1904),  the  Dau^tere  of  Wisdom  (1910),  and  the 
Brothers  of  the  Presentation  (1910).    The  paiiahes. 


in  town  and  country,  are  in  a  flourishing  condition. 
Mgr  Bruch^si  has  devised  a  plan  of  giving  poor  churches 
he^  and  protection  by  making  certain  rich,  older 
parishes  act  as  their  sponsors.  Every  year,  on  one  of 
the  Sundays  of  September,  all  Montreal  visits  the 
cemetery,  near  the  top  of  Moimt  Royal,  where,  in  the 
presence  of  50,000  Catholics,  a  service  for  the  dead 
takes  place,  possibly  the  only  one  of  its  kind  in  the 
world.  On  tne  eve  of  the  civic  Labour  Holiday,  the 
archbishop  has,  for  some  years  past,  invited  the  work- 
men of  his  diocese  to  be  present  at  a  religious  service. 

ArekivtB  de  VarehttkM  de  Mcmttial:  La,  Sim,  Religieum  (Mont- 
real), files;  Db  CBLX.BS,  Pajfineau  (Montmd,  1905):  Cadisux 
AND  Dbromb.  CaUndr  er  eceUeiaaH^ue  (1905);  CHAesaaaos,  HiaL 
du  noneiai  dee  JiettHee;  Foxtriodt  in  Oitt.  de  thSoL  eaik.  (Paria, 
1904),  8.  ▼.  Canada;  Tanouat,  RipertoiredueleraieanadieH  (Mont- 
real, 1893);  Garnbau,  Hietoire  du  Canada,  II.  Ill;  Gubiabd,  La 
Franee  CatMdienne  in  Le  Correepondani  (April,  1877) ;  Cbkx8TIK, 
Hietoru  of  Canada  (Quebec,  184S):  JMofion  de  Jaequea  Cartier  in 
LsscABBOT,  Hiet.  de  la  NouvetU'Franee  (Paris.  1609);  Dionnb, 
La  NottvelU-Pranee  de  Cartier  d  Champiain  (Quebec,  1891) ;  Bsau- 
BiEN.  Hiet.  de  SauUniu^RScottet  (Montreal.  1897) :  Faillon,  Vie  de 
Mme  (f  YouviUe  (Montreal,  1852) ;  Jbttb,  Viedela  VhUrable  M^ 
d'Younlle  (Montreal,  1900);  Qarnbad,  HieUrire  du  Canada,  I; 
DoLUBR  DB  Casson.  Hietoite  de  Montrtal  (Montreal,  1869); 
Faillon,  Hieloire  de  la  Colonie  Francaiee  en  Canada  (Montreal* 
1865) ;  Idbm,  Viedela  VSn,  Mh-e  Bowrgeove  (Paris,  1853) ;  Idbm, 
Vie  de  MUe  Mance  (Paris.  1854);  Idbm.  Vie  de  M.  OKer  (Paris, 
1873) ;  RouMAN,  Vie  de  Paul  Chomodey  de  Maieonneu9e  (Mont- 
real, 1886);  The  Narrative  of  the  SuehariaUe  Congreee,  Septew^ber 
7-11, 1910  (Montreal.  1910). 

Elib  J.  AncLJkiR. 

Montrouil,  Charterhouse  of  Notre-Dame-des-Prte, 
at  Montreuii,  in  the  Diocese  of  Arras,  Depart- 
ment of  Pas-de-Calais,  France,  founded  by  Robert, 
Count  of  Boulogne  and  Auveigne.  The  charter  of 
foundation  is  dated  from  the  ch&teau  d'Hardelot  on  15 
July,  1324;  the  church  was  consecrated  in  1338.  The 
foundation,  being  close  to  Calus,  was  liable  to  dis- 
turbance in  time  of  war.  Thus  it  was  often  sacked  bv 
the  English  during  the  wars  in  the  fourteentl)  and  fif- 
teenth centuries,  and  was  for  a  time  abandoned.  The 
religious  returned  when  peace  was  restored.  In  1542 
the  monastery  was  again  wrecked  by  the  Imperial 
troops  and  in  the  wars  of  religion  fresh  troubles  at- 
tenaed  the  communitv.  finally  the  house  was  re- 
built by  Dom  Bernard  Bruyant  in  the  latter  part  of 
the  seventeenth  century  and  remained  undisturbed  un- 
til the  Revolution.  In  1790  the  monasteiy  was  sup- 
pressed and  its  property  sold  by  auction  the  following 
year.  Eight]^-two  years  later  the  Carthusians  repur- 
chased a  portion  of  their  old  estate  and  the  first  stone 
of  the  new  monastery  was  laid  on  2  April,  1872.  The 
work  was  pushed  forward  with  such  enengy  by  the 
Prior,  Dom  Eusdbe  Bergier,  that  the  whols  was  fin- 
ished in  three  years.  The  monasteiy  oontuns  twenty- 
four  cells  in  its  cloister.  Montreuii  has  taken  a  spe- 
cial position  among  Carthusian  houses^  owing  to  'the 
estaolishment  there  of  a  printing  press  from  wnich  has 
been  issued  a  number  of  works  connected  with  the 
order.  Dom  le  Couteulx's  "  Annales"  (in  eight  vols.) 
and  the  edition  of  Denys  the  Carthuaan  may  be 
quoted  as  examples  of  the  fine  printing  done  by  the 
monks.  By  the  recent  ''Association  Laws"  the  com- 
munity of  Montreuii  has  been  once  more  ejected. 
The  monks  are  now  lodged  in  the  Charterhouse  of 
Parkminster,  England;  the  printing  worics  have  been 
transferred  to  Toumai  in  Belgium. 

Tbombt,  Storia  .  .  .  deW  ordine  Cartueiano  (Naplea,  1773); 
Ls  CoxmeuLZ,  Annaiee  ordinie  Cartueieneie  (Montreuii.  1901|; 
LBnonvaa,  i8.  Bruno  §i  Vordre  dee  Chartreux  (Paris,  1883). 

G.  ROQER  HUDLBBTON. 

Montmiil  Abbey»  a  former  convent  of  Cistercian 
nuns  in  the  Diocese  of  Laon,  now  Soiasons,  France. 
Some  incorrectly  claim  that  it  was  the  first  convent 
of  Cistercian  nuns.  It  was  founded  in  1136  by 
BarUiolomew.  Bishop  of  Laon,  and  within  a  few 
years  it  numoered  nearly  three  hundred.  In  early 
days  the  community  busied  themselves  not  meantty 
in  weaving  and  embroidery,  but  also  in  tilling  toe 
fields,  clearing  the  forest,  and  weeding  the  soil 


H0HT.8T-HICHKL  5, 

So  large  a  number  in  one  community  had  its  disad- 
TKntages,  for  within  a  century  of  ita  foundation  the 
oonvent  was  forbidden  by  the  Abbot  of  ClaJrvaux  to 
take  novices  until  the  number  of  nuns  at  Montreuil 
was  reduced  to  one  hundred,  which  figure  waa  not 
in  future  to  be  exceeded.  In  the  seventeenth  cen- 
tuiy  the  convent  was  so  much  disturbed  by  the  ware 
which  raged  in  the  nei^bourhood  that  the  nuns 
Condoned  it  and  settled  m  the  hospital  of  St-Lacare 
close  to  the  city.  The  list  of  abbesses  is  in  Gallia 
Christiana  (IX,  639J;  the  convent  was  suppressed  at 
the  French  Revolution. 
Throughout  the  Middle  Ages  Montreuil  was  a 

flaoe  of  pil^rimase,  being  famous  for  the  "Sainte 
ace"  or  Veil  of  St.  Veronica.  This  picture,  which 
was  rf^arded  by  many  as  the  original  rehc,  was 
really  a  copy  of  the  "Vera  Effi^ea"  m  St,  Peter's  at 
Rome.  It  was  presented  in  1249  to  the  Abbess  of 
Montreuil  by  her  brother  Jacques  Pantaleon,  after- 
wards Urban  IV.  The  punting,  apparently  ot  East- 
ern origin  and  already  ancient  wheu  it  came  into  the 
hands  of  the  nuns,  bore  an  inscription  that  seemed  un- 
decipherable, even  Mabillon  being  completely  b^ed 
by  it.  Subsequently,  however,  some  Russian  ssvantfl 
declared   tbe   words   to   be   Slavonic,    and   to   read 

in  the  French  Revolution. 

BKAiTTfliBB.  Receuii  Itiatorique  .  .  .  da  Abbavu  tt  Priatna  d* 
Frana  (Pwi..  17ZB).  605-07;  OaUia  ChriUiana  (Pttia.  1751).  IX. 
eSS:  tduivM^  DietvmTiairt  dm  Abbai/ti  (Pvig,  IBMJ.  fiSI;  jANtD- 


II  MONT-ST- 

ment  and  undertook,  none  too  soon,  the  task  of  re» 
tor&tion.  The  work  has  gone  on  almost  continually 
ever  since,  and  the  restorers  must  be  prtused  for  the 
skill  wiUi  which  the  great  pile  has  been  saved  from 
ruin,  and  the  good  taste  with  which  the  whole  haa 
been  done. 

This  va^  group  of  buildinf^  has  been  the  subject  of 
several  important  monogra))hs.  Speaking  ^enertUly, 
the  monastic  buildings  consist  of  three  main  storiee. 
Of  these,  the  two  lower  take  the  form  of  vast  iiregular 
rings  completely  enclosing  the  natural  rock,  wluch 
forms  a  core  to  the  whole  edifice.  The  thitil  stMry 
rests  partly  on  the  two  lower  stories  and  partly  on  the 
apex  of  the  rock  which  is  found  immediately  Deneath 
the  pavement  of  the  church.  The  most  remarkable 
part  of  all  is  the  mass  of  buildings  known  as  "la  mer- 
veille"  (the  marvel)  on  the  north  side  of  the  rock  fac- 
ing the  oceaa.    This  vast  structure,  half  military. 


Umt-St-Ulchel,   a    Benedictine   Abbey,   in    the 
Diocese  of  Avranchee,  Normandy,  France.     It  is  im- 

Juestionably  the  finest  example  both  of  French  me- 
ieval  architecture  and  of  a  fortified  abbey.  The 
buildinKB  of  the  monastery  are  piled  round  a  conical 
mass  of  rock  which  rises  abruptTv  out  of  the  waters  of 
Uie  Atlantic  to  the  height  of  300  feet,  on  the  summit 
ofwhich  stands  thegreat  church.  This  rock  is  nearly  a 
mile  from  the  shore,  but  in  1880  a  causeway  was  built 
ftcroBB  the  dangerous  quicksand  that  occupies  this 
space  and  is  exposed  at  low  water,  so  that  there  ia 
BOW  no  dai^CT  in  approaching  the  abbey.  The 
monastery  was  founded  about  the  year  708  by  St. 
Aubert,  Bishop  of  Avranchee,  and  according  to  the 
legend,  by  direct  conunand  of  the  Archangel  Michael 
himself,  who  appeared  to  the  bishop  in  a  dream  on 
three  separate  occasions.  About  966,  Richard  the 
Fearless,  third  Duke  of  Normandy,  finding  the  com- 
munity in  a  relaxed  condition,  installed  Benedictines 
from  Monte  Cassino  at  Mont-St-Michel.  A  few 
years  later,  in  1017,  Abbot  Hildebert  II  b^;an  the  co- 
loeaal  scheme  of  buildings  all  round  the  rock  which 
should  form  a  huge  platform  level  with  the  summit,  on 
which  the  abbey  church  might  stand.  In  spite  of  the 
enonnoUH  difficulties  involved  in  the  design,  diffi- 
culties increased  by  fire  and  the  collapse  of  portions  of 
the  edifice,  the  great  scheme  was  persevered  in  during 
five  centuries  and  crovTied  by  the  completion  of  the 
flamboyant  choir  in  1520,  Even  among  reli^ous 
communities,  such  an  instance  of  steadfast  purpose 
and  continuity  of  plan  stands  unrivalled;  but  the  com- 
pletion was  only  just  in  time.  In  1523  the  abbey  was 
granted  m  comTnendtan  to  Cardinal  Le  Veneur  and  the 
■eriea  of  commendatory  Abbots  continued  until  1622 
when  the  abbey,  its  community  reduced  almost  to 
the  vanishing  point,  was  united  to  the  famous  Congre- 
salion  of  St-Maur.  At  the  French  Revolution  the 
Maurist  monks  were  ejected  and  the  splendid  build- 
ings became  a  prison  for  pohtical  ofFenders  while,  with 
unconscious  irony,  the  name  of  the  place  was  changed 
from  Mont  St^Michel  to  Mont  Libre.  In  1863  the 
prison  was  closed  and  for  a  few  years  the  abbey  was 
leased  to  the  Bishop  of  Avranches,  but  in  1872  the 
fr^Ii^  Q^v^mm^t  topk  it  over  oe  a  nation^  qionu- 


PuK  or  MoiTT.Suin-Miciiu. 

half  monastic,  is  built  wholly  of  granito  quarried  on 
the  mainland,  and  was  entirely  constructed  between 
the  years  1203  and  1228.  Its  foundations  are  one 
hundred  and  sixty  feet  above  the  sea  level,  and  it 
consists  of  three  stories  of  which  two  are  vaulted. 
The  lowest  contains  the  almonry  and  cellar;  above 
these  come  the  refectory  and  "hall  of  the  knights", 
on  which  again  rest  the  dormitory  and  the  cloister. 
The  last  named  building,  which  is  perhaps  the  finest 
gem  of  all,  has  a  double  arcade  so  planned  that  the 
columns  in  one  row  are  opposite  tne  centre  of  the 
arches  in  the  other — a  unique  arrangement  of  wondo^ 
ful  beauty.  The  churdi  is  cruciform  with  a  Norman 
nave  which  was  formerly  seven  bays  in  length,  but 
the  three  western  bays  were  destroyed  in  1776.  The 
central  tower  has  lately  been  restored  and  crowned 


The  position  of  the  abbey  rendered  it  of  the  highest 
strategic  importance  especially  during  the  wars  with 
England,  and  both  it  and  the  little  town  that  hod 
grown  up  at  the  foot  of  the  rock  on  the  land  side, 
were  enclosed  by  strong  fortifications  during  the 
fourteenth  and  fifteenth  centuries.  So  impregnable 
was  the  rock  made  in  this  way  that,  although  fre< 
quently  attacked  by  superior  forces,  it  was  never 
captured.  The  abbot  was  also  commandant  of  the 
place  bjT  ^ipointmeiit  of  the  King  of  FfflO'^i  ^d 


MONTTON  552  MOOBX 

lie  was  empowered  to  bestow  feoffs  on  the  nobles  of  the    the  prise  to  be  bestowed  on  the  author  of  the  wotk 
province  who  bound  themselves  in  return  to  ^ard    most  useful  to  morals.    Theseprisesaretobeawaided 


the  abbey  in  time  of  war.    In  1469  King  Louis  XI  by  the  French  Academy.    Mbntvon  also 
founded  the  Order  of  St.  Michael,  and  hdd  the  first  Israe  sums  of  money  among  the  bureaus  of 
chapter  of  its  knights  in  the  "salle  des  chevaliers.''  in  Paris.    His  will,  m  which  are  expressed  sentiments 
It  is  said  that  the  cockle  shell,  horiL  and  staff,  which  of  the  deepest  piety,  bequeathed  the  biilk  of  his  prop- 
became  the  recognized  insignia  of  a  pilgrim  from  erty  to  the  hospitals  ana  homes  of  his  native  city, 
the  thirteenth  century  onwards,  take  their  origin  l^ACBarBuji,  Dtmoovn  wr  M,d»  Mtmtyon  in  lUaiml  d§  VAc^ 

feom  Mont«t.Mjchel.    The  sta*  was  u«d  to  t«t  i^J::^^i,^^Sli::^^^^^'^^'^' 

the  path  across  the  treacherous  qmcksand,  the  horn  Pibbbs  Mabioub. 

served  to  summon  aid  should  tide  or  fog  surprise  the  ^ 

pilgrim;  while  the  cockle  shell  was  fixed  in  the  hat  as  Moor,  Hugh,  Vbnbrablb.    See  Mobton,  Rob- 

a  souvenir  to  show  that  the  pUgrim  had  accomplished  '^^^^i  Vbnbrablb. 

his  jpum^  in  safetv.    The  abbejr  bore  as  its  anns  a  Moore,  Aothub,  Count,  b.  at  liverpool,  1849;  d, 

codde  j^U  and  fleursKie-hs  mth  the  significant  at  Mooresfort,  Tipperary,  Ireland,  1904,  was  the  son 

motto  "Tremor  mameM  Oceam ' .  of  Charles  Moore,  M.P.  for  Tipperaiy.     Educated 

73)^'T§rnSSSri''^S?J:at"  'f:S!^^i:^  ^St'Su^,  at  Ushaw,  he  al terwaixis  trave^  ^^ Jp^n^^^and  in 

Siouen,  1873):  Goot,  UHittoif  ei  rArehUeetur0  Frantaiw  au  1874  was  elected  M.P.  for  the  Boroum  of  Qonmel. 

.*•■*■-!{•  8>^  ^®M»  Cp^^rn,,l>f^ptiond€  rAbbaye  du  In  Parliament  he  was  a  follower  of  Mr.  Butt,  and 

¥^,%:  JESSJS^^doeiJS^e*^^^^               fc  Btryngly  advocat^  hmd  refonn,  better  treatment  of 

St.  iiiehd  et  2e  M.-St-M.  dana  Vhitioire  et  la  litUnuwe  (Paris,  children  m   workhouses,   umvemty  education   for 

i^);  BomuMt,  La  Normandie  mmummtaU  et  1^^         U  Irish  Catholics,  and  Home  Rule;  and  he  specially 

^^  V^'^i)/'J^S^^S'7iZri-tI:JL!!t.  s*«"^  ^r^.^  P~^^«  S^*^,?"*"  ^fe?"; 

(Paria,  1805);  Fbtal,  Lu  meneiaea  du  M.strM.  (Paris,  s.  <L);  thenavy.  In  1877  he  mamed  a  daughter  of  an  English 
GiBA».  J5ri^«  du  Jf .-»-jr.  eomiw  baronet.  Sir  Charles  Clifford,  and  the  same  year  re- 
DAT©.  L«t  Qra^  Ahboyu  (TOecjAmi  (Pans,  1907),  369-378.  ^|^^  ^^e  title  of  Count  from  the  pope.    During  the 

G.  RoGEB  HuDLBSTON.  Gladstone  Parliament  of  1880-85  Count  Moore  was 
T        »              -n              A  usually  on  the  side  of  Pamell.    He  favoured  land 

Montyoii,  ANTOiNB-jEAN-BAPnsTB-RoBBBT  Au-  purchase  as  the  best  settlement  of  the  Irish  land 
GBT,  Babon  db,  famous  French  philanthropist;  b.  at  question;  he  advocated  the  providing  of  suitable 
Pans,  23  December,  1733;  d.  there  29  December,  cottages  for  Irish  labourers,  and  better  treatment  of 
1820.  He  was  the  son  of  a  wealthy  official  of  the  iriah  emigrants  on  board  ship;  he  always  voted  for 
Exchequer.  As  soon  as  he  had  completed  his  educar-  Home  Rule,  and  vehemently  denounced  coennon. 
tion,  young  Montvon  was  made  king's  advocate  at  But  he  had  no  faith  in  violent  agitation,  and  did 
the  court  of  Le  ChAtelet  (Paris)  where  his  inflexible  not  favour  the  full  programme  of  the  Land  League  or 
integrity  won  for  him  the  surname  of  "GrenacUer  of  that  of  the  National  League;  and  he  voted  for  the 
the  Bar."  In  1758  he  entered  the  Great  Council  and  second  reading  of  Gladstone's  Land  Bill  though  Par^ 
in  1760  was  appointed  master  of  the  petitions.  In  nell  and  hismends  abstained  from  voting.  Count 
1767  he  became  intendant  of  Auvergne,  where  his  Moore  would  only  follow  where  his  convictions  led, 
liberality  to  the  poor  endeared  him  to  the  people.  It  and  he  was  too  independent  to  be  blindly  obedient  to 
is  said  that  he  yearly  spent  as  much  as  twenty  thou-  Mr.  Pamell:  when  the  Redistribution  Act  of  1885 
sand  francs  of  his  private  income  to  give  work  and  disfranchised  Clonmel,  he  was  left  without  a  seat  in 
help  to  needy  famibes.  On  his  refusal  to  instaU  Parliament.  He  had  therefore  no  share  in  the  stirring 
the  new  magistrates  appointed  by  Maupeou  after  scenes  which  followed  the  general  election  of  1885. 
the  suppression  of  the  Parliaments,  he  was  transferred  But  he  was  not  content  to  lead  a  life  of  ease  and  in- 
to the  mtendance  of  Provence  and  then  to  La  Rochelle.  activity,  believing  that "  a  Catholic  layman  should  be 
In  1775,  through  the  influence  of  the  due  de  Pen-  up  and  doing  and  not  merely  telUng  his  beads  in  a 
thidvre,  he  was  recalled  to  Paris  and  appointed  coun-  comer".  Blessed  with  ample  wealth  he  was  a  gener- 
cillor  of  State.  Amidst  the  cares  of  public  life,  he  ©us  contributor  to  schools,  churches,  convents,  and 
had  found  time  for  the  study  of  economics  and  belles-  hospitals;  a  militant  but  not  an  agnessive  Cathmic  he 
lettres.  The  French  Academv  awarded  a  distinction  was  always  ready  to  do  battle  f ^Catholic  truth,  and 
to  his  "Eloge  de  Michel  de  rH6pital"  (Paris,  1777).  in  speeches,  lectures,  and  newspaper  articles  often  did 
The  foUowing  year  he  published  ^'Recherches  et  con-  splendid  service  for  the  advancement  of  Cathdic 
sid^rations  sur  la  population  de  la  France."  Mont-  interests.  He  spued  no  effort  to  secure  thatCathoHo 
yon's  great  concern,  however,  was  philanthropy,  sailors  should  not  be  left  without  religious  instruo- 
which  he  delighted  to  practice  in  an  anonymous  way.  tion  during  life,  or  without  a  priest  at  the  hour  of 
In  order  to  foster  emulation  for  the  good  among  ms  death;  and  so  valuable  was  his  work  in  this  matter 
countrymen,  he  founded  a  number  of  prises  to  be  that  the  Irish  Bishops,  at  thdr  meeting  at  Maynooth 
awarded  by  the  FVench  Academy,  the  Academy  of  in  1903,  thanked  him  by  special  resolution.  He  sui>- 
Science,  or  the  Academy  of  Medicme.  ported  the  Catholic  Tmth  Sodety  and  attended  its 

At  the  be^nning  of  the  French  RevolutioiL  he  meetings;  he  desired  to  have  a  branch  of  the  Benedi<y 

thought  it  was  his  duty  to  share  the  fortunes  of  the  tine  Order  in  Ireland,  and  would  have  helped  to  m- 

princes  of  the  House  of  Boiubon,  and  he  left  the  dow  it.    He  established  and  generously  endowed  the 

country.    He  travelled  in  Switzerland  and  Germany,  Cisteroian  Abbey  at  Roecrea.    Always  ready  to  hdp 

but  spcpt  the  greater  part  of  his  exile  in  London;  othere  he  did  not  forget  his  own  personal  sancti^. 

durmg  his  stay  m  that  city,  he  gave  each  year  ten  He  attended  Mass  every  day,  spent  hours  before  the 

thousimd  francs  to  reUeve  the  lYench  refugees,  and  tabernacle  in  his  own  private  oratory,  fasted  ricor- 

the  French  soldiers  who  were  prisoners  m  Eng-  ously,  made  frequent  retreats;  and  he  went,  year  after 

land;  the  same  amount  was  sent  to  the  poor  of  Au-  year,  to  Lourdes  and  to  the  Holy  Land,  not  as  a  mere 

vergne.    Montyon  retumed  to  France  in  1815  at  the  sight-seeing  traveller  but  as  a  pflgrim  and  a  penitent 

time  of  the  second  restoration  and  henceforth  de-  At  home  he  was  the  kindest  and  tne  most  indulgent  of 

voted  all  his  time  to  the  work  that  had  made  his  name  landlords,  and  no  begxar  went  unrelieved  from  \m 

famous.    He  re-established  the  prises  which  he  had  door.    When  he  diedTms  body,  clothed  in  the  F^aa- 

founded  before  the  Revolution  and  which  had  been  ciscan  habit,  was  interred  near  the  high  altar  in  the 

abolished  by  the  National  Convention.    The  best  church  of  the  Cisteroians  at  Roscrea. 

known  of  these  prises  are  ''le  prix  de  vertu",  to  re-  Baxbt.  lAfa  €(f  Count  Arikm  Moon  (DubUa.  iflOS). 

ward  a  virtuous  act  dope  by  a  poor  Frenchman,  ^d4  £•  4*  v  Ai/foa^ 


o  ■< 
5   a 


MOOBI                            553  MOOBB 

Moore  for  Moor)2  Michael,  priest,  preacher^  and  Moore  gave  little  or  no  heed  to  academic  honours.  A 
professor,  b.  at  Dublin,  Ireland,  1640;  a.  at  Pans,  22  curious  point  noted  by  a  recent  biographer  is  that 
Aug.,  1726.  Educated  at  Nantes  and  Paris,  he  tau^t  Moore  was  enta«d  as  a  Protestant,  poadbly  by  his 
philosophy  and  rhetoric  at  the  College  des  Grassins.  school-master,  Mr.  Whyte,  who  himself  a  Protestant. 
Returning  to  Ireland,  he  was  ordainea  priest  in  1684,  wished  to  qualify  his  favourite  pupil  for  all  the  good 
and  appomted  VicaiMGreneral  of  the  Diocese  of  Dublin  things  that  the  college  offered  to  non-Catholics. 
by  Aronbishop  Russell.  When  the  Revolution  of  1688  Moore  probably  was  not  aware  of  this;  at  any  rate  he 
drove  James  II  from  his  British  dominions.  Ireland  never  availed  himself  of  it.  Though  his  education 
was  held  for  him  by  Richard  Talbot,  Earl  (afterwards  and  associations  were  mostly  Protestant,  and  though 
Duke)  of  Tyroohndl.  The  provost  of  Trinity  College,  he  himself  was  in  fact  after  his  first  year  in  college 
Dublm,  Dr.  Huntingdon,  fled  to  England  when  James  scarcely  more  than  a  nominal  Catholic,  he  never 
landed  in  Ireland.  The  college  was  seised  by  the  changed  his  creed.  Amnnir  his  intimat^^  mends  was 
Jacobites,  the  chapd  was  made  a  powder  magazine,  Rob^  Emmet,  whose  tragic  death  made  on  him  a 
one  portion  of  the  building  was  turned  into  a  barrack,  lasting  impression.  Moore  shows  this  in  his  writingSi 
and  another  into  a  gaol  for  persons  suspected  of  dis-  as  in  the  beautiful  lyric,  ''O  breathe  not  his  name", 
affection  to  the  royal  cause.  Moore  was  chaplun  and  and  also  in  the  veiled  allusions  in  ^'The  Fire  Worship* 
confessor  to  Tyrconnell  through  whose  influence  and  pers",  one  of  the  four  long  poems  of  '|Lalla  Rookh^'. 
on  the  recommendation  of  the  Irish  Catholic  bishops,  After  graduating  in  1798  ne  set  out  in  the  following 
he  was  appointed  (1689)  by  James,  provost  of  Trimtjr  spring  for  London  to  study  law.  He  was  never  ad- 
College — ttke  only  CaUiolic  who  ever  held  that  post-  mitted  to  the  Bar,  as  legal  studies  had  for  him  no  at- 
tkm.  He  upheld  the  rishts  of  the  college,  secured  it  traction.  literature  was  more  to  his  likinf^.  When 
from  further  piUage,  ana  endeavoured  to  mitigate  the  scarcely  fif teen^me  verses  of  his  f4)peared  m  a  Dub- 
tieatment  of  the  prisoners.  With  the  librarian.  Father  lin  magazine ''The  AnthologiaHib^rnica".  While  in 
McC^uthy,  he  prevented  the  soldiery  from  burning  college  he  wrote  a  metrical  translation  of  the ''Odes  of 
the  library,  and  by  preserving  its  precious  collections  Anacreon"  which  he  published  in  London  in  1800. 
rendered  an  incalculable  service  to  letters.  A  sermon  with  a  dedication  "by  permission"  to  the  Prince  of 
which  he  preached  in  Christ  Church  cathednd  of-  Wales.  He  published  in  the  following^  year  his  first 
fended  the  king  so  deeply  that  he  was  obliged  to  volume  of  original  poems  under  the  title  of  "The 
resign  (1690),  and  retired  to  Paris.  When  James,  after  Poetical  Works  of  the  late  Thomas  Little",  which  met 
the  DatUe  of  the  Boyne  (1690),  fled  to  Paris,  Moore  with  severe  criticism  on  the  nounds  of  indecency, 
removed  to  Rome,  became  Censor  of  Books,  and  won  Later  editions  were  expurgated;  but  Moore  showed 
the  favour  of  Innocent  XII  and  Clement  XI.  When  his  fondness  for  amorous  poetry  by  recurring  to  it  in 
Csidinal  Barbari^  established  his  coU^  at  Monte-  "The  Loves  of  the  An|;eis".  Again  criticizea,  he  bent 
fiasoone,  he  appomted  Moore  rector,  and  professor  of  to  the  storm  by  "  turning  his  poor  Angels  into  Turks", 
philosophy  ana  Greek.  The  college  attracted  men  of  Moore's  success  almost  from  the  day  he  set  foot  in 
learning,  and  received  from  Innocent  XII  an  annual  England  was  extraordinary.  It  was  no  doubt  his  per- 
srant  of  two  thousand  crowns.  After  the  death  of  sonal  charm  and  the  masterly  singing  of  his  own  songs 
James  II  (1701).  Moore  returned  to  France,  where,  that  gave  him  the  start  in  lus  successful  career.  like 
through  Cardinal  de  Noailles,  he  was  appointed  Rec-  the  ancient  bard  he  sang  his  own  verses  to  his  own 
tor  of  the  University  of  Paris  (10  Oct.,  1701  to  9  Oct.,  accompaniment,  and  was  welcomed  eveiywhere. 
1702).  He  was  also  made  principal  of  the  College  de  Early  in  1803  the  Government  proposed  to  estab- 
Navarre,  and  professor  of  philosophy,  Greek,  and  lish  an  Irish  laureateship  and  offered  Moore  the  pod- 
Hebrew  in  the  College  de  France.  In  1702  he  was  tion  with  the  same  salary  and  emoluments  as  the 
sdected  to  deliver  the  annual  panegyric  on  Louis  XIV,  Finglish  office  of  similar  title;  but  Moore  declined  the 
founded  by  the  CHty  of  Paris.  Moore  joined  Dr.  Far-  honour.  Another  offer  later  in  the  year,  that  of  Reg- 
reUy  (Fealy)  in  purchasing  a  house  near  the  Irish  istrar  of  the  Admiralty  Court  of  Bermuda,  he  ao- 
CoUege  for  poor  Irish  students.  Blind  for  some  years,  cepted  and  left  England  in  September  for  his  post  of 
he  had  to  employ  an  amanuensis,  who  took  advantage  duty.  After  four  months'  trial,  finding  the  office  not 
of  his  master's  affliction  to  steal  and  sell  many  hun-  to  his  liking  he  appointed  a  deputy  and  sailed  for  New 
dred  volumes  of  his  choice  librarv.  What  remained  York.  He  visited  the  principal  cities  of  the  States, 
Moore  bequeathed  to  the  Irish  CoUe^.  He  died  in  and  then  went  to  Canada,  lie  was  delighted  with 
the  Coll^  de  Navarre,  and  was  buned  in  Uie  vault  his  Canadian  tour,  but  was  far  differently  impressed 
under  the  chapel  of  the  Irish  College.  His  published  by  ''the  land  of  the  free"  and  its  people.  Judgins 
works  include:  ''De  Existentia  Dei,  et  Humans  Men-  eversrthing  from  his  pro-English  viewpoint,  he  could 
tis  Immortalitate,  secundum  Cartesii  et  Aristotelis  find  scareelv  anything  to  admire  in  the  young  re- 
Doctrinam"  (Paris,  1692);  "Hortatio  ad  Studium  public  which  had  so  lately  gained  its  independence 
finguffi  Gneae  et  Hebralcs"  (Montefiascone,  1700);  from  England.  After  an  absence  of  fourteen  months 
"Vera  Sciendi  Methodus"  (Paris,  1716).  he  returned  to  London  "with  a  volume  of  poetic 

WABm  Th»  WHUr» x,  l^^^J^fif^f^  (PM^Jio*.  ^^^^J  travels  in  his  pocket"  which  with  later  additions  he 

ffr^TfJtSS  i^/M^t/SS^f^^  published  m  im  under  the  title  of  "Episties,  (Mes 

wwaet,  Hiatory  of  DtMin  (I86n :  Joxtbdain,  A^w(<nr«  d«  v  Unitertiu  and  Other  Poems  ".    In  addition  to  his  animadversions 

d§  Pant  au  xyii'Hau  XVIII' nicU  (FaiiB,  1862-^^  On  America  it  contained  several  amatory  pieces. 

SS'^XiJi  flS^JSK.       ^''^'''^^'  ^"^  ofineland;  jhe  famous  critic,  Jeffrev,  in  an  article  in  the  '%din- 

P.  J.  Lennox.  burgh  Review"  attacked  the  book  severely  and  called 

*  its  author  "the  most  licentious  of  modem  versifiers". 

Moore^THOiiAB.  poet  and  bioflrapher,  b.  28  May,  This  brought  on  the  famous  "leadless  duel",  and  paved 

1779,  at  Dublin,  Ireland;  d.  26  February,  1852,  at  the  way  for  the  lifelong  friendship  between  the  poet 

I,  England.    His  father  was  a  grocer  till  1806  and  the  critic.    Another  challenge  from  Moore,  this 


when  he  was  appointed  barrack-master  at  Dublin,  time  to  Lord  Byron  for  his  sarcastic  reference  to  the 

Hm  mother,  a  woman  of  varied  accomplishments,  did  "leadless  pistols"  used  in  the  meeting  with  Jeffrey, 

much  to  train  him  for  his  remarkable  success  in  sod-  resulted  in  another  close  friendship  between  "hostile 

ety.    Thomas  eariy  manifested  a  remarkable  power  forces". 

of  rhyming,  sinping,  and  acting.    When  fifteen  he  was  In  1807  Moore  published  the  first  numbers  of  his 

entered  at  Trimtv  College,  Dublin,  which  by  the  Cath-  "Irish  Melodies".    Were  all  his  other  works  lost, 

olic  Rdief  Act  of  1793  had  opened  its  doore  to  Catho-  these  would  give  him  the  right  to  the  title  he  so  much 

tics,  who  were,  however,  hardly  more  than  tolerated,  prized,  "The  Poet  of  the  people  of  Ireland".    The 

Denied  idl  incentive  because  of  his  religious  belief,  importance  and  the  difficulty  of  this  undertaking — ^to 


MOOBS 


654 


MOOBI 


fit  words  to  the  old  national  airs  of  Ireland — Moore 
fully  realised.  But  the  task  of  marrying  words  to 
these  airs  was  no  easy  one.  ''The  Poet'*!  as  Moore 
himself  wrote,  "who  would  follow  the  various  senti- 
ments which  they  express,  must  feel  and  understand 
that  rapid  fluctuation  of  spirits,  that  unaccountable 
mixture  of  gloom  and  levity  which  composes  the 
character  of  my  countrymen  and  has  deeply  tinged 
their  Music".  Almost  all  contemporary  writers, 
among  them  Shelley  and  Landor,  spoke  enthusiasti- 
cally of  the  melodies,  saying  that  the^  were  lyrics  of 
the  highest  merit.  His  friend  and  biographer,  Lord 
John  Kussell,  wrote  in  1853  that  ''of  aUlyiical  poets, 
Moore  is  surely  the  greatest''.  Moore  continued  to 
write  these  at  intervals  for  twentv-seven  years,  re- 
ceiving $500  for  each,  which  gave  him  an  annual  in- 
come of  $2500.  Six  of  the  ten  numbers  of  his 
melodies  were  published,  when  he  tried  his  hand 
wiUi  like  success  at  "Sacred  Songs"  and  "National 
Airs". 

The  lyrics,  however,  did  not  take  up  all  his  time.  Id 
1808  he  publishe4  poems  on  "  Corruption  "  and  on  "  In- 
tolerance" and  in  the  following  yeai  "The  Sceptic", 
nese  attempts  at  serious  satire,  in  which  he  used  the 
heroic  couplet  of  Pope,  did  not  meet  with  success. 
Quite  different  was  his  next  venture,  this  time  in  a 
lighter  strain  and  directed  against  the  prince,  his 
former  patron,  who  on  becoming  regent  tnroug^  the 
insanity  of  his  father  had  chansed  n-ont  and  broken 
with  the  Whigs,  with  whom  Moore  had  previously 
allied  himself.  These  pieces,  together  with  those  he 
wrote  asainst  several  members  of  the  Ministiy ,  were 
gatherea  together  and  published  in  1813  with  the 
title  "Intercepted  Letters  or  TTie  Two-penny  Post- 
bag".  In  this  sort  of  light-hearted  satire  Moore  had 
struck  a  rich  vein  which  he  worked  for  more  than 
twenty  years  with  his  "  Fudge  Family  in  Paris  ",  "  The 
Fudges  in  England",  and  ^' Fable  of  the  Holy  Alli- 
ance". Moore's  reputation  in  the  literary  world  of 
his  time  was  of  the  hi^est,  as  is  shown  from  the  busi- 
ness arrangements  made  for  the  copsrright  of  "Lalla 
Rookh"  (1817).  Longmans,  .the  publishers,  agreed 
to  give  the  highest  price  ever  paid  for  a  poem,  $15,000. 
and  that,  too,  without  seeing  a  line  of  the  work.  Ana 
twenty  years  later  they  still  called  it  the  "cream  of 
the  copyrights".  After  considerable  reading  and 
some  discouraging  experiments,  he  hit  upon  the  idea  of 
founding  a  story  on  the  lonp  and  fierce  struggle  be- 
tween the  Persian  fire-worshippers  and  their  haughty 
Moslem  masters — a  theme  that  had  much  to  recom- 
mend it  to  an  Irishman  familiar  with  the  long  strugsle 
between  his  countrymen  and  their  rulers.  Men  who 
had  lived  long  in  the  East  marvelled  at  his  skill  in 
reproducing  so  faithf uUy  life  in  the  Orient  with  its 
barbaric  splendours. 

Scarcely  was  this  off  his  hands  when  the  news  ar- 
rived that  he  must  make  good  the  loss  of  $30,000 
caused  by  his  agent  in  Bermuda.  Moore  had  not 
saved  anything  out  of  his  large  income.  His  friends 
would  have  come  to  his  assistance;  but  he  would  not 
allow  them.  To  escape  arrest  he  took  refuge  in  1819 
on  the  continent.  More  than  three  years  he  had  of 
rather  enjoyable  exile,  most  of  which  was  spent  in  Paris 
where  his  family  joined  him  in  1820.  He  had  in  1811 
married  a  young  actress^  Miss  Bessy  Dyke.  Towards 
the  close  of  1822,  after  settling  the  Bermuda  claim, 
which  had  been  reduced  to  $5,000,  he  took  up  his  resi- 
dence again  in  England.  Heretofore  he  nad  been 
almost  exclusively  a  writer  of  verse;  from  this  on  he 
is  primarily  a  wnter  of  prose: — ^he  becomes  a  biog- 
rapher, a  controversialist,  an  historian.  During  the 
summer  of  1823,  he  accompanied  Lord  Lansdowne  on 
a  visit  to  the  south  of  Ireland.  While  there  he  learned 
much  of  the  discontent  amons  the  peasants,  of  their 
secret  organisations,  and  of  their  mysterious  leader. 
Captain  Kock.  On  ms  return  he  read  history,  and  as 
a  result  of  his  reading  and  his  sight-seeing,  he  wrote  a 


"History  of  Captain  Rock  and  his  AnoeBtois"  in 
which  he  gives  the  histoiy  of  asrarian  crimes  and  de- 
nounces, not  the  Shimavests  of  "Fog&y  Boggy  Tip- 
perary  "  whom  eight  years  before  he  caUed  murderous 
savages  deserving  the  sword,  but  the  bad  laws  of  Ens- 
land  that  generated  all  sorts  of  crime.  The  book  made 
its  way  ever3n¥here.  In  England,  perhaps  for  the  first 
time,  the  cause  of  Ireland  received  a  hearing.  Natu- 
rally it  became  popular  in  Ireland  where  even  Catho- 
lics, notwithstanding  (in  the  words  of  Moore)  "some 
infidelities  to  their  rel^^ion  which  break  out  now  and 
then  in  it",  expressed  in  a  formal  manner  their  g^rati- 
tude  for  his  defence  of  their  country. 

This  favourable  reception  delighted  Moore;  only 
now  he  began  to  know  Ireland  and  her  people.  He 
came  back  at  times  to  his  own  and  endeavoured  to 
make  amends  for  his  former  lack  of  sympathy,  as  may 
be  seen  in  some  of  his  later  writings,  as  the  "Life  of 
Lord  Edward  Fitzgerald"  (1831).  This,  which  Is 
probably  his  best  prose  work,  was  a  labour  of  love;  for 
m  writing  a  sympathetic  account  of  a  young  Irish 
patriot  who  suffered  for  his  country  in  the  uprising  of 
1798,  Moore  could  hardly  hope  for  encouragement 
from  an  English  reading  public.  In  the  meantime  he 
had  published  the  "Life  of  Sheridan"  (1825),  a  woric 
which  had  engaged  his  attention  during  the  preceding 
seven  vears.  So  successful  was  it  financially  that  the 
publishers  added  $1500  to  the  original  pnce  of  the 
copyright.  Its  chief  value  lay,  as  the  critic  Jeffrey 
said,  in  the  historical  view  it  gave  of  public  transac- 
tions for  the  past  fifty  years.  The  next  prose  work, 
"The  Epicurean"  (1827),  has  some  merit  as  a  stoiy, 
but  not  as  a  study  of  ancient  manners  or  as  a  presentar 
tion  of  the  Epicurean  philosophy.  Moore  was  to  be 
Rpon's  editor;  he  became,  instead,  his  biogn4>her. 
ms  "life  of  Byron"  (1830)  is  one  of  the  most  popular 
biographies  ever  written,  though  the  picture  given  is 
not  wholly  true  te  life. 

After  finishing  the  life  of  I^Htzgerald  he  wrote  a  theo- 
logical treatise  which  he  dedicated  "  to  the  people  of 
Ireland  in  defence  of  their  Ancient  National  Faith", 
and  called  it  "The  Travels  of  an  Irish  Gentleman  in 
Search  of  a  Religion"  (1834).  The  Irish  Gentleman 
wishes  to  become  a  Protestant,  studies  hard  at  home 
and  abroad,  but  fails  to  find  an3rthing  either  in  Scnpt- 
ure  or  the  Church  Fathers  to  justify  a  change.  Tnis 
vindication  of  the  Catholic  Church  is  a  curious  book 
written  as  it  was  by  one  who  had  married  a  Protestant, 
and  was  glad  to  have  his  children  brought  up  as  Frot- 
estante.  In  his  fifty-fifth  year  Moore  doubtkss  took  a 
different  view  of  life,  and  saw  the  folly  of  mere  woridly 
advantages  when  these  involved  a  sacrifice  of  religious 
truth.  Similar  motives  likely  influenced  him  in  his 
next  and  last  work,  "The  Histonr  of  Ireland"  (1835- 
46).  During  much  of  his  life  he  had  been  more  of  an 
English  Whig  than  an  Irish  Nationalist.  But  the  last 
of  it  he  gave  generously  to  his  countiy  by  calling  the 
attention  of  the  English  people  to  their  misgovern- 
ment  of  Ireland.  The  task  wnich  he  undertook  was. 
however,  too  much  for  him;  the  one  volume  intended 
lengthened  out  into  four,  and  then  stopped  at  the  reign 
of  Queen  Elizabeth. 

Moore  was  now  broken  down.  Financial  troubles 
had  constantly  harassed  him,  notwithstanding  his 
large  income.  He  had  expected,  and  with  good  reason, 
great  things  from  the  Government  when  his  friends 
tiie  Whigs  got  in  power.  A  recognition  came  in  1833 
when  he  received  a  literary  pension  of  $1500,  to  which 
was  added,  a  few  years  before  his  death,  another  pen- 
sion of  $500.  He  was  not  spared  domestic  troubles. 
Two  daughters  died  in  infancy;  the  third  lived  only 
to  be  a  girl  of  sixteen.  Of  his  two  sons  one  died  from 
consumption  in  1841;  the  other,  Thomas,  wild  and 
extravagant,  died  in  Africa  in  1845.  At  this  time 
Moore  wrote  in  his  "Diary":  "The  last  of  our  five 
children  is  now  gone  and  we  are  left  desolate  and  alone. 
Not  a  single  relative  have  I  now  left  in  the  worki  ** 


MOP8UX8TZA 


555 


MOB 


He  had  previously  lost  his  parents  and  his  sisters,  his 
favourite  Ellen  dying  suddenly  at  about  liie  same 
time  as  his  son  Thomas.  His  life  was  now  practically 
over,  and  he  died  in  his  seventy-third  year  and  was 
buried  at  Bromham,  near  Devises  m  Wiltshire. 
Moore's  biographer.  Lord  John  Russell,  declared: 
''When  these  two  great  men"  (Scott  and  Byron) 
"have  been  enumerated,  I  know  not  any  writer  of  his 
time  who  can  be  put  in  comparison  with  Moore";  and 
yet  when  Moore  wrote,  England  was  rich  in  great 
writers.  Such  praises  as  this  may  appear  exaggerated 
to-day  when  critical  opinion  has  swung  to  the  oppo- 
site extreme,  especially  among  younger  writers.  The 
truth,  as  usual,  seems  to  lie  oetween  two  extremes. 
Much  of  Moore's  work  is  ephemeral^  but  there  re- 
mains a  ^up  of  lyrics  that  are  as  perfect  of  their  kind 
as  anjrthmg  in  the  world  of  literature.  In  1841  Moore 
collected  and  arranged  his  poems,  to  which  he  wrote 
interesting  prefaces. 

Moowt,  Mgmoin,  Jovrnah,  and  eorretpondenett  edited  by 
LoBD  John  Rubbbll  (London,  1853-6) ;  Gwtnn,  Thomaa  Moore 
(London,  1905);  Qunnzno,  Moon,  Poet  and  Patriot  (Dublin, 
1900) :  Memoire  of  the  author  prefixed  to  the  poems  collected  bv 
Moore  himaelf  (1841) ;  Vallbt,  Btude  ewr  la  wie  et  lee  enaree  de 
Thomae  Moore  (Paris,  1886). 

M.  J.  Flaherty. 

Mopanestia,  a  titular  see  of  Cilicia  Secunda  in  Aaa 
Minor  and  sufifragan  of  Anasarbus.  The  founding  of 
this  city  is  attributed  to  the  soothsayer,  Mopsus,  who 
tived  falefore  the  Trojan  war,  althou^  it  is  scarcdy 
mentioned  before  the  Christian  era.  Pliny  calls  it  the 
free  city  of  Mopsos  (Hist,  nat.,  V,  22),  but  the  ordi- 
nary name  is  Mopsuestia  or  better  Mompsuestia,  as 
found  in  all  the  Cnristian  geographers  and  chroniclers. 
At  one  time  the  city  took  the  name  of  Seleucia,  but 

gkve  it  up  at  the  time  of  the  Roman  conquest;  under 
adiian  it  was  called  Hadriana,  imder  Decius  Decia, 
etc.,  as  we  know  from  the  inscriptions  and  the  coins  of 
the  city.  Constantius  built  there  a  magnificent  bridge 
over  the  PVramus  (Malalas,  "Chronographia",  XIII; 
P.  G.,  XCvII,  488)  afterwards  restored  dv  Justinian 
(Procopius,  **be  iEdificiis",  V,  5)  and  still  to  be  seen 
in  a  very  bad  state  of  preservation.  Christianity 
seems  to  have  been  introauced  very  early  into  Mop- 
suestia and  during  the  third  century  there  is  mention 
of  a  bishop,  Theodorus,  the  adversiuy  of  Paul  of 
Samosata.  Worthy  of  mention  are  Saint  Auxentius, 
who  liv^  in  the  fourth  century  and  whose  feast  is  kept 
on  18  December,  and  Theodore,  the  teacher  of  Nesto- 
rius.  The  Greek  diocese  which  depended  on  the  Patri- 
arch of  Antiochi  still  existed  at  the  beginning  of  the 
fourteenth  century  (Le  Quien,  "Oriens  christianus'', 
n,  1002).  At  firat  a  sufiPragan  of  Anazarbus,  Mop- 
suestia was  an  autocephalous  archbishopric  in  879 
(Mansi,  "ConcU.  CoUectio",  XVII,  XVIIIj  472,  476- 
480,  etc.),  and  perhaps  it  was  already  so  in  713  (Le 

auien,  11.  ICXX)).  The  city  was  taken  by  the  Arabs  at 
le  very  oeginning  of  Islamism;  in  686  we  find  all  the 
surrounding  forts  occupied  by  them  and  in  700  thev 
fortifi^  the  city  itself  (Theophanes,  "Chronopr.  , 
A.  M.  6178, 6193) .  Nevertheless  because  of  its  position 
on  the  frontier,  the  city  fell  naturally  from  time  to 
time  into  the  hands  of  the  Byzantines;  about  772  its 
inhabitants  killed  a  great  number  of  Arabs  (op.  cit., 
A.  If.  6264).  Being  \^\efed  in  vedn  by  the  Byzantine 
troops  of  John  Tzimisces  in  964,  Mopsuestia  was  taken 
the  following  year  after  a  long  ana  difficult  siege  by 
Nicephorus  Phocas.  The  city  then  numbered  200,000 
inhabitants,  some  of  whom  were  killed,  some  trans- 
ported elsewhere  and  replaced  by  a  Christian  popula- 
tion. Its  river,  the  Pyramus,  formed  a  great  harbour 
extoiding  twdve  miles  to  the  sea. 

In  1097  the  Crusaders  took  possession  of  the  cit^ 
and  engaged  in  a  fratricidal  war  under  its  waUs;  it 
remained  m  the  possession  of  Tancred  who  annexed  it 
to  the  Principality  of  Antioch.  It  sufferedjnuch  from 
Crusaders,  i^inenians,  and  Greeks  who  lost  it  and  re- 


captured it  alternately,  notably  in  1106,  in  1152,  and  in 
1171.  The  Greeks  finally  abandoned  it  to  the  Arme- 
nians. Set  on  fire  in  1266,  Mamissa,  as  it  was  called  in 
the  Middle  Ages,  became  two  years  afterwards  the 
capital  of  the  Kingdom  of  Lesser  Armenia,  at  the  time 
that  a  council  was  held  there.  Although  it  was  by  this 
time  in  a  state  of  decline  it  still  possessed  at  least  four 
Armenian  churches.  In  1322,  the  Armenians  suffered 
a  great  defeat  under  its  wdls;  in  1432  the  Frenchman, 
Bertrandon,  found  the  citv  occupied  b^r  the  Mussul- 
mans and  largely  destroyed.  Since  then  it  has  steacUy 
declined  and  to-day,  under  the  name  of  Missis,  is  a 
little  village  of  about  800  inhabitants,  partly  Arme- 
nians, partly  Mussulmans;  it  is  situated  m  the  sanjak 
and  the  vilayet  of  Adana.  The  list  of  its  Latin  bishops 
may  be  found  in  Le  Quien,  III,  1197-200;  in  Ducange, 
"Les  families  d'outre-mer"  770;  inEubel.  "Hierar- 
chia  cathoUca  medii  sevi",  I,  338;  that  of  the  Arme- 
nian bishops  in  Alishan,  "  Sissouan  ",  290. 

AuBHAN,  Sieeouan  (Venioe,  1890),  284-291;  Lanolois,  Fowo^* 
dane  la  Cilicie  (Paris,  1861),  446-463;  Sghluvbxbobb,  Nioi^fhare 
Phocae  (Paris.  1890).  402-404.  480-488. 

8.  Vailh£. 
Mopsuestia,  Theodobx  or.   See  Thxodorib  of 

MOFSXTESTIA. 

Mor  (Moor),  Antonis  Van  Dashorst,  commonlv 
called  Ai^TONio  Moro^  or  Anthonis  More,  a  Dutd^ 
painter,  b.  at  Utrecht,  m  1519;  d.  at  Antwerp,  between 
1576  and  1578.  Of  his  early  hfe  we  only  know  that  his 
artistic  education  was  commenced  under  Jan  van 
Scorel,  and  his  earliest  work  is  probably  the  portrait 
at  Stockholm,  dated  1538.  Recent  investigations 
would  indicate  that  the  group  of  knights  of  St.  John, 
at  Utrecht,  supposed  to  have  been  painted  about  1541, 
and  a  picture  of  two  pilgrims  at  Berlin,  dated  1544,  to- 

f  ether  with  the  portrait  of  a  woman  unknown,  in  the 
lille  galleiv,  were  probably  among  his  earliest  works, 
although  their  autnenticity  has  not  been  proven.  In 
1547,  ne  was  received  as  a  member  of  the  Venerable 
Guild  of  St.  Luke  at  Antwerp,  and  shortly  af  terwardo 
(about  1548)  he  attracted  the  attention  of  Cardinal 
Granvelle,  Bishop  of  Arras,  who  became  his  steadv 

Satron,  and  presented  him  to  the  Emperor  Charles  Y. 
f  the  portraits  executed  during  the  commencement 
of  his  Uranvella  career,  two  are  esp^ially  notable:  of 
the  bishop  himself  in  the  Imperial  gallery  at  Vienna, 
and  of  the  Duke  of  Alba,  which  now  belones  to  the 
Hispanic  Society  of  New  York.  He  probab^^  visited 
Italy  first  in  1550,  for  we  hear  of  him  in  Rome,  where 
he  copied  some  works  by  Titian,  notably  the  "  Danag  ". 
He  was  sent  by  (^ueen  Mary  of  Hungary  to  Portu- 
gal, doubtless  his  first  visit  to  that  coimtnr,  and 
among  its  notable  results  are  a  portrait  of  the  Infanta 
Maria  and  one  of  Queen  Catharine  of  Portugal^  both 
in  the  Prado,  and  those  of  King  John  III  and  his  wife 
Catherine,  preserved  at  Lisbon.  After  this  he  re- 
turned to  Madrid,  where  he  painted  the  portrait  of 
Maximilian  of  Bohemia;  he  was  in  Rome  again  in 
1552.  It  has  been  gravely  suggested,  but  on  insuffi- 
cient evidence,  that  one  of  the  masterpieces  of  the 
Prado  gallery,  the  portrait  of  the  unknown  young 
Cardinal,  hitherto  attributed  to  Rafael,  and  regarded 
as  one  of  his  noblest  works,  should  be  credited  to  Mor. 
From  Rome,  he  went  to  Genoa,  and  thence  to  Madrid. 
In  1553  he  was  sent  to  England,  where  he  painted  iJixe 
portrait  of  Mary  Tudor,  perhaps  one  of  his  very 
noblest  works;  and  in  all  probability  the  portraits  of 
Sir  Henry  Sidney,  and  of  Ambassador  Simon  Renard. 
That  of  Renard's  wife  was  not  painted  until  thiee 
years  later.  To  this  period  should  be  attributed  the 
miniature  of  Mary  Tudor  in  the  Duke  of  Buccleuch's 
collection,  two  portraits  of  Elizabeth  at  the  age  of 
twenty-one,  one  of  which  once  belonged  to  Dr.  Pro- 
pert,  and  another  even  more  notable,  of  Roger  Ascham, 
now  in  the  collection  of  Mr.  Pierpont  Mozgan.   This 


Uter,  of  the  Maiguees  of  EastinKB. 

At  about  thu  tune  Mor  married,  but  we  know  little 
of  fain  wife,  save  that  her  name  was  Metgen,  and  she  is 
fluppoeed  to  have  been  a  widow.  He  became  a  man 
of  large  means,  acquired  property,  and  was  Imown  bb 
Moro  van  Daahorat  when  reeiduig 
inUtrecht.  Hehadoneson,FhiUp, 
afterwards  a  canon,  and  two 
daught«rB.  At  the  end  of  1554,  he 
was   back   in   Holland,  where  he 

Sainted   a  portrait   of  William   of 
range,  and  other  notable  works. 
A  little  later  be  executed  his  own 


a  portrait  of  a  knight  of  St.  Jamee 
at  Budapest,  one  of  Alexander 
Famese  at  Parma,  the  porttwt  Ot 
an  unknown  man  in  Verona,  and 
a  very  extraordinary  religious  pic- 
ture of  the  Resurrection,  now  at 
Nimwegen  in  a  private  collection. 
His  portrait  of  Jean  Le  Cocq 
[GallusI,  one  of  his  wife,  and  that 
called  Don  Carlos,  in  the  gallery 
at  Cassel,  those  of  the  Duchess  de 
Fern  (?),  and  of  a  widow,  in  the 
Prado,  of  himself  in  Lord  Spencer's 
collection,  a:)d  of  Campafia,  the  Brussels  painter, 


Gkoroe  CsAsixa  Wiluambom. 

HoTklM,  AuBttosio,  Spanish  hi»- 
torian,  b.  at  Cordova,  1513;  d.  in 
1501.  After  hie  studiee  at  the 
University  of  Salamanca  and  AInaU, 
he  took  Holy  ordkra.  Soon  he  waa 
elected  to  the  ctuur  of  Belles-Lettrea 
BtAlcald.  Inl574hewBSS4>p(nnt«d 
chronicler  of  Castile  and  commia- 
rioned  to  continue  FloriAn  de 
Ocampo's  "Cr6nicB  General  de 
Espafia".  This  he  brought  down, 
after  ten  years  of  labour  on  it,  to 
the  date  ol  the  union  of  Castile  and 
Leon  under  Ferdinand  I.  His  pupil 
Sandoval  conthiued  it  down  to  1070. 
While  he  exhibits  more  talent  and 
a  better  training  than  his  predeces- 
sor Ocampo,  Monies  still  pravee  to 
be  on  the  whole  an  old-time  ehrooi- 
cler,  and  manifests  little  t«DdeDcy  to 
react  upon  his  facts,  correlate  cause 

._.     _ _    ,         and  effect,  or  philosophi«e  in  any  way.    His  style  is 

the  Basle  gallery,  are  of  a  suoscquent  period.  Several  rather  wearisome.  See  the  "Citinica  gsieral  de  £•- 
very  important  works,  executea  towards  the  close  of  paAa,  prosiguiendo  adelonte  los  dnco  libroa  que  d 
his  life  ore,  Elizabeth  Queen  of  Sp^  Jn  the  Bischoffs-  Maestro  Flotian  Docampo,  Coronista  del  Emperadw 
bdm  collection  (I^ndon),  Jacopo  da  Trecso  and  three  D.  Carlos  V  dez6  raorito^  (AloalA,  1574,  3  vols.,  and 
other    fine    por-  '"       '     ' 


Sui  Ahthoki  Mc 


traits,! 


thaStuers 


tnut  of  his 
master,  Jan  van 
Score),  belonging 
to  tlie  Society  of 
Antiquaries  (Lon- 
don). Other  noted 
works  are  those 
representing  a  Pro- 
fessor of  the  Uni- 
veraity  of  Oxford 
in  the  Brunswick 
Galleiy,  and  the 
very  famous  por- 
traits      of      Sir 


ti  me  at  Strawberry 
HiU,  now  in  the 
Hermitage  collec- 
tion (St.  Petera- 
bui^).  After  the 
disgrace  of  Car- 
dinal Granvelle, 
Mor  rem^ed  in 
Spun  for  a  while, 
and  the  following 
portrute  bebng  to 
this  period  of  nis 

life:  The  Jeweller,  

in  the  sallay  of  The  Hague,  Sir  Henry  Lee,  in  in  the  province  of  Fu-kien.  Here  he  took  ui  active  port 
IxtrdKOon'scoUection,  Antonio  del  Rio,  his  sons,  and  in  the  contreverey  between  the  Jesuits  on  thecoeride 
n  ™8i  ™  (lie  Louvre,  the  Duke  ot  Alba,  at  and  the  Dominicans  and  Franciscans  on  the  other,  re- 
Brussels  Ferdmand  of  Toledo,  at  Vienna,  and  several  garding  Chinese  customs  (see  China).  The  latter  main- 
others  of  unknown  people.  His  last  portrait  appears  tainedthattheJesuits.towinovermore  easily  tliepeo- 
to  be  that  of  "Goltiius",  in  the  Brussels  Gallery.  pletothereliginDofChrist,tolerstedtoao«taJnen«Dt 
The  last  document  that  refeis  to  him  was  one  issued  the  cult  of  Confucius  and  of  ancestors;  and,  aedng  in  tins 
at  ^twerp,  in  1573,  and  we  obtain  the  date  of  his  alleged  condescenmon  to  heathen  customs,  a  ieopwdy  to 
death  from  certain  documents  still  extant  in  the  the  purity  of  the  faith,  they  despatched  Morales  to  Rem* 
church  of  Notre  Dame  b  that  city.    The  many  refer-    inl643,andonl2S^t..lM5,abtBiiiedfn)mIniKM»it 


■,  loiTt,  o  vuiB.,  auu 

see  abo  the  ed.  of 
Madrid,  1761-2). 
Otbw  writings  of 
Morales  an  "De 
las  aDtJcaedades 
de  las  ciudodee  de 
Espafia";  and  the 
"Viaje  por  oidcn 
dd  Key  D.  Fetipe 


Sept.,  1664.  He 
entei«d  tlie  Order 
of  St.  Dominic  at  a 
very  eai^y  age.and, 
after    devoting 

sionary  work  in  the 
PhilipiHiw  Islands, 
BocompaDied  ia 
1633abMidofDo- 


aWULN  11 
AntoDu  Mor.  Tto  Pnda,  Madrid 


M0BAJLI8 


657 


MORALITIES 


X  a  deddon  condemning  the  methods  of  the  Jesuits. 
The  latter  also  appealed  to  Rome,  and  obtained  from 
Al«ander  VII  a  contradictory  decree.  In  1661  Mo- 
rales again  called  the  attention  of  the  Holy  See  to  the 
matter,  and  in  1669,  five  years  after  the  death  of 
Morales,  Clement  IX  issued  a  new  decree  deciding 
against  the  Jesuits.  About  the  same  time  the  Domini- 
cans discovered  an  enemy  in  their  own  ranks  in  the 
person  of  the  Chinese  friar,  Gregory  Lopes,  Bishop  of 
Basilea,  who  sent  to  the  Holy  See  a  memorandum 
favourable  to  the  Jesuits.  Among  the  works  of 
Morales  the  following  are  the  most  important:  (1) 
"Qiuesta  xvii  a  Fr.  J.  B.  de  Morales,  missioniun  nnsr 
rum  procuratore,  proposita  Romse  1643  S.  Congreg. 
de  Prop.  Fide"  (Rome,  1645);  (2)  "Tractatus  ad 
explicandas  et  elucidandas  opiniones  et  controversias 
inter  Patres  Societatis  Jesu  et  reli^osos  S.  Ord. 
PpBcd.";  (3)  ''Commentarium  super  Litanias  B.  Vir- 
^is  lingua  nnica";  (4)  "Tractatus  ad  Dei  amorem 
m  voluntate  excitandum.  lingua  sinica." 

QuimF-EcHAKD,  Script.  Ord.  Prod.,  II,  611;  Tottbon,  Hommn 
iUuH.  de  Vordre  S.  Dominique,  V.  627.  628.  630;  Hue.  Le  Chria- 
tianiwte  en  Chine,  III   (Paris.  1857).  11-19. 

Joseph  Sghroeder. 

Morales,  Luis  de,  Spanish  painter,  b.  at  Badajoz 
in  Estremadura  about  1509;  d.  at  Badajos,  1586. 
His  life  was  spent  in  painting  devotional  subjects  for 
churches  and  oratories.  Pamting  was  for  him  hot 
merely  a  means  of  charming  the  sense  of  vision:  he 
strove  by  his  brush  to  express  the  religious  enthusiasm 
which  characterized  his  age.  Critics  have  detected 
two  styles  in  the  long  artistic  career  of  Morales.  In 
his  earlier  style,  the  influence  of  the  Florentine  school 
is  more  marked:  he  executed  various  studies  and 
exercises  after  works  of  Michelangelo;  notably,  he 
copied  at  Evora  a  picture  representing  Christ  on  the 
Cross,  with  the  Blessed  Virgin  and  St.  John.  To  this, 
not  easily  definable,  period  is  referred  a  "Circumci- 
sion", now  in  the  Praao  Museum  at  Madrid,  and  six 
panels  for  the  high  altar  of  the  church  of  La  Higuera 
of  Fregenal.  In  his  second  style  Morales  lessens  the 
number  of  figures  in  his  compositions,  which  seldom 
contain  more  than  two  or  three,  often  in  bust  or 
in  half-length.  His  favourite  themes,  frequently  re- 
produced without  any  change,  are  "Ecce  Homo", 
''Christ  at  the  Column",  and  "The  Blessed  Virgin 
holding  the  Dead  Christ ".  The  drawing  is  clean  and 
firm,  the  anatomy  correct,  the  figures,  which  recall 
primitive  German  and  Flemish  work  by  their  slender- 
ness,  are  not  wanting  in  grace,  and  at  times  are  char- 
acterized by  a  certain  air  of  melancholy.  The  colour- 
ing is  delicate  and  as  brilliant  as  enamel.  Morales 
excels  in  the  faculty  of  making  his  modelling  stand  out 
bv  the  skilfully  graduated  emplo3rment  of  half-tones; 
like  the  early  Northern  painters,  he  exercises  minute 
care  in  the  reproduction  of  the  beard  and  hair,  and 
makes  a  point  of  rendering  faithfullv  the  drops  of 
blood  falling  from  the  thorn-crowned  brow  of  Christ, 
and  the  tears  flowing  from  the  eyes  of  the  afflicted 
Mother. 

No  artist  of  his  time  knew  better  than  he  how  to 
appeal  to  the  ardent  fiuth  of  his  countrymen,  because 
no  one  else  in  that  day  knew  so  well  how  to  impart  to 
his  sacred  characters  so  intense  and  infectious  emotion. 
As  an  example  of  this  we  may  take  the  "Christ  at 
the  Column^'  in  the  Church  of  San  Isidro  el  Real 
at  Madrid;  hero  the  painter  pathetically  places  the 
disciple  who  has  denied  Him  face  to  face  with  the 
Divine  Master  at  the  flagellation.  The  resignation  of 
Jesus,  His  loving  look  directed  towards  Peter  and 
fraught  with  for^veness,  the  deep  penitence  of  the 
Apoetle,  are  so  vividly  rendered  that  one  shares  the 
enthusiasm  of  Morales's  countrymen,  and  can  under- 
stand why  they  called  him  El  Divino.  Naturally, 
lus  reputation  spread  rapidly  through  Spain;  Phihp 
II,  however,  whose  preference  was  for  the  Italian 
painters,  does  not  seem  to  have  shared  the  general 


enthuidasm:  he  gave  Morales  but  one  commisdon, 
for  the  "Christ  going  up  to  Calvary",  which  he  pre- 
sented to  the  Jeronjrmite  chureh  at  Maorid.  The  king 
afterwards,  in  1581,  granted  a  pension  to  the  artist, 
who  had  oecome  destitute  in  his  old  age.  Many 
imitators  of  Morales  exaggerated  his  style  into  man- 
nerism and  caricature.  His  son  Crist6bal  accom- 
plished little  beyond  mediocre  reproductions  of  hia 
works,  but  one  of  his  pupils.  Juan  Labrador,  became 
distingudshed  as  a  painter  or  still  life.  To  tne  works 
of  Morales  already  mentioned  we  may  add:  at  Badar 
joz  (Church  of  the  Conception),  "Virgin  and  Child 
playing  with  a  bird'*.  "Christ  carrying  the  Cross", 
"St.  Joachim  and  St.  Anne";  at  Madrid,  "Ecce 
Homo".  "Our  Lady  of  Sorrows".  "Maiy  caressing 
the  Divine  Child  ",  ''^The  Presentation  in  the  Temple**, 
a  "Head  of  Christ"  (Prado  Museum),  "Ecce Homo'* 
(Church  of  San  Felipe),  "Virgin  with  the  Dead 
Christ"  (Academy  of  San  Fernando);  at  Seville  (in 
the  chalice-room  of  the  cathedral),  "Ecce  Homo", 
with  the  "Blessed  Virgin  and  St.  John"  on  the  panels: 
at  Toledo  (in  the  Provincial  Museum),  a  "Head  ot 
Christ",  "Our  Lady  of  Solitude";  at  Basle  (in  the 
Museum),  "Christ  carrying  the  Cross",  "Our  Lady 
and  St.  John";  at  Dresden  (in  the  Museum),  "Christ 
carrying  the  Cross",  "Ecce  Homo";  at  Dublin  (in  the 
National  Gallery),  "St.  Jerome  in  the  Desert",  at 
New  York  (in  the  Historical  Society),  "Ecce  Homo"; 
at  Paris  (in  the  Louvre),  "Christ  carrying  the  Cross": 
at  St.  Petersburg  (in  the  Hermitage),  "Our  Lady  of 
Sorrows";  at  Stuttgart  (in  the  Museum),  "Ecce 
Homo". 

&nitLDra.  AnnaJa  of  the  AHiste  of  Spain,  (London,  1868).  224; 
BuLNC.  Hiat.  dee  peintree  de  toutee  lee  BcoUte  (Paris.  1865) :  Bcole  ee^ 
pagnole;  Lbtobt.  La  peinture  eepagnoUt  (Paris,  1893),  74-6. 

Gaston  Sgrtais. 

Moralities  (or  Moral  Plats)  are  a  development 
or  an  offshoot  of  the  Miracle  Plasrs  and  together  with 
these  form  the  greater  part  of  Medieval  drama.  They 
were  popular  in  the  fifteenth  and  early  sixteenth  cen- 
turies and  existed  side  by  side  with  the  Miracle  Plays 
of  that  date.  A  Morality  has  been  defined  by  Dr. 
Ward  as  "a  play  enforcing  a  moral  truth  or  lesson  bv 
means  of  the  speech  and  action  of  characters  which 
are  personified  abstractions — figures  representing  vices 
and  virtues,  qualities  of  the  human  mmd.  or  abstract 
conceptions  in  general",  and,  on  the  whole,  that  defi* 
nition  comprehends  the  main  features  of  the  Morality 
proper  in  its  most  characteristic  form.  Miracle  Plavs 
and  Moralities  existed  throughout  Europe,  especially 
in  France,  and  had  various  features  in  common  while 
the  manner  of  their  presentation,  at  least  in  the  early 
stages  of  die  Morality,  differed  hardly  at  all — the  per- 
formance being  out  of  doors  upon  movable  scaffolds 
with  all  the  usual  "properties".  The  aim  of  both  was 
religious.  In  the  Miracle  Play  the  subject-matter  is 
concerned  with  Bible  narrative.  Lives  of  Saints,  the 
Apocnrphal  Gospels,  and  pious  legends,  a  certain  his- 
torical or  traditional  foundation  underlies  the  plot,  and 
the  object  was  to  teach  and  enforce  truths  of  tne  Cath- 
olic faith.  In  the  Moralitv  the  matter  was  allegorical 
rather  than  historical,  ana  its  object  was  ethical;  the 
cultivation  of  (IJhristian  character.  The  intention  of 
both  Miracle  Plays  and  Moralities,  as  we  have  ssud, 
was  religioua;  in  the  one  it  aimed  at  faith,  the  teach- 
ing of  dogma,  in  the  other  morals,  the  application  of 
Christian  doctrine  to  conduct.  In  the  one  medieval 
morality  at  all  well  known  to  the  general  public,  that 
of  "Everyman",  this  is  clearly  illustrated— a  human 
life  is  brought  face  to  face  with  the  imperative  facts  of 
the  Christian  fcdth.  It  is  not  difficult,  therefore,  to  see 
that  the  Morality  is  not  only  a  development  from  the 
Miracle  play  but  also  its  complement.  ^ 

It  is  tne  custom  with  many  dramatic  and  literary 
historians  to  decry  the  Moralities,  especially  in  com- 
parison with  the  Miracle  plays,  as  unutterably  dull, 
aud  to  place  them  in  the  lowest  rank  of  dramatio  art; 


MORAUTZES                          558  MORAUTXES 

« 

3ret  that  does  not  seem  to  have  been  contemporary  "Mind,   Will,    and    Understanding";     ''Mankind" 

opinion,  for  the  multitude  of  extant  printed  editions  (these,  with  tiie  "Castell  of  Perseverance",  included 

of  Moralities  is  stated  by  Mantzius  to  exceed  by  far  in  one  MS.  and  named  in  modem  times  after  a  former 

•  that  of  the  Miracles  and  farces.    Mr.  Pollard  is,  more-  owner,  the  "Macro  Moralities ",ed.  Pollard  and  Fumi* 

over,  of  the  opinion  that  in  its  earlier  days  the  Moral-  vail,  see  below);    "Everyman^'   (London,   1902),   a 

ity  was  not  wholly  imworthy  to  be  ranked  with  the  translation  from    a    Dutch  original;    the    "World 

Miracle  Play.    It  is,  of  course,  clear  that  the  substitu-  and  the  Child"   (Mundus   el   Infans;    ed.    Manly, 

tion  in  the  moralities  of  abstract  ideas  (Love,  Friend-  see  below).    All  the  above  plays  are  lengthy  and 

ship,  etc.)  in  place  of  the  human  personalities  of  the  belong  almost  certiunly  to  the  fifteenth   century. 

Bible  or  legendaiy  narrative,  would  tend  to  produce  About  the  same  date  we  may  place  two  plays  whidi 

a  less  real  dOTect  if  acted  carelessly,  or  if  the  audience  thou^^  not  pure  Moralities  are  yet  much  influenced 

did  not  thoroughly  comprehend,  or  was  out  of  sym-  by  the  Moralities,  "St.  Mary  Magdalene"  (ed.  Fumi- 

path3r  with,  the  meaning  of  the  play  (and  this  is  vail,  see  below),  and  what  is  known  as  the  Crozton 

practically  the  position  of  the  modem  reader,  espe-  Play  of  the  "Sacrament"  (ed.  Waterhouse,  see  below). 

ciaUy  if  non-Catholic).    But  the  abstract  ideas,  after  About  the  end  of  the  fifteenth  centui^  a  new  kind 

all,  were  represented  as  human  beings  (though  typical  of  Morality  play  appeared.    Li  the  earlier  Moralities 

human  beings)  on  the  stage,  and  if  we  put  ourselves  of  which  we  have  been  speaking,  time  was  not  an 

even  slightly  into  the  Catholic,  religious,  and  moral  object,  nor  was  ^ere  need  to  limit  the  number  of 

atmosphere  of  the  medieval  audience  (to  which  the  actors,  but  little  by  little,  as  performances  b^^an  to 

ethical  bearing  of  the  play  was  not  naturally  dull  but  take  place  indoors,  in  the  hall  of  a  kinp;  or  a  noble, 

vivid,  because  of  the  tremendous  human  issues  it  was  and  as  they  passed  into  the  hands  ot  professional 

concerned  with),  we  should  be  able  to  understand  why  actors,  compression  began  to  be  necessaiy  both  in 

the  Moralities  were  popular  not  only  in  the  Middle  time  and  in  the  number  of  personages  introduced. 

A^es  but  on  into  the  time  of  the  Renaissance.   Besides  The  aim  of  the  play,  also,  became  gradually  more 

this,  in  many  Moralities  the  characters  were  not  adl  secular.    The  result  was  a  modified  and  shortened 

abstract   qualities — there   were   angels   and   devils,  Morality  known  as  an  Interlude.   The  meaning  of  this 

priests,  doctors,  and,  especially  in  English  pla3rs^  the  term  is  not  yet  clearly  defined.    Its  primarv  meaning 

tool,  under  various  names,  chiefly  that  of  the  "Vice",  according  to  Mr.  Chambers  is  that  of  a  play  in  dia- 

The  versification  of  the  Moralities  was,  too,  on  the  logue  between  two  or  more  performers^  but  its  secon- 

whole,  more  varied  than  that  of  the  Miracle  Plays,  dary  meaning,  that  of  a  dramatic  diversion  in  the 

One  of  the  latest  and  most  thorough  of  English  writers  pause  or  intenude  between  the  parts  of  a  banquet  or 

upon  this  stage  of  the  drama  points  out  that  four  main  other  entertainment,  which  has  been  generally  ^ven 

plots  can  be  distinguished  in  the  earlier  Moralities,  to  it,  majr  still  stand.   The  nature  of  the  Moral  Inters 

sometimes  occurring  alone  and  sometimes  in  combina-  lude  and  its  close  connexion  with  the  earlier  Moral- 

tion:  the  Debate  o?  the  Heavenly  Graces:  the  Com-  ity  proper  is,  however,  clear.    It  deals  with  portions 

ing  of  Death;  the  Conflict  of  Vices  and  Virtues;  and  only  of  a  man's  life;  and  the  ethical  teaching,  m  some 

the  Debate  of  the  Soul  and  the  Body.  Interludes,  is  mainly  limited  to  warnings  against  cer- 

In  England,  however,  we  have  not  extant  examples  tain  sins  (especially  those  of  youth)  and  in  others  to 

of  all  the  four,  though  the  Morality  Play  is  well  repre-  exhortations  to  learning  and  study.    "Hick  Scomer" 

sented  in  our  literature.    The  earliest  English  Moral-  (ed.  Manly,  see  below)  and  the  Interlude  of  the  "Four 

itv  of  which  we  hear  is  a  play  of  the  "Lord's  Prayer"  Elements    (Hazlitt,  "Dodsley's  Old  Plays",  London, 

of  the  latter  half  of  the  fourteenth  century  "in  which  1874)  are  early  examples.   This  t3rpe  of  play  was  often 

all  manner  of  vices  and  sins  were  held  up  to  scorn  and  used  as  a  means  of  assertinis  F^testantism  against 

the  virtues  held  up  to  praise".   This  play  is  lost,  but  it  Catholicism.    Among  the  writers  of  this  later  type  of 

must  have  been  much  thought  of,  for  a  Guild  was  Morality  we  find  John  Skelton  in  his"  Magnyfycence" 

formed  in  York  (where  it  was  plaved)  with  the  specid  (ed.  Ramsay,  see  below),  and  John  Heywood,  the 

object  of  maintaining  it.    Also  lost  is  another  earlv  dramatist,  who  was  especially  noted  for  his  Interludes, 

and  highly  interesting   Morality   of   the   "CreMsd  .  some  of  which^  however,  are  more  like  plays  proper 

The  earliest  complete  Moral  play  extant,  leaving  out  having  a  satincal  rather  than  a  definite  moral  aim, 

the  still  earlier  fragment  of  the  "Pride  of  Life     (ed.  and  leading  to  another  development  of  the  drama. 

Waterhouse,  see  below),  is  the  "Castell  of  Perseve-  Some  of  the  Interludes  are  lively  enough,  but  in  others 

ranee",  3650  lines  long,  and  written  perhaps  in  the  there  appears  something  of  the  dramatic  lifelessness 

early  fifteenth  century.    This  "traces  (to  quote  Mr.  which  has  been,  perhaps  rashly,  attributed  to  Morali- 

Pollard's  skilful  summajy)  the  spiritual  history  of  ties  in  general.    When  we  find  an  Interlude  on  the 

Humanum  Genus  [Mankind  or  the  typical  manl  from  subject  of  Love,  in  which  the  characters  are  named 

the  day  of  his  birth  to  his  appearance  at  the  Judgment  "Loving  not  Loved",  "Loved  not  Loving",  "Both 

Seat  of  God,  personifying  the  foes  by  whom  his  path-  Loving  and  Loved",  "Neither  Loved  nor  Loving",  it 

way  is  beset,  the  Guardian  Angel  by  whose  help  he  is  plidn  that  this  type  of  work  is  reaching  its  end,  or  if 

resists  them,  and  the  ordinances  of  Confession  and  it  is  to  continue  must  take  on  a  more  livms  character. 

Penance  by  which  he  is  strengthened  in  his  conflict".  John  Heywood's  work,  however,  on  the  whole,  brings 

Dramatic  power  is  shown  in  this  Morality;  the  plot  us,  in  Interludes  such  as  "The  Four  Fs"  and  "The 

forms  a  unity,  and  is  developed  in  logical  sequence.  Pardner  and  the  Frere"  (both  plays  to  be  found  in 

It  must  have  oeen  a  thrilling  moment  for  the  audience  Hazlitt's  "Dodsley  "),  to  the  threshold  of  real  drama, 

when  Humanum  Genua  after  hearing  the  persuasive  Allegory  has  passed  away,  together  with  the  reoog- 

arguments  of  his  Good  and  his  Bad  Angels,  hesitates  nized  Moral  plot,  and  the  characters  are  drawn  from 

which  to  follow: —  contemporary  life.   This  "transformed  morality  takes 

"Whom  to  folowe,  wetyn  I  ne  may;  its  place  as  one  of  the  threads  which  went  to  make  up 

I  stonde  in  stodye,  and  gynne  to  rave:  the  wondrous  web  of  the  Elizabethan  drama". 

I  wolde  be  rvche  in  irret  arav.  Chambbrs,  TKeMeditgtal  Stage  (Oxford.  1903);  Pollakd.  Bn^ 

A«,1  fot^T  wol^*.  «»^^wir«o«-.  '«*  tirade  Ptaya  (Oxford.  1909);  Raimat,  Preface  to  Skdtet^M 

And  f ayn  I  wolde  my  SOWle  save  Magnyfyeenee  in  Barly  B^,  TiH,  Saey.  PublicaHane  (London. 

As  wynde  in  water  1  wave.  1906) ;  Pollabo  and  Furnitaix.  Preface  to  Macro  Playe  in  Bariy 

Thou  (to  Bad  Angd)  woldyst  to  the  world  I  me  ^»v.  r«rf  5acy. /»iiW»ca«oM  (Ix)ndon,  i^^ 

f  n1ro«            V    J            J  ^^  ^  NonrCydU  Mystery  Playe  in  Barly  Bng.  Text  Socy,  PiiUms- 

A     J  .  *'"*•*;»,  ,,,-..-        ,  «on»  (London.  1909);  Fubniyall,  Preface  to  Digby  MywUriea  in 

And  he  wold  that  I  it  forsoke.  Barly  Bng.  Text  Socy.  P^Micatume  (London.  1882);  Tbn-Bwnk. 

Now  SO  God  me  helpe,  and  the  holy  boke  Bnglieh  Literature,  n  (^ndon,  1893);  Ward.   Bf\^H^  DroiMifMr 

T  Tinf  (l"nntn  m»^\  vnr/tliA  T  mov  hotrA  "  Literature^  I  (London.  1899);  CouBTROPB,  Httlory  €ff  Bno,  Poetry. 

/%*u            ^i^^^'  ^^^  wyche  I  may  have.  j  (London.  1896);  FiiRimrALL  AND  Musio.  sJ3fc«pir;rW«  «3 

Other  early  Moralities  approaching  the  same  type  are  Win-k,  Ch.  su  (London.  1908);  Mamthus,  Hittory  ^  TKairiei 


MORAimr 


559 


MORALmr 


Art,  tr.  (3088BL,  II  (London,  1903);  Oatubt,  Repnaentaiive  Bng- 
ImA  Comediea  (New  York.  1903);  Idem,  Playt  of  Our  Forefathert 
(London  and  New  York,  190iS) :  Manlt,  Specimeru  of  Pre- 
ShtAaptrian  Drama  (Boston  and  London,  1897). 

K.  M.  Warrbk. 

Morality. — It  is  necessary  at  the  outset  of  this 
article  to  distinguish  between  morality  and  ethics, 
terms  not  seldom  employed  synonymously.  Morality 
is  antecedent  to  etnics:  it  denotes  those  concrete 
activities  of  which  ethics  is  the  science.  It  may  be 
defined  as  human  conduct  in  so  far  as  it  is  freely  sub- 
ordinated to  the  ideal  of  what  is  right  and  fitting.  This 
ideal  governing  our  free  actions  is  common  to  tne  race. 
Though  there  is  wide  divergence  as  to  theories  of 
ethics,  there  is  a  fundamental  agreement  among  men 
regarding  the  general  lines  of  conduct  desirable  in 
public  and  private  life.  Thus  Mr.  Hobhouse  has  well 
said:  ''The  comparative  study  of  ethics,  which  is  apt 
in  its  earlier  stages  to  impress  the  student  with  a  be- 
wildering sense  of  the  diversity  of  moral  judgments, 
ends  rather  by  impressing  them  with  a  more  funda- 
mental and  far-reaching  imifcrmity.  Through  the 
greatest  extent  of  time  and  space  over  which  we  have 
records,  we  find  a  recurrence  of  Jhe  common  features 
of  ordinary  morality,  whi  jL  uo  my  mind  at  least  is  not 
less  impressive  than  the  variations  which  also  appear" 
(Morals  in  Evolution,  I,  i,  n.  11).  Plainly  this  uni- 
formity r^ards  principles  rather  than  their  appli- 
cation. The  actual  rules  of  conduct  differ  widely. 
While  reverence  to  parents  may  be  universally  ac- 
knowledged as  obligatory,  certain  savage  tribes  be- 
lieve that  filial  piety  re<^uires  them  to  despatch  their 
parents  when  the  infirmities  of  old  a^e  appear.  Yet 
making  allowance  for  all  such  diversities,  it  may  be 
said  that  the  common  voice  of  the  race  proclaims  it  to 
be  right  for  a  man  to  reverence  his  parents;  to  care 
and  provide  for  his  children ;  to  be  master  of  his  lower 
appetites;  to  be  honest  and  just  in  his  dealings,  even 
to  nis  own  damage ;  to  show  benevolence  to  his  fellows 
in  time  of  distress;  to  bear  pain  and  misfortune  with 
fortitude.  And  only  withm  comparatively  recent 
years  has  anyone  been  found  to  deny  that  beyond  this 
a  man  is  bound  to  honour  God  and  to  prefer  his  coun- 
try's interests  to  his  own.  Thus,  inde«i,  the  advance 
of  morality  lies  not  so  much  in  the  discovery  of  new 
principles  as  in  the  better  application  of  those  already 
accepted,  in  the  recognition  of  their  true  basis  and 
their  ultimate  sanction,  in  the  widening  of  the  area 
within  which  they  are  held  to  bind,  and  in  the  removal 
of  corruptions  inconsistent  with  their  observance. 

The  relation  of  morality  to  religion  has  been  a  sub- 
ject of  keen  debate  during  the  past  century.  In  much 
recent  ethical  philosophy  it  is  strenuously  maintained 
that  right  moral  action  is  altogether  independent  of 
religion.  Such  is  the  teaching  alike  of  the  Evolution- 
ary, Positivist,  and  Idealist  schools.  And  an  active 
propaganda  is  being  carried  on  with  a  view  to  the 
general  substitution  of  this  independent  morality  for 
morality  based  on  the  beliefs  of  Theism.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  Church  has  ever  affirmed  that  the  two 
are  essentially  connected,  and  that  apart  from  rel^on 
the  observance  of  the  moral  law  is  impossible.  This, 
indeed,  follows^  as  a  necessary  consequence  from  the 
Church's  teaching  as  to  the  nature  of  morality.  She 
admits  that  the  moral  law  is  knowable  to  reason:  for 
the  due  regulation  of  our  free  actions,  in  which  moral- 
ity consists,  is  simply  their  right  ordering  with  a  view 
to  the  perfecting  of  our  rational  nature.  But  she  in- 
sists that  the  law  has  its  ultimate  obligation  in  the  will 
of  the  Creator  by  whom  our  nature  was  fashioned,  and 
who  imposes  on  us  its  right  ordering  as  a  duty;  and 
that  its  ultimate  sanction  is  the  loss  of  God  which 
its  violation  must  entail.  Further,  among  the  duties 
which  the  moral  law  prescribe  are  some  which  are 
directly  concerned  with  God  Himself,  and  as  such  are 
of  supreme  importance.  Where  moralitv  is  divorced 
from  religion,  reason  will,  it  is  true,  enable  a  man  to 


recognise  to  a  large  extent  the  ideal  to  which  hia 
nature  points.  But  much  will  be  wanting.  He  will 
disregard  some  of  his  most  essential  duties.  He  will, 
further,  be  destitute  of  the  strong  motives  for  obedience 
to  the  law  afforded  by  the  sense  of  obligation  to  God 
and  the  knowledge  of  the  tremendous  sanction  at- 
tached to  its  neglect— motives  which  experience  has 
§  roved  to  be  necessary  as  a  safeguard  against  the  in- 
^  uence  of  the  passions.  And,  finally,  his  actions  even 
if  in  accordance  with  the  moral  law,  will  be  based  not 
on  the  obligation  imposed  by  the  Divine  will,  but  on 
considerations  of  human  dignity  and  on  the  good  of 
human  society.  Such  motives,  however,  cannot  pre- 
sent themselves  as,  strictly  speaking,  obligatory.  But 
where  the  motive  of  obligation  is  wanting,  action  lacks 
an  element  essential  to  true  morality.  Moreover,  in 
this  connexion  the  Church  insists  upon  the  doctrine 
of  original  sin.  She  teaches  that  in  our  present  state 
there  is  a  certain  obscurity  in  reason's  vision  of  the 
moral  law,  together  with  a  morbid  craving  for  in- 
dependence impelling  us  to  transgress  it,  and  a  lack  of 
complete  control  over  the  passions;  and  that  by  rea- 
son of  this  inherited  taint,  man,  unless  supported  by 
Divine  aid,  is  unable  to  observe  the  moral  law  for  any 
length  of  time.  Newman  has  admirably  described 
from  the  psychological  point  of  view  this  weakness  in 
our  grasp  of  the  moral  law:  ''The  sense  of  right  and 
wrong  .  .  .  is  «o  delicate,  so  fitful,  so  easily  puzzled, 
obscured,  perverted,  so  subtle  in  its  argumentative 
methods,  so  impressionable  by  education,  so  biassed 
by  pride  and  passion,  so  unsteady  in  its  course,  that 
in  tne  stru^le  for  existence  amid  the  various  exercises 
and  triumphs  of  the  human  intellect,  the  sense  is  at 
once  the  highest  of  all  teachers  yet  the  least  luminous  " 
(Newman,  "  Letter  to  the  Duke  of  Norfolk  ",  in  section 
on  conscience). 

In  dealing  with  this  subject,  however,  it  is  further 
necessary  to  take  account  of  the  historical  argument. 
Various  facts  are  adduced,  which,  it  is  alleged,  show 
that  morality  is,  in  point  of  fact,  capable  of  dissocia- 
tion from  religion.  It  is  urged  (1)  that  the  most  primi- 
tive peoples  do  not  connect  their  religious  beliefs  with 
such  moral  code  as  they  possess;  and  (2)  that  even 
where  the  moral  consciousness  and  the  religious  system 
have  reached  a  high  degree  of  development,  the 
spheres  of  religion  and  morality  are  sometimes  re- 
garded as  separate.  Thus  the  Greeks  of  classical 
times  were  in  moral  questions  influenced  rather  by 
non-religious  conceptions  such  as  that  of  alStis  (natural 
shame)  than  by  fear  of  the  gods;  while  one  great 
religious  system,  namely  Buddhism,  explicitly  taught 
the  entire  independence  of  the  moral  code  from  any 
belief  in  God.  To  these  arguments  we  reply,  first: 
that  the  savages  of  to-day  are  not  primitives,  but  de- 
generates. It  is  the  merestsuperstition  to  suppose  that 
these  degraded  races  can  enlighten  us  as  to  what  were 
the  beliefs  of  man  in  his  primitive  state.  It  is  among 
civilized  races,  where  man  has  developed  normally,  that 
we  must  seek  for  knowledge  as  to  what  is  natural  to 
man .  The  evidence  gathered  from  them  is  overwhelm- 
ingly in  favour  of  the  contention  that  human  reason 
proclaims  the  essential  dependence  of  morality  on 
religious  belief.  In  regard  to  the  contrary  instances 
alleged,  it  must  be  denied  that  the  morality  of  the 
(Greeks  was  unconnected  with  religion.  Though  they 
may  not  have  realized  that  the  laws  prescribed  bv 
natural  sluune  were  derived  from  a  divme  command 
they  most  certainly  believed  that  their  violation  would 
be  punished  by  the  gods.  As  to  Buddhist  belief,  a 
distinction  must  be  orawn  between  the  metaphysical 
teaching  of  the  Buddha  or  of  some  of  his  disciples,  and 
the  practical  interpretation  of  that  teaching  as  ex- 
pressed in  the  lives  of  the  great  mass  of  the  adherents 
of  the  creed.  It  is  only  the  Buddhist  monks  who  have 
really  followed  the  speculative  teaching  of  their  mas- 
ter on  this  point  and  have  dissociated  the  moral  law 
from  belief  m  God.    The  mass  of  adherents  never  did 


MORAL 


560 


UORkTbX 


do.  Yet  even  the  monks,  while  denying  the  existence 
of  a  personal  God,  r^^araed  as  a  heretic  any  who  dis- 
puted the  existence  of  heaven  and  helL  Thus  they 
too  help  to  bear  witness  to  the  universal  consensus 
that  the  moral  law  is  based  on  supernatural  sanctions. 
We  may,  however,  readUy  admit  that  where  the  re- 
ligious concei}tions  and  the  moral  code  were  alike  im- 
mature and  inadequate,  the  relation  between  them 
was  less  clearly  ^msped  in  thought,  and  less  intimate 
in  practice,  than  it  became  when  man  found  himself  in 
possession  of  a  fuller  truth  regarding  them.  A  Greek 
or  a  Buddhist  community  may  have  preserved  a  cer- 
tain healthiness  of  moral  tone  even  tnough  the  reli- 
gious obligation  of  the  moral  law  was  but  obscurely 
felt,  while  ancestral  precept  and  civic  obligation  were 
viewed  as  the  preponderating  motives.  A  broad  dis- 
tinction must  be  made  between  such  cases  and  that  of 
those  nations  which  having  once  accepted  the  Christian 
faith  with  its  clear  profession  of  tne  connexion  be- 
tween moral  obligation  and  a  Divine  law,  have  subse- 
quentlv  repudiated  this  belief  in  favour  of  a  purely 
natural  moralitv.  There  is  no  parity  between  '  Fore- 
Christians  "  and  "  After-Christians  *\  The  evidence  at 
our  command  seems  to  establish  as  certain  that  it  is 
impossible  for  these  latter  to  return  to  the  inadequate 
grounds  of  obligation  which  may  sometimes  suffice  for 
nations  still  in  the  immaturity  of  their  knowledge ;  and 
that  for  them  the  rejection  ot  the  religious  sanction  is 
invariably  followed  by  a  moral  decay,  leading  rapidly 
to  the  corruptions  of  the  most  degraded  periods  of  our 
historv^.  We  may  see  this  wherever  the  great  revolt 
from  Christianitv,  which  began  in  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury, and  whicn  is  so  potent  a  factor  to-day,  has 
spiead.  It  is  naturally  in  France,  where  the  revolt 
DtBcan,  that  the  movement  has  attained  its  fullest  de- 
velopment. There  its  effects  are  not  disputed.  The 
birth-rate  has  shrunk  until  the  population,  were  it  not 
for  the  immigration  of  Flemings  and  Italians,  would 
be  a  diminishing  quantity;  Christian  family  life  is 
disappearing;  the  number  of  divorces  and  of  smcides 
multiplies  annually;  while  one  of  the  most  ominous  of 
all  symptoms  is  the  alarming  increase  of  juvenile 
crime.  But  these  effects  are  not  peculiar  to  France. 
The  movement  away  from  Christianity  has  spread  to 
certain  sections  of  the  population  in  the  United  States, 
in  England,  in  Germany,  in  Australia,  countries  pro- 
viding in  other  respects  a  wide  variety  of  circum- 
stances. Wherever  it  is  found,  there  in  varsring 
d^rees  the  same  results  have  followed,  so  that  tiie 
unprejudiced  observer  can  draw  but  one  conclusion, 
namely:  that  for  a  nation  which  has  attained  matu- 
rity, morality  is  essentially  dependent  on  the  religious 
sanction,  and  that  when  this  is  rejected,  morality  will 
soon  decay. 

Granting  religion  to  be  the  essential  basis  of  moral 
action,  we  may  further  inquire  what  are  the  chief  con- 
ditions recjuisite  for  the  growth  and  development  of 
morality  in  the  individual  and  in  the  community. 
T|iree  such  may  be  singled  out  as  of  primary  moment, 
namely:  (1)  a  ri^ht  Mucation  of  the  young,  (2)  a 
healthy  public  opmion,  (3)  sound  legislation.  It  will 
be  unnecessary  ror  us  to  do  more  than  touch  in  the 
briefest  manner  on  these  points.  (1)  Under  education 
we  include  the  early  training  of  the  home  as  well  as  the 
subsequent  years  of  school  life.  The  family  is  the  true 
school  of  morality,  a  school  which  nothing  can  replace. 
There  the  child  is  taught  obedience,  truthfulness, 
self-restraint,  and  the  other  primary  virtues.  The 
obligation  to  practise  them  is  impressed  upon  him  by 
those  whose  claim  on  him  he  at  once  recognises,  and 
whose  word  he  does  not  dream  of  doubting;  while  the 
observance  of  the  precept  is  made  easy  by  the  affec- 
tion which  unites  him  w i th  those  who  impose  it.  It  is, 
therefore,  with  reason  that  the  Church  has  ever  de- 
clared divorce  to  be  fatal  to  the  truest  interests  of  a 
nation.  Where  divorce  i?  frequent,  family  life  in  its 
ui-i      fQYBx  disappears,  and  with  it  perishes  the  foun- 


dation of  a  nation's  morality.  Similarly  the  Chuieh 
maintains,  that  during  the  years  of  scnool  life,  the 
moral  and  religious  atmosphere  is  of  vital  importance, 
and  that  apart  from  this  tne  possession  of  intellectual 
culture  is  a  danger  rather  tlum  a  safeguard.  (2)  It  is 
hardly  necessary  to  do  more  than  call  attention  to  the 
necessity  of  a  sound  pubUc  opinion.  The  great  mass 
of  men  have  neither  opportunity  nor  leisure  to  deter- 
mine a  standard  of  morals  for  tnemselves.  They  ac- 
cept that  which  prevails  around  them.  If  it  is  ni^h, 
they  will  not  Question  it.  If  it  is  low,  they  will  aim 
no  nigher.  When  the  nations  were  Catholic,  public 
opinion  was  predominantly  swayed  by  the  teaching 
ot  the  Church.  In  these  days  it  is  lamly  formed  by 
the  press;  and  since  the  press  as  a  whole  views  moral- 
ity apart  from  religion,  the  standard  proposed  is  in- 
evitaoly  very  viifferent  from  what  the  Church  would 
desiderate.  Hence  the  immense  importance  of  a 
Catholic  press,  which  even  in  a  non-Catholic  environ- 
ment will  keep  a  true  view  before  the  minds  of  those 
who  recognise  the  Church's  authority.  But  public 
opinion  is  also  largely  influenced  by  voluntary  associa- 
tions of  one  form  or  another;  and  of  recent  years  im- 
mense work  has  been  done  by  Catholics  in  organising 
associations  with  this  purpose,  the  most  notable  in- 
stance being  the  German  volksverein,  (3)  It  may  be 
said  with  truth  that  the  greater  part  of  a  nation's 
l^islation  affects  its  morality  in  some  way  or  other. 
Tnis  is  of  course  manifestly  the  case  with  all  laws 
coimected  with  the  family  or  with  education  j  and  with 
those,  which  like  the  laws  regarding  the  dnnk  traffic 
and  the  restriction  of  bad  literature,  have  the  public 
monds  for  their  immediate  object.  But  it  is  also  true 
of  all  legislation  which  deals  with  the  circumstances  of 
the  lives  of  the  people.  Laws,  for  instance,  determin- 
ing the  conditions  of  labour  and  protectiii^  the  poor 
from  the  h^ds  of  the  usurer,  promote  morality,  for 
they  save  men  from  that  degradation  and  despair 
in  which  moral  life  is  practically  impossible.  It  is 
thus  evident  how  necessary  it  is,  that  in  all  such  ques- 
tions the  Church  should  in  every  country  have  a  defi- 
nitelyf ormed  opinion  and  should  make  her  voice  heard. 
(See  jEhnics;  Law.) 

Catbrbin,  Religion  und  Moral  (FreibuiVf  1900);  Fox,  J?«2»- 
qym  and  Morality  (New  York,  1899) ;  Dxyas,  Key  to  the  WorUTe 
l*rooreB9  (London,  1906):  Idbm,  Studiee  of  Family  Life  (Loo- 
don,  1886);  Balvour,  Foundatione  of  Bdief  (London,  1896), 
Part  I.  i;  Catholie  Truth  Society**  Leduree  on  the  HUtory  of 
Reliffione  (London.  1910). 

G.  H.  JOTCB. 

Moral  Philosophy.    See  Ethigb. 

Moral  Theology.    See  Thbologt. 

Moran,  Patrick  Fbancib.     See  Stdnbt,  Abch- 

DIOCESB  OF. 

Moratfn,  Lbandro  Fernandez  db,  Spanish  poet 
and  pla3rwright,  b.  at  Madrid.  10  March,  1760;  a.  at 
Paris,  21  June,  1828.  He  is  usually  known  as  the 
younser  Moratin.  and  was  the  son  of  NicoUts  Fem^bi- 
dez  oe  Moratfn  (1737-80).  a  lawyer  and  professor  of 
poetry  at  the  Imperial  CoUeKe,  also  a  playwright. 
The  elder  Moratin  nad  devoted  himself  to  attemptmc 
to  reform  the  Spanish  drama  and  had  written  sevou 
plavs  after  the  style  of  Racine  and  ComeUle.  In  1782 
ne  had  published  his  "Desengafio  al  Teatro  Eroaftol" 
in  whicn  he  criticized  the  old  drama  and  espedaUy  the 
''Auto  Sacramental 'V which  still  flourished.  So  suo- 
ceBsf td  was  this  work,  that  three  years  later  the  exhibi- 
tion of '  *  Autos ''  was  forbidden  by  royal  edict.  Amonc 
his  works  were  "La  Petimetra^'/'^Gusmto  el  Bueno'' 
and,  probably  the  best  known,  "Honnesinda",  a 
inffidy.  Knowing  by  his  own  experience  how  pre- 
carious was  literature  as  a  means  of  livelihood,  the 
elder  Moratfn  apprenticed  his  son  to  a  jeweller^  tnink* 
ins  in  this  way  to  develop  his  son's  artistic  skill. 
Wnile  servins  as  apprentice,  young  Leandro  won  two 
prizes  offered  by  the  Academy,  one  in  1779  with  an 
epic  ballad  entitled  "La  toma  de  Qranada",  and  the 


MORAVU                             661  MORAVIA 

other  in  1782  with  "  La  lecci6npo6tica",  a  satire  upon  delivered  from  the  Avar  yoke  temporarily  (622-  oS)  bv 
thepopularpoetsoftheday.  These  brought  him  to  the  Samo,  who  was  perhaps  of  Frankish  parentage,  and 
notice  of  the  statesman  and  author  Jovellanos,  through  finally  by  Charlemagne,  whose  defeat  of  the  Avmb  m 
whose  influence  Moratfn  was  appointed  secretary  to  796  enabled  the  Moravians  to  recover  the  temtory 
Count  Cabarrus  upon  the  latter's  special  mission  extending  from  Mannhartsberg  to  the  mouth  of  the 
to  France  in  1787.  During  the  year  that  he  spent  in  Gran.  During  this  period  a  uniform  principality  had 
Paris  he  improved  the  opportunity  to  study  the  developed  on  Moravian  soil,  and  received  the  name  of 
French  drama  and  formed  friendships  with  men  of  the  Kingdom  of  the  Moimorides  from  the  founder  of 
letters,  both  of  which  circumstances  aided  materially  the  dynasty,  Moimir.  Moravia  stood  towards  the 
in  the  artistic  development  of  the  young  poet.  Re-  Frankish  Empire  in  relations  of  dependence;  at  least, 
turning  to  Spain  in  1789,  Moratin  set  out  to  continue  the  **  Mabaraner "  brought  presents  to  Emperor  Louis 
the  woric  begun  by  his  father  of  reforming  the  Spanish  at  the  Diet  of  Ratisbon  m  822.  When  Moimir  sought 
drazoa  upon  the  French  classical  model.  He  secured  to  assert  his  independence  of  the  empire,  he  was  de- 
the  patronage  of  Manuel  Godoy,  prime  minister  and  posed  by  the  Germans  and  his  nephew  Wratislaw  ap^ 
favourite  of  Charles  IV,  through  whose  influence  he  pointed  prince.  The  latter's  struggle  for  complete 
was  able  in  1790  to  stage  the  first  of  his  pla^,  "  El  freedom  ended  in  his  betrayal  into  the  hands  of  Louis 
Viejo  y  la  Nifia",  a  comedv  in  three  acts  and  m  verse,  the  German  by  his  nephew  Swatopluk,  who  then  at* 
This  was  followed  in  1792  by  "  La  Comedia  nueva"  or  tained  to  power  imder  German  protection. 
"El  Caf^"  in  two  acts  and  in  prose.  In  the  same  year  In  the  ecclesiastical  domain  Wratislaw  had  also  de- 
Godoy  gave  him  the  means  for  foreign  travel  and  his  sired  independence  of  the  German  Empire.  Christian- 
journey  throush  France,  England,  the  Low  Countries,  ity  had  already  been  preached  in  Moravia,  but  had 
Germany,  ana  Italy  completed  his  education.  His  fuled  to  reach  the  great  mass  of  the  people,  as  the 
next  play  "El  BaitSn''  was  produced  in  1803,  followed  German  and  Italian  missionaries  were  ignorant  of 
in  1804  by  "La  Mojigata"  (The  female  hypocrite),  a  the  vernacular  speech.  In  863  Wratislaw  asked  the 
weak  imitation  of  Moli^'s  "Tartuffe".  ^  An  unsuo-  Greek  emperor  to  send  new  apostles  acquainted  with 
cessf ul  attempt  was  made  to  suppress  this  last  piece  the  Slav  tongue.  This  monareh  diroatched  the  broth- 
on  religious  groimds  by  means  of  the  Inquisition,  ers  Constantine  (afterwards  called  Cyril)  and  Metho- 
Moratin's  crowning  triumph  came  in  1806  when  the  diusin864.  Having  only  minor  orders,  the  missionaries 
second  of  his  prose  comecues  and  his  best  work  "El  confined  themselves  to  the  training  of  the  youth  and 
Sf  de  las  Nifias"  was  produced.  Performed  before  the  translation  of  a  portion  of  the  Bible  into  the  Slav 
crowded  houses  night  after  night,  it  ran  through  sev-  language,  for  which  purpose  they  invented  special 
eral  editions  in  one  year,  and  was  translated  into  sev-  Slav  characters.  In  867  they  set  out  for  Rome  to 
eral  foreign  lansuages.  In  1808,  upon  the  fall  of  his  seek  papal  permission  to  conduct  the  Divine  Service 
friend  Godoy,  Moratfn  was  compelled  to  flee  from  in  the  vulgar  tongue.  Pope  Adrian  11.  who  conse- 
Spain.  but  returned  shortly  afterward  to  accept  from  crated  both  brothers  bishops,  is  said  to  nave  acceded 
Joeepn  Bonaparte  the  post  of  royal  librarian,  a  lack  of  to  their  petition.  While  Constantine,  having  a  pre- 
patriotism  which  lost  him  the  friendship  of  loyal  Span-  sentiment  of  his  approachmg  end  (869),  remained  in 
lazds,  so  that  when  the  Spaniards  returned  to  power,  Rome.  Methodius  returned  to  Moravia  and  there  re- 
Moratfn  was  compelled  to  pass  the  rest  of  his  days  in  sumea  his  work  of  evangelization,  in  opposition  to  the 
exile,  principally  m  Paris  where  he  died.  In  addition  German  clergy.  After  the  fall  of  Wratislaw,  Metho- 
to  the  works  mentioned,  Moratfn  made  a  rather  poor  dius  had  to  submit  to  the  German  spiritual  authori- 
translation  of  Hsunlet,  and  translated  and  adapted  to  ties,  was  confined  for  two  and  a  half  years  in  a  German 
the  Spanish  stage  Molidre's  "Ecole  des  Maris"  and  monastery,  and  was  freed  only  at  the  strict  command 
"Le  M^dedn  Malgr6  Lui''  imder  the  titles  respec-  of  the  pope  in  873.  His  activity  was,  however,  even 
tively  of  "La  Escuela  de  loe  Maridos"  and  "El  M^  now  narrowly  restricted  by  the  Bavarian  bishops,  al- 
dioo  &  Palos''.  During  his  exile  he  wrote  a  history  of  though  the  use  of  the  Slav  Liturgy  was  expressly  recog- 
the  Spimish  drama  entitied  "Grimes  del  Teatro  nized by  the  pope  in  880. 

Espaflol".   In  his  work,  Moratfn  shows  ori^ality,  he  The  understanding  between  Swatopluk  and  the 

akilfully  describes  the  manners  of  his  time  and  is  Frankish  Empire  was  of  short  duration.    From  882 

clever  in  his  dialogue.     He  adheres  to  the  French  Swatopluk  was  engaged  in  fierce  conflict  with  Amulf, 

unities,  but  introduces  certain  peculiarities  of  the  who  administered  Carinthia  and  Pannonia.    In  885, 

Spanish  stage,  dividing  his  plays  into  three  acts,  and  however,  a  complete  reconciliation  took  place,  and  the 

using  the  short  romance  verse.    He  was  unquestion-  Moravian  prince  lent  Amulf  his  zealous  support  until 

ably  tiie  best  dramatic  writer  Spain  had  produced  the  latter  successfully  established  his  claim  to  the 

since  the  famous  ones  of  the  Sigh  ae  oro.   The  "Biblio-  German  Crown.    But  the  energetic  Amulf  was  not 

teca  de  Autores  Eq)afioles",  Vol.  II,  contains  the  plays  likely  to  tolerate  any  longer  the  growth  of  Swato* 

of  both  the  elder  and  the  younger  Moratfn.  pluk  s  power,  so  dangerous  to  his  empire.    In  892  war 

Txcnt OB.  Hitiory  ^Spanish  LUerature  (Boston,  1866) ;  Fjw-  again  broke  out,  and Swatopluk died m  895  before  any 

rSS^r^^^.'^B^Sl^S'^^lf^^^t^'^  SJSId^ii  decisive  re«ilt  had  been  reaj:hed.    Subsequently  the 

B^paMa,  tr.  from  Q«niuui  of  Mxxbb  (Madnd.  1885-87).  Moravian  Kmgdom  was  rent  asunder  by  the  struggle 

Ventura  Fuentes.  of  various  claimants  for  the  throne,  and  in  the  first  dec- 
ade of  the  tenth  century  succumoed  to  the  attack  of 
Moraiia  (German  MXhren),  Austrian  crown  Hungar^r  at  the  battle  of  Presbuig.  The  country  re- 
land  east  of  Bohemia.  In  the  century  before  the  mained  in  the  hands  of  Hungary  until  the  battle  of 
Christian  era  the  Germanic  Quadi  (a  tribe  closely  re-  Lechfeld  in  955,  when  it  was  united  with  Bohen:iia  by 
lated  to  the  Marepmanni,  wno  had  just  driven  the  the  Bohen:iian  Duke  Boleslaw  of  the  Pfemysl  family. 
Celtic  Boil  from  Bohemia)  took  possession  of  the  mod-  the  confederate  of  Emperor  Otto  I.  Towards  the  end 
em  Moravia.  Of  these  two  tribes  settled  in  Bohemia  of  the  tenth  century  Moravia  was  conquered  by  the 
and  Moravia  we  know  nothing  beyond  their  collisions  Polish  duke,  Boleslaw  Chrobry  (992-1025),  but,  when 
with  the  Romans — e.  g.,  their  wars  with  Marcus  Aure-  domestic  disturbances  broke  out  in  Poland  after  his 
lius  in  A.  D.  165  and  181  and  with  Valentinian  I  (364-  death,  Duke  Udalrich  of  Bohemia,  with  the  assist- 
75).  The  invasion  of  the  Huns  under  Attila  drove  the  ance  of  his  son  Bfetislaw,  recovered  Moravia  from  the 
majority  of  the  Marcomanni  and  Quadi  from  their  Poles.  Bfetislaw  administered  the  land  as  Duke  of 
settlements.  In  the  fifth  century  the  deserted  terri-  Moravia,  and  established  his  residence  at  Olmtltz. 
tory  was  occupied  by  Slav  tribes.  About  the  middle  of  With  the  booty  from  his  campaigns  against  the  Poles, 
the  sixth  century,  these  were  conquered  by  the  Atars,  he  founded  the  first  Moravian  monastery,  that  of 
who  advanced  as  far  as  Thuringia.    The  Slavs  were  Raigem  near  Brttnn  (1048).    The  strife,  caused  by 


by  L. 


HO&&TU                             562  UORATU 

the  law  establishing  in  Bohemia  the  ridit  of  HucceasioD  1306.    Moravia  at  first  Ml  with  Bohemia  to  Albert  I 

by  aeniority  (1054),  extended  also  to  Moravia  (which  of  Hapsburg;  then  on  Albert's  death  in  1307  to  Henry 

would  have  been  divided  to  provide  petty  principali-  of  Cariothia,  and  in  3309  to  John  of  LuxemburK,  son 

ties  for  the  younger  Bona  of  the  ducal  house),  eape-  of  Emperor  Henry  VII.    In  the  Privilege  of  1311  John 

daily  to  the  principalities  of  Brllnn,   Olmiitz,  and  granted  the  country  important  Ubertiea,  which  fonned 

Znaim.     The  suzerainty  of  the  Bohemian  duke  was  the  foundatioD  of  Uie  subsequently  augmented  rights 

however  maintained.      In    1063    Duke   Wratislaw  of  the  estates.    Under  the  provincial  governor  Henry 

(1061-92)  gave  the  land  its  own  eccleBiastical  centre  of  Lipa  and  Margrave  Charles  (1333),  later  Emperor 

by  establiahing  the  Diocese  of  OlntQtz,  which  was  Charles  IV,  a  new  period  of  prosperity  began.    In  1349 

placed  under  Mainz.  Charles  enfeoffed  his  brother  John  in  the  margraviate. 

The  Moravian  petty  princee  repeatedly  rebelled  In  1371Johndivided thecountryamonghistIu*esoiiB, 
against  the  Bovereigntyof  the  Bohemian  duke:  thua  Jobst  (Jodocus)  receiving  the  title  of  Ancient  Mar- 
when,  on  the  death  of  Wratislaw  II,  Bi^etislaw  II  ap-  grave  and  Overlord;  his  two  younger  sona  were  ^ao 
pointed  his  brother  his  successor  in  contravention  of  given  the  title  of  Manrave,  but  they  were  to  hold 
the  law  regulating  succession  by  seniority,  long  wars  their  lands  in  fief  from  Jobst.  This  partition  and  the 
were  waged  against  him  by  the  rightf uT  heir,  Duke  great  Western  Schism,  which  evoked  two  ecclesiasti- 
Udalrich  of  BrUnn  (1101,  II05,  and  1107).  These  eal  parties  in  Moravia  as  elsewhere,  gave  rise  to  mudi 
wars  reached  their  climax  in  1125,  when  Prince  Otto  discord  and  disturbances  between  1380  and  1405.  On 
of  ObnQtz  rose  against  Duke  Sobeslaw,  the  youngest  the  death  of  the  childless  Jobst,  Moravia,  as  a  vacant 
son  of  Wratislaw  II.  Bef,  reverted  to  the 
and   was   supported  Bohemian   Crown, 

r  Lothiur  of  Sup-  and   its  administra- 

Inburg.  Lothairled  tion  was  entrusted  to 
an  army  in  person  for  certain  district  gover* 
his  confederate  Otto.  nors  by  Wenoeslaus 
but  was  defeated  IV. 
in  a  decisive  battle  As  in  Bohemia, 
near  Kulm  (1126).  where  similar  politi- 
Sobeslaw  (1125-  cal  and  ecclesiastical 
40)  and  his  nephew  conditions  prevailed, 
and  successor,  Wlad-  Huasitismmadcrapia 
islaw  II,  energeti'  and  great  progress 
cally  maintained  the  in  Moravia  under  the 
Bohemian  suprem-  teebleruleof  Wences- 
acy  over  Moravia;  laus,  especially 
during  the  reign  of  among  the  nobility 
the  latter  the  Mo-  and  peasantry;  the 
ravian  branch  of  the  BiahopofObnDtcanil 
PFemysl  family  be-  almost  all  the  im- 
came  extinct,  where-  penal  cities  inhabited 
upon  Prince  Conrad  Mauci  and  Citt  Hau,  BhOhh.  Mouvu  t>y  Germans,  how- 
Otto  of  Znaim,  who  ever,  remained  true 
probably  belonged  to  the  collateral  line  of  the  Bo-  to  the  Catholic  cause.  On  Wenceslaus's  death  his 
nemian  Pfemysls,  united  the  three  diviuons  of  the  brother.  Emperor  SigismuDd,  was  recogniced  in  Mo- 
Moravian  kingdom  (1174).  On  his  attempting  also  ravia  as  margrave,  although  the  Bohemians  refused 
to  annex  Bohemia  (from  which,  on  the  death  of  to  recogmze  turn  as  king.  Against  the  Hussit^,  who. 
Wladislaw,  his  son  Frederick  had  been  expelled  by  under  the  leadership  of  two  apostate  priests,  had 
bis  barons),  Barbarossa,  to  whom  Frederick  had  established  a  fortified  camp  in  the  n^ghbourhood  of 
fled,  Hununoned  both  the  Pfemysl  nobles  t"  "  ■■"■■■■.—  "'<.■' 
before  his  tribunal  at  Ratisbon,  and  dec 
Sept.,  1182)  that  Frederick  should  rule  in  Bohe-  In  1423  Albert  received  for  these  services  the  Klar- 
mia,  but  that  thenceforth  Conrad  Otto  should  hold  graviate  of  Moraviain  fief.  After  the  chief  power  of 
Moravia  as  an  immediate  margraviate,  independent  the  fanatical  Hussites  in  Bohemia  had  been  crushed  in 
of  Bohemia.  Aft«r  Conrad  Otto's  death  in  Sicily  the  battle  near  Lipau  (1434),  a  treaty  of  peace  was 
(1191),  a  new  war  of  succession  broke  out  between  the  also  arranged  in  Moravia,  according  to  which  theHus- 
brothers  Ottokar  and  Henry  Wladislaw:  to  avoid  sites  were  allowed  to  receive  Communion  under  both 
bloodshed,  the  latter  renounced  in  1197  his  claims  to  species,  these  Compaclaia,  as  they  were  called,  bang 
Bohemia,  accepting  Moravia  as  a  margraviate  feuda-  published  at  the  Diet  of  Iglau  (1436).  Under  At 
tory  to  the  Bohemian  crown.  Thenceforth,  this  was  bert's  son,  Wladislaw  Posthumus  (1449),  b^an  the 
the  political  condition  of  Moravia.  first  attempts  to  stem  Utraquism  and  to  restore  to  the 

The  German  colonization  of  Moravia,  begun  under  Catholic  Church  its  earlier  dominant  position.     Eth- 

"         ""    .■  .              ...             .  juJer  ms  Bucces-  peciallyefficacioustowardsthiaendwasthemisfflonary 

ysl,  as  the  inva-  activity  of  St.  John  Capistran,  whose  ignorance  of  the 

sionsof  the  Mongols  in  1241  and  the  Cumansin  1252  native  speech,  however,  prevented  him  from  attaining 

had  swept  away  numbers  of  the  inhabitants  into  cap-  complete  success.    George  of  Podiebrand,  who  be- 

tivity.     This  immigration  of  Germans  led  to  the  for^  came  King  of  Bohemia  on  Wladialaw's  death  in  1457, 

mation  of  German  townships,   the  development  of  had  to  resort  to  arms  to  secure  recognition  in  Moravia 

which  was  encouraged  by  the  Pfemysl  family,  espe-  from  the  German  and  Catholic  towns.    In  1464  he 

cially  byOttakarll,  Theprivileges,  accorded  to  these  promised  the  Moravian  Estates  that  the  manraviate 

towns,  were  based  gcnerslly  on  those  of  Magdeburg  ahouldneverbeseparatedfrom  the  Crown  of  Bohemia 

and  Nuremberg.     After  Ottakar  had  fallen  in  the  bat-  by  sale,   exchan^,   or  mortage.     After  his  death, 

tie  of  Marchfeld  fighting  against  Rudolf  of  Hapsbu^  however,  the  strife  between  Alatthias  Corvinus  ana 

il278),  Moravia  remained  for  five  years  as  a  pledge  in  Wladislaw  of  Poland  for  the  Bohemian  Crown  resulted 

Ludolf'a  hands,  but  was  then  under  Ottakara  succes-  in  the  peace  of  1478,  according  to  which  Corvinua  tc- 

Bor,  Wenceslaus  II,  reunited  with  Bohemia,  though  ceived  Moravia  for  life  and  Wladislaw  Bohemia.    On 

its  area  was  somewhat  reduced.    With  Wenceslaus  the  death  of  Corvinus,  Moravia  also  fell  under  the 

III  the  ruling  line  of  the  Pfemysls  became  extinct  in  sway  of  Wladislaw  (1490).    Thanks  to  the  excellent 


M0RAVI4                            563  MORAVIA 

administration  of  the  governor  Ctibor  of  Cymburg  issued,  while  on  the  other  hand  thirteen  monasteries 

(146^^),  who,  although  a  XJtraguist,  enjoyed  the  for  men  and  six  for  women  were  suppressed.    The 

oonfidenoe  of  both  princes,  Wladislaw  was  able  to  University  of  OlmUtz,  deserted  after  the  suppression 

leave  to  his  son  Louis  II  in  1516,  considering  the  of  the  Jesuit  Order,  was  transferred  in  1778  to  Briinn, 

troubled  era,  a  splendidly  ordered  land.    Louis  was  where  a  bishopric  nad  been  founded  in  1777,  Olmtits 

slain  in  the  Battle  of  Moh^  against  the  Turks  (1526).  being  simultaneously  raised  to  an  archdiocese.    £m- 

As  he  was  childless.  Ferdinand  of  Hapsburg.  husband  peror  Leopold  restored  to  the  estates  a  certain  inde- 

of  Anna  Jagellon,  the  sister  of  Louis,  claimed  Moravia  pendence. 

with  Bohemia  and  Hungaiy.    His  claim  was  admitted  The  Napoleonic  era  did  not  pass  by  without  leaving 

by  the  assembly  of  the  Moravian  Estates,  who  did  a  landmark  in  Moravia,  for  at  Austerlitz.  in  the  centre 

homage  to  Ferdinand  at  BrQnn  and  Olmiltz  in  1527.  of  the  land,  was  fou^t  the  decisive  battle  of  the 

Turning  to  ecclesiastical  affairs,  there  was  in  Mora-  Third  Coalition  War,  and  the  subsequent  contest  be- 
via  in  the  fifteenth  century,  besides  the  Catholics  and  tween  Austria  and  Napoleon  took  place  partly  in 
Utraquists,  a  third  confession,  the  so-called  ''Breth-  Moravia  (Battle  of  Znium).  The  Restoration  was 
len's  Union''.  This  body  had  spread  widely,  thanks  followed  by  many  years  of  peace.  The  Austrian  Revo- 
mainly  to  the  patronage  of  certain  influential  nobles,  lution  of  1848  gave  Moravia  and  the  other  crown  lands 
who  could  defy  all  decrees  of  banishment.  Luther's  of  Austria  a  constitution,  substantially  unaltered  to- 
teaching  thus  found  a  favourable  soil  in  Moravia,  day,  and  admitted  the  co-operation  of  the  people  in 
and  spread  rapidly,  especially  in  the  cities  of  Olmtitz,  the  making  of  laws.  In  1866  Moravia  was  the  scene 
Znaim,  and  iglau.  From  1526  Moravia  was  also  of  the  latest  war  between  Austria  and  Prussia,  which 
the  refuge  and  new  home  of  the  Anabaptists,  the  was  decided  at  the  Battle  of  KonigKr&tz,  and  a  Mora- 
adherents  of  Hubmaier,  the  Gabrielists,  and  the  Mora-  vian  town,  Nikolsburg.  witnessedf  the  preliminary 
vian  Brethren,  who  later  emigrated  to  Russia  and  negotiations  which  resulted  in  the  Peace  of  Prague, 
thence  to  the  United  States.  The  friendly  attitude  of  In  the  subsequent  era  of  peace  Moravia  made  great 
Emperor  Maximilian  II  (1564-76)  towards  Protest-  strides  in  cultural  and  economical  development  The 
antism  favoured  the  growth  of  all  these  non-Catholic  national  quarrels  between  the  Germans  and  Czechs, 
movements.  With  the  foundation  of  the  Jesuit  Col-  which  even  to-day  (1910)  convulse  Austria  and  es- 
leges  of  Bdlnn  and  Ohniltz  (1574)  the  Catholic  Coun-  pecially  the  portion  of  Bohemia  bordering  on  Mora- 
ter-Reformation  set  in,  its  direction  being  undertaken  via,  found  a  friendly  settlement  in  Moravia  in  1005. 
by  Franz  von  Dietrichstein,  Bishop  of  Olmiitz  (1599-  The  electoral  conditions  were  altered  so  as  to  include 
1636) .  The  Bohemian  rising  agamst  the  emperor  in  — ^in  addition  to  the  three  electoral  classes  of  the  landed 
1618  extended  for  a  short  time  to  Moravia,  and  on  19  interests,  the  cities,  and  the  rural  districts — ^a  fourth 
August,  1619.  the  opposition  party  of  the  Moravian  general  electoral  class  consisting  of  every  qualified 
Estates  voted  in  common  with  the  Bohemian  Estates  voter;  separate  German  and  Czech  electoral  districts 
at  Prague  for  the  deposition  of  Ferdinand  and  the  were  established  according  to  the  national  land  regis- 
election  of  Frederick  of  the  Palatinate  as  King  of  ters,  and  curiae  of  the  separate  nationalities  were  insti- 
Bohemia.  In  Feb.,  1620,  the  latter  succeeded  in  mak-  tuted  to  settle  all  disputes  involving  the  question  of  nar 
ing  his  entry  into  Briinn  as  Marpave  of  Moravia,  but  tionahty.  The  question  of  lanpiuage  in  the  case  of  the 
the  Battle  of  the  White  Mountam  gave  victory  to  the  autonomous  national  and  distnct  authorities  has  been 
cause  of  the  emperor  and  Catholicbm,  and  the  im-  settled  on  a  bilingual  basis,  and  the  division  of  the 
perial  generals  occupied  the  land.  Shaip  punishment  school  board  according  to  nationality  accomplished, 
was  meted  out  to  the  leaders  of  the  rebellion  and  the  Although,  by  the  acceptance  of  this  franchise  reform, 
revolting  cities ;  in  1622  the  Anabaptists  were  compelled  the  Germans  lost  their  previous  majority  in  the  Diet, 
to  leave  the  land,  and  in  1623-^  the  Brethren's  Union,  they  gave  their  consent  to  the  change  in  the  interests 

An  imperial  edict  of  9  March,  1628,  ordered  the  re-  of  public  peace, 
turn  to  tne  Catholic  Church,  and  compelled  all  recu-  Politically  speaking  the  Margraviate  of  Moravia  is 
sants  to  emigrate.  The  Protestant  reli^on,  however,  an  Austrian  crown  land,  the  highest  administrative 
continued  under  the  surface,  especially  m  the  German  authority  being  vested  in  the  governor  at  BriUm.  The 
townships.  From  1642  Moravia  was  the  theatre  of  Diet  consists  of  149  deputies:  2  members  with  individ- 
the  devastating  wars  between  the  imperial  forces  and  ual  vote,  the  Archbishop  of  Olmtitz  and  the  Bishop  of 
the  Swedes,  who  maintained  a  foothold  in  the  land  un-  BrUnn;  30  members  of  the  landed  interests  (10  Ger- 
til  the  Peace  of  1648  (in  Olmtitz  until  1650).  Sixty-  man,  20  Czech) ;  3  deputies  from  the  Chamber  of 
three  castles,  twenty-two  large  towns,  and  three  hun-  Commerce  of  Olmtitz  and  from  that  of  Brtinn ;  40  repre- 
dred  and  thirty  villages  were  destroyed,  and  the  sentatives  of  the  towns  (20  German,  20  Czech);  51  rep- 
plague  swept  away  thousands  of  the  inhabitants  resentatives  of  the  rural  communes  (14  German);  20 
whom  the  war  had  spared.  On  the  conclusion  of  the  deputies  from  the  electoral  curise  (6  German).  In  the 
Thirty  Years'  War  the  Catholic  restoration  was  ao-  Imperiid  Diet  of  the  Austrian  Crownlands  Moravia 
tively  resumed.  From  Olmtitz,  Brtinn,  Iglau.  Znaim,  is  represented  by  49  deputies.  Ecclesiasticallv,  the 
and  Hradisch  outwards,  the  Jesuits  displayed  a  fruit-  land  is  divided  into  the  dioceses  of  Ohntitz  and  Brtinn, 
f  ul  activity  by  holding  missions  far  and  wide,  while  the  which  are  treated  in  separate  articles.  The  Protes- 
Piarists  performed  valuable  service  by  establishing  tants  have  1  SuperinUmdentvr,  14  SenioraUf  and  45 
schools  m  numerous  places.  The  lack  of  secular  pari^es;  the  Jews  50  cultural  districts.  The  area  of 
clergy,  however,  continued  for  a  long  time  an  obsta-  Moravia  is  8573  square  miles.  According  to  the  cen- 
cle  to  complete  Catholicization.  Under  Leopold  I,  sus  of  1900  the  population  of  Moravia  was  2,437,706 
Joseph  I,  and  Charles  VI,  Moravia  enjoyed  as  a  rule  inhabitants,  including  2,325,574  Catholics,  185 
peaceful  conditions,  although  in  1633  the  Turks  and  Uniats,  66,365  Protestants,  44,255  Jews;  and,  accord- 
Tatars  penetrated  as  far  as  Olmtitz  and  Brtinn^  dev-  ing  to  nationality,  695,492  Germans  and  1,727,270 
astating  the  land.  The  wars  begun  by  Fredenck  II  Czechs.  At  the  banning  of  1909  the  population  was 
of  Prussia  for  the  possession  of  Silesia  reduced  Mora-  estimated  at  2,591,980. 

via  to  a  piteous  state,  specially  northern   Moravia  p,™^  M<ma,tic<m  histar.  diplomat.  omnt«m  Moravia  mana^ 

and  Olmtitz.     Mana  Theresa  and  Joseph  II  mtro-  Henorum  (ll  vols.,  1760);  Codex  dipUmai.H  epi$t.  Moravia  (16 

duced  extensive  alterations  in  almost  all  branches  of  ^o^-  Olmuta  and  BrOxm.  1836-1903);  Ebbsn  and  Emubr,  r^ 

the  administrative  aystem.    The  adnunistration  waj  ^^'ir^;^r^tr!iJ£i^&*'^IS^T-^.''^^ 

great]3r  centrahzed^  the  autonomy  of  the  estates  and  i835);  O.  Wolnt.  JiTtrdU.  Topoorop^ie  von  AfdArmCS  vols..  BrQnn, 

the  Diet  was  abolished,   and  in   1782   Moravia  was  1855) ;  Dudik,  Mahrena  aOg.  Oench,  (12  vols,  and  index,  BrQnn, 

united  with  SU«ia  for  purposes  of  «hmni8t«^^^^   In  \^f^^SSSr^^"il^^  iT  r^'^i^' ^^; 

favour  of  the  Protestants  a  patent  of  tolerance  was  Tbaitrnbbbobb.  Ckronik  dv  Land«ahaujMadt  Bntnn  (6  vols^ 


MORAVIAN  564  MORIL 

S^  189W):  Die  Mprtie^.  ATon^^  m  WcH  u.  BOi.  XVII:       gome  papen  found  after  her  death  and  ananged  by 

MOkrtn  II.  BehUnmt  (Vienna,  1897);  Pbokop,  Mohren  tn  kuntt-     i?-Ak^»-   nJi-M.     ^^.^k    a^Avwav^a    «%nKi;.k.<^^Z    *_ 
qesehicha,  BetMwuf  (4  vols..  BrQnn.  1904);  Dvorak.  Oewfc.  der    Father  Bako*,  were  «terwapd8  p^llflhed  in  two 

Markonftcheift  MOuren  (Biilnn,  1906); ZeUtehr, dei deuUdien  Ver.     Separate  WOrks:  one  entitled  " The  Holv  PractloeB  of 

far  Oueh,  Mdhren$  u.  adUuienM  (1897).  a  Divine  Lover,  or  the  Sainctly  Ideot's  Devotions" 

Joseph  Linb.        (Paris,  1657):  the  other,  "Confessionee  Amaatis",  or 

"Spiritual  Exercises",  or  "Ideot's  Devotions",  to 
which  was  prefixed  her  "Apology"  for  hetsc^  ana  far 


Moravian  Brethren.    See  Bohemian  Brbthbbn. 

MoraEZonei     II.    See     Mazzuchelli,    Pibtbo  her  spirituid  guide  (Paris,  1653),  both  recently  re- 

FltANCEBGO.                                            .  published. 

__„--,                    .                            »     ,.          ,       .  BxTwa^  lAf€  and  Deatit  of  Dame  (Urtrude Mon  iUa,,  wriUn 

MorceUl,    StefaNO    Antonio,   an    Italian    Jesuit  soon  after  her  death — very  rare) ;   Wbld-Blukoxll,  Inner  lAfe 


and  learned  epigraphist:  b.  17  January,   1737.  at  •»'»^  ^r*f»'v«  •/ />;  G«r^Tid»  Ifow  ?  ^^^  V>»<*^ 

Chian  near  Brescia;  d.  there  1  January,  1822.    He  CArinoJiai«rf  J^S»^(a^          1881);  Lamb-Foz.  inteoduetioii 

studied  at  the  Jesuit  College  of  Brescia  and  was  ad-  to  his  edition  of  The  H6h/  Pnetieee  «/  a  Divine  Laeer  (Foit- 

mitted  into  the  Society  of  Jesus,  3  Nov.,  1753.    He  Augustus.  1908).                      w  ii  w        tk 

successively  taught  grammar  at  Fermo.  humanities  ^'  ^'  wbi-d-ulundbUi. 

at  Ragusa,  and  oratory  at  the  Roman  College  where  «*         tt 

he  established  an  academy  of  archsology  at  the  Kir-  More,  Hbnbt,  great-grandson  of  the  martyred 

cher  Museum.    After  the  suppression  df  the  Society  English  chancellor:  b^  1686;  d.  at  Watten  in  1661. 

of  Jesus  (1773)  he  became  Ubrarian  to  Cardmal  Al-  Having  studied  at  St.  Omer  and  Valladolid,  he  entered 

bani  and  in  1791  was  appointed  to  a  provoetship  in  ^fi  Society  of  Jesus,  and  after  lus  profesmon,  and  ful- 

his  native  town.    He  declined  the  offer  of  the  Arch-  fi^^Ns  various  subordmate  posts  m  the  colleges,  he  waa 

bishopric  of  Ragusa  and  died  a  member  of  the  re-  sent  on  the  English  Mission  where  he  was  twice  ar- 

stored  Society^  Jesus.    He  owes  his  fame  not  only  rested  and  imprisoned  (1632,  1640),  while  acting  as 

to  his  extensive  knowledge  of  ancient  inscriptions,  chaplain  to  John,  the  first  Lord  Petre.    He  became 

but  also  to  his  classical  Latmity.    Among  his  numer-  provincial  in  1636,  and  in  that  capacity  had  a  good 

ous  works  the  following  may  be  mentioned :  (1)  "  De  ^^al  to  do  with  the  negotiations  of  Panaani,  Conn,  and 

stilo  inscriptionum  latinarum"   (Rome,   1781);  (2)  Rossetti,  the  papal  agents  at  the  court  of  Queen 

"Inscriptiones  commentariis  subjectis"  (Rome,  1783)  S^?i^«  ^*?*'    ?® .  ^^.JS^l^^  S^'  .^^°*?  ™ 

—to  a  second  edition  of  these  two  works  was  added  1649-1652,  and  agam  m  1657-1660.    During  th«e 

the  "Parergon  Inscriptionum  novissimarum"  (Padua,  "^^ter  years  he  wrote  his  important  histoiy  of  the 

1818-22) ;  (3)  "  M17 wXAywr  tQp  E^yyeXluw  iopraffriKQp  English  Jesmts :  "  ffistraa  Mismo^^^                   ab 

Bive  Kalendarium  EcclesiaB  ConstantinopoUtanffi"  etc.  J^^  MDLXXX  ad  MDCXXXV"  (St.  Omer,  1660, 

(Rome,   1788):    (4)   "Africa  Christiana"    (Brescia,  'o^)-  .^^^JP^^^^J^ISS  Flatus's  "Happi- 

1816-7);  (5)  ''OpuscoU  Ascetici"  (Brescia,  1819  or  °?sf ^^^ J^®  ?^^P^^  §!^t®    (1?32),  a^^ 

1820).  of  Meditations"  by  Thomas  de  Villa  Castm  (1618), 

SoMMnvoosL,  B%!>L  de  la  C,  de  JUue,  V,  1290-1306  (Paris,  he  wrote  "Vita  et  Doctrina  Christi  Domini  in  medita- 

1894).                                                  m.T    A    trr  tiones  quotidianas  per  annum  digesta"  (Antwerp, 

N.  A.  Webbb.  1649).  foUowed  bv  an  English  version,  entitled'Tiie 

«»___  TT          rrk        /^               \  n      j«-x«  w^d  Doctrincs  of  our  Saviour  Jesus  CJhrist"  (Ghent, 

-.**?i?"lr    1^^  >P^*"  Gbbtrudb),  BenedicUne  nun  1555  i^  two  parts;  London,  1880). 

of  the  Encdish  Congregation;    b.  at  Low  L«yton,  FoLKT,R«eanboftheBnoliehFr<mnee3.J^yih5lSiUinmm, 

Essex,  En^and,  26  March,  1606;  d.  at  (}ambrai,  Life  ef  Father  John  Qerard  (Laodim,  iBSl). 

France,  17  August,  1633.    Her  father,  Cresacre  More,  J-  H.  Pollbn. 

was  gre^tjfMidson  of  Blessed  Thomas  More^  her  More,  Sm  Thob£AS.  See  Thomas  Mobb,  Blesbbd. 
mother,  Elizabeth  Gage,  was  sister  of  Sir  John  Gage, 

Baronet,  of  Firle,  Sussex,  lord  chamberlain  to  Queen  Morel,  Galk.  a  poet,  scholar,  ssthete,  and  edo- 

Maiy.    Her  mother  dying  at  an  early  ace,  Helen's  cationist,  b.  at  St.  Fiden,  Switzerland,  on  24  Maidi» 

care  and  education  now  devolved  upon  her  father.  1803;  d.  at  the  Abbey  of  Einsiedeln  on  16  Deoembery 

By  persuasion  of  Dom  Benet  Jones,  O.S.B..  she  1872.    Klb  baptismal  name  was  Benedict,  but  in 

iomed  his  projected  foundation  at  Cambrai,  ana  was  the  monastery  he  took  the  name  of  Gall.    In  1814, 

first  among  nine  postulants  admitted  to  the  order,  31  he  entered  the  gjrmnasium  at  St.  Gall.    A  pilgrimage 

Dec.,  1623,  but  vacillation  of  mind  so  disquieted  her  to  Einsiedeln  in  1817  influenced  him  deqply.  and  soon 

novitiate,  that  only  with  the  greatest  hesitation  die  afterwards  he  entered  the  monastery  schoc^  as  a 

pronounced  her  vows  on  1  Januaiy,  1626;  nor  was  she  novice.    In  1820  he  took  the  final  vows,  and  after 

even  then  ouite  free  from  scruples  and  temptations,  several  years  ep^t  in  theological  and  phUoeophical 

until  she  had  availed  herself  of  Dom  Augustine  Baker's  studies^  was  ordained  priest  in  1826,  being  i^pomted 

prudent  guidance.    A  year  or  two  later^  having  now  forthwith  instructor  in  the  monastery  schooL      FVom 

become  Dame  Crertrude,  leamin^  from  him  the  use  of  this  period  his  life  presents  a  picture  of  extraordinary 

affective  prayer,  a  complete  change  was  wrought  in  activity.    From  1826  to  1832  he  was  professor  ot 

her;  rapidly  advancing  m  the  interior  life,  she  became  rhetoric,  and  until  1835  he  lectured  on  philosophy, 

a  source  of  edification  to  the  infant  community,  and.  In  this  latter  year  he  became  librarian  of  the  abbnr, 

in  1629,  when  a  choice  of  abbess  must  be  made,  her  and  retained  this  office  to  the  end  of  his  life,  whue 

name,  conjointly  with  that  of  Catharine  Gascoigne,  also  fulfilling  the  offices  of  dioral  director  (183&-40), 

was  sent  to  Rome  for  a  dispensation  on  point  of  age.  prefect  (1838),  and  rector  (1848)  of  the  abbey  school, 

Catharine  was  eventuallv  chosen,  but  Gertrude  was  archivist  of  the  abbey  (1839-46),  counsellor  of  eduesr 

always  honoured  as  chief  foimdress.    Supporting  her  tion  of  the  Canton  Schwys  (1843-6),  and  siibprior 

abbess  by  lifelong  devotion,  promoting  peace  and  of  the  abb^  (1846-62). 

good  obs^ance,  she  was  universally  beloved.    None  In  spite  of  the  many  demands  upon  his  time  and 

suffered  more  nor  with  more  edifjring  fortitude  than  strength,  the  industrious  monk  exhibited  a  many-sidad 

Dame  Gertrude,  under  a  heavy  trial  to  which  the  literary  activity.    He  is  best  known  as  a  poet,  tea 

community  was  subjected  through  interference  of  the  volumes  of  lyric,  didactic,  and  dramatic  verse  testify- 

vicar,  Dom  F.  Hull,  with  Father  Bak^s  teachings,  ing  to  his  prolific  poetical  talent.    Endowed  by 

Lat^,  doubts  arising  as  to  her  mode  of  prayer,  formal  nature  in  so  many  directions,  it  has  been  said  thi^ 

inquiry  was  made,  resulting  in  approval  at  the  General  in  his  poems,  "he  shows  himself  now  as  a  chiMlikm 

Chapter  in  1633,  during  the  sessions  of  which,  how-  pious  monk,  now  as  a  good-natured  huinorist,  now  aa 

ever,  Gertrude  was  attacked  by  small-pox  and  died  a  a  man  fully  conversant  with  woridly  affairs,  and  often 

peaceful  death.  M  a  keen  satiziati  forceful  and  epigrammatic  in  ex- 


MOSUL                             565  MORELOS 

proHaon.''  Thou^  Morel  may  not  rank  among  the  faculty.  This  was  gained  in  1608,  when  she  publicly 
princes  of  verse,  still  his  modest  muse  produced  many  maintained  her  law  theses  at  the  papal  palace  of  the 
a  poem  of  enduring  worth.  But  Morel  also  proved  vice-legate  before  a  distinguishea  audience,  among 
himself  a  scholar  of  ^peat  versatility.  Under  his  whom  was  the  Princesse  de  Cond^.  Disregarding 
care  the  library  of  Einsiedeln  was  enriched  in  thirty-  wealth  and  a  desirable  marriage,  she  entered  during 
seven  years  by  more  than  26,000  volumes;  many  the  same  year  the  convent  of  Sainte-Praxdde  at  Avi- 
of  these  are  most  valuable,  especially  the  manuscripts,  gnon.  In  1609  she  received  the  habit  of  the  order,  and 
which  include  a  tenth-century  MS.  of  Horace,  rescued  on  20  June,  1610,  took  the  vows.  Just  as  she  haa  dis- 
by  Morel  from  the  bindings  of  books,  and  named  after  tinguished  herself  in  secular  life  by  her  learning,  so  in 
hmi  "Codex  Morellianus''.  Drawing  on  these  liter-  the  order  she  excelled  all  others  in  piety,  humility,  and 
ary  treasures,  Morel  published  the  '*  Lateinische  faithful  observance  of  the  rules,  being  on  three  occa- 
Hymnen  des  Mittelalters'',  ''Offenbarungen  der  sions,  notwithstandins  her  reluctance,  named  prior- 
Schwester  Mechtild  von  Magdeburg'',  and  other  ess.  In  this  manner  the  pious  nun  spent  the  remain- 
works.  Another  publication  was  the  "Kegest«n  der  der  of  her  life  in  the  order,  well-pleasing  to  God  and 
Archive  der  schweiserischen  Eidgenossenschaft " ;  and  beloved  by  the  sisters.  For  two  years  before  her  end 
he  also  compiled  the  Regesta  of  the  Benedictine  she  was  in  great  bodily  suffering  and  her  death  agony 
Abbey  of  Einsiedeln.  Morel's  compilations  and  cat-  lasted  five  days.  She  left  a  number  of  religious  writ- 
alogues  are  models  of  accuracv  and  arrangement,  ings:  (1)  a  translation  of  the  '*  Vita  Spiritufuis"  of  St. 
He  was  associate  founder  of  the  Swiss  Society  for  Vincent  Ferrer^  with  comments  and  notes  to  thejyari- 
Historical  Research  (1840),  and  wrote  many  valuable 


ous  chapters  (Lyons,  1617;  Paris,  1619);  (2)  ''Exer- 
cices  spirituels  sur  r^temit^"  (Avignon,  1637);  (3) 


contributions  for  its  "Archiv".    He  likewise  assisted 

in  the  formation  of  ''Verein  der  fOnf  alten  Orte",  French  translation  of  the  Rule  of  St.  Augustine,  with 

and  was  a  contributor  to  its  organ,  the  "Geschichts-  addition  of  various  explanations  and  observations  for 

freund".  the  purpose  of  instruction  (Avignon.  1680);  (4)  His- 

In  sesthetics,  Morel  became  an  authority  bv  pains-  tory  of  the  reform  of  the  convent  of  St.  Praxedis,  with 

taking  studjr  and  repeated  art  journeys  to  Munich,  lives  of  some  pious  sisters,  in  manuscript;  (5)  Latin 

Vienna,  Venice,  Milan,  Rome,  and  Paris.    His  con-  and  French  poems,  some  printed  and  some  in  manu- 

ception  of  aesthetics  was  concisely  expressed  in  the  script. 

words  that  he  considers  it  the  prime  object  of  aesthet-  «  QuiiiT  and  Echabd,  Seng.  Ord.  Prad,,  II  (1721) ,  845  sqa.: 

ics  to  reconstruct  creation:  the  Divine  ideas  by  the  fieTSrSSiHT^***^'    '      '  ^^'''°'  BMuMuca  ht,pana,lt 


understanding  in  philosophy,  the  Divinely  picturesque 
by  our  fancy  in  art,  and  (jod's  creation  by  our  will  in 


N.  ScHBin. 


our  lives.    An  accomplished  violinist,  Morel  criti-  Morolos,  Job£  Mar! a,  Mexican  patriot,  b.  at  Val- 

cally  treated  music  as  an  important  branch  of  sesthet-  ladolid  (now  called  Morelia  in  his  honour),  Mexico, 

ics.    Morel's  services  as  an  educationist  for  nearly  onSOSeptember,  1765;  shot  at  San  (I)rist6balEcatepec 

fifty  years  are  easier  to  estimate  than  to  describe.   His  on  22  December,  1815.    His  father  died  while  he 

energy  and  his  Quickening  influence  over  teachers  and  was  still  a  youth,  and,  being  left  destitute,  he  worked 

scholars  raised  the  humble /C^oA^AcAtt/e  to  a  high  rank  for  some  time  as  a  muleteer,  until  he  succeeded  in 

among  institutions  of  learning.    In  this  connexion  obtaining  admission,  as  an  extern,  to  the  Collep^e  of 

special  mention  must  be  made  of  his  efiforts  to  foster  San  Nicolas  at  Valladolid,  the  rector  of  which  insti- 

school  drama,  including  the  publication  of  two  vol-  tution  was  at  that  time  the  reverend  Don  Miguel 

umes  entitled  "  Jugend-  imd  Schultheater".    In  the  Hidalgo.    Having  been  ordained  priest,  he  was  ap- 

apt  words  of  Bishop  Greith  of  St.  Gall,  "  Father  Gall  pointea  parish  priest  of  Car^uaro  and  Nucup^taro 

Morel  was  a  living  vindication  of  the  monastic  and  m  Michoacan.    When  Hidalgo  left  Valladohd  for 

cloistered  life  against  the  attacks  of  misunderstanding  Mexico  City,  after  uttering  his  Grito  de  DoloreSf 

and  prejudice.''  Morelos  offered  himself  to  him  at  Charo,  and  Hidalgo 

^3^f^^^hi^^/^^M^^i^,^^*'^*^^^?^^'^'^^^^^-^^^''  commissioned  him  to  raise  troops  for  the  cause  of 

^^^SL^l^uri'^  N^  i^ d^(J^J?5;Vl"ui^"S;  Independ«ice  on  the  southern  coast  and  to  get  pos- 

1896),  304  sqq.  session  of  the  port  of  Acapulco.    Retummg  to  his 

N.  ScHEiD.  parish,  he  collected  a  few  ill-armed  men,  marched 

towaros  Zacatula,  and,  following  the  coast,  reached 
MoxaUi  Jttuana,  Dominican  nun,  b.  at  Barce-  Acapulco  with  some  3000  men  whom  he  had  recruited 
lona^pain,  16  February,  1594;  d.  at  the  convent  of  on  the  way  and  supplied  with  arms  taken  from  the 
the  Domimcan  nuns  at  Avignon,  France,  26  June,  royalists.  After  defeating  Paris,  who  had  come  from 
1653.  The  accounts  of  the  learning  of  this  celebrated  Oaxaca  with  the  object  of  relieving  Acapulco,  he  left 
Spanish  lady  seem  to  border  on  the  miraculous.  In  a  part  of  his  forces  to  continue  the  siege  and  made  for 
laudatoiy  poem  Lope  de  Vega  speaks  of  her  "as  the  Chilpancingo.  Forming  a  junction  there  with  the 
fourth  of  the  Graces  and  the  tenth  Muse",  and  says  brothers  Galiana  and  Bravo,  he  marched  to  Chilapa 
'Hhat  she  was  an  angel  who  publicly  taught  all  the  and  captured  that  town.  As  the  viceroy,  Veneffas,  was 
sciences  from  the  professorial  chairs  and  in  schools",  keeping  all  the  colonial  troops  occupied  with  the  siege 
The  apparently  extravagant  praise  of  the  poet  is  of  Zitacuaro,  Morelos,  who  had  been  joined  at  Jante- 
oonfirmed  by  the  reports  of  contemporaries.  Left  teloo  by  his  fellow-priest  Mariano  Matamoros— thence- 
motherless  when  very  young,  Juliana's  first  training  forwu>d  his  right  hand  in  almost  every  enterprise — 
was  received  from  the  JJominican  nuns  at  Barcelona,  organized  four  armies,  which  he  distributed  in  various 
At  the  age  of  four  she  began  Latin,  Greek,  and  Hebrew  parts  of  Mexico.  But  the  easy  surrender  of  Zitacuaro 
at  home  under  competent  teachers,  and,  when  not  yet  to  Calleja,  and  the  approach  of  that  commander  with 
seven  vears  old,  wrote  a  pretty  Latin  letter  to  her  fa-  all  lus  forces,  placea  Morelos,  with  some  4000  men. 
ther  who  was  away.  Accused  of  taking  part  in  a  mur-  in  the  situation  of  being  besieged  at  Cuautla  by  8000 
der,  the  father  fled  to  Lyons  with  his  dauf^ter,  then  of  the  best  troops  of  the  viceroyalty.  With  indomi- 
eight  years  old.  At  Lyons  Juliana  continued  her  table  courage,  fighting  day  after  day,  Morelos  held  out 
studies,  devoting  nine  hours  daily  to  rhetoric,  dialec-  for  seventy-three  days,  until  at  last  he  succeeded  in 
tics,  etmcs,  and  music.  At  the  age  of  twelve  she  de-  breaking  away  with  all  that  remained  of  his  army. 
fended  in  public  her  theses  in  ethics  and  dialectics  He  then  passed  over  to  Huajuapan,  from  thence  to 
''summa  cum  laude".  She  then  applied  herself  to  Orizaba  and  so  on  to  Oaxaca,  capturing  all  those 
physics,  metaphysics,  and  canon  ana  civil  law.  Her  places,  and  defeating  every  body  of  troops  that  en- 
lather,  who  had  meanwhile  settled  at  Avignon,  wanted  countered  him. 
his  daughter  to  obtain  a  doctorate  in  the  last-named  On  14  September,   1813,  the  first  Independent 


M0REL08  566  MOBILOS 

Congress  assembled  at  Chilpancingo  and  there  passed  he  did  not  believe  the  excommunications  valid.    (2) 

the  decree:  "That  dependence  upon  the  Spanish  Not  reciting  the  Divine  Office  while  he  was  in  prison. 

Throne  has  ceased  forever  and  been  dissolved.    That  He  declared  that  he  could  not  recite  it  in  the  dungeon 

the  said  Congress  neither  professes  nor  recognises  any  for  want  of  light.    (3)  Haidng  been  lax  in  his  conduct. 

religion  but  the  Catholic,  nor  will  it  permit  or  tolerate  This  he  granted,  but  denied  that  scandal  had  been 

the  practice,  {)ublic  or  private,  of  any  other;  that  it  given,  since  it  was  not  publicly  known  that  he  had 

will  protect  with  all  its  power,  and  will  watch  over,  be^tten  children.    (4)  Having  sent  his  son  to  the 

the  purity  of  the  Faith  and  its  dogmas  and  the  main-  United  States  to  be  educated  in  Protestant  principles, 

tenance  of  the  regular  bodies".    fVom  Chilpancingo  He  declared  that,  so  far  from  wishing  the  son  whom  he 

he  turned  towards  his  native  Valladolid,  which  was  had  sent  to  the  United  States — ^as  he  could  not  place 

then  held  by  the  royalist  leaders  Iturbide  and  Llano;  him  in  any  institution  within  the  kingdom — ^to  be 

driven  back  there  he  moved  on  Chupio.    At  Puruarto  brought  up  in  the  doctrines  of  the  Reformation,  he  bad 

his  brave  companion  Matamoros  was  captured,  and  directed  him  to  be  placed  in  a  college  where  he  would 

was  diot  at  Valladolid,  3  February,  1814.    These  re-  not  run  that  risk.    In  spite  of  these  arsuments,  the 

verses  were  followed  by  the  recapture  of  Oaxaca  by  tribunal  decided:  "that  the  priest  Don  Job6  Moraos 

the  royalist  troops.    The  independent  Congress  of  was  a  formal  negative  heretic,  a  favourer  of  heretics,  a 

Chilpancingo  had  removed  to  Apatzingan.  where  it  persecutor  and  disturber  of  the  ecclesiastical  hier- 

?romulgatea  the  Constitution  of  22  October,  1814.  archy,  a  profaner  of  the  holy  sacraments,  a  traitor  to 

'hen  it  determined  to  remove  again  from  Apatzingan  God,  the  Jdng,  and  the  pope^  and  as  such  was  declared 

to  Tehuac^,  Morelos  accompanied  it  to  protect  it,  forever  irregular,  deposed  from  all  offices  and  b^ie- 

and  engaged  in  the  Battle  of  Tesmalaca,  where  he  fices,  and  condemned  to  be  present  at  his  auto  in  the 

was  m£uie  prisoner.  garb  of  a  penitent,  with  collarless  cassock  and  a  green 

Having  been  taken  to  Mexico  City,  on  22  Novem-  candle,  to  make  a  |[eneral  confession  and  a  spiritual 

ber,  1815,  proceedings  were  instituted  against  him  by  retreat;  and  that,  m  the  unexpected  and  v»y  re- 

both  the  military  and  the  ecclesiastical  tribunal,  and  mote  case  of  his  Me  bdng  spared,  he  was  condemned 

an  advocate  was  appointed  for  him.    The  principal  for  the  remainder  of  it  to  confinement  in  Africa  at  the 

charges  against  him  were:  (1)  Having  committed  the  (^position  of  the  inquisitor  ^;eneral,  with  the  obliga- 

crime  of  treason,  failing  in  his  fealty  to  the  king,  by  tion  of  reciting  every  Friday  m  the  year  the  pNsniten- 

promoting  independence  and  causing  it  to  be  pro-  tial  psalms  and  the  rosary  of  the  Blessed  ^i^rnn.  and 

claimed  in  the  Congress  assembled  at  Chilpancingo.  to  have  his  sambenito  (penitential  inscription)  placed 

Morelos  answered  to  this  that,  as  there  was  no  king  in  in  the  cathedral  church  of  Mexico  as  that  of  a  recon- 

Spain  (Ferdinand  VII  having  been  taken  to  France,  a  ciled  formal  heretic". 

prisoner),  he  could  not  have  been  false  to  the  king;  It  was  one  of  the  decrees  of  the  Inquimtion  which 
and  that,  as  to  the  declaration  of  independence,  of  the  have  done  most  to  damage  the  reputation  of  that  tri- 
said  Congress,  he  had  concurred  in  it  by  his  vote  be-  bunal  in  New  Spain.  The  proceedings  lacked  the  legal- 
cause  he  believed  that  the  king  would  not  return  from  ity  and  judicial  correctness  which  should  have  mazked 
France  and  that,  even  if  he  should  return,  he  had  ren-  them.  Morelos  was  out  of  the  jurisdiction  of  the  In- 
dered  himself  unworthy  of  fealty  by  handing  over  quisition  both  as  an  Indian  and  as  having  been  al- 
Spain  and  its  colonies  to  France  like  a  flock  of  sheep,  ready  tried  and  condemned  by  another,  competent, 
(2)  Having  ordered  a  number  of  prisoners  to  be  shot,  tribunal;  nor  was  there  any  reason  in  condemning  him 
He  declared  that  he  had  done  this  in  obedience  to  for  charses  to  which  he  had  made  satisfactory  replies. 
orders  sent  first  by  the  Junta  at  Zitacuaro  and  then  by  It  may  be  that  the  tribunal,  re-established  in  New 
the  Congress  at  Chilpancingo,  by  way  of  reprisals,  more-  Spain  only  a  little  more  than  one  year  before  this,  and 
over,  b^ause  the  viceregal  Government  had  not  ac-  carried  away  by  an  indiscreet  zcaI,  was  unwiUing  to 
cepted  the  exchange  of  prisoners  proposed  instead  of  miss  the  opportunitv  presented  by  so  famous  a  case  to 
General  Matamoros.  (3)  Having  ignored  the  excom-  ingratiate  itself  with  the  Government  and  call  atten- 
munication  fulminated  against  him  and  the  Independ-  tion  to  its  activity. 

ents  by  the  bishops  and  the  Inquisition.    He  declared        Morelos,  degraded  in  pursuance  of  his  sentence,  ao- 

that  he  had  not  considered  these  excommimications  cording  to  the  ritual  provided  by  the  Church  in  such 

valid,  believing  that  they  could  not  be  imposed  upon  cases,  was  transferred  from  the  prison  of  the  Inquisi- 

an  independent  nation,  such  as  the  insurgents  must  be  tion  to  the  citadel  of  Mexico  ana  put  in  irons.    Cin  22 

considered  to  constitute,  so  long  as  they  (the  sen-  December  he  was  taken  from  the  city  to  San  Crist^Sbal 

tences)  were  not  those  of  a  pope  or  an  oecumenical  Ecatepec,  where  he  was  shot.    As  a  guerilla  leader, 

council.     (4)  Having  celebrated  Mass  during  the  time  Morefos  must  occupy  a  prominent  place  among  those 

of  the  Revolution.    He  denied  this,  since  he  had  re-  who  struggled  and  died  for  Mexican  independence. 

garded  himself  as  under  irregularity  from  the  time  He  appeared  at  the  moment  when  the  first  0peat  army 

when  blood  began  to  be  shed  in  the  territory  under  his  of  the  Independents  had  been  routed  at  the  Bridge  oi 

command.  Calder6n,  and  when  its  first  leaden  were  being  exe- 

The  case  having  been  concluded  in  the  military  cuted  at  Chihuahua,  and  he  achieved  his  first  sue- 

tribunal  that  court  requested  of  the  ecclesiastical  tn-  cesses  in  the  rupged  mountains  of  the  south.    He  be- 

bunal  the  degradation|and  surrender  of  the  condemned  gan  his  campaigns  without  materials  of  war  of  any 

griest,  in  accordance  with  the  formalities  prescribed  kind,  expecting  to  take  what  he  needed  from  the 
y  the  canons;  the  ecclesiastical  tribunal  granted  both  enemy,  and  no  one  ever  used  the  resources  of  war  bet- 
requests,  and  communicated  its  decision  to  the  vice-  ter  thian  he  did,  for  the  extension  of  the  national  teni- 
TO^.  It  was  at  this  point  that  the  tribunal  of  the  In-  tory.  Profoundly  astute  and  reserved,  he  confided 
quisition  intervened,  requesting  the  vicerojr,  CaJIeja  his  plans  not  even  to  those  of  his  lieutenants  for  whom 
(whohadsucceededVenegas)  to  delay  execution  of  the  he  felt  the  most  affectionate  refjard.  The  standi  of 
sentence  four  days,  and  citing  Morelos  to  a  public  genius  is  discernible  in  the  astonishing  sagacity  with 
atUo  de  fe  on  27  November.    On  that  occasion,  with  which  he  handled  the  most  difficult  problems  of 


all  the  formalities  proper  to  such  proceedings,  twent3r-  government,  and  in  inultiplied  instances  of  his 

three  charges  were  preferred  against  him:  the  Inquisi-  and  imerring  insight  into  actual  conditions.    When, 

tors  added  to  the  charges  brought  at  the  former  trial  after  the  illnstarred  campaign  of  Valladolid,  the  hour 

others  which  they  believed  themselves  competent  to  of  adversity  came  upon  him,  he  faced  disaster  as  se- 

try,  as  implying,  accorchn^  to  them,  suspicions  of  her-  renely  as  he  had  previously  accepted  good  fcMtune, 

esy.  These  were:  (1)  Having  received  Communion  in  and,  m  that  famous  retreat  upon  Tehuaean^  ddibcr- 

spite  of  the  excommunications  which  he  had  incurred,  ately  gave  his  own  life  to  save  the  lives  <tf  hia  ^ 

Morelos  answered  that  he  had  communicated  because  ates  in  the  Independent  Government. 


Mh^^fi^Jfb»figicit.m(Bi^\o^)-.Ai^iiis.BM<^  In  1854  twelve  of  hie  plays  were  published  in  one 

Mi^ih"i(h^^"'^l  v^L^Z^i^StSHt  volume  under  the  title  of  i^pU  Part  of  the  Comediw 

iiiriaiiiMtxiatMain,iM6)-,La6ii,CBmpitiM»ihlaliiiionada  of  Moieto  .    Amoiu  them  may  be  mentioned     £1 

Ubieo  (Mexico.  !»»>.  Undo  Don  Diego",  "XoH  jueces  de  CaatiJIa"  dealing 

Camillds  Cbivkuj.  ^th  the  life  ot  Peter  the  Cruel,  "San  Franco  de 

Mortrt,  Lotru,  eneyclop«diat,  b.  at  Bargemonl,  ^"j  t?J"'''5",E;  Vtef.'i'  ™  .■      .  .' ,    ,J 

in  the  Di<W  ot  Wlii,  Sanee,  25  MarchTlS;  d.  „*"  iT^'lLi'S;.^!,,  J.  ™ Sfi™  in 

at  Pari.,  10  July,  1680.    Hia  grandlatheV  Jootph  "me  o(  hu  contemporane.,  but  he  exMUod  them  all 

Chatmnrt,  a  nati™  ot  Dijon,  hajeettled  in  i-rovence  »  ■'^.""p  ot.tageeralt,,  m  the  power  of  eonung 

under  Chile.  IX  and  titen'  the  name  ot  the  vill«^  SS' 'Jv'hSiSS  .ZS^ilE,  .ni  in  lliSi™ 

ot  MorSri,  the  .eigaiory  ot  which  he  had  .c,uiSd  ?="«'  "  "■•.'•"•ty  ijt  hu  character,  and  m  depictmg 

U,m,i.h  tiarnam     Yo,,™  Mnnlri  fndied  linm.ni-  human  p«»ion.,  while  at  character  drawing  he  wa.  a 


through  liarriage.    Yoong  Mor«ri  .tudied  humani-  SST'T^  h    »™.     H    fLTr;^,    ™.,; 

tin  at  DraguiiSan,  rhetoSc  at  the  Jesuit  College  ot  S"S,;°SS^?  S?™™^1  S   .In  ?.  S  iS 

Ai»  «id  t&5^t  Lyon..     During  hi.  Kay  iiTthi,  "tuation  with  great  dehcacy  ot  touch,  and  »  at  hi. 

&  d'e^a'SrlStSSS'k'^KiSf'fS^  ^  Say  °H  1.^/.'"eoW'd3'j"''(ii3i.  SS. 

rssdiKS  3p'Si°s"ip'Eo£S'Sdir.";  ""'j;""S;  -tf "^  ."..sicii's  f"d™' "  "^ 

js''v.a;^S^lrS'"i?';s:K^rH-'"  s™l'riii»"ont)S'"a:d^^iit"cotcH3''.o 

te.io^d's'd's^otpirhitrdSr^  a'<j't'^.d''£°™".'M''°fer°'"*'»"''rt°s 

Sd',:;Slo1v°'";n1.'li:'r'i'iSd°cht"S  ?.r'^Srt'o^"l^m"od?rk"°TbloSa"Si"u'to'iS 

SG3SSe^nSiSu.''SiSpSAp"^wK"°  ^f^^'\  SF^^  S^'^A  i'gL.°»°h°'f  tht 

dedicated  the  8r.t  edition  ot  hi.  encycli.p.rfi..     In  "fe'S.  I  ..^SSf.Jif  r„™      '"^phy  ot  the 

1675  he  accompanied  that  prolate  to  Pmi.  wheie  he  author  by  Una  FemSnde.  Guerra. 

became  «i,naint«i  irith  de^omponne,  who  gave  him  .^'SSii^SS.  STKS'S.rP.S.^Si^kSS: 

employment  m  his  ofncea.    After  the  downfall  of  that  Huurv  of  Spaniih  Lit.  (N«w  York,  1906). 

nuniater  in  1678,  he  returned  to  hia  atudies,  but  over-  Vbntuha  Ft«iNTBs. 

work  had  undermined  his  t»nBtitution  and  he  died  of        __  .    .        ,     .      r. 

consumption  in  1680.  Hontto  da  BmcU,  II.   See  Bokvicino,    Auis- 

Morfri  was  a  man  of  great  erudition  but  lacked  bandbo. 
taate  and  iudgmeot.    His  name  is  connected  with  a        m««.~.™-i    o,™.      ^    d  -«,.-         ii~i  i,«  \ri 
work  that  i^Tidly  b«  oon»d.rcd  «,  hi.  own  alter  Jl      t"°'mi  S'°'STS  J^iTi?^  h'„i^^  ^'aJ^ 

SdS:i?*a.sr5Ma4£r  SiiL^^^^ 

a-a-ti^i  ;iyn£'ff ?r;iSro?rte  rDi£r!,1if  te  S'l.:'f ^ 

ariM  made  many  errore;  but  they  (feeerve  a  glory  of  X    .,^T^  ' 

which  their  aucceaBora  ought  never  to  deprive  them.  ~,j     .?,.  <„«ff^ 

Mor^  has  given  himiself  a  great  deal  of  trouble,  haa  ?""  j      ,^  S 

been  useful  to  everybody,  and  has  given  aufBcient  °f5',-    ,v,V^„llf 

information  to  many."     Mortri's  encyclopiedia  ap-  "■     "•  ""^      V.ilt 

peared  for  the  first  dme  in  Lyons  in  1674,  under  the  "°°  °' Jf'  -P'*™ 

title:  "Le  grand  DictionnMre  hiatorique,ou  mflange  !^„ „,    fi  !^" 

curieuit  de  I'hiBtoire  sacr^e  et  profane."     It  waa  de-  ffniv^tv  of  Bo- 

feotive  in  many  respects  and  was  greatly  improved  in  i     ^Tki  hltrKor 

later  ediliona  which  appeared  in  Pazia  or  Amaterdam,  'OB°?iorniBmgnCT 

The  best  edition  is  the  twentieth  and  last,  publiahed  at  f"i'^r  ''^."f 

P«™  m  17RQ  'ore   nia  gradua- 

fans,ml76».  v,.„,„™  tion  he  attracted 

P.  J.  Mahiqub.  attention   by  hie 

Monto  y  OabkfiK,   AuouartN,   Spaniah    drama-  powers  of   obaer- 

tJBt;  b.  at  Madrid,  9  April,  1618;  d.  at  Toledo,  28  vation.     His  two 

October,    1S69.     He  received   what   Utile  academic  great   teachers, 

truning  he  had  at  the  University  of  AlcaU  de  Henarea  Albertini  and  Val- 

and  graduated  Licentiate  in  Arts  in  1639.    From  a  salva,     became 

very  early  age  he  began  to  write  for  the  stage,  and  it  deeply   inl«reated 

ie  known  that  from  1640,  probably  through  hia  friend-  in  him,  and  Val- 

ship  with  Caiderdn,  hia  pla3rB  b^an  to  be  produced,  salva  picked  him 

The  Spanish  drama  had  reached  the  height  of  its  out  aa  hia  apedal 

niCC«S8  during  Moreto's  boyhood,  and  a  gradual  de-  aaaiatant    in    an- 

dine  had  set  m.     The  der^  began  to  preach  against  atomy.      In     the 

plays  as  they  were  then  given,  and  in  1644  the  Royal  year  following 

Council  inatituted  radical  reforms  by  redudng  the  hiagraduationaa  Doctor  of  Medicine  and  Philosophy. 

number  ot   dramatic    companies,    modifying   stage  though  not  yet  twenty-two,  he  was  sometimes  allowed 

costumes,   and  establishing  a  strict  censorship.     It  to  taie  Valsalva's  classes  durine  his  maater'a  abaence. 

was  furthermore  ordered  that  thenceforth  do  come-  He  became  a  leader  in   thought  among  the  young 

dies  were  to  be  played  but  those  of  an  hiatorical  men  and  founded  a  aociety  called  the  "  Academia  In< 

nature,  or  those  dealmg  with  the  lives  of  the  saints,  quictorum"  (the  Academy  of  the  Reatlesa),  a  title  in- 

Tliis  accounts  for  the  fact  that,  for  a  time,  Moreto  dicating  that  the  members  were  not  aatisfied  with 

devoted  himself  to  this  kind  of  drama.     Like  many  previous  knowledge  but  wanted  to  get  at  acienoe  for 

(amouawritors  of  his  time,  Moreto  received  Holy  orders  themselves  by  direct  obaervation   and   experiment, 

toward  the  end  of  his  life,  though  it  is  not  Icnown  After  several  years  of  graduate  work  at  Boloipa. 

exactly  when  he  did  so.     He  entered  the  household  of  Morgagni  spent  a  year  in  special  medical  investi^ 

the  Cardinal  Archbishop  of  Toledo,  Don  fialtasar  de  tions  at  the  Unjversitiea  of  Piaa  and  Padua.     His  m- 

MoBcoeo,  and  in  1659  joined  the  Brotherhood  of  St.  ceesant  work  impaired  his  sight  and  he  returned  to 

Peter.  his  native  town  to  recuperato.    At  the  age  of  24  he 


MOaOAN 


568 


MO] 


f3:i  ^. 


went  to  Bologna  to  lecture  on  anatom v,  and  there  pub- 
lifllied  a  series  of  notes  called  ''Adversaria  Anato- 
mica"  (1706).  These  gamed  hun  such  a  reputation 
that  he  was  called  to  the  University  of  Paaua,  and 
later  became  second  professor  of  anatomy  at  Bolo^a. 

He  studied  particularl^r  the  throat,  and  the  smus 
and  hydatid  of  Morgagni  in  this  region  perpetuate  his 
name.  After  a  few  years  he  succeeded  to  the  first  pro- 
fessorship of  anatomy,  the  most  important  post  in  the 
medical  school,  for  anatomy  was  to  medicme  at  that 
time  what  pathology  is  now.  Here  Morgagni  wrote 
his  great  book,  '*  De  sedibus  et  causis  morborum  per 
anatomen  indigatis" — "On  the  Seats  and  Causes  of 
Disease" — (Venice,  1771.  trans.  French,  English,  and 
German)  which  laid  the  foundation  of  modem  patho- 
logy. Benjamin  Ward  Richardson  said  (Disciples  of 
iEsculapius) :  "To  this  day  no  medical  scholar  can 
help  bemg  delighted  and  mstructed  by  this  wonder- 
ful book."  Morgagni's  studies  in  aneurisms  and  in 
certain  phases  of  pulmonary  disease  were  especially 
valuable.  He  thought  tuberculosis  contagious  and 
refused  to  make  autopsies  on  tuberculous  subjects. 
As  a  consequence  of  his  teaching  laws  were  introauced 
at  the  end  of  the  seventeenth  centui^  in  Rome  and 
Naples,  declaring  tuberculosis  contagious  and  requir- 
ing upon  the  death  of  the  patients  that  their  rooms  be 
disinfected  and  their  clothing  burned.  Venesection 
was  one  of  the  fads  of  his  time,  but  Morgagni  refused 
to  credit  its  power  for  good  and  would  not  allow  it  to 
be  performed  on  himself.  He  studied  the  pulse,  and 
especially  palpitation  of  the  heart  apart  from  organic 
cardiac  anection,  thus  anticipating  most  of  our 
modem  teaching.  With  regard  to  cancer,  Morgagni 
insisted  that  though  it  was  the  custon  to  try  many 
remedies,  the  knife  was  the  only  remedy  that  gave 
fruitful  results. 

Morgagni  was  most  happy  in  his  private  life.  He 
lived  with  such  simplicity  that  he  was  blamed  for 

Sarsimony,  but  his  secret  charities,  revealed  after  his 
eath,  disprove  this  charge.  Of  his  fifteen  children 
there  were  three  sons,  one  of  whom  died  in  childhood, 
another  became  a  Jesuit  and  did  some  striking  scien- 
tific work  after  the  suppression  of  the  Society,  wnUe  the 
third  followed  his  father's  profession  but  cued  youns. 
All  of  Morgagni's  daughters  who  grew  to  womanhood, 
eight  in  number,  became  nuns.  The  estimation  in 
which  he  was  generally  held  can  be  |udsed  from  the 
fact  that  twice,  when  invading  armies  laid  siege  to 
Bologna,  their  commanders  gave  strict  orders  that  no 
harm  was  to  come  to  Morgagni.  He  was  one  of  the 
most  profoundly  learned  men  of  his  time  not  only  in 
science,  but  in  the  literature  of  science.  The  Royal 
Society  of  England  elected  him  a  fellow  in  1724,  the 
Academy  of  Sciences  of  Paris  made  him  a  member  in 
1731,  the  Imperial  Academy  of  St.  Petersburg  in  1735, 
and  the  Academy  of  Berlin  in  1754.  He  was  in  corre- 
spondence with  most  of  the  great  scientists  of  his 
time,  among  them  such  men  as  Ruysch,  Boerhaave, 
Sir  Richard  Meade,  Haller,  and  Meckel.  Cooke,  his 
English  biographer^  declares  "that  the  leamed  and 
great  who  came  mto  his  neighbourhood  did  not 
depart  without  a  visit  to  Morgagni".  The  patri- 
cians of  Venice  counted  him  a  personal  friend.  King 
Emanuel  III  of  Sardinia  often  tumed  to  him  for 
advice.  The  five  popes  ol  the  second  half  of  his  life 
consulted  him  on  educational  and  medical  matters. 
Benedict  XIV  (De  Beatificatione)  mentions  him  in 
special  terms  of  commendation.  Clement  XIII 
lodged  him  at  the  papal  palace  on  his  visits  to  Rome. 
He  was  probablv  the  most  respected  man  of  his  time 
and  even  more  beloved  than  respected. 

Cooks,  Sketch  of  Morqagni  in  SeaU  and  CatuM  of  Diamte  (Lon- 
don, 1822) ;  VwcHOW,  MoTgogni  and  Anatomical  Thouohi  in  Brii, 
Med.  Jowrnal,  I  (1894),  725;   RicHARoaoN,  DiedpUe  of  jBeada-' 

C%%u  (London,  1901) ;  Walbh,  Maker*  of  Modem  Medicine  (Ford- 
am  Univenity  PresB,  New  York,  1907);    Nichols,  Morgagni, 
Father  of  Modem  Pathclogtl  in  Montreal  Medical  Journal  (1903). 

Jambs  J.  Walbh. 


Morgaa,  Edwabd,  Vbnxbablb,  Welsh  priest. 
martyTi  b.  at  Bettisfield,  Hanmer,  Flmtfthire,  executed 
at  lybum,  London,  26  April.  1642.  His  father's 
Christian  name  was  William.  Of  his  mother  we  know 
nothing  except  that  one  of  her  kindred  was  lieuten- 
ant of  the  Tower  of  London.  From  the  fact  that  the 
martyr  was  known  at  St.  Omer  as  John  Sin^eton, 
Mr.  Gillow  thinks  that  she  was  one  of  the  Sin^etons 
of  Steyning  Hall,  near  Blackpool,  in  Lancashire.  Of 
his  reported  education  at  Douai,  no  evidence  M)pean; 
but  he  certainly  was  a  scholar  at  St.  Omer,  ana  at  the 
English  colleges  at  Rome,  Valladolid,  and  Madrid. 
For  a  brief  period  in  1609  he  was  a  Jesuit  novice,  hav- 
ing been  one  of  the  numerous  converts  of  Father  John 
Bennett,  S.J.  Ordained  priest  at  Salamanca,  he  was 
sent  on  the  English  Mission  in  1621.  He  seems  to 
have  laboured  in  his  fatherland,  and  in  April,  1629. 
was  in  prison  in  Flintshire,  for  refusing  the  oath  of 
alleQance.  Later  about  1632  he  was  condemned  in 
the  Star  Chamber  to  have  his  ears  nailed  to  the  pilloiy 
for  having  accused  certain  judges  of  treason.  Imme- 
diately afterwards  he  was  committed  to  the  Fleet 
Prison  in  London,  where  he  remained  until  a  few  days 
before  his  death.  He  was  condemned  at  the  Old 
Bailey  for  bdng  a  priest  imder  the  provisions  of  27 
Etis.,  c.  2  on  St.  Georse's  Day,  23  Apnl,  1642.  At  the 
same  time  was  conaenmed  John  Francis  Quashet, 
a  Scots  Minim,  who  subsequently  died  in  Newp^ 
Prison.  The  last  scene  of  the  martyrdom  is  fuUv  given 
(apparently  by  an  eye  witness)  in  Father  FoUen's 
woric  cited  below. 

Chalxonui,  Memoire  of  Mieeianary  Prieele,  II  (ManchcrtT, 
1803),  110;  GiLLOW.  BibL  Diet.  Bng.  Catk.,  a.  t.;  Pollbm,  AdU 
of  Bnoliah  MoHyre  (London,  1891).  343:  Calendar  StaU  Papere 
Domeetic  leU-MB;  1631-35  (London.  1869-1862),  paeeim, 

John  B.  Wainewriqbt. 

Morganatio  Marriage.    See  Marriaqs. 

Morghen,  Raffabllo,  an  Italian  engraver,  b.  at 
Portid^Q  June,  1758  (1761?) ;  d.  at  Florence,  8  April, 
1833.  His  father,  FlHppo,  came  of  a  family  of  Geiman 
engravers,  his  mother  was  the  daughter  of  Liani,  court 
pamter  to  Charles  III.  Raffaello's  first  teachers  were 
nis  father  and  his 
uncle  Jean,and  be- 
fore he  was  twelve 
he  had  achieved  a 
good  plate.  When 
only  twenty  he 
produced  seven 
noteworthy  plates 
illustrating  the 
carnival  of  1778, 
and  later  went  to 
study  in  Rome, 
under  Volpato, 
whose  daughter  he 
married.'  Im- 
pressed with  San- 
sio's  pictures  in 
the  Vatican,  Mor- 
ghen engraved  his 
^*Poetry"  and 
"Theology".  In 
1787  he  finished 
one  of  his  princi- 
pal works.  Guidons 
"Aurora"  from 
the  fresco  in  the  garden-house  of  the  Roflirig)iofla 
Palace,  his  art  and  his  time  bdns  far  better  suited 
to  this  style  than  to  translating  the  woric  of  greater 
masters.  When  he  visited  Naples  in  17W,  the 
court  offered  him  a  salary  of  tax.  hundred  ducata» 
which  he  declined,  but  later  accepted  (1703)  the  invi- 
tation of  Ferdinand  of  Tuscanv  to  live  in  Florence. 
Here  he  received  only  four  hundred  soudi,  but  he  was 
free  to  found  a  school  of  engraving,  to  engrave  what  he 
diose,  and  own  all  the  prints  from  nis  plates.    Hk  next 


RAfVABtLO  M< 


wing  oj 

of  cIm 


MOBUKTY  569  UORIQJ 

important  plate,Ri^ilMBl'B"TraiiBfiguTation",  was  be-  for  prieata,  and  hia  addressea  which  have  come  down 

gun  in  1796,  buteo  many  were  his  commisnons  that  it  to  ua  under  the  title  "Allocutions  to  the  Clergy"  are 

WU  not  finished  until  1812.    While  somewhat  lacking  chaiacteriEed  by  profound  thought,  expressed  in  an 

in  tone  and  aerial  permiective,  this  engraving  exhibits  elevated  and  oratorical  style.    Id  his  political  views 

brilliant  technique  and  immense  dexterity.    The  fiiat  he  ran  counter  to  much  of  the  popular  feeling  of  the 

editkm  brought  him  one  hundred  and  forty  thousand  time,  and  was  a  notable  opponent  of  the  Fenian  organ- 

fnocs.    The  dedication  of  this  plate  to  Napoleon  I  iiation,  which  be  denounced  strongly.    Still,  he  was  a 

lesulted  in  a  summons  to  Paris,  wnere  he  was  uised  to  patriot  of  the  type  of  O'Connell,  for  whom  he  had  a 

eatablish  a  school  of  enicraving;  but  the  French  pro-  great  admiration.    His  principal  works  are:  "Allocu- 

iMtad  that  this  would  oe  detrimental  to  their  own  Qona  to  the  Clergy"  and  two  volumes  of  sermons. 
artiata  and  the  plan  was  never  earned  out.    Morghen  t>    a    n 

enpaTed  a  portrait  of  N^xileon,  poor  in  leaembunoe  P-  ^'  Bebchbr. 

ud  weak  in  execution.  _.,..„  ,    ,, 

The  mort  adebrat«d  work  of  the  Volpato  School  and        Morigi  (CAKAVAaoio)(  Michblanoblo,  Milanese 

UorOiea's  eh^-tfawre  was  his  engraving  from  da  painter, b.at Caravaggiom  1569;d.atPortod'Ercole 

Vm^  "iMt  Smper",  beeun  in  1794  and  pubUshed  ">  1^09.    His  family  name  was  Morigi,  but  he  as- 

m  1800.   It  was  immensely  successful  despite  the  fact  sumed  that  of  his  buthplace,  and  was  known  by  that 

that  it  is  flat  and  the  figures  resemble  Sansio's  more  ahnoat  eiclumvely.     He  was  the  son  of  a  mason  and 

than  da  Vinei'a.     This  flatness,  however,  is  not  a  as  a  boy  worked  at  preparing  the  plaster  for  the  freeco 

■erioua  fault,  since  the  original  is  practically  in  one  ptunters  of  Milan,  acquiring  from  them  a  great  desire 

plane.     Morghen's  greatest  artistic  sucoees  is  the  to  become  an  artist.    He  received  no  instruction  as  a 

wguestiian  portrait  of  FranQois  de  Moncade  (Van  youth,  but  tr^ned  himself  by  copying  natural  objects, 

I^ck),  wherein  he  shows  more  of  sentiment,  tempera-  doing   the    work 

nwnt,  and  vigour  than  in  any  of  his  two  hundred  and  with  such  rigid  ac- 

fifty-four  engraving.    His  plates  are  pleasing,  quiet,  curacy  that  in  later 

barmonioUB,  typifymg  the  graver's  art  at  the  begin-  life  he  was  seldom 

— —  of  the  nineteenth  century,  and  marie  the  revival  able  to  rid  himself 

sncal  line  engraving  in  Italy.    Great  paintings  of  a  habit  of  sla- 

anv  to  him  more  themes  for  technical  skill  than  vish  and  almost 

models  to  be  rigorously  followed;  hence  his  reproduc-  mechanical  imita- 

tioas  of  the  Masteis  are  all  much  alike.    His  prolific  tion.       After   five 

burin  "flew  over  the  plate"  to  witness  his  mastery  of  years  of  strenuous 

hatch,  dot,  and  flick.     Morghen  began  many  of  his  work  he  found  his 

plates  by  etching  the  salient  lines  and  was  probably  way  to  Venice, 

the  fiirst  enipaver  to  dry-point  the  flesh-tinta  of  his  where  he  carefully 

portraits.    Hs  etched  some  very  spirited  and  delicate  studied  the  works 

Boppat  and  produced  many  vignettes.    He  was  pro-  of  Giorpone,  and 

feasor   in   the   Florence   Academy,   engraver   to   the  received      instruc-   , 

Grand  Duke  of  Tuscany  and  associate  of  the  IntlUul  tion  from  an  un- 

de  France  (IS03).    Louie  XVIIl  gave  him  the  Cordon  known    painter. 

d«  St.  Af  icAdjand  made  him  a  member  of  the  Lij/um  Thence    he    went 

iHanntxtr.    When  he  died  Italy  resounded  with  son-  to  Rome,  and  on 

neta   to   "the  imperishable   glory  of  the  illustrious  account      of      his 

awraver  of  the  Last  Supper".     Among  his  works  poverty     engaged 

ahould  be  noted  tha  "Miracle  of  Bolsena"  (Raphael  nimsetl   to  Ceeare  Oicrnxumatia  Moaim 

Sanno),  "Charity"  (Corregf^o),  and  "Shepherds  in  d'Arpino^  who  em-  Byhimnit 

Arcadj     (Poussin).  ployed  him  to  execute  the  floral  and  ornamental  parts 

TtmCamKmjt%aB.Hif.dtCtntAtudtGnwt^lArt(X9Sff>-,  of  his  pictures.     He BOon,  however,  acquired  a reputa- 

SS^TifKr-'S^lfai-iiSSriifSi^irSSSl;  tto»  to,  hi.  o™  work  »d  hi.  „cu,.'t.  imiutioL  of 

(Paris,  1843)  <jttua  Priini«ri'»  wteiocue).  natural  objects  were  attractive.    The  artist's  hot  tem- 

LBiaa  Hunt.  per.  however,  led  him  into  trouble,  and  in  a  fit  of  anger 

he  killed  one  of  his  friends  and  had  to  leave  Rome  in 

Modar^,  DAvro,  bishop  and  pulpit  orator,  b.  in  haste.    For  a  while  he  was  at  Naples,  and  then  in 

Ardfert.  Co.  Kerry,  in  1812;  d.  1  October,  1877.    He  Malta,  where  twice  he  painted  the  portrait  of  the 

reodvea  his  early  education  in  a  cUs^cal  school  of  his  Grand  Master  of  the  Kmghte  of  Malta,  but  he  quar- 

native  dioceee,  and  later  was  sent  to  Boulogne-sur-  relied  with  one  of  the  Order,  who  threw  him  into 

Mer,  France.    From  there  he  passed  to  Mas^iooth,  prison,  and  it  was  with  difiiculty  that  he  escaped,  fled 

and  after  a  distinguished  course  in  theology  was  to  Syracuse  and  returned  to  Naples.    There  he  ob- 

elected  to  the  Dunboyne  establishment,  where  he  tained  a  pardon  for  the  manslaughter  of  his  compan- 

apent  two  years.    While  yet  a  young  pneat  he  was  ion,  set  out  again  for  Rome,  was  taken  prisoner  on  the 

cnoeen  by  the  episcopal  managoroeat  of  the  Irish  way  by  some  Spaniards  who  mistook  him  for  another 

College  in  Paris,  as  vi<»preaident  of  that  institution;  person,  and  when  set  at  liberty  found  that  he  had  lost 

which  position  he  occupied  for  about  four  years.    So  his  boat  and  all  that  it  contained.    At  Porto  d'Ercole 

satisfactory  was  his  work  that,  on  the  death  of  Father  he  fell  ill  and  died  of  a  violent  fever. 
Hand,  he  was  appointed  Preeident  of  All  Hallows        His  paintings  are  to  be  found  at  Rome,  Berlin, 

tmasionary  college,  Dublin;    and  for  ^ears  guided,  Dresden,  Paris,  St.  PeteiBburg,  Malta,  Copenhagni, 

fashioned,  and  made  effective  the  disciplme  andteach-  Munich,  and  in  the  National  Gallery,  London.    His 

ing  of  that  well  known  institution.    It  was  during  this  colouring  is  vigorous,  extraordinary,  and  daring;  in 

time  he  gave  evidence  of  the  noble  orattny,  so  chaste,  design  he  is  oft^  careleaa,  in  drawing  frequently  mac- 

90  elevated,  so  various,  and  so  convincing,  that  has  curate,  but  bis  flesh  tints  are  exce^ingly  good,  and 

oome  to  be  associated  with  his  name.    In  1854  he  was  his  skill  in  lighting,  although  inaccurate  and  full  of 

Mipointed  coadjutor,  with  the  right  of  succession,  to  triciu,   is  very  attractive.     His  pictures  are  distin- 

tn«  See  of  Kerry,  under  the  title  of  Bishop  of  Anti-  guished  by  startling  contrasts  in  light  and  ahadow  and 

ronia;    and  two  years  later  succeeded  to  that  see.  b^extraordinary  efiects  of  light  on  half-length  figures, 

Bia  work  as  biahop  is  testified  lo  by  several  churches  giving  the  desired  appearance  of  high  rehet,  the  gen- 

and  Bchoots,  a  diocesan  college,  and  many  conventual  eral  effect  of  the  remainder  of  the  picture  being  over 

establiahmenta.    Be  found  time  to  conduct  retreats  sombre. 


MOBIMOND  570  MORMONS 

^^^'^H?^*  ^•SSSiJ^  iV«^/M*on (WdMegno.  II  (1688);  Lahxi.        ffis  chief  workfl  are:  "Histoire  de  la  d^verance  de 

Stona  iVtonca.  I  dsog.  ^^^  WiLLiAMflON  ^'^Klwe  chr6tienne  par  rempereur  Constantin  et  de  U 

UBORGB  CHARLB8  WILLIAMSON.  grandeuT  et  Bouverainet^  temporelle  donn^e  k  rEdise 

Morimond,  Abbey  of,  fourth  daughter  of  Ctteaux,  romaine  par  lea  rois  de  France"  (Paris,  1630) ;  "&et' 

situated  in  Champagne,  Diocese  of  Langres,  France;  citationes  ecclesiasticae  in  utnimque  Samaritanorum 

was  founded  in  1115  by  Odehric  d'Aigremont  and  his  Pentateuchum"  (Paris,  1631),  in  which  he  maintained 

wife,  Adeline  de  Choiseul.    Arnold,  its  first  abbot,  a  that  the  Samaritan  text  and  the  Septuajgint  should  be 

member  of  one  of  the  noblest  families  of  Germany,  preferred  to  the  Hebrew  text,  a  position  he  upheld 

was  for  many  years  considered  as  one  of  the  columns  again  in  the  following  work:  ''Exercitationes  bibticB 

of  the  Oistercian  Order.   Thanks  to  his  zeal  and  influ-  de  Hebrsei  Grsedque  textus  sinceritate  .  .  ."  (Paris, 

ence,  Morimond  took  on  a  rapid  growth;  numerous  1663,  1669,  1686);  ''Commentarius  historicus  de  dis- 

colonies  therefrom  established  themselves  in  France,  dplina  in  administralione    sacramenti    Poenitentis 

Germany,  Poland,  Bohemia,  Spsdn,  and  the  Island  of  XIII  primus  ssculis"  (Paris,  1651);"Conmientariusde 

Cyprus.    Amongst  the  most  celebrated  foundations  sacrisEcdesbeordinationibus"  (Paris,  1655:  Antwerp, 

were  Ebrach  (1126)  the  most  flourishing  in  Germany;  1695;  Rome,  1751).  The  two  preceding  worxs  are  very 

Holy  Cross  (1134)^  the  glory  of  the  Order  in  Austria;  important  for  the  history  of  the  sacraments.    Morin 

Aiguebelle  (1137),  in  France,  which  the  Reformed  Cis-  also  published : "  Biblia  graeca  sive  Vetus  testamentom 

tercians  have  now  resuscitated  from  its  ruins.    This  secundum  Septuaginta'' (Paris,  1628);  and  in  Leja3r'a 

extension  was  so  prodigious  that  toward  the  end  of  the  "  Polyglotte  ,  vol.  V  (1645),  ''Pentateuchus  hebrso- 

ei^teenth  centuiy  ^lorimond  counted  amongst  its  samaritanus"  and  "Pentateuchus  samaritanus".    He 

filiations  nearlv  seven  hundred  monasteries  for  both  left  several  manuscript  works. 

sexes.    Briefs  from  various  popes  placed  the  principal       Conwantik,  s^agraphia  titaJ,  Morini  (Pm  I6fl0):  Nic*- 

MUitajy  Orders  of  Spain  under  the  spiritual  iuri«fic  f^  !iS:S:"\'h?LSSlDZVIS:SS.  "^SSlS^d:;^ 

tion  of  the  Abbot  of  Monmond :    the  Order  of  Cala-  1682) :  a  satire  rather  than  a  Ufe;  Battbrbu  MimurimdmmeaiiQum, 

trava  (1187);  of  Alcantara  (1214);  the  Militia  of  II.  435;  GppiMjyrfl<io.  w  ifonn  OWois.  1840);  R^ 
Christ,  in  Portugal  (1319),  and  later  on  those  of  St.  ^'^^ '^^ **^' ^^"'' -*•«»* *^ ***^'^*'~pT^.^ 
Maurice  and  St.  Lazarus,  in  Savoy.  The  vast  wealth  ^'  ^'  ^'  anoold. 
that  graduallv  accumulated,  and  the  continual  wars  Mormons,  or  the  Church  of  Jesus  Christ  of  Lat- 
wherefrom  Morimond  had  particularly  to  suflFer,  on  tbr-Dat  Saints. — ^This  religious  body  had  its  origin 
accoimt  of  its  geographical  position,  became  the  cause  during  the  early  part  of  the  nineteenth  centuiy. 
of  decadence.  Various  attempts  at  reform  were  made,  Jose^  Smith,  the  founder  and  first  president  of  the 
but  the  constant  political  disorders  paralyzed  the  sect,  was  the  son  of  a  Vermont  farmer,  and  was  bom 
efforts  of  the  reformers.  In  1791  the  religious  were  in  Sharon  township,  Windsor  County,  in  that  state,  on 
difipersed,  and  Morimond  ceased  to  exist.  23  December,  1805.  In  the  spring  of  1820,  while  liv- 
Morimond  had  sheltered  a  great  number  of  religious,  ing  with  his  parents  at  Manchester,  Ontario  (now 
renowned  both  for  sanctity  and  science.  The  abbatial  Wajme)  County,  New  York,  he  became  deeply  con- 
chair  was  often  filled  by  abbots  whose  names  are  yet  cemed  upon  the  subject  of  his  salvation,  a  condition 
celebrated,  to  whom  kings  and  emperors  had  confided  partly  induced  by  a  religious  revival  which  prosely- 
tasks  of  the  most  delicate  importance,  and  whom  the  tized  a  few  of  his  relatives  to  the  Resbyterian  Faith, 
popes  had  honoured  with  their  confidence.  A  large  Joseph  himself  was  inclined  toward  Methodism:  to 
number  of  bishops  and  several  cardinals  were  dven  satisfy  his  mind  as  to  which  one  of  the  existing  sects 
to  the  Church  by  Morimond;  and  Benedict  XII,  bo-  he  should  join,  he  sought  Divine  guidance,  and 
fore  his  election,  was  a  monk  of  affiliation  of  this  abbey,  claimed  to  have  received  in  answer  to  prayer  a  visita- 
Of  the  magnificent  buildinra  that  formed  the  abbey  tion  from  two  glorious  bemgs,  who  told  him  not  to  con- 
and  its  church,  so  remarkable  for  architectural  beauty  nect  himself  with  any  of  these  Churches,  but  to  bide 
and  the  richness  of  ornamentation,  nothmg  now  re-  the  coming  of  the  CHiurch  of  Christ,  which  was  about 
mains  but  ruins;  nevertheless  the  ornm,  one  of  the  to  be  re-established.    According  to  his  own  statement, 


mond  (Dijon.  1852);    Manriqub.  AnnaUt  Cittereieruea  (Lyona.  Containing  the  fullneSB  of  the   Gospd  of   Christ  as 

1642);  Janausotm,  OrHKnum  Ciata-ciennum,  I  (Vienna.  1877);  taught  by  the  Saviour  after  His  ReSUTiection  tO  the 

Naxn.  Btmi  de  rhittoire  de  Vordre  de  CUeaux  OPttrifl,  1696).  f*  ^x  ^V      ?™°®."  ^^  '^"®  HOUSe  Ol  Israel  Wiucn  m- 

Edmond  M.  Obrecht.  habited  the  American  contment  ages  prior  to  its  dis- 
covery by  Columbus.  Moroni  in  mortal  life  had  been 
Moxin,  Jean,  a  French  priest  of  the  Oratory,  b.  at  a  Nephite  prophet,  the  son  of  another  prophet  named 
Blois,  in  1591 ;  d.  at  Paris,  28  Feb.,  1659.  According  to  Mormon,  who  was  the  compiler  of  the  record  buried  in 
Dupin,  whose  judgment  posterity  has  confirmed,  he  was  a  hill  anciently  called  Cumorah.  situated  about  two 
the  most  learned  Catholic  author  of  the  seventeenth  miles  from  the  modem  village  of  Manchester.  Joseph 
century.  Bom  a  Calvinist,  he  was  converted  by  Car^  Smith  states  that  he  received  the  record  from  tne 
dinal  Duperron,  and  ui  1618  joined  the  Oratory  at  Paris.  Angel  Moroni  in  September,  1827.  It  was,  he  alleges. 
At  first  he  was  superior  in  houses  of  his  congregation  engraved  upon  metallic  plates  having  the  appearance 
at  Orleans  and  Angers;  in  1625  he  was  in  attendance  of  gold  and  each  a  little  thinner  than  ordinary  tin,  the 
on  Queen  Henrietta  of  France  in  England;  in  1628  he  whole  forming  a  book  about  eight  inches  long,  six 
returned  to  Paris,  where  he  remained  until  his  death,  inches  wide,  and  six  inches  thick,  bound  together  by 
with  the  exception  of  a  sojourn  of  a  few  months  in  rings.  The  characters  engraved  upon  the  plates  were 
Rome,  whither  he  had  been  csJled  by  Urban  VIII  in  in  a  lansuage  styled  the  Reformed  Egyptian,  and  with 
1640  to  aid  in  bringing  about  the  union  of  the  Greeks  the  book  were  interpreters — Urim  and  Thummim — 
and  Latins.  An  order  from  Richelieu  recalled  him  to  by  means  of  which  these  characters  were  to  be  trans- 
Paris,  where  he  continued  the  publishing  of  his  learned  lated  into  English.  The  result  was  the  "  Book  of  Mor* 
works,  at  the  same  time  labouring  to  convert  heretics  mon",  published  at  Palmyra,  New  York,  in  March. 
and  Jews,  manv  of  whom  he  brou^t  to  the  tme  Faith.  1830;  in  the  preface  eleven  witnesses,  exchiAve  oi 
The  General  Assemblies  of  the  French  clergy  often  Joseph  Smith,  the  translator,  claim  to  have  seen 
appealed  to  his  great  erudition,  and  entmsted  him  the  plates  from  which  it  was  taken.  On  renouncing 
with  various  tasks.  He  kept  up  a  correspondence  and  Mormonism  subsequently,  Cowdery,  Whitmer.  ana 
was  often  in  controversy  with  tne  noted  savants  of  the  Harris,  the  three  principal  witnesses,  dedared  thiB 
day,  such  as  Muis,  Buxtorf,  etc.  t^imony  fal^e. 


MORMONS  571  MORMONS 

The  "  Book  of  Mormon"  purports  to  be  an  abridged  Almighty  God  according  to  the  dictates  of  our  con- 
account  of  God's  dei^ngs  with  the  two  great  races  of  science,  and  allow  all  men  the  same  privilege;  let  them 
prehistoric  Americans — ^the  Jaredites,  who  were  led  worship  how,  where,  or  what  thev  may. 
from  the  Tower  of  Babel  at  the  time  of  the  confusion  "  (12)  We  believe  in  being  subject  to  kings,  presi- 
of  tongues,  and  the  Nephites*  who  came  from  Jerusa-  dents,  rulers  and  magistrates,  in  obeying,  honouring 
lem  just  prior  to  the  Babylonian  captivity  (600  b.  c.)>  and  sustaining  that  law. 

Acoordmg  to  this  book,  America  is  the  ''Land  of        ''(13)    We  believe  in  being  honest,  true,  chaste, 

Zion",  where  the  New  Jerusalem  will  be  built  by  a  benevolent,  virtuous,  and  in  doing  good  to  all  men; 

gathenng  of  scattered  Israel  before  the  second  coming  indeed,  we  may  say  that  we  follow  the  admonition 

of  the  Messiah.    The  labours  of  such  men  as  Colum-  of  Paul,  'We  blelieve  all  things,  we  hope  all  thinfls', 

bus,  the  Pilgrim  Fathers,  and  the  patriots  of  the  Revo-  we  have  endured  many  things,  and  hope  to  be  able 

lution,  are  pointed  out  as  preparatory  to  that  consum-  to  endure  all  things.    If  there  is  anvtning  virtuous, 

mation.  The  work  of  Joseph  Smith  is  also  prophetically  lovely  or  of  good  report,  or  praiseworthy,  we  seek  after 

indicated,  he  being  represented  as  a  lineal  descendant  these  things." 

of  the  Joseph  of  old,  conmiissioned  to  begin  the  gath-  Six  months  after  its  inception,  the  Mormon  Church 
ering  of  Israel  foretold  by  Isaias  (xi,  10-16)  and  other  sent  its  first  mission  to  the  American  Indians — called 
ancient  prophets.  In  another  part  of  his  narrative  in  the  "Book  of  Mormon"  the  Lamanitea,  the  de- 
Joseph  Smith  affirms  that,  while  translating  the  generate  remnants  of  the  Nephite  nation.  Oliver 
"Book  of  Mormon",  he  and  his  scribe,  Oliver  Cow-  Cowdery  was  placed  at  the  head  of  this  mission,  which 
dery,  were  visited  by  an  angel,  who  declared  himself  to  also  included  Parley  P.  Pratt,  a  former  preacher  of 
be  John  the  Baptist  and  ondained  them  to  the  Aaronic  the  Reformed  Baptists,  or  Campbellites.  The  mis- 
priesthood;  ana  that  subsequently  they  were  ordained  sionaries  proceeded  to  northern  Ohio,  then  almost  a 
to  the  priesthood  of  Melchisedech  by  the  Apostles  wilderness,  where  Elder  Pratt  presented  to  his  former 
PetOT.  James,  and  John.  According  to  Smith  and  pastor,  Sidney  Rigdon,  a  copy  of  the  "  Book  of  Mor- 
Cowaeiy,  the  Aaronic  priesthood  gave  them  authority  mon",  published  several  months  before.  Up  to  that 
to  preacn  faith  and  repentance,  to  baptize  by  immer-  time  Rigdon  had  never  seen  the  book,  which  he  was 
sion  for  the  remission  of  sins,  and  to  administer  the  accused  of  helping  Smith  to  write.  The  Mormoiis  are 
sacrament  of  the  Lord's  Supper;  the  priesthood  of  equally  emphatic  in  their  denial  of  the  identity  of 
Melchisedech  empowered  them  to  lay  on  hands  and  the  "Book  of  Mormon"  with  Spaulding's  "Manu- 
bestow  the  Holy  Ghost.  The  "Book  of  Mormon"  script  Story",  now  in  Oberlin  College;  they  quote 
being  published,  its  peculiar  doctrines,  including  those  in  this  connexion  James  H.  Fairchild,  president  of 
just  set  forth,  were  preached  in  western  New  York  and  that  institution,  who,  in  a  communication  to  the 
northern  Penni^lvania.  Those  who  accepted  them  "New  York  Observer"  (5  February,  1885),  states 
were  termed  "Mormons",  but  they  called  themselves  that  Mr.  L.  L.  Rice  and  he,  after  comparing  the 
"Latter-Day  Saints",  in  contradistmction  to  the  saints  "Book  of  Mormon"  and  the  Spaulding  romance, 
of  former  times.  Tne  "Church  of  Jesus  Christ  of  "could  detect  no  resemblance  between  the  two,  in 
LatterDaySaints"was  organised  on  6  April,  1830,  at  general  or  detail".  Elder  Cowdery  and  his  com- 
Fayette,  Seneca  County,  New  York ;  Joseph  Smith  panions,  after  baptising  about  one  hundred  persons 
was  accepted  as  first  elder,  and  subsequently  as  m  Ohio,  went  to  western  Missouri,  and,  thence 
prophet,  seer,  and  revelator.  The  articles  of  faith  foi^  crossing  over  at  Independence  into  what  is  now  the 
mulated  by  him  are  as  follows:  State  of  Kansas,  laboured  for  a  time  among  the 

"  (1)  We  believe  in  God,  the  Eternal  Father,  and  in  Indians   there.    Meanwhile   the   Mormons   of   the 

His  Son,  Jesus  Christ,  and  in  the  Holy  Ghost.  East,  to  escape  the  opposition  awakened  by  their 

"  (2)  We  believe  that  men  will  be  pimished  for  their  extraordinary  claims,  and  to  be  nearer  their  proposed 

own  sins,  and  not  for  Adam's  transgression.  ultimate  destination,  moved  their  headquarters  to 

"  (3)  We  believe  that  through  the  atonement  of  Kirtland,  Ohio,  from  which  place,  in  the  summer  of 

Christ  all  men  may  be  saved,  by  obedience  to  the  1831,  departed  its  first  colony  into  Missouri,  Jackson 

laws  and  ordinances  of  the  Gospel.  County  in  that  state  having  been  desi^ated  as  the 

"  (4)  We  believe  that  these  ordinances  are:  First,  site  of  the  New  Jerusalem.     Both  at  Kulland  and  at 

faith  in  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ;  second,  repentance:  Independence  efiForts  were  made  to  establish  "The 

third,  baptism  by  immersion  for  the  remission  ot  United  Order",  a  communal  system  of  an  industrial 

8ins;fourth,  laying  on  of  hands  for  the  gift  of  the  Holy  character,  designed  to  make  the  church  members 

Ghost.  equal  in  things  spiritual  and  temporal.    The  prophet 

"  (5)  We  believe  that  a  man  must  be  called  of  God  taught  that  such  a  sjrstem  had  sanctified  the  City 

by  prophecy,  and  by  the  laying  on  of  hands  by  those  of  Enoch,  whose  people  were  called  "Zion,  because 

who  are  in  authority,  to  preach  the  Gospel  and  admin-  they  were  of  one  heart  and  one  mind,  and  dwelt  in 

ister  the  ordinances  thereof .  ri^teousness, "  with  "no  poor  among  them".    He 

"  (6)  We  believe  in  the  same  organization  that  ex-  idso  declared  that  the  ancient  Apostles  had  endeav- 

isted  in  the  primitive  church,  viz.  apostles,  prophets,  oured  to  establish  such  an  order  at  Jerusalem  (Acts. 

pastors,  teachers,  evangelists,  etc.  iv,  32-37),  and  that,  according  to  the  "Book  oi 

"  (7)  we  believe  in  the  gift  of  tongues,  prophecy,  rev-  Mormon",  it  had  prevailed  among  the  Nephites  for 

elation,  visions,  healing,  interpretation  of  tongues,  two  centuries  after  Christ.     In  the  latter  part  of 

etc.  1833  trouble  arose  between  the  Mormons  and  the 

"  (8)  We  believe  the  Bible  to  be  the  word  of  God,  as  Missourians,   based  largely,   say   Mormon  writers, 

far  as  it  is  translated  correctly;  we  also  believe  the  upon  a  feeling  of  apprehension  concerning  the  aims 

'Book  of  Mormon'  to  be  the  word  of  God.  and  motives  of  the  new  settlers.    Coining  from  the 

"(9)  We  believe  all  that  God  has  revealed,  all  north  and  the  east,  they  were  suspected  of  being 

that  He  does  now  reveal,  and  we  believe  that  He  abolitionists,  which  was  sufficient  ot  itself  to  make 

will  yet  reveal  many  great  and  important  things  them  unpopular  in  Missouri.     It  was  also  charged 

pertaming  to  the  Kingdom  of  God.  that  they  intended  to  unite  with  the  Indians  and 

"  (10)  We  believe  in  the  literal  gathering  of  drive  the  older  settlers  from  the  land.  The  Mormons 
Israel  and  in  the  restoration  of  the  Ten  Tnbes.  asserted  their  innocence  of  these  and  other  charges, 
That  Zion  will  be  built  upon  this  continent.  That  but  their  denial  did  not  avail.  Armed  mobs  came 
Christ  will  raign  personally  upon  the  earth,  and  that  upon  them,  and  the  whole  colony — twelve  hundred 
the  earth  will  be  renewed  and  receive  its  paradisaic  men,  women,  and  children — ^were  driven  from  Jack- 
glory,  son  County,  and  forbidden  on  pain  of  death  to 

"(11)    We  claim  the  privilege  of  worshipping  return. 


MORMONS  572  MORMONS 


In  Ohio  the  Mormons  p|ro6pered,  though  even  council,  its  printing-office  bdng  destroyed  and  its 

there  they  had  their  vicissituaeB.    At  Kirtland  a  editor,  Foster,  ezpdled.    This  sununaiy  act  unified 

temple  was  built,  and  a  more  complete  organisation  anti-Mormon  sentiment,  and,  on  Smith's  preparing 

of    the    priesthood    effected.    Mormonism's    first  to  resist  by  force  the  warrant  procured  by  Foster  for 

foreign  mission  was  opened  in  the  summer  of  1837,  his  arrest,  the  militia  w^ie  called  out  and  armed 

when  Heber  C.  Kimball  and  Orson  Hyde,  two  of  the  mobs   began   to    threaten   Nauvoo.    At   Carthage 

''twelve  apostles  of  the  Church",  were  sent  with  was  a  larjK  body  of  militia,  mustered  under  Governor 

other  elders  to  £n|;land  for  that  purpose.    While  Thomas  Ford  to  compel  the  surrender  of  Nauvoo. 

this  work  of  proselytising  was  in  progress,  disaffection  Smith  submitted  and  repaired  to  Carthage,  where 

was  rife  at  Kirtland,  and  the  ill-feding  grew  and  in-  he  and  his  brother  Hyrum,  with  others,  were  placed 

tensified  until  the  "prophet"  was  compelled  to  flee  for  in  jail.    Fearful  of  a  bloody  collision,  the  governor 

his  life.    It  is  of  importance  to  bear  in  mind  that  the  disbanded  most  of  his  force,  and  with  the  remainder 

oi^)06ition  to  the  Mormons  in  the  localities  wh^ie  they  marched  to  Nauvoo,  where  the  Mormons  laid  down 

settled  is,   from  the  contradictory  and  divergent  their  arms.    During  the  govemor^s  absence  a  por- 

statements  made  by  the  Latter-Dav  Saints  and  the  tion  of  the  disban^d  miutia  returned  to  Cartha^ 

neighbours  not  of  their  belief,  difficult  of  explanation,  and  assaulted  the  jail  in  which  the  Mormon  leaS- 

It  IS  safe  to  assume  that  there  was  provocation  on  ers  were  imprisoned,  shooting  Josq>h  and  Hyrum 

both  sides.    The  main  body  of  the  Mormons,  fol-  Smith,  and  all  but  fatallv  wounding  John  Taylor; 

lowing  their  leader  to  Missoiui,  settled  in  and  around  Willara  Richards,  their  fellow-prisoner,  esci^Md  un- 

Far  West,  Caldwell  Coimty,  which  now  became  the  hurt, 
chief  gathering-place.    The  sect  had  been  organised        In  the  exodus  that  ensued,  Brigham  Younp  led  the 


bv  six  men,  and  a  vear  later  it  was  said  to  number    people  westward.    Passing  over  the  frosen ^^ 

about  two  thousand  souls.    In  Missouri  it  increased  (February,  1846},  the  main  body  made  their  wajr 

to  twelve  thousand.    A  brief  season  of  peace  was  across  the  praines  of  Iowa,  readiing  the  Missouri 

followed  by  a  series  of  calamiti^  occasioned  by  River  about  the  middle  of  June.    A  Mormon  colony. 

religious  and  political  differences.    The  trouble  began  sailing  from  New  Yoric,  rounded  Cape  Horn,  ana 

in  August,  1838,  and  during  the  strife  considerable  landed  at  Verba  Buena  (San  f^rancisoo)  in  July,  1846. 

blood  was  shed  and  much  property  destroyed,  the  Prior  to  that  time  only  a  few  thousand  Americans 

final  act  in  the  drama  being  tne  mid-winter  expul-  had  settled  on  the  Pacific  Coast,  mostly  in  Oregon. 

sion  of  the  entire   Mormon  community  from  iJ^e  which  was  then  claimed  both  by  Great  Britain  ana 

state.  the  United  States.    So  far  as  Imown,  no  American 

In  Illinois,  where  they  were  kindly  received,  they  had  then  made  a  permanent  home  in  what  was 

built  around  the  small  village  of  Commerce,  in  Han-  called  ''The  Great  Basin".    The  desert  region,  now 

cock  County,  the  city  of  ^^auvoo,  gaUiering  in  that  known  as  Salt  Lake  Valley,  was  then  a  part  oi  the 

vicinity  to  the  number  of  twenty  thousand.    An-  Mexican  province  of  California,  but  was  uninhabited 

other  temple  was  erected,  several  towns  founded,  and  save  by  Indians  and  a  few  wandering  tn^pers  and 

the    surrounding    country    occupied.    Up    to    Uus  hunters.    The  Mormon  pioneers,  marelung  from  the 

time  there  had  been  no  Mormon  recruiting  from  Missouri  River  in  April,  1847,  arrived  in  Salt  Lake 

abroad,  all  the  converts  to  the  new  sect  coming  Valley  on  24  July.    Tlus  company,  numbering  143 

from  various  states  in  the  Union  and  from  Canada,  men,  3  women,  and  2  children,  was  led  by  Brigbam 

In   184Q-1   Brigham  Young  and  other  emissaries  Young.    Most  of  the  exiles  from  Nauvoo  remained 

visited  Great  Britain,  preaching  in  all  the  principal  in  temporary  shelters  on  the  frontier,  where  they 

cities  and  towns.    Here  they  baptised  a  numoer  entered  into  winter  quarters  in  what  is  now  Nebradka. 


agency.    The  first  Mormon  emigrants  from  a  foreign  they  laid  out  Salt  Lake  City.    The  people  left  upon 

land — a  small  company  of  Britid^  converts — reached  the  Missouri  migrated  in  the  autumn  of  1848,  and  after 

Nauvoo,  by  wav  of  New  York,  in  the  summer  of  1840.  them  came  yearly  to  the  Rocky  Mountains,  generally 

Subsequently  the  emigration  came  via  New  Orleans,  in  Chureh  wagons  sent  to  the  frontier  to  meet  theniL 

The  Legislature  of  Illinois  granted  a  liberal  charter  to  Mormon  emigrants  from  the  states,  from  Europe,  and 

Nauvoo,  and,  as  a  protection  against  mob  violence  and  from  other  lands  to  which  missionaries  continued  to  be 

further  drivings  and  spoliations,  the  Mormons  were  sent.    Most  of  the  converts  were  drawn  from  the 

permitted  to  organize  the  ''Nauvoo  Legion",   an  middle  and  working  classes,  but  some  professional  peo- 

all  but  independent  milita^  body,  thouf^  part  of  pie  were  amonp  them. 

the  state  militia,  commanded  by  Joseph  Smith  as  While  awutmg  the  time  for  the  establishment  of  a 

lieutenant-general.    Moreover,  a  municipal  court  was  civic  government,  the  Mormons  were  under  ecdesiasti- 

instituted,  navinp  jurisdiction  in  civil  cases,  as  a  bar  cal  nue.    Secular  officers  were  apix>inted,  however,  to 

to  legal  proceedmgs  of  a  persecuting  or  vexatious  preserve  the  peace,  administer  justice,  and  carry  on 

character.    Similar  causes  to  tiiose  which  had  re-  public  improvements.    These  officers  were  of  ten  ae- 

sulted  in  the  exodus  of  the  Mormons  from  Missouri  lected  at  chureh  meetings,  and  civil  and  religious  funo- 

brought  about  their  expulsion  from  Illinois,  prior  tions  were  frequently  united  in  the  same  person.    But 

to  which  a  tragic  event  robbed  them  of  their  prophet,  this  state  of  affairs  did  not  continue  long.  As  soon  as  a 

Joseph  Smith,  and  their  patriareh,  Hyrum  Smith,  who  civic  government  was  organised,  many  of  the  forms  d 

were  killed  by  a  mob  in  Carthage  jail  on  27  June,  political  procedure  alreadpr  in  use  in  American  commoo- 

1844.     The  immediate  cause  of  the  murder  of  the  wealths  were  introduced,  and  remained  in  force  till 

two  brothers  was  the  destruction  of  the  press  of  the  statehood  was  secured  for  Utah.    In  March,  1849, 

Nauvoo  "Expositor'',  a  paper  established  by  seceders  thirteen  months  after  the  signing  of  the  treaty  by 

from  Mormonism  to  give  voice  to  the  wide  indigna-  which  Mexico  ceded  this  resion  to  the  United  States, 

tion  caused  by  the  promulgation  of  Smith's  revelation  the  settlers  in  Salt  Lake  Valley  founded  the  provi- 

of  12  July,  1843,  establishing  polygamy,  which  had  sional  Government  of  the  State  of  Deseret,  pending 

been  practised  personally  by  the  prophet  for  several  action  by  the  American  Congress  upon  thdr  petition 

years.    Another  avowed  purpose  of  tnis  paper  was  to  for  admission  into  the  Union..    Deseret  is  a  word 

secure  the  repeal  of  the  Nauvoo  Charter,  which  the  taken  from  the  "Book  of  Mormon",  and  signifies 

Mormons  looked  upon  as  the  bulwark  of  their  Uber-  honey-bee.    Brigham  Young  was  elected  governor, 

ties.    The  "Expositor"  issued  but  once,  when  it  was  and  a  le^^ature,  with  a  full  set  of  executive  offieets, 

condemned  as  a  public  nuisance  by  order  of  the  city  was  also  chosen.    Congress  denied  the  petition  for 


H0BM0N8  573  MORMONS 

statehood,  and  omuuMd  the  Territoiy  of  Utah,  nam-  Church,  and  will  be  liable  to  be  dealt  with  accorduig 

ing  it  after  a  local  tribe  of  Indians.    Briffham  Young  to  the  rules  and  regulations  thereof,  and  exconununi- 

was  appointed  governor  bv  President  Millard  Fill-  cated  Uien^rom. 
nibre  ^ptember^  1850)  and  four  years  later  was  reap-  Joseph  F.  Smith, 

gSS^.TsSlSrisKSnT'^^ch'Se^  Indent  of  the  Church  of  WChriBt  of 

mons  defied  the  authority  of  the  Federal  Govern-  Latter-day  Saints." 

ment,  is  one  of  the  least  creditable  chapters  of  their 

lustoiy .  In  an  "  Address  to  the  World  *\  adopted  at  the  Gen- 
One  reason  given  for  the  persistent  hostility  to  the  oral  Conference  of  April,  1^07,  President  Smith  and 
Mormons  was  the  dislike  caused  by  the  acrimoni-  his  counsellors,  John  R.  Winder  and  Anthon  H.  Lund, 
ous  controversy  over  polygamv  or  plural  marriage,  in  behalf  of  the  Church,  reaffirmed  its  attitude  or 
Joseph  Smith,  the  founder  of  Mormonism,  claimed  to  obedience  to  the  laws  of  Congress.  The  practice  of 
have  received  a  revelation  and  a  conmiand  ordering  plural  marriage  is  indeed  fast  becoming  a  ttdng  of  the 
him  to  re-introduce  plural  marriage  and  restore  the  past. 

polygamous  condition  tolerated  among  tiiepre^udseio        Mormonism  announces  as  one  of  its  principal  lums 

tribes.     Polysamy  now  became  a  principle  of  the  thepreparationofapeoplefor  the  coming  of  the  Lord; 

creed  of  the  Latter^Day  Saints,  and,  though  not  en-  a  people  who  will  build  the  New  Jerusalem,  and  there 

forced  by  the  laws  of  the  Mormon  hierarchy,  was  await  His  coming.    The  United  Order,  the  means  of 

preachea  bv  the  elders  and  practised  bv  the  chiefs  of  preparation,  is  at  present  in  abeyance,  but  the  prelim- 

the  cult  and  by  many  of  the  people.    The  violation  by  mary  work  of  gathering  Israel  goes  on,  not  to  Zion 

the  Mormons  of  the  monogamous  law  of  Christianity  proper  (Jackson  County,  Missouri),  but  to  the  Stakes 

and  of  the  United  States  was  brousht  to  the  attention  of  2ion,  now  numbering  sixtv-one,  most  of  them  in 

of  Congress,  which  prohibited  under  penalty  of  fine  Utah;  the  others  are  in  Idaho,  Arizona,  Wyoming, 

and  imprisonment   the  perpetuation  of  the  anti-  Colorado,  Oregoxi,  Canada,  and  Mexico.    A  stake  is  a 


gress,  and  established  the  constitutionalityof  the  anti-  ganized.  The  area  of  a  stake  is  usually  that  of  a 
polygamy  statutes.  The  Latter-Dc^  Saints,  strangely  county,  though  the  extent  of  territory  difiFers  according 
enough,  submitted  to  the  decrees  of  Congress,  unwit-  to  popiilation  or  other  conditions.  Each  stake  is  pre- 
tingly  admitting  by  their  submission  that  the  revela-  sided  over  by  three  high-priests,  who,  with  twelve  mf^ 
tion  of  their  founder  and  prophet,  Joseph  Smith,  could  councilors,  constitute  a  tribunal  for  the  adjudication 
not  have  come  from  God.  If  the  command  to  restore  of  differences  among  church  members  within  their 
polygamy  to  the  modem  world  was  from  on  High,  jurisdiction.  Each  ward  has  a  bishopric  of  three,  a 
then,  by  submitting  to  the  decision  of  the  Supreme  lower  tribunal,  from  whose  decisions  appeaJs  may  be 
Court,  the  Mormon  hierarchv  reversed  the  apostolic  taken  to  the  high  council.  The  extreme  penalty  in- 
proclamation  and  acknowledged  it  was  better  "to  flicted  bv  the  church  courts  is  excommunication.  In 
obey  man  than  to  obey  God".  each  stake  are  quorums  of  high-priests,  seventies,  and 
fiio  long  as  Utah  remained  a  territory  there  was  elders,  officers  and  callings  in  the  Melcnisedech  priest- 
much  bitterness  between  her  Mormon  and  non-Mor-  hood:  and  in  each  ward,  quorums  of  priests,  teachers, 
mon  citizens,  the  latter  termed  "Gentiles".^  The  and  deacons,  who  officiate  in  the  Aaronic  priesthood. 
Mormons  submitted,  however,  and  their  president.  This  lesser  authority  ministers  in  temporal  thin^, 
Wilford  Woodruff,  issued  a  ** Manifesto",  which,  being  while  the  higher  priesthood  ministers  in  things  spint- 
accepted  bv  the  Latter-Day  Saints  in  General  Confer^  ual,  which  inchide  the  temporal, 
ence,  withdrew  the  sanction  of  the  Church  from  the  rresiding  over  the  entire  Church  is  a  supreme  coun- 
further  solemnization  of  any  marriages  forbidden  by  cil  of  three  high-priests,  called  the  First  Presidency, 
the  law  of  the  land.  One  of  the  results  of  this  action  otherwise  known  as  the  president  and  his  counsellors, 
was  the  admission  of  Utah  into  the  Union  of  States  on  Next  to  these  are  the  twelve  apostles,  eciual  in  author^ 
6  January,  1896.  ity  to  the  First  Presidency,  though  subject  to  and  act- 
Instances  of  the  violation  of  the  anti-polygamy  laws  ing  under  their  direction.  Whenever  the  First  Presi- 
subsequent  to  the  date  of  the  ''Manifesto"  having  dency  is  dissolved,  which  occurs  at  the  death  of  the 
been  brought  to  li^t,  the  present  head  of  the  Church,  president,  the  apostles  take  the  government  and  reor- 
President  Joseph  F.  Smith,  in  AprU.  1904,  made  the  ganize  the  supreme  council — alwajrs,  however,  with 
followi^K  statement  to  the  General  Conference  assem-  the  consent  of  the  Church,  whose  members  are  called 
bled  at  Salt  Lake  City,  and  it  was  endorsed  by  resolu-  to  vote  for  or  against  this  or  any  other  proposition  sub- 
tion  and  adopted  by  unanimous  vote:  mitted  to  them.    The  manner  of  voting  is  with  the 

uplifted  right  hand,  women  voting  as  well  as  men. 

"  orFiciAL  STATEMENT.  Besides  the  general  conferences  held  semi-annually 

and  the  usual  Sabbath  meetings,  there  are  stake  and 

"  Inasmuch  as  there  are  numerous  reix>rts  in  drcula-  ward  conferences,  in  which  the  consent  of  the  people  is 

tion,  that  plural  marriages  have  been  entered  into,  con-  obtained  before  any  important  action  is  taken.    The 

trary  to  the  official  declaration  of  President  Woodruff,  special  function  of  uie  apostles  is  to  preach  the  Gospel, 

^  a__x — 1 —  o^xi.  1  ooA  ^^ ^-.u.  ^«ii^j  *i.^  I  x/t — :  Qj.  jjj^yg  1^  preached,  in  all  nations,  and  to  set  in  order, 

whenever  necessary,  the  affairs  of  the  entire  Mormon 
Church.  Among  the  general  authorities  there  is  dso 
a  presiding  patriarch,  who,   with  his  subordinates 

lativeof  the  law  of  the  land;  I,  Joseph  F.  Smith,  Presi-  in  the  vanous  stakes,  gives  blessing  to  the  people 

dent  of  the  Church  of  Jesus  Christ  of  Latteinlay  and  comforts  them  with  sacred  ministrations.     'Hie 

Saints,  hereby  affirm  and  declare  that  no  such  mar-  first  council  of  the  Seventies^  seven  in  number,  assist 

riages  have  l>een  solemnized  with  the  sanction,  con-  the  twelve  apostles,  and  preside  over  all  the  quorums 

sent,  or  knowledge  of  the  Church  of  Jesus  Christ  of  of  seventies.     Upon  a  presiding  bishopric  of  three 

LatteiKlav  Saints;  and  devolves  the  duty  of  receiving  and  disbursing  the 

''I  hereby  announce  that  all  such  marriages  are  pro-  revenues  o(  the  Church,  and  otherwise  mananng 

hibited,  and  if  anv  officer  or  member  of  the  Church  its  business,  under  the  general  direction  of  the  fint 

shall  assume  to  solemnize  or  enter  into  any  such  mar-  presidency, 
riage,  he  will  be  deemed  in  transgression  against  the        The  Mormon  Church  is  supported  by  the  tithes  axuH 


of  September  24th,  1890,  commonly  called  the  'Mani- 
festo ,  which  was  issued  by  President  Woodruff  and 
adopted  by  the  Church  at  its  General  Conference 
October  6tn,  1890,  which  forbade  any  marriages  vio- 


MOBOCCO 


574 


MOBOCCO 


offerings  of  its  members,  most  of  whom  reside  in  the 
Stakes  of  Zion,  though  a  good  number  remain  in  the 
several  missions,  scattered  in  various  countries  of  the 
globe.  About  two  thousand  missionaries  are  kept  in 
the  field;  while  they  consider  themselves  under  the 
Divine  injunction  to  "preach  the  Gospel  to  every 
creature",  they  have  special  instructions  to  baptize  no 
married  woman  without  the  consent  of  her  husband, 
and  no  child  under  age  without  the  consent  of  its  par- 
ents. Tlie  tithes  are  used  for  the  building  of  temples 
and  other  places  of  worship,  the  work  of  the  ministry, 
the  furtherance  of  education,  the  support  of  the  sicK 
and  indigent,  and  for  charitable  and  philanthropic  pur- 
poses in  general.  Nearly  every  male  member  of^  the 
Church  holds  some  office  in  the  priesthood,  but  only 
those  who  devote  their  entire  time  to  its  service  re- 
ceive support.  In  every  stake  are  institutions  known 
as  auxUiaries,  such  as  relief  societies,  sabbath  schools, 
young  men's  and  3^oung  ladies'  mutual  improve- 
ment associations,  primary  associations,  and  religious 
classes.  The  Relief  Society  is  a  woman's  organiza- 
tion, having  a  special  mission  for  the  reUef  of  the  desti- 
tute and  the  care  of  the  sick.  An  "Old  Folks  Com- 
mittee" is  appointed  to  care  for  the  aged.  The 
Church  school  system  comprises  the  Brigham  Young 
University  at  Provo,  the  Brigham  Young  College  at 
Logan,  and  the  Latter-Day  Saints  University  at  Salt 
Li£e  City.  There  are  also  nearly  a  score  of  stake 
academies.  There  are  four  Mormon  temples  in  Utah, 
the  principal  one  being  at  Salt  Lake  City.  It  was  be- 
{^n  in  April,  1853,  and  completed  in  April,  1893,  cost- 
ing, it  is  said,  about  $4,000,000.  In  these  temples  ordi- 
nances are  administered  both  for  the  living  and  the 
dead.  It  is  held  that  vicarious  work  of  this  character, 
such  as  baptisms,  endowments  etc..  will  be  effectual  in 
saving  soius,  once  mortal,  who  believe  and  repent  in 
the  spirit  state.  The  Mormons  claim  a  total  member- 
ship of  584,000.  According  to  the  United  States  Cen- 
sus Report  of  21  May,  1910^  there  are  256,647  Mor- 
mons within  the  Federal  Union. 

RoBBRTS,  Jo9eph  Smith:  Hist,  of  the  Chtareh^  pernonal  narrative^ 
voiih  introduction  and  notes^  5  vols,  already  issued  (Salt  Lake  City, 
1902-9);  Pratt,  AtUobiog.  (S.  L.  Citv.  1874);  Fobb.  Hist,  of  lUi- 
noit  (Chicago,  1854) ;  Kanb,  The  Aformont,  a  Lecture  before  the 
Hiet.  Soc.  of  Philadelphia  (Philadelphia,  1850);  Gunnison,  The 
Mormone,  their  Hist,  and  Relig.  (Philadelphia,  1852) ;  Stansburt, 
U.  S.  A.  Expedition  (Philadelphia,  1852);  Gr££lt,  Overland 
Journey  (New  York.  I860) ;  Burton,  City  of  the  Saint*  (New 
York,  1862) ;  Tuludob,  Life  of  Joseph  the  Prophet  (S.  L.  Citv, 
1878);  Idem,  Life  ofB.  Young,  or,  Utah  and  her  Founder*  (S.  L. 
City,  1877);  Idem.  The  Women  of  Mormandom  (S.  L.  City.  1877); 
Idem,  Hiet.  of  S.  L.  City  (S.  L.  City,  1886) ;  Robinson,  Sinnera 
and  Saints  (Boston,  1883) ;  Bancroft.  Hist,  of  Utah  (San  Fran- 
cisco, 1890) ;  Cannon,  Life  of  J.  Smith  the  Prophet  (S.  L.  City. 
1888):  Whitney.  Hist,  of  Utah  (4  vols.,  S.  L.  City,  1892-1904); 
Idem,  Life  ofH.  C.  KimbaU  (S.  L.  City,  1888);  Idem,  Making  of  a 
State  (S.  L.  City,  1908) ;  Roberts.  Life  of  John  Taylor  (S.  L.  City, 
1892):  Idem.  HiH.  of  the  M.  Church  in  Americana,  IV-VI  (New 
York.  190»-10) ;  Idem,  Ou/<»n««  of  Ecclesiastical  Hist.  (S.  L.  Citv. 
1893);  Stenhouse,  The  Rocky  Mountain  Saints  (New  York, 
1873) ;  CowLBT,  Life  and  Lahore  of  Wilford  Woodruff  (S.  L.  City. 
1909) ;  Jbnson,  Historical  Record  (S.  L.  City.  1889) ;  Idem,  Latter^ 
Day  Saints,  Biogr,  EncycL  (S.  L.  City,  1901). 

W.  R.  Harris. 

Morocco,  Prefbcture  Apobtouc  of. — ^The  coun- 
try known  as  Morocco  (from  Marrakesh,  the  name  of 
one  of  its  chief  cities)  forms  the  northwest  comer  of 
the  Continent  of  Africa,  being  separated  from  French 
Algeria  bv  an  imaginary  Hne,  about  217  miles  in  length, 
running  from  Nemours  to  Tenish  es  Sassi.  It  is  the 
Gatulia  or  Mauretania  Tingitana  (from  Tingo8=^aJi- 
ier)  of  the  ancient  Romans.  The  natives  call  it 
harh  {West),  or  Magreb  el  Aksa  (Extreme  West). 
The  total  area  is  a  little  more  than  308,000  square 
miles;  the  population,  about  10,000,000.  Excepting 
Abyssinia,  it  is  now  the  only  independent  native  state 
in  Africa,  and  is  one  of  the  most  difficult  coimtries  for 
Europeans  to  penetrate.  Though  Morojcco  is  often 
spoken  of  as  an  empire,  the  authority  of  tne  sovereign 
is  a  mere  fiction  throu^out  the  greater  part  of  its  ter- 
ritory, which  is,  on  this  account,  divided,  more  or  less 


S 


precisely,  into  the  Bled  el  Maksen,  or  ''country  subject 
to  taxes  .  and  the  Bled  es  Siba^  or  "unsubdued  coun- 
try". Pnysically,  the  surface  is  broken  up  into  three 
parallel  mountam-chains:  the  most  important  of 
these,  the  Great  Atlas,  forms  a  plateau,  forty  to  fifty 
miles  in  width,  from  which  rise  peaks,  often  snow- 
clad,  10,000  to  13,000  feet  high.  Facing  the  Mediter- 
ranean are  the  mountains  of  the  Riff,  below  which 
stretches  the  well-watered  and  fertile  range  of  the 
Tell.  On  the  other  side,  to  the  extreme  south  lies  the 
arid  Sahara,  broken  only  by  a  few  oases.  Between 
the  Mediterranean  littoral  and  the  Sahara,  the  Atlas 
Plateau,  broken  by  ravines  and  valleys,  rivers  and 
smaller  streams,  contuns  many  tracts  of  marvel- 
lously fertile  country.  The  sea-coast  of  Morocco  ia 
for  the  most  part  dazigerous,  and  offers  few  advan- 
tages for  commerce.  The  best  harbours  are  those  of 
Tangier,  Mogador,  and  Agadir.  El  Aralds,  or  Lar- 
ache,  and  Tangier  are  the  maritime  outlets  for  Fes, 
which  is  one  of  the  three  capitals  of  Morocco,  the  other 
two  being  Marrakesh  and  Meknes.  Owing  to  the 
high  mountains,  the  sea  breezes  and  the  openness  of 
the  countiy,  the  climate  is  healthy,  temperate,  and 
equable.  The  temperature  is  much  hi^er  in  the 
south  than  in  the  north,  the  heat,  in  certain  districts, 
becoming  at  times  insufferable.  The  soil  is  adantea 
to  every  kind  of  crop,  and  sometimes  yields  three  nar- 
vests  in  a  year.  Cattle-breeding  is  also  carried  on. 
There  is  very  little  industry,  and  commerce  is  chiefly 
in  the  hands  of  Europeans  and  Jews. 

From  the  earliest  period  known  to  history,  Morocco 
has  been  inhabited  by  the  Berbers  (whence  the  name 
Barhary),  These  people  were  known  to  the  Romans 
as  Numidcs,  but  to  the  Phcenicians  as  Mahurin 
(Westerners);  from  the  Phoenician  name  the  Greeks, 
and,  after  them,  Latin  writers,  made  Mauri,  whence 
the  English  Moors,  These  Moors,  Numioians,  or 
Berbers,  were  subjugated  by  the  Romans,  then  by  the 
Vandals,  the  Byzantines,  the  Visigoths,  and,  lastly, 
the  Arabs,  whose  political  and  religious  conquest  be- 
pan  in  681.  Arabs  and  Berbers  together  crossed  over 
mto  Spain,  and  thence  into  France,  where  their  prog- 
ress was  stopped  at  Poitiers  (732)  by  Charles  Martd. 
Not  until  1492,  when  Granada  fell,  were  the  Christians 
of  the  Iberian  Peninsula  definitively  rid  of  the  Moors 
on  European  soil,  and  able  to  carry  the  war  against 
them  into  Africa.  Portugal  no  longer  retains  any  of 
her  possessions  in  Morocco;  but  Spam  still  holds  eight 
ports,  known  as  the  presidios,  one  on  the  Atlantic 
Coast  and  seven  on  the  Mediterranean.  Besides  the 
Berbers,  the  population  of  Morocco  includes  Jews, 
who  in  all  the  cities  are  confined  to  separate  quarters 
{mellah),  Sudanese  negroes,  mostly  slaves,  and  Euro- 
peans engaged  in  commerce  on  the  coast,  chidSy  at 
Tangier  and  Mogador.  For  two  hundred  years  Mo- 
rocco has  been  iiiled  by  a  dynasty  of  Arab  sherifs, 
who.  claim  descent  from  Ali,  the  uncle  and  son-in- 
law  of  Mohammed.  The  sherif,  or  sultan,  is  theo- 
retically supreme  in  both  temporal  and  spiritual 
affairs,  his  wishes  being  carried  out  by  viuers,  or 
secretaries,  in  the  various  branches  of  tb.e  adminis- 
tration (maghzen).  As  a  matter  of  fact,  the  normal 
condition  of  the  country  is  revolution  and  anarchy. 
In  1006  the  International  Conference  of  Algeciras 
provided  for  a  combined  French  and  Spanish  ^rstem 
of  pohce.  but  the  Morocco  question  is  still  (1910) 
unsettlea. 

With  the  exception  of  the  European  residents,  the 
segregated  Jews  mentioned  above,  and  a  bodv  of 
aborigines  (Berbers),  fiving  in  the  Atlas,  who  have 

S roved  refractory  to  Islam,  the  whole  population  of 
lorocoo  is  Mohammedan,  and  is  inaccessible  to 
Christian  propaganda.  The  first  Catholic  mission  to 
this  country  was  organized  in  1234,  when  Father  An- 
gelo,  a  Franciscan  friar  and  papal  legate^  was  ap- 
pointed Bishop  of  Morocco.  The  succession  lasted 
until  1566,  when  the  see  was  suppressed,  and  its  jur> 


MORONI 


575 


MOBONI 


diction  raven  to  the  Archbishop  of  Seville.  In  1631 
the  Prefecture  Apostolic  of  Morocco  was  founded;  its 
first  incumbent,  Blessed  Giovanni  da  Prado.  O.F.M., 
was  martyred  at  Marrakesh  in  that  year,  and  his  feast 
is  kept  by  the  Franciscan  Order  on  29  May.  Other 
missionaries  continued  to  exercise  their  ministry 
through  trials  and  persecutions  of  every  kind  until 
1859,  when  the  prefecture  was  reorganized  on  its  pres- 
ent basis.  It  is  administered  bv  the  Franciscans  of 
the  College  of  Compostela.  There  are  in  Morocco 
about  10,000  Cathohcs,  nearly  all  Europeans;  24  mis- 
sionaries, 8  stations  (in  the  leading  ports),  16  schools, 
with  1200  children,  and  a  hospital  at  Tangier,  where 
the  prefect  Apostolic  resides. 

SiaUtman'a  Year  Book  (London.  1910);  Miuionea  CathoLicm 
(Rome,  1907),  373. 

A.  Lb  Rot. 

Morone,  Giovanni,  Cardinal,  Bishop  of  Modena, 
b.  at  Milan  25  Jan.,  1509;  d.  at  Rome,  1  Dec.,  1580.  He 
belonged  to  a  distinguished  Milanese  familv,  raised  to 
the  nobility  in  the  twelfth  century.  His  father  held 
the  dignitv  of  chancellor  of  Milan,  and  it  was  probably 
to  bind  the  father  to  his  interest  that  Clement  VII 
in  1529  named  his  son  Giovanni,  then  only  twenty 
years  of  age,  to  the  See  of  Modena.  By  this  appoint- 
ment great  offence  was  given  to  Cardinal  Ippolito 
d'Este,  who  on  the  pretext  that  the  See  of  Modena 
had  previously  been  promised  to  himself,  invoked  the 
aid  of  Duke  Alfonso  of  Ferrara  and  took  forcible 
possession  of  the  see,  appropriating  all  its  revenues. 
The  dispute  was  not  settled  until  1532,  when  Morone 
at  last  bought  off  the  opposition  of  d'Este  by  agreeing 
to  pay  bim  an  annual  pension  of  400  ducats.  Even 
as  earlv  as  1529,  the  young  bishop-elect,  whose 
talents  had  already  attracted  attention  at  the  Univer- 
sity of  Padua,  was  chosen  by  Clement  VII  for  a  diplo- 
matic mission  to  France.  Under  Paul  III  Morone's 
gifts  as  a  negotiator  placed  him  at  once  in  the  very 
ironi  ranJc  of  ecclesiastical  politicians.  He  was  sent 
as  papal  envov  to  Duke  Sforza  of  Milan  in  1535, 
ana  in  the  following  year  accepted,  not  altogether 
without  reluctance,  the  important  mission  of  nuncio 
at  the  court  of  Ferdinand,  King  of  the  Romans. 
His  instructions  were  to  press  on  the  affair  of 
the  council  in  Himgary  ana  Bohemia.  He  was  to 
obtain  from  Ferdinand  a  safe-conduct  for  those  who 
intended  to  take  part  in  it,  and  to  insist  upon 
Mantua  or  some  other  Italian  city  as  the  place  of 
meeting. 

With  the  exception  of  an  interval  from  September, 
1538  to  July,  1539,  and  another  in  1541,  Morone 
remained  at  nis  post  in  Germany  for  nearly  six  years^ 
and  he  was  present  at  the  diets  of  Hagenau  in  1540 
and  Ratisbon  in  1541,  while  at  the  important  meet- 
ing of  Spiers  in  1542  he  appeared  as  the  pope's  special 
representative,  and  plaved  a  leading  part,  though 
even  his  great  tact  and  resolution  were  able  to  do 
little  in  the  complicated  tangle  of  German  religious 
affairs.  During  these  early  years  in  Germany,  and 
indeed  throughout  his  life,  Morone  remained  a  con- 
spicuous member  of  a  little  group  of  moderate  and 
intellectuaJ  men  who  saw  that  in  the  deadly  struggle 
with  Lutheranism,  the  faults  were  not  all  on  one 
side.  When  Cardinal  Sadoleto  in  1537  for  addressing 
a  courteously  worded  appeal  to  Melanchthon  was 
denounced  by  many  of  his  own  side  as  little  better 
than  a  traitor  and  a  heretic,  Morone  wrote  the  cardi- 
nal a  letter  of  sympathy.  "  There  are  in  theseparts  '*, 
he  said,  "many  reputed  defenders  of  the  Catholic 
faith  wno  think  that  our  religion  consists  in  nothing 
but  hatred  of  the  Lutherans  ....  and  they  are 
so  wedded  to  this  point  of  view  that,  without  ever 
looking  into  the  matter  itself,  thev  take  in  bad  part 
not  onlv  all  negotiations  with  the  Lutherans,  but 
every  single  word  spoken  about  them  which  is  not 
abusive".    Morone    further    advises    Sadoleto    to 


treat  his  critics  with  silent  contempt,  and  states  hifl 
own  conviction  that  to  show  charity  to  heretics  waa 
a  better  way  than  to  overwhelm  them  with  abusive 
language,  adding:  "if  only  this  course  had  been 
adopted  from  the  first,  there  would  probably  be  less 
difficulty  than  there  is  in  bringing  about  the  union  of 
the  Church"  (see  the  letter  in  "Archiv  f.  Reforma- 
tionsgeschichte",  1904,  I,  80-81). 

On  22  May,  1542,  Paul  III  published  his  Bull, 
whidi  had  been  drafted  by  Sadoleto,  summoning  the 
council  to  meet  at  Trent,  on  1  Nov.,  of  the  same  year. 
On  2  June,  Morone  was  created  a  cardinal,  and  on 
16  Oct.,  he  and  Cardinals  Parisio  and  Pole  were  named 
legates  to  preside  over  the  assembly  as  the  pope's 
representatives.  But  this  first  attempt  to  launch  the 
long-desired  council  was  a  failure.  Morone  went 
to  Trent  and  waited  until  the  handful  of  representa- 
tives, who  never  met  in  public  session,  gradually 
dispersed,  the  coujicil  bemg  formally  prorogued 
6  July,  1543.  Before  the  assembly  was  again  con- 
vened Morone  was  named  legate  (practiciJIy  papal 
governor)  at  Bologna,  and  he  had  nothing  to  do  with 
the  sessions  of  the  council  which  took  place  at  Trent 
between  December,  1545  and  June,  1546,  though 
after  the  council  had  been  ostensibly  transferred  to 
Bologna,  he  was  named  by  Julius  III  as  one  of  the  com- 
missioners to  arrange  for  its  return  to  Trent.  In  1555 
he  was  sent  to  the  Diet  of  Augsbuig,  but  the  death 
of  Julius  necessitated  his  recall  and  under  the  Pontifi- 
cate of  Paul  IV  Morone,  who  owing  to  his  wide  and 
liberal  views  had  the  misfortune  to  awaken  the  pope's 
suspicions  when  the  latter  presided  over  the  Roman 
Inquisition,  was  arrested  by  the  pontiff's  order, 
confined  in  the  Castle  of  Saint  Angelo  (31  May, 
1557),  and  made  the  object  of  a  formal  prosecution 
for  heresy,  in  which  his  views  on  justification,  the 
invocation  of  saints,  the  veneration  of  relics  and 
other  matters  were  incriminated  and  submitted  to 
rigid  inquiiy. 

The  cardinal  strenuously  repudiated  these  charges, 
but  he  was  kept  in  confinement  until  the  death  oi 
Pr.ul  IV.  In  1560  his  successor  Pius  IV  author»ed 
a  revision  of  the  process  against  Morone,  and  as  a  re- 
sult the  imprisonment  of  the  cardinal  and  the  whole 
procedure  against  him  were  declared  to  be  entirely 
without  justification;  the  judgment  also  recorded  in 
the  most  formal  terms  that  not  the  least  suspicion 
rested  upon  his  orthodoxy.  A  few  years  later  when 
the  cardinal  legates  Gonzaga  and  Seripandi  died  at 
Trent,  Morone  and  Cardinal  Navagero  were  appointed 
to  succeed  them,  and  the  former  eventually  presided 
over  the  concluoing  sessions  of  the  council  with  con- 
spicuous tact  and  dignity.  He  was  also  plac^  upon 
the  commission  appointed  to  see  that  the  concil- 
iar  decrees  were  duly  carried  into  execution.  Under 
the  succeeding  pontiffs  his  credit  was  in  no  way  im- 
paired. He  was  sent  on  a  mission  to  Genoa  in  1575. 
and  in  1576  was  appointed  to  attend  the  Diet  ot 
Ratisbon  as  papal  legate.  As  Cardinal  Protector  of 
England,  Morone  in  1578-1579  had  much  to  do  with 
the  administration  of  the  English  Collc^^e  (see 
Catholic  Record  Society,  "Miscellanea",  II,  Condon, 
1906);  and  when  he  died  he  had  been  for  some  time 
Cardinal  Bishop  of  Ostia.  Few  ecclesiastics  in  that 
oentuiy  were  so  successful  in  retaining  Uie  esteem  of 
men  of  all  parties  and  all  creeds  as  this  large-minded 
and  eminently  able  and  honest  churchman.  His  re- 
ports as  nuncio,  recentlv  published  of  late  vears  in 
the  German  series  of  '^Nuntiaturberichten' ,  throw 
a  flood  of  light  upon  the  refigious  conditions  of  the 
empire,  and  it  is  interesting  to  note  that  the  "Clau- 
dius intemuntius"  whose  letters  were  so  often  turned 
to  good  account  by  Raynaldi  proves  to  be  no  other 
than  Morone  himself  (see  Ehses  in  "Romische  Quar- 
talschrift",  1903).  It  may  be  mentioned  in  conclusion 
that  Morone  had  much  to  do  with  the  founding 
of  the  important  Collegium  Germanicum  in  Romet 


KORONI  576 

m  woric  in  which  he  waa  closely  aaaociftted  with  St.  dinalB,  includipg  Wisenutn,  and  of  other           .     _ 

Imatiiu  Loyola.  meD.    In  the  index  of  the  "Diuonario"  (a.  v.,  Mo- 

T^urip,  OKBr«iciJf<«Ka,n.  awi86S);CAi2t.nca«B.  roni),  he  indicates  tho  vMiouB  paflBBgee  of  the  woA  in 

T^r^B^'Jtv^'M'c^^lilZJ^l^'l^  whicUoBpeakaofhimaelf.anairtiaithuaconatitiiU 

The  miMt  iiiiennuic  ud  ■■Uiluioiy  luutlBli  for  Mokhu'i  life  a  kind  of  autt^iography. 

u«  to  b«  fouod  in  hu  own  dmpUtibta  uid  in  the  piefuea  eontr^  TT    Rainnin 

uted  Inr  hii  editon:  ate  Fkiedbksbubo.  NvnHatiirtrriMm  sua  -^luni. 

DaOiMaTut,  put  I,  II  (Gothi,  1803);  DrmicH,  QutOm  iwl  _-          ,    „                    „                        .           ,          „       , 

Fa-ictLunten  auf  <L  GMtlt  dir  OucAicb*.  I  (Padarborn,  1892);  Korosl ,  GlOVANNI  Battista,  pointer,  b.  at  Bondo, 

Idim  in  HMto™t»«  JnArftuA  rv  (b™,  1S83);  LtMrni.  Mo-  near  Albino,  in  the  territory  of  Bereatno,  between  1520 

DSS^CpiSb""  '■^^^^^'c^^^-'^tS^Z'it^  ""d  1525;  I  at  Bergamo. In  1578*7He  wa*  the  pupil 

(FreibuTi.  lOOt);  Stiihhdbib.  Oaeh.  d.  CoUtvium  Qtrm.  (Fni-  Of  AlesBandrO  Bonvicino,   called  Moretto  d"  Rrwinii 

burg.  1908);  TiOcm  Vbmtow.  La  Vita  Rdiejna  in  IbUia.  I  (about    1498-1555),    and   one   of   the   beat 

Sw;irid»™w'5X^«q.5;i^,?™'^Mo™,?rtrii:  Of  ^  Style.     Moroni'B  work  waa  done  cnieny  at 

PumB.  Oachicliu  dtr  Paptu.  V  {Fnibuic,  IBOa) :  Uiig  last  work  Bergamo  and  ill  the  vidnity.     He  was  remarkable  as 

l«i»rtioiiJ»riy  valuable  (or  no  Kcount  of  MoroMi  early  nii«ion«.  a  portrait  painter,  and  aa  HUch  was  not  inferior  tohia 

Hebbeht  THtmBTON.  master.    He  has  the  eame  mncerity  and  nobility, 
but  more  originality.     His  portraits  are  amongthe 

Uoroni,   Gaztano,    author  of    the    well-known  moet  vigorous  of  the  Renaissance;  of  theee  we  mar 

"DiEionario  di  erudizione  storico-eccleeiHetica",  b.  at  mention  a  "Scholar  with  an  open  book  befoie  him 

Rome,  17  October,  1802;  d.  there,  3  Novenber.  1883.  and  a  "Man  in  Black"  atthe  Uffiti  (Florence) ;  at  the 

He  received  his  early  education  from  the  Brothera  of  Gallery  of  BerKUnoa"  Young  Man"  andH"  Woman", 

the   ChriBtian   School   at  of  excellent  workmanship; 

Rome.    Apprenticed  later  to  at  the  Brera  (Milan)  the 

ft  barber,  his  duties  frequent-  portrait  of    Antonio  Nava- 

ly  took   hitn   to    the    Cam-  giero,   podeetA  of  Bereamo; 

udoleee    convent  of  San  at  the  Ambronanft  Library 

Gregorioon  the  Ccelian  Hill;  in  Milan,  a  "Man  ot  sickly 

there  the  abbot,  Mauro  Cap-  Bppearftnce";    at    the    Na> 

pellari,   and  several   of  the  tional  Gallery  (London), 

lathers    recognized    his    ex-  portrait  of  a  member  of  the 

ceptional  gifts,  and  made  use  Fenaroli  family,  "The 

of  him  in  a  Quasi-secretarial  Tailor",    and  Canon  Lodo- 

capacity.    When   Cappellari  vico  Terd  of  Betmmo;   at 

became  a  cardinal,  he  made  the  Louvre  "An  Old    man 

Moroni    his   cameriere:    and  seated  holding  a  botdc",  "of 

when   he   became   pope,  as  Ittrge,     firm     woikmanship, 

Gregory  XVI,  he  took  Mo-  somewhat  heavy  as  in  some 

roni  for  priTno  aiulante    di  of  Tintoretto'sportiaits"  {£. 

camera,  employing  liim  also  MOnti);  in  the  Dublin  Mu- 

ae  private   secretary,  in  seiun,    A  Gentleman  uid 

which  capacity  Moroni  wrote  his    two    children";   in   tho 

over  100,000 letters.    Moroni  Museum  of  Madrid  a  "Vm- 

also  served   Pius    IX    as  etian    Captain";    in    the 

aitUanle  di  camera.     Among  Dresden  Gallery,  portrait  of 

the    books    of    the   Carnal-  a  man;    in  the  Gallery  of 

dolese  convent  and  of  the  Vienna,  two  portraits  of 

cardinal,    as    well   as  from  men.     In  relidous  picturoL 

oonversatJon    with    learned  on  the  other  hand,  Morou 

people,  Moroni  acquired    a  is  inferior  to  Moretto,  eepe- 

vast   store    of  -information.  cially  in  drawing  and  inven- 

He  also  gradually  collected  tivenesa,  but  his  oolouiing,  of 

a  considerable  private  library                               "TssTuun"  »  clear  nsyish  tone,  is  not di»> 

bearin^on ecclesiastical ques-                        Qiotahhi  BiTimx  Mmom,  agreeable.     "It   is   only    in 

tions,  while  he  made  notes                     Natiok.l  o.lldt.  Lokdob  ly^    j^gj   works   that   the 

from  the  daily  papers  and  from  other  publications  for  grey  tone  becomes  monotonous  and  soft,  togetho- 

his  own  instruction.    The  subseouent  arrangement  of  witJi  a  rather  hard  reddish  colouring"  (J.  Burckbsrdt 

these  notes  in  order  suggested  to  hini  the  idea  of  turn-  and  Bode).    Worthy  of  note  are  the    Coronaticai  of 

inghislabourstothebenefitofthepublic,  on  idea  which  iJie  Virgin",  ptuntea  for  the  church  of  the  Trinity  at 

he  realized  in  the  "Dizionario"  (Venice,  1840-61 ;  in-  Bergamo;    the    "Last   Judgment"    for   the    ptuish 

dex,  1878-9),  a  mine  of  interesting  data  and  authori-  church  (^Gorlago.  near  Bernmo;"  Virgin  and  Saints" 

tative  in  matters  concerning  the  Pontifical  Court,  the  and  "St.  Jerome     at  the  Carrara  Academy  of  B«»- 

Oi^anization  of  the  Curia  and  the  Church,  and  the  ad-  gamo;  the  "Assumption  ot  the  Virpn",  the  "Vii^ 

ministration  of  the  Pontifical  States.    In  matters  of  surrounded  by  Saints"  (two  pictures)  at  the  Brera  of 

historv,  it  depends  on  the  writers  whom  its  author  Milan;  "The  Jesuit"  (portrait  of  Eroole  Taseo),at 

consulted.    It  is,  however,  not  a  well-ordered  or  Stafford  House,  the  London  residence  of  the  Duke  ol 

homogeneous  work;  but  these  defects  may  be  readily  Sutherland. 

fornven  in  view  of  the  fact  that  its  author  did  his  _  Bu^c,  Hit.  da  pnn*™  J.  laou  lu  toUi  q>BriajMS^Tn: 

woS  alone,  without  |«al  colUboration,  and  wrote  at  iT^Jt^-^-T^'^i.^^rr'n^^fb^SS^^  SSSU! 

times  sixteen  hours  a  day.     He  was  also  the  author  of  CytUji.  of  PaiM^t  and  Paintint:  ill  Ooodiw  and  N«w  York. 

official  articles  on  pap^  ceremonies,  the  journeys  of  1S»S);  BinicMiMW  akb  Bona,  Im  Ciatan.  II.  reS:  Fiud  O. 

the  pope8.etc.     Durmg  the  conclaves  o(  1820  and  ^^^i^(^^!^^S^i^,':^%^,r?S:SJ^£S^ 

1831,  he  wrote  the    Giomale  Btonco-politico-ceremo-  ^raHri,  III  (Loadon,  lfi04),a.T. 

niale  della  sede  vocante  e  il  conclave  per  I'elezione  di  Gaston  Sobtais. 
Pio  Vm  e  Gregorio  XVI",  which,  like  others  ot  his 

writings,  remained  unpublished.    As  a  member  of  the  HOTiis,  JoHM,  canon,  afterwards  Jesuit,  F.S.A.,b.  IB 

household  of  Gregory  XVI,  Moroni  was  the  object  of  IndiB,4  July,  1826:d.  at  Wimbledon^  Oct.,  18S3,  son 

much  eectarian  hatred.    He  was  a  friend  of  many  CAT-  «f  Jobn  Cvi>4c  Morris,  F.RjS>    Be  wu  educaled 


M0BBI8  677 

parUy  in  India,  partly  at  Harrow,  partly  in  reading  Mia^rioorde,  Hammersmith,  which  post  he  occupied 

for  OEunbridge  with  Dean  Alford,  the  New  Testament  till  his  death.    After  his  conversion  ne  contributed  to 

scholar.    Under  him  a  great  chanee  passed  over  Mor-  the  "  Dublin  Review '',  the ''  Lamp  "  and  other  Catho- 

ris's  ideas.    Giving  up  the  thought  of  taking  the  law  lie  periodicals;  and  wrote  "Jesus  the  Son  of  Mary" 

as  his  profession,  he  became  enthusiastic  for  ecclesias-  (1851),  a  treatise  on  the  Incarnation  and  devotion  to 

tical  antiquities,  took  a  de^  interest  in  the  Tracta-  OurlAdy;  ''Taleetha  Koomee"  (1858),  a  metrical  r&- 

rian  movement/ and  resolved  to  become  an  Anglican  Ugious  dnuna;  and  "Eucharist  on  Calvary",  an  essay 

clergyman.    Going  up  to  Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  on  the  first  Mass  and  the  Passion, 

in  October,  1845,  he  became  the  friend,  and  then  ttie  ».^o<^ii7  April,  isso);  Timu  (12  April,  isso):  Oxllow.  Dieu 

pupil  of  F.  A.  Pal^,  grandson  of  the  well-known  di-  ^•^*  ^^"^^  ^"^-  ••  ^-  A.  A.  MacEblean. 

vine,  and  already  one  of  the  leading  Gre^  scholars  of        m«^«^.  xr  t^  i  j  •    ^.x  i. 

the  university.    The  conveS^of  Newman,  fol-  o  ^F-^■^.^^^5^.^ -!^^.5fi^^^^®''^^^^ 


ing,  20  May,  1846.    A  storm  foUowed,  benining  in  T  *™^  V»^"V"«  ^?™"y»  't-  ^^^aucai^ea  ai;  oeoree- 

SI  "Times'^  which  made  itself  felt  eVOTlnPwlia.  ^^  Univeraity,  from  which  he  was^uated  m 

ment.    Paley  had  to  leave  Cambridge  (which  led  to  l?^.;.  Y^  TS5S  ^^1^7^.      entered  the  Jesuit 

his  subsequently  joining  the  ChurdS),  whUe  Morris  5^'^*'.^L  ^ST^^'1?^^  ^.^i!  to  prepare  himself  for 

waa  pr^cally  cajit  off  by  his  family.    He  then  went  J^®  pnesthood,  to  which  high  calfing  his  mclmations 

to  the  English  College,  R6me,  under  Dr.  Grant  (q.  v.),  ^°^  early  youth  had  impelled  him,  and  for  which,  by 

and  was  there  duMg  the  revolution  of  1848.    Soon  '«^?  ^/  ^  studious  habit,  scholarly  tast^,  and  hiA 

after  the  restoration  of  the  English  Hierarchy  in  1850,  "^^{?}.  standards,  he  was  m  every  w^  fitted.    Hw 

he  was  made  Canon  of  NorSampton,  and  then  re^  ambition,  however,  could  not  be  reali«^^ 

turned  as  vice-rector  to  Rome  (1853-1856).    He  now  ^Ij^  r*^^  ¥\  ^ ^\^^^  ^^u^^^^  H-  his  mother 

became  postulatar  for  the  English  MartyiB  (q.  v.),  Sit?!fif"V|^  1863  he  b€«an  the  practice  of  law  m 

whose  ca\ise  owes  periiaps  mo^  him  Chan  to  any  Ml^?!^lJ^.^J?^^'_?^^.l°..l^.^^^^ 
other  per 

the  third  , ^  ._ 

Cardinal  Wiseman  (q.  v.),  whom  he  affectionately    /iqqkn  _i.^«  u^  r^ j       l       u*       •*!.  o  t? 

nuised  on  his  death-bSi.  and  served  under  Arohbishop  ffi,!?^  5®  ^^T'^J  partnership  with  George  E. 

Manning  (q.  v.),  until  l^e  became  a  Jesuit  in  1867.  Efe  fei^^^f  ^^^''''i!^  "^^'^i^^  ^  P?«^V^.  Ji^  P.">- 

taught  Churoh  History  from  1873-1874;  he  was  Reo-  ^^?'  .feoi^^^^^^H.  important  htigation 

tor^  St.  Ignatius'  College,  Malta,  f^m  1877-78;  J^^L^^^^iS^ k '^S^•!?'^f'°n^®  ®i^^^ 

master  of  nonces  in  1879raiid  director  of  the  writer^  tj'SS^^^J'i^  ^JT'l^l^  Clevelimd  an  Associate 

of  the  Enriish  Province  in' 1888.    Always  remarkable  ??,feu  ,!^n^".^^^ 

for  his  ardent  affectionate  nature,  his  uhtiring  energy  ^^S^^S^P^.''  ^®  establishment  of  tiiat  Court  m 

^^oirs'SSrt^Jp^iw'^a^  i^^e^2^?^"rpr}^fe^^ 

it^^if^uS'^m^^^'rcfet^W^^^^^^  fte^rf^^^A^'dcS^^a^^  r^^^ 

pired  in  the  pulpit,  uttering  the  words,  '^Render  to  ?*  ^®  ^^f  ^(  ^*^\.  A  dcmed  lawyer,  standmg  high 

God  the  thinii  tKat  are  GoJs."    Hisprincipal  works  m  his  profession,  judicial  laboure  did  not  prevent  ^ 

are:  "The  liS^and  Martyrdomof  St.  Thomas^Becket"  fe^^  ?°  ^^{T^  ^*«"?«*  '^J'''^''  ^^  ^S^t  ~''* 

(London,  1869  and  1885);  "The  Life  of  Father  John  ^*'T'  ?'♦  ^"^^J^^^f^"^  ^^®  r^?P®  .^'  ^  I^t 

beiSrd"'  (London,   1881,   tnmslated  into  French,  f^T^n.^JSv^^^^^^^^^ 

German,  Spanish,  ind  PoMi;  "Troubles  of  our  Cath-  ^'    ^^7^^^  interested  m  his  Alma  Mater,  and  m 

olip  fWfathm"  V^  volfl    London  187^1877V  "Tit.  **^®  growth  and  development  of  Cathohc  education, 

S^JvSS  «f  S?r  Am,^  PonW  "  ?f  i^nHr^^^^^^^^  •  n^H  ^^  was  onc  of  the  foundcTS  of  Georgetown  Law  School 

^^JS^frihn^i.^^  (1871),  then  under  the  direction  of  the  Ute  P.  F. 

POLMH.  W«  and  LMerTof  Father  John  Moiria  (London,  1896) ;  SSS  .  ^  Conducted  law  SChOOls  m  this  COUntry.     In 

MoBBu,  JowndU  ktjd  during  Timst  of  Retreat  (London,  1895);  1877  he  received  from  Georgetown,  m  recogmtion  of 

SoMmBYOGKL.  BiW.  delaC.de  J^na.  V.  p.  t-^;  K.  602.  hig  nobility  of  character,  his  broad  scholarship,  and 

J.  n.  roLLBN.  achievements  as  la^er  and  judge,  the  degree  of 

Morris.  John  B.    See  Little  Rock.  Diocese  of.  LL-D*     He  wrote  "Lectures  on  the  History  of  the 

___._         _              vxT»x^j»*«jji  Development  of  Constitutional  and  Civil  Liberty" 

Moms,  John  Brandb,  b.  at  Brentford,  Middle-  (1898);  also  numerous  monographs  and  addresses. 

■^^  *  .?^^J2*^/'  ^®^i  ^A  **  ^^^TJJ'S^*^'  ^5?^^'  George  E.  Hamilton. 
0  April,  1880;  he  studied  at  Baliol  College,  Oxford, 

mumating  in  1834  (B.A.  honours)  and  1837  (M.A.).  Morsa  (Lat.  vnoratM),  also  called  the  Monile,  Fi- 

He  was  at  once  elected  Petrean  Fellow  of  Exeter  Col-  bula,  Firmale,  Pectorale,  ori^nally  the  rectan- 

lege.  and  lectured  on  Hebrew.    His  favourite  field  of  gular  ornamented  piece  of  matenal  attached  to  the 

study  was  Eastern  and  patristic  theolo^.    While  at  two  front  edges  of  the  cope  near  the  breast  to  pro* 

Oxford  he  wrote  an  '^Essiety  towards  the  Conversion  of  vent  the  vestment  from  shpping  from  the  shoulders, 

learned  and  Philosophical  Hindus"  (1843);  a  ooem  Morses  were  provided  with  nook  and  eye,  and  were 

entitled  "Nature:  a  rarable"  (1842);  and  translated  often  richlv  ornamented  with  embroidery  or  precious 

"Select  Homilies  from  St.  Ephraem"  from  the  S3rriac  stones.    The  name  was  also  applied  to  metal  clasps 

(1846),  likewise  St.  Chrysostom's  "Homilies  on  the  used  instead  of  such  pieces  of  woven  fabric.    As  early 

Romans"  (1841)  for  the  "Library  of  the  Fathers",  as  the  eleventh  century  such  metal  clasps  are  found 

Having  joined  the  Tractarian  Movement,  he  was  re-  represented  in  miniatures  and  mentioned  in  inven- 

ceived  into  the  Chureh,  16  January,  1846,  resigning  tories.    These  clasps,  however,  gradually  lost  their 

his  Oxford  fellowship  a  few  days  later.    He  was  or-  practical  use  and  became  mere  ornaments,  which 

djuned  at  Osoott  in  1851  and  in  the  same  year  was  ap-  were  sometimes  sewn  firmly  to  the  flaps  that  served 

pointed  professor  at  Prior  Park,  near  Bath.    He  soon  to  fasten  the  cope,  sometimes  only  attached  to  the 

9^an  parish  work  and  for  the  next  nineteen  vears  flaps  by  hooks,  so  that,  after  the  vestment  had  been 

ministmd  in  Plymouth,  Shortwood  (Somersetshire),  worn,  the  clasps  could  be  removed  and  cured  for  sep- 

and  other  parts  of  England.    He  was  for  a  time  chap-  arately.     This  latter  was  especially  the  case  when, 

lain  to  Sir  John  Acton  and  Coventry  Patmore.    In  as  frequently  happened  at  least  in  the  later  Middle 

(870  he  became  spiritual  dir^^r  QV  tb9  Sc?\M^  de  Ages,  the  clasp  was  very  heavy  or  y^iy  v<ilu«iJi>le«    Aa 

X.— 37  ... 


678 


MOBTinOATZON 


early  as  the  thirteenth  century  inventories  mention 
clasps  which  formed  distinct  ornaments  in  themselves. 
Many  churches  had  a  large  number  of  such  morses. 
They  were  generally  made  of  silver  covered  with  gold, 
and  were  ornamented  with  pearls,  precious  stones, 
enamel,  niello-work,  architectural  designs,  small 
figures  of  saints,  ornamental  work  in  flowers  and 
vines,  and  similar  designs.  Such  clasps  were  fre- 
ouently  the  finest  products  of  the  goldsmith's  art; 
tney  were  generally  either  round,  square,  quatrefoil, 
or  like  a  rosette  in  form;  yet  there  were  also  more 
elaborate  and  at  times  peculiar  shapes.  Abundant 
proof  of  the  desire  for  costly  clasps  for  the  cope  is 
shown  bv  the  old  inventories  and  by  the  numerous 
medieval  morses  preserved  (especially  in  Germany)  in 
churches  and  museums.  According  to  present  Ro- 
man usage  the  morse  is  reserved  to  cardinals  and 
bishops  ("Cser.  episc",  I,  c.  vii,  n.  1;  S.  R.  C,  15 
September,  1753). 

Bock,  Oesch.  der  lilurff.  Gewdnder  det  M,  A.,  II  (Bonn,  1866). 
804  BQ.;  Brattn,  Die  liturg,  Gewandung  im  (DcciderU  u.  Orient 
(Freiburg,  1907).  321  aqq.  JOSEPH  BrauN. 

Morse,  Henrt.  Venerable,  martyr;  b.  1595  in 
Norfolk;  d.  at  TyDum,  1  February,  1544.  He  was  re- 
ceived into  the  Church  at  Douai,  5  June,  1614,  after 
various  journeys  was  ordained  at  Rome,  and  left  for 
the  mission^  19  June,  1624.  He  was  admitted  to  the 
Society  of  Jesus  at  Heaton;  then  he  was  arrested,  and 
imprisoned  for  three  years  in  York  Castle,  where  he 
made  his  novitiate  under  his  fellow-prisoner  Father 
John  Robinson,  S.J.,  and  took  simple  vows.  After- 
wards he  was  a  missionary  id  the  English  regiments  in 
the  Low  Countries.  Returning  to  England  at  the  end 
of  1633  he  laboured  in  London,  and  in  1636  he  is  re- 
ported to  have  received  about  ninety  Protestant 
families  into  the  Church.  He  himself  contracted  the 
plague  but  recovered.  Arrested  27  Februuy,  1636, 
ne  was  imprisoned  in  Newgate.  On  22  April  he  was 
brought  to  the  bar  charged  with  being  a  priest  and 
with  naving  withdrawn  the  king's  subjects  from  their 
faith  and  allegiance.  He  was  founci  guilty  on  the 
first  count,  not  guilty  on  the  second,  and  sentence  was 
deferred.  On  23  April  he  made  his  solemn  profession 
of  the  three  vows  to  Fr.  Edward  Lusher.  He  was  re- 
leased on  bail  for  10,000  florins,  20  June,  1637,  at  the 
instance  of  Queen  Henrietta  Maria.  In  order  to 
free  his  sureties  he  voluntarily  went  into  enle  when 
the  royal  proclamation  was  issued  ordering  all  priests 
to  leave  the  country  before  7  April,  1641,  and  became 
chaplsdn  to  Gage's  English  r^ment  in  the  service  of 
Spam.  In  1643  he  returned  to  England;  arrested 
alter  about  a  year  and  a  half,  he  was  imprisoned  at 
Durham  and  Newcastle,  and  sent  by  sea  to  London. 
On  30  January  he  was  again  brought  to  the  bar  and 
condemned  on  his  previous  conviction.  On  the  day 
of  his  execution  his  hurdle  was  drawn  by  four  horses, 
and  the  French  Ambassador  attended  with  all  his 
suite,  as  also  did  the  Count  of  Egmont  and  the  Por- 
tuguese Ambassador.  The  martyr  was  allowed  to 
hang  until  he  was  dead.  At  the  quartering  the  foot* 
men  of  the  French  Ambassador  and  of  the  Count  of 
Egmont  dipped  their  handkerchiefs  in  the  martyr's 
blood.  In  1647  many  persons  possessed  by  evil  spirits 
were  relieved  through  the  application  of  his  relics. 

FoLBT,  Records  of  the  Bnglish  Province  S.  J.  (London,  1877- 
1883),  I,  666-611;  VI.  288-9;  VII.  528,  658.  1198.  1200;  Crai/- 
LONKB,  Memoire  of  Missionary  Priests^  II  (Manchester,  1803), 
161-5:  Tannsr.  Soeietas  Jesu  (Prague,  1675),  126-131;  Hamii/- 
TON,  CaUndar  SUmU  Papers  Domestic  1640-1  (Tx>ndon.  1882),  292. 

John  B.  Wainewrigrt. 

Mortification,  one  of  the  methods  which  Christian 
asceticism  employs  in  training  the  soul  to  virtuous  and 
holy  living.  The  term  originated  with  St.  Paul,  who 
trates  an  instructive  analog  between  Christ  dving  to 
a  mortal  and  rising  to  an  immortal  life,  and  His  fol- 
lowers who  renoimce  their  past  life  of  sin  and  rise 
through  grace  to  ft  new  life  pf  holwe??.    "If  you  livp 


after  the  flesh",  says  the  apostle,  "you  shall  die,  but 
if  through  the  spirit  you  mortify  the  deeds  of  the  fleshy 
you  shain  live"  (RonUj  viii^  13;  cf.  also  Col.,  iii,  6,  ana 
GaL,  V,  24).  From  this  original  use  of  the  term  we  see 
that  mortification,  though  imder  one  aspect  it  Is  a  law 
of  death,  under  another  and  more  fundamental  aspect 
it  is  a  law  of  life,  and  so  does  not  destroy  but  elevates 
nature.  What  it  slays  is  the  disease  of  the  soul,  and 
by  sla3dng  this  it  restores  and  invigorates  the  soul's 
true  lite. 

Of  the  diseases  it  sets  itself  to  slav,  sin,  the  one 
mortal  disease  of  the  soul,  holds  the  nrat  place.  Sin 
committed  it  destroys,  by  impelling  to  true  penitence 
and  to  the  use  of  those  means  of  foi^veness  and  resto- 
ration which  our  Lord  has  confided  to  His  Church. 
Temptations  to  sin  it  overcomes  by  inducing  the  will 
to  accept  hardslups,  however  grave,  rather  tnan  yield 
to  the  temptations.  To  this  extent,  mortification  is 
obligatory  on  all,  but  those  who  wish  to  be  more  thor- 
ough in  the  service  of  Christ,  cany  it  further,  and 
strive  with  its  aid  to  subdue,  so  far  as  is  possible  in 
this  life,  that  "rebellion"  of  the  flesh  against  the 
spirit  which  is  the  internal  incentive  to  sin.  What  is 
needed  to  achieve  this  victory  is  that  the  passions 
and  sensual  concupiscences,  which  when  freely  in- 
dulged exercise  so  pernicious  an  influence  on  human 
conduct,  should  be  trained  by  judicious  repression  to 
subordinate  and  conform  their  desires  to  the  rule  of 
reason  and  faith,  as  discerned  by  the  mind.  But  for 
this  training  to  be  effectual  it  is  not  sufficient  to  re- 
strain these  desires  of  the  flesh  only  when  their  de- 
mands are  unlawful.  They  represent  a  twist  in  the 
nature,  and  must  be  treated  as  one  treats  a  twisted 
wire  when  endeavouring  to  straid^ten  it,  namely^  by 
twisting  it  the  opposite  way.  Thus  in  the  various 
departments  of  ascetic  observance,  earnest  Catholics 
are  constantly  found  denying  themselves  even  in  mat- 
ters which  in  themselves  are  confessedly  lawfuL 

Mortification,  viewed  thus  as  a  means  of  curing  bad 
habits  and  implanting  good  ones,  has  its  recognised 
place  in  the  methods  even  of  those  who  are  engaged  in 
pursuing  purely  natural  ends.  What  is  peculiar  to 
Christian  mortification  is,  that  it  relies  for  the  attain- 
ment of  its  spiritual  objects,  not  merely  on  this  natural 
efficacy  of  its  methods,  but  still  more  on  the  aids  of 
divine  grace,  for  which,  by  its  earnestness  in  self-disci- 
pline and  the  Christian  motive  which  inspires  it.  it  can 
plead  so  powerfully  with  God.  ^  And  here,  as  further 
contributing  to  increase  its  spiritual  efficacy,  another 
motive  for  which  it  is  practised  comes  in.  It  is  prac- 
tised likewise  as  an  expiation  for  past  sins  and  snort- 
comings,  for  it  is  the  belief  of  the  Catholic  Church  that, 
although  only  the  Atonement  of  Christ  can  offer  ade- 
quate expiation  for  the  sins  of  men,  men  ought  not  to 
make  that  an  excuse  for  doing  nothing  themselves,  but 
should  rather  take  it  as  an  incentive  to  add  their  own 
expiations  to  the  extent  of  their  ix>wer,  and  should 
regard  such  personal  expiations  as  veiy  pleasing  to 
God.  This  explains  why  many  of  the  mortifications 
practised  by  devout  persons  are  not  directty  curative 
of  evil  propensities,  but  take  the  form  of  painful  exer- 
cises or  privations  self-infficted  because  they  are  pain- 
ful, e.  g.,  fastings,  hard  beds,  abstention  from  lawful 
pleasures,  etc.  Not  that  these  external  mortifications 
are  of  themselves  available,  for  spiritual  writers  never 
tire  of  insisting  that  the  internal  mortification  of  pride 
and  self-love  in  their  various  forms  are  essential,  but 
that  external  penances  are  good  only  so  far  as  they 
spring  from  this  internal  spirit,  and  react  by  promot- 
mg  it  (see  Asceticism). 

Alyarbs  db  Pas,  D«  mort<^loa«ofM  VN^vm  amimm  in  Opera. 
t.  Ill  (Paris,  1875).  L  II:  Baxbr,  Uaiv  Wisdom,  ed.  Swsnrr 
(London.  1905);  Rodiuoukz.  Chruiian  and  Rdioitma  Perfeetiom' 
Ls  Gaudier.  De  perfeetione  vita  «pmhia/w  (Paris.  1856) ;  Scara- 
MSLLi.  Dirtetorium  AseeUcfgm  (London,  1897):  MATUBur,  Self- 
knotoledge  and  Sdf-diseipline  (London,  1905):  Cbabot,  La  wur- 
HfUxUion  ehritienn^  HlavWm  Seime^  st  ReWon  seriss  (Paris, 
190?)^ 

8ti>wt  F.  Sm^th, 


MOftTHAXM 


579 


MOftTMAn 


MortOUlIn  (Old  Fr.,  morte  meyn\  dead-hand^  or 
''such  a  state  of  possession  of  laiid  as  makes  it  in- 
afienable"  (Wharton,  ''Law  Lexicon",  10th  ed., 
London,  1902,  s.  y.)i  is  "the  possession  of  land  or 
tenements  by  any  corporation"  (Bouvier,  ''Law 
Dictionary",  Boston,  1897,  s.  v.)i  or  "where  the  use 
came  ad  manum  mortnam,  which  was  when  it  came  to 
some  corporation"  (Lord  Bacon,  "Reading  on  the 
Statute  of  Uses"),  alienation  of  lipids  or  tenements  to 
a  corporation  being  termed  alienation  in  mortmain 
(Stepnen,  "  New  Commentaries  on  the  Laws  of  Eng- 
land ",  15th  ed.,  London,  1908,  I,  296).  The  aliena- 
tion was  formerly  expressed  by  the  now  obsolete 
words  amortusaHon  and  amorHzemerUj  the  person  so 
alienating  bdng  said  to  amorHxe  (Murray,  "  New  Eng- 
lish Dictionary",  Oxford  and  New  York,  1888),  a 
irerb  used  bv  Chaucer  in  connexion  with  good  works 
"amortised  oy  sinne  following"  (The  Persones  Tale). 
In  Old  French  amorHaaemerU  was  used  in  connexion 
with  licences  termed  ehartea  cPamorHssemerUf  validat- 
ing an  alienation,  amortir  being  defined  Meindre  en  tout 
cu  en  partie  lee  droits  de  la  eeianeurie  f^odale  ("La 
Grande  Encyclop^e  ",  Paris,  s.  d.  \ "  Century  Diction- 
ary", New  York.  s.  d.,  s.  y.  amortization;  cf.  the  same 
use  of  the  English  woid  in  statute  15  Richard  II,  c.  5). 

Corporate  ownership,  recognized  by  the  Roman 
Law,  did  not  become  obsolete  under  feudalism  (q.  v.). 
Throughout  the  Middle  Apes  there  were  numerous 
associations  having,  by  their  titles  of  association,  "a 
perpetual  body"  or  "  aperpetual  commonalty".  Such 
were  the  mayors,  baiUns,  and  commons  of  cities,  or  of 
boroughs  ana  towns,  and  such,  too,  were  various  guilds 
and  fraternities. 

These  associations  "of  many  individuals  united 
into  one  body,  imder  a  special  denomination  having 
perpetual  succession  under  an  artificial  form"  (Shel- 
fora.  "A  practical  treatise  on  the  Law  of  Mortmain. 
Ac",  Philadelphia,  1842,  22)  had  become  established 
for  purposes  which,  in  respect  to  any  property  they 
were  allowed  to  acquire  or  to  retain,  impliea  an  owner- 
ship free  from  the  vicissitudes  and  limited  duration  of 
ownership  by  natural  persons. 

The  Catholic  Church,  having  been  recognized 
"since  the  time  of  the  Emperor  Constantine"  m  the 
countries  which  adopted  tne  feudal  system  "  as  pos- 
sessing a  legal  personality  and  the  capacity  to  take 
and  acquire  property"  (Ponce  vs.  Roman  Catholic 
Church,  210  United  States  Supreme  Court  Reports, 
311),  feudalism  recognized  not  onl^  the  Church,  but 
its  religious  communities,  as  spintual  corporations. 
Such  a  community  has  been  thought  to  be  appropri- 
ately described  to  be  gens  ceiema  eadem  perpetuo  per^ 
mantns  quasi  in  ea  nemo  unquam  moritur  (an  everlast- 
ing body  continuing  perpetually  the  same  as  if  in  it 
no  one  may  ever  die).  The  communities  might  con- 
sist of  men.  each  of  whom  was  deemed,  because  of  his 
vows,  civilly  dead.  But  to  the  communities  them- 
selves, viri  rdigiosit  "people  of  religion",  gens  de  main 
morie^  the  law  attributed  a  perpetual  existence  and 
perpetual  ownership  of  prop^y. 

English  Law.  admitting  the  corporate  existence  of 
associations,  which  were  corporations  aggregate,  and 
also  allowing  of  such  an  artificial  existence  in  an 
ofiScial  individual,  considered  not  only  the  king,  but 
each  bishop,  parson,  and  vicar  as  a  corporation  sole. 
And  such  might  be  a  chantry  (q.  v.)  pnest,  to  whom 
land  had  be^  given  by  its  owner,  subject  to  a  per- 
petual service  a  chaunler  pur  ly  e  pur  ces  heyrs  a  Urn 
jours  (see  Year  Books  of  the  reign  of  King  Edward 
the  First,  Years  XX-XXI.  London,  1866,  265). 

Corporate  ownership  of  land,  however,  by  subjects 
of  the  reahn  was  repumant  to  feudal  theory.  Accord- 
ing to  this  theory  all  land  of  subjects  was  deemed  to 
have  been  acquired,  immediately  or  mediately,  by 
prant  of  the  king.  Of  land  directly  acquired  from  the 
*~  ^,  the  person  to  whom  the  grant  or  feofifment  was 
ie,  the  feoffee,  held  as  tenant  in  capita  of  the 


Crown.  If  the  tenant  in  capite  made  a  feoffment,  he 
became  immediate  lord  of  his  feoffee,  and  as  to  the 
king  a  mediate  lord.  And  thus  from  successive  fe- 
offments there  might  result  a  long  succession  of  lords, 
mediate  and  immediate,  the  king  being  ultimate  lord 
of  all  land  in  the  kingdom  which  was  held  by  feudal 
tenure.  A  freeman  who  became  a  landowner  waa 
bound  in  many  instances  to  render  military  service  to 
his  immediate  lord,  and  fiable  to  forfeit  the  land  for 
crime.  Should  he  die  without  a  proper  heir,  the  land 
escheated.  If  he  left  a  male  heir  under  age,  the  lord 
was  entitled  to  his  guardianship  (o.  v.).  In  the  case 
of  a  female  heir,  the  lord  was  entitled  to  her  disposal 
in  marriage  (St^hen,  op.  cit.,  I,  103r-140). 

The  Magna  Carta  of  King  Henry  III  (9  Henry 
III,  0. 32 ;  1224),  afterwards  repealed  as  to  this  provision 
by  implication  (Shelford,  op.  cit.,  15),  prohioited  the 
giving  or  selling  by  a  freeman  of  so  much  of  his  land 
as  that  the  unsold  residue  should  be  insufficient  to 
render  to  the  lord  of  the  fee  the  services  due  to  him. 

Feudal  theory,  therefore,  favoured  ownership  of 
land  by  some  natural  person  liable  to  death  and  capa- 
ble of  committing  cnme,  or  according  to  the  Nor- 
man expression,  homme  mvantf  mourant  et  confiscant 
(Thornton  vs.  Robin,  I,  Moore's  Privy  Council  Re- 
ports, 452).  An  artificial  being,  existmg  in  contem- 
plation of  law,  not  competent  to  render  militvy  ser- 
vice, incapable  of  crime,  and  not  subject  to  death,  was 
thus  not  possessed  of  the  attributes  which,  according 
to  feudal  polity,  became  a  landowner. 

In  France  a  custom  arose  of  the  gens  de  main  morte 
supplying  a  knight  to  fulfil  the  services  of  a  feudal  vas- 
sal. As  early,  however,  as  1159  this  custom  began  to 
be  superseded  b^  chartes  d'amoriissementf  and  these 
licences  became,  in  the  course  of  time,  an  important 
fiscal  resource  of  the  Crown.  Of  the  conferring  of  re- 
lief from  feudal  obligations  a  notable  instance  was 
the  exemption  given  m  1156  by  Frederick  Barbarossa 
to  the  Dukes  of  Austria  from  all  service,  except  al- 
most nominsd  militanr  service.  Land  held  by  indi- 
viduals free  from  feudal  liabilities  was  designated  as 
allodial  (Fr.  alleu),  or  a  fief  de  Dieu,  or  in  Germany 
as  Sonnerdehn, 

A  third  of  the  value  of  property  is  said  to  have  been 
sometimes  the  price  of  its  cmwrtissement  (Littr^,  ''Dic- 
tionnaire  de  la  langue  fran^aise",  Paris,  1889,  s.  v.). 

William  the  Conqueror  sought  to  promote  in  Eng- 
land holding  of  land  by  feudal  tenure.  That  allo- 
dial holdings  were  known  in  England  at  the  time  of  the 
Conquest  seems  quite  possible  (see  ''La  Grande  En- 
cyclopedic", 8.  v.  Alleu).  And  many  of  the  holders 
woula  doubtless  consent  to  chan^  to  the  feudal  ten- 
ure, which  implied  feudal  protection. 

But  there  appears  to  have  arisen  a  somewhat  wide- 
spread repugnance  on  the  part  of  landowners  to  hold 
land  subject  to  the  faith  and  homage  which  accorded 
with  the  law  doctrines  of  the  Normstn  feudists.  A 
method  of  escape  was  resorted  to,  which  the  Magna 
Carta  of  King  Henry  III  indicates.  Owners  availed 
themselves  of  the  property  rights  of  the  religious  com- 
munities in  order  to  nold  land  under  these  communi- 
ties. For  to  contrivances  of  this  kind  the  Charter  evi- 
dently dludes,  prohibiting  the  same  land  being  given 
to  and  taken  again  from  any  religious  house,  and  for- 
bidding any  house  of  religion  to  take  land  under  an 
agreement  of  returning  it  to  its  former  owner,  terram 
aiicujus  sic  accipere  quod  iradat  tJlam  ei  a  quo  ipsam 
recepii  tenendam  (see  c.  36). 

This  early  statute  of  mortmun  applies  only  to  ac- 
tion by  religious  houses  in  the  way  of  enabling  lay  own- 
ers to  hold  their  lands.  The  statute  does  not  seem 
directed  against  the  holding  by  the  houses  of  land  in 
their  own  possession.  The  correctness  of  Sir  William 
Blackstone's  surmise  that  even  before  the  Conquest 
licences  in  mortmain  had  become  necessary  ''among 
the  Saxons"  (Commentaries,  B.  11,  c.  18,  269)  does 
not  appear  to  be  confirmed  by  this  Magna  Cartfti 


M0&tM4Itt                          680  HOftTltAIM 

• 

nor,  in  any  (^eral  sense,  by  the  fact  that  the  allusion  tain  person  to  cpve  a  paroel  of  land  to  a  certain  priol 

in  the  Constitutions  of  Clarendon  (1164)  to  mortmain  and  convent  to  be  held  sibi  et  aucceswribus  mis  in 

was  confined  to  advowsons  (ibid.)*  perpetuunij  but  subject  to  the  due  and  accustomed 

The  mortmain  statute  of  Edward  I,  known  as  "Sta-  services  to  the  cajntalibw  dominis  fcsdi  HUus  (Year 

tutum  de  viris  religiosis",  7  Eklward  I,  enacted  in  Books  of  the  reign  of  King  Edward  I,  years  XXXII- 

1279,  and  so  often  referred  to  by  writers  on  English  XXXIII,  London,  1864,  499).    This  licoice  recites 

real  property  law,  recites  that  religious  men  have  en-  that  it  is  given  ob  affectionem  ei  benevolentiam  to- 

terea  into  their  own  fees  as  wcdl  as  into  the  fees  of  wards  the  religious  order.    Nor  do  licences  in  mort- 

oUier  men,  and  that  those iservices  due  "and  which  at  main  seem  to  have  ever  become  in  Ekigland,  as  in 

the  beginning  were  provided  for  the  defence  of  the  France,  recognized  sources  of  royal  revenue. 

Realm"  are  wrony^ully  withdrawn  and  the  escheats  Legal  devices,  too,  as  in  the  times  before  the  Magna 

lost  to  the  chief  lords  (Duke,  "The  Law  of  Charitable  Carta  of  Henry  III,  were  resorted  to  for  the  purpoee 

Uses",  London,  1805,  193).  of  escaping  the  oi>eration  of  the  statute,  such  as  pur^ 

The  statute  thereupon  ordains  that  "no  person,  re-  chases  alluded  to  in  the  statute  of  Richard  II  "to  the 
ligious  or  other",  niUlus,  religiosia  aid  alius  quicunv-  use"  of  persons  other  than  those  to  whom  the  legal 
que,  shall  buy  or  sell  lands  or  tenements  or  receive  title  was  transferred.  These  devices  have  produced 
them,  or  appropriate  them  (under  pain  of  forfeiture)  far-reaching  and  endurins  influence  on  the  develop- 
so  as  to  cause  the  land  to  come  into  mortmain,  per  ment  of  English  jurisprudence.  Concerning  Engliflh 
quod  ad  manum  tncrtuam  terra  et  tenementa  hujuamodi  aggregate  ecclesiastical  bodies  of  former  tmies.  Sir 
deveniant  quoquo  modo.  Edward  Coke  observes  in  language  which  we  might 

A  violation  of  the  statute  renders  lawful  to  the  king  imagine  to  be  applied  to  modem  ^'trusts"  and  com- 
mand other  chi^  lords  of  the  fee  immediate",  nobis  et  binations  of  capital,  that  those  bodies  "in  this  were  to 
aliie  immediaiis  capitalibus  dominia  fcedi,  to  enter  and  be  commended,  that  th^  ever  had  of  their  counsel 
hold  the  land.  The  chief  lord  immediate  is  afforded  the  best  learned  men  that  they  could  get"  (Black- 
a  year  to  enter,  the  next  chief  lord  immediate  the  stone.  "Commentaries",  B.  11,  c.  18,  270). 
half-year  next  ensuins,  and  so  every  lord  immediate  Before  the  coming  of  the  Conqueror  and  his  feudal 
may  enter  into  such  land,  if  the  next  lord  be  n^-  lawyers  much  land  m  England  had  been  acquired  to 
gent  in  entering.  If  all  the  chief  lords  who  are  "of  be  held  by  the  spiritual  tenure  of  frankalmoign,  a 
full  age,  within  the  four  seas  and  out  of  prison  be  tenure  subjecting  the  holders  to  what  was  termed  the 
n€«;ligent  or  slack",  "we",  the  king,  namely,  "shall  trinoda  neceaeitaa  (or  threefold  obligation)  of  repairing 
tc£e  such  lands  and  tenements  into  our  own  hands",  highways,  building  castles,  and  repelling  invasions,  but 
oapiemue  in  manum  nostram,  otherwise  to  no  service  other  than  praymg  for  the  souls 

The  term  manua  mortua  is  not  applied  to  the  sove-  of  the  donor  and  his  heirs,  dead  or  ahve  (Stephen,  op. 

rdgn,  yet  land  so  taken  "in  manum  nostram "  is  not  to  cit.,  I,  139. 140).    To  such  pious  foundations  already 

be  retained.    Such  a  retaining  would  be  in  mortmain,  established  none  of  the  mortmain   legislation   ap* 

And  the  king  promises  to  convey  the  land  to  other  per-  plied. 

sons  subject  to  services  from  which  ownership  by  the  When  Henry  VIII  commenced  his  ecclesiastical 

"religious  men"  or  others  had  withdrawn  it,  services  alterations,  the  general  body  of  the  parochial  cleigy 


cheats  and  other  services".    A  statute  of  1290  per-  head  of  the  church  of  England",  and  thus  contmued 

mits  any  freeman  to  part  with  his  land,  the  feoffee  to  to  hold  their  lands  by  the  Saxon  tenure,  by  which  "the 

hold  of  the  same  lord  and  by  the  same  services  as  his  parochial  clergy  and  very  many  ecclesiastical  and 

feoffor  held.    But  the  statute  cautiously  adds  that  in  eleemosynary  Toimdations",  observes  Sergeant  Ste- 

no  wise  are  the  lands  to  come  into  mortmain  against  phen,  "hold  them  at  this  day"  (op.  cit.,  1, 139). 

the  statute  (see  18  Edward  I,  c.  I,  c.  II,  c.  III).  Land  held  in  mortmain  oy  some  of  the  religious 

Where  churches  stood  "the  ground  itself  was  hal-  corporations  were  confiscated  oy  the  statute  27  Henry 
lowed"  (see  Ponce  vs.  Roman  Catholic  Church,  210  Vlu.  c.  28  (1535),  and  thus,  according  to  Lord  Ba- 
Umted  States  Supreme  Court  Reports,  312).  And  a  con  (Reading  on  the  Statute  of  Uses).  "The  posses- 
statute  of  Richani  II  (15  Richard  II,  c.  V;  1391)  re-  sions  that  had  been  in  mortmain  began  to  stir 
cites  that  "some  religious  persons,  parsons,  vicars  and  abroad",  a  "stir"  extended,  by  the  statute  37  Henry 
other  spiritusd  persons  have  entered  in  divers  lands  VIII,  c.  4  (1545),  to  other  religious  houses  and  to 
and  tenements,  which  be  adjoining  to  their  churches  chantries,  this  statute  transferring  their  lands  to  the 
and  of  the  same  by  sufferance  and  assent  of  the  ten-  sovereign's  possession  in  consideration  of  His  Mai- 
ants,  have  made  churchyards  and  by  buUs  of  the  esty's  great  costs  and  charges  in  his  then  wars  with 
bishop  of  Rome  [(sic) — tJ^e  French  and  more  authori-  Prance  and  Scotland. 

tative  text  reads:  par  buUee  del  appoetoiU]  have  dedi-  During  the  brief  period  of  reaction  after  the  death 

cated  and  hallowed  the  same"  and  in  these  make  of  Kins  Edward  VI,  the  statutes  of  mortmain,  in  so 

"parochial  burying".   Therefore  aU  persons  possessed  far  as  mey  applied  to  future  conveyances  to  qnritual 

of  land  "totheuseof  religious  people  or  other  spiritual  corporations,  were  suspended  (1554)  for  twenty  years 

persons",  of  which  these  latter  take  the  profits,  are  (1  and  2  Philip  and  Marj^  c.  8,  sec.  LI), 

required  upon  pain  of  forfeiture  to  procure  licence  of  The  expressions  quoted  from  Lord  Bacon,  and  an 

amortisation  within  a  time  limited,  or  to  "sell  and  allusion  of  his  to  "plenty  and  purchasing"^  sug|^ 

aliene "  to  some  other  use.  the  view  that  holdmg  of  land  in  mortmam,  being 

This  statute  does  not  confine  its  operation  to  "spirit-  opposed  to  land  stirring  abroad  and  its  ready  purchase, 

ual  persons"  and  churchyards,  but  enacts  that  the  was  in  the  nature  of  a  public  inconvenience  or  mia- 

statute  of  1279  shall  "be  observed  of  all  lands,  tene-  chief.    Similar  views  had  not  actuated  the  En^ish 

ments.  fees,  advowsons,  and  other  possessions  pur-  kings  and  barons  previous  to  Henry  VIII,  who  (to 

chased  or  to  be  purchaysed  to  the  use  of  guilds  and  quote  Barrington,  "Observations  on  the  more  anci^it 

fraternities"  and  "Mayors,  Bailiffs  and  Commons  of  Statutes",  London,   1796,  113),  "had  no  notion  of 

Cities,  Boroughs  and  other  towns  that  have  a  perpetual  an  inconvenience  or  mischief  to  the  public  from  a 

oomm<Hialty  ",all  of  whom  are  forbidden  to  purchase,  stagnation  of  property",  realizing,  however,  that,  "as 

Licences  allowing,  in  particular  instances,  transfers  the  land  was  given  to  God,  the  king  and  the  barons 

into  mortmain,  notwithstanding  the  statote,  were  is-  lost  all  the  usual  profits  of  what  was  held  under  them" 

sued  from  time  to  time.    The  text  of  a  licence  of  Ed-  (ibid.), 

ward  I  himself  has  been  preserved,  permitting  a  c«r-  But  opposition  to  mortmain  holdings  as  being  per- 


ittvmkOk 


m 


utviUAa 


petuities  appeare  in  a  statute  of  Henry  VIII,  which 
preceded  the  confiscating  statutes.  Tins  is  the  stat- 
ute 23  Henry  VIII,  c.  X  (1531),  directed  against 
holding  of  lands,  "to  the  use  of  parish  churches,  chap- 
els, churchwardens,  guilds,  fraternities,  commonalties, 
companies,  or  brotnerhoods",  purposes  previously 
acknowledged  as  charitable  and  reli^^ous. 

Excluding  from  its  operation  cities  and  towns  cor^ 
porate,  havmg,  by  their  ancient  customs,  power  to 

devise  into  mortmain",  the  statute  alluded  to  de- 
clares trusts  or  assurances  to  the  uses  just  mentioned 
'^  erected  and  made  of  devotions  or  by  common  assent 
of  the  people  without  any  corporation",  or  ''to  the 
uses  and  intents  to  have  obites  perpetual  or  a  con- 
tinual service  of  a  priest  forever",  or  for  sixty  or 
eijshty  years,  to  be  within  the  mischiefs  of  alienation 
''into  mortmain",  and  as  to  future  gifts  void  except 
for  terms  not  exceeding  twenty  years  (cf .  1  Edwsud 
VL  c.  XIV). 

Sir  Edward  Coke  explains  this  statute  to  have  been 
directed  against  some  purposes  which  were  thence- 
forth to  oe  condemned  as  superstitious,  although 
formed V  approved  as  charitable,  "such  superstitious 
uses",  he  points  out,  "as  to  pray  for  souls  supposed 
to  be  in  purgatory,  and  the  like  " .  Not  Ions  before  the 
date  of  the  statute  Coke  observes  "by  the  light  of 
God's  word  ",  "  diverse  superstitions  and  errors  in  the 
Christian  religion  which  had  a  pretence  and  semblance 
of  charity  and  devotion  were  discovered  " .  With  true 
charity,  he  claims,  the  statute  was  not  intended  to 
interfere.  For.  he  observes,  "no  time  was  so  bar- 
barous as  to  abolish  learning  and  knowledge  nor  so 
uncharitable  as  to  prohibit  relieving  the  poor"  (op. 
cit.,  24  a) .  And  he  allows  us  to  infer  such  to  be  the  fact, 
even  thoug^h  the  charity  might  constitute  a  perpetuity. 

Dispositions  for  charity,  which  the  law  would  spe- 
cially commend,  a  statute  of  Queen  Elizabeth  mentions 
(43  Elizabeth,  c.  IV,  1601).  Dispositions  in  aid  of 
"superstitions"  were  not  to  be  deemed  charitable, 
and  these  the  courts  were  to  ascertain  and  condemn, 
in  the  varying  light  of  English  Statutes,  as  evils  like 
to  alienations  in  mortmun. 

An  authority  on  the  law  of  charitable  uses  (Duke, 
op.  cit.,  125)  states  that  "rehgion  being  variable,  ac- 
cording to  the  pleasure  of  succeeding  princes,  that 
which  at  one  time  is  held  for  orthodoxy  may  at  an- 
other be  accounted  superstitious".  And  accordingly 
the  English  courts  even  condemned  as  superstitious 
the  charge  on  land  of  an  annual  sum  for  education  of 
Scotchmen  to  propagate  in  Scotland  the  doctrines  of 
the  Church  of  England .  For,  by  statute,  presbyteries 
had  been  settled  in  that  portion  of  the  United  King- 
dom [Methodist  Church  vs.  Remington,  1  Watts 
(Pa.),  Reports,  p.  224]. 

The  manner  of  establishing  a  charity  was  in  the 
course  of  time  restricted  by  "the  statute  of  mortmain 
commonly  so  called  ",  remarks  the  Master  of  the  Rolls 
in  Corbyn  vs.  French,  4  Vesey's  Reports,  427,  "but", 
he  adds,  "very  improperly,  for  it  does  not  prevent  the 
alienation  of  land  in  mortmain,  nor  was  tnat  the  ob- 
ject of  the  Act". 

Reciting  that  gifts  of  lands  in  mortmain  are  re- 
strained by  Magna  Carta,  and  other  laws  as  against 
the  public  utility,  but  that  "nevertheless  this  public 
mischief  has  of  late  greatly  increased  by  many  large 
and  improvident  alienations  or  dispositions  to  uses 
called  charitable  uses",  this  statute  (9  George  II,  c. 
XXXVI,  1736)  provides  that  thenceforth  such  dis- 
positions shall  be  "null  and  void",  unless  executed 
with  certain  prescribed  solemnities,  and  not  less  than 
twelve  months  before  the  death  of  the  donor. 

The  statutes  23  Henry  VIII  and  this  statute  of 
Geoi^  II,  in  their  effect  on  the  dispositions  of  land, 
which  they  prohibit,  differ  from  the  old  mortmain 
acts.  The  statutes  referred  to  render  such  disposi- 
tions void,  that  is,  of  no  effect  whatsoever.  But 
alienations  in  mortmun  properly  so  termed  were  not 


mere  nullities,  but  were  effectual  to  transfer  ownej^ 
ship  of  land  to  a  corporation,  by  which  the  land  might 
be  retained  until  its  forfeiture. 

Enforcement  of  a  forfeiture  and  the  declaring  void 
a  charge  on,  or  use  of,  land  are  in  their  nature  and 
result  very  different. 

Notwithstanding  the  statement  in  the  case  cited  from 
Vesey's  Reports  that  devises  for  charitable  uses  are 
not  in  themselves  alienations  in  mortmain,  the  latter 
word's  meaning  has  yet  been  claimed  to  embrace  any 
perpetual  holding  of  land  "in  a  dead  or  unserviceable 
hand  ".  And  such,  it  is  claimed, " is  the  characteristic 
of  alienations  to  charitable  uses  " .  Land  dedicated  to 
the  service  of  charity  and  religion  is  said  to  be  "prac- 
tically inalienable ' ' ,  because  any  disposition  of  it,  which 
is  incompatible  with  the  canning  out  or  continuity  of 
the  benevolent  purposes  of  the  conveyance,  will  be 
restrained  by  Courts  of  Equity  (Lewis,  "A  practical 
treatise  on  the  Law  of  Perpetuity",  Philadelphia, 
1846,  689),  in  England  the  Court  of  Chancery. 

For,  notwithstanding  mortmain  statutes,  and  as  if 
to  protect  the  sovereign  from  the  reproach  which,  ac- 
cording to  Coke,  he  might  otherwise  have  incuired, 
the  lora  chancellors  seem,  from  a  period  long  previous 
to  that  of  King  Henry  VIII,  to  nave  protected  and 
guarded  trusts  or  uses  in  favour  of  charity.  The 
chancellors  seem  to  have  administered  this  duty  in 
their  capacity  as  guardians  of  the  king's  conscience, 
and  by  force  of  an  assumed,  if  not  expressed,  delega- 
tion of  the  royal  prerogative  and  sovereign  will. 

We  cannot  here  consider  the  subject  of  royal  pre- 
rogative, nor  how  the  modem  differs  from  the  ancient 
theory  concerning  it.  Whether  modem  legislation 
against  perpetual  noldings  of  land  is  to  be  deemed  to 
prohibit  by  implication  trusts  for  charity,  because 
they  imply  perpetual  ownership,  has  been  the  subject 
of  extensive  legal  discussion  and  of  discordant  judi- 
cial decisions. 

But  according  to  the  existing  law  of  England  we 
learn  from  Sergeant  Stephen  (op.  cit..  Ill,  174)  that 
"there  is  now  practically  no  restraint  whatsoever  on 
gifts  of  land  by  will  for  charitable  purposes.  Pure 
personal  estate",  he  adds,  "may.  of  course,  be  freely 
bequeathed  for  these  purposes  .  All  corporations, 
however,  are  yet  precluded  by  English  law  from  pur- 
chasing land  "except  by  licence  m  mortmain  from 
the  Crown"  (ibid.,  26). 

As  to  what  dispositions  of  property  which  other- 
wise would  be  charitable  are  to  be  deemed  legally 
superstitious,  the  modem  law  of  England  is  less  narrow 
and  rigid  than  the  law  was  formerly  interpreted  to  be 
(ibid.,  180). 

The  statutes  of  mortmain  themselves  were  not  ex- 
tended to  the  colonies.  And  respecting  the  United 
States  Chancellor  Kent  observes,  "We  have  not  in 
this  country  re-enacted  the  Statutes  of  Mortmain  or 
generally  assumed  them  to  be  in  force;  and  the  only 
legal  check  to  the  acquisition  of  lands  by  corporations 
consists  in  those  special  restrictions  contained  in  the 
acts  by  which  they  are  incorporated  ....  and  in  the 
force  to  be  given  to  the  exception  of  corporations  out 
of  the  Statute  of  Wills"  (Commentaries  on  American 
law,  14th  ed.,  Boston,  1896,  II,  282).  The  com- 
mentator states,  by  way  of  exception,  that  the  stat- 
utes of  mortmain  are  in  force  in  tne  State  of  Pennsyl- 
vania. The  supreme  court  of  that  State,  in  1832, 
stated  that  these  statutes  had  been  extended  to  the 
State  "only  so  far  as  they  prohibit  dedications  of 
property  to  superstitious  uses  and  grants  to  corpora- 
tions without  a  statutory  licence"  (1  Watts  Reports, 
224).  The  court  had  in  mind,  but  seemed  reluctant 
to  follow,  the  "Report  of  the  Judges"  made  in  1808, 
and  which  is  to  be  found  in  3  Binney's  Reports.  The 
"Report"  almost  follows  the  statute  of  Henry  VIII, 
in  declaring  all  conveyances  "void  made  either  to  an 
individual  or  to  any  number  of  persons  associated, 
but  not  incorporated,  if  the  said  conveyances  are  for 


MOBTOlt  582  M08AIO 

liSeB  or  purpoaes  of  a  superstitious  naturei  and  not  cal-  demned  at  Newgate  26  August  merely  for 

culated  to  promote  objects  of  charity  or  utility".  priest  contrary  to  27  Elic^  c.  2.    At  the  same^une 

Notwithstanding  this  early  declaration,  no  such  and  place  suffered  Hugh  Moor,  a  la3rman,  aged  25,  of 

doctrine  as  that  of  the  English  courts  on  tne  subject  Grantham,  Lincolnshire,  and  Gray's  Inn,  London,  for 

of  superstitious  uses  or  trusts  can  well  have  a  place  in  having  been  reconciled  to  tiie  Church  by  Fr.  Thomas 

the  jurisprudence  of  the  United  States,  where  ''all  re-  Stephenson,  S.J.    On  the  same  day  suffered  (1)  at 

ligious  beliefs,  doctrines  and  forms  of  worship  are  Mile  End,  William  Dean^  a  priest  (q.  v.);  and  Henry 

free"  (Holland  vs.  Alcock,  108  New  York  CJourt  of  Webley,  a  layman,  bom  m  tne  city  of  Gloucester;  (2) 

Appeeis  Reports,  329).  near  the  Theatre,  William  Gunter.  a  priest,  bom  at 

The  people  of  the  States  make  known  thdr  sover-  Raglan,  Monmouthshire,  educatea  at  Rdms;  (3)  at 

eign  will  by  enactments  of  the  State  legislatures,  to  Clerkenwell,  Thomas  Holford,  a  priest,  bom  at  Aston, 

which  bodies  the  prerogatives  of  soverei^ty  have  in  Acton,  Cheshire,  educated  at  Reims,  who  was 

been  delegated.    And,  therefore,  the  validity  of  di&-  hanged  only;  and  (4)  between  Brentford  and  Hounj»- 

positions  of  land  in  favour  of  charity  is  controlled  by  low,  Middlesex,  James  Claxton  or  Clarkson,  apriest, 

the  law  of  the  State  where  the  land  is  situated,  and  bom  in  Yorkshire  and  educated  at  Reims;  and  Tnomas 

without  any  implied  delegation  of  prerogative  to  any  Felton.  bom  at  Bermondsey  Abbey  in  1567,  son  of  B. 

judicial  officer.    And  the  same  remark  applies  to  the  John  Felton,  tonsured  1583  and  about  to  be  professed 

general  power  of  corporations  to  acquire  and  to  hold  a  Minim,  who  had  suffered  terrible  tortures  m  prison, 

land  in  the  several  States.     (See  Property,  Ek;cLBSi-  According  to  one  account  there  also  suffered  on  the 

ASTiCAL.)  same  day  at  Holywell,  London,  one  Richard  Williams, 

Q  FwJ^"'  ^*J  ^"^  ojtLarae  (Cambridge.  1800) ;  Stubbs,  a  Welsh  priest  of  Queen  Mary's  reign.    Another,  how- 

SeUd  Charters  and  other  tUtutratumM  of  Bnfflxth  Coruittutwnal  H%9-  ^„-»«    -.,,r_   i.;_    j^au    :-,    i  cqo   *>I^coq       t?»    'b^ll.*^ 

lory  (6th  ed..  Oxford,  1884);   Bubqb,  CcmmefOariee  on  Colonial  ?ver.   putS   hiS   death   in    1692   or  .1593.     Fr.   PoUcn 

and  Foreign  Latn generally  (London,  1838),  11, 456, 458;  Vidal  m.  thinks  his  name  OCCUTS  m  this  year  in  mistake  for  that 

^^*l5^**i^*;'.^*^'^*  ^?**ftj'^^"°^o^1^'2!5*?^'J?*P*^»  of  John  Harrison,  aliaa  Symonds,  a  letter  carrier,  who 

V,  194, 195;  Fountain  v,  Ravenel,  17  do.,  v,  384,  386,  389;  Dillon,  ^^^  I*  o^wmmo  AVA/;i«f<w1  of  T',rKiii.«    R  Ci^^rxU^m   i  rqq 

Bequeef  for  Maeeee/or  the  Soul,  of  deeeaeed  vereone  (Chicago  Was  it  seems  CXecutwl  at  Tyburn,  6  October,  1^. 

1896) ;   Holmee  m.  Afeod.  6t  New  York  CouH  ofAppeaU  Retmrte,  ,  PouJOi.  Bngluh  Martvre  {m-ieOS  in  Coth.  ««.  5oc.  FuU^  V 

332;  Allen  m.  Stevens,  161  do.,  122:  Thompson,  CoSmuntarisM  oi  JP^^^^yPJS^^^if  °**°°'  ^^*  '**•**'•  ^S  *'^^'^'**yf*?"^ 

the  law  ofPHvaU  Corporatione  (Indianapolis,  1909),  sections  236i^  (lyndoii,  1891) :  Challokbb.  Memotre  of  Mxenonary  Prteete,  I 

2400;   Halsbubt.  The  Laws  of  England  (London.  1909).  s.  ▼.  (Manchester,  1802).  ,    «    «r      

Corporations.  J.  B.  WAIinsWRiaHT. 

Charles  W.  Sloanb. 

Moiaie  Leglfllation,  the  body  of  luridical,  moral, 

Mortoiiy  John,  Cardinal,  Archbishop  of  Canter-  and  ceremonial  institutions,  laws,  ana  decisions  oom- 

bury,  b.  in  Dorsetshire  about  1420;  a.  at  Knowle.  prised  in  the  last  four  books  of  the  Pentateuch,  and 

Kent,  15  Sept.^  1500.    He  was  educated  at  Oxford  ascribed  by  Christian  and  Hebrew  tradition  to  Moses. 
(Balhol  College)  where  he  graduated  D.C.L.    Being        Name. — As  early  as  the  Davidic  era,  the  luune  mvv 

ordained  priest  he  practised  in  London  as  an  ecclo^-  t&rdh  was  populariy  used  to  designate  this  compila- 

astical  lawyer.    The  patronage  of  Cardinal  Bourchier  tion.  which,  however,  might  not  then  have  embraced 

obtained  lor  him  much  preferment  and  he  became  all  tne  enactments  it  now  contains.    After  the  captiv- 

privy  councillor,  Chancellor  of  the  Duchy  of  Cornwall,  Hy,  the  term  became  synonymous  with  the  Pent*- 

master  in  Chancery,  subdean  of  Lincoln  (1450),  prin-  touch,  and  this  usage  has  obtained  ever  since.    Side 

cipal  of  Peckwater  Inn,  Oxford  (1453),  and  preben-  by  »ae  with  these  meanings  are  others  less  compre- 

dary  of  Salisbury  and  Lincoln  (1458).    Durmg  the  hensive  and  more  ancient.    If,  as  is  generally  ad- 

Civil  War  he  joined  the  Lancastrians,  was  attainted  by  mitted,  ydrGh  (to  cast)  be  the  root,  there  would  be  a 

the  Yorkists  and  lost  all  his  offices.    During  the  reign  peculiar  historic  interest  attaching  to  the  word,  be- 

of  Edward  IV  his  attainder  was  reversed  on  his  sub-  cause  of  the  implication  that  the  first  t&r/ith,  or  deci- 

mission,  and  he  was  made  Master  of  the  Rolls  (16  sions,  of  whatever  kind,  were  arrived  at  chiefly,  or  at 

March,  1472-3),  Archdeacon  of  Winchester  and  Chea-  least  in  important  cases,  by  the  casting  of  lots.    The 

ter  (1474),  and  was  elected  Bishop  of  Ely  on  31  Jan.,  deity  would  then  be  re^irded  as  the  author  of  than. 

1478-9.    During  the  reign  of  Ricnard  III  he  was  im-  More  developed  than  these  are  the  first  available  hia- 

prisoned  but  escaped  to  Flanders,  returning  to  Eng-  toric  tOrMif  such  as  were  pronounced  in  cases  of  pri- 

land  when  Henry  Vll  became  king  in  1485.    He  was  vate  litigation  at  Raphidim  (Ex.,  xviii,  13  so.)  by 

much  trusted  by  the  king  and  was  all-powerful  in  the  Moses,  rdying  for  his  direction  on  the  analogies  of  preo- 

govemment.    He  was  elected  Archbisnop  of  Canter-  edent  or  custom.    On  the  lips  of  the  priests    and 

ury,  8  Oct^  I486,  and  in  the  following  March  be-  prophets  t&rdh  was  sometimes  referred  to  the  moral 

came  Lord  Chancellor  of  Endand.    In  1493  Alexan-  and  religious  prescriptions  of  the  Law  alone,  or  again, 

der  VI  created  him  Cardinal  of  St.  Anastasia.    He  to  the  ceremonial  part  of  it,  whether  in  theory  ox 

was  made  Chancellor  of  Oxford  in  1495.    It  is  prob-  practice;  in  short,  to  any  direction,  written  or  oraL 

able  that  he  was  the  author  of  the  ''History  of  Richard  ^ven  in  Jehovah^s  name  by  one  enjoying  an  ofiSdal 

III'\  usually  ascribed  to  Blessed  Thomas  More,  who  capacity. 

as  a  boy  was  a  page  in  his  household  and  who  subse-        Quite  naturally,  when  the  period  of  formal  codifica- 

quently  translated  it  into  English.  tJon  set  in,  each  new  code  was  styled  a  tdrdh,  and  these 

Hook.  Lives  of  the  Arehinshops  of  Canterbury  (London,  1860-  separate  t&rM  were  the  stepping-stones  to.  and  after- 

^ii^^"S^'PJ! SS^lt'S  SS^^nS^;^'^  wanto  «.e  constituent  parte  of  tt>e<'TonAi"  or  Con 

•-    '  pus,  which  has  always  been  identified  with  the  name  of 

Edwin  Bttrton.  Moses. — More  restricted  in  their  signification  are  the 

following  Biblical  terms:  DmpD,  pfqgHuitm,  pieoeptB; 


mVD,  mlfti?<SA,  commandment;  nny.  W(w)<MA,  testi- 
monies, i.  e.  eicpressions  of  God's  will  to  man,  chiefly 
in  moral  and  reu^ous  matters :  DfiCID)  mis/ipdf ,  a  jud||- 
ment,  usually  though  not  exciuavely  relating  to  dvil 


Morton,  Robert,  Venerabij:,  English  priest  and 
martyr,  b.  at  Bawtry,  Yorks,  about  1548;  executed  in 
Lincoln's  Inn  Fields,  London,  Wednesday,  28  August, 

1588  (the  catalogue  probably  compiled  by  Fr.  John  ,  .  «  -  -  . 
Gerard,  S.J.,  and  printed  by  Fr.  Pollen,  S.J.,  in  "Cath.  or  criminal  law,  and,  eventually,  implying  an  oblin- 
Rec.  Soc.  Publ.",  V,  288-293,  gives  the  date  of  the  tory  force  arising  from  the  nature  of  moral  rectitude, 
deaths  of  the  Venerabiles  Morton,  Moor,  Holford,  which  is  enhanced,  not  obscured,  by  the  notion  of  theo- 
Claxton,  and  Felton  as  30  August,  but  this  seems  to  cratic  economy;  and  pn,  HpH,  Adg,  huqq<ih  (root,  to  en- 
be  an  error).  He  was  the  son  of  Robert  Morton,  and  grave),  statute,  or  thing  engrav«d  (e.  g.  on  Btoiie)i 
nephew  of  Dr.  Nicholas  Morton,  was  ordained  dear  tnerdi>y  beoommg  fixed,  so  to  speak,  as  an  orcOiiance. 
oon  at  Rome  and  priest  at  Rdms  in  1687,  and  con-  fVom  this  varied  tenninology,  *^            '~'*"     '~^    '^^ 


MOSAIC 


583 


MOSAIC 


the  use  made  of  it  mav  have  been  as  lime  went  on,  it 
seems  rig^t  to  conclude  that  its  originators  had  more 
than  a  faint  perception  of  the  extinction  between  the 
different  classes  of  law,  and  of  their  respective  binding 
force.  If,  in  ^ven  cases,  eoual  penalties  were  metea 
out  for  delinquencies  from  the  moral  and  ceremonial 
laws,  it  was  because  the  nearness  of  the  latter  to  the 
national  God  by  reason  of  their  universal  character, 
seemed  to  g^ve  offences  against  them  a  peculiar  hei- 
nousness,  not  found  in  other  crimes.  The  legislators 
understood  well  that  when  monotheistic  ceremonies 
declined,  polytheistic  institutions  would  supplant 
them,  and  then  there  would  be  no  morality  left  to 
guara. 

Origin. — ^The  Torah,  as  a  whole,  was  neither  mir- 
aculously communicated  from  heaven,  nor  was  it 
laJx)riously  thought  out  and  put  togetner  by  Moses 
independently  of  external  influences.  It  is  some- 
times hazardously  asserted  that  it  antedated  Moses 
by  a  thousand  years  or  more,  since  much  that 
is  in  the  Torah  is  found  also  in  the  Code  of  Ham- 
murabi.. Indeed,  certain  decrees  in  the  Babylonian 
code  are  more  excellent  than  their  Mosaic  parallels; 
in  more  important  ones,  however,  the  Torah  takes 

grecedenoe.  It  was  the  primitive  condition  of  He- 
rew  society  that  dictated  Israel's  first  laws,  by  lead- 
ing to  the  establishment  of  f amil]r  and  tribal  customs. 
Ytt  it  would  be  wrong  to  maintain  with  too  much  as- 
surance that  the  same  or  a  similar  collection  of  laws 
would  have  resulted  spontaneously  and  independently 
from  the  same  natural  conditions  in  any  other  pe- 
riod or  clime.  There  had  been  precedents  of  just  such 
customs  and  practices  as  Israel  adopted,  among  other 
races  with  wnich  the  founders  of  Israel's  laws  had 
come  in  contact,  and  it  seems  an  irresistible  conclu- 
sion that,  since  Israel  borrowed  its  language  from  its 
neighbours  and  could  be  so  easily  won  over  to  heathen 
rites  as  to  defy  the  vigilance  of  judges,  priests,  and 
prophets,  it  could  not  but  be  influenced  by  the  social 
and  political  life  of  the  neighbouring  peoples. 

The  possibilities  then,  are  the  following:  the  mi^;ra- 
tion  of  Abraham  from  Chaldea  would  be  responsible 
for  the  nucleus  of  Mosaic  Legislation,  which  is  pecu- 
liarly Semitic.  The  sojourn  of  the  patriarchs  among 
the  Canaanites.  coupled  with  their  relations  with  the 
Pharaohs,  would  impart  a  foreign  colouring,  with  a 
slight  strengthening  of  the  original  stx>ck  during 
Jacob's  retreat  to  Mesopotamia.  The  Egmstian  op- 
pression would  certainly  elicit  some  well-denned  views 
regarding  iustice  and  right.  The  education  of  Moses 
by  Pharaoh's  daughter  would  prepare  a  master-mind 
for  tribal  unification,  while  his  esmeriences  among 
the  Semitic  Midianites  would  teach  him  the  necessity 
of  certain  institutions  peculiar  to  desert  life,  with  a  due 
respect  for  established  usages,  such  as  must  be  taken 
into  account  even  to-day  in  dealing  with  the  Sinaitic 
tribes.  Any  real  influence  from  the  Ck>de  of  Ham- 
murabi would  have  to  operate,  as  it  likely  did, 
through  one  or  other  of  these  channels.  The  direct 
result  of  these  antecedents  would  be  a  transmission  of 
principles  through  the  knowledge  of  concrete  exam- 
ples illustrating  them,  the  prinutive  mind  not  being 
capable  of  grasping  or  forming  bare  abstractions. 
Wnat  these  traditionary  laws  were,  and  how  they 
were  reduced  to  practice  in  domestic  and  political  life, 
is  set  forth  at  large  in  the  article  on  Biblical  An- 
TiQcrrrrBS. 

No  matter  how  much,  or  how  little  can  be  ex- 
plained in  this  way,  room  must  always  be  left  for 
direct,  external,  and  Divine  intervention,  that  is  for 
an  historic  revelation  made  by  God  of  Himself  to  the 
chosen  people,  in  such  a  way  as  to  guarantee  them 
a  special  Providence  and  direction  in  working  out 
their  high  destiny.  Since  such  direction  could  be 
secured  to  future  generations  onlv  through  the  Law  by 
which  they  would  be  governed,  the  Sinaitic  manifesta- 
\V)W>  miist  b^  explained  as  placing  a  Divine  seal  upon 


existing  laws,  which  they  did  not  abrogate,  and  upon 
any  normal  development  of  them  in  the  future  which 
would  be  calculated  to  carry  out  the  designs  of 
Jehovah  more  efficientlv.  Then,  too,  there  must  have 
been  something  settled  and  fixed  on  the  spot,  as  a 
norm  to  which  subseauent  prophets  might  appeal  in 
their  judgments  of  future  laws  and  contingencies. 
It  would  be  strange  if  some  such  remote  preparation 
had  not  been  made  for  a  stupendous  event  like  the 
Incarnation.  Hence  it  is  that  the  more  reflecting 
among  Christian  critics,  whatever  be  their  views  as  to 
the  literary  composition  of  the  Pentateuch,  are  at  one 
in  asserting  that  the  Pentateuchal  laws,  even  those  of  a 
ceremonialcharacter,  are  traceable  back  to  Moses  as 
their  founder;  hence,  too,  the  peculiar  psvchological 
phenomenon  all  through  Israel's  history,  that  observ- 
ance of  the  law  or  anpr  of  its  parts  was  superior  to 
(non-compulsoiy)  sacnfice,  because  it  was  a  homage 
of  obedience  paid  directly  to  the  nation's  God. 

Codification, — In  its  present  form  the  Mosaic  Leg- 
islation appears  without  logical  order,  and  inter- 
spersed with  historical  reminiscences.  It  is  largely 
casuistic,  as  mi^t  be  expected  from  the  manner  of 
its  early  transmission.  (1)  The  Decalogue,  with  its 
two  versions  (Ex.,  xx,  2-17;  Deut.,  v,  6-21)  is  basic, 
setting  forth,  as  it  does,  the  sovereignty  and  spiritual- 
ity of  God,  together  with  the  sacredness  of  His  and 
the  neighbour's  rights.  (2)  The  "Book  of  the  Cove- 
nant", so  called  in  Ex.^  xxiv,  7,  embraces  Ex..  xxi- 
xxiii,  19  (or  xx,  20-xxiii,  33),  and  contains  judicial, 
moral,  and  religious  regulations  for  people  hving  in 
primitive  agricultural  conditions.  It  is  remarkable 
for  its  humanitarian  character.  (3)  The  Deuterono- 
mic  code  amplifies  the  preceding  and  adapts  it  to  new 
conditions.  (4)  The  ''Law  of  Holiness"  as  contained 
in  Lev.,  xvii-xxvi  has  reference  chiefly  to  holiness 
of  a  moral  and  ceremonial  nature.  It  forms  a  small 
part  of  what  is  now  critically  styled  the  (5)  "Priest's 
Code".  This  last  group  abounds  in  ceremonial 
enactments,  and  comprises  nearly  all  Leviticus  and 
Numbers,  with  a  few  ch^ters  of  Exodus.  In  the  light 
of  criticism  there  is  no  need  of  abandoning  the  tra- 
ditional belief  that  Moses  compiled,  under  the  influ- 
ence of  inspiration,  any  or  all  of  these  codes  as  they 
stood  oripinallpr,  or  in  that  stage  of  development  they 
had  attained  m  his  time.  The  literary  peculiarities 
of  the  Pentateuch  merely  entitle  us  to  assert  that 
these  various  divisions  were  bv  later  writers  revised, 
enlarged,  and  brought  up  to  date,  while  the  changes 
in  Israel  s  life,  from  a  nomadic  to  a  sedentary  state, 
from  a  dispersed  to  a  kin^-ruled  nation,  explain  full 
well  the  appearance,  as  time  went  on,  of  a  limited 
amount  of  new  legislation  quite  consonant  with  the 
soul  and  spirit  of  the  old.  Common  Law,  as  it  were, 
grew  and  developed,  but  the  statutory  enactments 
remained  inviolaole. 

Contents, — ^Abstracting  from  the  distinction  of 
codes,  the  Torah  exhibits  a  dogmatic  system  that  is 
rigorously  monotheistic.  A  moral  standard  issues 
from  this,  having  as  its  peculiar  feature  the  identifl- 
cation  ot  civil,  social,  and  religious  observance, 
with  service  i>enormed  directly  and  immediately  for 
Jahweh,  and  at  His  bidding.  A  ceremonial  charac- 
terized by  its  picturesqueness  and  wealth  of  detail 
follows,  the  evident  purpose  of  which  was  to  keep 
the  people  constantly  in  mind  of  the  Covenant  into 
whicn  tney  or  their  ancestors  had  entered,  and  to  as- 
sure them  of  God's  fidelity  to  His  promises,  if  only 
they  would  do  their  part.  The  civil  and  criminal 
enactments  are  sufficiently  well  explained  elsewhere. 
The  article  on  Biblical  ANngnrriES  dispenses  us 
from  treating  in  detail  any*  of  these  topics  save  the 
ceremonial.  Even  that  is  largely  dealt  with  in 
the  paragraph  on  Sacred  Antiquitiea  Qoc.  cit.)  and  the 
articles  Atonement,  Dedication,  Jubilee,  Pasch, 
Pbntbcobt,  Purim,  Sabbath,  Tabbbnacles,  Tbxtm- 

PBT8, 


MOSAICS  5! 

The  Tabernacle  was  the  centre  of  public  worship. 
This  was  e,  portable  tent  measurinB  fifty-two  by  seven- 
teen feet,  and  divided  by  a.  veil  into  two  unequal 
parta,  the  Holy  Place  and  the  smaller  Holy  of  Holies. 
The  latter  contiuned  only  the  Ark  of  the  Covenant, 
and  might  be  entered  by  no  one  but  Moses  and  the 
high  pnesta.  Any  priest  might  enter  the  Holy  Place. 
TEb  was  furnished  with  a  table  for  the  Loaves  of 
Proposition,  a  seven-branched  golden  candlestick,  and 
the  Altar  of  Incense.  Outside,  in  the  surrounding 
court,  were  the  Altar  of  Holocausts  and  the  brazen 
laver  for  priestly  ablutions.  The  tribe  of  Levi  fur- 
nished the  ministers,  the  descendants  of  Aaron  being 
priests,  and  the  remaining  ma- 
jority, Levites  properly  so- 
called.  The  pncsts  were  con- 
secrated, wore  special  vest- 
ments, offered  sacrifice,  at- 
teoded  to  the  Holy  Place,  and 
acted  as  judges  and  teachers. 
For  the  peculiar  distinction  of 
highpriesthood,  see  the  article 
Aahon  (section  II).  The  In- 
vites were  the  priests'  assist- 
ant. They  carried  the  Tab- 
ernacle whenever  it  was  moved. 
Bloody  and  unbloody  sacrifices 
were  prescribed.  The  former 
class  embraced  the  Holocaust, 
in  which  the  entire  victim  was 
consumed  on  the  altar  by  fire 
and  the  Eipiatory  and  Pacific 
sacrifices,  when  only  the  fat  was 
burned  on  the  altar.  The  rest 
was  either  burned  elsewhere  or 
ipven  to  the  priest  as  in  the 
fiiBt  instance,  but  divided  be- 
tween priest  and  offerer  as  in 
the  second,  and  followed  by  a 
aacrificial  meal.  The  Unbloody 
sacrifices  included  first-fruits, 
tiliies,  meat  and  drink  offerings, 
and  incense.  Both  oblations 
and  sacrifices  were  seasoned 
with  salt. 

The  most  striking  feature  of 
the  ceremonial  legislation  is  the 
distinction  between  legal  clean- 
ness and  uncleanness,  with  its 
concomitant  provision  for  nu- 
merous external  purifications. 
The  faithful  Hebrew  had  al- 
ways to  abstain  from  blood. 

He  might  not  use  for  food  any 

quadruped  that  did  not  divide  Fio.  8— Colcmw  i 
the  hoof  and  chew  the  cud,  nor  Fn™  PompHi.  nu 
any  fish  that  did  not  have  both  fins  and  scales,  nor 
birds  of  prey,  nor  water  fowl,  nor  reptiles,  nor  insects, 
the  locust  excepted.  To  do  so  would  make  him  un- 
clean. The  use  of  marriage,  childbirth,  and  leprosy 
also  induced  uncleanness.  It  is  true  that  this  le^s- 
lation  is  largely  hy^enic,  but  the  Hebrews  did  not 
commonly  conceive  it  in  that  lisht.  As  diseases  were 
regarded  as  direct  from  Jahwen,  precautions  against 
them  were  designed  primarily  to  avert  them  by  appeas- 
ing the  sender.  Those,  therefore,  who  failed  to  take 
such  precautions,  either  necessarily  or  otherwise,  were 
displeasing  to  Jahweh,  and  legal  defilement  was  the  re- 
sult. How  effectually  the  T'oraA  orcpared  the  Hebrews 
for  the  acceptance  of  the  New  Law  is  attested  by  the 
work  of  Chnst,  who  came  not  to  destroy  but  to  perfect 
it.  It  was  only  those  who,  while  sitting  in  the  chair  of 
Moses,  preferred  for  their  personal  guidance  the  tradi- 
tions of  men,  who  proved  inimical  to  our  Saviour's  work. 

OiooT,  OuUina  of  Jncith  Hiitory  (Now  York,  ISBTl;  Hor- 
TIHOBa.  Oomltnni  Maut  H  Avcm.  hu  CiWlu  H  Sr^niatici 
JNhu  (Fnnklort.  1718) ;  Ew.u),  Aniitailitt  of  I$rad.  tr.  SoLLT 
fLeadoa,   1870);  BAicm,  Sarin  HiMorf  t/  Iht   JVatrwf    [New 


York.   ie»7).     InvKhubla  ...    .    ,.,._ „. 

form    mn  Ublet  XXIX-XXXtX    ud   XLII-LVI    ti_    

danxanim  U.  S.  S.  TtMnuriH.  AuOBtibtu  P.  P.,  S.  J.  (Pui*.  1897) 

Th08.  I  K.  Rbillt. 

Hosftlcs,  as  a  term,  according  to  the  usual  author- 
ities is  derived  through  generations  of  gradual  change 
from  the  Greek  iiourriu)*,^' appertaining  to  the  Muses. ' 
In  the  later  Latin  there  are  the  terms  oput  mtmrum, 
"mosaic  work,"  mimtioriuB,   "mosaic  worker";  but 
probably    the    English    word    "mosaic"    is   derived 
immediately  from  the  French  mosaique.  which  with 
its   earlier   form   mouaaique   can   only   tie   borrowed 
from  the  Italian  or  Proven^, 
and  cannot  be  the  descendimt 
of    the    earlier   French    form 
miinke.     It  is,  however,  ques- 
IJonable   if   these  terms  were 
applied  to  all  the  different  epe- 
cies  of  work  which  may  now  be 
classed  as  "mosaic",  and  it  is 


properly  applied  to  the  pro 
ucts  of  the  worker  in  oput 
testelialum  or  iiermKulalam, 
formed  of  small  cubes  of  glass, 
marble  or  other  material.  If 
we  define  mosaic  as  a  col- 
location of  pieces  of  marble, 
glass,  ceramic  material,  or 
precious  stone  embedded  in 
some  species  of  cement  so  as 
to  form  an  ornamental  en^ty, 
we  should  have  to  include  the 
opU3  AUxandrinum,  and  other 
ordinary  pavings  such  as  were 
used  for  the  less  dignified  por- 
tions of  Roman  houses.  The 
term  mosaic  would  also  be 
made  to  apply  to  the  oput  ttc- 
Ule  (Vitruvius  VII.  i)  made  of 
pieces  of  marble  ana  glass  fonn- 


ing  geometrical  or  fohated  pat- 
terns, each  piece  bdng  ground 
exactiv  to  nt  into  the  design, 


ject.  We  also  apply  the  term 
to  the  pavement  woric  of  later 
date,  like  that  in  St.  Mary 
Major's  in  Rome,  and  that  in 

Canterbury  Cathedral  and  in 
the  sanctuary  of  Westminster 
Abbey  in  England,  as  well  as  to 
mosaics  of  a  miniature  species 
used  for  jewellery  and  small  pictures — such  as  the  Head 
of  Our  Lord  which  was  presented  by  Pope  Sixtuo  IV  to 
Philip  de  Croy  in  1476  and  is  now  in  the  Treasury  of 
Ste.  Peter  and  Paul's,  Chimay.  This  latter  tradition  of 
work  still  existfl,  and  every  visitor  to  Rome  or  south' 
em  Italy  is  acquainted  with  the  cheap  but  wtmder- 
fully  executed  mosuc  jewellery  which  is  sold  in  nxet 
of  tne  ^ops,  and  even  m  the  streets  of  Rome.  There 
is  little  doubt  but  that  mosaic  in  jewellery  is  of  con- 
sidertjjle  antiquity. 

HUtory. — In  pas^ng  these  various  species  in  his- 
torical review,  the  earliest  to  be  mentioned  is  that 
in  Exodus,  a  pavement  (xxiv,  10),  "a  work  of  sap- 
phire stones",  and  the  pavement  of  Abasuerus  at 
Susa  "paved  with  porphyry  and  white  marble,  and 
embellished  with  ptunting  of  wonderful  variety ", 
which  here,  probably,  means  varied  inlaid  colour, 
since  surface  painting  would  be  out  of  place  on  a 
pavement.  And  we  may  well  believe  that  the  Per- 
sians knew  of  t^eellated  work  when  we  connder  the 
enameUfxl  bricks,  which  may  b^  called  a  iHgis  kind 


MOSAICS  585  MOSAICS 

of  "  tewellatum,"  now  in  the  Louvre  from  this  same    tbat  these  works  precede  the  Chriatian  Era.    Thefi 
palace  at  Susa.    This  is  the  only  record  earlier  than    perfectioo  argues  a  development  of  conmderable  an- 
the  exiating  examplea  in  the  Roman  pavements  of     tiquity,  the  genetda  of  which  ia  at  present  unknown. 
the   Republic   and   Empire   such   as   remain   in   the     Of  the  subsidiary  work  in  mossic  of  Roman  p&ve- 
ttegia,  the  Temple  of  Castor,  the  House  of  Livia,     ments,  mention  has  already  been  made — it  consists  of 
Pompoi,  etc.    Suetonius  says  that  Cssar  was  ac-    patterns  in  black  and  white,  plain  floors  with  omft- 
customed  to  carry  in  his  campaign  both  tessellated 
and  sectile  pavements.     It  appears  according  to 
Pliny  (XXXVI,  i)  that  in  the  theatres  and  basilicas, 
aa  well  as  in  cert^  palaces  of  noble  Romans,  the 
pavements  were  in  tessellated  work  or  in  marble 


aeeljle,  and  the  walle  decorated  with  marble  or  eIbss 
ibiects  and  patterns.    Here  is  the  passage  irom 

lolland's    quunt    translation:     "Scaurus    wh«i    he 


8  Edile,  caused  a  wonderfuU  piece  of  worke  b 
made,  and  exceeding  all  that  had  ever  been  knoune 
wrought  by  man's  hand  .  .  .  and  a  theatre  it  was: 
the  Btagfi  had  three  lofts  one  above  another  .  .  .  the 
base  or  nethermost  part  of  the  stage  was  aU  of  marble, 
the  middle  of  glass,  an  excessive  superRuitie  never 
beard  of  before  or  after."  Signor  Luip  Viaconti  in- 
formed Herr  von  Minutoli  (Ueber  die  AnfertJgung  und 
die  neu-Anwendung  dcr  farbigen  GlSser  be!  den 
Alt«n",p.  13,  Berlin,  1S36)  that  the  walla  of  a  cham- 
ber in  a  palace  between  the  gats  of  St.  Sebastian  and 
that  of  St.  Paul  at  Rome  were  found  covered  up  to  five 
or  six  feet  from  the  pavement  with  beautiful  marbles 
and  above  that  with  coloured  glass  plaques  and 
patterns.  Some  existing  examples  appear  to  have 
been  of  curious  structure,  tiie  pieces  ot  coloured  glass 
were  laid  upon  a  flat  surface  and  a  sheet  of  glass  laid 
over  these  and  melted  to  a  sufficient  heat  to  join 
them  together. 

Conceraing  the  method  called  "tessellatum"  we 

have  existing  remtuns  to  prove  the  perfection  to    mental  borders;  groups  ot  stilllife,  festoons  of  flowers, 

which  the  art  was  carried  by  the  Romans  in  the  pave-     and  other  dcdgns.     These  exist  in  sufficient  quantity 

ments,  and  in  remains  of  wall  glass  mosaic  at  Pompeii,     to  show  how  general  was  their  use.    That  mosaic 

One  of  the  finest  examples  of  pavements  is  the  repre-    pavements  continued  in  use  during  the  Christiaa 

aentation  of  the  "Battle  of  lasus"  from  the  Caea    era  ia  proved  by  the  numerous  examples  that  have 

del  Fauno  at  Pompeii  [Fig.  1],  now  in  the  Niq>l(S    beendiscovered,  apparently  of  Roman  origin,  at  places 

Muaeum.    Many  of  the  pictures  and  mosaics  in     as  distant  from  one  another  as  Carthage,  Dalma- 

tia,   Germany,   France,   and   England.     In   England 

a  great  variety  have  been  found  m  X^andon  and  m  all 

parts  of  the  country  dominated  by  the  Romans;  an 

example  from  Silchester  is  given  in  Figure  3.     The 

British  Museum  contiuns  tDoay  mosaic  fragments; 

amongst  these  is  the  fine  specimen  of  wo«  from 

Carthage  |Fig.  4].     Some  of  tlie  earlier  Cartha^nian 

pavements  have  glass  tcsaers;  the  later  ones  are  of 

marble  or  ceramic  cubes. 

Entirely  different  in  method  from  the  worit  formed 
of  cubes  was  the  opug  lectile,  where,  as  already  de- 
scribed, the  ornament  or  picture  was  formed  of  pieces 
of  marble,  stone,  or  glass  of  different  coIouib  cut  to  a 
required  shape,  in  the  same  way  that  a  painted  glass 
window  is  now  made.  The  manufacture  of  the  nec- 
essary opaque  glaas  was  carried  to  a  very  great  per- 
fection by  the  Romans,  as  is  testified  by  uie  multi- 
tude of  fragments  that  nave  been  found  in  mounds  of 
rubbish  or  in  the  Tiber.  Opus  sa:lile  as  a  wall 
decoration  seems  to  have  been  very  subject  to  decay, 
the  pieces  of  glass  becoming  detached  oy  their  own 
weight,  on  the  wall  becoming  damp,  decayed,  or 
sha£en.  There  are  some  very  fine  specimens  in  the 
Naples  Museum;  others  have  been  found  in  the 
church  of  St.  Andrea  in  Catabarbara,  Rome,  which 
is  supposed  to  have  been  originally  the  basilica  of  the 
house  of  the  Bassi  on  the  Esquihne,  dating  from 
about  A.  D.  317.     From  this  house  comes  the  spirited 


celebrated   antique   paintingsj    and   it   is   suggested 
that  this  "Battle"  is  a  traditional  copy  of  a  cele- 


brated picture  by  Helen,  a  d« 

the  Egyptian  Hellenic  school.    From  Pompeii  c 

further  the  very   beautiful  columns  in  dass  m<i_ _. 

now  in  the  Naples  Museum  [Fig.  2].    Pompeii,  as     the   walls  had  opU4  sectile   in   gla»  ornament   and 
we  know,  was  destroved  on  24  August,  a.  d.  79,  so    figures,  much  in  the  manner  described  in  the  quota- 


1IOSA2C8  586  HOSAICS 

tioD  from  PUny,  already  ^vea.  Sectile  woik  ia  glass  little  ot  the  oiifpnal  remuns.  What  roiuuna  of  the 
is  found  in  some  examples  of  Chrutian  art,  but  mar-  origint^moBaicsof  St.  John  Lateran's  dates  from  432- 
ble  is  more  oommoD,  although  the  teeeellBted  work  in  440.  The  mosaics  of  the  church  of  Saints  Cosmas  and 
the  same  buildings  may  be  of  glass.  Thisuseof  mat>  Damian  (526-530)  were  restored  in  1660.  AtRaveona 
ble  probably  arose  from  the  decay  in  the  manufacture  the  mos^c  work  in  the  various  churches  is  the  finest  of 
of  me  special  glsBs  and  the  difficulty  of  cutting  and  its  period.  That  in  the  baptistery  (rf  the  cathedral 
dedicated  to  St.  John  the  Baptist  (Fig.  6j  is  an 
especially  good  example,  the  church  beii^  originally 
built  at  the  end  of  the  fourth  century  but  burnt  in 
434.  The  mostucs  of  the  Mausoleum  of  GaUa 
Placidia  (450)  are  also  of  excclleDt  design  and  work- 
manship. Unfortunately  some  of  these  have  beoi 
restored  with  painted  stucco.  Those  in  the  chapd 
of  the  archiepiscopal  palace  and  of  the  church  of 
St.  John  the  Evangelist  are  too  of  this  period.  The 
mosaics  of  the  cathedrals  of  Novara  and  Aosta  and 
the  chapel  of  9t.  Satira  in  St.  Ambrose's,  Milan, 
are  also  of  the  fifth  century.  In  France  at  Nantes, 
Clermont,  and  Toulouse  historians  record  the  placing 
of  mosaics  which  no  longer  remain. 

The  greatest  works  of  the  sixth  century,  and  per- 
haps the  greatest  of  all  mosaic  works  in  extent,  were 
those  carried  out  under  the  Emperor  Justinian  io 
Sancta  Sophia.  Constantinople.  In  633,  a  fire  de- 
stroyed what  tnen  existed,  but  in  a  quarter  of  a  cen* 
itirv  the  restoration  was  commenced  under  An thcmios 

-,, ^.j J  jaidore,  who,  it  is  recorded,  employ«l  ten  thou- 

,  [UU1UI.1J  »>  LUC  luiuu,.     Sectile  in  marbles     sand  builders,  crikftsmen,  and  artists.     The  colour  is 
a  Santa  Sabina,  Rome  (425-450);  in  the    subdued,  ana  the  design  and  execution  good  of  its 
baptistery  of  the  cathedral,  Ravenna;  in  San  Vitale,     period.     Justinian  also  caused  the  church  of  Saocta 
Ravenna{Bixthcentury);atParenEo(sij[thcentury);in    Sophia  at  Thessalonica  to  be  built,  and  decorated 
Sancta  Sophia  at  Constwitinople  and  at  Thessalonica,     with  mosaic.    Further  great  works  were  executed  at 
(sixth  century);  its  use  thus  has  been  continuous  ever     Ravenna  at  the  same   period.     After  the   eooquest 
mnce,  and  was  an  especial  feature  of  the  Renaissance,    by  Belisarius  in  £39,  it  oecame  the  readence  <m  the 
The  portion  of  this  theme  of  the  greatest  impor~     exarchs  in  662,  and  S.  Apollinare  Nuovo  [Fig.  S],  S. 
tance  in  the  present  article  is  that  concerned  with     Maria  in  Cosmedin  (553-566),  S.  Vitale  (524-634) 
the  glass  mosaic  of  Christian  churches.     The  initial     jFig.  9],  and  S.  Apollinare-in.{^lasse  (534-549)  were 
Steps  by  which  it  gradually  emerged  from  Pagan  art    built  and  filled  with  mosaics.    It  will  be  observed 
are  in  a  measure  lost,  for  it  rises  suddenly  like  a    that   these   churches  were   commenced   under   the 
phosnix  from  the  ashes,  complete,  entire  in  its  ma-    Ostrogoths  and  finished  under  Justinian,  who  prob- 
nipulation,  whilst  the  character  of  the  subjects  and     ably   nad    the   mosaics   executed    by    local   artists, 
designs  represented  bespeak  the  traditions  adopted 
by   the   artists   of   the  catacombs.     Mosaic,   as   far 
as  one  can  at  present  ascertain,  became  a  vehicle  of 
Christian  art  in  the  fourth  century.     The  earliest 
examples,  such  as  those  of  the  first  basilica  of  St. 
Peter  and  St.  Paul,  are  all  destroyed.     In  the  church 
of  St.  Costanza  on  the  Via  Nomentana  there  still  re- 
mains interesting  work.    We  have  also  preserved  in 
the  CSiigi  I  Jbrar}'  some  mosaic  from  the  catacomb  of 
Crriacus.    A  mos^c  of  St.  Agnes  in  the  catacomb 
of  St.  CalliBtus  was,  however,  so  decayed,  that  the 
existing  picture  was  painted  over  it  in  the  sixth  cen- 
tury.    Other  mosaics  have  been  found  on  sarcophagi 
in  the  catacombs.    The  most  interesting  early  work 
ia,  however,  that  now  existing  in   the  apse  of  tha 
church  of  St.  Pudentiana  (398)  [Fig.  7].    It  has  been 
much  restored  in  parts  and  was  added  to  in  1688.  but 
the  design  remains.     Of  the  same  period  is  the  mos^o 
in  the  baptistery  at  Naples.    It  is  uncertain  whether 
the  apse  of  St,  Rufinus's  is  of  the  fourth  or  fifth 
century,  but  it  ia  interesting  as  early  work. 

A  great  impetus  to  the  art  occurred  when  Constan- 
tine,  in  establishing  himself  on  the  throne  of  Byzan- 
tium, commenced  ta  give  liis  capital  an  imperial  ap- 
pearance as  far  as  art  was  concerned.  He  gathered 
together  artists  from  all  celebrated  centres,  and  gave 

to  them  special  legal  and  civil  or  civic  favours.     Of  Fiq.  ft— FomrH-cEimTiiT  Mouic 

the  works  carried  out  by  them,  the  mosaics  of  the  PnnnB^tisimyoiCitbedmi,  fUTem*  lutr 

church  of  St.  George  at  Thessalonica  in  many  cases  The  names  of  Euserius,  Paulus,  SLatius,  St«>hano, 
yet  occupy  their  ori^nal  position.  The  nave  of  etc.  are  recorded.  Greets  may  have  workea  with 
St.  Mary  Major's  in  Rome  still  rct^ns  some  of  the     them.     The   design   of   the  work   in   St.  ApoUinan 


^placed  there  in  thefifth  century  (430-440)  Nuovo  is  new  to  western  art  and  consists  of  t\ 

ana  me  cnurches  of  St.  Sabina  (422-433),  of  St.  Paul  cessions  of  figures,  all  very  similar,  which  extenaaiong 

without  the  walls,  and  of  St.  John  Lateran  were  also  the  whole  of  the  nave  over  the  arches.     It  is  curious 

BO  decorated  in  the  same  era  (446-462).    St.  Paul's,  that  in  the  mosaics  of  the  Adoration  of  the  Magi, 

destroyed  by  fire  in  1823,  has  since  been  restored  and  the  Ma^  wear  the  same  PerBiaa  Dootume  we  find 


H08AICB 


587 


MOSAICS 


woro  by  FeraianB  in  the  Pompoian  mosuo  of  the  onuunented  with  a  moeoic  of  Christ  appearing  to 

"Battle  of  Ibbus"  [Fig,  1]  which  is  not  unlike  that  the  Apoatlea.    On   the  eidea   were   the  groups  of 

in  the  painting  of  the  three  children  in  the  furnace,  Christ  and  St.  Sylvester,  Constaatine,  Copronicua, 

in  the  catacomb  of  St.  Priacilla,  and  that  in  the  andSt.PeterwithLeoIIIandCbarlemagne — all  these 

nwMiuc  of  the    prophet    Daniel  at  Daphne.     The  mosaics,  never  of  high  class,  were  injured  by  removal 

3  from  S.  Michele-in-affrisco  at  Ravenna  was  and   restoration   in    the    eighteenth    century.     The 


taken  to  Beriin  l. 
1847  and  Pope  Ad- 
rian I  permitted 
Charlemagne  to  take 
what  he  chose  of  mar- 
ble and  mosaic  for 
his  cathedral  at 
Aachen.  In  Rome 
the  church  of  Stunts 
Coamaa  and  Domian 
(626-530)  has  mo- 
saics of  an  entirely 
different  charact^ 
from  those  at  Ra- 
iB  and  of  a  ruder 


type. 


In  Rom 
>  the  basilica  of 


cathedral  of  Aachen 
executed  from  the 
orders  of  Charle- 
magne at  this  period 
was  injured  by  fire 
I  in  1650,  and  utterly 
destroyed  goon  after- 
wardH,  Certain  mo- 
saics are  known  to 
have  existed  in  Pic- 
aid  V,  and  were  even- 
tually destroyed  by 
fire  in  the  twelfth 
century.  Some  good 
fra^ents  of  inter- 
eetmg  mosaic  of  the 
early  ninth  century 
remain  at  Germingy- 
de«-Prf8,  Loiret. 
France. 

In  the  ninth  cen- 
tury,  although    the 
decadence  in  mosaic 
work  was  complete, 
there  was,  however, 
)  about     an  attempt  at  a  slight  reviral.     In  Rome  mosaics  were 
placed  in  the  churches  of  Ste.  Nereus  and  Achillea 
n  of  Rome     (795-815),  S.  Maria  (817-824),  8.  Prassede,  S,  Ce- 


decorated  with  mo- 
saic (677-590). 
These  have  been  re- 
stored. In  Paris  the 
church  of  the  Apos- 
tles which  occupied 
the  site  where  the 
Fanthton  now  ia  was  decorated  with  n 
this  period. 

Notwithstanding  the  deplorable  conditio: 
ID  the  seventh  century,  the  arts  were  still  kept  alive  cilia,  St.  Mark,  Sta.  Sylvester  and  Martin  (844-S47), 
and  Pope  Honorius  decorated  the  tribune  of  the  and  portions  of  St.  Peter's  and  of  S.  Maria  in  Traste- 
apse  of  St.  Afpes's  with  a  beautifully  designed  mo-  vere  (SS5-3S8).  Mos^c  was  placed  in  S.  Margaretta 
saic  which  still  remains.  The  composition  repre-  in  Venice  (837),  in  St.  Ambrose's,  Milan,  and  in 
senta  iu  the  centre  St.  Agnes,  above  her  the  Divine  Sancta  Sophia  at  Constantinople,  and  some  eubjecta 
Hand  blessing,  and  the  popes  Honorius  and  Sym-  were  inserted  in  the  cathedrals  of  Capun  and  Psidua. 
machue  on  each  Probably    the   most 

interesting  of  the 
period  are  those  in  S. 
Praasede,  where  that 
in  the  apse  app«ki8 
to  be  an  adaptation 
of  an  older  design  in 
Saints  Coemas  and 
Damian's.  In  the 
tenth  and  eleventh 
centuries  some  mo- 


In  the  chapel  of  St. 

Venantius  at  St. 
John  L^teran's,  and 
at  St.  Stephen's  on 
the  Cmlian  Hill  some 
mosaics  were  placed 
by  John  IV;  other 
works  were  done  at 
St.  Peter's  and  at  St. 

Coetanta'e  on  the  St.  Mark's,  /enice, 
ViaNomentana.Mo-  one  subject  repre- 
saics  were  also  ese-  "senting  Christ,  with 
cuted  for  Autun  and  the  Blessed  Virgin 
Auxerre  in  France.  and  St.  John  on  each 
Animmense  and  veiy  side,  and  in  1071- 
fine  pavement  of  this  1084  the  Doge  Do- 
neriod  was  found  by  menico  Selvo  had 
M.  Renan  in  ancient  other  mosaics  cxe- 
Tyre,  but  it  ia  not  cuted,  notably  in  the 
Christian  art.  Of  the  grand  dome,  and  por- 
eighth  century  very  Pro.  B-8nrrH-c«miB»  Mouio  tions  of  the  pave- 
little  mosaic  re  Fiom 8.  ApoUinue Kiwvo,  EUv»uu,  lUly  ment.  It  is  likely 
mains.  Consider-  that  the  emalti  were 
able  work  was  done  in  the  old  basilica  of  St.  Peter,  made  by  the  Greeka,  who  were  also  probably  the  de- 
of  which  only  a  fragment,  which  came  from  one  of  the  agDers  and  executants. 

chapels,  exists.    It  is  in  S.  Maria  in  Cosmedin,  and  A  comparison  of  the  western  works  of  this  period 

represents  part  of  the  "Adoration  of  the  Wise  Men"  with  those  in  the  east  is  very  unfavourable  to  the  for- 

and  strikingly  resembles  the  design  of  same  subject  mer.    The  art  had  been  degenerating  in  the  West,  and 

in  enamel  on  the  "Chasse  de  Buy    .    The  mosaic  was  in  certain  instances,  such  as  that  of  Sancta  Maria 

commisdoned  by  John  VII   in   705-8.     In  the  apse  Antiqua,  painting  on  the  wall  had  taken  its  piace. 

of  St.   Theodore's,   restored  in   the  last  quarter  of  Evidence  of  thia  decay,  both  in  design  and  practice  is 

the  eighth  century,  there  is  a  "majesty";  Christ  is  ahownin  the  fact  that  when  Abbot  Desiderius.formeriy 

seated  on  an  orb,  with  Sts.  Peter,  Paul,  and  Theo-  Ie)!at«  at  Constantinople  and  who  became  pope  as 

dore.    The  triclinium  of  the  Lateron    Palace   was  Victor   III,   wished  to  decorate  the  monastery  of 


BS08AIC8  588  MOSAICS 

Honte  Curino  with  moaaics,  he  brought  artJata  and  Bethlehon:  those  in  the  Church  of  the  Holy  Sqnil- 
workmeo  from  ConstontJDople  in  1066  for  that  pur-  cbre,  and  the  Moeque  of  Omar.  The  moaues  of  this 
pose.  These  mosucs  are  lost  or  decayed,  but  it  is  period  in  the  churches  of  MouDt  Athoa  ore  all  lost 
not  unlikely  that  the  attiBts  bo  engaged,  deugned  and  excepting  a  few  figuiei  at  Vatopedi.  In  France, 
worked  on  the  wall  paintings  of  Sant'  Angelo-tn-  Abbot  Su^er  had  mosaics  executed  for  the  church  of 
fomit,  a  Bubeidiary  cliurch  c^  the  monastery  near  Saint  Denis,  and  there  are  records  of  BUcb  work  at 
Lyons  and  Troyee. 

The   great  period  of  Christian  mosaic  was  probably 
in  the  thirteenth  century.    Rome,  Florence,  Rsa, 
Venice,  Farenzo,  and  Spoleto  still  possess  great  works 
of  tiiie  era,  and  the  names  of  Cmiabue,  Giotto,  P. 
Cavallini,  Gaddo  Gaddi,  Jacobus  Toniti,  Tafi,  Apol- 
lomo,  and  others  are  connected  with  the  craft.     Tor' 
riti  did  important  work  in  St.  Mary  Majoi^s  and 
8t.  John   Lateran'e;   Pietro   Cavallini   designed   the 
subjects  under  the  apse  of  8.  Maria  in  Trastevere; 
important  mosaics  were  done  in  St.   Peter's,   St. 
Clement's,  and  oUier  churches.     In  1298  the  great 
Giotto  was  called  to  Rome  to  design  the  "navicella" 
for  the  Porch  of  8   Peter's;  that  now  in  silu  ia  a  res- 
toration.    In  Florence  the  mosaics  of  the  baptistery 
commenced  in  1225  by  Jacobus,  a  Franciscan,  were 
continued  at  the  end  of  the  centuty  by  Andrea  Tafi, 
Gaddo  Gaddi,  Apollonio.  and  afterwards  by  Agnolo 
Gaddi.     Gaddo  Gaddi  also  did  the  beautiful  "Ma- 
donna" at  Santa  Maria  del  P^ore,  and  the  "majexly" 
at  San  Miniato  is  also  attributed  to  him,  but  it  is  so 
much  restored  that  it  ia  difficult  to  pass  judgment 
Capua.    These  most  interesting  pwntings  are  Htill  in    upon  it.     At  the  end  of  the  century   (1298-1301) 
a  fair  state  of  preservation.     It  is  prob^le  that  this     'here  was  executed  the  celebrated  "majesty  '  in  the 
action  of  Desiderius  had  a  far-reaching  influence  in     apae  of  the  cathedral  at  Raa      This  has  generally 
importing   fresh    energy,   especially   wEen   he   came     D«cn  attributed  to  Cimabue  and  the  side  figures  to 
to  occupy  the  papal  ctair.     The  schools  of  Paulus    Vicino.    To  thiq  opinion  Venturi  adheres  with  strong 
LaurentiOB  and  Rainerius  were  founded,  which  were     evidence   (Storia   dell'    Arte   Italiana,    V,   239-240). 
ultimately  influenced   by   the  Cosmos,   and   all   the     Gerspach,  however,  will  not  have  Cimabue  amongst 
work  of  this  character  was  at  one  time  erroneously    the  mosaiciflts  (La  Mosaique,  127).     At  Civiti  Caa- 
called  eoimali  work.     The  generation  of  these  scboob 
ia  of  conndcrable  interest  in  the  history  of  mos^c, 
and  is  given  by  Mr.  A.  L.  Frothingnam,  in  the 
"American  Journal  of  Archeology",   I,  182.    The 
main  features  of  the  decorative  mosaic  of  the  Roman 
School  were  derived  from  southern  Italy,  indirectly 
from  Byiantium,  in  the  eleventh  century.    The  mo- 
saics of  the  twelfth  century  are  remarkuile  both  for 
their   number   and   the    development   of   design   in 
Christian   art.     A   new   period   was  inaugurated   in 
Rome  under  Innocent  II.     In  It^,   in  Greece,  in 
Arabia,  as  well  as  in  Germany  and  france,  important 
examples   are  preserved.     In  Rome,  S.  Maria  in 
Trastevere  (where  the  design  and  execution  of  the 
mosaic  in  the  apse  is  extremely  grand),  S.  Crist^ono, 
S.  Maria,  and  S.  Francesca  Romans  were  sIm  bo 
decorated 

The  Roman  artists  exerted  great  influence  in 
Umbria,  and  the  Abruizi,  including  the  Marches. 
These  men  were  at  times  both  architects,  mural 
painters,  and  mosaic  workers.  From  the  Roman  cen- 
tre their  work  went  west  to  considerable  distances. 
Other  great  worlca  in  Italy  of  this  period  are  in  the 
cathedral  of  Torcello,  in  the  chapel  of  St.  Zcno,  and 
m  the  apse  of  St.  Mark's  at  Venice,  1159;  in  the  Pals^ 
tine  chapel,  in  S.  Maria  Martoroua  or  S.  Maria  dell' 
Ammiraglio  in  Palermo,  in  other  Sicilian  churches 
bothotMonrealeandofCetaliliFig.  10]  (1140)— in  the 
Palatine  chtv>el  Arab  workmen  assisting  the  Greeks 
both  in  the  design  and  execution.  The  Mohamme' 
dans  themselves,  notwithstanding  the  order  of   the 

pjophit.  had  occuJomJly  iron,  djjip  in  ths  momie  Fr=„  ™,i  .t  li«.  »lui»  Unmi^  1U> 

01  tbeir  mosques;  that  of  Abd-el-MeliK  at  .Icnmalem 

has  figures  of  prophets  in  the  porch,  and  on  the  walls  tellana  there  ia  conuderable  work  b^  tbe  CooBBti, 
inside  an  In/emo  and  a  Mohammedan  Paradiso.  The  who  possessed  aschool  of  architecla,aruBta,  and  moeai- 
moeaio   ornamentation    in    the   mosques   of   Seville,     cista.     They  not  only  did  mosaic  [»ct<U«s  at  nibjectat 

Cordova,  and  Granada  are  well  known  to  travellers.     ""    "    "  '"'     ' "'       '" '   '"         ' 

In  Greece  there  still  remain  most  interesting  mosaics  ...    ._  ^ _ 

of  the  churches  of  D«>hne,  and  of  St.  Luke  of  Stiria     col  mosaic  patterns. 

in  Phocis  [Fig.  11].     In  Syria,  there  remain  the  cele-         The  earliest  Christian  mosaics  in  En^ond  tn  <i 

bratad  sericB  of  moBucs  in  the  church  of  the  Nativity,     this  century,  when  the  beautiful  pavement  pUced  b^ 


MOSAICS  589  MOSAICS 

fore  the  shriae  of  St.  Thomas  in  C&nt«tbury  oathe-  deacy  to  wh&t  may  be  called  Gothic  development, 

dral,  and  thftt  of  the  Ewnctuary  of  Weetminftter  Abbey  HiB  acceaBoriee  show  hia  coemateaque  aflinity;  this  ia 

was  laid,  and  the  shrine  of  St.  Edward  the  Confesor,  verv  noticeable  in  the  throne  of  the  Bleeaed  Virgu)  in 

with   its  inlaid   mosaic,   was  executed.     Concerning  S.  Crisc^no. 

this  last,  Robert  de  Ware  was  sent  by  the  king  to        Mostuc  work  of  the  period  remains  at  Salerno, 

Rome  in  1267  to  procure  workmen  for  the  om«ment»-  Naples  and  Ravcllo;  at  Feranio  there  are  mosaics  by 

tion  of  Weatminster  Abbev  and  to  erect  a  new  monu-  Deodato  Cosmos  (1332);  at  Orvieto  by  two  reUgioua, 

meot  to  St.  Edward  the  C&nfeesor,  that  made  in  1241  Ceco  Vanni  and  FranceMo;  at  Piaa  (in  1321)  by  Vi- 

not  betnK  §;ood  enough.     The  abbot  brought  back  cino,  who  Bniahed  that  commenced  by  Cimabue  from 

with  him  one  "Petrus",  who  laid  the  mosaic  pave-  the  designs  of  Gaddo  Gaddi.    Andrea  di  Mino  and 

ment  before  the  high  altar  and  executed  the  tomb  for  Michelc  worked  in  the  cathedral  of  Sienna,  and  Deo- 

the  golden  shrine  of  St.  Edward.    That  this  Petnis  dato  Cosmos  worked  at  Teramo.    Charles  IV  called 

was  an  eminent  person  is  without  doubt.  There  arc  Italian  mosaicists  to  Prague;  thoy  also  worked  nt 


of  Archsology,  1889,  186),  did  the  work  in  St.  likl-  ever,  being  rapidly  superseded  by  fresco,  which  as 

ward's  Chapel  was  Petrus  Orderisi,  son  of  AndmaR.  a  primary  art  giving  the  sentiment  and  character  of 

Horace  Walpole  (Hintory  of  Paintins  in  England,  I,  the  artists  immediately,  was  of  course  much  more 

17)   considers  that  the   artist  so   called  was   Pietro  esteemed  by  persons  of  discrimination  than  a  mere 

Cavallioi;  both  these  artists  ma^^  be  termed  Costna-  copy  in  tesserx,  or  slabs  of  opaque  ^ass.      Hence  in 

tetchi.     A  portion  of  the  inscription  reads:  hoc  opds  the  fifteenth  century  the  cessation  of  mosaic  work 


QiTOD  FBTRUB  DUXIT  IN  ACTUU  HOMANCJB  in  Italy  generally  was  very  notable,  except 

civis.  case  of  churches  in  which  it  had  been  commenced. 

The  work  of  the  fourteenth  century  in  Rome  and  in  Some  Uttle  was  done  in  St.  Peter's,  and  the  work  in 

Italy  generally  was  a  continuation  of  that  of  the  thir-  St.  Mark's,  Venice,  was  continued  in  1430,  when  in 

teenth,  the  design  towards  the  end  of  the  era  becoming  the  chapel  of  the   Maaooli  the  "Life  of  the  Blessed 

influenced  by  the  rising  art  of  the  more  western  styles.  Virgin"  was  designed  and  executed  by  Grambono. 

In  St.  Mary  Major's  tne  "Coronation  of  The  Blessed  Mosaicists  named  Petrus,  Lazarus,  Sylvester,  and 

Virgin"  was  commenced  at  the  conclusion  of  the  thir-  Antonius  also  worked  there.     In  Florence,  Alessan- 

teenth  and  completed  early  in  the  fourteenth  century;  dro  Baldovinetti  (1425-1450)  did  a  mosaic  for  St. 

it  is  signed  by^  the  celebrated  artist  and  mosaiciet,  John's  and  restored  that  in  San  Miniato;  he  studied 

Jacobus  Torriti.     Gaddo  Gaddi  designed  the  smaller  the  making  of  tmalti,  etc.  from  a  German  and  wrote  a 

subjects  underneath,   soon  afterwards.    The  same  work  on  the  technique  of  the  art.     He  was  the  master 

artist  is  said  to  have  completed  the  work  in  St.  Peter's  of  Domenico  Ghirlandajo.  who  not  only  did  the  mo- 

lefl  by  Torriti.    He  was  then  called  to  AresKO  to  do  s^c  of  the  "Assumption'  over  a  porch  of  the  cathe- 

the  vault  of  the  cathedral,  which  fell  away  before  the  dral  and  those  unfiiiished  in  the  chapel  of  St.  Zeno- 

end  (rf  the  century.     Torriti  also  did  the  apee  of  St.  bins,  but  also  designed  some  of  the  painted  windows 

John  Lateran'a;  Filippo  Rusuti  designed  the  "maj-  in  S.  Maria  Nuova,  and  whose  brother  David  also 

esty",  and  Gaddo  Gaddi  the  lower  subject  of  the  fa-  followed  the  same   vocation  and  in  1497  worked  at 

cade  of  St.  Maiy  Major's,  Rome.     A  mosaic  b^  Orvieto  and  Siena.    A  specimen  of  David's  work  is 

Munio  de  Zamaro,  a  Dominican  who  died  in  1300,  is  in  theMus^  de  Cluny.     Ridolfo  Ghirlandajo,  son  of 

on  the  floor  of  St,  Sabina's.     At  the  beginning  of  the  Domenico  and  a  friend  of  Raphael,  has  certain  later 

century  the  work  in  St.  Mark's,  Venice,  was  contin-  mosaics  attributed  to  him, 

ued.     A  mosnJcist,  Solferino,  did  the  dome  at  Spoleto;         In  the  sixteenth  century  the  work  of  St.  Mark's  was 

and  the  apse  at  Parenzo  was  filled  with  moasic.     Per-  still  carried  on  and  a  great  muiy  artists  of  reputation 

baps  the  moat  important  developments  of  the  art  are  were  engaged  on  thedesi^,    "Tne  mosaics  executed  in 

rtiown  in  the  subjects  decorating  the  lower  part  of  the  this  cathedral,  commencing  in  1530,  are  far  too  numer- 

apsc  of  S.  Maria  m  Trastevere  [Fig,  12] ;  in  1291  these  ous  to  recapitulate  here,  and  are  perhaps  less  fitted  to 

Kubiects  were  commenced  by  Pietro  Cavallini,  who  is  the  building  than  any  hitherto  placed;  in  fact,  that 

saidby Vasaritohavebeenapupilof Giotto,although  greatest  of  painters,  Titian,  when  rendered  in  mo- 

this  is  questioned  by  modem  critics  on  fairly  substan-  s^c,  becomes  coarse,  heavy,  and,  on  occasions,  gro- 

tiol  evidence.     He  was  the  most  celebrated  Roman  tesque.     Other  works  were  designed  by  Tintoretto, 

artist  of  his  time  and  bis  designs,  while  adhering  more  SaJviatl,  and  the  best  Venetian  artists  oE  the  day,  and 

totheBytantine  than  those  of  Giotto  did,  show  a  ten-  rendered  in  mosaic  by  Zuccati,  Riio,  Mariano,  and 


H08AIC8  590  MOSAICS 

othen.  Unfortunately  maay  ol  the  earlier  moeiucs  Mr.  Watts,  R.A.  The  mausoleum  at  Frozmore  ia 
vera  destroyed  by  the  senate,  it  is  sfud,  on  the  advice  also  elaborately  decorated  with  moeiua,  as  is  We  mon- 
ot  Titian,  to  make  room  for  the  new  work.  The  con-  ument  of  Prince  Albert  in  Hyde  Park,  both  draigDed 
dition  of  many  of  them  was  bad.  Amoagat  his  many  by  John  Clayton,  who  is  also  responsible  for  the 
other  works,  Raphael  designed  for  mosaic.  The  Brampton  chapel  in  Weatminster  cathedral.  Mr. 
"Creation  of  the  World"  in  the  Chip  Chapel,  Santa  W.  C.  Symons  desiKned  the  mosaics  for  the  chwel 
Mana  del  Popolo,  Rome,  from  his  design,  is  very  fine,  of  the  Holy  Souls  of  Westminster  cathedral  in  which 
It  wae  done  m  mosaic  by  Luigi  di  Pace,  who  come  moeajc  work  ia  still  being  inserted  in  the  various 
from  Vwiice  for  the  purpose.  Baldassare  Penuxi  also  chapels.  The  writer  of  the  present  article  dodgaed  » 
desngnedmosaictorSantaCroceinGeruaalemme,  and  mosaic  of  the  "Last  Judgment"  fortbet^urah  of  the 
F.  Ziicchio  executed  a  mosaic  in  Santa  Maria  Scala-  Annunciation, Chiselhuret;  afigureof  BlesaedGiacomo 
QbU,  whilst  the  work  in  St.  Peter's  wae  commenced  di  Ulma  for  Soutit-KensiDgtoa,  and  an  "Epiphany" 
under  Muziano  da  Brescia.  That  the  mosaic  art  hod  for  the  frontal  of  an  altar  at  the  Assumption  Church, 
d^enerated  altogether  and  lost  its  vitality  is  evi-    Warwick  Street,  with  other  works  elsewhere. 

In  Aachen  the  mosaic  of  the  dome  of  C^iarlemagne 
was  restored,  or  rathpT  redone,  in  1869.  In  France, 
various  mosaics  of  fair  excellence  have  been  executed, 
but  unfortunately  the  grand  style  of  the  early  cen- 
turies, HO  exceptionally  suitable  to  the  art,  has  not 
been  attempted.  The  modem  French  mosaic  ap- 
pears to  have  been  initiated  by  Signor  Bellini,  one  ot 
the  Vatican  mosaicists,  at  the  close  of  the  dghtcenth 
century,  who  became  the  principal  of  the  "manufac- 
ture royale" — one  of  its  productions  is  in  the  Salle 
de  Melpomene  in  the  Louvre;  the  design  was  by  Baron 
Gerard  and  M.  Baudry  Gamier,  and  the  moetuc  by 
Curzon  Facchino.  The  mosaics  at  the  Op£ra  an 
of  Italian  execution.  In  1S76  a  national  school  of 
mosaic  was  formed,  when  M.  Gerspach  was  sent 
to  Rome  and  obtained,  with  the  consent  of  the  pone, 
the  services  of  Signor  Poggesi  of  the  Vatican  works. 
The  execution  of  the  apse  of  the  Panthfion  from  de- 
signs of  M.  Herbert  was  the  principal  work  that 
followed,  but  the  design  is  moderate,  although  con- 
sidered good  in  its  time.  This  national  school  soon 
became  extinct,  and  the  mosaics  mnce  done  have  been 
by  private  enterprise.  Amongst  these  is  that  ii 
apse  of  the  Madeleine  and  that  over  the  grand  st 
of  the  Louvre.  M.Ravolihas  deugned some  mosaics 
Fio,  IS—Mouio  or  "AmnnnunoH"  (1291)  BT  PinroCiTALum     for  the  new  cathedral  of  Mars«lle«. 

From  »[j«  ot  a  MbtU  in  Tnatevere,  Roms  Teehnvfue.—Tho  making  of  a  mosaic  picture  has 

denced  by  the  work  done  in  St,  Peter's,  Rome,  from  differed  in  various  periods  and  under  vanous  manu- 
the  seventeenth  century  under  this  same  Muiiano  da  factureis,  and  the  cements  into  which  the  teeaem 
Brescia  (1528-1592)  and  other  artists.  were  fixed  have  been  the  subject  of  discussion  and, 

The  eetablishment  of  the  pontifical  works  com-  in  some  jnedieval  examples,  of  secrecy.  Historically 
tnenced  in  1727  when  the  Cristoferi  were  appointed  no  cement  has  effected  a  permanent  mosaic,  as  nearly 
superintendents  by  order  of  Benedict  XIII.  After  every  ancient  example  not  destroyed  is  partially 
occupying  various  locahtiec  these  mosaic  works  were  restored.  The  following  interesting  account  ia  from 
finally  settled  in  a  eortiie  of  the  Vatican  in  1825.  In  the  personal  examination  by  Messrs.  Schults  and 
the  first  half  of  the  seventeenth  century  the  paintings  Barnsley  of  the  old  work  at  St,  Luke's  of  Stiris: 
and  frescoes  of  the  basilica  began  to  be  imitated  m  "The  method  of  fixing  the  mosaic  was  as  follows:-^ 
mosaic.  The  quality  of  the  work  errs  on  the  side  of  Over  the  structural  brickwork  of  the  surfaces  to 
excessive  smoothness,  as  much  as  some  modem  work  be  covered,  a  coat  ot  plaster  was  spread;  this,  like 
erta  on  that  of  excessive  and  affected  roughness,  the  first  coat  of  plaster  in  ordinary  wall  coverings. 
Other  worlts  of  the  eighteenth  and  nineteenth  centu-  was  roughened  on  the  face  in  order  to  make  a  second 
ries  and  great  restorations  kept  the  artolive,  notably  coat  of  finer  stuff  adhere.  On  the  surface  of  this 
thoaeof  St.  John  Lat«ran'B  and  St.  Mark's,  Venice,  by  second  coat,  which  was  evidently  ot  a  very  slow- 
the  Italian  mosaicists.  The"Last  Judgment"  on  the  setting  nature,  the  main  lines  of  the  mosaic  figure 
fagade  of  St.  Mark's  was  designed  by  LatonzioQuerano  or  composition  were  sketched  on  in  tone  with  a  brush, 
in  1836.  In  1839  a  school  <rf  mosaicists  arose  m  Rus-  and  the  mosaic  cubes  were  then  pressed  into  this 
sia,  its  primary  object  being  the  restoration  ot  the  from  the  face,  forcing  up  the  stuff  between  the  cubes 
mosses  of  Sancta  Sophia  in  KieS,  and  eventually  Pius  in  order  to  act  as  a  key.  We  are  inclined  to  think  that, 
IX  allowed  certain  of  the  pontifical  mosaicists  in  1850  at  any  rate  in  the  case  of  the  single  figures,  the  first 
togo  toSt, Petersburg  and  join  theRussianmoe^cists.  cubes  put  in  position  were  the  double  or  trdile  row 
Aji  example  ot  their  work  was  shown  in  the  interna-  of  gold  tesserK  which  enclosed  the  subject;  we  have 
tional  exhibition  held  in  Hyde  Park,  London.  The  found  in  many  cases  that  these  do  not  correspond  with 
tnOBUCS  of  the  Russian  church,  London,  are  not,  how-  the  lines  of  the  figures  as  executed,  odd  spaces  be- 
ever,  very  successful,  tween  the  lines  and  the  final  outline  ot  uie  figure 
Numerous  mosaics  have  been  executed  in  England  having  been  filled  up  with  further  Rold  cubes  3ter 
during  the  last  haLF  century,  notably  the  figures  of  the  mosaics  of  figure  had  been  finished  in  positioo. 
peat  painters  in  the  Museum  of  South-Kensington.  ThebackgroundsareuniversallyformedofgoldtemcMe, 
The  eorhest  of  these  were  done  by  Venetians,  but  while  the  figures  of  subjects  are  composed  of  cubes  of 
some  of  the  more  recent  figures  were  executed  at  the  many  colours  and  gradations  of  tone.  The  prindpal 
woi^  of  Soutb-Kenongton  itself.  Many  mosaics  coloured  cubes  are  cut  out  of  sheets  of  opaque  coloured 
were  done  in  St.  Paul's  cathedral,  London;  those  in  ^ass,  while  the  lighter  ones,  such  as  the  flesh 
the  choir  were  designed  by  Sir  W.  B.  Richmond,  and  tints,  etc,,  are  of  marble.  The  pold  mosaics  are 
under  the  dome  some  slron;;  figures  were  dewgned  by    formed  in  the  usual  manner;  a  piece  ot  gold  leaf, 


r 

r-^i 

-4^: 

:«l 

^t 

1 

L      J 

1 

..J 

MaSAIC  MAP  OF  CHRISTIAN  PALESTINE  AND  EGYPT 

r  MEDABA    (hi 


ttoscflanjs 


5dl 


ttOSCOW 


^viog  been  laid  on  glass,  a  thin  transparent  film 
was  then  spread  over  the  same,  and  the  whole  after- 
wards annealed  to  a  solid  mass.  The  cubes  do  not 
vary  greatly  in  size,  the  average  being  about  three- 
eighths  of  an  inch.  They  are,  however,  slightly 
larger  in  the  mun  outlines  of  the  draperies,  etc.,  and 
smaller  in  the  delicate  ^udations  of  the  face  and 
hands.  The  main  portion  of  the  gold  background  is 
laid  fairly  regularly  in  horizontal  lines  up  to  the  rows 
enclosing  the  subjects''  (Schultz  and  Bamsley,  "The 
Monastery  of  St.  Luke  in  Stiris'',  43). 

Antoniadcs,  8,  Sophia,  ConHarUinopU  (Athens,  1907); 
BoNi,  II  Duomo  di  Parenzo  ^Rozne,  1894);  Brockhaus,  Die 
Kunst  in  den  Athoe  Kloetem  (Leipsig,  1891);  Bronbelle,  Lee 
Moeaiquee  de  8,  ApoUinaire  Aetf/ (Paria,  1903);  Bulinoerus, 
De  Pidura  plaatiea  ei  aUUuaria  (2  vols.,  Lyons,  1627);  Caron, 

BuUetin  Monumentale  ( ,  1886) ;  CzAif  piki,  Vetera  Monu- 

tnenta  Roma,  I  (Home,  1747);  Crowb  a2^  Catalcaselle, 
Hieiory  of  Painting  ,  ,  ,  in  Italy  (2  vols.,  London,  1910): 
D'Agincourt,  Hilary  of  Art  by  ite  Monumente,  II  and  III 
(London,  1847)  {  Ds  Marso,  DeUe  BeU'  Arti  in  Sicilia;  Delhi, 
The  Qlaee  Moeaxee  of,  pub.  b^  the  Government  of  India;  Dzbhl, 
Moealouee  Byzantinee  de.Nicie  (1892);  Fowur,  Moeaic  Pave- 

mMnle  (London, ) ;  Idem,  Moeaice  in  England,  of  the  Roman 

period:  there  is  a  large  series  of  coloured  plates  in  the  Library  of 
the  Society  of  Antiquaries,  London;  Frothingham,  Grotta  Fer- 
rala  in  Gazette  ArchSologi^ue  (1883) ;  Furxbtti,  De  Mueivie  (Rome, 
1752) ;  Qarrucci,  Outlinee  of  early  Moeaice  in  Storia  deu'  Arte 
Chrietiana  (Prato,  1873-81);  Gbrbpach,  La  Moealque  (Paris, 
1885);  Gravina,  II  Duomo  di  MonreaU  (Palermo,  1859);  Kon- 
DAKOV,  Die  Moeaiken  der  Kahrie-Djami,  pub.  by  the  Archeo- 
logical  Institute  of  Constantinople;  Idem,  Handbook  Rueeian 
Iconography,  Vol.  I,  in  Russian  (1905) ;  Kbaus,  Geeehichte  der 
CkrieUichen  Kunet  (Freiburg,  1896-1900);  Kuolbb,  Italian 
PaitUing  (2  vols.,  London,  1887);  Kurth,  Die  Moeaiken  der 
Chrietlichen  Aera  (Leipaig,  1902) ;  Lbval  in  Bulletin  Monumen- 
tale  (1886);  Mblani,  Pavimenti  Artietici  d* Italia  in  Emporium, 
XXIII,  428  (Bergamo,  1906);  Millet,  Le  Monaetere  de  Daphni 
(Paris,  1899);  MOntz,  Lee  Moealouee  Bytautinee  in  BuUetin 
Monumentale  (1886);  Idem,  La  Moealque  chritienne  (Paris, 
1893);  Idem,  Loei  Moeaice  of  Rome  in  American  Journal  of 
ArduBologu,  VI  (Boston) ;  Ongania,  La  Baeilica  di  San  Marco 
(Venice,  1881-1888);  Paulouskzj,  Iconographie  de  la  Chapelle 
Palatine  in  Revue  ArehSologique,  3rd  series,  XXV  (1895);  Pohl, 
Die  Altchrietliche  Freeeo  und  Moeaic  Malerei  (Leipzig,  1888); 
Rbtnard,  Obeervalione  eur  VArt  de  la  Moealque  chet  lee  Bytan- 
tine  6<  lee  Arabee  in  Revue  Archiologique,  new  series  (1862); 
db  Rossi,  Mueaiei  Crisliani  di  Roma  (Rome,  1876-1894): 
BcHMiTT,  Kahrie-Djami  in  Russian,  published  by  Arcbseologicai 
Institute  of  Constantinonle  (1906);  Scrults  and  Barnblbt, 
The  Monaetery  of  St.  Luke  in  Stirie  (London,  1908);  Sac- 
CARDO,  Lee  Moealouee  di  S.  Marco,  Veniee  (Venice,  1897);  Tex- 
IBR  AND  Pullan,  St,  Gcortje'e,  Theeealonica  (London) ;  Tikkanen 
in  Act.  Soc.  Fennica,  XIII  (Helsingfora) ;  Tilly,  Glaee  Moeaice 
0/"  Burma,  published  by  Burmese  Government  (1901);  Venturi, 
Storia  deOT Arte  Italiana,  II  and  III  (Milan,  1902) ;  Melchior 
DB  VoG(tA,  Lee  Bglieee  de  la  Terre  Sainte  (Paris,  1860);  Wolt- 
mann  and  Wobrmann,  Hietory  of  Painting  (London,  1887, 
New  York,  1880);  Woermann,  Oe»chiehte  der  Kunet  oiler  Zeiten  und 
VoUcer  (Leipsig.  1905);  Wtatt,  Moeaic  Pavemente  (London); 
Winckblman,  Storia  dette  Arte,  2  vols.;  see  also  various  articles 
in  Archaologia,  published  by  the  Society  of  Antiquaries,  London, 
and  various  works  in  course  of  publication  by  Society  of  Bysan- 
tine  Research  (London,  1910). 

N.  H.  J.  Webtlaxb. 

MoBclltui  (6  Tov  MSffxoVj  son  of  Moschus),  Johannes, 
a  monk  and  as(%tical  writer,  b.  about  550  probably  at 
Damascus;  d.  at  Rome,  619.  He  was  sumamed  The 
Abstemious  {6  tdxparas).  He  lived  successively  with 
the  monks  at  the  monastery  of  St.  Theodosius  (now 
Deir  Dosi)  in  Jerusalem,  among  the  hermits  in  the 
Jordan  valley,  and  in  the  New  Laura  of  St.  Sabas 
south-east  of  Bethlehem.  About  the  year  578  he  went  to 
Egypt  with  Sophronius  (afterwards  Patriarch  of  Jeru- 
salem) and  came  as  far  as  the  Great  Oasis.  After  583 
he  came  to  Mt.  Sinai  and  spent  about  ten  years  in  the 
Laura  of  i£liatse;  he  then  visited  the  monasteries  near 
Jerusalem  and  the  Dead  Sea.  In  604  he  went  to 
Antioch  but  returned  to  £g3rpt  in  607.  Later  he  came 
to  Cjrprus  and  in  614-615  to  Rome.  On  his  deathbed 
be  requested  Sophronius  to  bury  him,  if  possible,  on 
Mt.  Smai  or  else  at  the  monastery  of  St.  Theodosius 
in  Jerusalem.  Mt.  Sinai  beinp  then  invaded  by  the 
Arabs.  Sophronius  buried  him  m  the  monastery  of  St. 
Theodosius.  He  is  the  author  of  one  of  the  earliest 
hagiological  works  entitled  "Aeifu&v**  (Pratum  spiri- 
tuale,  iSpiritual  Meadow).  In  it  he  narrates  his  per- 
sonal experiences  with  many  great  ascetics  whom  he 
met  during  his  extensive  travels,  and  repeats  Uie  edify- 


ing stories  which  these  ascetics  related  to  Mm. 
Though  the  work  is  devoid  of  critical  discrimination 
and  teems  with  miracles  and  ecstatic  visions,  it  gives 
a  clear  insight  into  the  practices  of  Eastern  monas- 
ticism,  contains  important  data  on  the  religious  cult 
and  ceremonies,  and  acquaints  us  with  the  numerous 
heresies  that  threatened  to  disrupt  the  Church  in  the 
East.  It  was  first  edited  by  Fronton  du  Due  in 
"  Auctarium  biblioth.  patrum'%  II  (Paris,  1624),1057- 
1 159.  A  better  edition  was  brought  out  by  Cotelier  in 
''Ecclesiffi  Grsecse  Monumenta  ,  II  (Paris,  1681), 
which  is  reprinted  in  Migne,  P.  G.,  LXXXVII,  III, 
2851-3112.  A  Latin  translation  by  Bl.  Ambrose  Tra- 
versari,  is  printed  in  Migne.  P.  L.,  LXXIV,  121-240, 
and  an  Italian  version  made  from  the  Latin  of  Tra- 
versari  (Venice,  1475;  Vicenzo,  1479).  Conjointly 
with  Sophronius,  Moschus  wrote  a  life  of  John  the 
Almoner,  a  fragment  of  which  is  preserved  in  the  first 
chapter  of  the  "Vita  S.  Joanni  Eleemosynarii"  by 
Leontius,  under  the  name  of  "Simeon  Metaphrastes 
(P.  G.,  CXIV,  895-966). 

Babdbnrbwsr,  Patrologie,  it.  Shahan,  Patrology  (Freiburg 
im  Br.  and  St.  Louis,  1908),  559-61 ;  Holb  in  Diet.  Chriet.  Biog,, 
111,  406-8;  VAiLHi.  St.  Jean  Moech  in  Echoe  d' Orient,  V  (Pans, 
1901).  107-16  and  356-87;  Idem.  Sojthrone  le  eophieU  et  So- 
phrone  le  pcUriarche  in  Revue  de  V Orient  chritien,  VII  (Paris, 
1902).  360-385;  VIII  (1903),  32-69.  A  Latin  translation  of  an 
old  itfe,  originally  in  Greek,  is  printed  in  P.L.,  LXXIV.  119-22, 
and  in  Usbnbb.  Der  hi,  Tychon  (Leipsig.  1907),  91-3. 

Michael  Ott. 

Moscow  (Russian  Moskva),  the  ancient  capital  of 
Russia  and  the  chief  city  of  the  government  (province) 
of  Moscow,  situated  in  ahnost  the  centre  of  European 
Russia.  It  lies  on  both  sides  of  the  River  Moskva, 
from  which  it  derives  its  name;  another  small  stream 
called  the  Yauza,  flows  through  the  eastern  part  of  the 
city.  Moscow  was  the  fourth  capital  of  Russia — the 
earlier  ones  being  Novgorod,  KieflF,  and  Vladimir — 
and  was  the  residence  of  the  Tsars  from  1340  until  the 
time  of  Peter  the  Great  in  171 1 .  It  is  the  holy  city  of 
Russia,  almost  surpassing  in  that  respect  the  city 
of  Kien,  and  is  celebrated  in  song  and  story  under  its 
poetic  name  Bidokamennayaf  the  "White- Walled". 
The  population,  according  to  the  latest  (1907)  avail- 
able statistics,  is  1,335.104,  and  it  is  the  greatest  com- 
mercial and  industrial  city  of  Russia.  It  is  the  see 
of  a  Russian  Orthodox  metropolitan  with  three  aux- 
iliary or  vicar  bishops,  and  has  440  churches,  24 
convents,  over  5(X)  schools  (with  high  schools,  pro- 
fessional schools,  and  the  university  besides),  some 
502  establishments  of  charity,  mercy,  and  hospital 
service,  and  23  cemeteries.  The  population  is  com- 
posed of  1,242,090  Orthodox,  26,320  Old  Ritualists. 
25,540  Catholics.  26,650  Protestants,  8905  Jews,  and 
5336  Mohammedans,  together  with  a  small  scattering 
of  other  denominations. 

Historically,  the  city  of  Moscow,  which  has  grown 
up  gradually  aroimd  the  Kremlin^  is  divided  into  five 
principal  parts  or  concentric  divisions,  separated  from 
one  another  by  walls,  some  of  which  have  already 
disappeared  and  their  places  been  taken  by  broad 
boulevards.  These  chief  divisions  are  the  Kremlin, 
Kitaigorod  (Chinese  town),  Bielygorod  (white  town), 
Zemlianoigorod  (earthwork  town),  and  Miestchansky- 

§orod  (the  bourgeois  town).  The  actual  municipal 
ivision  of  the  city  is  into  seventeen  chaati  or  waras, 
each  of  which  has  a  set  of  local  officials  and  separate 
police  sections.  The  city  hall  or  Duma  is  situated  on 
Ascension  Square  near  the  Kremlin.  The  Kremlin 
itself  is  a  walled  acropolis  and  is  the  most  ancient 
part  of  Moscow,  the  place  where  the  city  originated; 
it  is  situated  in  the  very  center  of  the  present  city, 
some  140  feet  above  the  level  of  the  River  Moska. 
The  Kitaigorod,  or  Chinese  town,  is  situated  to  the 
north-east  and  outside  of  the  Kremlin,  and  is  in  turn 
surrounded  by  a  wall  with  several  gates.  It  is  ir- 
regularly built  lip,  contains  the  Stock  Exchange,  the 
Ooatinny  Dvar  (bazaars),  the  Riady  (great  glass  en- 


IIOSOOV  502  MOSCOW      • 

eloaed  arcades),  and  the  printing  office  of  the  Holy  whprc  the  Tatars  dwelt  for  a  lonK  time  after  tltn 

Synod.    Jiwt  why  it  was  called  the  ChintM  town  is  had  been  driven  from  Moscow  proper.     Now  it  u 

not  known,  for  no  Chinese  have  ever  settled  there,  the  Old  Russian  quarter,  where  old-fashioned  mer> 

The  allusion  may  be  to  the  Tatars,  who  besieged  and  chants  dwell  in  state  ana  keep  up  the  mannas  and 

took  Moscow  several  times,  camping  outside  the  customs  of  their  fathers.    The  famous  TretiakoS  art 

Kremlin.  galleries  are  situated  here.    There  are  six  bridges 

The  Kremlin  and  KitiuRorod  are  oonmdered  to-  across  the  River  Moskva  connecting  both  parts  of 

gether  and  known  as  the     Qty"  (aorod),  much  as  the  city. 

the  same  word  is  applied  to  a  part  of  London.    The        The  name  Moscow  is  mentioned  in  Ruaedan  (dironi- 

enormous  walls  surrounding  them  were  originally  cles  for  the  first  time  in  1147.     In  March  of  that  year 

whitewashed  and  of  white  atone,  and  are  even  yet  Yuri  Dolgoruki  (Geor|^  the  Long-armed),   Grand 

white  in  placee,  thus  giving  rise  to  the  poetdc  name.  Duke  of  Kid  and  son  of  Vladimir  Monomacfaus,  is 


Just  outside  of  it  lies  the  Bielygorod,  or  white  town,  said  to  have  met  and  entert^ned  his  kinsnien  there 

extending  in  a  semicircle  from  the  Moskva  on  the  at  the  village  on  the  Moskva.    So  pleased  was  he 

one  mde  until  it  reaches  the  Moskva  again.     The  with  the  reception  which  he  had  received  and  ao  im- 

Bielygorod  is  now  the  most  el»ant  and  fashionable  pressed  by  the  commanding  location  of  the  situation 

Eart  of  the  cit^  of  Moscow.    Containing  as  it  does,  that  he  built  &  fbrtified  place  on  the  hill  where  the 

eautiful   and  imposing  palaces,   many   fine  public  meeting  took  ^ace,  just  where  the  present  Kremlin 

monuments  and    magnificent    shops,   theaters,  and  is  situated.    The  word   Kremhn   [Kusaian   Krrml) 

public  buildings,  it  presents  a  splendid  appearance  seems  to  be  of  Tatar  origin,  and  means  a  fortified 

worthy  of  its  ancient  history.     Around  this,  in  a  still  place  overlooking  the  surrounding  country.     Many 

wider  semicircle,  is  the  ZemlianyROrod,  or  earthwork  other  Russian  cities  dating  from  Tatar  tunes  have 

town,  so  called  because  of  the  earthen  ramparts  which  kremlina  also,  such  as  Ntzhni-Novgorod,  Vladimir, 

were  constructed  there  by  Tsar  Michael  Feodorovich  Kasan,  and  samara. 

in  1020  to  protect  the  growing  city  in  the  Polish  wars.  In   the   be^nning  of  its    early    history    Moscow 

They  have  Dean  levelled  and  replaced  by  the  magnifi-  was  nothing  but  a  cluster  of  wooden  houses  sur- 

cent  boulevards  known  as  tbe  Sadomya  (Gfvdea  rounded  by  palisades;  in  1237  the  Tatar  Khan  laid 

Avenues).  nege  to  it,  and  his  successors  for  several  centuries 

The  wealthy  merchants  and  well-to-do  inhabitants  were  alt«mately  victors  and  vanquished  before  it. 

dwell   here,   and  fine    buildings  are  seen   on   every  In   1293  Moscow  was  bedded  and  burned  by  the 

side.    The  remainder  of  the  city  is  given  over  to  the  Mongols  and  Tatars,  but  under  the  rule  of  L^niel, 

industrial  and  poor  classes,  railway  stations,  and  fac-  son  of  Alexander  Nevsky,  its  fame  increased  and  it 

tories  of  all  kinds.     In  addition,  there  is  that  part  of  became  of  importance.    He  conquered  and  annexed 

tbe  city  which  lieeon  the  south  side  of  the  Moskva^  tbe  several   neighbouring   territories  and    enlarged   hit 

so-called  Zamoahianckit  (quarter  beyond  tbe  Moskva)  dominions  to  the  entire  length  of  the  Riv«r  Moidcra. 


MOSCOW                           593  HOSCOW 

fo  1300  the  Kremlin  was  enclosed  b:^  a  strong  wall  of  self  Ttar,  the  Slavonio  name  (or  king  or  niler  found 

earth  and  wooden  palisades,  and  it  then  recdved  in  the  church  liturgy,  and  that  name  has  survived 

its  appellation'.    In  1316  the  Metropolitan  of  Kie£F  to  the  present  time,  although  Peter  the  Great  again 

changed  his  see  from  that  city  U>  Vladimir,  and  in  changed   the   title    and    assumed    the    Latin   name 

1322   thence  to   Moscow.    Tne  first  cathedral  of  Imperator  (Emperor).    This  latter  name  is  the  one 

Moecon  was  built  in  1327.     The  example  of  the  met-  now  commonly  used  and  inscribed  on  pubUc  mon- 

ropolitan  was  followed  in  1328  by  Grand  Duke  Ivan  umenta  and  buildings  in  Russia.     " 


Danilovich,  who  left  Vladimir  and  made  Moscow  his  most  completely  destroyed  by  fire  in  1547:  in  1571  it 
reoDgniicd  by  the  Khan  of  was  besieged  and  taken  by  Devlct^hirei,  Khan  of  the 
of  Russia,  and  he  extended    Crimean  Tat  ~ 


capital.     In  1333  he  was  reoogniicd  by  the  Khan 
"  lan  as  the  chief  prince  of  Russia,  and  he  extend 
fortifications  of  Moscow.    Id  1367  stone  ws 
«  built  to  enclose  the  Kremlin.    Notwithstanding    and  plundered  the  city,  but  did  not  succeed  ii 


MLdot  FaJuB  QUe  of  ths  Btnoai 

Mmotul  at  AJaiuutar  II  Chunh  al  St.  BhU  tta  Bleaad. 

BuMUH,    ACBOia  THI    RiVEb    MOBETA 

this,  the  city  was  again  plundered  by  the  Tatars  two  the  Kremlin.     During  the  reign  of  Ivan  the  Terrible 

years  later.    During  the  rule  of  Dimitri  Donskoi  in  the  adventurer  Yermak  crossed  the  Ural  Mountains, 

1382  the  city  was  burned  and  almost  entirely  de-  explored  and  claimed  Siberia  for  Russia;  the  first  code 

stroyed.    Vasili  II  was  the  first  Russian  prince  to  be  of  Russian  laws,  the  Sloglav  (hundred  chapters),  was 

crowned  at  Moscow  (1425>.  also  issued  under  this  emperor,  and  the  firat  printing- 

The  dty,  although  still  the  ereatest  in  Russia,  be-  office  set  up  at  Moscow.     Ivan  was  succeeded  by 

Kan  to  dechne  until  the  reign  oflvan  III  (1462^1505).  Feodor  I,  the  last  of  the  Rurik  dynasty,  during  whose 

He  was  the  first  to  call  himself  "Ruler  of  all  the  reign    (1584-08)   serfdom   was   introduced   and   the 

Rusuas"  (/f<M;>odarM^a  Romi),  and  made  Moscow  I^triarchate  of  Moscow  established.     During  the 

pre-eminently  the  capital  and  centre  of  Russia,  be-  latter  part  of  the  reign  of  Ivan  the  Terrible,  Boris 

sides  constructing  many  beautiful  monuments  and  GodunofT,  a  man  of  nigh  ambitions  who  had  risen 

building.  from  tlie  ranks  of  the  Tatars,  attained  to  great 

His  wife,  who  was  Sophia  Palfeologus,  was  a  Greek  pwwer,  which  was  augmented  by  the  marriage  of  hie 

princess  from  Constantmople,  whose  marriage  to  tiitn  sister  to  Feodor.     To  ensure  his  brother-in-law's  suc- 

waa  arranged  throufdt  the  pope,  and  who  brought  cession  to  the  throne,  he  is  said  to  have  caused  the 

with  her  Greek  and  Italian  artiste  and  architects  to  murder  of  Ivan's  infant  eon,  Demetrius,  at  Uglich  in 

beautify  the  city.    But  even  after  that  the  Tatars  1582.    When  Feodor  I  died,  Boris  GodunofT  was  made 

were  often  at  the  gates  of  Moscow,  although  they  only  Tsar,   and  ruled  fairly  well   until   1605.     The  year 

once  succeeded  in  taking  it.     Under  Ivan  IV,  but-  before  his  death  the  "False  Demetrius"  {LzhedimUri) 

named  the  Terrible  (Ivan  Grozny),  the  development  appeared.     He  was  said  to  have  gone  under  the  name 

of  the  city  was  continued.    He  made  Novgorod  and  or  Gregory  Otrepieff,  a  monk  of  the  Chudoff  monas- 

Pakoff  tributary  to  it,  and  subdued  Kazan  and  Astrs^  tery  (Monastery  of   the  Miracles)   in   the   Kremlin, 

khan.    He  was  the  first  prince  of  Russia  to  call  him-  who  fell  into  di^race.  escaped  to  Poland,  gave  lunudf 


MOSCOW 


594 


MOSCOW 


out  afl  Demetrius,  the  son  of  Ivan  the  Terrible,  who 
had  in  some  way  escaped  Boris  Godunoff,  another 
child  having  been  mimlered.  King  Sigismund  of 
Poland  espoused  his  claims,  furnished  him  an  army, 
with  which  and  its  Russian  accessions  the  pretender 
fought  his  wav  back  to  Moscow,  proclaiming  himself 
the  rightful  heir  to  the  throne.  All  who  looked  on 
Boris  Godimoff  as  a  usurper  flocked  to  his  standard, 
the  widow  of  Ivan,  then  a  nun,  recognized  him  as 
her  son,  and  he  was  crowned  in  the  Kremlin  as  the 
Tsar  of  the  Russias.  For  ten  months  he  ruled,  but, 
as  he  was  too  favourable  to  the  Poles  and  even 
allowed  Catholics  to  come  to  Moscow  and  worship, 
the  tide  then  turned  against  him.  and  in  1606  he 
was  assassinated  at  his  palace  in  the  Kremlin  by  the 
Streltsi  or  sharpshooters  who  formed  the  guard  of  the 
Tsars  of  Russia. 

After  seven  years  of  civil  war  and  anarchy  Michael 
Romanoff,  the  founder  of  the  present  dynasty,  was 
elected  Tsar  in  1613.  But  Moscow  never  regained 
its  earlier  pre-eminence,  although  it  became  a  wealthy 
commercial  city,  until  the  first  part  of  the  reign  of 
Peter  the  Great  ( 1689-1725) .  He  sent  persons  abroad, 
and,  having  observed  the  advancement  and  progress  or 
Western  Europe,  determined  to  improve  his  realm 
radically  bv  introducing  the  forms  of  western  civili- 
sation. All  the  earlier  part  of  his  life  was  spent  in 
war  with  the  Swedish  invaders  and  the  Polish  kings. 
In  1700  he  abolished  the  Patriarchate  of  Moscow, 
left  the  see  vacant,  and  established  the  Holy  Synod. 
These  acts  set  Moscow,  the  old  Russians  and  the 
clergy  against  him,  so  that  in  1712  he  changed  the 
imperial  residence  and  capital  from  Moscow  to  St. 
Petersbiu^,  which  he  had  caused  to  be  constructed 
for  the  new  capital  on  the  banks  of  the  Neva.  After 
the  departure  of  the  Tsars  from  Moscow,  it  di- 
minished in  political  importance,  but  was  always  re- 
farded  as  the  seat  and  centre  of  Russian  patriotism, 
n  1755  the  University  of  Moscow  was  founded.  In 
1812  during  the  invasion  of  Russia  by  Napoleon,  the 
Russians  (^termined  after  the  Battle  of  Borodino  to 
evacuate  Moscow  before  the  victorious  French,  and 
on  14  September.  1812.  the  Russian  troops  deserted 
the  city,  followed  by  tne  greater  part  of  the  inhabi- 
tants. Shortly  afterwards  the  French  entered,  and 
NapNoleon  found  that  he  had  no  submissive  citizens 
to  view  his  triumphal  entry,  but  that  the  inhabitants 
were  actually  burning  up  their  entire  city  which  was 
even  then  built  largely  of  wood.  He  revenged  him- 
self by  desecrating  churches  and  destroying  monu- 
ments. The  Russian  winter  begins  in  October,  and, 
with  a  city  in  smoking  ruins  and  without  supplies  or 

Provisions,  Napoleon  was  compelled  on  19-22  Octo- 
er,  to  evacuate  Moscow  and  retreat  from  Russia. 
Cold  and  privation  were  the  most  effective  allies  of 
the  Russians.  The  reconstruction  of  the  city  com- 
menced the  following  year,  and  from  that  time  hardly 
any  wooden  buildings  were  allowed.  In  May,  1896, 
at  the  coronation  of  Nicholas  II,  over  2000  i)ersons 
were  crushed  and  wounded  in  a  panic  just  outside  the 
city.  In  1905  the  Grand  Duke  Sergius  was  assassi- 
nated in  the  Kremlin  and  revolutionary  riots  occurred 
throughout  the  city.  Although  Moscow  is  no  longer 
the  capital,  it  has  steadily  grown  in  wealth  and  com- 
mercial importance,  and,  while  second  in  population 
to  St.  Petersburg,  it  is  the  latter's  close  rival  in  com- 
merce and  industry,  and  is  first  above  all  in  the  heart 
of  everv  Russian. 

In  the  religious  development  of  Russia  Moscow 
has  held  perhaps  the  foremost  place.  In  1240  Kieff 
was  taken  by  the  Tatars,  who  in  1299  pillaged  and 
destroyed  much  of  that  mother  city  of  Christian 
Russia.  Peter,  Metropolitan  of  Kieff,  who  was  then 
in  union  with  Rome,  m  1316  changed  his  see  from 
that  city  to  the  city  of  Vladimir  upon  the  KUazma, 
now  about  midway  between  Moscow  and  Nishni- 
Novgorod,  for  Ylacumir  was  then  the  capital  of  Great 


Russia.  In  1322  he  again  changed  it  to  Moscow. 
After  his  death  in  1328  Theognostus.  a  monk  from 
Constantinople,  was  consecrated  Metropolitan  at 
Moscow  under  the  title  "MetropoUtan  of  Kieff  and 
Exarch  of  all  Russia",  and  strove  to  make  Great 
Russia  of  the  north  ecclesiastically  superior  to  Little 
Russia  of  the  south.  In  1371  the  South  Russians 
petitioned  the  Patriarch  of  Constantinople:  "Give  us 
another  metropolitan  for  Kieff,  Smolensk,  and  Tver, 
and  for  Little  Russia."  In  1379  Pimen  took  at  Mos- 
cow the  title  of  "Metropolitan  of  Kieff  and  Great 
Russia  ",  and  in  1408  Photius,  a  Greek  from  Constanti- 
nople, was  made  "Metropolitan  of  all  Russia"  at 
Moscow.  Shortly  afterwards  an  assembly  of  South 
Russian  bishops  was  held  at  Novogrodek,  and,  deter- 
mined to  become  independent  of  Moscow,  sent  to  the 
Patriarch  of  Constantinople  for  a  local  metropolitan 
to  rule  over  them.  In  1416  Ore^ory  I  was  made 
"  Metropolitan  of  Kieff  and  Lithuania",  independently 
of  Photius  who  ruled  at  Moscow.  But  at  the  death 
of  Gregorv  no  successor  was  appointed  for  bis  see. 
Gerasim  (1431-5)  was  the  successor  of  Photius  at 
Moscow,  and  had  correspondence  with  Pope  Eugene 
IV  as  to  the  reunion  of  the  Eastern  and  Western 
Churches.  The  next  Metropolitan  of  Moscow  was 
the  famous  Greek  monk,  Isiaore,  consecrated  under 
the  title  of  "Metropolitan  of  KieS  and  Moscow". 
When  the  Council  of  Florence  for  the  reunion  of  the 
East  and  the  West  was  held,  he  left  Moscow  in  com- 
pany with  Bishop  Abraham  of  Suzdal  and  a  large 
company  of  Russian  prelates  and  theologians,  at- 
tended the  council,  and  signed  the  act  of  union  in 
1439.  Returning  to  Russia,  he  arrived  at  Moscow  in 
the  spring  of  1441,  and  celebrated  a  grand  pontifical 
liturgy  at  the  cathedral  of  the  Assumption  in  the 
Kremlin  in  the  presence  of  Grand  Duke  Vasili  II  and 
the  Russian  clergy  and  nobility.  At  its  close  his  chief 
deacon  read  aloud  the  decree  of  the  union  of  the 
churches.  None  of  the  Russian  bishops  or  clercy 
raised  their  voices  in  opposition,  but  the  grand  duke 
loudlv  upbraided  Isidore  for  turning  the  Russian 
people  over  to  the  Latins,  and  shortly  afterwards  the 
Russian  bishops  assembled  at  Moscow  followed  their 
royal  master's  command  and  condenmed  the  union 
and  the  action  of  Isidore.  He  was  imprisoned,  but 
eventually  escaped  to  Lithuania  and  Kieff,  and  after 
many  adventures  reached  Rome. 

From  this  time  the  two  portions  of  Russia  were 
entirely  distinct^  the  prelates  of  Moscow  b^Lrine  the 
title  "Metropohtan  of  Moscow  and  all  Russia"  and 
those  of  Kieff,  "Metropolitan  of  Kieff,  Halich,  and 
all  Russia".  This  division  and  both  titles  were 
sanctioned  by  Pope  Pius  II.  But  Kieff  continued 
Catholic  and  in  communion  with  the  Holy  See  for 
nearly  a  century,  while  Moscow  rejected  the  union 
and  remained  in  schism.  After  Isidore  the  Musco- 
vites would  have  no  more  metropohtans  sent  to  them 
from  Constantinople,  and  the  grand  duke  thereupon 
selected  the  metropolitan.  Every  effort  was  then 
made  to  have  the  metropolitans  of  Moscow  inde- 
pendent of  the  Patriarch  of  Constantinople.  After 
the  Turks  had  captured  Constantinople,  the  power 
of  its  patriarch  dwindled  still  more.  When  the 
Bishop  of  NoA^orod  declared  in  1470  for  union  with 
Rome,  Philip  I,  Metropolitan  of  Moscow,  frustrated 
it.  declariiig  that,  for  signing  the  union  with  Rome  at 
Florence,  Constantinople  had  been  punished  by  the 
Turks.  This  hatred  of  Rome  was  fomented  to  such 
a  point  that,  rather  than  have  one  who  favoured 
Rome,  a  Jew  named  Zoiimas  was  made  Metropolitan 
of  Moscow  (1490-4);  as,  however,  he  opsoly  sup- 
ported his  brethren,  he  was  finally  deposed  as  an  unbe- 
liever. Yet  in  1525  the  metropolitan  Daniel  had  a 
correspondence  with  Pope  Clement  VII  in  regard  to 
the  Florentine  Union,  and  in  1581  the  Jesuit  Poosevin 
visited  Ivan  the  Terrible  and  sought  to  have  him 
accept  the  prindples  of  the  Union.    In  1586,  after 


MOSCOW 


595 


MOSCOW 


the  death  of  Ivan,  the  archimandrite  Job  was  chosen 
Metropolitan  of  Moscow  by  Tsar  Feodor  under  the 
advice  of  Boris  Godunoff.  Just  at  that  time  Jere- 
mias  II,  Patriarch  of  Constantinople,  who  was  fleeing 
from  Turldsh  oppression,  visited  Kussia  and  was  re- 
ceived with  all  the  dignity  due  to  his  rank.  In  1589 
he  arrived  at  Moscow  and  was  fittingly  received  by 
Boris  Ckxiunoff,  who  promised  to  take  nis  part  apainst 
the  Turks  if  possible,  and  who  reouested  hun  to 
create  a  patriarch  for  Moscow  and  Russia,  so  that 
the  orthodox  Church  might  once  more  count  its  five 
patriarchs  as  it  had  done  oefore  the  break  with  Rome. 
Jeremias  consented  to  consecrate  Job  as  the  Patriarch 
of  Moscow  and  all  Russia,  and  actually  made  him 
rank  as  the  third  patriarch  of  the  Eastern  Church, 
preceding  those  of  Antioch  and  Jerusalem.  This 
patriarchate  was  in  fact  a  royal  creation  dependent 
upon  the  Tsar,  its  only  independence  consisting  of 
freedom  from  the  sovereignty  of  Constantinople. 

In  1653  the  Patriarch  Nikon  corrected  the  Slavonic 
liturgical  books  of  the  Eastern  Rite  by  a  comparison 
with  the  Greek  originals,  but  many  of  the  Russians 
rcdfused  to  follow  his  reforms,  thus  beginning  the 
schism  of  the  Old  Believers  or  Old  Ritualists,  who  still 
use  the  uncorrected  books  and  ancient  practices. 
The  Patriarchate  of  Moscow  lasted  until  the  reign 
of  Peter  the  Great  (that  is  110  years),  there  being 
ten  patriarchs  in  all.  When  Patriarch  Adrian  died, 
in  1700,  Peter  abolished  the  office  at  once,  and  allowed 
the  see  to  remain  vacant  for  twenty  years.  He  then 
nominally  went  back  to  the  old  order  of  things,  and 
appointed  Stephen  Yavorski  '' Metropolitan  of  Mos^ 
cow",  but  msule  him  merely  a  servant  of  the  Holy 
Synod.  To  emphasize  the  new  order  of  things  more 
strongly,  it  is  related  that  Peter  himself  sat  on  the 
patriarcn's  throne  saying  in  grim  jest:  '^I  am  the 
patriarch".  Not  imtil  1748  was  the  Eparchy  or 
Metropolitanate  of  Moscow  canonicallv  established 
by  the  Holy  S3mod  under  the  new  order  of  things. 
In  1721  Peter  published  the  ''Ecclesiastical  Regula- 
tions" (Dukhamy  Reglament),  providing  for  the  en- 
tire remodelling  of  the  Russian  Church  and  for  its 
government  by  a  departmental  bureau  called  the 
Holy  Governing  S3moa.  This  body,  usually  known 
as  the  Holy  Sjrnod,  has  existed  ever  since.  Its  mem- 
bers are  required  to  swear  fidelity  to  the  Tsar  by  an 
oath  which  contains  these  words:  "I  confess  moreover 
by  oath  that  the  supreme  judge  of  this  ecclesiastical 
assembly  is  the  Monarch  himself  of  all  the  Russias,  our 
most  gracious  Sovereign"  (ReglamerUf  Prisiagaf  on 
p.  4,  Tondini's  edition).  The  Holy  Governing  Synod 
IS  composed  of  the  Metropolitans  of  St.  Petersburg, 
Moscow,  and  Kieff ,  several  other  bishops,  and  certain 
priests,  but  its  active  affairs  are  carried  on  by  lay 
government  officials  (the  bishops  act  rather  as  con- 
suitors  or  advisors),  and  the  Chief  Procurator,  a  lay- 
man, directs  its  operations,  while  none  of  its  acts  are 
valia  without  the  approval  (Soizvoleniya)  of  the  Tsar. 
No  church  council  or  deliberative  church  organization 
has  been  held  in  Russia  since  the  establishment  of  the 
Holy  Synod. 

The  chief  and  most  historic  buildings  in  Moscow  are 
situated  in  the  Kremlin,  which  is  a  triangular  enclo- 
sure upon  a  hill  or  eminence  on  the  north  bank  of  the 
Moskva.  It  is  surrounded  by  a  high  wall  of  brick 
and  stone,  provided  with  hi^  towers  at  intervals, 
and  has  five  cfates^  one  (for  pedestrians  only)  in  the 
wall  on  the  nverside  and  two  in  each  of  the  other 
walls  of  the  triangle.  The  most  celebrated  gate  is 
the  Spasaakaya  Vorota,  or  Gate  of  the  Saviour,  open- 
ing out  upon  the  Red  Square.  It  contains  a  vener- 
ated image  or  icon  of  Christ,  and  all  persons  passing 
through  the  gate  must  remove  their  hats  in  reverence. 
Inside  the  Kremlin  are  churches,  palaces,  convents, 
a  parade  ground,  a  memorial  to  Alexander  II,  also  the 
S^iate  (or  law  courts  building),  the  arsenal,  and 
the  great  Annoury.    Directly  inside  the  Gate  of  the 


Saviour  is  the  convent  of  the  Ascension  for  women, 
founded  in  1389  by  Eudoxia,  wife  of  Dimitri  Dond^oi. 
The  present  stone  convent  building  was  erected  in 
1737.  Just  beyond  it  stands  the  Chudoff  monastery, 
foimded  in  1358  by  the  Metropolitan  Alexis,  and  here 
in  1667  the  last  Russian  church  council  was  held. 
The  present  building  dates  from  1771.  Next  to  it 
is  the  Nicholas  or  Minor  Palace  built  by  Catherine 
II  and  restored  bv  Nicholas  I.  In  front  of  this  and 
across  the  parade  ground  near  the  river  wall  of 
the  Kremlin  is  the  memorial  of  Alexander  II,  very 
much  in  the  style  of  the  Albert  Memorial  in  London. 
A  covered  gallery  surrounds  the  monument  on  three 
sides,  and  on  it  are  mosaics  of  all  the  rulers  of  Russia. 
To  tne  west  of  the  Minor  Palace  is  the  church  and 
tower  of  Ivan  Veliky  (great  St.  John)  with  its  massive 
bells.  At  the  foot  of  the  tower  is  the  famous  Tsar  Kola- 
kol  (king  of  bells) ,  the  largest  bell  in  the  world.  It  was 
cast  in  1734,  and  weighs  22  tons,  is  20  feet  high 
and  nearly  21  feet  in  diameter.  A  triangular  piece 
nearly  six  feet  high  was  broken  out  of  it  when  it  fell 
from  its  place  in  1737  during  a  fire.  Towards  the 
north  of  the  great  bell  in  front  of  the  barracks  at 
the  other  end  of  the  street,  is  the  Great  Cannon,  cast 
in  1586,  which  has  a  calibre  one  yard  in  diameter, 
but  has  never  been  discharged.  Behind  Ivan  Veliky 
stands  the  Cathedral  of  the  Assumption,  the  place  of 
coronation  of  all  the  emperors  of  Russia,  and  the  place 
where  all  the  patriarchs  of  Moscow  are  entombed. 
The  present  cathedral  was  restored  and  rebuilt  in 
part  after  Napoleon's  invasion.  Across  a  small 
square  is  the  Cathedral  of  the  Archangel  Michael. 
Here  lie  buried  all  the  Tsars  of  the  Rurik  and  Roma- 
noff d3masties  down  to  Peter  the  Great.  He  and  his 
successors  lie  entombed  in  the  cathedral  in  the  For- 
tress of  Sts.  Peter  and  Paul  in  St.  Petersburg.  ^  To  the 
west  lies  the  Cathedral  of  the  Annunciation,  in  which 
all  the  Tsars  before  Peter  were  baptized  ana  married, 
still  used  for  royal  baptisms  and  marriages. 

Towards  the  westerly  end  of  the  Kremlin  is  the 
Great  Palace  in  which  all  the  history  of  Moscow  was 
focussed  until  after  the  time  of  Peter  the  Great.  It 
is  the  union  and  combination  of  all  the  ancient  pal- 
aces, and  contains  the  magnificent  halls  of  St.  George 
and  St.  Alexander  and  also  the  ancient  Terem  or 
women's  palace,  which  is  now  completely  modernized. 
In  the  centre  of  the  courtyard  of  the  palace  stands  the 
church  of  Our  Saviour  in  the  Woods  {Spasa  na  Boru), 
It  was  originally  built  here  at  the  beginning  of  the 
thirteenth  century,  when  the  Kremlin  was  but  a  hill 
still  covered  with  forest  trees,  and  hence  its  name. 
Ivan  I,  in  1330,  tore  down  the  primitive  wooden 
church  and  replaced  it  by  a  church  of  stone.  Outside 
the  Great  Palace  is  the  Armoury,  one  of  the  finest 
museums  of  its  kind  in  Europe,  being  particularly  rich 
in  collections  of  Russian  weapons  and  armour.  The 
building  towards  the  north  of  the  palace,  known  as  the 
Synod,  was  the  residence  of  the  patriarchs  of  Moscow 
and  the  first  abiding-place  of  tne  Holy  Synod.  To 
the  east  of  the  Kremlin,  outside  the  gates  of  the 
Saviour  and  of  St.  Nicholas,  is  the  well-known  Red 
Square,  where  much  of  the  history  of  Moscow  has 
been  enacted.  At  the  end  of  it  towards  the  river 
stands  the  bizarre  church  of  St.  Basil  the  Blessed, 
of  which  Napoleon  is  said  to  have  ordered:  "Bum  that 
mosoue  I "  The  Historical  Museum  is  at  the  other  end. 
At  tne  east  side  of  the  Red  Square  is  the  Lobnoe 
Mieato  or  Calvary,  to  which  the  patriarchs  made  the 
Palm  Sunday  processions,  and  where  proclamations 
of  death  were  usually  read  in  olden  times.  Behind 
it  are  the  magnificent  Riady  or  glass-covered  arcades 
for  fine  wares,  while  at  the  northern  entrance  of  the 
souare  behind  the  Museum  is  the  chapel  of  the  Iberian 
Madonna  (Iverakay  a  Bogoroditza),  the  most  cele- 
brated icon  in  all  Kussia.  It  was  sent  to  Moscow  in 
1648  from  the  Iberian  monastery  on  Mount  Athos. 

One  of  the  most  celebrated  modem  churches  in 


596 


Moscow  is  the  Temple  of  Our  Saviour  and  Redeemer, 
built  as  a  memorial  and  thanks  offering  in  commemo- 
ration of  the  retreat  of  the  French  from  Moscow. 
It  was  consecrated  in  1883,  is  probably  the  most 
beautiful  church  in  Russia  and  is  filled  with  modem 
art  adapted  to  the  requirements  of  the  Greek  Rite. 
There  are  two  Arches  of  Triumph  in  Moscow — one 
celebrating  1812,  near  the  Warsaw  station,  and  the 
other  called  the  Ked  Gate,  commemorating  Empress 
Elizabeth.  At  Sergievo,  about  forty  miles  to  the 
east  of  Moscow,  is  the  celebrated  Trinit^r  Monas- 
tery (Troitsa-Seroievskaya  Laura) ^  which  is  mtimately 
bound  up  with  the  history  of  Moscow,  and  is  one  of 
the  greatest  monasteries  and  most  celebrated  places 
of  pilgrimage  in  Russia;  it  played  a  great  part  m  the 
freeing  of  Russia  from  the  Tatar  yoke.  There  are 
three  Roman  Catholic  churches  in  Moscow:  the  large 
church  of  St.  Louis  on  the  Malaya  Lubianka,  the 
church  and  school  of  Sts.  Peter  and  Paul  in  the  Milu- 
tinsky  Pereulok,  and  another  small  chapel.  There 
is  also  a  Greek  Catholic  chapel  recently  founded  by 
a  priest  converted  from  the  Old  Believers  with  a  hand- 
ful of  worshippers. 

Qbrbabb,  SUry  of  Moscow  (London.  1903) :  Morfill,  H\»t.  of 
AwMia  (New  York.  1902):  Mbakin,  Ruwia  (PhiUdelphia.  1906); 
LsBor-BBAUUBU.  Empire  of  tha  Tsart,  I  (New  York,  1902) ;  Fa- 
BRicius,  Le  Kremlin  de  Moaeou  (Moecow.  1883) ;  Zabel,  Moekau 
(Leipaig.  1902) ;  Bruoobn,  Dot  hetaige  Ruetland  (Leipxi«,  1902) ; 
PBLE0E,  Oeech.  der  Union  (Vienna,  1880);  BKWSvoy.Roeaiya  (St. 
Petersburg,  1900);  Qolubxnskx,  latcriya  Ruetkoi  Tterkvi  (Mos- 
cow, 1904);  RaapredeUniya  ncueUniya  Imperii  (St.  Petersburg, 
1901) ;  Urban,  lUatygtyka  KtUolicytmu  to  Panstwie  Rotujakiem  in 
the  Prteglad  Pomtechny  (Craoow,  Aug.  and  Sept.,  1906). 

Andrew  J.  Shipman. 

Moses,  Hebrew  liberator,  leader,  lawgiver,  prophet, 
and  historian,  lived  in  the  thirteenth  and  early  part 
of  the  twelfth  century  b.  c. 

Name.— riBID  MosMh  (M.  T.),  Mwwr^,  Mwcr^f.  In 
Ex.,  ii,  10^  a  derivation  from  the  Hebrew  M&shJSh  (to 
draw)  is  implied.  Joeephus  and  the  Fathers  assi^^ 
the  Coptic  mo  (water)  and  uses  (saved)  as  the  constit- 
uent parts  of  the  name.  Nowadays  the  view  of 
Lei^sius,  tracing  the  name  back  to  the  Egvptian  mesh 
(child),  is  widely  patronized  by  Egyptologists,  but 
nothing  decisive  can  be  established. 

Sources. — ^To  deny  with  Winckler  and  Cheyne,  or 
to  doubt,  as  do  Renan  and  Stade,  the  historic  person- 
ality of  Moses,  is  to  undermine  and  render  imintelligi- 
ble  the  subsequent  history  of  the  Israelites.  Rabbini- 
cal literature  teems  with  legends  touching  every  event 
of  his  marvellous  career:  taken  singly,  these  popular 
tales  are  purely  imaginative,  yet,  considered  m  their 
cumulative  force,  they  vouch  for  the  reality  of  a  grand 
and  illustrious  personage,  of  strong  character,  high 
purpose,  and  noble  achievement,  so  deep,  true,  and 
efficient  in  his  religious  convictions  as  to  thrill  and 
subdue  the  minds  of  an  entire  race  for  centuries  after 
his  death.  The  Bible  furnishes  the  chief  authentic 
account  of  this  luminous  life. 

Birth  to  Vocation  (Ex.,  ii,  1-22). — Of  Levi  tic 
extraction,  and  bom  at  a  time  when  by  kingly  edict 
had  been  decreed  the  drowning  of  every  new  male 
offspring  among  the  Israelites,  the  ''goodly  child" 
Moses,  after  three  months'  concealment,  was  exposed 
in  a  basket  on  the  banks  of  the  Nile.  An  elder 
brother  (Ex.,  vii.  7)  and  sister  (Ex.,  ii,  4),  Aaron  and 
Mary  (AV  and  RV,  Miriam) ^  had  already  graced  the 
union  of  Jochabed  and  Amram.  The  second  of  these 
kept  watch  by  the  river,  and  was  instrumental  in  induc- 
ing Pharaoh's  daughter,  who  rescued  the  child^  to  en- 
trust him  to  a  Hebrew  nurse.  The  one  she  designedly 
summoned  for  the  charge  was  Jochabed,  who,  when 
her  "son  bad  grown  up  " ,  delivered  him  to  the  princess. 
In  his  new  surroimdin^,  he  was  schooled  "m  all  the 
wisdom  of  the  Egvptians"  (Acts,  vii,  22).  Moses 
next  appears  in  theDloom  of  stuidy  manhood,  resolute 
with  sjrmpathies  for  his  degraded  brethren.  Daunt- 
lessly  he  hews  down  an  Egyptian  assailing  one  of  them, 
and  on  the  morrow  tries  to  appease  the  wrath  of  two 


compatriots  who  were  quarrelling.  He  is  misundcr 
stood,  however,  and,  when  upbraided  with  the  mur- 
der oi  the  previous  day,  he  fears  his  life  is  in  jeopardy. 
Pharaoh  has  heard  the  news  and  seeks  to  kill  him. 
Moses  flees  t.o  Madian.  An  act  of  rustic  gallantly 
there  secures  for  him  a  home  with  Ragud,  t£e  priest. 
Sephora,  one  of  Raguel's  seven  daughters,  eventually 
becomes  his  wife  and  Gersam  his  first-bom.  His 
second  son.  Eliezer,  is  named  in  commemoration  of 
his  sucoessiul  flight  from  Pharaoh. 

Vocation  and  Mission  (Ex.,  ii,  23-xii,  33). — ^After 
forty  years  of  shepherd  life,  Moses  speaks  with  God. 
To  Horeb  (Jebel  Sherbal?)  in  the  heart  of  the  moun- 
tainous Sinaitic  peninsula,  he  drives  the  flocks  of 
Raguel  for  the  last  time.-  A  bush  there  flaming  un- 
bumed  attracts  him,  but  a  miraculous  voice  forbids 
his  approach  and  declares  the  ground  so  holy  that  to 
approach  he  must  remove  his  shoes.  The  God  of 
Abraham,  Isaac,  and  Jacob  designates  him  to  deliver 
the  Hebrews  from  the  Egyptian  yoke,  and  to  conduct 
them  into  the  "land  of  muk  and  hon^",  the  region 
long  since  promised  to  the  seed  of  Abraham,  the 
Palestine  of  later  years.  Next,  God  reveals  to  lum 
His  name  under  a  special  form  Yahweh  (see  art. 
Jehovah),  as  a  "memorial  unto  all  generations". 
He  performs  two  miracles  to  convince  nis  timorous 
listener,  appoints  Aaron  as  Moses's  "prophet",  and 
Moses,  so  to  speak,  as  Aaron's  God  (Ex.,  iv,  16). 
Diffidence  at  once  gives  way  to  faith  and  magnanim- 
ity. Moses  bids  adieu  to  Jethro  (Raguel),  and,  with 
.  his  family,  starts  for  Egypt.  He  carries  in  his  hand 
the  "rod  of  God"^  a  symbol  of  the  fearlessness  with 
which  he  is  to  act  m  performing  signs  and  wonders  in 
the  presence  of  a  hardened,  threatening  monarch. 
His  confidence  waxes  strong,  out  he  is  uncircumcised, 
and  God  meets  him  on  the  way  and  fain  would  kill 
him.  Sephora  saves  her  "bloody  spouse",  and  ap- 
peases God  by  circumcising  a  son.  Aaron  joins  the 
party  at  Horeb.  The  first  interview  of  the  brothers 
with  their  compatriots  is  most  encouraging,  but 
not  so  with  the  despotic  sovereign.  Asked  to  allow 
the  Hebrews  three  days'  respite  for  sacrifices  in  the 
wilderness,  the  angry  monarch  not  only  refuses, 
but  he  riducules  their  (jod,  and  then  effectually  em- 
bitters the  Hebrews'  minds  against  their  new  chiefs 
as  well  as  against  himself,  by  denying  them  the  neces- 
sary straw  for  exorbitant  daily  exactions  in  brick- 
making.  A  rupture  is  about  to  ensue  with  the  two 
stranpe  brothers,  when,  in  a  vision.  Moses  is  divinely 
constituted  "Pharaoh's  God",  ana  is  commanded  to 
use  his  newly  imparted  powers.  He  has  now  at- 
tained his  eightieth  year.  The  episode  of  Aaron's 
rod  is  a  prelude  to  the  plagues.  Either  personallv 
or  through  Aaron,  sometimes  aft-er  waming  Pharaoh 
or  again  quite  suddenly,  Moses  causes  a  series  of 
Divine  manifestations  described  as  ten  in  number  in 
which  he  humiliates  the  sun  and  river  gods,  afflicts 
man  and  beast,  and  displays  such  unwonted  control 
over  the  earth  and  heavens  that  even  the  magjdans 
are  forced  to  recognise  in  his  prodigies  "the  finf^er  of 
God ' ' .  Pharaoh  softens  at  times  but  never  suflficiently 
to  meet  the  demands  of  Moses  without  restrictions. 
He  treasures  too  highly  the  Hebrew  labour  for 
his  public  works.  A  crisis  arrives  with  the  last 
plague.  The  Hebrews,  forewarned  by  Moses,  cde- 
orate  the  first  Pasch  or  Phase  with  their  loins  girt, 
their  shoes  on  their  feet,  and  staves  in  their  hands, 
ready  for  rapid  escape.  Then  God  carries  out  his 
dreadful  threat  to  pass  through  the  land  and  kill 
every  first-bora  of  man  and  heaist,  thereby  executing 
judgment  on  all  the  gods  of  Egypt.  Pharaoh  can 
resist  no  longer.  He  joins  the  stncken  populace  in 
b^mng  the  Hebrews  to  depart. 

Exodus  and  the  Forty  Vbars  (passim  after  Ex., 
xii,  34). — At  the  head  of  600,000  men,  besides  women 
and  childrenj  and  heavily  laden  with  the  spoils 
of  the  Egyptians,  Moses  follows  a  way  through  the 


MICHELANOBLO  MOSES  PHILIPPE   BE    CHAMPAONB 

PINTtlRICCmO  CARLO   DOLCl 


597 


desert,  indicated  by  an  advancing  pillar  of  alternating 
cloud  and  fire,  and  gains  the  Peninsula  of  Sinai  by 
crossing  the  Red  Sea.  A  dry  passage,  miraculously 
opened  by  him  for  this  purpose  at  a  point  to-day  un- 
known, afterwards  proves  a  fatal  trap  for  a  body  of 
Egyptian  pursuers,  organized  by  Phanoh  and  possibly 
under  his  leadership.  The  event  furnishes  the  theme 
of  the  thrilling  canticle  of  Moses.  For  upwards  of 
two  months  the  long  procession,  much  retarded  by  the 
flocks,  the  herds,  and  the  difficulties  inseparable  from 
desert  travel,  wends  its  way  towuxls  Sinai.  To  move 
directly  on  Chanaan  would  be  too  hazardous  because 
of  the  warlike  Philistines,  whose  territory  would  have 
to  be  crossed;  whereas,  on  the  south-east,  the  less 
formidable  Amalacites  are  the  only  inimical  tribes 
and  are  easily  overcome  thanks  to  the  int-ercession  of 
Moses.  For  the  line  of  march  and  topographical 
identifications  along  the  route,  see  Israelites^  sub- 
section The  Exodus  and  the  Wanderings,  The  miracu- 
lous water  obtained  from  the  rock  Horeb,  and  the  sup- 
ply of  the  quails  and  manna,  bespeak  the  marveUous 
faith  of  the  great  leader.  The  meeting  with  Jethro  ends 
in  an  alliance  with  Madian,  and  the  appointment  of 
a  corps  of  judges  subordinate  to  Moses,  to  attend  to 
minor  decisions.  At  Sinai  the  Ten  Commandments 
are  promulgated,  Moses  is  .made  mediator  between 
God  and  the  people,  and,  during  two  periods  of  forty 
days  each,  he  remains  in  concealment  on  the  mount, 
receiving  from  God  the  multifarious  enactments,  by 
the  observance  of  which  Israel  is  to  be  moulded  into 
a  theocratic  nation  (cf.  Mosaic  Legislation).  On 
his  first  descent,  he  exhibits  an  all-consuming  zeal 
for  the  purity  of  Divine  worship,  by  causing  to  perish 
those  who  had  indulged  in  the  idolatrous  orgies  about 
the  Golden  Calf;  on  his  second,  he  inspires  the  deepest 
awe  because  his  face  is  emblazonea  with  luminous 
horns. 

After  instituting  the  priesthood  and  erecting  the 
Tabernacle,  Moses  orders  a  census  which  shows  an 
army  of  603,550  fighting  men.  These  with  the 
Levites,  women,  and  children,  duly  celebrate  the  first 
anniversary  of  the  Pasch,  and,  carrying  the  Ark  of 
the  Covenant,  shortly  enter  on  the  second  stage  of 
their  migration.  They  are  accompanied  by  Hooab. 
Jethro's  son,  who  acts  as  guide.  Two  instances  ot 
general  discontent  follow,  of  which  the  first  is  pun- 
ished by  fire,  which  ceases  as  Moses  prays,  and  the 
second  by  plague.  When  the  manna  is  complained  of, 
quails  are  provided  as  in  the  previous  year.  Seventy 
elders — a  conjectural  origin  of  the  Sanhedrin — 
are  then  appomted  to  assist  Moses.  Next  Aaron 
and  Mary  envy  their  brother,  but  God  vindicates  him 
and  afflicts  Mary  temporarily  with  leprosy.  From  the 
desert  of  Pharan  Moses  sends  spies  into  Chanaan, 
who,  with  the  exceptions  of  Josue  and  Caleb,  bring 
back  startling  reports  which  throw  the  people  into 
oonstemation  ana  rebellion.  The  great  leader  prays 
and  God  intervenes,  but  only  to  condemn  the  present 
generation  to  die  in  the  wilderness.  The  subsequent 
uprising  of  Core,  Dathan,  Abiron,  and  their  adherents 
suggests  that,  during  the  thirty-eight  years  spent  in 
the  Badiet  et-Tih,  habitual  discontent,  so  character- 
istic of  nomads,  continued.  It  is  during  this  period 
that  tradition  places  the  composition  of  a  large  part 
of  the  Pentateuch  (q.  v.).  Towards  its  close,  Moses 
ifl  doomed  never  to  enter  the  Promised  Land,  pre- 
sumably because  of  a  momentary  lack  of  trust  in 
Giod  at  the  Water  of  Contradiction.  When  the  old 
generation,  including;  Mary,  the  prophet's  sister, 
ifi  no  more,  Moses  inaugurates  the  onward  inarch 
around  Edom  and  Moab  to  the  Amon.  After  the 
death  of  Aaron  and  the  victory  over  Arad,  "fiery 
serpents"  appear  in  the  camp,  a  chastisement  for 
renewed  murmurings.  Moees  sets  up  the  brasen 
serpent,  "  which  when  they  that  were  bitten  looked 
upon,  they  were  healed  ".  The  victories  over  Sehon 
and    Ogy    and    the   feeling   of    security   animating 


the  anny  even  in  the  territory  of  the  hostile  Balae, 
lead  to  presumptuous  and  scandalous  intercourse  witJi 
the  idolatrous  Moabites  which  results,  at  Moses's 
command,  in  the  slaughter  of  24,0(X)  offenders. 
The  census,  however,  shows  that  the  army  still  num- 
bers 601.730,  excluding  23,000  Levites.  Of  these 
Moses  allows  the  Reubenites,  Gadites,  and  the  haJf- 
tribe  of  Manasses  to  settle  in  the  east-Jordan  district, 
without,  however,  releasing  them  from  service  in  the 
west^ordan  conquest. 

Death  and  Posthttmoub  Glory. — ^As  a  worthy 
legacy  to  the  people  for  whom  he  has  endured  un- 
paralleled hardships,  Moses  in  his  last  days  pronounces 
the  three  memorable  discourses  preserved  in  Deuter* 
onomy.  His  chief  utterance  relates  to  a  future 
Prophet,  like  to  himself,  whom  the  people  are  to 
receive.  He  then  bursts  forth  into  a  sublime  song  of 
praise  to  Jahweh  and  adds  prophetic  blessings  for 
each  of  the  twelve  tribes.  From  Mount  Nebo— on 
"the  top  of  Phasga" — Moses  views  for  the  last  time 
the  Promised  Land,  and  then  dies  at  the  age  of  120 
years.  He  is  buried  in  "the  valley  of  Moab  over 
against  Phogor",  but  no  man  "knows  his  sepulchre". 
His  memory  has  ever  been  one  of  "  isolated  grandeur". . 
He  is  the  type  of  Hebrew  holiness,  so  far  outshining 
other  models  that  twelve  centuries  after  his  death, 
the  Christ  Whom  he  foreshadowed  seemed  eclipsed  by 
him  in  the  minds  of  the  learned.  It  was.  humanly 
speaking,  an  indispensable  providence  tnat  repre- 
sented him  in  the  Transfiguration,  side  by  side  with 
Elias,  and  quite  inferior  to  the  incomparable  Antitype 
whose  commg  he  had  predicted. 

Consult  histories  mentioned  under  artioles  Aabok  and  Isaac. 
oommentaries  under  Pbnt^tbuch,  Introductions  to  Old  Testa- 
ment (long  list  under  Introduction  Bibucal),  and  biblical  di<v 
tionanes.  Bcnnvft  in  Hastings.  Diet,  of  lA«  BibU^  s.  ▼.,  may  b« 
recommended  for  an  exposition  of  the  documentary  hypothesis, 
and  Lautbbbach  in  the  Jewish  Bneud.  for  a  summary  of  Rabbini* 
cat  traditions.  In  Vioouboux.  Did,  d€  la  Bible,  Manobmox 
dovetails  historical  and  Rabbimcal  data.  See  also  Vioouboux, 
La  Bible  et  lee  dicauvertee  modemee  (6th  ed..  Paris.  1896). 

Thomas  X  K.  Reillt. 

Moses,  AssuMFTioN  OF.  See  Apocbtpha,  sub- 
title I. 

Moses  Bar  Cephas,  Syriac  bishop  and  writer,  b.  at 
Balad  about  813;  d.  12  Feb.,  903.  He  is  known 
through  a  biography  by  an  anonymous  Syriac  writer, 
and  from  references  in  the  writings  of  Bar  Hebneus. 
He  embraced  early  the  monastic  life,  and  was  later 
bishop  over  a  territory  including  Beit-Ramman,  Beit* 
Kiyonava,  and  Mossul.  On  his  elevation  to  the  epis- 
copate he  received  the  name  Severus.  For  ten  years 
he  also  performed  the  duties  of  overseer  of  the  neigh* 
bouring  Diocese  of  Tagrita.  He  belonged  to  the 
Jacobitic  branch  of  the  Monophysites,  and  he  was  in  his 
day  the  most  voluminous  writer  of  his  sect.  His  works 
comprise  a  complete  commentary  on  the  Old  and  New 
Testaments,  frequently  quoted  by  Bar  Hebrseus  in  his 
"Au9ir  IUlz6"  (Storehouse  of  Mysteries).  Of  this 
nothmg  has  come  down  to  us  save  fragmentsjpertain- 
ing  to  Genesis,  the  Gospels,  and  the  Pauline  Epistles. 
He  also  wrote  a  treatise  in  four  books  on  predestina- 
tion and  free  will,  of  which  a  manuscript  copy  is  pre- 
served in  the  British  Museum.  Through  a  citation  in 
Bar  Hebrseus  (Chron.  eccl.,  ii,  215)  we  leam  that  Bar 
Cephas  composed  an  otherwise  unknown  commentary 
on  Aristotle  s  "Dialectica".  A  manuscript  copy  m 
his  ''Hexameron",  or  treatise  on  the  six  days  of  crea- 
tion in  five  books  with  a  curious  Reographical  drawing, 
is  one  of  the  treasures  in  the  Bibliotheque  Nationale 
in  Paris.  Other  works  of  his  are  a  treatise  on  paradise, 
of  which  there  exists  a  Latin  translation  pubushed  by 
Masius  in  1569:  a  treatise  on  the  soul  in  forty  chap- 
ters with  a  supplement  on  the  utility  of  ofTerings  for  tne 
dead;  a  book  of  controversy  against  heretics;  homi- 
lies for  the  feasts  of  the  liturgical  year;  a  commentary 
on  the  works  of  Gregory  Nasiansen ;  sermons  on  van- 
ous  subjects;  and  a  history  of  the  Chureh. 


M08I8 


698 


MOESUL 


DuTAU  £a  LUUnivn  SyrioQiu  (Pwis.  18M),  78,  202,  250, 
288,  891. 

Jambs  F.  Dribcoll. 

MoBes  of  Ghorene  (Mobbs  Chorbnbkbis).  perhaps 
the  best  known  writer  of  Armenia,  called  by  nis  coun- 
trymen "the  father  of  history''  and  the  "father  of 
Bcholans'',  and  celebrated  as  a  poet,  or  hymn  writer, 
and  a  grammarian.  A  native  of  Choren  or  Chomi  in 
the  province  of  Darou.  when  young,  he  was  sent  by 
Mesrop,  the  founder  ot  Armenian  literature,  to  study 
in  Edessa,  Constantinople.  Alexandria,  Atnens,  and 
Rome.  Upon  his  return,  ne  is  said  to  have  assisted 
Mesrop  (407-433),  in  the  translation  of  the  Bible  into 
Armenian.  The  date  of  his  birth  is  unknown,  but  the 
above  fact  would  indicate  that  he  was  bom  towards 
the  end  of  the  fourth  century,  and  his  death  is  gene> 
ally  placed  about  the  end  of  the  fifth.  The  foUowing 
works  are  attributed  to  him :  "  Treatise  on  Rhetoric  : 
** Treatise  on  Geography  ";  " Letter  on  Assumption  ot 
B.  V.  M.";  "Homily  on  Christ's  Transfiguration"; 
"Oration  on  Hripsinia,  an  Armenian  Virgin  and  Mar- 
tyr"; "Hymns  used  in  Armenian  Church  Worship"; 
"Commentaries  on  the  Armenian  Grammarians"; 
.and  "Explanations  of  Armenian  Church  Offices". 
The  most  celebrated  work,  however,  is  the  "History 
of  Armenia  Major",  practically  the  only  work  pre- 
serving the  early  history  and  traditions  of  pre-Chris- 
tian Armenia,  but  like  other  histories  of  this  kind, 
abounding  in  legendary  and  fictitious  narratives,  hia- 
torical  inaccuracies,  etc.  It  is  divided  into  three 
parts:  (1)  "Genealogy  of  Annenia  Major",  embrac- 
ing the  history  of  Armenia  from  the  beginning  down 
to  the  foundation  of  the  Arsacide  dsmasty  (149  b.  c); 
(2)  "History  of  the  middle  period  of  our  ancestors", 
extending  from  149  b.  c.  to  the  death  of  St.  Gregory 
the  Illuminator  and  the  reign  of  King  Terdat  (▲.  d. 
149-332);  (3)  the  third  part  brings  the  history  down 
to  the  overthrow  of  the  Arsacide  dynasty  (a.  d.  428): 
a  fourth  part  was  added  to  the  work  by  another  ana 
later  writer  who  brought  the  history  down  to  the  time 
of  the  Emperor  Zeno  (474-491).  Recent  researches, 
however,  have  shown  that  this  famous  "History  of 
Armenia"  is  not  the  work  of  Moses  of  Chorene. 

The  reasons  for  discarding  the  traditionally  received 
attribution  have  been  ably  summarised  by  Dr.  Bar- 
denhewer  as  follows.  The  author  of  the  "History  of 
Armenia  Major"  calls  himself  Moses  of  Chorene  and 
pretends  to  belong  to  the  fifth  century,  to  be  a  disciple 
of  Saint  Mesrop,  and  to  have  composed  his  work  at 
the  reouest  of  Isaac  (Sahak),  the  Bagratimid  prince 
who  fell  in  battle  in  482.  These  personal  statements 
are  shown  to  be  untrustworthy  for  internal  and  ex- 
ternal reasons.  In  his  account  of  his  own  life  the 
author  contradicts  such  fifth-Ksentury  writers  as  Ko- 
riim  and  Laaarus  of  Pharp.  Carri^re  has  shown 
recently  that  he  makes  use  of  historical  sources  poste- 
rior to  the  sixth  and  even  the  seventh  century,  e.  g. 
Armenian  versions  of  the  "Vita  St.  Silvestri"  and  the 
"  Church  History  "  of  Socrates.  Only  since  the  ninth 
oentuiy  have  traces  of  his  work  been  found  in  Arme- 
nian Uterature.  This,  however,  does  not  dispose  of 
the  historical  personidity  of  Moses  of  Chorene,  who  is 
one  of  the  venerable  fathers  of  the  Armenian  Church, 
and  who  really  lived  in  the  fifth  century.  Lasarus  of 
Pharp  bears  witness  to  the  existence  in  the  fifth  cen- 
tury of  an  Armenian  bishop  named  Moses  and  a  dis- 
tinguished writer.  We  do  not  know  the  reason  why 
this  eighth-  or  ninth-century  writer  assumed  the  name 
of  Moses  of  Chorene.  He  makes  it  clear  that  he  in- 
tends to  glorify  the  Bagratunid  dynasty  which  from 
the  end  of  the  seventh  century  surpassed  in  splendour 
all  the  other  noble  houses  of  Armenia.  In  885  Aschot 
I,  a  descendant  of  that  house,  was  recognised  by  the 
Caliph  as  King  of  Armenia.  Vetter  conjectures  that 
the  secret  aim  of  the  pseudo-Moses  of  Chorene  was  to 
prepare  the  way  for  the  accession  of  this  house.  In 
Bpite  of  its  really  late  date,  the  author's  narrative  is 


generally  8peakizi|s,  trustworthy.  He  draws  largely  <a 
ancient  authorities,  though  occasionally  modifying 
them  in  a  capricious  way,  and  embodies  his  own  ideas 
in  their  context;  but  it  cannot  be  maintained^  as  some 
have  done,  that  he  invented  these  authorities.  His 
witnesses  tor  the  ancient  history  of  Armenia,  even  as 
late  as  the  second  or  third  century  after  Chnst,  were 
principally  legends  and  folk-song,  and  it  is  precisely 
this  legendary  element  that  lends  to  the  work  its 
special  charm  and  value.  The  "Geography"  and 
Rhetoric"  mentioned  above  are  of  course  no  more 
genuine  works  of  Moses  of  Chorene  than  the  "His- 
tory". All  three  works  are  by  the  same  author,  as  is 
evident  both  from  the  testimony  of  the  manuscripts 
and  from  intrinsic  criteria.  The  author's  own  state- 
ment leads  us  to  believe  that  the  "  Geography  "  is  an 
extract  from  the  description  of  the  world  By  Pappus,  an 
Alexandrine  author  of  the  fourth  century  of  our  era. 
The  "Rhetoric"  is  entitled  "Chria"  in  the  Greek  man- 
uscripts, and  f  oUows  such  Greek  models  as  Aphthonius 
and  Theon.  The  minor  writings  mentioned  above 
await  a  more  thorough  examination  into  their 
genuineness  (Patrology,  Shahan,  1908,  pp.  595-6). 
The  first  edition  of  the  "History  of  Armenia"  was 
published  at  Amsterdam,  1695;  the  second  at  Lon- 
don, with  a  Latin  translation.  1736:  the  third  at 
Venice,  1752;  it  was  translatea  into  French  (Venice, 
1841),  and  Italian  (ibid.).  The  best  translation  is  that 
made  by  Langlois  in  his  "Historiens  Anciens  de 
FArmenie"  (Paris,  1867),  II,  47,  175.  The  Armenian 
Mechitarist  Fathers  of  Venice  have  issued  several  edi- 
tions of  the  work  in  1827,  1843-64,  etc. 

Smith  and  Wacb.  Dictionary  of  Chritiian  Biography;  Vkv- 
TKB  in  KirehenUx.^  VIII,  1955-63:  Chxtaubr,  RSpertoir^  dM 
Bowreet  ki^toriguea  du  Moyen  Agt  (Paris,  1007),  a.  ▼. 

Gabriel  Oubbahi. 

MoBsnl,  the  seat  of  a  Chaldean  archdiocese,  a  Syr- 
ian diocese,  and  an  Apostolic  Mission.  The  origin  of 
the  town  is  unknown.  It  is  not  the  Moeel  of  Elsechiel, 
xxvli,  19.  which  is  but  a  mistranslation  of  Ussal,  a 
town  in  the  north  of  Arabia.  It  is  probable  that  there 
alwavs  has  been  on  the  right  bsxikof  the  Tigris  a 
small  town  named  Mossul,  which  grew  in  importance 
as  Nineveh  on  the  left  bank  decayed  and  finally  dis- 
appeared. In  Arabic  Mossul  is  called  El-Moeu,  the 
junction.  Perhaps  the  name  was  originally  Motsal,  a 
cotton  or  muslin  threetd.  Near  Mossul  at  the  gates  of 
Nineveh  took  place  in  627  the  great  battle  in  which 
HeracUus  finally  broke  the  power  of  the  Persians. 
Then  the  town  passed  into  possession  of  the  Arab 
caliphs,  afterwaros  to  the  Hamdanids,  the  Beni-Okall 
(991).  the  Beni-Mervan  (1102),  and  eventually  to  the 
SeljuK  Turics.  Melek-Shah,  known  also  as  Djelal- 
Eddin,  built  schools  and  academies  there.  His  suc- 
cessors fought  against  the  Franks  of  the  First  Crusade, 
and  Kerix)ga  was  conquered  28  June,  1098,  with  an 
army  of  200,000  men,  under  the  walb  of  Antioch. 
Five  years  later  (1103)  Baldwin,  Count  of  Edeasa,  was 
defeated  and  led  prisoner  to  Mossul.  In  December, 
1144,  the  famous  2enki  took  possession  of  Edessa;  his 
son  JNour  ed-Din  continued  nis  conquests,  and  built 
many  fine  edifices  at  Mossul*  On  his  death  in  1174, 
Saladin  was  driven  from  Mossul,  but  it  soon  after 
yielded  to  him.  In  the  middle  of  the  thirteenth  cen- 
tury, when  the  Mongolian  Houlagou  took  the  town, 
the  Sultan  LoiUou.  of  the  Zenki  family  and  famous  for 
his  generosity  ana  justice,  was  living  there.    Subee- 

?uently  Mossul  was  taken  and  sacked  by  Tunur 
Tamerlane),  the  Turkomans,  the  Shah  of  Persia  la- 
mail,  and  the  Turkish  Sultan  Selim  I  (1516).  Idria, 
the  historiographer  of  this  Sultan,  was  afterwards 
charped  widi  the  reorganisation  of  the  province.  The 
Persians  under  Nadir  Shah  vainly  attempted  to  ~ 


capture  the  town  in  1733 :  but  they  were  driven  back, 
as  traditi<m  says,  by  tiie  Blessed  virgin,  and  in  ooose- 
quenoe  the  Turks  allowed  the  Chaldeans  and  Syrians 
to  build  in  her  honour  two  churches  whidi  are  stil! 


M08TAB                              5d9  M08TAB 

standing.    It  was  once  a  busy  and  prosperous  town,  30|000  Nestorians;  5000  Protestants;    and   10,000 

trading  in  woollen  goods  and  morocco  leather,  but  Jews.    The  Catholics  of  all  the  rites  scattered  throut^ 

during  the  nineteenUi  century,  owing  to  lack  of  com-  the  territory  amount  to  80,000.    The  Mission  has  23 

munications  with  the  outside  worid  and  idso  to  the  Latin  priests,  all  Dominicaiis,  and  15  native  priests 

opening  of  the  Sues  canal  which  changed  the  caravan  who  assist  Uiem  in  teaching.    There  are  9  Latin 

route,  it  has  decayed.    At  the  present  time  it  is  tiie  churches,  5  residential  stations  (Mossul,  founded  in 

capital  of  a  vilayet  and  has  70^000  inhabitants.    Its  1750;  Mar-Yakoub  in  1847;  Van  in  1881;  Seert  in 

girdle  of  wall  more  than  six  nules  in  circumference,  1882;  Djezireh  in  1884),  and  98  secondary  stations 

has  become  too  large  for  it.    The  town  has  sulphur  visited  oy  the  missionaries.     In  1910  a  station  was 

springs  and  many  very  fine  mosques  and  churches,  founded  in  the  heart  of  the  Nestorian  patriarchate. 

Among  its  more  famous  citizens  were  Baha  ed-Din,  The  Svro-Chaldean  Seminary,  foimded  at  Mossul  in 

Ibn    d-Athir,    and    Ibn    Khallikan,    Mussulmans;  1882,  has  educated  more  than  60  priests;  it  has  be- 

Thomas  of  Marga,  Isaac  of  Nineveh,  Hanna  of  Adia-  tween  50  and  60  students.    There  are  50  parochial 

bene,  etc.  Christians.  schools  for  boys;  8  for  girls;  1  Normal  School  for  Chal- 

In  410,  at  the  council  of  SeleuciarCtesiphon,  the  dean  Catholic  teachers  at  Mar-Yakoub;  3  colleges  for 

Metropolitan  of  Adiabene  had  the  united  tities  of  Ar^  boys;  4  boarding  schools  for  girls;  4  orphanages  opened 

bela,  Uassa,  As^rria,  and  Mossul  (Chabot,  ''Synodi-  in  consequence  of  the  massacres  of  1895.    The  Do- 

oon  orientale'',  265,  619).    This  is  the  earliest  men-  minicanesses  of  the  Presentation  have  houses  at  Mos- 

tion  of  the  See  of  Mossul.    It  continued  under  the  suL  Seert',  and  Van. 

same  style  up  to  the  seventh  century.    Soon  after  the  c™"j.f«.  ^«''¥*  j?,'''^f**A.?_i?f '^V  ^^^^^ '  ®A^%  ^^^ 

Arab  invasion  the  title  of  Adiabene  was  replaced  by  fK7M62f  soH!'    ^  ^^'             '       '"^         ^        ' 

that  of  Assyria  and  Mossul.    Le  Quien  (Oriens  christ.,  *      '                                                 S.  Vailh^. 
II,  1215-1220)  Kives  a  long  list  of  titulars  from  the 

seventh  to  the  sixteenth  century.  Many  of  the  Nes-  Mostar  and  Markana-Trebinje,  Dioceses  ov 
torian  patriarchs  of  Mossul  became  converts  and  re-  (Mandatriensis,  Marcanensis  et  Tbibunensis). — 
sided  tnere,  banning  with  Elias  Denham  in  1751.  When  at  the  Berlin  Congress  (1878)  AustriarHungary 
As  there  was  a&eady  a  Catholic  Chaldean  patriarch  was  allowed  to  occupy  Bosnia  and  Herzegovina,  the 
at  Diarbekir,  Rome  in  1828  and  especially  in  1830  religious  situation  was  at  once  regulated.  The  re- 
brought  ai)out  the  union  of  the  two  Churches  and  Mar  ligious  hatred  existing  until  then  between  the  Ortho- 
Elias,  idso  known  as  John  VIII,  was  recognised  as  the  dox  (673,000,  43  per  cent),  Mohammedans  (549,000. 
only  patriarch.  He  transferred  the  residence  of  the  35  per  cent),  CatnoUcs  (330,000,  21  per  cent),  ana 
see  to  Bagdad,  and  since  that  time  the  Chaldean  patri-  Jews  (8000,  0.5  per  cent),  was  moderated.  In  1881 
archs  have  again  taken  up  their  residence  at  Mossul.  the  Emperor  Francis  Joseph  formed  the  ecclesiastical 
The  Chaldean  archdiocese  numbers  20,000  souls;  45  province  of  Sarajevo  (BosnarSerai;  Sarahimur)  with 
secular  priests:  12  parishes;  and  13  churches.  In  the  the  three  sees  of  Banjaluka  (Banialucus),  Mostar,  and 
neighbourhooa  of  Alkosh  is  the  convent  of  Rabban  Markana-Trebinje  as  suffragans.  The  Bishop  of 
Hormuz,  the  home  of  the  Antonian  Congregation  of  Mostar,  through  his  pro-vicar,  administers  Markana- 
St.  Hormisdas  of  the  Chaldean  rite,  who  have  two  Trebinje,  in  which  there  are  only  eight  secular  priests 
other  convents  in  the  diocese.    Tne  congregation  and  20,000  Catholics. 

numbers  in  all  63  religious  of  whom  30  are  priests.  Mostar  is  the  capital  of  Herzegovina,  and  numbers 

The  Jacobites  took  up  their  residence  at  Mossul  at  an  15,000  inhabitants,   among  whom  there  are  3500 

early  date,  especially  at  the  Convent  of  Mar  Mattal,  Catholics.     Herz^ovina,  which  lies  east  of  southern 

the  principal  centre  of  their  activity.    There  also  since  Dalmatia,  received  its  name  from  the  title  of  Herzoa 

1089  dwells  the  '*  Maphrian''  or  delegate  of  the  patri-  (duke)  conferred  by  the  Emperor  Frederick  IV  (1448) 

arch  for  the  ecclesiastical  provinces  in  Persia,  a  title  or  on  the  Grand  Wa;^ode  Stephan  Vuk6i6.    In  1463 

office  now  purely  honorary.    The  Monophysites  are  Stephan  Toma6evi6,  the  last  King  of  Bosnia^  was 

very  numerous  in  the  city  and  the  diocese.    The  S3rr-  made  a  prisoner  by  the  Turks  and  beheaded,  m  de- 

ian  Catholic  diocese  numbers  6,000  souls:  20  priests;  7  fiance  of  a  promise  te  spare  him.    Twenty  years  later 

farishes;  and  10  churches.    Le  Quien  (Oriens  christ..  Herzegovina  came  unaer  the  rule  of  Turkey.    With 

I,  1559-1564)  gives  a  list  of  Jacobite  titularies  or  Bosnia  it  received  Christianity  from  the  Romans.    In 

Mossul.  the  first  half  of  the  seventh  century  the  Slavs  took 

The  Apostolic  Mission  of  Mossul  was  founded  in  possession.    In  the  eleventh  century  the  Eastern 

1750  by  Benedict  XIV  as  a  Prefecture  Apostolic  and  Schism  and  the  sect  of  the  Bogomili  did  the  Catholic 

entrusted  to  the  Italian  Dominicans  who  had  re-  Church  great  and  unrepaired  harm.    National  writ- 

peatedly  laboured  in  the  province  from  the  thirteenth  ers  trace  this  sect  to  a  Bulgarian  priest,  Jeremias,  who 

century  onwards.    Thanks  to  them,  a  Syrian  Catho-  was  also  called  Bogomil.    His  followers  were  called 

lie  diocese  was  erected  at  Mossul  in  that  same  year.  Patarenes;   they   rejected   matrimony,   allowed   no 

In  1780,  the  Nestorian  patriarch  Mar  Yohannan,  who  intercourse  with  those  of  other  religions,  uncondition- 

resided  at  Alkosh,  25  miles  north-east  of  Mossul,  be-  ally  forbade  war  and  taking  of  oaths,  and  wished  to 

came  a  Catholic  together  with  five  bishops  of  his  na-  yield  obedience  to  no  authority  but  God.    In  1483, 

tion,  the  greater  part  of  the  inhabitants  of  his  town,  during  the  Turkish  occupation  of  the  countrv,  the 

and  of  six  villages  in  the  vicinity.    The  French  monks  majonty  of  the  Bogomili,  those  of  the  upper  classes, 

who  replaced  the  Italians  were  able  in  1856,  thanks  to  went   over  to   Mohammedanism.    Those   who   re- 

M.  Bor6,  and  to  the  French  Consul,  the  Assyriologist  mained  faithful  to  Christianity  became  outlaws  (Kor 

Botta,  to  open  boys'  and  girls'  schools,  and  to  found  a  jo*«).    After  the  nege  of  Vienna  and  the  retreat  of  the 

printing  press  for  Arabic  and  Syriac  works,  and  finally  Turks  in  1683,  the  poor  peasants  repeatedly  took  up 

a  college  at  Mossul.    The  Apostolic  Mission  at  the  arms,  but  only  made  their  condition  worse.    During 

present  day  is  bounded  by  three  other  French  M]»-  this  unhappy  time  the  Franciscans,  unaided  and  with 

sions,  those  of  the  Capuchins  at  Mardin,  the  Carmel-  |jeat  difficulty,  preserved  the  life  of  the  Catholic 

lies  at  Bagdad,  and  the  Lazarists  in  Penria.    It  in-  Church  in  the  country.    Not  seldom  they  celebrated 

eludes  the  south-east  of  Mesopotamia,  Kurdistan,  and  Divine  service  amid  the  cold  and  snow  in  the  open  air. 

the  north-east  of  Armenia  Major,  a  stretch  of  territory  They  lived  in  the  most  wretched  poverty,  ana  many 

ooverinff  the  vilayets  of  Mossm.  Bitlis,  Van,  and  a  part  became  martyrs. 

of  Diarbekir.    Besides  the  Arabs,  Kurds,  and  Mussul-  The  Fraaciscans  deserved  that  one  of  their  order 

man  Turks  (about  3,000,000),  and  the  Yesidis  or  should  be  chosen  Bishop  of  Mostar  and  Markanar 

DevU-worshippers  (about  30,000),  the  Mission  num-  Trebinje  in  1881.    The  order  maintains  two  schools 

beEB  300,000  schismatic  Annenians:  70.000  Jacobites:  and  six  classes  for  the  education  of  the  rising  genera^ 


MOST                               600  MOTET 

tion.    There  are  12  secular  priests  and  64  Franciscans  1857;  the  dioceses  of  Palermo,  Salerno,  Cataniaro, 

in  the  diocese,  and  the  number  of  Catholics  is  esti-  etc^  use  that  composed  by  P^re  Gallifet  in  1726. 

mated  at  130,000.  The  feast  of  the  Archconfratemity  of  the  Immacu- 

8TRAU88,  BoMnisn,  Land  und  Leuu  (2  voU.,  Vienna.  1882,  late  Heart  of  Mary,  refugc  of  sinners,  is  celebrated  on 

1884);  Klai6.  GeschidueBoMniens  (Leipgg,  1886);  Nik  asot-  ^j^   Sunday  before  Septuagesima  at  Paris.  Chartres 

NOWXT8CH,  Boanten  und  die  Herztaounna  (Berlin,  1901) ;  Schmio,  i!r  .  •-'**"^«J    fc#^.v»*>  ^^j/wi*!.^**!**^*^  <•»  ^  «« »,  v^.m«M  w«^ 

K%iUuTmUn(mOMterT€ich8inBo9n\enundind€rHerxeoowina'va.  Keuns,  LimOges,  Vannes,  JNanteS;  at  LuCCa  m  Tos- 

iln  JffAren  und  Sft'e^enreieA  (Vienna,  1008).  351-365  aq.  cana,    in    the    ecclesiastical    provmce    of    St.    Louis, 

C.   WOLFSGRUBBR.  MisSOUri,  CtC. 

(EuvrcM  Computet  du  B.  Jean  Budea,  XI  (Vanne<,  1910).  147 

Vff^ai-  "OnvMb  rr^ttt*  «kf  mrmmmm,   "cv. . ««  ^«  ...*,«       T«  u^  »(l<i-{  NiLLBS,  De  rationibtu  feetorum  tUriu»q%ie  Cardie  (Inn»> 

Most  Pure  HeSXt  of  Maiy,  FbABT  op  THB.---In  its  ^^y  i^s) ;  Holw«ck,  Paeti  Mariani  (Freiburg.  1892). 

pnncipal  object  this  feast  is  identical  with  the  feast  of  Frbderick  0.  Holweck. 

the^InnerLifeof  Mary'',  celebrated  by  the  Sulpitians  «»    ^        -nt.               a       »#                tx 

on  19  October.   It  commemorates  the  joys  and  sorrows  MoBtyn,  Francis.    See  Mbnbvia,  Diocese  of. 

of  the  Mother  of  God,  her  virtues  and  perfections,  her  Mosynoupolis,  titular  see,  suffragan  of  Trajan- 
love  for  God  and  her  EHvine  Son.  and  her  compassion-  opolis  in  Rhodope.  A  single  bishop  u  known,  Paul, 
ate  love  for  mankind.  In  a  subordinate  manner,  its  who  assisted  at  the  council  of  878,  which  re-estab- 
object  is  also  the  phsrsical  Heart  of  Mary,  which,  being  lished  Photius  (Le  Quien,  "Oriens  christ.",  L  1205). 
part  of  her  sinless  and  virgmal  body,  is  the  symbol  and  The  see  is  mentioned  in  the  "Notitia"  of  Leo  the 
sensible  object  representing  the  sentiments  and  virtues  Wise,  about  900  (Gelzer,  Ungedruckte  .  .  .  Notitia 
of  Mary  (see  Heart  of  Mary,  Devotion  to  the),  epiflcopatuum,  568):  in  that  for  940  (Gelaer.  "Georgii 
The  feast  origmated  with  Blessed  John  Eudes  as  the  CypriiDescriptioorbisfomani",  79);  in  that  for  1170 
patronal  feast  of  his  congregations  of  priests  and  nuns,  under  the  name  of  Misinoupolis  (Parthey,  "Hier- 
and  was,  since  1644,  kept  at  the  seminary  of  Caen  on  ocles  Synecdemus",  122).  The  monk  Ephrem  (Cae- 
20  October.  The  office,  which  is  very  beautiful,  was  sares,  V.  5695,  in  P.  G.,  CXLIII,  216)  says  that  the 
composed  by  Blessed  John  Eudes  in  1641,  but  its  text  city  was  taken  in  1190  by  the  Emperor  ftederick  of 
was  not  definitely  fixed  before  1672.  In  1647  the  Swabia;  and  that  Calojan,  Tsar  of  the  Bulgarians, 
date  of  the  feast  was  changed  to  8  February,  the  feast  ravaged  it  about  1206  (Caesares,  V.  7816).  It  is  not 
being  solemnized  publicly  for  the  first  time,  with  the  known  exactly  where  this  town  of  Macedonia  was 
permission  of  Bishop  Kagny,  at  the  cathedral  of  situated  nor  what  name  it  bears  to-day. 
Autun  on  8  February,  1648.  In  1668  Cardinal  Ven-  S.  Vailh£. 
ddme  approved  the  office,  and  the  feast  was  adopted 

the  same  year  by  the  French  Franciscans,  the  Bene-  Motet. — ^A  short  piece  of  music  set  to  Latin  words, 
dictine  Nuns  of  the  Perpetual  Adoration,  and  later  and  sung  instead  of,  or  immediately  after,  the  Offer- 
by  a  number  of  dioceses  and  religious  communities,  torium,  or  as  a  detached  number  in  extrar-liturgical 
contrary  to  decrees  of  the  Congregation  of  Rites  pro-  functions.  The  origin  of  the  name  is  involved  in 
hibiting  the  feast  of  the  Heart  of  Mary.  The  bishops  some  obscurity.  The  most  generally  accepted  derivsr 
of  the  Church  in  France  claimed  at  this  period  tne  tion  is  from  the  Latin  mottts,  "movement";  but  the 
right  to  institute  new  feasts,  and  to  compose  offices  French  motf  "word",  or  "phrase",  has  also  been 
and  new  breviaries  without  consulting  the  Roman  suggested.  The  Italian  moUetto  was  originally  (in 
autiiorities.  In  1672  Blessed  John  Eudes  could  state  the  thirteenth  century)  a  profane  polyphonic  species 
that  the  feast  had  spread  over  nearly  all  France.  It  of  music,  the  air,  or  melody,  being  in  the  Tenor  clef, 
was  mostly  kept  on  8  February,  but  at  the  Hdtel-  taking  the  then  acknowledged  place  of  the  canto /ermo. 
Dieu  of  Quebec  (since  1690)  on  3  July,  and  at  Saint-  or  plainchant,  theme.  Philip  de  Vitry,  who  diea 
Maclou,  Rouen,  on  the  Sunday  after  2i2  August  (Office  Bishop  of  Meaux,  wrote  a  work  entitled  "Ara  com- 
pr.  1765:  triple  of  the  first' class) .  positionis  de  motetis ",  the  date  of  which  was  probably 
The  Nuns  of  Notre  Dame  de  Corbeil  (8  Feb.,  1787)  1320.  This  volume  (now  in  the  Paris  Biblioth^ue  Na- 
were  the  first  to  obtain  papal  sanction  for  the  feast  tionale)  contains  our  oldest  specimens  of  sacred  motets, 
from  Pius  VI  (kept  on  22  August  as  a  double  of  the  and  these  continued  in  vogue  for  over  two  centuries, 
first  class  with  octave).  The  same  pope  later  ap-  Gerbert  prints  some  other  motets  of  the  first  half  of 
proved  it  for  the  Carmelites  of  Saint-Denys  (8  Febf),  the  fourteenth  century,  but  they  are  not  of  any  partic- 
and  for  the  Nuns  of  Fontevrault  (Sunday  after  2  ular  interest,  and  are  mostly  in  two  parts.  It  was  not 
July).  On  22  March,  1799,  it  was  nunted  to  the  city  until  the  commencement  of  the  following  century, 
of  Palermo  (third  Sunday  after  Pentecost);  on  13  especially  between  the  years  1390  and  1435,  that  a 
Aug.,  1805,  to  the  Clerics  Regular  of  the  Mother  of  number  of  distinguished  composers — e.  g.,  Dunstable. 
God;  in  1806  to  Siena;  in  1807  to  the  Discalced  Car-  Power,  Dufay,  Brasart,  and  Binchois — producea 
melites;  on  2  Sept.,  1807,  to  the  Capuchins  and  Her-  polypnonic  motets  that  are  stiU  worthy  of  attention, 
mits  of  St.  Augustine  for  the  Sunday  after  the  Octave  Dunstable's  "Quam  pulchra  es"  is  a  charming 
of  the  Assumption;  on  19  Sept.,  1807,  to  Tuscany,  specimen  of  a  three-part  motet,  the  concluding  Alleluia 
The  city  of  Rome  adopted  the  feast  in  1879.  In  tne  being  far  in  advance  of  any  similar  work  during  the 
Society  of  Jesus  it  is  observed  on  the  Sunday  within  first  quarter  of  the  fifteenth  century,  betraying  a 
the  Octave  of  the  Assumption.  The  feast  has  not  genuinely  artistic  style.  Equally  beautiful  are  the 
yet  been  extended  to  the  entire  Church.  It  is  kept  as  motets  of  Lionel  Power,  the  manuscripts  of  which 
the  patronal  feast  of  the  Republic  of  Ecuador,  of  the  are  at  Vienna,  Bologna,  and  Modena.  One  of  his 
Congregation  of  tiie  Holy  Ghost,  of  the  Society  of  the  happiest  efforts  is  a  four-part  motet  in  which  the  treat- 
Sacred  Hearts  of  Jesus  and  Mai^,  and  of  the  Mis-  ment  is  peculiarly  melodious  and  of  an  Irish  flavour, 
sionary  Society  of  the  Heart  of  NIary  on  the  Simday  Dufay,  who  was  a  Walloon^  composed  numerous 
after  22  August.  The  feast  is  celebrated  at  Cosenza  motets,  including  "Salve  Virgo"  "Flos  florum", 
(Calabria)  on  7  February  (earthquake.  1783),  by  the  "Alma  Redemptoris",  and  "Ave  Regina  coelorum"; 
English  Benedictines  on  the  first  Sunday  of  May:  in  and  by  his  will  he  ordered  the  last  named  exauisite 
the  ecclesiastical  province  of  Lemberg  on  the  last  composition  to  be  sung  by  the  altar  boys  and  ctum- 
Saturday  in  May;  at  Bologna,  Pescia,  Volaterra  etc.,  ters  of  Cambrai  cathedral  at  his  death-bed.  Brasart, 
on  the  second  Simday  in  ^y;  at  Salerno  on  the  last  also  a  Walloon,  whose  name  appears  among  the 
Sunday  after  Pentecost,  etc.  The  office  of  Blessed  pontifical  singers  in  1431,  composed  motets,  including 
John  Eudes,  universally  used  in  France  for  over  a  a  four-part  "Fortis  cum  quevis  actio"  and  a  very 
hundred  veais,  was  finally  approved  for  the  Eudists  {"[^ty  "Ave  Maria".  Binchois,  another  native  of 
(8  Feb.)  in  1861.  The  office  contained  in  the  Appen-  Flanders  has  left  soipe  motets  in  three  parts,  includ- 
oix  of  tiie  Roman  Breviazy  was  granted  on  21  July,  ing  "Beats  Dei  Genitriz",  but  the  treatment  is 


MOTIVE 


601 


MOTOUNIA 


archaic,  and  not  at  all  comparable  to  the  work  of 
Power  or  Dufay.  He  died  in  1460.  Like  Dufay,  he 
was  a  priest  and  canon  of  Mons.  From  1435  to 
1480  the  motet  was  treated  by  such  masters  as 
Caron,  Okeghem,  and  Obrecht,  and  though  the  style 
is  far  in  advance  of  similar  compositions  of  the  mid- 
fifteenth  century,  not  many  of  the  surviving  specimens 
can  compare  with  the  best  efforts  of  Power  and  Dufay. 
Okeghem  was  a  priest,  and  was  prindpal  chaplain  to 
Charles  VII  of  France  and  to  Louis  XI,  being  subse- 
quently made  canon  and  treasurer  of  St.  Martin's  at 
Tours.  His  motet,  ''Alma  Redemptoris",  displays 
much  contrapuntal  ingenuity,  and  he  also  wrote  a 
motet  for  thirty-six  voices,  probably  performed  by 
six  choirs  of  six  voices  each. 

But  it  is  between  the  years  1480  and  1520  that  the 
motet  as  an  art-form  progressed,  favoured  by  the  nas- 
cent devices  of  the  modem  school,  with  Josquin  Des- 
pr^  as  leader.  The  outstanding  feature  of  the  mo- 
teis  of  this  period  is  the  extraordinary  skill  displayed 
in  weaving  melodious  counterpoint  around  a  short 
phrase  of  plainchant  or  secular  melody.  Josouin 
(Canon  of  St-Quentin)  stands  head  and  shoulders 
over  his  fellows,  and  his  motets  were  among  the  earli- 
est printed  by  Petrucci,  in  1502-05.  In  all,  one  hun- 
dred and  fifty  of  his  motets  have  been  printed,  the  best 
known  being  the  beautiful  one,  founded  on  the  plain- 
chant  theme  of  ''Requiem  aetemam'^  on  the  death  of 
his  master  Okeghem,  and  the  settings  of  the  genealo- 
gies in  the  Goepels  of  St.  Matthew  and  St.  Luke.  His 
fellow-pupil,  Pierre  de  la  Rue,  also  composed  some 
charming  motets,  of  which  twenty-five  have  been 
printed.  One  of  the  best  known  is  founded  on  a 
theme  from  the  Lamentations  of  Jeremias.  Another 
famous  motet-writer  of  this  period  was  Eleazar  Genet, 
better  known  as  Carpentras  (from  the  place  of  his 
birth),  a  priest  and  papal  nuncio.  His  "  Motetti  della 
corona"  were  published  by  Petrucci,  in  1514.  but  he 
is  best  known  for  his  "Lamentations'',  whicn contin- 
ued to  be  sung  by  the  pontifical  choir  at  Rome  imtil 
1587.  A  third  motet-writer  was  Jean  Mouton,  canon 
of  8t-Quentin,  whose  "Quam  pulchra  es"  has  often 
been  ascribed  to  Josquin.  A  fourth  is  Jacques  Clem- 
ent (Clemens  non  Papa),  who  issued  seven  books  of 
motets,  published  by  Phal^e  (Louvain,  1559).  Three 
typical  specimens  have  been  r^rinted  by  Proeke  in 
his  "Musica  divina".  Jacob  Vaett  composed  a  mo- 
tet on  this  French  composer's  death  in  1558.  John 
Dygon,  Prior  of  St.  Augustine's,  Canterbury,  was  a 
composer  of  motets,  one  of  which  was  printed  by 
Hawldns.  Other  English  composers  who  cultivated 
this  art-form  in  the  sixteenth  century  were:  F&yd&Xf 
Tallis  (who  wrote  one  in  forty  parts),  Whyto,  Red- 
ford,  Tavemer,  and  Shepherd.  Many  of  the  Latin 
motets  by  these  musicians  were  subsequently  adapted 
to  English  words.  Arcadelt,  a  pontifical  singer,  com- 
posed an  eight-part  Pater  Noster;  his  better  known 
Ave  Maria  is  of  doubtful  authenticity.  Willaert, 
maestro  di  cappella  at  St.  Mark's,  Venice,  and  "father 
of  the  madrigal",  published  three  collections  of  mo- 
tets for  four,  five,  and  six  voices,  not  a  few  of  which 
are  extremely  inventive  and  melodious  though  intri- 
cate. 

The  acme  of  motet  composition  was  reached  in  the 
period  from  1500  to  1620,  when  Orlandus  Lassus  (Ro- 
uind  de  Lattre),  Palestrina,  Morales,  Anerio.  Maren- 
zio,  Byrd,  de  Rore,  Suriano,  Nanini,  Gabrieli,  Croce, 
and  Monteverde  flourished,  not  forgetting  English 
Catholic  composers  like  Bevin,  Richard  Dering,  and 
Peter  Philips.  Pedestrina,  who  has  been  aptly  styled 
Princeps  MusiccBf  composcxi  over  300  motets,  some  for 
twelve  voices,  but  mostly  for  from  four  to  eight  voices, 
of  which  seven  books  were  printed.  One  of  his  ex- 
quisite motets  is,  "Fratres^  ego  enim  accepi ",  for  eight 
voices,  while  another  is  the  much  simpler  "Sicut  eeiv 
VU8  desiderat".  Lassus  composed  180  Magnificats, 
^4  8Q0  inotets.    T)ie  other  masters  quoted  above 


have  left  us  beautiful  specimens.  However,  in  the 
case  of  Monteverde  (1567-1643),  he  broke  away  from 
the  old  traditions  and  helped  to  create  the  modem 
school  of  music,  employing  unprepared  discords  and 
other  harmonic  devices.  Croce,  who  was  a  priest, 
published  many  beautiful  motets,  including  '  O  sa- 
crum convivium".  In  the  mid-seventeenth  century, 
owing  to  the  conflict  between  the  older  and  the  newer 
schools,  no  appreciable  advance  was  made  in  motet- 
writing.  The  only  two  composers  who  nobly  upheld 
the  true  polyphonic  school  were  AUegri  and  Cascio- 
lini^  AUegri  was  a  priest  and  a  pontifical  singer,  and 
he  IS  best  known  by  his  famous  Miserere  for  nine 
voices  in  two  choirs.  A  few  of  Cascolini's  motets  are 
still  sung.  From  1660  to  1670  the  modem  type  of 
motet,  with  instrumental  accompaniment,  came  into 
vogue,  and  the  ancient  ecclesiastical  "modal"  treat- 
ment was  superseded  by  the  prevalent  scale-tonality. 
The  masters  of  this  epoch  were  Ijeo,  Durante,  Scar- 
latti^ Pergolesi,  Carissimi,  Stradella,  and  Purcell. 
During  the  eighteenth  century  the  motet  received 
adequate  treatment  at  the  hanas  of  Johann  Sebastian 
Bach,  Keiser,  Graun,  Hasse,  Handel,  and  Bononcini. 
A  further  development,  but  on  different  lines,  took 
place  during  the  nineteenth  century,  specimens  of 
which  may  be  found  in  the  published  worlu  of  Mozart, 
Haydn,  Cherubini,  and  Mendelssohn.  However,  the 
motu  ^oprio  of  Pope  Pius  X  has  had  the  happy  effect 
of  reviving  the  polyphonic  school  of  the  sixteenth  and 
early  seventeenth  centuries,  when  the  motet  in  its 
truest  form  was  at  the;  height  of  perfection. 

EiTNBR,  OuelienUxikon  (Leipus,  1000-04);  Gbovb,  /Hot.  o/ 
Mtuie  and  Mutieiana  (new  ea.,  London,  1904-10);  Walxbb, 
Hitt.  of  Mutie  in  Enoland  (London,  1907) ;  DtTNBTAN,  A  Cvdo' 
padie  tHd.  of  Mvmc  (2iid  ed.»  London,  1909). 

W.  H.  Grattan-Flood. 

MotiTB.    See  Moralitt. 

Motolinia,  Toribio  de  Bbnavente.  Franciscan 
missionary,  b.  at  Benavente,  Spain,  at  tne  end  of  the 
fifteenth  century;  d.  in  the  City  of  Mexico,  10  August, 
1568.  He  was  one  of  the  first  band  of  Francmcans 
who  sailed  for  Mexico  with  Fra^  Martin  de  Valencia, 
and  survived  all  his  oompamons.  Upon  entering 
religion,  he  changed  his  name  of  Paredes  for  that  of 
Benavente,  following  the  then  regular  custom  of  the 
order.  As  he  and  his  companions,  on  their  YTKy  to  the 
Cit^  of  Mexico,  passed  through  Tlaxcala,  the  Indians, 
seeing  the  humble  aspect  and  ragged  habits  of  the 
religious,  kept  repeating  to  each  other  the  word  mcfjo^ 
linia.  Fray  Tonoio,  having  asked  the  meaning  of  this 
word  and  learned  that  it  was  the  Mexican  for  pocr^ 
said:  "It  is  the  first  word  I  have  learned  in  this  Ian- 
age,  and,  that  I  may  not  forget  it,  it  shall  henceforth 
my  name. "  Bernal  Dias  del  Castillo,  an  eyewit- 
ness of  the  arrival  of  the  first  friars,  singles  Motolinia 
out  from  t^e  others,  saying  of  him:  "Whatever  was 
given  him  he  gave  to  the  Indians,  and  sometimes 
was  left  without  food.  He  wore  very  torn  clothing 
and  went  barefoot,  and  the  Indians  loved  him  much, 
because  he  was  a  holy  person."  When  Motolinia  ana 
his  companions  arrivea  at  the  City  of  Mexico,  Cortes 
went  out  to  receive  them,  accompanied  by  all  his  cap- 
tains and  the  chief  men  of  the  place.  Ihe  religious 
carried  wooden  crosses  in  their  hands;  Cortes  and 
those  with  him  knelt  and  kissed  their  hands  with  the 
deei>est  respect,  and  then  conducted  them  to  the 
lodgings  prepared  for  them.  The  Indians  wondered 
much  when  the^  saw  those  whom  the^  considered 
supernatural  bemgs  prostrate  at  the  leet  of  these 
humble  and  apparently  despicable  men.  Cortes 
seized  the  opportunity  to  address  a  discourse  to  the 
caciques  (chiefs)  and  lords  who  accompanied  him, 
recommending  due  veneration  and  respect,  as  he  him- 
self had  shown,  for  those  who  had  come  to  teach  them 
the  Christian  religion. 

When  Cortes  set  out  on  the  expedition  to  Las  Hi- 
bueras,  the  influence  of  Motolinia  over  the  Indiana 


t 


MOTU  PBOPBIO 


602 


MOUCH7 


was  80  great  that  the  conoueror  oommiflsioned  him  to 
see  that  ''no  rising  took  place  in  Mexico  or  the  other 
provinces''  during  his  absence.  Motolinia  subse- 
quently made  a  journey  to  Guatemala,  where  he  made 
use  of  the  faculties  which  he  had  to  administer  con- 
firmation, and  thence  passed  to  Nicaragua.  Re- 
turning to  Mexico,  he  was  guardian  successively  at 
Texooco  and  Tlaxcala,  and  was  chosen  sixth  provin- 
cial of  the  Province  of  Santo  Evangelio.  When  Don 
Sebastian  Ramirez  de  Fuenleal,  president  of  the  sec- 
ond Atidiencia.  decided  to  found  the  settlement  of 
Puebla,  Fray  Toribio,  who  had  joined  in  requesting 
this  foimdation,  was  one  of  the  commissioners  chosen 
to  carry  out  the  work,  with  the  auditor  Don  Juan  de 
Salmeron.  In  association  with  the  guardians  of 
Tlaxcala,  Cholula,  Huexotzingo,  and  Tepeaca,  and 
employing  a  larse  number  of  Indian  labourers,  they 
buut  the  city.  Motolinia  said  the  first  Mass  here  on 
16  April,  1530,  and  with  his  companions  made  the  al- 
lotments of  land,  choosing  for  the  convent  the  site 
upon  which  is  still  to  be  seen  the  beautiful  church  of 
San  Francisco.  He  himself  left  in  writing  the  total 
of  baptisms  performed  by  him,  amounting  to  400,000, 
''which,"  says  Padre  Torquemada,  "I  who  write  this 
have  seen  confirmed  by  his  name.''  The  Indians 
loved  him  tenderly  for  his  virtues  and,  above  all,  for 
his  ardent  charity.  He  died  in  the  convent  of  S. 
Francisco,  in  the  City  of  Mexico,  and  the  crowd  at  his 
burial  had  to  be  restrained  from  cutting  in  pieces  the 
habit  which  his  corpse  wore,  pieces  of  which  th^ 
would  have  taken  as  relics  of  a  saint. 

Among  the  writings  of  Motolinia  is  his  famous 
letter  to  Emperor  Charles  V,  written  on  2  January, 
1555.  It  is  a  virulent  attack  upon  Bishop  Barto- 
Iom6  de  las  Casas,  intended  to  discredit  him 
oompletdy,  calling  mm  "a  ^evous  man,  restless, 
importunate,  turbulent,  injunous,  and  prejudicial", 
and  moreover  an  ajxwtate  m  that  he  had  renoimced 
the  Bishopric  of  Chiapas.  The  monarch  is  even  ad- 
vised to  have  him  shut  up  for  safe  keeping  in  a  mon- 
asteiy.  While  it  is  impossible  to  save  the  memory 
of  Motolinia  from  the  blot  which  this  letter  hais 

E laced  upon  it,  some  explanation  of  his  conduct  can 
e  given.  He  mav  have  foreseen  the  extremely  grave 
evils  that  would  have  resulted  to  the  social  system, 
as  it  was  then  established  in  New  Spain,  if  the  theories 
of  Las  Casas  had  become  completely  aominant.  In- 
deed, whto  it  is  remembered  that  these  theories 
jeopardised  the  fortunes  of  nearly  all  the  colonists, 
not  only  in  Mexico,  but  also  throughout  the  New 
World — fortunes  wmch  they  had  perhaps  amassed 
illegaUy,  but,  in  manv  instances,  in  good  faith  and 
at  the  cost  of  incredible  labours  and  perils — it  may 
well  be  understood  why  so  tremendous  an  animosity 
should  have  been  felt  against  the  man  who  not  only 
had  originated  the  theories,  but  had  effected  theu: 
triumph  at  Court:  who  was  endeavoiuing  with  in- 
credible tenacity  oi  purpose  to  put  them  into  practice, 
and  who,  in  his  directions  to  confessors,  asserts  that 
all  the  Spaniards  of  the  Indies  must  despoil  them- 
selves of  all  their  property,  except  what  they  have 
acquired  by  commerce,  and  no  longer  hold  encomien- 
das  or  slaves.  The  theory  of  encomiendtu  was  not 
in  itself  blameworthy;  for  the  Indians,  being  like  all 
other  subjects  bound  to  contribute  towards  the  ex- 
penses of  government^  it  made  no  difference  to  them 
whether  thev  paid  tnbute  direct  to  the  government 
or  to  tiie  holders  of  royal  commissions  (encomiendas). 
What  made  the  system  intolerable  was  the  mass  of 
horrible  abuses  committed  under  its  shadow;  had 
las  Casas  aimed  his  attack  more  surely  against  these 
douses,  he  might  perhaps  have  been  more  successful 
in  benefiting  the  Indians.  It  is  certain  that  the 
"New  Laws'',  the  greatest  triumph  of  las  Casas, 
remained  virtuallv  inoperative  in  Mexico;  in  Chiapas 
and  Guatemala  tney  led  to  serious  distun>ances,  and 
19  P^ni  Uie^  result^  ip  ^  civil  war  fraught  witl^ 


crimes  and  horrors,  amidst  which  the  aborianes 
suffered  greatly.  Such  was  the  man  whom  Motolinia 
sought  to  oppose,  and  his  attitude  was  shared  by 
men  of  the  most  upright  character,  e.  s.  Bishop 
Marroquin,  the  vicerov,  Don  Antonio  de  Mendoza, 
and  the  visUador  Telfo.  However  pardonable  the 
intention,  it  is  impossible  to  foigive  the  aggressive 
and  virulent  tone  of  the  aforesaid  denunciation. 
He  wrote  some  works  which  were  of  assistance  to 
Mendieta  and  to  Torquemada,  one  of  the  chidt  being 
his  '^Historia  de  los  Indios  de  Nueva  Espafia". 

Bbbibtaxn.  Biblioteca  hi»pano-amerieana  »€j4efUrionat  (Ame- 
osmeos,  1883) ;  Icazbalceta,  Ohraa  (Mexico,  1905) ;  Alam am, 
DUertaeionet  (Mexico,  1844);  Bbrnal  Dxas  dbx,  Ca8T1ux>, 
Historia  verdadera  d€  (a  conquiaia  d4  la  Nuna  EmwiIUi  (Mexico, 
1004);  Bbtancoubt,  Menologio  franeUcano  (Mexico,  1871); 
Cahri6n,  HUi.  de  Puebla  (Puebla,  1896) ;  Mixieo  d  traUt  de  loe 
•igloe,  II;  Mbndibta,  HiH,  eeUe.  indiana  (Mexico.  1870);  C«2ee- 
ci&n  de  Docummtoe  para  la  ktetoria  de  Mtxico,  I  (Mexico,  1898). 

Camillub  Cbivelu. 

Motu  Proprio,  the  name  given  to  certain  papal  re- 
scripts on  accoimt  of  the  clause  motu  proprio  (of  his 
own  accord)  used  in  the  document.  The  words  sig- 
nify that  the  provisions  of  the  rescript  were  decided  on 
by  the  pope  personally,  that  is,  not  on  the  advice  of  the 
cardinals  or  others,  but  for  reasons  which  he  himself 
deemed  sufficient.  The  document  has  generally  the 
form  of  a  decree:  in  style,  it  resembles  a  Brief  rather 
than  a  BuU.  but  differs  from  both  especially  in  not 
being  sealed  or  countersigned.  It  issues  from  the 
Dataria  Apostolica,  and  is  usually  written  in  Italian 
or  Latin.  It  begins  by  stating  the  reason  inducing 
the  sovereign  pontiff  to  act,  after  which  is  stated  the 
law  or  regulation  made,  or  the  favour  granted.  It  is 
sigped  personally  bjr  the  pope,  his  name  and  the  date 
bemg  always  in  Latin.  A  Motu  Proprio  was  first  is- 
sued by  Innocent  VIII  in  1484.  It  was  always  un- 
popular in  France,  where  it  was  regarded  as  an  in- 
fringement of  Gallican  liberties,  for  it  implied  that 
the  sovereign  pontiff  had  an  immediate  jurisdiction  in 
the  affairs  of  the  French  Church.  The  best-known 
recent  example  of  a  Motu  Proprio  is  the  instructions 
issued  by  Pius  X  on  22  November,  1903,  for  the  re- 
form of  church  music. 

The  phrase  motu  proprio  is  freq[uently  employed  in 
papal  documents.  One  characteristic  result  of  its  use 
IS  that  a  rescript  containing  it  is  valid  and  produces  its 
effect  even  in  cases  where  fraud  would  ordinarily  have 
vitiated  the  document,  for  the  words  signify  that  the 
pope  in  granting  the  favour  does  not  rely  on  the  rea- 
sons alleged.  When  the  clause  is  used  in  dispensa- 
tions, the  latter  are  given  a  broad  interpretation;  a 
favour  granted  motu  proprio  is  valid  even  when  coun- 
ter to  ecclesiastical  law,  or  the  decisions  of  the  pope 
himself.  Consequently,  canonists  call  the  clause  tne 
"mother  of  repose " :  ''sicut  papaver  gi^it  somnum  et 
guietem,  ita  et  hsc  clausula  habenti  earn."  {See 
Hescripts.) 

Rbbuf,  3Vac<.  concordatcrum:  De  forma  mandaii  apoeioL  (Pmru. 
1538),  8.  ▼. ;  RiaAMTi.  Comment,  in  regui,  eanedlaruB  apoei.  (Rome. 
1744),  s.  ▼.  Oraiia  motu  proprio;  Gixavd,  BibL  eaera  (Milan.  1835). 

■•  ▼•  A.  A.  MacEblsan. 

MoQchy,  Antoinb  db  (called  Democharbb), 
theologian  and  canonist,  b.  1494,  at  Ressons-sur-Mats, 
near  tieauvais,  in  Picaray;  d.  8  May^  1574,  at  Paris. 
In  1539  he  was  appointed  rector  oi  the  Univefsity 
of  Paris.  He  was  also  professor  at  the  Sorbonne  and 
canon  PcBniterUiariua  of  No^on.  As  inouiaitor  fidei 
he  exerted  his  influence  against  the  Calvinists.  In 
1562  he  accompanied  the  Cardinal  (rf  Lorraine  to  the 
Council  of  Trent,  and  in  1564  was  present  at  the 
Synod  of  Reims.  Mouchy  wrote  a  work  in  defence 
of  the  Mass  (Paris,  1562).  and  edited  the  "Corpus 

1'uris  canonici''   (3  vols,  tol.,  including  the  fdoesa, 
'aris,  1561;  4  vols.  8vo,  without  the  gloesa,  Paris, 
1547-^60;  7  vols.  12mo,  I^ons,  1554). 
fimmm  in  £titAfnl«s.,  b.  ▼• 


MOVPAira  603  MouLms 

Moofang,  Franz  Christoph  Ignaz,  tbeologjan,  in  reorganizing  and  publishing  the"  Katholik",whicli 
b.  at  Mainz,  17  Feb.,  1817;  d.  there,  27  Feb.,  1890.  in  collaboration  with  Heinrich  he  edited  from  1851 
His  early  studies  were  made  at  Mainz.    In  1834  he    until  his  death. 

•'"''■       •■      '  "^         ^  ^^  1? Ji         His  other  literary  work  was  mainly  in  the  history  of 

the  older  Catholic  catechisms  in  Germany.    His  chief 


went  to  the  University  of  Bonn,  first  taking  up  medi- 
cine,  but  soon   turning   to   theology.    Among  his 


masters   were   Klee,    Windischmann,    and   Walter,  workson  this  subject  are:  "Die  MainzerKatechismen 

In  1837  he  went  to  Munich,  and  the  next  year  took  'Von  Erfindung  der  Buchdruckerkunst  bis  zum  Ende 

the  prescribed  theoloocal  examinations  at  Giessen,  des  18.  Jahrhunderts''  (Mainz,  1878);  "Katholische 

after  which  he  entered  the  ecclesiastical  seminary  at  Katechismen    des    16.    Jahrhunderts    in    deutscher 

M<unz,  where  he  was  ordained  priest  19  Dec.,  1839.  Sprache,  herausgegeben  und  mit  Anmerkungen  ver- 

His  first  appointment  was  as  curate  in  Seligenstadt  sehen''  (Mainz.  1881).   Amon^  his  numerous  shorter 

on  the  Main,  where  his  uncle,  Adam  Franz  Lennig,  writings  are:  "Die  barmherzigen  Schwestem,  eine 

later  vicar-general  and  dean  of  the  cathedral  at  Mainz,  Darstellung  ihrer  GrQndung,  Verbreitung,  Einrich- 

waa  pastor.    Lennig  stimulated  in  him  a  broad  in-  tun^  und  Wirksamkeit''  (Mainz,  1842);  "Der  Infor- 

terest  for  the  religious  questions  of  the  time.    Mou-  mativ-Prozess.    Eine  kirchenrechtliche  Erdrterung" 

fang  also  taught  at  the  pro-gymnasium  at  Seligen-  (Mainz,  1850);  "Diekatholischen  Pfarrschuleninder 

stadt.    After  brief  charges  of  the  parish  of  Bensheim.  Stadt  Mainz"  (Mainz,  1863);  "Das  Verbot  der  Ehen 

and  that  of  St.  Quentin  in  Mainz  he  was  appointed  zwischen     nahen    Verwandten.      Beleuchtung    der 

in  1845  r^^ous  instructor  at  the  Mainz  gymna-  GrOnde dieses Verbotes'' (Mainz,  1863), I;" Die Hand- 

sium.  werkerfrage"  (Mainz.  1864),  a  speech  delivered  in 

When  Bishop  von  Ketteler  re-established  in  1851  the  Upper  Chamber  ot  the  Landtag  at  Darmstadt  and 


and  pastoral  theology.    Mouf  ang  became  a  canon  6  man  und  seine  Verdienste  um  die  Wissenschaf  t  und  die 

Nov.,  1854,  and  smntual  adviser  and  member  of  the  Kirche"  (Mainz,  1865);  "Der  Kampf  um  Rom  und 

diocesan  court  2  December  of  the  same  year.    On  seine  Folgen  fiir  Italien  und  die  Welt    (Mainz,  1868); 

the  occasion  of  the  twenty-fifth  anniversary  of  his  "Carl  August,  Cardinal  von  Reisach'',  in"  Katholik", 

priesthood  the  theolo^cal  faculty  of  WUrzburg  be-  1870,  I,  129-50;  "  Der  besondere  Schutz  Gottes  ilber 

stowed  the  honorary  degree  of  doctor  of  theology  PapstPiusIX'*  (Mainz,  1871);  "AktenstOckebetref- 

upon  him.    On  the  death  of  Lennig  in  1866  the  fend  die  Jesuiten  in  Deutschland,  gesammelt  und  mit 

bishop  wished  Moufan^  to  be  his  successor  as  dean  Erl&uterungen  versehen''  (Mainz.  1872).    Mouf  ang 

of  the  cathedral  and  vicar-general.    Mouf  ang,  how-  also  published  a  prayerbook,  "Oflicium  divinum  , 

ever,  declined,  preferring  to  devote  himself  to  the  which  is  very  widely  used  and  has  passed  throu^ 

seminary.    In  November,  1868,  he  was  summoned  numerous  editions,  the  first  appearing  at  Mainz,  m 

to  Rome,  for  the  preparatory  work  of  the  Vatican  1851,  the  nineteenth  in  1905. 

Council,  and  was  placed  on  the  committee  for  ec-  ^BrCck,  Dr,  ChrUioph   Moufang,  PApMichft  Haiuvralat, 

dedaatico-political  matters  under  Cardinal  Reisach.  gr2Sl±«i:fJ^Xrfir(J8»^4i7^^^ 

Dunng  the  KtMurkarnvf,  to  Moufang's  great  sorrow,  AUgemeine  DtuUch^  BworaphU,  Lll.  48(r-S8. 

the  theological  school  of  the  seminary  was  closed  Friedrich  Lauchebt. 
(1877)  by  hostile  legislation.    After  the  death  of 

Bishop  von  Ketteler  (13  July,  1877),  the  chapter  Moulins,  Diocesb  of  (Molinenbis),  suffragan  of 
elected  Moufang  administrator  of  the  diocese.  The  Sens — comprises  the  entire  department  of  Allier. 
hostile  attitude  of  the  Prussian  Government  made  this  Under  the  old  regime  Moulins  did  not  even  have  a 
office  very  difficult  during  the  ten  years'  vacancy  of  pari^,  the  churches  which  served  as  parishes  were 
the  see.  On  16  April,  1886^  Leo  XIII  made  him  a  succuraal  churches  of  two  neighbouring  coimtry  par- 
domestic  prelate.  Under  Bishop  Haffner  the  theo-  ishes,  Yseure  and  St-Bonnet.  In  1788  a  see  was 
logical  scnool  of  the  seminary  was  reopened  on  25  created  at  Moulins;  and  des  Gallois  de  la  Tour,  who 
October,  1887,  and  Moufang  again  directed  the  semi-  exercised  in  that  city  the  functions  of  vicar-general  to 
naiy  as  regent.  But  ill-health  prevented  him  from  the  Bishop  of  Autun,  was  appointed  bishop,  but  had 
remaining  long  at  the  work  that  was  so  dear  to  not  beenpreconized  when  the  Revolution  broke  out  in 
him.  1789.  Tne  See  of  Moulins  was  re-established  by  the 
Moufang  rendered  great  and  permanent  services  to  Concordat  of  1817,  and  had  titulars  from  1822.  This 
the  Archdiocese  of  Mainz  as  an  educator  of  the  cler^  new  diocese  was  formed  of  dismembered  parts  of  the 
and  in  many  other  ways.  He  was  soon  prominent  m  Dioceses  of  Autun,  Bourges,  and  Clermont-Ferrand, 
the  circle  that  centred  about  Lennig's  strons,  eneiv  In  this  diocese  the  cantonid  districts  do  not  bear  their 
getic  personality,  and  he  took  ui  eager  pajrt  in  aU  efforts  geographical  names,  as  in  all  other  dioceses,  but  the 
to  imi)rove  religious  and  social  conditions.  He  as-  name  of  a  saint  which  becomes  the  patron  of  the  dean- 
sisted  in  the  formation  of  the  "  Piusverein  ",  and  as  a  ery :  the  Vichy  deanery,  for  instance,  is  called  the  dean- 
member  of  the  "St.  Vincenz-  und  Elisabeth-Verein"  ery  of  St-Raphael.  Joan  of  Arc  came  to  Moulins  in 
did  much  to  promote  its  prosperity.  In  the  regener-  November,  1429,  and  from  there  wrote  letters  to  all 
ation  of  Catnolic  Germany  his  name  is  inseparably  the  important  surrounding  towns,  asking  for  assist- 
linked  with  the  history  of  the  general  conventions  ance.  In  1604  Henry  IV  authorized  the  Jesuits  to 
(Generalversammlungen)  of  the  Catholics  of  Ger-  found  a  college  at  Moulins.  The  devotion  to  the  Sa- 
many.  Like  his  colleague,  Heinrich,  he  was,  for  almost  cred  Heart  of  Jesus  was  inau^rated  in  1676  at  the 
forty  years,  one  of  the  leading  personalities  and  most  Visitation  monastery  of  Mouhns;  St.  Jane  Frances  de 
prominent  speakers.  For  a  number  of  years  he  was  Chantal  died  in  this  convent  in  1641.  The  monas- 
also  active  as  a  legislator.  After  1863,  as  representa-  tery  of  Saint  Lieu  Sept  Fons,  in  the  present  territory 
tive  of  the  bishop,  he  had  a  seat  in  the  upper  chamber  of  the  diocese,  was  founded  in  1132  by  monks  of  dl- 
of  the  Hessian  Landtag,  and  repeatedly  took  a  prom-  teaux  on  a  site  where  there  were  seven  spring  {septem 
inentpart  in  the  debates  on  social  and  political  ques-  foriies)  and  a  sanctuary  of  the  Blessed  Virgin;  it  was 
lions,  and  questions  of  Church  poUcy.  In  1871  he  reformed  in  1663  by  Dom  Eustache  de  Beaufort,  abbot 
enteied  the  German  Reichstag,  where  he  was  held  in  from  1656  to  1709,  a  friend  of  de  Ranc^.  In  1845  the 
great  esteem  by  the  Centre  for  his  political  services  monastery  was  restored  by  the  Trappist  Dom  Stanis- 
and  as  an  intermediary  in  harmonizing  the  differences  laus  Lapierre.  St.  Benott  Labre  passed  two  months 
between  North  and  South  Germany.  The  most  there  in  1769.  The  Benedictine  monastery  of  Sou- 
promineDt  feature  of  his  literaiy  activity  was  his  work  vigny,  founded  in  916,  had  a  fine  Gothic  church,  whefo 


HOUHT  604  uoimt 

tmn  fot  the  tombe  of  many  SdAneim  de  Bourbon  con  XVI  UBiened  them  a  bouse  on  the  Esquiline,  near  th« 

be  seen.    Saint  Mayeul  (Majciliu),  second  abbot  of  church  ofSt.  Norbert,  now  the  chief  house  of  the  insti- 

Cluny,  died  at  8ou™ny  m  994,  and  St.  Odilo.  third  tuUi. 

abbot  of  Clunv,  died  there  in  1049.  The  town  of  II.  MiBBioKARTSociETTOpUovNTCALVAnT,  acoo- 
Gannat  aroeeaboutanancientsbbeyof  Augustinians;  eregatioD  of  secular  priests,  formed  in  1633  by  Hubert 
the  town  of  St.  Pour^ain  owes  its  onain  to  the  monaa-  Charpentier  to  honour  tl^  Sacred  PasEion  and  to 
tery  founded  in  the  sixth  century  oy  the  slave  St.  apread  and  maintain  the  FaEth  especially  in  regions 
PouTfain  (Portianus)  who  put  a  stop  to  the  devaata-  under  Huguenot  control.  The  first  houses  were  at 
tions  of  lliierry,  King  of  Austrasia,  during  his  cam-  Betharraiu  in  the  Diocese  of  Leecar  and  at  Notre- 
paign  against  Auvergne.     The  preacher  Jean  de  Lin-  Dame  de  Ceraison  in  the  Diocese  of  Aucb.      United 

!;endes  (1595-1665)  and  the  schismatic  Abb4  Chatel,  with  a  similar  association  forroed  by  the  Capuchin, 

ounder  of  the   "French   Catholic  Church"   {179S-  PSre  Hyacinthe,  at  the  instance  of  Louis  XlII,  mi 

1857),  were  bom  in  the  territofy  of  the  preeent  Dio-  Mont-Val6rien  near  Paris,  the  congregation  received 

cese  of  Moulins.  royal  oonfirmation   in   1650.     l*ter  the   pastors  of 

The  principal  pileiriraages  of  the  dioceee  are:  Notre-  Paris  were  admitted  to  membership,  and  during  Ho^ 

DamedeSt.GermaindeaFoHB^s; thebodyofthehermit  Week  pilgrimages  were  made  from  different  parishes 
St.  Patroclus  (sixth  of  Paris   to    Mount 

century)  at   Colom-  VaWrien.     The  soci- 

bier;  the  relics  of  8t.  ety  did  not  survive 

Mayeul  at  Souvigny :  the  Revolution, 

and   the   chureh   of  „.'^™T°S""'*'   ^'*"  * 

St.  G|«rge  .t  Bout-  iST'oSSTT.™ 

bon    lArchambault,  ftntBCR  in  Kirt/imln.: 

which  possesses  one  **o'"™'"-  Diwli  ivi>* 

ofthe  lan!«t  known  fdSfJ^SSr '     "* 

fragmenUoftheHoly  Florence  Rddoe 

CroHs,   a  rehc  given  McGahan. 

by  St.  Louis  to  his 

son  Robert  of  Cler-  Momit     0«inid, 

mont.   Beforetheap-  Fbabt  of  Oim  La»t 

plication  of  the  Asso-  or. — This  feast  was 

ciationsLawof  1901  imriituted     by     the 

there  were  Benedio-  Carmelites   between 

tjnes,  Jffluits,  Mar-  i37e  and  1386  under 

ists,   Laiariste,    Re-  the  title  "Commem- 

demptorists,       Mis-  oratioB.  Maria' Virg. 

nonary    Fathers   rf  duplex"  to  celebrate 

the    Sacred    Heart,  the  victory  of  their 

and  several  orders  m  order  over  its  ene- 

School    Brothers   in  miea  in  obtaining  the 

the  Diocese  of  Mou-  Lmdai.  Ta-^abb,  Caibwbiu  Moemn  approbation    of    iu 

lins.     At  the  b<%innlng  of  the  twentieth  century  the  name  and  constitution  from  Honorius  III  on  30  Jan., 

religious  congregations  of  Uie  diocese  had  charge  of:  1226  (seeColvenerius,  "Kal.  Mar.",  SO  Jan.,  "Summa 

1  crtehe,  16  day  nurseriea,  2  boys'  orphanwes,  10  girls'  Aurea",  III,  737).    The  feast  was  assigned  to  16  July, 

orphiulBg»,  5  mduatrial  rooms,  1  Maadalea  hospital,  becauaeon  that  date  in  1251,  according  to  the  Carmel- 

6"houseaof  mercy"  for  the  relief  of  the  poor,  13  hos-  ite  traditions,  the  scapular  was  given  by  the  Blessed 

pitals  or  asylums,  3  houses  for  the  care  of  the  sick  in  Virgin  to  St.  Simon  Stock;  it  was  first  approved  by 

theirown  homea.  Sixtus  V  in  1587.     After  Cardinal  Bellarmine  had  ex- 

In  1908  the  Diocese  of  Moulins  counted  390,812  amined  the  CarmeUte  traditions  in  1609,  it  was  de- 
inhabitants,  31  parishes,  281  succursal  parishee,  55  clared  the  patronal  feast  of  the  order,  and  is  now  cele- 
vicariatM.  brated  in  the  Carmelite  calendar  as  a  maior  double  of 

Alaht,   Hittoin  dt  ruahlimmmi  d>  CMcJii  di   tfouliiu  the  first  class  with  a  vigil  and  B  privileged  octave  (like 

'ii'^^^'^fP^'^''^S^"¥'"'""SNM^™'^*M'^-^''<z''^''\*  '*^'^'^*^^  "'  Epiphany,  admitting  only  a  double  of 

M«»I^i9oo]?'i«o»TiiiJT*«nb™rfconM*.  rf  «  f^i-u  (P«i.:  the  first  claffi)  imd^  the  title  "Commemoratio  so- 

187S):  Stft-FtuH.  Uudtt  Aiiifnoixi  tur  raUam  dt  Nctrt  Daiu  lemms  B.M.V.  de  Mont«  Carmelo   .     By  a  pnvilege 

8ai,u  Lin  S.«  F™.  by. monl  ot  ths  »bh»y  (Moulin^  1872) j  given  by  Clement  X  in  1672,  some  Carmelite  monas- 

Ca»viu>»,  7-.jK*^.  B038.  o-oBn-g  QoTAn  ^"^  ^^P  *'"'  ^^^^  "'^  ^^^  Sunday  after  16  July,  or  on 

some  other  Sunday  in  July.     In  the  seventeenth  cen- 

Monnt  Oalvuy,  (ktnaREOATioNe  or.— I.  Dauoh-  tury  the  feast  was  adopted  by  several  dioceeea  in  the 

TEHBorMotiNTCALVART,  founded  in  1619  by  Virginia  south  of  Italy,  although  its  celebration,  outside  vt 

Centurione  (d.  1651),  daughter  of  the  Doge  of  Genoa  Carmelite  churches,  was  prohibited  in  1628  by  a  de- 

and  wife  of  Gasparo  Grimaldi  Braeelii  (d.  1625),  who  cree  amlra  abutw.    On  21  Nov,,  1674,  however,  it 

during  a  time  of  famine  gathered  a  number  of  aban-  was  first  granted  by  Clement  X  to  Spain   and   its 

donea  children  into  a  home,  which  she  called  Santa  colonies,  in  1675  to  Austria,  in  1679  to  Portugal  and 

Maria  del  Bcfugio  dei  Tribolati  in  Monte  Calvario.  its  colonies,  and  in  1725  to  the  Papal  States  irf  tbe 

Under  her  inspiration  those  associated  with  her  in  the  Chureh,  on  24  Sept.,  1726,  it  was  extended   to   the 

work  decided  to  lead  a  common  life,  follow  the  rule  of  entire  Latin  Church  by  Benedict  XIII.     The  leesona 

St.  Francis,  and  pledge  themselves  to  the  service  of  cont^n  the  legend  of  the  scapular  (q.  v.);  tbe  promise 

the  poor  and  sick.     They  bound  themselves,  however,  of  the  Sabbatme  privilege  was  ina^led  into  the  les- 

by  no  vows,  but  by  a  solemn  promise  of  perseverance,  sons  by  Paul  V  about  1614.    The  Greeks  '"f  southern 

Among  the  pramment  Genoese  who  promoted  the  Italy  and  the  Catholic  Chaldeans  have  aaopt«d  tbia 

work  of  the  sisters  was  the  Marquess  Eramanuele  fesst  of   the   "Vestment  of   tbe   Bl.   Virgin  Mary" 

Brignole,  through  whose  munificence  a  second  house  (NUles,  "Kal.  Man.".  TI,  548,  665).     The  object  of 

was  founded,  in  1641,  after  which  the  sisters  were  the  feast  is  the  special  predilection  of  Maiy  for  those 

oft«n  called  "le  suore  Brignole".     The  conjugation  who  profess  themselves  her  servauta  by  wearing  her 

(Frdburs,  1803)1  COLTUBEIca 


soon  spread  through  norttiem  Italy.    In  1815  Pius    scapular  (see  Cabmeuteb). 
VII  invited  the  sisters  to  Borne,  and  in  1833  Gregory       HoLwaci,  ratu  ilariani  (F: 


Momrrrofto  605  itotrnt 

KaUndarSum  Marianum  (Douai,  1636) ;  Albkbs,  BI<UA«nibr«fM«,  The  ''Mountiun"  already  COUntcd  amODg  its  gnulu* 

IV  (Paderbora.  1894).  191  ^^^^^^^^  ^    TT^r^r,^  atee  such  men  as  John  Hughes,  later  Archbishop  of 

Frederick  G.  Holweck.  ^^^  york:  WilUam  Quarterfiret  Bishop  of  Chicago; 

Mountford  (Mumford),  Thoiias.    See  Downbs,  John  McCIoskey.  afterwards  Archbishop  of  New  York 

Thoiias.  and  Cardinal:  Willaim  Henry  Elder,  Archbishop  of 

mM.^^4.  ^  rku^^m     a^  nrT^»m    hvt^tti^  Cinclunati;  William  George  McCIoskey,  president  of 

Mount  of  OUws.    See  Olivet,  Mount.  the  American  Collie,  Rome,  and  later  Bidiop  of  Louis- 

Mount  St.  Mary '8  Collegei  the  second  oldest  viUe;  Francis  S.  Chatard,  president  of  the  Ameri- 
among  the  Catholic  collegiate  institutions  in  the  can  College,  Rome,  and  later  Bishop  of  Vincennes; 
United  States,  is  located  near  Emmitsburg,  Mary-  Michael  Augustine  Corrigan,  later  Archbishop  of  New 
land,  witlidn  the  limits  of  the  Archdiocese  of  Balti-  York;  Richard  N.  Whelan.  first  Bishop  of  Wheeling; 
more.  Its  situation  on  high  ground  at  the  foot  of  the  Francis  X.  Gartland,  first  Bishop  of  Savannah;  Fran- 
Maryland  range  of  the  Blue  Ridge  Mountains  is  re-  cis  P.  McFarland,  third  Bishop  of  Hartford, 
markable  for  beauty  and  healthf utness  while  it  affords  Within  three  years  after  the  celebration  of  its 
ample  opportunity  for  |)hysical  exercise.  Mount  St.  golden  jubilee,  the  college  was  confronted  bv  difficul- 
Mary's  Theological  Semina^  has  been  maintained  in  ties  due  to  the  outbreak  of  the  war  between  the  States. 
connexion  with  the  collecje  since  the  foundation  of  the  Though  both  North  and  South  had  strong  partisans  in 
latter.  The  institution  is  directed  by  an  association  the  faculty  as  well  as  in  the  student  body,  the  college 
of  secular  clergymen  who,  with  several  lay  professors,  as  a  whole  remained  neutral.  But  shortly  after  the 
compose  its  faculty.  Its  material  interests  are  con-  beginning  of  hostilities,  an  exodus  of  students  repre- 
trolled  by  a  board  of  directors  of  which  the  Arch-  senting  each  section  took  place  in  such  numbers  that 
bishop  of  Baltimore  is,  ex  ofiScio,  the  president.  For  only  seven  were  left  for  the  graduating  class  of  1863, 
the  academic  year  1909-10  the  teaching  corps  in-  ana  only  two  for  that  of  1864.  Moreover  as  parents 
eluded  sixteen  professors,  besides  assistant  instructors  were  unable  to  meet  tuition  fees  and  other  expenses 
in  the  various  oranches,  with  298  students  in  the  col-  of  the  pupils  whom  the  college  maintained  dur- 
lege  and  54  in  the  seminary.  Instruction  is  given  in  ing  the  four  years  of  war,  the  financial  standing 
four  departments:  collegiate,  academic,  commercial,  of  the  institution  was  seriously  compromised,  ana 
and  modem  languages.  The  degrees  conferred  are  as  a  result  the  college  at  the  end  of  the  conflict  was 
those  of  bachelor  of  arts  and  master  of  arts.  overwhelmed  with  debt.    In  June,  1872,  Dr.  J.  J. 

Moimt  St.  Mary's  College  was  founded  in  1808  McCaffrey,  in  consequence  of  failing  health,  with- 
when  the  preparatory  seminary  established  by  the  drew  from  the  presidency  after  thirty-four  years  of 
Sulpicians  at  Pigeon  Hill,  Pa.,  was  transferred  to  Em-  arduous  and  aevoted  service.  Father  John  Mo- 
mitsburg.  Eight  students  formed  the  nucleus  out  of  Closkey  was  elected  to  the  ofiSce  with  Rev.  H.  S.  Mc- 
which  the  college  developed.  Its  first  president  was  Murdie  as  vice-president.  Under  their  administra- 
Rev.  John  Dubois  (c}.  v.)  who  had  been  labouring  for  tion,  the  student  body  varied  from  130  to  165.  In 
some  years  in  the  neighbouring  missions  and  had  built  1877  Rev.  John  A.  Watterson  became  president  and 
a  brick  church  on  the  slope  above  the  present  site  of  retained  the  office  until  his  promotion  to  the  See  of 
the  college.  He  had  been  led  to  secure  this  site  by  Columbus  (1880).  He  introduced  a  thorough  system 
Father  (i^terwards  Bishop)  Dubour^  (q.  v.),  who  of  retrenchment  in  idl  departments;  but  the  bulk 
directed  Mother  Seton  also  to  Emmitsburg  for  the  of  the  debt  remained.  After  his  departure.  Father 
establishment  of  St.  Joseph's  Academy.  Father  Dubois  John  McCIoskey  once  more  took  up  the  burden  of  the 
had  as  his  assistant  Father  Brut^  (q.  v.)  who  was  con-  presidency,  but  only  for  a  short  time,  as  he-  died 
secrated  first  Bishop  of  Vincennes  in  1834.  Father  towards  the  close  of  1880.  In  January,  1881,  Rev. 
Dubois  himself  became  in  1826  Bishop  of  New  York  Wm.  J.  HUI,  of  Brookl3m,  came  to  the  college  andpeti- 
and  was  succeeded  in  the  presidency  by  Rev.  Michael  tioned  to  have  a  receiver  appointed.  The  appomtee 
de  Burgo  Egan  (182fr-28),  Rev.  J.  F.  McGerry  (1828-  was  James  McSherry,  Ikter  Chief  Justice  of  the  Court 
29),  and  Rev.  John  B.  Purcell  (1830-33),  later  Arch-  of  Appeals  of  Maryland.  He  turned  over  the  affairs  of 
bisnop  of  Cincinnati.  In  January,  1830,  Father  Purcell  the  institution,  in  June,  188 1,  to  Very  Rev.  William  M . 
obtained  from  the  General  Assembly  of  Maryland  a  Byrne,  Vicar-General  of  Boston,  whose  firmness,  pru- 
charter  of  incorporation  for  the  college.  This  docu-  dence,  and  wise  economy  restored  prosperitytothe  col- 
ment  prohibited  the  requiring  of  any  religious  test  l^e.  His  policy  was  continued  oy  Rev.  Edward  P. 
from  students  or  professors,  and  limited  the  tenure  of  Allen,  who  hela  office  from  1884  until  he  became 
land  to  1000  acres  and  the  total  value  of  the  college  Bishop  of  Mobile  in  1897.  During  his  administra- 
property  to  $25,000:  all  gifts  or  revenues  in  excess  of  tion,  McCaffrey  Hall  was  completed  (1894);  and 
this  amount,  after  the  payment  of  necessary  debts,  under  his  successor.  Rev.  Wm.L.O'Hara  (1897-1905), 
were  to  be  held  for  the  use  of  the  State  of  Maryland.  Dubois  Hfdl  was  completed,  improvements  were  con- 
After  the  brief  (five  months)  incumbency  of  R[ev.  F.  tinned  to  accommodate  the  increasing  number  of 
Jamison  during  the  latter  half  of  1833,  Rev.  Thomas  students. 

R.  Butler  was  chosen  president  (1834-38).    During        The  presidency  of  his  successor.  Very  Rev.  Dennis 

his  administration,  a  new  charter,  still  in  force,  was  J.  Flynn  (1905— },  has  been  marked  by  tne  celebration, 

granted  on  4  April,  1836,  wherein  the  college  authori-  in  October,  1908,  of  the  centenary  of  the  college.   This 

ties  are  empowered  to  confer  all  coUegiate  honours  and  occasion  brought  to  the  **  Mountain"  a  lar^e  number 

degrees  except  that  of  doctor  of  medicine.    Father  of  men  prominent  in  ecclesiastical,  professional,  and 

Butler's  successor  was  Rev.  John  J.  McCaffrey,  a  man  public  life  who  claim  the  college  as  their  Alma  Mater 

of  great  energy  and  zeal,  whose  long  term  as  president  (for  full  account  see  ''The  Mountaineer'',  Oct.  and 

(1838-1872)  was  marked  on  one  hand  by  the  growth  Nov.,  1908).    It  may  indeed  be  said  that  the  highest 

and  prosperity  of  the  college,  on  the  other  by  reverses  tribute  to  the  college  and  the  best  proof  of  its  effi- 

that   threatened  its   very   existence.    He  was  the  ciency  is  found  in  the  careers  of  those  wnom  it  educated, 

builder  of  the  new  church  at  Emmitsburg  which  was  Its  service  to  the  Church  is  shown  by  the  fact  that 

dedicated  in  June,  1842.    The  comer-stone  of  Brut4  amons  its  officers  and  graduates  at  least  twenty-five 

Hall,  for  which  $12,000  had  been  appropriated,  was  have  been  bishops,  induding  one  cardinal  and  five 

laid  on  2  May.  1843,  and,  in  1852,  the  foundation  of  archbishops — whence  its  well  deserved  title,  "Mother 

McCaffrey  Hall.    On  25  June,  1857,  Archbishop  Pur-  of  Bishops".     But  it  has  also  ^ven  to  the  State  and 

cell  laid  the  comer-stone  of  the  church  which  was  to  to  every  department  of  useful  citizen^p  a  larfi^e  num« 

replace  the  structure  on  the  hill.    In  1858  the  college  ber  of  men  distinguished  by  ability  and  integrity  (see 

celebrated  its  semi-centennial  with  appropriate  exer-  partial  list  in  ''The  Mountaineer",  Oct.,  1908,34-43). 

dses  in  which  many  distinguished  alumm  took  part.  Among  the  causes  which  explain  this  succesSi  the  moft 


MOVASLS  606  M0X08 

important  is  doubtless  the  united  work  of  clergy  and    seit  der  Vereinigung  der  Breslauer  und  Frankfurt«i 
laity  in  building  up  the  coUege,  controlling  its  disci-    Universit&t  bis  auf  die  Gegenwart"  (Leipzig,  1845;. 


lege,  have  resulted  m  hearty  cooperation  for  the  high-  ^■"''■"•J?«*«*«^*„l«::  "^'??^**^  ^^  poUmi^eken,  Liura- 

«rt  dvic   moraJ,  and  religiou.  pujpos^   and  have  -''«"-"»'-«"•  ^«'^'^**^*^^hich  Lauchert. 
bound  all  the  alumnt  m  loyal  devotion  to  the  vener-  *«*-a*a*^n  uAv^<ui.a«. 

able  institution  which  gave  them  their  early  training.        Mozos  Tndlanii  (Motos  Indians). — ^According  to 

This  harmonious  spirit  foimd  its  latest  expression  at  one  authority,  they  are  named  from  Musu^  thdr  Qui- 

the  dedication  of  tne  new  college  church  on  12  Oct.,  chua  name;  according  to  others,  from  the  Moxos  word, 

1910,  which  called  together  former  graduates,  both  mukaf  erroneously  thought  by  the  Spaniards  to  be  the 

lay  and  clerical,  from  all  parts  of  the  United  States  tribal  name.    This  coUective  desi^ation  is  that  of  a 

(see  ''The  Moimtaineer",  Pfov..  1910).  group  of  tribes  famous  in  the  mission  annals  of  South 

A^I^T'  M^^'.SL^^^  ^"*"  ^^^^  X^^^'J^^',/"^  America,  originally  ranging  through  the  forests  and 

<f  Mi.  St.  Mary'9,  1868:  HBBBBRMAifif  in  U,  S.  Cath.  Hist,  Soc  n-oiriw,  nf  thp  imnprMRmnr^    PTt^nHinir  Muifr   suiH 

Hutoricai  Studta  and  Recorda,  I  (New  York,  1900);  The  Story  ef  P^iries  Of  tne  upper  Mamore,  extending  east  ana 

the  Mountain  (Mt.  St.  Maiy*B,  1910).  west  from  the  Guapore  (Itenes)  to  the  Bern,  and  cen- 

Ernest  Lagardb.  tring  in  the  present  Province  of  Mojos,  Department 

lur^waKi^  v«ii.4>     Q^  T<s..a.««   TP^^.c,.....*,^.,  of  Beni,  Bohvia.    They  numbered  altogether  at  least 

Movable  Feast.    See  Feasts,  Ecclesiastical.  sq.OOOwuIs,  in  perhaps  a  hundred  smaU  tribes  or  sub- 

Moven,   Franz  Karl,  exegete  and  Orientalist,  tribes,  speaking  at  least  thirteen  distinct  lan^ages, 

b.  at  Koesfeld,  Westphalia,   17  July,   1806;  d.  at  each  with  dialects,  viz.,  Moxo  (spoken  with  dialectic 

Breslau,  28  Sept.,  1856.    He  attended  Uie  gymnasium  variation  by  the  Moxos  proper,  Baure,  Ticomeri,  and 

of  his  native  town,  and  from  1822  to  1825  the  gym-  several  small  tribes),  Paicone,  Mopedana,  Icabicici, 

nasium  at  MUnster.    The  next  four  years  he  studied  Mapiena,  Movima,  Cayubaba,  Itonama,  Sapibooona, 

at  the  academy  of  MtUister,  taking  up  philosophy,  Cheriba,  Roootona,  Mure.  Canichana.    Of  these,  the 

theology,  and  especially  Oriental  languages  imder  Moxos  and  Paicone,  with  all  their  dialects,  belong  to  the 

Laurenz  Reinke.    In  the  autumn  of  1829  he  was  or^  widespread  Arawakan  stock,  which  includes  aJso  the 

d^ned  priest  at  Paderbom,  and  then  continued  his  Maipure  (q.  v.)  of  the  Orinoco;  the  Sapibocona  belong 

Oriental  studies  for  a  short  time  at  the  Univeraty  to  the  Tacanan  stock  of  Beni  river;  tne  Mure  are  an 

of  Bonn.    After  that  he  remained  as  tutor  for  severiu  offshoot  from  the  Mura  of  the  great  Tupian  stock  of 

years  with  Baron  von  Geyr  at  Rath,  near  Deutz.    In  eastern  and  central  Brazil;  the  Movima,  Cayubaba, 

1833  he  became  pastor  at  Berkum,  near  Bonn,  in  1839  Itonama,  Canichana,  and  Rocotona  (Ocorona)  repre- 

extraordinary  professor  of  Old-Testament  exegesis  at  sent  each  a  distinct  stock;  while  the  others  remain  un- 

the  University  of  Breslau,  and  in  1842  ordinary  pro-  classified.    Besides  all  these,  there  were  Withered  in 

fessor  at  the  same  university.  by  the  Jesuits  some  immigrant  Chiquito,  Siriono,  and 

In  the  field  of  exegesis  Movers  published  the  fol-  Chiriguano,  each  of  different  language,  from  the 

lowing  works:  "Kritische  Untersuchungen  dber  die  southern  Bolivian  missions.    Of  them  all,  the  Moxoe 

biblische  Chronik,   &n  Bdtrag  zur   Einleitung  in  proper  were  the  most  important, 
das  Alte  Testament"  (Bonn,  1834);  "De  utrius()ue        The  mode  of  life  of  the  Moxos^  in  their  primitive 

lecensionis  Vaticiniorum  Jeremise,  Gnece  Alexandrinse  condition,  was  determined  by  their  peculiar  environ- 

et  HebraicsB  masorethicse,  indole  et  ori^e  Com-  ment.    During  the  rainy  season,  lasting  four  months, 

mentatio  critica"  (Hamburg,  1837);   ''Loci  quidam  nearly  the  whole  country  is  inundated,  excepting  cer- 

histori^e  canonis  Veteris  Testamenti  iUustrati,  Com-  tain  elevated  places,  where  the  scattered  bands  made 

mentatio  critica"  (Breslau,  1842) ;  and  various  essays  their  temporary  villages.    As  the  waters  retreat  the 

which  appeared  in  theolodcal  magazines,  especiaUy  hot  sun  generates  pestilence  in  the  low  grounds  along 

in    "Zeitschrift    fUr    Philosophie    und    katholische  the  rivers,  while  the  prevailing  oppressive  heat  is 

Theologie",  published  at  Bonn.    The  first  edition  varied  by  spells  of  piercingly  cold  winds  from  the 

of  the  ''Kirchenlexicon"  contains  a  number  of  arti-  mountains  which  prevent  the  ripening  of  com.    The 

cles  by  him.  natives  therefore  were  generally  without  agriculture, 

Movers  showed  great  scholarship  as  an  Orientalist  but  subsisted  chiefly  upon  fish  and  roots  auring  the 
and  performed  large  and .  lasting  services  by  his  greats  part  of  the  year,  and  upon  the  wild  game  of 
studies  of  the  ancient  Phcenicians.  His  chief  work,  we  mountains  when  driven  from  the  low  grounds  by 
"  Die  Phdnizier",  though  never  completed,  is  still  an  the  floods.  They  were  thus  compelled  to  a  wandering 
important  contribution  to  the  subject.  It  appeared  habitj  at  the  same  time  that  th^  were  skilful  fishers 
in  parts  under  separate  titles,  as  follows:  vol.  I,  and  nver  men.  The  constant  wifting  also  brou^t 
"Untersuchung;en  Uber  die  ReU^on  und  dieGotthd-  the  bands  into  collision,  so  that  each  tribe  was  eon- 
ten  der  Phonizier,  mit  RQcksicht  auf  die  verwandten  stantl^^  making  war  on  its  neighbours. 
Culte  der  Carthager,  Syrer,  Babylonier,  Assyrer,  der  Their  houses  were  low  huts,  occupied  each  by  a  sin- 
Hebr&er  und  der  Aegypter"  (Bonn,  1841);  vol.  II,  gle  family,  instead  of  being  communal  as  in  so  many 
"Das  phonizische  Alterthum"  in  three  parts,  part  I,  tribes.  The  larger  villages  had  also  well-built  "town- 
"  Politische  Geschichte  und  Staatsverf assung  "  (Berlin,  houses  "  for  the  celebration  of  tribal  functions.  They 
1849);  part  II,  "Geschichte  der  Colonien''  (Ber-  riept  upon  mats  upon  the  ground  or  in  hammocks, 
Hn,  1850);  part  III,  first  half,  "Handel  imd  Schiff-  with  a  smouldering  fire  close  at  hand  to  drive  away  the 
fahrt"  (Berlin,  1856).  Movers  gave  a  shorter  com-  swarms  of  mosquitoes  and  other  insects.  They  ate 
pendium  of  the  results  of  his  researches  in  his  article  when  they  could  find  food,  without  regard  to  time, 
"Ph5nizien''  in  "  AUgemeine  Encyklopadie  der  Wis-  feasting  equally  upon  putrid  fish  taken  mm  sta^Dant 
senschaften  und  KtUiste"  (1848),  section  III,  part  pools,  and  upon  human  flesh  of  prisoners  taken  in  war, 
XXIV,  pp.  319-443.  In  addition  to  briefer  essajrs  for  all  or  nearly  all  the  tribes  were  cannibal.  Of  same, 
appearing  in  magazines,  Movers  published  "Phoni-  the  monkey  was  their  favourite  food.  They  used  doa 
sischeTexteerklfirt"  (Breslau,  1845  and  1847),  part  in  hunting.  Thev  were  greatly  addicted  to  drunk- 
I,  "  Die  punischen  Texte  im  Pcenulus  des  Plautus  enness,  brought  about  by  a  fermented  liquor  of  their 
kritisch  gewtirdigt  und  erkl&rt";  part  II,  "Das  own  manufacture,  and  their  frequent  dance  festivals 
Opferwesen  der  Carthager,  Commentar  zur  Opfei>  always  ended  in  general  intoxication,  frejquently  with 
tafel  von  Marseille".  Another  work  to  be  mentioned  bloody  encounters  in  revenge  for  old  injuries.  Not- 
is  "Denkschrift  Uber  den  Zustand  der  katholisch-  withstanding  the  generally  rude  culture,  the  Moxos 
Iheolo^scheQ  Facult&t  an  der  Universit&t  au  Breslau  proper  and  Baure  exoelfed  in  bammock-weaving. 


boalrmHfcing,  pottery,  and  rouaio,  their  favourite  muri-  orphaned  children  also  were  oometimes  killed  by  the 
ealinstnimentb^Dg  a  aort  of  pan-pipes  sometimeH  six  eiAen.  The  authority  of  the  village  chiefs  wu  abao- 
feet  in  length.  The  Moitoe  had  also  a  method  of  lute.  Interment  was  in  the  ground  and  the  property, 
[ucture  writing.  This  superiority  may  have  been  due  instead  of  being  destroyed  as  in  most  tribes,  was  tu- 
rn a  measure  to  Peruvian  influence,  the  Inca  emperor  vided  among  the  relatives.  In  several  tnbea  the 
Yupanqui  having  temporarily  Bubdued  the  Moxos  bones  were  dug  up  after  a  time,  reduced  to  powder  and 
about  1460  mixed  with  pounded  com  to  form  a  cake,  which  was 
In  most  of  the  tribes  both  men  and  women  went  en-  given  to  friends  to  eat  as  the  strongest  bond  and  token 
tirely  naked,  but  painted  their  faces  in  different  col-  of  friendship.  Some  of  this  bread  was  thus  partaken 
our^  wore  lahrets,  nose  pendants,  and  necklaces — par-  of  by  the  first  missionaries  before  they  icnew  its  com- 
ticularly  of  the  teeth  of  slain  enemiea— «nd  vanous  position. 

decorations  of  feathers.    One  of  their  tribes,  the  Ti-  Their  reUraon  was  a  pure  nature  worship,  special 

boi,  bad  heads  of  pyramidal  shape,  produced  by  pres-  reverence  being  paid  to  the  River,  the  Thunder,  and 

sure  upon  the  skiul  in  infancy.     Their  hair  was  worn  the  Jaguar.     Their  tribal  ceremonials  and  religious 

at  full  length  in  a  queue.    Their  weapons  were  the  rituals  were  in  the  keeping  of  tbdr  priests,  who  were 


Utr  or  THX  MosM  MnnoH  Paovmcs 

FnmEdar 

bow,  with  poisoned  arrows,  and  a  javelin  with  which  put  through  a  severe  course  of  trtuning  and  initiation 
they  could  kill  at  one  hundred  paces.  They  were  very  mvolving  a  year's  abstention  from  all  animal  food,  to- 
cruel  in  war,  being  addicted  to  the  torture  of  prisoners  getber  with  a  battle  with  a  jaguai^— r^ardcd  as  an 
—a  practice  rare  m  South  America — as  well  as  to  can-  embodied  god — until  wounded,  and  thus  marked,  by 
nibaJism.  The  Canichana  even  fattened  prisoners  the  divinity.  Their  principal  festivals  were  r^ulated 
for  their  cannibal  feasts  and  afterwards  fashioned  their  by  the  new  moon,  beginning  with  a  day's  fast  and  end- 
skulls  into  drinking  cups.  In  some  cases  prisoners  ingwith  a  night  dance  and  drinking  orgy, 
were  held  as  slaves.  Unlike  the  Iroquois,  who  exor-  The  earlier  attempts  to  missianiEe  the  tribes  of  cen- 
cised  the  ghosts  of  their  murdered  victims,  the  Moxos  tral  Bolivia  met  with  no  success.  About  the  year 
moved  away  from  the  spot  of  the  sacrifice  to  escape  1673  the  Moxos  province  was  broueht  to  the  atten- 
the  vengeance  of  the  dead.  The  savage  Canichana  tion  of  the  Jesuits  of  the  collie  at  Lima  by  Jos^  del 
in  particular  were  so  persistent  in  cannibalism  that  Castillo,  a  lav  brother,  author  of  the  valuable  "Re- 
after  coming  into  the  missions  they  would  sometimes  lacidn",  who  nad  accompanied  some  traders  into  that 
steal  children  secretly  for  this  purpose,  even  casting  region  and  had  been  greatly  impressed  by  the  appar- 
lots  among  themaelvcs  to  decide  who  should  give  up  a  ent  docility  of  the  natives.  Father  Cipnano  Baraaa. 
child,  until  the  missionaries  took  steps  to  note  each  afterwards  so  noted  as  a  miswonary,  at  once  asked 
birth  immediately  upon  delivery.  and  obtained  the  permission  to  undertake  their  con- 
Marriages  were  arranged  between  the  parents,  usu-  version.  In  1674,  accompanied  only  bv  Brother  Cas- 
olly  without  consulting  the  young  people,  and  polyg-  tillo  and  some  Indian  guioes,  he  entered  their  country 
__..■_ J   .Kl_.  .i... ■"itadul-  ' "  ---  '^— >- .-.—...-  -..—I  — 


amy  was  permitted,  although  not  common,  but  adul-  from  SantaCruiby  way  of  a  twelvendays'  c . ._ 

tery  was  considered  disgraceful.     The  wife  was  the  age  down  the  Mamorfi  river.     In  four  yeare  he  had 

mistressof  the  household  and  always  chose  the  camp-  won  their  love  and  nearly  mastered  the  language, 

in^  place.     If  the  mother  died  the  infant  was  buri^  when  serious  illness  compelled  his  return  to  the  health- 

alive  with  her,  and  if    twins   were   bom,  one  also  ier  ch mate  of  Santa  Crua.     He  employed  his  convales- 

was  always  buried.    The  woman  who  Buffered  mis-  ccnce  in  learning  weaving,  in  order  to  induce  them  to 

carriage  was  killed  by  her  own  husband.    The  help-  clothe  themselves,  as  a  beginning  in  civiliaation.    In 

leee  agM  were  put  to  death  hy  their  Qbil(]ren,  antj  (he  iQ^fvitime,  boweveTf  be  was  asm^ed  to  labour 


-- -e  greatl]     .    _._ „ 

choice,  the  Moxoa.  In  1686  he  founded  the  first  the  l&rge  towns  um  m&rkets  the  Moxoa  excel  all  the 
miBsion,  Loreto,  foUowed  in  rapid  succession  by  Trini-  other  Indians  as  weavers,  builders  and  wood  carvera" 
dad  (1687),  San  Ignacio  (1689),  San  Xavier  (1690),  (Redus).  They  are  aealoue  CathoUcs,  entirdy  under 
San  Joe6  (1691),  San  (Francisco  de)  Borja  (1693),  the  the  Bpiritual  authority  of  their  prictrta,  and  noted  for 
ax  missions  soon  contwning  altogether  nearly  20,000  their  voluntary  penances,  as  were  their  convert  fore- 
Indians,  LoreU)  alone  in  lfl91  having  4000.  I^ater  fathers  two  centuries  ago.  Under  the  two  principal 
missionB  were:  San  Pedro  (the  capital,  1698),  Santa  names  of  Moioe  and  Baure,  they  number  now  about 
Ana,  ExaltaciAn,  Magdalena  (aliaii  San  Ram6n),  Con-  30,000,  not  including  several  tribes— as  the  Cani- 
ce{>ci6n.  San  Sim6n,  San  Joaquin,  San  Martin,  San  chana,  Movima,  etc. — included  in  the  MoxoBmisBions, 
Luis,  San  Pablo,  San  Juan,  San  Nicolas,  Santos  but  still  retaining  thdr  distinct  name  and  language. 
Reyes,  San  Judas,  Santa  Roaa  I  (del  Itenes),  San  For  .11  ih««iat«  to  the  primitive  ooiiditi™u,d™Hyn«ion 
Miguel,  Patrocinio.  Santa  Rosa  II,  Desposorioe,  Santa  hkuiiy  of  ttut  Mmo*  tnbei.  our  principal  nthoritiea  ue  ifa* 
Cnw.  Of  these,  the  two  misBions  of  SanU  Rosa  del  Tmltable  wiitinas  of  the  J«uita  Cabtillo,  Edib,  ud  Eotnun. 
Itenes  and  Sm.  Miguel  occupied  chiefly  by  the  Mure,  ^:^„'tSS^Sl.ii'r5.^7'in"p-^»^'"t£^of*u£ 
Meque,  and  Rocotona  tnbes,  were  entirely  brokea  Jenli  Mak 
up    oy   the    raids    of    the 

Portuguese  slave-hunters  „  ,_ „ 

(seeGDARANt     Indians;  Vac    Amtrian  Raa  (N«*  York, 

MaUSLUCo)     subsequent     to  *^^\-   .^""'iy.'    «*"*•    dt    la 

1742,  and   the  survivpra    re-  ^p™..   eodi.  AoUfM.  Ptimmtii 

moved  to  other  foundations.  JUDniarumnXtfiw  AnoucBuck, 

Wars,epidoraics,andremoval8  'J^'li  P"?"^    "''iViS:,  *it  *■ 

led  to  the  abandonment  ah>o  ^o^.^^tJ^^^M^' ^Z 

of  San  liUis,  San  Jos£,  San  Amamn,    put    It    (Wmuscmo, 

Pablo,   Patrocinio,    and    San  »8S4);    m«ll«  tfil*fc  Ha*™  m 

Juan.    Santa  Rosa  11  (1765),  (K™  a{^.'u«5;"feS^ c" 

I>eflpo«orioB,  and  Santa  Cruz  uitea  di  lu  Lmam,  I   (MMlrid. 

(de  la  Sierra)  were  the  latest,  \^\-Jl^,S^""'''^f^"- 

imd  were  occupied  by  Siriono;  ^""  iS^^o^'^cS^T^^iS 

Chiriguano,     and     Chiquito,  niKian  in  *□[.  II;  Mibbui,  Aru  i» 

south  of  the  Moiros  province  la   Untws    mota.  am   wocafmbm  » 

proper.    The  whole  number  ^^r^I°l:«,'^"T±.^^TS:, 

of  missions  at  one  time  was  VaUia  at  lAi  AmaBm  in  Jw.  .:4s- 

about  twenty,  containing   in  ""?■  ^'^^ii^^^UJ}±^ 

1736  about  30,000  converts,  J.^.'  *"^i^-   cS5S?  M 

increased    to    nearly    50,000  Arekitt  dt  Mojm  a  Chi^uiiat  (Sw 

betore  the  close  of  the  Jesuit  *i?^«^L^^T<k^'^''    n'^p'"' 

period,  but  again  reduced  to  i»3in'v'-a'.  La  piSi.  uu  Jtw 

20,345eoulBinelevenii  -     .  .      . 


in  1797,  thirty  years  after  the  U^"  '^°'^'  .'**?>■ 

I   .*  F  ^iT      ¥         .J  Earth     and    tU    InhotnlattU:    KdmU 

expulsion  of  the  Jesuits.  Amerita.  l.ThtAndaR«nantiKew 

BaraiB   himself   was   their  Yorli.  issi):  Sodtbrt.  HiiUti  ^ 

— ,t    apostle    and  ciyilizer.  B™jjUll(t«^i8,«;»j*5« 

ides  learning  the  pnncipal  d.  B^™  (tm>iri8oa):  TfeiSS 


Iannises 
sell  to  the 


_„  and  adapting  him-  r ^   - 

the  Indian  iffe  so  that  S^ftL^SfTISi^^ J*-r,  ^ 


Bcu  wj  nic  iimirui  lilt  nu  wai,  Republiia(WMhiii»too.D.C.,  lOO*). 

he  was^le  to  penetrate  every  "^  j^„^  Moonkt. 

part  of  the  province  and  tniia 

make  successful  discovery  of  Moio»  Pbihft  in  Ci«iioni*l  PiairouiiNCB  Moj     OB     Sons,     Kabl 

a  shorter  mountain  passage  to  *'"™  Eder  Ernbt,  Fbkiherk  von,  jurist, 

Peru,  lie  introduced  cattle,  weavina,  afniculture,  car-  b.  10  August,  1799,  at  Munich;  d.  1  August,  1867, 

E entry, andbrick-making.Themissionchurchesreared  at  Innsbruck   (Tyrol).     He  belonged  to  on   andent 

y  the  lodians  under  his  supervision  rivalled  those  of  noble  family  of   Picardy,  banished   from   France   in 

Peru.     At  last  after  twenty-seven  years  of  labour  he  1789  and  settled  in  Munich.     After  completing  his 

was  treacherously  murdered  at  the  age  of  sixty-one.  Studies  in  his  native  dty,  he  became  auditor  in  the 

on  16  September,  1702.  among  the  then  unconverted  war  office;  in  1827  privatdocent-  1830-33  attorney  at 

Baure,  a  tribe  of  considerably  higher  native  culture  law,  in  1833  extraordinary  professor  of  natural  and 

than  the  othera,  living  in  palisaded  villages  on  the  pohtlcal  law  at  WOrtiburg;  finally  in  1837  ordinary 

eastern  border  of  the  province.  professor  at  Munich.    Because  of  the  address  by  the 

On  the  expulsion  of  the  Jesuits  from  Spanish  Amer^  Senate  of  the  university  to  King  Ludwig  II  concem- 

ica  in  1767  the  Moxos  missions  were  turned  over  to  ing  the  notorious  dancer  Lola  Montcs,  he  was  deposed 

the  Franciscans,  under  whom  they  continued  into  the  together  with  several  other  profeesors  and  appointed 

modem  period.    The  population  has  been  greatly  re-  superoumerary  counsellor  of  the  Court  of  Appeals 

duoed.firetbytheBlavereidsandepidemicfevereinthe  at  Neuburg  on  the  Danube.     Obtaimng  leave  d  ab- 

earlier  times,  and  more  lately  bv  the  constant  drain  of  sence  in  1848,  he  went  to  Innsbruck,  where  he  devoted 

the  able-bodied  men  to  the  rubber  foreets  of  Brnsil,  himself  to  hterary  work  for  the  old  Conservative 

whence  few  of  them  ever  return,  their  superiority  as  party  and  in  1851,  after  hia  complete  fieveranoe_  from 

boatmen  rendering  their  services  in  demand  as  far  as  the  service  of  Havana,  he  accent^xi  the  chair  of  hirtory 

the  Amaion.     Thev  are  comfortably  dressed  in  cloth-  of  the  German  Empu*  and  German  law,  in  tJie  uni- 

ingmadebythemselvesfromharkfibre.     Inphysique  vera ty  of  that  town.    In  1863  he  retired  after  havmf 

they  are  robust,  and  taller  than  most  of  the  Bolivian  transferred   the   chair  of  German  history  to  Flcker. 

t-dbM.     "They  are  distinguished  by  a  remarkably  In  1860-62  he  was  first  vice-preeidmt  and  in  1864 

equable  disposition,  a  frank  and  upright  character,  president  of  the  General  Awembly  of  German  Cath«>- 

snd  great  industry.    They  (dve  up  Iws  time  to  merry-  lies.  A  tireless  champion  of  Catiohc  ideas  in  apeecfa 

tPfUcmi  than  Aear  Bouthem  kinsfolk,  and  b«  geneiv  wd  wnUng,  on  awwiPt  of  lus  peaceable  dapontWB 


/ 

609  MOTLAH 

he  was  never  a  leader  in  the  struggle  for  the  Catholic  Leo   XIII   declared   John   Martin   Venerable   and 

cause.    In  Austrian  politics  he  soon  abandoned  his  authorized   tiie  introduction   of   the   cause   of   his 

straightforward  position  and  became  reconciled  to  beatification  14  January,  1891. 

the  modem  trend,  warmly  defending  the  Concordat.  „m^»c«a»?,  Y^J*  ¥'  ir^^JU'^K^  ^^''&*  ^.®^%  Wwlakd, 

Amon^  hi«  writmp.  in  which  he  devoted  the  greatest  ^^^^frvUlJ^'ii'  S$i^  iT'kJLTi  ST^^ 

attention  to  careful  research  and  lucid  arrangement,  (Portieux):  Robbbacher,  HUtoire  de  VBgiiae  (Paria,  1842-48, 

may    be    mentioned    ''Lehrbuch    des    bayerischen  9th ed.,  i90i);Letfre»<di/ian/et  (Paris).  ^  ^^ 

Staatsrechtes"    (Ratisbon,   1840-46);   "De  impedi-  Camillus  P.  Maes. 

mentis  matrimonii''  (Munich,  1827);  "Die  Ehe  und        TMr««i-«    tp„a«^o    ti:«i.^*.  ^f  n^^v    u   «♦  r«^«L. 

die  Stdlung  der  kathoUschen  Kirche  in  Deutschland  t^JS**?  •   \o^?^^S®'  ^"^^u^  °^  9^"^^»  ^  **  ^^ 

ScksichtSii  dieses  Punktes  ihrer  Disciplin"  (Lands-  i??L^;i^if  L^^^f;?^^^  ?n'?h?tf?^K: 

hut,   1830):  "Das    Eherecht   der  Christen  in  der  As  the  i)enal  laws  made  it  impossible  for  him  to  ob- 

moieni&naischen  mid  ibSdl&ndischen  Kirche  bis  ^\!}??^i^l5^1!«L^^^x?^>?^eL^«T^^^^ 


Katnoiiscnen  stanapuiuct"  i:^  vols.,  Vienna,  i»M-  r„  u;^  „^  r* T^Ttll  fi«;^;«„  ir;T^.iCll^r*  4^^^ 

67);  "Die  weltUche  Heirschaft  des  Papstes  ind  die  '°  *'??  "^^.^^  after  fimshmg  his  course  at  the  Um- 

re^htliche  Ordnung  in  Europa"   (Ra^Sbon,   1860).  Zf^^^^?!^^^ 

He  did  a  great^^ce  to  wmon  law  thrJugh  hw  ^^  theology,  he  was  ordained  wi^t  in  1761  and  for 

foundation  d^the  "Arehiv  fOr  Katholisches  KS^hen-  ^r,.^SJfn  ^nlSLl^n^^ 

recht  mit  besonderer  Rticksicht  auf  Oesterrdch",  was  appointed  pwtor  of  St.  Rnban^s  m  the  9^^^ 

later    "mit    Racksicht    auch    auf    Deutschland '^  ?C^1„*?IS7  h?™Ln^^^ 

(Innsbruck,  1867),  wWch  he  edited  as  far  as  the  ^T^*  }^  ^J?l  ^®  T^^^^^^'^^JS  ^^r%u  9?? 

fifth  volume  ^  ^^  »«  «,  lox^  and  contmued  to  rule  that  diocese  till  his  death.  Like 

BiooraphUeh€9  Lexicon  de»  KaUerthumt  Oeatgrreicht,  XIX  PTv'^'??  °^  Dublin,  Dr.  Moylan  had  no  fifympathv 

(1868),  165-167;  AUgMteine  deuUehe  Biographie,  XXII  (1885),  With  Violence  as  a  means  of  redressing  wrong,  and 

*20.  therefore   he   condemned   the  Whiteboys;  and,   in 

Patbiciub  Schlaqbr.  1796^  he  urged  his  flock  to  resist  the  French,  when 


^r^\t:e  rrS  Uie  ihlrJ^^-cSldrS^a  J^^  'X^elZ^i  IftKKi^r^jaWtt'^^ 

Moye  and  Catharine  Demange.    His  older  brother,  fe/^J Th  wi.^^^^^^ 

a  ^minarian,   taught  ^m^e  first  rudimente  of  Cwtlwwh,  and  when  the  veto  question  wm  rewe^ 

?^^^fte&^1nif^^^^^^^^^  a'^i^^B^^^^ere^a^^^^ 

F^'^T  ^l  P^»V^M<^V?^^H«t|^«^,  studied  phi.        li      ^^  PresentatSn  Nuns.    He  was  indeed  for 

WCtS'^lS  ^^' J'^S^o  A^  S  y^  the  trusted  friend  and  adviser  of  Nano 

in  the  faU  of  1751.  ,  Ordained  a  priest  9  Martfe,  1754,  '''SmrH.  Life  of  Nano  NagU  (Dublin.  1875). 
he  was  awomted  vicar  m  the  episcopal  city  the  same  £;.  a.  D'Aiaon. 

month.    His  great  seal  for  souis  attracted  attention; 

many  pious  ladies  placed  themselves  under  his  firm  Moylan,  Stephen,  American  patriot  and  mer- 
and  wise  direction.  This  enabled  him  to  find  some  chant,  b.  in  Ireland  in  1734;  d.  at  Philadelphia,  11 
sdect  souls  for  the  establishment  of  schools  for  April,  1811.  He  received  his  education  in  Ireland, 
country  children  whose  education  he  had  much  at  but  resided  for  some  time  in  Enj^and,  and  seems  to 
heart.  He  began  the  work  in  1763;  in  1767  in  spite  have  travelled  considerably  on  the  Continent  before 
of  the  ill-will  of  many  and  the  persecutions  of  a  tew,  emigrating  to  the  American  Colonies  where  he  settled 
the  Congregation  of  the  Sisters  of  Divine  Provi-  in  the  city  of  Philadelphia.  He  gave  his  hearty  sup- 
dence  was  founded.  That  same  year  he  was  appointed  port  to  the  patriot  cause  on  the  eve  of  the  Revolution, 
superior  of  the  little  seminary  of  St.  Di6.  Leaving  and,  when  war  was  finally  declared,  hurried  to  join 
the  care  of  lus  sisterhood  to  two  friends,  Father  Moye  the  Continental  Army  before  Boston  in  1775.  The 
now  determined  to  act  upon  his  long  delayed  desire  readiness  of  his  patriotic  zeal,  coupled  with  a  belief 
to  become  a  missionary.  In  1769  he  joined  the  in  his  business  acumen,  won  hhn  the  recognition  of 
S^minaire  des  Missions  Etrangdres  at  Paris,  and  in  John  Dickinson,  upon  whose  recommendation  he  was 
1773  he  was  at  work  in  Oriental  Su-tchuen,  China,  placed  in  the  commissariat  department.  Attracted 
Nine  years  of  hard  labour,  frequently  interrupted  by  by  his  unusual  disnity  of  bearing  and  militaiy  manner, 
persecution  and  imprisonment,  made  him  realize  Washington,  in  March,  1776,  appointed  him  one  or 
the  necesEity  of  native  help.  In  1782  he  founded  the  his  aides-de-camp.  Restless  to  exploit,  his  enerajies 
"Christian  virgins",  religious  women  following  the  in  a  fidd  of  wider  activity,  he  was  chosen  by  Con- 
rules  of  the  Congre^tion  of  Providence  at  home,  gress,  upon  Washington's  recommendation,  in  June 
devoting  themselves  to  the  care  of  the  sick  and  to  the  of  the  same  year  to  be  Commissary  General  of  the 
Christian  instruction  of  pagan  Chinese  women  and  Continental  Army.  Restless  again,  seemingly,  for  a 
children  in  thdr  own  hom^.  After  a  hundred  years  more  direct  participation  in  the  conflict^  he  resigned 
of  success,  they  are  still  active  in  the  Chinese  mission,  this  position  m  the  following  October,  raising  at  once 
Exhausted  by  labours  and  sickness.  Father  Moye  re-  a  troop  of  light  dragoons,  the  First  Pennsylvania  rem- 
tumed  to  France  in  1784.  He  resumed  the  direction  ment  of  cavalry,  of  which  he  was  colond.  ^th  tms 
of  the  £&sters  of  Divine  Providence  and  evangelized  troop  he  served  at  Valley  Forge,  throu|^  the  dismal 
Lorraine  and  Alsace  by  preaching  missions.  The  winter  of  1777-8,  at  the  battle  of  Germantown,  on  the 
Revolution  of  1791  drove  him  into  exile,  and  with  Hudson  River,  and  in  Connecticut,  with  Wasme  in 
his  Sisters  he  retired  to  Trier.  After  the  capture  of  Pennsylvania,  and  roimded  out  the  full  measure  of  his 
the  city  by  the  French  troops,  typhoid  fever  broke  service  with  General  Greene  in  his  southern  campaign 
out  ana,  helped  by  his  Sisters,  he  devoted  himself  to  at  the  close  of  the  war.  In  acloiowledgment  of  his 
hoeniital  work.  He  contracted  the  virulent  disease  indefatigable  energy  and  bravery,  before  the  war 
and  died,  a  martyr  of  Christian  charity,  1793.  The  closed,  m  1782,  he  was  brevetted  brigadier-general. 
spot  where  he  was  buried  is  bow  a  public  square.  After  the  9ucc^ul  tonnination  of  the  war  be  quietly 
X."-39 


MOZABIBIQUE                          610  MOZAMBIQUE 

resumed  his  mercantile  pursuits  in  Philadelphia.    In  guese  captains  (Saldanha,  Almdda,  and  TiistAo  dk 

1792  he  was  Register  and  Recorder  of  Chester  County,  Cunha)  the  neighbouring  country  was  quickly  brought 

Penn.,  and  was  Commissioner  of  Loans  of  Pennsyl-  under  Portugese  rule.    Although  the  Portuguese 

vania  for  a  few  years  before  his  death.    Duly  allowing  sent  an  expedition  up  the  Zambesi  about  1565  and  oo- 

for  the  over  excitability  of  the  times,  the  eulo^  of  a  cupied  Tete  in  1632,  they  seem  to  have  pud  scant  at- 

feUow  patriot  quoted  by  Irving  (Life  of  Washington,  tention  to  the  interior.    In  1607  and  1608  the  Dutch 

111,  ch.  30)  remains  a  no  uncertain  estimate  of  esteem:  made  unsuccessful  attempts  on  Mozambique,  but  in 

"  '  There  is  not  in  the  whole  ranpe  of  my  friends,  ao-  1698  the  resumed  attacks  of  the  Arabs,  supported  b^ 

quaintance.  and  I  might  add,  m  the  imiverse',  ex-  the  Sultan  of  Mascote,  reduced  the  Portuguese  tern- 

claims  Wilkinson,  'a  man  of  more  sublimated  senti-  toiy  to  the  country  south  of  Cape  Delgado.    The 

ment,  or  who  combined  with  sound  discretion  a  more  waning  political  importance  and  power  of  Portugal 

punctilious  sense  of  honour,  than  Colonel  Moylan'."  rendered  efficient  colonization  and  control  impossible 

General  Moylan  was  one  of  the  organizers  of  the  To  the  great  feebleness  of  the  authorities  at  home  is 

Friendly  Sons  of  St.  Patrick  in  Philadelphia  in  1771,  due  the  late  continuation  of  the  slave  trade  between 

and  was  its  first  president.    One  of  his  brothers  be-  Mozambique  and  Madagascar,  which  was  carried  on 

came  Bishop  of  Cork,  Ireland,  and  another,  John,  surreptitiously  until  1877.    The  discovery  of  gold  in 

acted  during  the  war  as  United  States  Clothier  Gen-  the  interior  of  Africa  about  1870  turned  the  tide  of 

eral.  prosperity  agun  in  favour  of  Mozambique,  as  its  ports 

Mabquib  p«  Chabtbllux,  TravOt  in  America  (Paris.  1786);  were  the  natural  outlets  for  the  Transvaal  and  the 

Amenean  Monthly  Magazine,  vol.  VI.  14.  ^^^  northern  territories. 

jABVis  li^EiLBY.  .j^^  explorations  of  Serpa  Pinto  in  1877  and  subee- 
Mosambiaue  (MofSAMBiQins},  the  former  official  <iuent  years  also  led  Portugal  to  take  a  keener  interest 
and  still  usual  name  given  to  the  Portugese  posses-  in  its  possessions.  In  1875  the  dispute  between  Eng- 
sions  on  the  eastern  coast  of  Africa  opposite  the  island  land  and  Portugal  for  the  possession  of  Delagoa  Bay 
of  Madagascar.  Portuguese  East  Africa  extends  from  was  decided  by  the  arbitrator  Marshal  MacMahon.  in 
Cape  Ddgado  (10^  41'  S.  lat.)  to  the  south  of  Delagoa  favour  of  Portugal.  The  result  of  a  subsequent  col- 
Bay  (25°58')»  that  is  about  twelve  hundred  miles.  It  is  lision  between  English  and  Portuguese  claims  was  less 
bounded  on  the  north  by  German  East  Africa;  on  the  favourable  to  Portu^.  According  to  the  modem 
east  by  the  Mozambique  Channel ;  on  the  south  by  the  theoiy  of  hinterland,  Portugal  claimed  dominion  over 
Indian  Ocean,  and  on  the  west  by  British  South  and  the  territory  situated  between  her  possessions  on  the 
Central  Africa.  It  is  the  second  largest  Portugese  col-  east  and  west  coasts  of  Africa;  but  when  in  1889  Eng- 
ony,  its  area  approximating  293,000  square  miles  (that  land  proclaimed  itiS  protectorate  over  Matabeleland, 
of  Portuguese  Angola  is  about  400,000);  its  poi)ulation  is  Mashonaland^  Nyassaland  etc.,  Portugal,  notwith- 
between  two  and  three  millions.  The  coasts,  in  general  standing  the  immense  indignation  aroused  by  the  oc- 
low  and  marshy,  are  intersected  here  ana  there  by  currence  at  Lisbon,  had  to  acquiesce.  In  1891  lack  of 
rivers  which  terminate  in  almost  every  instance  in  capital  compelled  the  Portugese  government  to  lease 
muddy  deltas  or  estuaries  choked  with  sand.  The  with  administrative  authority  a  large  portion  of  the 
low-lying  tract  between  the  Limpopo  River  and  the  colony  to  the  Mozambique  and  Nyassa  Companies; 
delta  of  the  Zambesi  is  barren,  sprinlded  with  lagoons,  the  former  controls  the  Manica  and  Sofala  i^sgions, 
malarial,  and  infested  by  the  terrible  tsee-tsee  fly,  and  the  latter  the  territory  enclosed  between  the  Ro- 
which  renders  cattle-raising,  ihe  one  industry  other-  vuma,  take  Nyassa,  and  the  Lurio  River.  It  is  gen- 
wise  suited  to  parts  of  this  area,  impossible.  Between  erally  acceptea  that  the  Anf^o-German  Secret  Treaty 
the  Zambesi  and  the  Rovuma  the  soil  is  verv  fertile,  of  1898  dealt  with  the  partition  of  Mozambique  in  the 
especially  in  the  basin  of  the  former  river,  where  the  event  that  Portugal  should  be  unable  to  extricate 
land  is  fertilized  by  periodical  inundations  and  pro-  itself  from  its  financial  difficulties.  The  chief  exports 
duces  abundant  crops.  The  climate  of  the  regions  of  Mozambi(|ue  are  rubber,  sugar,  variou.<}  ores,  wax, 
along  the  coast  is  torrid,  unhealthy,  and  subject  to  andivory;itimportsmainlycottons,  hardware,  spirits, 
sudden  and  great  variations;  the  mean  annual  tem-  beer,  and  wine.  Lourenco  Marques  (9849  inhabi- 
perature  is  very  M^  (76°  at  Beira) .  As  one  proceeds  tants) ,  the  capital  of  the  colony,  and  Beira  are  thriving 
mland^  the  sou  rises  gradually,  terrace  over  terrace,  ports.  The  town  of  Mozambique  (property  San  Se- 
attaimng  a  great  altitude  in  the  mountains  which  bor-  oastian  of  Mozambique)^  situated  on  the  island  of  the 
der  on  I^e  Shirwa.  In  the  interior  both  soil  and  cli-  same  name,  has  diminished  greatly  in  importance 
mate  are  favourable  to  cultivation  and  European  life;  since  the  abolition  of  the  slave  trade.  The  college 
the  chief  crops  are  millet,  maize,  rice,  wheat,  sesame,  built  by  the  Jesuits  in  1670,  which  was  made  the  gov- 
earth-nuts,  sugar-cane,  cocoa,  and  tobacco.  The  emor's  residence  after  the  suppression  of  the  order,  is 
large  forests  of  the  interior  yield  ebony,  sandalwood,  a  one  of  the  very  few  buildings  of  importance, 
number  of  other  valuable  timbers,  ana  india-rubber.  The  early  explorers  were  accompanied  on  their  voy- 
Besides  an  unusual  variety  of  game,  the  fauna  include  ages  by  Franciscan  fathers  who  founded  under  Alva- 
the  elephant,  antelope,  buffalo,  lion,  leopard,  and,  in  rez  of  Coimbra  the  first  mission  in  Mozambique  in 
certain  districts,  the  rhinoceros  and  the  hippopota-  1500.  In  1560,  after  the  arrival  of  the  Jesuits,  a  glori- 
mus.  The  mineral  deposits,  including  coal,  iron,  and  ous  future  seemed  to  await  the  mission,  the  King  of 
gold,  are  of  exceptional  importance,  but  not  yet  fully  Inhambane  and  the  Emperor  of  Monomotapa  being 
mvestigated.  baptized  with  numbers  of  their  subjects.  The  Do- 
Long  before  the  arrival  of  the  first  European  explor-  minicans  also  laboured  for  a  period  in  this  colony, 
ers,  the  Arabs,  taking  advanta^je  of  the  r^i^arity  of  their  most  illustrious  representative  being  Jofio  dos 
the  monsoons  which  greatly  facilitated  their  voyages,  Santos  (d.  1622),  whose  work,  ''L'Ethiopia  oriental  e 
carried  on  a  brisk  commerce  with  this  portion  of  East  varia  historia  ae  cousas  nataveis  do  Oriente",  was 
Africa,  and  were  in  possession  of  the  island  of  Mozam-  long  authoritative  on  the  geography  and  ethnology  of 
bique  when  it  was  discovered  by  Vasco  de  Gama  in  the  country.  The  Jesuits  returned  in  1610  and  wen 
1498.  Sofala  had  been  ak-eady  discovered  by  Covil-  followed  by  the  Carmelites.  The  work  of  evangeliza- 
ham,  another  Portuguese,  in  1489.  The  Portuguese  tion  was,  however,  attended  with  great  difficulties 
had  at  first  to  contend  witn  the  fierce  opposition  of  the  owing  to  the  fickleness  of  the  natives,  the  opposition 
Arabs  who  dominated  all  the  adjacent  country.  In  of  the  Mohammedans,  the  insalubrity  of  the  climatCt 
1505  Albuquerque  estabUshed  at  the  mouth  of  the  and  the  irregular  communication  with  Europe.  The 
Sofala  River  the  first  European  settlement.  Vasco  de  powerlessness  of  Portugal  to  exercise  a  firm  control 
Gama  captured  the  island  of  Mozambique  in  1506,  and  the  demoralizing  effects  of  the  slave  trade  resulted 
Had  thuiKs  to  his  exertions  and  those  of  other  Porta-  in  an  equally  low  standard  of  morals  in  the  caae  of 


MOZABABIO 


611 


MOZABABIO 


both  the  whites  and  the  natives.  In  recent  yean  the 
tniasionaries  were  still  further  hampered  by  the  anti- 
Catholic  policy  of  the  Government.  Ecclesiastically 
sp^Jdng,  Mozambique  is  an  exempt  prelature  be- 
longing to  the  ecclesiastical  province  of  Goa.  The 
prelature  formerly  included  all  the  territory  as  far  as 
the  Cape,  but  is  now  confined  to  the  Portueuese  pos- 
sessions. In  1898  it  was  again  entrusted  to  the  Portu- 
Eiese  branch  of  the  Friars  Minor.  According  to  the 
test  statistics  it  contains:  12  priests  (4  Friars  Minor). 
13  Sisters,  3500  native  Catholics,  11  churches  and 
chapels,  10  stations. 

JoAO  DOB  Santos,  L*Bthwjria  oriental  e  varia  hittoria  de  eouaaa 
nalapeis  do  Oriente  (Evora,  1609),  French  tr.  Chabpt  (Paris,  1684, 
1688) ;  KOlb.  MtMionereiten  naeh  Afrika,  III  (1862) ;  Spillmann, 
Bund  urn  Afrika  (3rd.  ed.,  1897),  284  sqq.;  Nkobbiros,  Le 
Motambique  (Paria,  1904) ;  Pinon,  La  Colonie  du  Motambique  in 
Revue  dea  Deux  Mondet,  II,  5th  period  (Paris,  1901),  56-86.  Con- 
oeminc  the  natives  see  Boubquin,  U*<m  e  eottumet  dot  indigenae 
de  Motambiqw  in  iSoc  de  geog.  de  lAaboa  (Lisbon,  1909),  420  sqq. 

Thomas  Kennedy. 

Mosarabic  Bite. — This  subject  will  be  treated 
under  the  following  heads:  I.  History  and  Origin; 
U.  MSS.  and  Editions:  III.  The  Liturgical  Year; 
IV.  The  Divine  Office;  V.  The  Mass;  VI.  The  Occar 
aonal  Services. 

I.  HisTOBT  AND  Obiqin. — ^Thc  name  "Mozarabic 
Rite"  is  given  to  the  rite  used  generally  in  Spain  and 
in  what  afterwards  became  Portugal  from  the  earliest 
times  of  which  we  have  any  information  down  to  the 
latter  part  of  the  eleventh  century,  and  still  surviving 
in  the  Capilla  Muztedbe  in  Toledo  cathedral  and  in 
the  chapel  of  San  Salvador'  or  Talavera,  in  the  old 
cathedral  of  Salamanca.  The  name  is  not  a  good  one. 
It  ori^nated  in  the  fact  that,  after  its  aboUtion  in 
Christian  Spain,  the  rite  continued  to  be  used  by  the 
Christians  in  the  Moorish  dominions  who  were  known 
as  Mozdrabes  or  Muzdrabea.  The  form  Moaidrabea  is 
also  fotmd.  The  derivation  of  the  word  is  not  quite 
certain,  but  the  best  theory  seems  to  be  that  it  is 
muataWabf  the  participle  of  the  tenth  form  of  the  verb 
'araba,  and  that  it  means  a  naturalized  Arab  or  one 
who  has  adopted  Arab  customs  or  nationality,  an 
Arabized  person.  Some,  with  less  probability,  have 
made  it  a  Latin  or  Spanish  compound,  Mixto-Arabic. 
The  meanings,  which  are  not  far  apart,  applied  entirely 
to  the  persons  who  used  the  rite  in  its  later  period,  and 
not  to  the  rite  itself,  which  has  no  sign  of  any  Arab 
influence.  The  names  Gothic,  Toledan^  Isidorian,  have 
also  been  applied  to  the  rite — the  first  referring  to  its 
development  during  the  time  of  the  Visigothic  kinxdom 
of  Spam,  the  second  to  the  metropolitan  dtv  which  was 
its  h^tdquarters,  and  the  third  to  the  idea  that  it  owed, 
if  not  its  existence,  at  any  rate  a  considerable  revision 
to  St.  Isidore  of  Seville.  Dom  F^rotin  (liber  Or- 
dinum)  prefers  RUe  Wiaigothique, 

Its  origin  is  still  discussed,  and  the  various  theories 
have  been  already  set  forth  under  Ambrosian  Ritb 
(q.  v.),  Celtic  Rite  (q.  v.),  and  Gallican  Rite  (q.  v.). 
Suffice  it  to  say  that  whatever  theory  applies  to  the 
Gallican  Rite  applies  ecjuaJly  to  the  Mozarabic,  which 
is  so  nearly  identical  with  it  in  construction  as  to  leave 
no  doubt  of  a  common  origin.  The  theory  of  Pinius 
(op.  cit.  in  bibliography)  to  the  effect  that  the  Goths 
brought  with  them  from  Constantinople  and  Asia 
Minor  a  Greek  Liturgy,  which,  combined  with  the  al- 
ready existing  Romano-Spanish  Rite,  formed  the  new 
rite  of  Spain,  is  not  founded  on  more  than  conjecture. 
There  is  no  definite  information  concerning  the  Span- 
ish variety  of  the  Hispano-Gallican  Rite  until  the  end 
of  the  sixth  and  beginning  of  the  seventh  century  (that 
IS  to  say,  until  the  period  of  transition  from  Arianism 
to  CathoUcism  in  the  Visigothic  kingdom),  and,  since 
the  whole  of  Spain,  including  the  Suevic  kingdom 
in  GaUcia  which  had  been  annexed  by  the  Visigothic 
\an^  Leovidld,  was  then  under  the  ecclesiastical  juris- 
diction of  Toledo,  it  may  be  presumed  that  the  To- 
ledo Rite  was  used  throughout  the  whole  peninsula. 


This  had  not  been  the  case  somewhat  earlier.  In  538 
Profuturus,  Bishop  of  Braga  and  Metropolitan  of  the 
Suevic  kingdom,  had  consulted  Pope  Vigilius  on 
liturgical  matters.  Vigilius  sent  him  rather  fuU  in- 
formation concerning  the  Roman  usages  in  the  Mass 
and  in  baptism.  The  Council  of  Braga  (561),  held 
at  the  time  of  the  convermon  of  the  Arian  Suevi  to 
Catholicism,  decided  (cc,  iv,  v)  that  the  orders  of 
Mass  and  baptism  obtained  from  Rome  by  Profu- 
turus should  be  exclusively  used  in  the  kingdom. 
This  probaUy  continued  as  long  as  the  Suevi  re- 
mained indepcaident,  and  perhaps  until  the  conver- 
sion of  the  V  isigothic  king  Kecared  to  Catholicism  in 
589.  Though  until  this  date  the  kings  and  the  Teu- 
tonic ruling  class  were  Arians,  the  native  Spanish 
population  was  largely  Catholic,  and  the  rite — ^which 
was  possibly  revised  and  added  to  by  St.  Leander  of 
Seville  and  the  first  Council  of  Toledo  in  589,  de- 
scribed and  perhaps  arranged  by  his  brother  and  suc- 
cessor. St.  Isidore  (d.  636),  and  regulated  by  the 
Fourtn  Council  of  Toledo  in  633 — ^was  no  doubt  that 
previously  in  use  among  the  Spanish  Catholics.  This 
IS  confirmed  by  the  scanty  litur^^cal  decrees  of  the 
various  Spanish  councils  of  the  sixth  century.  What 
the  Arians  used  we  have  no  means  of  knowing,  and 
there  is  no  reason  to  suppose  that,  whatever  it  was,  its 
influence  continued  after  the  conversion  of  Recared 
and  the  submission  of  the  Arian  bishops.  But  the 
rite  described  by  St.  Isidore,  allowing  of  course  for 
the  modifications  and  variations  of  many  centuries, 
is  substantially  that  now  known  as  the  Mozarabic. 

Dom  Marius  F^rotin,  O.S.B.  (to  whom  the  present 
writer  is  indebted  for  much  help),  in  his  edition  of  the 
Mozarabic  "Liber  Ordinum'^  dismisses  the  idea  of 
any  Oriental  origin,  and  describes  it  as  a  purely 
Western  rite,  "the  general  framework  and  numerous 
ceremonies  of  which  were  imported  from  Italy  (prob- 
ably from  Rome)",  while  the  remainder  G^ssons, 
prayers,  hymns,  etc.)  is  the  work  of  Spanish  bishops 
and  doctors,  with  additions  from  Afnca  and  Gaul. 
Without  accepting  the  Italian  or  Roman  origin  as 
more  than  a  very  reasonable  conjecture,  we  may  take 
this  as  an  excellent  generalization.  There  was  a  pe- 
riod of  development  during  the  seventh  century  under 
St.  Isidore,  who  was  the  moving  spirit  of  the  Coundl 
of  Toledo  of  633,  Eugenius  III  of  Toledo  (646-57),  to 
whom  the  chant  known  as  "Melodico"  or  "Euge- 
niano ''  is  attributed,  St.  Ildefonsus  of  Toledo  (657-67), 
to  whom  certain  masses  are  attributed,  and  St.  Jutian 
(680-90),  who,  according  to  his  biographer  and  suc- 
cessor, Felix,  wrote  a  Mass-book  de  toto  circulo 
anni'',  and  a  book  of  collects,  as  a  revision  of  the  old 
books  with  additions  of  his  own.  But  after  the 
Moorish  invasion,  which  began  in  710,  the  Spani^ 
Christians  had  little  leisure  for  improving  their  lit- 
urgies, and,  except  for  some  prayers,  hymns,  and 
masses  attributed  to  Abbot  SaJvus  of  Albelda  (tenth 
century),  nothing  seems  to  have  been  added  to  the 
rite  from  the  eighth  to  the  eleventh  century.  In  870 
Charles  the  Bald,  King  of  the  Franks,  and  afterwards 
emperor,  wishing  to  see  what  the  ancient  Gallican 
Rite  had  been  like,  had  priests  sent  from  Spain  to  say 
the  Toledan  Mass  before  him.  In  the  latter  part  of 
the  eighth  century,  the  Spanish  Rite  had  fallen  under 
some  suspicion  owing  to  quotations  cited  by  Elipandus 
of  Toledo  in  support  of  his  Adoptionist  theories,  and 
the  Council  of  Frankfort  (794)  spoke  somewhat  dis- 
paragingly of  possible  Moslem  innuence  on  it.  Some 
of  the  passages  still  remain,  in  spite  of  Alcuin's  sug- 
gestion that  the  original  and  proper  readings  must 
have  been  cLsaumptio  and  assumptiLs,  not  adovlio  and 
adoptatua  (or  adoj^ivus):  but  tney  all  can  bear  an 
orthodox  explanation.  It  was  in  consequence  of  this 
suspicion  that  in  924  John  X  sent  a  legate  (Zanelo, 
ZanneUo,  pr  JanneUo)  to  Santiago  to  examine  the 

and 
as 


Spanish  Rite.    He  reported  favourably  upon  it.  aj 
the  pope  gave  it  a  new  approbation,  changing  only, 


HOSSAftABXO 


612 


MOZARABZO 


8r.  Mondeda  y  Estaban  says  (El  RUo  Mozdrabe),  the 
Words  of  Consecration  to  the  Roman  Use.  This 
condition  is  BtiU  observed,  but  whether  that  has  al- 
ways been  the  case  since  924  or  not,  there  is  no  evi- 
dence to  show.  The  old  Spanish  formula  is  given  in 
the  modem  books— ''ne  antiouitas  ignoretur'',  as 
Leslie  sayB  in  his  notes  to  the  Mozarabic  Missal — but 
the  Roman  is  used  in  actual  practice. 

Of  the  existing  manuscripts  of  the  rite,  though  a 
very  few  may  possibly  be  of  the  ninth  century,  al- 
most all  are  of  dates  between  the  ratification  by  John 
X  and  the  introduction  of  the  Roman  Rite  in  the  sec- 
ond half  of  the  eleventh  centurv,  durine  which  period 
the  old  Spanish  Rite  held  uncusturbea  possession  of 
the  whole  of  Spain,  whether  under  Christian  or  Moor- 
ish rule.  During  these  centuries  the  Christian  king- 
doms were  graduallv  driving  back  the  Moors.  Be- 
sides Asturias  and  Navarre,  which  had  never  been 
quite  oon<]uered,  Galicia,  Leon,  and  Old  Castile  had 
been  regained,  and  the  Kingdom  of  Araj^n  had  been 
formed.  In  1064  Cardinal  Hugo  Candidus  was  sent 
from  Rome  by  Alexander  II  to  abolish  the  Spanish 
Rite,  some  vague  attempts  in  that  direction  havine 
been  already  made  by  his  predecessor  Nicholas  II, 
who  had  also  wished  to  abolish  the  Ambrosian  Rite  at 
Milan.  The  centralizing  policy  of  the  popes  of  that 
period  included  uniformity  of  liturgical  practice.  The 
Spanish  kin^  and  cler^  were  against  the  change 
then,  and  Bishops  Mumo,  of  Calahorra,  Eximino  of 
Oca,  and  Fortumo  of  Alava  were  sent  to  Italy  with 
Spanish  ofiice-books,  including  a  Liber  Ordinum  from 
Albelda,  and  a  Breviary  from  Hirache,  to  defend  the 
rite.  The  books  were  carefully  examined  by  the 
Council  of.  Mantua  (1067),  and  were  pronounced  not 
onlv  free  from  heresy  but  also  worthy  of  praise.  But 
in  Aragon  King  Sancho  Ramirez  was  in  lavour  of  the 
change,  and  on  22  March,  1071,  the  first  Roman  Mass 
was  sung  in  the  presence  of  Cardinal  Hugo  Candidus 
and  the  king  in  the  Monastery  of  San  Juan  de  la  Pefia 
(near  Jaca,  at  the  foot  of  the  ryrene^  and  the  burial 
place  of  the  early  kings  of  Aragon) .  The  Roman  Rite 
was  introduced  mto  Navarre  on  the  accession  of  San- 
cho of  Aragon  to  the  throne  in  1074,  and  into  Cata- 
lufia  a  little  later.  Meanwhile  Alfonso  VI  became 
King  of  Castile  and  Leon,  and  St.  Gregory  VII  be- 
came pope.  Alfonso,  influenced  bv  the  pope,  by  St. 
Hugh  of  Cluny,  and  by  his  first  wife  Agnes,  daughter 
of  William,  Duke  of  Gascony  and  Guienne  and  G>unt 
of  Poitiers,  introduced  the  Roman  Rite  into  Castile 
and  Leon  in  1077.  This  was  resisted  by  his  subjects, 
and  on  Palm  Sunday,  1077,  according  to  the  "Chroni- 
con  Burgense",  occurred  the  incident  of  "El  Juicio  de 
Dios  ".  Two  knights — "  one  a  CastiUan  and  the  other 
a  Toledan",  says  the  chronicle — were  chosen  to  fight 
"pro  lege  Romana  et  Toletana''.  The  champion  of 
the  Spa^oish  Rite,  Juan  Ruiz  de  Matanzas,  who  was 
the  victor,  was  certainly  a  Castilian,  but  it  is  improb- 
able that  the  champion  of  the  Roman  Rite,  whose 
name  is  not  recorded,  was  a  Toledan,  and  the  Annals 
of  Compostella  say  that  one  was  a  (jastiUan  and  the 
other  oi  the  king's  party.  The  "Chronicon  Mallea- 
cense",  which  alleges  treachery,  calls  the  latter  "miles 
exparte  Francorum ",  and  at  the  later  ordefd  by  fire  in 
1000  the  Roman  Rite  is  called  impartisdly  "romano", 
"frances'',  or  "  gallicano".  It  is  said  that  two  bulls, 
one  named  "Roma"  and  the  other  "Toledo",  were 
set  to  fight,  and  there  also  the  victory  was  with  To- 
ledo. 

But,  in  spite  of  the  result  of  the  trials  by  battle, 
Alfonso  continued  to  support  the  Roman  Rite,  and  a 
Council  of  Burgos  (1080)  decreed  its  use  in  Castile. 
In  1085  Toledo  was  taken  and  the  question  of  rites 
arose  again.  The  Mozarabic  Christians,  who  had 
many  churches  in  Toledo  and  no  doubt  in  the  coimtry 
as  well,  resisted  the  change.  Tliis  time  another  form 
of  ordeiBtl  was  tried.  The  two  books  were  thrown  into 
a  fire.    By  the  time  the  Roman  book  was  consumed, 


the  Toledan  was  little  damaged.  No  one  who  hai 
seen  a  Mozarabic  manuscript,  with  its  extraordinarily' 
solid  vellum,  will  adopt  anv  hypothesis  of  Divine  in- 
terposition here.  But  still  the  king,  influenced  now 
by  his  second  wife  Constance,  daughter  of  Robert, 
Duke  of  Burgundy  and  son  of  King  Robert  the  Pious 
of  France,  and  by  Bernard,  the  new  Archbishop  of 
Toledo,  a  Cistercian,  insisted  on  the  introduction  of 
the  Roman  Rite,  though  this  time  with  a  compromise. 
All  new  churches  were  to  use  the  Roman  Rite,  but  in 
the  six  old  chundies,  Sts.  Justa  and  Ruffina,  St.  Eula- 
lia,  St.  Sebastian.  St.  Mark,  St.  Luke,  and  St.  Torqua- 
tus,  the  Mosiraoes  might  continue  to  have  their  old 
rite,  and  might  hand  it  on  to  their  descendants. 
Flores  mentions  also  the  Ermita  de  S.  Maria  de  Alficen, 
which  is  probably  the  church  of  St.  Maiy  which 
Neale  says  "disappeared,  we  know  not  how,  some  cen- 
turies ago."  But  the  rite  still  continued  in  the  Moor- 
ish dominions,  as  well  as  in  certain  monasteries,  ap- 
parently, according  to  Rodrigo  Ximenes,  Archbishop 
of  Toledo  (1210-49),  even  in  the  Christian  kingdoms. 

When  King  James  of  Aragon  conquered  Valencia  in 
1238,  he  found  there  Mosarabio  Christians  using  the 
old  rite,  and  the  same  apparently  happened  when 
Murcia  and  all  Andalusia  except  Granaaa  were  con- 
quered bv  Ferdinand  III  in  1235^1.  When  Ferdi- 
nand and  Isabella  took  Granada  in  1492,  there  were 
certainly  some  Mozarabic  Christians  there,  as  well  as 
Christian  merchants  and  prisoners  from  non-Moorish 
countries,  but  whether  the  Mosarabic  Rite  was  used 
by  them  does  not  appear.  With  the  discouragement 
which  b€«an  with  Alfonso'  VI  came  the  period  of  deca- 
dence. The  civil  privU^es  (Jueros)  of  the  Toledo 
Moztokbes,  which,  though  in  1147  Pope  Eugene  III 
had  definitely  put  them  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the 
bishop  of  the  diocese,  included  a  certain  amount  of  in- 
dependence, were  confirmed  by  Alfonso  VII  in  1118, 
by  Peter  in  1350.  by  Heniy  II  in  1379.  and  by  Ferdi- 
nand and  Isabella  m  1480  (later  also  by  Phiup  II  in 
1564^  by  Charles  II  in  1699,  and  by  PhlUp  V  in  1740). 
But  m  spite  of  this  the  Roman  Rite  prevailed  so  much 
that  it  was  introduced  even  into  Mosarabic  churdies, 
which  only  used  the  old  rite  for  certain  special  days, 
and  that  in  a  corrupted  form  from  old  and  imperfectly 
understood  MSS.  This  and  the  dyixig  out  of  many 
Mozarabic  families  gradually  brought  the  rite  verv 
low.  There  was  a  spasmodic  attempt  at  a  revival, 
when  in  1436  Juan  de  Todesillas,  Bisnop  of  Sc^via, 
founded  the  college  of  Aniago  (originally  a  Benedic- 
tine house,  a  little  to  the  south-west  of  VaUadolid), 
where  the  priests  were  to  use  the  Gothic  Rite.  The 
foundation  lasted  five  years  and  then  became  Carthu- 
sian. Thus,  when  Francisco  Ximenes  de  Cisneros 
became  Archbishop  of  Toledo  in  1496,  he  found  the  Mo- 
sarabic Rite  in  a  fair  way  to  become  extinct.  He  em- 
ployed the  learned  Alfonso  Ortiz  and  three  Mosarabic 
priests^  Alfonso  Martinez,  parish  priest  of  St.  Eulalia, 
Antomo  Rodriguez  of  Sts.  Justa  and  Ruffina,  and  Jer- 
onymo  Guttierez  of  St.  Luke,  to  prepare  an  edition  of 
the  Mozarabic  Missal,  which  appeared  in  1500,  and  of 
the  Breviary,  which  appeared  in  1502.  He  founded 
the  Mozarabic  Chapel  m  Toledo  cathedral,  with  an 
endowment  for  thirteen  chaplains^  a  sacristan  and  two 
motaa  sirvierUeSf  and  with  provision  for  a  sung  Mass 
and  the  Divine  Office  daily.  Soon  afterwards,  in 
1517,  Rodrigo  Arias  Maldonado  de  Talavera  founded 
the  Capilla  de  San  Salvador,  or  de  Talavera,  in  the 
Old  Cathedral  of  Salamanca,  where  fifty-five  Mozara- 
bic Masses  were  to  be  said  yearly.  Tney  were  later 
reduced  to  six,  and  now  the  rite  is  usea  there  only 
once  or  twice  a  year. 

When  the  church  of  St.  Mary  Magdalene  at  Yalla- 
dolid  was  founded  by  Pedro  de  la  Gasca  in  1567,  an  ar- 
rangement was  made  for  two  Mosarabic  Masses  to  be 
said  there  cv^  month.  This  foundation  was  m  ex- 
istence when  Florez  wrote  of  it  in  1748,  but »  now  ex- 
tinct.   At  that  time  also  the  offices  of  the  titular 


MOZABABIO                            613  ISOZARABIC 

vaoirts  were  siud  according  to  the  Mozarabic  Rite  in  come  eitlier  from  Toledo  or  from  the  neighbourhood 

the  six  Mosarabic  churches  of  Toledo,  and  in  that  of  of  Bui^^.    There  is  also  an  interesting  collection  of 

Sts.  Justa  .and  Ruflina  the  Mozarabic  feast  of  the  transcripts,  made  from  1752  to  1756  under  the  direo- 

Samaritan  Woman  (first  Sunday  in  Lent)  was  also  ob-  tion  of  the  Jesuit  Father,  A.  M.  Burriel,  from  Toledo 

aerved.    Except  for  the  Capilla  Muz^abe  in  the  ca-  MSS.  in  the  Biblioteca  Nacional  at  Madrid.    All  the 

thedral,  all  else  was  Roman.    In  1553  Pope  Juliutf  III  original  MSS.  are  anterior  to  the  conquest  of  Toledo 

regulated  mixed  marriages  between  Mozarabic  and  in  1085,  most  of  them  being  of  Uie  t^th  or  eleventh 

Roman  Christians.    The  children  were  to  follow  the  century.    The  arnmgement  of  the  books  of  that  pe- 

rite  of  the  father,  but,  if  the  eldest  daughter  of  a  Mo-  riodwaspeculiar.    The  variable  parts  of  the  Mass  and 

larab  married  a  Roman,  she  and  her  husband  might  the  Divme  Office,  whether  sung  by  the  choir  or  said 

choose  the  rite  to  which  she  and  her  children  should  by  the  celebrant  or  the  deacon,  were  usually  combined 

belong,  and  if  she  became  a  widow  she  might  return  to  in  one  book,  a  sort  of  mixed  sacramentaiy,  anti- 

the  Mozarabic  Rite,  if  she  had  left  it  at  her  marriage,  phonaiy,  and  lectionary,  usually  with  musical  neumn 

These  rules  are  still  m  force,  and  the  writer  is  informed  to  the  sung  portions.    Most  of  the  MSS.  are  very 

by  Dom  F^rotin  that  the  i>resent  Mozdrabes  are  so  iniperfect,  and  it  is  not  qtiite  clear  under  what  name 

proud  of  their  distinctive  rite,  involving,  as  it  does,  this  composite  book  was  known.    Probably  it  was 

pedigrees  dating  back  to  the  eleventh  century  at  least,  called    "Antiphonarium"    or   "Antiphonale".    But 

that  no  Mozarabic  heiress  will  ever  consent  to  desert  such  books  existed  also  as  antiphoners  with  choir 

her  own  rite  if  she  should  marry  a  member  of  the  Ro-  parts  only   and   sacramentaries  with  the   priest's 

man  Rite.    In  the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth  oentu-  part  only,  and  the  usual  modem  practice  is  to  call  the 

ries  the  Mozarabic  Rite  attracted  some  attention  composite  books  by  the  descriptive  name  of  ''Offices 

amon^;  the  liturgical  scholars  of  the  period,  and  cer-  and  Masses''.    They  contain  under  each  day  the 

tain  dissertations  were  written  and  texts  published,  of  variables  of  Vespers  and  Matins  and  of  the  Mass. 

which  more  will  be  said  in  the  section  on  MSS.  and  edi-  Sometimes  one  Mass  is  made  fuller  by  the  addition 

tions.    In  1842  all  the  Mozarabic  parishes  in  Toledo  of  some  of  the  invariables,  as  a  modd  of  a  complete 

except  two,  Sts.  Justa  and  Ruffina  and  St.  Mark,  were  Mass.    The  MisBols  Omnium  QfferetUitant  the  sep- 

euppressed,  and  their  parishioners,  something  under  a  arate  book  answering  to  the  Ordinary  of  the  Mass 

thousand  in  number,  were  added  to  those  of  the  two  (see  Section  V,  Thk  Mass),  does  not  exist  in  any  early 

surviving  parishes.    By  the  Concordat  of  1851  the  MS.,  but  there  is  a  Miaaa  Omnimoda  in  the  prmcipal 

chaplains  of  the  Capilla  Muzirabe  were  reduced  from  Silos  MS.  of  the  "Liber  Ordinum",  which  is  a  model 

thiiteen  to  eight,  but  the  continuance  of  the  above  Mass  of  the  type  found  in  that  book.    The  book  of 

two  parishes  was  provided  for,  and  at  that  time  the  ''Offices  and  Masses"  was  supplemented  for  the 

parochial  Mass  in  these  was  always  Mosarabic.    It  Divine  Office  bv  the  Psalter,  whicn  in  its  fullest  form 

nas  almost  entirely  ceased  to  be  so  now.  and  it  is  only  (as  in  the  British  Museum  Add.  MS.  30851)  contained 

in  the  Capilla  Muzdrabe  in  the  cathedral  and  in  the  Ca-  the  whole  book  of  Psalms,  the  Canticles,  chiefly  from 

pilladeTalavera  at  Salamanca  that  the  rite  can  be  seen  the  Old  Testament,  sixty-seven  to  a  hundred  in 

at  present — in  the  former  daily  (in  a  Hic^  Mass  at  nine  number,  the  Hymns  for  the  year,  and  the  "Horse 

A.m.},  and  in  the  latter  once  or  twice  a  year.   Only  the  CanonicsB. "    For  the  Mass  it  would  seem  to  require 

Missal  and  Breviary  were  published  by  Ximenes,  and  no  supplement,  but  the  Prophecies,  Epistles,  and 

only  four  manuscripts  of  the  "  liber  Ordinum''  (which  Gospets  are  found  also  in  a  separate  book  known  as 

contains  the  services  of  the  Ritual  and  Pontifical)  are  "Liber  Comitis",  "Liber  Comicus"  or  "Comes", 

known  to  exist.    Hence  it  is  that  in  all  the  sacraments  The  Prayers  of  Vespers  and  Matins  and  the  Prayers 

except  the  Eucharist,  and  in  all  the  occasional  offices  which  follow  the  Gloria  in  Exedna  at  Mass  are  also 

the  Moz^Lrabes  now  follow  the  Roman  Rite.    One  found  combined  in  the  "Liber  Orationum",  and  the 

effect  of  the  Mozarabic  Rite  yet  remains  in  the  cathe-  Homilies  read  at  Mass  are  collected  in  the  "Homi- 

dral  services  of  the  Roman  Rite.    According  to  Si-  lianim",  though  some  are  also  given  in  the  com- 

monet  (Historia  de  los  Mozirabes  de  Ef^afia),  the  poate  ''Offices  and  Masses".     The  occasional  ser- 

Canto  MeUdico  or  Eugeniano,  attributed  to  Eugenius  vices  of  the  Ritual  and  Pontifical  are  found  in  the 

II,  Archbishop  of  Toledo  (647-57),  is  still  alternated  "Liber  Ordinum",  which  contains  also  it  number  of 

with  the  Gregorian  plain  chant  in  all  the  Graduals  of  Masses.    There  is  one  MS.  (at  Silos)  which  contains 

the  Mass  except  on  terials,  and  certain  hymns  are  still  the  Lessons  of  the  now  obsolete  Nocturnal  Office. 

0iing  to  the  Eugenian  melodies.    When  Jeronimo  Ro-  The  foUowinK  are  the  MSS.  of  the  several  books: 

mero,  choirmaster  of  Toledo  cathedral,  wrote  his  note  Offices  and  Idaaaea. — (a)  Toledo,  Chapter  Library, 

on  the  Canto  Melddico  in  Lorenzana's  edition  of  the  35.4,  eleventh  century.    (Jontains  from  Easter  to  the 

Mozarabic  Brevianr  of  1775,  it  seems  to  have  been  twenty-second  Sundav  after  Pentecost.    Belonged  to 

still  more  extensively  used,  but  in  the  specimens  which  the  parish  of  St.  Oialla  (Eulalia)  at  Toledo,     (b) 

he  gives  (the  beginning  of  the  Gradu^  for  Sts.  Peter  35.5,  tenth  or  eleventh  century,  194  ff .    Contains 

and  Paul)  ihe  textua  or  canto  firmo  is  only  a  variety  of  from  the  first  Sunday  of  Lent  to  the  third  day  of 

the  ordinary  plain  chant,  and  the  gloaaa  duplex  and  Elaster  week,    (c)   35.6,   eleventh  century,   199  ff. 

gloaaa  aimfiex,  which  he   calls  "Eugenian",  seem  Contains  from  Easter  to  Pentecost  and  feasts  as  far 

rather  too   modem  counterpoints  for  the  seventh  as  SS.  Just  and  Pastor  (6  Aug.).    (d)  Madrid,  Royal 

century.  Academy  of  History,  F.  190,  tenth  or  eleventh  cen- 

II.  MSS.  AND  EomoNS.— Of  the  existing  MSS.  of  tury,  230  ff.    Belonged  to  the  Monastery  of  San 

the  Mozarabic  Rite  many,  as  might  be  expected,  are  Millan  (St.  iEmilianus)  de  \&  Cogolla  in  the  Rioja. 

in  the  cathedral  chapter  hbrary  at  Toledo,  but  until  (e)  Madrid,  Biblioteca  Nacional,  formerly  at  Toledo 

quite  recent  times  the  Benedictine  Abbey  of  Silos,  (35.2),  eleventh  century,  121  ff.    Contains  the  Lenten 

between  thirty  and  forty  miles  to  the  south  of  Burgos,  Offices  up   to   Pahn  Sunday.    Colophon  "Finitur 

possessed  nearly  as  many.    Most  of  these  are  now  deo  f^tias  hie  liber  per  manus  ferdinandi  johannis 

elsewhere,  some  having  been  purchased  in  1878  by  the  presbiteri  eglesie  sanctarum  juste  et  rufine  civitatis 


History,  and  in  the  Biblioteca  Nacional  at  Madrid,  for  the  Annunciation  (18  Dec.),  St.  Thomas,  Christ- 

in  the  Cathedral  Libranr  at  Leon,  in  the  Univernty  mas,  St.  Stephen,  St.  Eugenia  (27  Dec.),  St.  James 

Libraiy  at  Santiago  de  Compostela,   and  in  the  the  Less  (28  Dec.),  St.  James  the  Great  (30  Dec.,  but 

chapter  library  at  Verona.    It  will  be  seen  from  the  called  St.  John),  St.  Columba  (31  Dec.),  the  Circum- 

]]0t  which  follows  that  nearly  all  the  exbting  MSS.  cision,  Epiphany,  St.  Peter's  Chair  (22  Feb.)|  the 


M02ABA6tG 


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Ascension,  and  the  Sunday  after  the  Ascension. 
The  Mass  for  the  Annunciation  is  a  model  Mass  with 
some  of  the  invariable  parts  inserted.  Homilies  are 
inserted  in  some  of  the  Masses,  and  the  liturKical  part 
is  preceded  by  a  collection  of  Homilies.  Belonged  to 
the  Abbey  of  Silos,  (h)  British  Museum,  Add. 
30845,  tenth  century.  Contains  Offices  and  Masses 
for  the  Feast  of  St.  Quiriacus  (4  or  20  May),  and  of 
Feasts  from  St.  John  Baptist  (24  June)  to  St.  Emilian 
(12  Nov.;,  thirty-seven  m  all,  though  not  aU  in  their 
proper  order.  Belonged  to  the  Abbey  of  Silos, 
i)  British  Museum,  Add.  30846,  tenth  century. 
''  ntains  Offices  and  Masses  for  Easter  Week,  fol- 
lowed by  the  Canticles  for  the  same  period,  and  the 
Hymns  for  Eastertide  to  Pentecost,  including  the 
Feasts  of  Sts.  Engratia  (16  April),  Torquatus  and 
Philip  (1  May),  and  the  Invention  of  the  Cross  (3  May). 

AfUiphoTiers. — ^There  is  one  MS.  which  describes 
itself  as  ''Antiphonaiium  de  toto  anni  circi^o,  a 
festivitate  S.  Aciscli  [17  Nov.]  usque  ad  finem'^  con- 
taining the  choir  parts,  but  not  the  priest's  part  of  the 
Offices  and  Masses.  This  is  the  book  known,  quite 
erroneously,  as  the  '^Antiphoner  of  King  Wamba'\ 
preserved  in  the  Cathedral  Library  at  Leon.  It 
IS  a  veUimoi  MS.  of  the  deventh  centunr  (Era  1107  = 
A.  D.  1069),  200  fiP.,  transcribed  by  one  Arias,  probably 
from  a  much  older  book,  which  perhaps  did  oelong  to 
King  Wamba  (672-^).  Dom  F^rotin  describes  it  as 
very  complete. 

Sacramentariea, — (a)  Toledo  Chapter  Library,  35.3, 
late  tenth  century,  177  ff.  Contains  Masses  for  the 
year.  In  the  initial  of  that  for  St.  Peter's  Chsur  (22 
Feb.)  are  the  words  "Elenus  Abbas  Acsi  indiznus 
scripsit''.  It  belonged  to  the  parish  of  St.  OTalla 
(Emalia)  at  Toledo.  Dom  F^rotin  describes  it  as 
a  Sacramentary,  and  sa3rB  that  it  is  complete.  An 
edition  by  him  will  soon  be  published,  (b)  There  is 
another  MS.  at  Toledo  mentioned  but  witii  no  identi- 
fiable number  by  Burriel,  Eguren,  and  Simonet, 
which  is  said  by  them  to  contidn  **  Missas  omnes  tam 
de  tempore  quam  de  Sanctis  per  totum  anni  circulum ' ' . 
There  is  a  copy  of  it  among  the  Burriel  manuscripts 
at  Madrid,  and  Eguren  ascribes  the  original  to  the 
ninth  century. 

Psdters, — (a)  Madrid,  Biblioteca  Nacional,  for- 
merly at  Toledo  (35.1),  tenth  century,  174  flf.  Con- 
tains the  Psalter  with  antiphons,  the  Canticles,  and 
the  Hymnal.  On  f.  150  are  the  words  "Abundantius 
presbyter  librummauropresbjrteroscriptor''  (sic).  The 
prologue  of  the  Hymnal  is  an  acrostic  in  verse  which 
reads  "Mavricvs  obtante  Veraniano  edidjrt".  This 
MS.  was  used  bv  Cardinal  Lorenzana  for  the  Psalter, 
Canticles,  and  Hymnal  in  his  edition  of  the  Mozarabic 
Breviary.    There  is  a  copy  among  the  Burriel  MSS. 

g)  British  Museum,  Add.  30851,  eleventh  century, 
mtains  Psalter,  Canticles,  Hymnal,  and  '^  Horse 
Canonicse",  the  last  (though  imperfect)  bein^  much 
fuller  than  the  printed  Breviary  and  containmg  the 
now  obsolete  Night  Offices,  as  well  as  the  other  Hours 
and  a  number  of  offices  for  special  occasions.  It  has 
been  edited  by  J.  P.  Gilson  for  the  Henry  Bradshaw 
Society,  (c)  Santiago  de  Compostela,  University  li- 
brary, Gabinete  de  Keservados  No.  1,  dated  Era  1093 
(=  A.  D.  1055),  "Petrus  erat  scriptor,  Frictosus  de- 
nique  pictor.''  Contains  Psalter,  100  Canticles,  and 
the  Night  Offices,  but  not  the  Hvmnal.  The  Psidter 
is  preceded  by  a  poem  addressed,  by  Florus  of  Lyons 
to  Uyldradus  (here  called  Ysidorus  Abbas),  Abbot  of 
Novalese  near  Susa  in  Piedmont  (825-7).  There  is  a 
full  description  of  this  MS.  in  F^rotin's  "  Deux  Manu- 
scrits  wisigothiques  de  la  Biblioth^ue  de  Ferdinand 
I",  (d)  Royal  Library,  Madrid,  2.  J.  5,  dated  Era 
1097  (=3  A.  D  1059).  Contains  ninety-nine  Canticles 
nearly  agreeing  with  the  Compostela  Psalter.  There 
is  a  formula  of  confession,  in  which  the  names  of  Queen 
Sancia  and  the  Infanta  Urraca  appear,  and  which  con- 
tain an  extraordinary  list  of  sins.    The  MS.  belonged 


in  the  fourteenth  centuiy  to  the  Benedictine  monas- 
tery of  St.  Maria  de  Aniago  near  Simancas,  which  in 
1436  became  for  a  time  a  Mozarabic  chapter  (see 
Section  I.  History  and  Origin),  then  to  the  Cole^o 
de  Cuenca  at  Salamanca.  It  is  fully  described  in 
F^rotin's  ''Deux  Manuscrits  wisigothiques".  (e)  A 
Psalter  and  Canticles  of  the  tenth  century,  122  ff .,  sold 
at  the  Silos  sale  in  1878,  present  owner  unknown. 

Liher  Orationum. — (a)  British  Museum,  Add. 
30852,  tenth  century.  Contains  the  Oraiumes  at 
Vespers  and  Matins  and  the  Collects  following  the 
Gloria  in  ExceUis  at  Mass  from  Advent  to  St.  John 
Baptist  (24  June),  the  Temporale  and  Sanctorale  be- 
ing mixed,  (b)  Verona,  Cnapter  Library,  probably 
eleventh  century.  Similar  contents  to  those  of  the 
above  MS.  but  continuing  to  St.  Martin  (11  Nov.). 
Printed  in  Bianchini's  edition  of  the  works  of  Cardi- 
nal Tommasi  (Rome,  1741).  Ledionary, — Silos,  1059, 
90  ff .    Contains  lessons  for  the  Night  Offices. 

Liber  Comicus,  lAber  ComitiSj  Comes,  containing  the 
Prophecies,  Epistles,  and  Gospels  used  at  Mass.  (a) 
Pans,  Biblioth^que  Nationale,  Nouv.  Acquis.  Lat. 
2171,  eleventh  century.  Belonged  to  Silos  from  1067, 
when  it  was  given  to  the  abbey  by  Sancho  de  Taba- 
tieUo  to  1878.  Edited  by  Dom  Morin  (Maredsous, 
1893).  (b)  Toledo,  Chapter  library^  35.8,  ninth  or 
tenth  century.  Imperfect,  oontaimng  only  from 
"Dominica  post  infantum'  to  the  Saturday  of  the 
fourth  week  of  Lent,  (c)  Leon,  Cathedral  Library. 
A  little  earlier  than  1071,  when  it  was  given  to  the 
cathedral  by  Bishop  Pelagius.  Begins  with  the  first 
Sunday  of  Advent  and  ends  with  what  it  calls  "  the 
twenty-fourth  Sunday  ".  According  to  Dom  Fdrotin  it 
is  rich  in  Votive  Masses,  but  incomplete  in  much  else. 
(d)  Madrid,  Royal  Academy  of  History,  No.  22  (old 
number  F.  192),  dated  Era  1111  (=a.d.  1073). 
Written  by  Petrus  Abbas.  Belonged  to  the  Benedio 
tine  abbey  of  San  Millan  de  la  CogoUa. 

Homiliarium. — (a)  Toledo  Chapter  Library,  131 
ff.,  mentioned  by  Burriel  and  Simonet.  A  copy  <^ 
1753  is  among  the  Burriel  MSS.  at  Madrid,  (b) 
Paris,  Biblioth^que  Nationale^  Nouv.  Acquis.  Lat. 
2176,  eleventh  century,  390  fit.  Contains  HomilieB 
from  Christmas  onward.  Formerly  belonged  to  Silos. 
(c)  Nouv.  Acquis.  Lat.  2177,  eleventh  century,  770  ff. 
Contains  homilies  from  Epiphanv  to  Christmas.  Be- 
longed to  Silos,  (d)  Bntish  Museum,  Add.  30853, 
eleventh  century,  324  ff.  Contains  Homilies  and  a 
Pcenitentiale. 

Liber  Ordinum. — (a)  Silos,  dated  Era  1090  (=a.  d. 
1052),  344  ff.  Copied  by  Bartolomsus  Presbyter  for 
Domingo,  Abbot  of  San  Prudentio  de  Laturce  in  the 
Rioja.  Dom  F^rotin  conjectures  that  it  is  the  very 
copy  sent  in  1065  to  Alexander  II.  San  Prudentio 
was  a  cell  of  Albelda.  Of  the  four  books  sent  to  Rome 
one  was  "  Liber  Ordinum  majoris  Albalden<«is  Cenobii  *\ 
and  one  of  the  deputation,  Eximino  of  Oca,  was  !i 
personal  friend  of  St.  Dominic  of  Silos.  The  MS. 
contains  a  very  full  collection  of  the  Ritual  and  Pon- 
tifical Offices  and  a  large  number  of  votive  and  other 
Masses.  Fully  edited  and  described  by  Dom  F^rotin 
in  his  "Liber  Ordinum".  (b)  Silos,  dated  Era  1077 
(=a.  D.  1039).  Written  by  Joannes  Presbyter. 
Contains  Calendar,  Baptism,  Vimtation  etc.  of  the 
Sick,  Commendation  of  the  Dead,  Nfatrimony,  a 
large  collection  of  prayers  and  blessings,  and  Votive 
Masses.  Edited  by  Dom  F^rotin.  (c)  Silos,  elev- 
enth century,  142  ff.  Contains  also  Hours,  which  are 
offices  for  every  hour  of  the  twelve,  as  well  as  Ordo 
Peculiaris  (Aurora),  ante  CompUia,  ad  Comjilela,  post 
Completat  ante  /ec/u/um,  and  in  noctumis.  Edited, 
except  the  Hours,  by  uom  F^rotin.  (d)  Madrid, 
Royal  Academy  of  History,  No.  56  (old  number  F. 
224),  eleventh  century,  155  ff.  Belonged  to  San 
Millan  de  la  Cogolla  in  the  Rioja.  Contains  a  Ritual 
and  a  number  of  Masses.    Edited  by  Dom  FSt>tin. 

The  descriptions  of  all  the  above  MSS.  (ezc^t 


MOZARABIG  615  MOZABABIC 

those  in  the  British  Museum,  which  the  writer  has  were  in  the  Gallican  and  are  now  in  the  Ambrosian. 

examined  for  himself)  are  worked  out  from  those  The  key  day  for  Advent  Simday  is  therefore  St.  Mar- 

gtven  by  F6rotin,  Ewald  and  Loewe,  Simonet,  Eeuren,  tin  (11  Nov.)i  as  it  is  in  the  Ambrosian  Rite,  and,  as 

and  the  list  of  the  Burriel  transcripts  in  Fernandez  de  according  to  the  Council  of  M&con  (581),  it  was  in  the 

Navarrete's  ''CJoleccion  de  Documentos"  (see  bib-  Gallican,  but  Advent  Sunday  is  that  next  after,  not,  as 

lioeraph^).    ^'^ery  full  descriptions  of  the  principal  in  the  Roman,  that  nearest  to  the  k^  day.    TnusAd- 

MSS.  will  appear  in  Dom  F6rotin's  forthcoming  CKii-  vent  Sunday  may  be  on  anv  day  from  12  to  18  Nov. 
tion  of  the  Mozarabic  Sacramentary.    The  lists  of        Thefourfeasts  which  follow  Christmas  Day  are  now 

Toledo  MSS.  given  by  Lorenzana  and  Pinius  are  too  the  same  as  in  the  Roman  Rite,  including  St.  Thomas 

vague  for  purposes  of  identification.    The  four  MSS.  of  Canterbury.    The  next  day  is  the  Translation  of 

(Add.  30847-30850) J  described  in  the  Catalogue  of  St.  James  the  Great  and  the  last  day  of  the  year  is  St. 

Additional  Manuscripts  of  the  British  Museimoi  for  Columba,  Virgin  and  Mart3rr^  though  the  Calendar  of 

1878  as  Mozarabic,  are  all  Roman,  three  being  Ro-  the  Missal  includes  also  St.  Silvester.    But,  according 

mano-monastic  and  one  secular.  to  the  Calendar  of  the  Breviary,  the  twenty-ninth  is 

Printed  Editions:  Missale  Mixtum  or  Complete  "  Jacobi  Fratris  Domini",  and  there  is  an  office  for  his 

Missal. — Cardinal  Ximenes's  edition,  Toledo,  1500,  feast^  as  well  as  a  direction  to  use  the  Common  of  one 

fol.    Alexander  Leslie's  edition,  Rome,   1755,  4to.  pontiff  martyr  for  St.  Thomas  of  Canterbury,  and  for 

Cardinal  Lorenzana's  edition,  with  Leslie's  notes  and  the  thirtieth  there  is  an  Office  for  the  feast  (transl&- 

additioual  notes  by  F.  Arevalo,  Rome,  1804,  fol.  tion) ''Sancti  Jacobi  Fratris  Sane tiJoannis".    In  the 

Re(>rint  of  Leslie's  edition  in  Mi^e,  P.  L.,  LXXXV,  Missal  St.  James  the  Less  is  not  mentioned  here  in  the 

Paris,  1850.  Calendar,  but  the  Mass  of  the  twenty-ninth  is  his; 

Missale  Omnium  OfferenHum^  containing,  besides  there  is  nothing  of  St.  Thomas,  and  the  table  of  con- 

the  "  Missa  Omnium  Offerentium",  the  Lesser  Hours  tents  of  the  Ximenes  Missal  refers  to  the  Mass  of  that 

and  the  Commons.    Edition  by  ix)renzana  and  F.  day  as  ''in  translatione  Jacobi  Zebedei",  which  it  cer- 

Fabian  y  Fuero.   Angelopoli  (Ix)6  Angeles,  Mexico),  tainly  is  not.    There  is  no  Mass  for  the  Translation  of 

1770,  fol.  Reprint,  Toledo,  1875,  fol.    The  ''Missa  St.  James  the  Great  in  the  printed  books,  though  that 

Omnium  Offerentium "  is  given  also  in  La  Bigne's  for  his  martyrdom  (25  July)  is  given  as  the  specimen 

"Bibliotheca  Veterum  Patrum",  1609,  1618,  1654;  full  Mass  "Omnium  Offerentium"  instead  of  the  Or- 

in  J.  M.  Neale's  "Tetralogia  Liturgica",  1849;  in  dinaiy;  but  in  Add.  MS.  30844  (tenth  century)  there 

Hammond's  "Ancient  Liturgies",  1878;  translated  is  one  which  follows  the  Mass  of  St.  James  the  Le», 

and  edited  by  T.  Kranzfelder  in  Reithmayer's  "  Bib-  though  by  mistake  it  is  called  by  the  name  of  St.  John 

Hothek  der  Kirchenv&ter",  No.  215,  1869,  and  in  the  Evangelist.    In  that  MS.  the  days  after  Christ- 

J.  Perez's  "Devocionario  Mozdrabe".  Toledo,  1903.  mas  are  St.  Stephen,  St.  Eugenia,  St.  James  (FraUr 

Breviary. — Cardinal    Xi&enes's    eoition,    Toledo,  Domini),  St.  James  the  Great,  St.  Columba,  leaving 

1502,  fol.  Cardinal  Lorenzana's  edition,  Madrid,  1775,  one  day  unoccupied.    In  Add.  30850,  a  tenth-centuiy 

fol.  Reprint  in  Migne  (P.  L.,  LXXXVl),  Paris,  1850.  Liher  Oraiionumy  "De  Alisione  Infantum",  which  ac- 

Liber  Ordinum,    Edited  by  DomM.  F^rotininCa-  cording  to  the  present  calendars  would  occupy  that 

brol  and  Le  Clerc's  "Monumenta  Ecclesi®  Litur-  day  (28  or  29  December),  is  given  next  after  the  Epiph- 


gica",  V,  Paris,  1904,  q|uarto.  any.    In  the  Hymnal  printed  with  Lor^zana's  Bre- 

Ldber  Orationum. — Prmted  in  Bianchini's  edition  of    viary,  the  vacant  day  is  occupied  by 
the  works  of  Cardinal  Tommasi.  Rome,  1741,  fol.  Evangelist,  and  the  rest  are  as  in  Xad.  30844.    The 


PsaUeff  CantideSf  Hymnal,  and  Hours, — In  Loren-  Circumcision  is  on  1  January.    If  a  Sunday  occurs  be- 

zana's  Breviary  of  1775  and  the  Migne  reprint,  from  tween  that  day  and  the  Epiphany  it  is  "Dominica 

the  Toledo  manuscript.    In  the  Henry  Bradshaw  So-  anteEpiphaniam".    The  \i ass  is  uiat  of  the  Kalends 

ciet^s  Publications,  vol.  XXX,  edited  by  J.  P.  Gil-  of  January  (i.  e.  New  Year's  Day).    The  three  days 

son^  London,  1905,  from  the  British  Museum  MS.  before  the  Epiphany  are  "  Jejunia  in  Kalendis  Janu- 

Liber  Comicus. — ^Edited  by  Dom  G.  Morin  from  the  arii",  said  to  have  been  set  apart  as  fasts  in  contempt 

Paris  MS.  in  "  Anecdota  Maredsolana",  I,  Mared-  turn  superstitionis  gentUium,  just  as  fasts  were  forbid- 

80US,  1893.  den  during  Advent  ob  impietaiem  Priscillianistarum, 

III.    The    LrruRQiCAL    Year. — In    the    present  who,  denying  the  Incarnation,  fasted  at  that  season, 

printed  books,  the  offices  are  divided  after  the  Roman  There  are  analogous  instances  of  this  sort  of  fasting 

fashion  into  '  Officium  Canonicum  per  Annum"  (an-  (or  not  fasting)  ad  liies  et  conteniiones  in  the  Byzantine 

Bwering  to  the  "Officium  de  Tempore")  and  the  practice  of  not  fasting  on  certain  days  before  Lent  be- 

"Sanctorale".    As  in  the  Roman  books,  the  fixed  gins  because  of  the  Artziburion  fast  of  the  Armenians 

feasts  from  Christmas  Eve  to  the  Epiphany  (except  and  theNinevite  Fast  of  the  Jacobites  and  Nestorians. 

that  the  Breviary  puts  two  in  the   ''Sanctorale")  After  the  Epiphanv  (called  also  "Apparitio  Domini") 

come  in  the  "de  Tempore",  and  the  Missal,  but  not  to  Lent  nine  Sunoays  are  given,  the  last  beine  "Do- 

the  Breviary,  includes  also  St.  Clement  (23  Wov.),  St.  minica  ante  Cineres^',  the  rest  being  numberedone  to 

Satuminus  (29  Nov.),  St.  Andrew  (30  Nov.),  St.  Eu-  eight  "Post  octavam  Epiphaniae". 
lalia  (10  Dec.),  the  Annunciation  (18  Dec.),  and  St.        Ash  Wednesday  (Feriaquartaincavitejdunii)iBan 

Thomas  the  Apostle  (21  Dec.)  in  the  same  part,  evident  late  Roman  borrowing,  rather  clumsily  in* 

though  several  intermediate  feasts  come  in  the  "Sane-  serted,  for  the  Sunday  that  follows,  though  called 

torale".    In  the  manuscripts  (e.  g.  in  the  two  Libri  "DominicaprimaQuadragesimse".  hasaMassandan 

Orationum,  Add.  MS.  30852  and  the  Verona  MS.  Office  in  which  AU^mia  is  used,  and  at  Vespers  there  is 

printed  in  Bianchini's  edition  of  Thomaaius,  which  has  the  well-known  "Endless  AUeluia"  (Alleluia  Perenne) 

a  very  complete  sequence  of  the  year)  the  two  parts  hjrmn.    In  the  Hymnal  this  hymn  is  entitled  "  Ymnua 

are  not  distinguished,  and  the  whole  set  of  days,  fixed  in  cames  toUendas".    The  true  liturgical  Lent  does 

and  moveable,  are  given  in  one  series.    The  "Officium  not  begin  till  the  Monday  after  Ash  Wednesday.    The 

§er  Annum"  of  the  modem  books  begins  with  the  first  old  Mass  Lections  of  the  Sundays  in  Lent  have  been 

undav  of  Advent,  as  in  the  Roman,  but  the  "Sane-  disturbed  in  their  order  in  consequence  of  the  Gospel 

torale     begins  with  Sts.  Julianus  and  Basilissa  (7  for  the  first  Sunday  (Christ  in  the  Wilderness)  being  , 

Jan.),  and  ends  in  the  Missal  with  St.  Eugenia  (12  ^ven  to  Ash  Wednesday,  and  that  of  the  second  (The 

Dec.),  while  the  Breviary  includes  in  it  also  Sts.  Justus  Samaritan  Woman)  is  nven  to  the  first,  that  of  the 

and  Abundus  (16  Dec.),  the  Annunciation  (18  Dec.),  third  (The  Healing  of  the  Blind  Man)  to  the  second, 

St.  Thomas  the  Apostle  (21  Dec.),  the  Translation  ot  while,  so  as  to  keep  the  Gospel  "Jam  autem  die  festo 

St.  James  the  Great  (30  Dec),  and  St.  Columba  (31  mediante"  for  Mid-Lent  Sunday,  that  of  the  fifth  (the 

Dec.)*    There  are  six  Sundays  of  Advent,  as  there  Raising  of  Lazarus)  is  given  to  the  third  and  a  new 


MOZABABIC                            616  MOZABABIC 

Goepd  (The  Good  Shepherd)  is  dven  to  the  fifth.  The  Council  of  Gerona.    In  the  SandoraU  there  are  o( 

sixth  is  Pahn  Sunda^r,  callea  omy  "Dominica  in  Ra-  course  a  large  number  of  Spanish  saints  who  either  do 

mis  Pfdmarum'',  but  including,  between  the  Prophecy  not  occur  at  all  or  recdve  only  cursory  mention  in  the 

and  Epistle  at  MasSi  the  TraaUio  Symboli  in  the  form  Roman  Calendar,  but  there  are  also  many  that  are 

of  a  '^ermo  ad  Populmn".    On  Maundy  Thursday  common  to  the  whole  Church,  and  in  the  modem 

there  occurs  the  same  process  of  removing  one  of  two  books  a  number  of  feasts,  some  of  which  were  insti- 

consecrated  Hosts  to  tne  Altar  of  Repose  (called  mo-  tuted  after  the  period  of  the  MSS.,  have  been  added. 

nutnentum  and  Septdckrum)  as  in  the  Roman  Rite,  and  There  are  two  modem  forms  of  the  Calendar.    In 

there  is  a  service  ad  lavandoa  pedesy  in  both  cases  with  that  prefixed  to  the  Breviary  a  rather  small  number 

different  words.    The  Washing  of  the  Feet  takes  place  of  days  are  marked,  hardly  any  (as  in  the  Ambrosian 

''clausis  oetiis  et  laicis  onmibus  foris  projectis ''2  ^^^  Calendar)  during  the  possible  Lenten  period,  but 

the  feet  of  certain  priests  are  washed  by  the  bishop  offices  or  references  to  the  Common  are  given  in  a 

and  dried  bv'the  archivretkyter,    "Postea  ad  cenam  large  appendix  for  a  great  number  of  other  saints, 

conveniunt.      On  Gooa  Friday  there  is  a  p)enitential  In  that  prefixed  to  the  Missal  all  these  days  are  put 

service  ''ad  Nonam  pro  indulgentia",  which  consists  in  one  series,  as  their  Masses  are  in  the  body  of  the 

largely  of  preces  interspersed  with  cries  of  various  book.    There  are  a  good  many  discrepancies  in  the 

casesof  the  word"  indulgentia"  many  times  repeated,  existing  MS.  calendars,  and  it  is  not  alwavs  quite 

and  contains  passages  similar  to  the  Improperia  of  the  easy  t^  determine  the  exact  day  of  some  of  the  older 

Roman  Rite,  as  well  as  lections,  including  the  Passion  feasts,  but  now  most  of  the  days  which  are  common 

according  to  St.  Matthew.    It  is  the  remains  of  the  to  both  have  been  assimilated  to  the  Roman.    The 

solemn  reconciliation  of  penitents,  and  is  mentioned  Annunciation  is  kept  twice,  on  25  March  and  on 

by  the  fourth  Council  of  Toledo  (633),  canon  vi.   This  18  December.    The  last,   called   ''Annunciatio  S. 

is  followed  by  the  Adoration  of  the  Cross  and  the  Pro-  Maris  Virginis  de  la  O",  is  really  the  ''Expectatio 

cession  and  Communion  of  the  Presanctified.    The  Partus  B.  M.  V."    Its  name  is  referred  ta  a  curious 

Easter  Eve  services  are  similar  to  those  of  the  Roman  custom  in  the  Toledan  Use,  according  to  which  the 

Rite:  the  New  lire,  the  Easter  Candle,  the  I^phecies  whole  choir  sing  a  loud  and  prolonged  O  at  Vespers 

(of  which  there  are  only  ten,  seven  of  which  agree  more  on  that  day,  to  signify,  it  is  said,  the  eager  desire 

or  less  with  those  of  the  Roman  Rite,  thou^  not  all  in  of  the  saints  in  limbo,  the  Anjp;e1s  in  Heaven,  and 

the  same  order),  and  the  Blessing  of  the  Font.    But  of  all  the  world  for  the  birth  of  the  Saviour.    This 

the  words  used  throughout  are  veiy  different.    Even  or  the  Antiphons  known  as  the  "Great  O's"  may  be 

the  '^Exultef  is  not  used,  but  another  hjrmn  of  simi-  the  cause  of  the  name,  which  is  known  outside  Spain, 

lar  import.    Before  the  "  Benedictio  Cerei"  there  is  a  The  tenth  Council  of  Toledo  (656)  ordered  the  Annun- 

'^Benedictio  LucemsB",  and  the  litanv  is  used  for  the  dation  to  be  kept  on  that  day,  because  25  March 

two  processions,  to  the  Font  before  tne  Blessing  and  came  either  in  the  Lenten  or  Easter  period,  and  thus 

back  again  after  it.                       ^  was  unsuitable,  and  shortly  afterwards  St.  Ildefonsus, 

From  Easter  to  Pentecost  there  is  no  peculiaritv  ex-  with  reference  to  this  decree,  calls  it  "Expectatio 

oept  that  the  numbering  of  the  Sundays  includes  Puerperii   Deiparse".    In    the  printed    Missal    the 

Easter  Day  and  that  the  four  days  before  Whit-Sun-  same  Mass  is  ordered  also  for  25  March,  but  no  Office 

day  are  fasts.    Formerly  (e.  g.  in  the  time  of  St.  Isi-  is  given  in  the  Breviary.     (Cf.  the  Ambrosian  custom 

dore)  these  fasts  came  after  Pentecost,  though  they  of  keeping  the  Annunciation  on  the  sixth  Sunday  of 

answered  to  rogation  or  litany  days.    Leslie  conjee-  Advent  for  the  same  reason.)    Sometimes  there  are 

tures  that  the  alteration  was  made  because  of  the  other  disagreements  between  the  modem  Miasal  and 

Whit-Sunday  baptisms.    There  is  no  Blessing  of  the  Breviary.    Thus,  .the  Decollation  of  St.  John  Baptist 

Font  on  the  vigil  of  Pentecost,  but  there  are  lulusions  is  given  for  29  Aug.  (the  Roman,  and  also  the  Byzan- 

to  baptism  in  the  services  of  the  vi^^  and  the  day  it-  tine  day)  in  the  Missal,  but  for  24  Sept.  (the  old 

self.    The  following  Sunday  only  commemorates  the  Mosarabic  day,  as  appears  from  the  MSS.)  in  the 

Holy  Trinity  in  certidn  of  the  prayers  at  Mass  (for  Breviary.    In  both,  1  May  is  Sts.  Philip  ana  James, 

which  there  is  a  direction  to  use  those  of  Palm  Sunday  and  the  Mass  is  the  same.  miUatis  nominifms,  as  that 

which  have  allusions  to  the  Trinity,  instead  of  those  of  Sts.  Peter  and  Paul,  wnile  the  Office  is  similar  to 

for  the  Sunday,  which  are  to  be  transferred  to  the  fdl-  that  of  Sts.  Simon  and  Jude.    But  in  the  MSS.  St. 

lowing  Tuesday)^  in  the  title  ''in  die  Sanctissims  Philip  alone  is  mentioned,  St.  James  the  Leas  bein^ 

TrinitatLs",  and  m  the  hymns  in  the  Breviary  Office,  as  xre  have  seen,  already  provided  with  a  day  m 

Otherwise  the  day,  as  far  as  there  is  anything  definite  Christmastide,  not  only  iii  them  but  also  in  the  printed 

about  it,  is  treatcxi  as  the  Octave  of  Pentecost  and  the  books.    But  1  May  ic  also  the  feast  of  St.  Torquatus 

allusions  are  to  the  Holy  Spirit.    Corpus  Chrisli  is  and  his  companions,  the  Apostles  of  Spain,  who 

kept  on  the  following  Thursday,  and  the  Mass  and  naturally  ccHpse  the  other  AposUes.    The  Sunday 

Office,  though  naturally  enough  influenced  by  the  Ro-  before  the  Nativity  of  St.  John  Baptist  is  kept  as 

man  propers,  are  composed  on  a  purely  Mozarabic  ''Dominica   pro   adventu    S.    Joannis    Baptistae". 

Elan.    In  the  Missal  seven  Sundays  after  Pentecost  As  its  position  with  re^pard  to  the  general  sequence 

a^e  Masses,  as  well  as  the  Sunday  before  the  fast  of  of  Sundays  is  variable,  its  Mass  and  Office  are  given 

the  Kalends  of  November.    In  the  Breviary  the  Sun-  in  the  Sanctoralc,    The  classification  of  feasts  is 


must  be  used.    Two  sets  of  three-day  fasts  occur  in  "quatuor  capparum'',  and  "novem  lectionum",  the 

this  season,  one  before  the  Feast  of  St.  Cyprian  (13  last  being  also  called  "duarum  capparum".    The 

Sept.)  and  one  before  that  of  St.  Martin  (11  Nov.).  distribution  of   these   titles  is   occasionally  rather 

They  have  nothing  to  do  with  either  St.  Cjrprian  or  St.  arbitrary,  and  the  Missal  and  Breviary  do  not  always 

Martin,  whose  days  only  serve  as  key-days  to  them  agree.    If  a  feast  comes  on  a  Principal  Sunday  it  is 

(cf .  Holy  Cross  and  St.  Lucy,  as  key-days  to  the  Sep-  transferred  to  the  next  day,  unless  that  is  a  greater 

tember  and  December  ember-days).    Tlie  November  feast,  when  it  is  put  off  to  the  next  free  day.    If  two 

fast  is  called  "jejunia  Kalendiurum  Novembrium".  equal  feasts  fall  on  the  same  day  (the  example  given 

They  are  really  days  of  Litany  or  Rogation,  and  are  is  Sts.  Philip  and  James  and  St.  Torquatus),  the  office 

both  mentioned  by  St.  Isidore;  the  September  fast  is  is  that  of  the  saint  who  has  a  praprietas  (proper), 

evidently  mentioned  by  the  fifth  Council  of  Toledo  unless  the  other  is  the  Vocalio  (patronal  feast)  01  the 

Sin.  i),  though  obviously  by  a  mistake  it  calls  it  "dies  church,  in  which  case  the  one  with  a  proper  is  trans- 

uum  Decembrium",  and  the  November  one  by  Uie  ferred.    If  a  feast  comes  on  an  ordinary  Sunday,  tbo 


MOZARABIC 


617 


MOZABABIC 


Sunday  is  omitted  (^ta  scUia  habebU  locum  per 
annum)  and  the  feast  is  kept.  During  the  Octaves 
which  are  kept  "secundum  Kegulam  Gregorianum'', 
any  vacant  aay  is  of  the  Octave,  but  the  Office  is 
not  said  sokmniter  except  on  the  Octave  day.  If  a 
greater  feast  Is  followed  by  a  lesser  one,  the  Vespers 
is  of  the  greater  but  the  last  Lquda,  with  its  prayer, 
is  of  the  lesser.  These  rules,  which  do  not  differ 
in  principle  from  those  of  the  Roman  Rite,  are  pre- 
fixed to  the  printed  Breviary.  Their  comparative 
simplicity  is  probablv  more  apparent  than  leal. 

IV.  The  Divine  Office. — Tne  present  Mozarabic 
Divine  Office  differs  from  all  others  in  several  points. 
As  a  general  rule,  which  applies  to  every  other  rite. 
Eastern  or  Western,  the  Divine  Office  may  be  de- 
fined as  the  recitation  of  the  Psalter  with  accompany- 
ing antiphons,  lections,  prayers,  canticles,  etc.,  and 
the  nucleus  is  the  more  or  less  regular  distribution 
of  the  Psalter  through  the  Canonical  Hours,  generally 
of  one  week.  In  the  Mozarabic  Rite  there  is  now  no 
such  distribution  of  the  Psalter.  Psalms  are  used  at 
all  the  Hours  except  Vespers — ^when,  except  in  fasting 
time,  there  are  none — out  they  are  as  a  rule  fixed 
psalms.  In  the  first  three  weeks  of  Lent  and  during 
the  three-day  fasts  before  the  Epiphany,  St.  CSrprian's 
Day,  and  St.  Martin's  Day,  and  the  four-day  fast 
before  Pentecost,  there  are  three  selected  psalms 
(or  sometimes  one  or  two  psalms  divided  into  three) 
at  Matins,  Terce.  Sext,  and  generally  at  None, 
and  usually  one  selected  psalm  at  Vespers,  but  there 
is  no  consecutive  order;  some  psalms  are  repeated 
many  times,  while  others  are  omitted  altogether. 
In  the  week  after  the  first  Sunday  after  the  Epiphanv, 
psalms  1  •  .  .  xxi,  xxiii,  xxiv  are  said  consecutively 
at  Matins  and  Terce,  three  psalms  or  divisions  of 
psalms  at  each  until  the  Thursday,  two  at  Terce 
on  the  Friday,   and  none  except  the  usual  fixed 

Psalms  on  the  Saturday.  In  the  MSS.  (e.  g.  in  the 
Salter  in  Add.  MS.  30851)  there  are  indications 
of  a  more  regular  distribution  of  the  psalms.  At 
Matins,  which  is  a  morning  and  not  a  night  Office, 
there  are  no  lessons  like  those  of  the  Roman  Rite 
and  its  variants,  but  a  certain  similarity  of  construc- 
tion exists  in  the  sets  of  three  Antiphonag  followed  by  a 
responsory,  which  sets,  though  normally  there  is  only 
one,  are  increased  to  two,  three,  four,  and  even  five 
on  certain  days,  though  this  increase  is  rather  capri- 
cious and  inconsistent.  The  Silos  Lectionary  of 
1059  consists  of  lessons  for  the  now  obsolete  Night 
Office;  such  lessons  as  there  are  now  occur  at  Lauds, 
where  there  is  one  variable  with  the  day,  which  is 
sometimes  called  Propkelia,  and  at  Prime,  Terce, 
Sext,  and  None,  where  there  are  two  short  Lessons,  a 
Propheiia  from  one  of  the  Prophets  or  from  the 
Apocalvpse  and  an  Episiola  from  one  of  the  Epbtles. 
These  have  about  four  variations  with  the  seasons, 
except  during  the  fasts,  when  there  are  long  addi- 
tional lessons  at  Terce,  Sext,  and  None  (cf.  the 
lessons  at  Terce  during  Lent  in  the  Ambrosian  Rite), 
varying  every  day  and  also  of  varying  number.  An- 
other peculiaritv  is  the  existence  of  an  extra  hour, 
called  Aurora  (also  Ordo  Peculiaris),  before  Prime. 
In  a  LVi>eT  Ordinum  at  Silos,  besides  the  usual  Hours 
and  this  Ordo  PeculiariSj  Offices  are  given  for  all  the 
intermediate  hoiu?  of  the  twelve,  as  well  as  ante 
Complet4if  post  Completay  and  ante  Lectrdum,  Vespers, 
Matins,  and  Lauds  are  very  variable,  but  there  is 
much  less  variability  in  the  Lesser  Hours  and  Com- 
pline. A  considerable  part  of  the  Office  is  made  up 
of  responsoriaf  constructed  on  similar  principles  to 
those  of  the  Roman  Rite,  but  called  by  the  various 
names  of  Ardiphonay  LaudOt  Sono  (or  Sonoa),  or  MattL" 
Unarium  according  to  their  position  in  the  Office. 
(Aniiphona  also  means  the  antiphon  of  a  psalm  or 
canticle,  which  is  of  the  same  form  as  in  the  Roman 
Rite.)  They  vary  in  form,  but  the  general  plan 
is:  Verse,  Response,  Verse,  repetition  of  first  Response, 


Gloria,  second  repetition  of  Response  or  of  firsC 
Verse  and  Response.  The  first  Lauda  at  Vespers 
and  the  Sotio  are  generally  without  the  Gloria  and 
the  second  repetition  of  the  Response.  These  various 
responsories  and  also  the  psalms,  canticles,  etc.  are 

?;enerally  followed  by  Orationes,  which  are  usually 
ounded  on  them,  with  or  without  special  reference 
to  the  day  or  season. 

The  construction  of  the  Hours  is  as  follows:  Before 
every  Hour  except  Lauds,  which  follows  on  after 
Matins:  Kyrie  eleison,  Christe  eleison,  Kvrie  eleison; 
Pater  Noster;  Ave  Maria,  are  said  secretly,  kneeling. 
Then,  standing.  In  nomine  D.N.J.C.  lumen  cum  pace. 
R.  Deo  gratias.  V.  Dominus  sit  semper  vobiscum.  R. 
Et  cum  spiritu  tuo.  This  elongated  form  of  the 
Dominus  vobiscum  is  said  very  n-equently  after  col- 
lects and  responsories  and  in  various  other  places. 
The  form  of  the  Gloria,  which  also  occurs  very  fre- 
ouently^  is:  Gloria  et  honor  Patri  et  Filio  et  Spiritui 
oancto  m  saniula  sseculorum.    Amen. 

Vespers  (Ad  Vesperos). — (1)  Lauda  followed  by  its 
oratio.  Alternative  names  are  malmus  and  vesper- 
tinum,  and  the  words  are  nearly  always  from  the 
psalms.  This  form  of  Lauda  has  no  Gloria.  (2)  Sono 
on  Sundays  and  feasts,  but  not  on  ferials  except  in 
paschal  time.  This  is  also  without  Gloria.  (3)  Alle- 
luia, followed  by  an  antiphona  with  Gloria.  Some- 
times there  are  two  antiphoruBf  each  followed  by  its 
oraiio.  In  Lent,  on  the  fasts,  and  in  the  week  after 
the  Octave  of  the  Epiphany,  a  selected  psalm  with 
its  antiphon  takes  the  place  of  this  aniipfuma,  (4) 
Second  Lauda,  with  Alleluias  interspersed  in  rather 
variable  fashions,  with  Gloria.  The  Kegula  in  the  be- 
ginning of  the  Breviary  has  this  definition:  '*AniV' 
phona  est  <)use  dicitur  sine  Alleluia;  et  Lauda  quse  cum 
Alleluia  dicitur",  but  this  is  not  an  exhaustive  defi- 
nition, and,  as  in  the  Roman  Rite,  Alleluia  is  not  used 
in  Lent.  (5)  Hymn.  This  of  course  varies  with  the 
day.  There  is  a  great  wealth  of  h3rmns  in  the  Mo- 
zarabic Breviary.  (6)  SuppUcaiiOy  a  Bidding  Prayer 
generally  beginning  "Oremus  Redemptorem  mundi 
D.N.J.C.,  cum  omni  supplicatione  rogemus'',  and 
continuing  with  a  clause  applicable  to  tne  day,  with 
response:  "Prsesta  seteme  omnipotens  Deus  ,  and 
Kyrie  eleison,  Christe  eleison,  iCyrie  eleison.  (7) 
Cavilula,  a  prayer  of  the  diffuse  Gallican  type,  often 
emoodying  the  idea  of  the  Supplicatio.  (8)  Pater 
noster,  divided  into  petitions  with  a  response  of  Amen 
to  each  except "  Panem  nostrum  etc."  when  it  is  ''Quia 
Deus  es",  and  followed  by  an  occasionally  varying  Em- 
bolismus.  (9)  Benedictio  in  four  clauses  with  Amen 
after  each,  and  preceded  by  "Humiliate  vos  ad  bene- 
dictionem".  (10)  Third  Lauda,  with  Gloria.  Some- 
times there  are  more  than  one  of  these,  each  followed 
by  an  oratio.  On  feasts  sex  capparum  the  altar  is 
censed  while  this  Lauda  is  sung.  (11)  Then  follow 
Commemorations  which  are  in  the  form  of  a  short 
Lauda  Slid  oratio,  (12)  Dismissal:  "In  nomine  D.N. 
J.C.  perficiamus  in  pace.  R.  Deo  Gratias."  The 
orationes  at  Vespers,  unlike  those  at  Matins  and 
Lauds,  begin  immediately  without  "Dominus  sit  sem- 
per vobiscum '  * .  Each  has  two  Amens,  one  before  and 
one  after  the  final  clause,  "Per  misericordiam  etc." 

Compline  (Completoria), — (1)  Ps.  iv.  7-10,  followed 
by  three  Alleluias.  (2)  Ps.  cxxxiii,  followed  by  three 
Alleluias.  (3)  Six  selected  psalms  and  other  verses. 
(4)  Hymn,  "Sol  Angelorum  respice",  with  Ps.  xii, 

4,  as  versicle  and  response.    (5)  rs.  xc.     (6)  Ps.  xc, 

5,  and  Ps.  cxxxiii,  3-5,  with  "Memor  esto  mei  Do- 
mine"  as  response  to  each  verse,  and  Gloria.  (7) 
Hymn,  "Cultor  Dd  memento".  (8)  Three  Suppli- 
cationes  of  sioular  form  to  that  at  Vespers.  (9) 
Pater  noster,  with  Embolismus.  (10)  Benedictio. 
(11)  Dismissal,  as  at  Vespers.  (12)  Commemoratio. 
Ps.  xvi.,  8,  9,  as  Lauda,  followed  by  an  oraiio,  (13) 
"  In  nomine  D.N  .J.C.  in  hac  nocte  dormiamus  et  re- 
quiescamus  in  pace.    R.  Deo  Gratias".    There  are  a 


MOZABABIO                            618  MOZABABXO 

few  additions  on  Saturdays,  the  principal  Feasts,  in  Lent.  Advent,  Christmas,  and  Easter.    The  Psalms 

Lent  (when  th^e  is  also  a  snort  "Ordo  ante  Ck)mple-  and  Responsaria  are  without  orationes.    (3)  Propheliay 

toria")»  and  "De  traditione  Domini"  (Passiontide)  a  lection  from  the  Old  Testament  or  Apocalypse, 

after  the  psalms,  some  variant  hymns,  and  '^Miserar  (4)  Ejnstola^  a  lection  from  the  Epistles.    At  Prime 

tiones"  with  variant  capitula  and  Benedictiones  for  these  lections  do  not  vary  and  aie  very  short:  at 

each  day  of  the  week,  and  for  the  "Traditio  Domini".  Terce,  Sext,  and  None  there  is  more  variety,  and  dur- 

Matins  (Ad  McUuiinum), — ^The  week-day  form  is:  ing  Lent  and  on  the  fasts,  when  these  Hours  are  difFer- 

(1)  Antiphon  of  Our  Lady,  Ave  Regina  Caelorum.     (2)  ently  arranged,  there  are  very  long  lections.    (5) 

In  nomine  D.N.J.C.  etc.,  as  before  the  other  Hours.  Lawda,  with  Alleluias  or  "Laus  tibi  etc."     (6)  H3rmn. 

(3)  Generally  Ps.  1  with  a  variable  antiphon  (in  the  There  are  a  few  variants  for  different  seasons  in  each 
Roman  sense)  before  and  after  it,  and  an  oratio.  hour.  (7)  At  Prime  on  Sundays  and  Feasts  here 
Sometimes  Ps.  iii  is  used  here  (e.  g.  during  Lent  and  foUow  the  Te  Deum^  Gloria  in  Excehia,  and  Credo;  on 
on  other  fasts  and  during  Paschal  time),  and  some-  ferials,  instead  of  the  first  two.  the  Benedidua  es  Do- 
times  Ps.  Ivi.  (4)  The  Anliphonce.  These  are  in  sets  mine  Deua  (Dan.,  iii)  and  the  Miserere  (Ps.  1)  are  said, 
of  three  arUip^ono?  and  a  responsorium.  The  lal^t  only  At  the  other  three  Hours  the  Clamoreaj  short  suppli- 
difiPers  from  the  aniiphoruB  in  name.  To  each  is  ap-  cations  for  mercy  and  pardon  (a  different  set  for  eadi 
pended  its  oratio.  During  the  first  three  weeks  of  Hour),  are  said  here.  (8)  SupplicaiiOj  as  at  Vespers. 
Lent  and  the  fasts  of  Epiphany,  Pentecost,  St.  (9)  CapitiUa,  as  at  Vespers.  (10)  Pater  noster  etc.,  as 
Cyprian,  and  St.  Martin,  and  on  four  days  of  the  at  Vespers.  (11)  Benediction  as  at  Vespers.  The  last 
week  after  the  Octave  of  the  Epiphany,  three  vary-  four  have  only  a  few  variants,  and  gener^ly  have  ref- 
ing  psalms  with  antiphons  and  orationes  followed  oy  erence  to  the  usual  events  commemorated  at  the  Hours, 
a  responsorium  and  oratio  take  the  place  of  the  antv'  On  the  fasts  and  in  the  week  after  Epiphany  there  are 
phonce.  There  is  usually  only  one  set  of  Anliphonce  special  lessons  var3dng  in  number,  ana  these  are  gen- 
etc.,  but  there  may  be  (e.  g.  on  the  Feast  of  Sts.  Fruc-  erally  followed  by  three  psalms,  with  their  antiphons 
tuosus,  Augurius,  and  Eulogius)  as  many  as  five.  On  and  orationes  and  a  responsorium  with  its  oratio,  as  at 
Sundays  Matins  begins  with  the  h3rmn  '^^Eterne  re-  the  Matins  of  those  seasons.  Then  follow  Preces,  the 
rum  conditor",  and,  except  during  Paschal  time  (when  Hymn,  CapiXvla^  and  the  rest  as  on  the  other  days, 
only  Ps.  iii  is  scdd),  there  are  three  psalms  (iii,  1,  and  At  the  end  of  Vespers,  Compline,  and  Lauds  cer- 
Ivi)  with  their  orationeSy  instead  of  only  one  of  these,  tain  fixed  CommemarationeSy  appropriate  to  the  Hour, 

Lauds  (In  Lauditms)  follows  immediately  on  Mat-  are  said,  and  after  Compline  and  the  Lesser  Hours, 

ins  with  no  preliminary  except  ''Dominus  sit  semper  Salve  Regina  is  said  throughout  the  year,  but  after 

vobiscum".    Its  order  is:  (1)  A  variable  Canticle  Lauds,  Salve  Regina,  Alma  Redemptoris  Mater,  Ecce 

from  the  Old  and  occasionally  from  the  New  Testa-  Maria  genuit  Salvatorem,  Sub  tuum  presidium,  and 

ment,  with  an  antiphon  before  and  after  it.    Some-  Regina  cadi  according  to  the  season.    There  are  many 

times  an  oralio  follows.    On  Christmas  Day  the  other  variations,  for  at  Vespers,  Matins,  and  LMids 

Magnificat  is  said  in  addition  to  the  first  Canticle  and  nearly  eveiything  is  variable  according  to  the  day  and 

on  the  Annunciation  instead  of  it.     (2)  On  Sundays  the  season,  and  a  good  deal  is  so  at  the  Lraser  Hours, 

and  feasts,  the  Canticle  "  Benedictus  es  Domine  Deus  Some  few  things  may  have  been  alt^^  and  added 

Patrum  nostrorum"  (Daniel,  iii,  52  sq.).  which  in-  since,  but  the  Divine  Office  as  described  above,  which 

eludes  a  very  much  compressed  form  of  the  Bene-  is  that  in  present  use,  does  not  seem  to  differ  mate- 

dicite.    It  is  sometimes  followed  by  an  oratio.    On  rially  in  structure  from  that  indicated  in  the  tenth  and 

ferials  an  antiphona  or  responsorium,  called  Maiuti"  eleventh  century  MSS.  in  the  British  Museum,  except 

narium.  takes  the  place  of  this  canticle.     (3)  The  Sono,  that  there  were  formerly  also  certain  Night  Offices — 

generally  the  same  as  that  at  Vespers.    This,  as  at  **Ordo  ante  Lectulum",  "Ad  Nocturnes",  "Ad  Me- 

Vespers,  is  not  used  on  ferials^  except  in  Paschal  time,  dium  Noctis"  etc. — ^which  are  given  in  Add.  30851  and 

(4)  The  Laudate  Psalms  (cxlviii,  cxnx,  cl)  preceded  by  elsewhere.    Possibly  these  were  only  for  monastic 
a  variable  Lauda.    On  some  ferials  only  Ps.  cl  is  use. 

ord^ed.     (5)  The  Prophetia,  a  lection  from  the  Old  V.  The  Mass. — In  the  present  Mozarabic  Mass  two 

Testament,  or  in  Pascnal  time  from  the  Apocalypse,  books  are  used,  the  Missale  Omnium  Offerentium  and 

(6)  The  Hynm  of  the  day.    (7)  Supplicatio,  as  at  the  complete  Missal.    The  Missale  Omnium  Offeren- 

Vespers.     (8)   Capiiula,  as  at  Vespers.     (9)   Pater  hum  contains  what  in  the  Roman  Rite  would  be  called 

noster  and  Emboiismus,  as  at  Vespers.     (10)  Lauda,  the  Ordinary  and  Canon.    As  nearly  the  whole  Mass 

as  at  Vespers.     (11)  Benedictio,  as  at  Vespers.    The  varies  with  the  day,  this  book  contuns  a  specimen- 

Vesper  order  of  these  last  two  is  reversed.    The  last  Mass  (that  of  the  Feast  of  St.  James  the  Great)  set  out 

six  are  as  a  rule  a  different  set  from  those  at  Vespers,  in  full  with  all  its  component  parts,  variable  or  fixed, 

(12)    Commemorationes,   as   at   Vespers.     (13)    Di&-  in  their  proper  order.    On  all  other  d^s  the  variables 

missal,  as  at  Vespers.    In  Lent  and  in  the  other  fasts,  are  read  from  the  complete  Missal.    The  reason  of  the 

Lauds  begins  with  Psalm  1  and  its  antiphon.    On  name  Omnium  Offerentium  has  not  been  very  satisfac- 

these  occasions  Ps.  iii  is  used  at  Matins.  torily  determined.    It  would  naturally  mean  "of  tJl 

Aurora. — ^A  very  simple  office,  without  variations,  who  offer",  and  the  phrase  "et  omnium  offerentium 

said  before  Prime  only  on  fmals.     (1)  Ps.  Ixix,  cxviii,  .  .  .  peccata  indulge    occurs  at  the  oblation  of  the 

pts.  1-3,  under  the  one  antiphon,  "Deus  in  adjuto-  chalice.    There  does  not  seem  to  be  any  reason  why 

rium  etc."     (2)  Lauda.     (3)  Uymn  "Jam  meta noctis  this  one  phrase,  which  is  not  in  a  very  striking  posi- 

transiit",  with  its  versicle,  of  which  there  are  ihree  tion,  should  give  its  name  to  the  whole  service,  unless 

variants.    (4)  Kyrie eleison etc.    (5)  Paternoster  with  those  are  right  who  (like  Peres  in  his  "Devocionario 

Emboiismus,  said  as  at  Vespers.    (6)  Preces,  a  short  Moz&rabe")  apply  the  name  only  to  the  Missa  Cate- 

litany  for  all  sorte  and  conditions  of  men.    There  are  chumenorum.    There  are  indeed  quite  as  improbable 

two  forms  of  this.  origins  as  this  in  liturgical  nomenclature.    But  it  is 

Prime,  Terce,  Sext,  None. — ^These  are  constructed  possible  to  conjecture  another  oridn.    In  the  Celtic 

on  the  same  plan,  and  may  be  taken  together.    The  languages  the  word  for  Mass  is  derived  from  some 

order  is:  (1)  The  Psalms.    At  Prime,  seven  (Ixvi;  Latin  word  whose  origin  was  the  verb  offero.    The 

cxliv,  1-12;  cxliv,  13-21;  cxii;  cxviii,  pts.  4-6);  at  Cornish,  Welsh,  and  Breton  have  offeren;  the  Gaelie 

Terce,  four  (xdv,  cxviii,  pts.  7-9);  at  Sext,  four  (liii;  aifrionn  or  aifreann.    These  are  generally  referred  to 

cxviii,  pts.  16,  17.  18);  at  None,  four  (cxlv;  cxxi;  o^erendum,  and  in  support  of  this  we  fold  the  French 

exxii ;  cxxiii),  in  each  case  ujider  one  antiphon.     (2)  Re-  ofirande  and  Spanish  ofrenda,  both  in  the  sense  of  a  it^ 

iponsorium,  varsdng  with  the  day.    These  variations  hgious  offering,  equivalent  to  the  Wel^  offrwm  and 

Are  chiefly  "commons"  of  classes  of  saints  and  for  Cornish  o^r^.    but  the  Celtic  words  are  more  prob- 


MOZARABIG 


619 


MOZABABIO 


ably  derived  from  oferentia^  a  word  which  is  used  by 
Tertullian  (Adv.  Marc,  xxiv)  in  the  general  sense  of 
the  act  of  presenting  an  offering,  but  which  was  perhaps 
used  for  a  time  in  Celtic  countries  in  the  special  sense 
of  the  Holy  Offering.  Thus  it  may  be  conjectured  that 
the  Spanish  expression  was  origmally  "Missale  Om- 
nium Offerentiarum  " ,  "  Missal  of  all  Masses",  which  is 
just  what  it  is.  It  has  been  suggested  that  offerens 
may  have  been  used  in  very  debased  Latin  in  the  sense 
of  an  act  of  offering  as  well  as  of  one  who  offers.  This 
would  explain  the  Mozarabic  phrase  still  better. 
The  Order  of  the  Mass  is  as  follows: 

(1)  The  Preparation. — This  consists  of  prayers  dur- 
ing vesting,  which  for  the  most  part  resemble  those  of 
the  Roman  Rite  in  meaning  and  sometimes  in  actual 
wording.  These  are  followed  by  a  responsory  and 
oratio  for  pardon  and  purity,  after  which  the  priest 
coes  to  the  altar  and  says  Ave  Maria,  In  nomine 
D.N.J.C.,  Sancti  Spiritus  adsit  nobis  graiiay  Judica  me, 
with  the  Antiphon  Introiho,  Confiteor,  with  the  absolu- 
tion and  the  subsequent  versicles  and  responses.  The 
Confiteor  differs  from  the  Roman  form  and  there  are 
versicles  and  responses  before  it.  Then  Avfer  a  nobis, 
a  longer  form  than  the  Roman.  Then  follows  the 
Salutation  of  the  Cross.  The  priest  makes  the  sign  of 
the  cross  on  the  altar,  kisses  tne  altar,  and  says  a  re- 
sponsory ''Salve  crux  pretiosa''  ana  an  oratio.  A 
g)od  deal  of  this  preliminary  matter  was  borrowed  bv 
Cardinal  Ximenes  from  the  Toletan  (Roman)  Missal, 
and  is  not  Mozarabic.  On  great  feasts  the  priest  di- 
rectly he  enters  sings  to  a  rather  florid  piece  of  plain 
chant  a  prayer  ''Per  gloriam  nozninis  tui  etc.  for 
help. 

(2)  The  Preparation  of  the  Chalice  and  Paten, — ^The 
corporal  is  unfolded,  the  chalice  and  paten  are  cere- 
monially purified,  the  wine  is  poured  into  the  chalice, 
the  water  is  blessed  and  poured  in,  and  the  bread  is 
placed  on  the  paten.  To  each  of  these  acts  there  is  a 
prayer  or  a  blessing.  A  preparation  of  the  chalice 
Before  Mass,  instead  of  at  the  Offertory,  is  to  be  in- 
ferr«i  from  the  Irish  tracts  (see  Celtic  Rite).  It  is 
still  the  Byzantine  practice,  and  is  retained  by  the 
Dominicans  at  low  Mass.  Yet  in  the  Mozarabic  Missa 
Omnium  Offerentium  there  is  a  direction  to  put  wine 
into  the  chalice  during  the  Epistle,  but  it  is  not  done. 

(3)  Ad  Missam  Officium, — This  is  the  Introit.  Offi- 
cium  is  a  common  alternative  name,  used,  among 
other  places,  in  the  Sarum  Missal.  The  old  Mozara- 
bic term  (see  Add.  MS.  30844)  was  Pradegendum  or 
Prolegeruium.  Antiphona  ad  prcelegendum  is  the  name 
given  by  St.  Germanus  of  Pans.  It  is  in  the  form  of  a 
responsory,  with  Alleluias  and  Gloria. 

(4)  The  Canticle  or  Canticles. — This  is  now  Gloria  in 
ExcelsiSf  omitted  in  Advent  (except  on  Feasts)  and 
Lent.  On  Easter  Dav  a  Latin  farced  Trisagion, 
"Sanctus  Deus,  qui  sedes  super  cherubim,  etc.'',  with 
optionally  also  the  Benedicite  in  its  abridged  form,  and 
on  the  Sunday  in  Advenlu  S.  Joannis  Baptistce  the 
Benedictus  are  sung  as  well.  In  Add.  MS.  30844  the 
Trisagion  (dyiot  6  de6s,  ic.t.X.)  is  given  in  Greek  (trans- 
literated) and  Latin  in  this  place  on  the  Annunciation 
(18  Dec,  the  Mass  for  which  dav  is  in  that  manuscript 
a  fuller  one  than  the  others,  and  like  the  Mass  for  Ad- 
vent Sunday  in  the  printed  Missal  is  given  by  way  of 
an  Ordinary  of  the  Mass)  and  the  Circumcision,  and 
the  Latin  farced  Trisagion  now  used  on  Easter  Day  is 
given  for  Christmas  Day.  This  shows  that  the  Ajtts 
of  St.  Germanus  and  the  Bobbio  Missal  was  certainly 
the  Trisagion. 

(6)  Oratio. — ^Though  this  takes  the  position  of  the 
Roman  Collect,  it  is  really  a  supplementary  prayer  to 
the  Gloria  in  excelsis.  It  is  the  usual  practice  (though 
like  most  things  Mozarabic,  not  invariable)  for  psalms, 
hymns,  canticles,  and  every  sort  of  responsory  to  be  fol- 
lowed by  prayers  which  more  or  less  sum  up  the  leading 
ideas  of  wnat  they  follow.  This  is  why  so  many  Mozar- 
abic, Gallican,  and  Celtic  prayers  are  named  with  ref- 


erence to  what  they  follow — post  Ajus,  post  Prophe^ 
tiam^  post  Nomina,  post  Pacem  etc.  Tnis  Oratio  on  a 
consiaerable  number  of  days  merely  continues  the  idea 
of  the  Gloria  with  little  or  no  reference  to  the  day,  even 
on  the  Sundays  of  Advent,  when  the  Gloria  itself  is 
omitted.  These  are  mostly  in  the  Temvorale,  and 
there  are  nine  Oraiiones  of  frequent  use;  out  on  cer- 
tain days  (e.  g.  Christmas  Day,  the  Sunday  before  the 
Epiphany.  Epiphany,  Ascension,  Pentecost,  Corpus 
Chnsti,  all  tne  Commons,  and  between  thirty  and 
forty  days  in  the  SancUrrci/e)  this  Oratio  refers  to  the 
day  and  not  to  the  Gloria. 

(6)  The  Prophecy. — ^This  is  a  lection  usually  from 
the  Old  Testament,  except  in  Paschal  time,  when  it  is 
from  the  Apocalypse.  (See  Ambrosian  Rite.)  During 
Lent  and  other  Fasts,  there  are  two  of  these  lections, 
one  from  one  of  the  books  of  Solomon  and  the  other 
from  the  Pentateuch  or  one  of  the  Historical  Books. 

(7)  The  Hymnus  Trium  Puerorum  occasionally  fol- 
lows the  Prophecy.  This  is  the  Benedictus  es  (Dan., 
iii,  52-5)  witn  an  abridged  form  of  the  Benedicite,  the 
whole  preceded  by  Dan.,  iii,  49-51,  rather  freely 
Quoted.  The  fourth  Council  of  Toledo  (can.  xiv)  or- 
dered this  "in  omnium  missarum  solemnitate''.  It 
occurs  in  the  MSS.  on  days  when  it  is  not  nven  in  the 
printed  books.  It  used  to  be  followed  oy  Ps.  cv, 
Confitemini,  but  now  this  is  reduced  to  one  verse. 

(8)  PsaUendo  (a  responsory). — On  the  second  and 
third  Sundays  and  on  weekdays  in  Lent  it  is  a  Tracj- 
tus,  which  consists  of  psalm  verses  without  repeti- 
tions, as  in  the  Roman  Rite.  The  Tract  or  PsaUendo 
on  Sundays  of  Lent,  except  Palm  Sundav  when  the 
Tradilio  Symboli  comes  here,  is  followed  by  the  Pre^ 
ces,  a  short  penitential  litany,  differing  eacn  Sunday. 
Neale  points  out  that  these  are  in  verse,  though  not 
written  so. 

(9)  The  Epistle,  or  in  Paschal  time  a  lection  from  the 
Acts  of  the  Apostles,  preceded  by  "silentium  facite", 
proclaimed  by  the  deacon. 

(10)  The  Gospel,  preceded  only  by  a  short  prayer 
"Comforta  me  Hex  Sanctorum"  and  the  "Munda  cor 
meum  corpusque  ac  labia"  (the  rest  as  in  the  Roman 
Rite),  followed  by  the  Blessing,  which  is  not  in  the  Ro- 
man form.  These  of  course  are  said  secretly.  The 
^ving  out  of  the  Gospel  and  the  response  and  the  cens- 
m^  are  similar  to  the  Roman.  After  the  reading  the 
pnest  signs  the  Gospel  with  the  cross  and  kisses  it,  say- 
mg:  "Ave  Verbum  Divinum:  reformatio  virtutum: 
restitutio  sanitatum." 

(11)  TAeOJ^ertory.— This  consists  of:  (a,)  The  Lauda, 
a  verse  between  two  Alleluias.  It  is  what  St.  Ger- 
manus calls  the  Sonus^  sung  during  the  procession  of 
the  Oblation.  There  is  now  no  procession,  but  while 
it  is  being  sung  the  Oblation  ceremonies  go  on.  (b) 
The  oblation  of  the  bread  and  wine,  with  prayers  re- 
sembling but  not  identical  with  the  Roman.  It  is  at 
the  covering  of  the  chalice  with  the  JUiola  (pall)  that 
the  prayer  containing  the  words  "omnium  offeren- 
tium" (see  above)  is  said,  (c)  The  Blessing  of  the 
Oblation,  for  which  two  alternative  pravers  are  given, 
one  of  wnich,  that  generally  used,  is  the  "In  spiritu 
humilitatis"  and  "Veni  sanctificator"  of  the  Roman 
Rite,  (d)  The  censing,  with  a  blessing  similar  to  the 
Roman  blessing  at  the  peginning  of  Mass,  but  a  differ- 
ent prayer,  (e)  "Adjuvate  me  fratres",  with  re- 
sponse— the  Mozarabic  form  of  the  "Orate  fratres". 
(f)  The  Sacrificium,  which  is  what  St.  Germanus  calls 
Lavdes.  This  with  the  Lauda  forms  the  equivalent  of 
the  Roman  Ojfertorium,  here  divided  in  the  books  by 
the  ceremonies  of  the  Oblation,  though  in  practice 
there  is  very  little  division,  (g)  When  there  are  offer- 
ings, the  priest  is  directed  to  receive  them  and  say  to 
the  offerer:  "(Dentuplum  accipias  et  vitam  possideas 
in  Regno  Dei."  This  is  the  remains  of  the  Offering  by 
the  people.  (See  Ambrosian  Rite.)  The  words  are 
retamea,  but  the  offering  is  no  longer  made.  This  is 
followed  in  the  hocka  by  Uie  Benedictio  Panis  (of.  the 


MOZABABIG 


620 


MOZABABIO 


Pain  Binii  still  used  in  France,  and  formerly  in  Eng- 
land). The  form  of  this  is  nearly  identical  with  Uie: 
first  of  those  given  in  the  Roman  and  Sarum  Miastds.. 
But  it  is  now  no  longer  used,  (h)  The  LavabOf  with 
only  the  first  three  verses  of  the  psalm.  It  is  followed 
by  a  final  blessing  ''super  oblationcm  cum  tribua 
digitis'\ 

(12)  The  Prayer  of  Humble  Access,  said  with 
bowed  head  by  the  priest. 

St.  Isidore  in  his  "Etymolofldes"  (vi,  19)  mentions  a 
diHmissal  of  catechumens  with  a  deacon's  Proclama- 
tion as  occurring  at  this  point. 

Here  be^ns  the  Miaea  FideUum,  which  contains; 
the  Seven  Prayers  spoken  of  by  St.  Isidore.  These 
seven  pravers  are: — 

(13)  Ad  Miseam  OraiiOy  Oratio  Mieece,  or  simply 
Misea, — ^This  is  often,  but  not  always,  a  Biddmg; 
Prayer.  The  Galilean  name  is  PrcBfaiio.  It  is 
followed  in  the  Mozarabic  by  ''Agios,  Agios,  Agios,, 
Domine  Rex  seteme,  tibi  laudes  et  gratias"  sung  by 
the  choir,  preceded  by  Oremus  (one  of  the  only  two* 
instances  of  this  word),  and  followed  by  a  short  in- 
vitation to  intercessory  prayer,  a  very  much  com- 
pressed form  of  the  Prex  (see  CEi/nc  Rite;  Gaujcam: 
Rtte),  sung  by  the  priest. 

(14)  Alia  Oratio. — ^This,  in  the  Galilean  books,  is: 
generally  headed  "Ck)llectiosequitur''.  The  Reichenau 
fragments  (see  Galucan  Rite)  are  not  always  quite 
clear  as  to  whether  there  are  one  or  two  prayers  here,, 
and  whether  this  is  to  be  identified  with  the  CoUectio 
or  the  Ante  Nomina  of  those  leaves,  but  neither  of 
these  have  reference  to  the  Nomina  which  follow^ 
nor  has  the  Mozarabic  Alia  Oratio,  except  in  the  un- 
varying ending  "Per  misericorcuam  tuam,  Deus 
noster,  in  cujus  conspectu  sanctorum  Apostolorum  et 
Martjrrum.  Ck)nfe8sorum  atque  Virginum  nomina 
redtantur."  This  is  followed  by  another  fixed  passage 
reciting  how  "Sacerdotes  nostri  [here,  acooraing  to> 
Leslie,  the  Deacon  recited  the  names  of  the  Arch- 
bishop of  Toledo  and  other  metropolitans  of  Spain] 
Papa  Romensis  [here  the  name  of  the  reigning  pope 
was  inserted]  et  reliqui  [i.  e.  according  to  Leslie's 
coniecture,  the  Bishops  of  Carthage,  Milan,  Lyons 
etc.],"  and  all  priests,  deacons,  clerics,  and  sur- 
rounding peoples  ofiPer  the  oblation  for  themselves 
and  for  all  the  brotherhood  with  a  response : "  Offeruni 
pro  se  et  pro  universa  fratemitate^'.  Then  follow 
the  Diptychs  or  lists  of  names  commemorated^ 
which  are  in  two  parts.  Apostles  and  Martyrs,  a  list 
consisting  of  Our  Lady,  St.  Zachary,  St.  John  (Bap- 
tists the  Innocents,  the  Apostles  and  St.  Mark  and 
St.  Luke.  To  this  there  is  a  reroonse  "et  omnium 
Martyrum".  The  second  list  is  'Item  pro  spiritibus 
pausantium".  with  forty-seven  names,  beginning 
with  Sts.  Hilary,  Athanasius,  Martin,  Ambrose,  and 
Augustine,  and  goin^  on  with  a  list  of  Spanish  persons, 
many  of  them  araibishops  of  Toledo,  both  before  and 
after  the  Conquest.  To  this  the  response,  as  in  the 
Stowe  Missal  (see  Celtic  Rite),  is  "et  omnium 
pausantium". 

(15)  The  Oratio  Post  Nomina  continues  the  inter- 
cession. ThiSj  the  third  prayer  of  St.  Isidore's  Ust, 
is  variable  with  the  day,  except  for  the  ending, 
"Quia  tu  es  vita  vivorum,  sanitaa  infimnorum  et 
requies  omnium  fidelium  defimctorum  in  letema 
ssecula  sseculorum." 

(16)  The  Pax,  with  theprayer  Ad  Pacem,  St. 
Isidore's  fourth  prayer.  The  prayer  is  variable, 
with  a  fixed  ending,  "Quia  tu  es  vera  pax  nostra  etc.'^ 
After  the  prayer  the  priest  pronounces  the  bene- 
diction, "Gratia  Dei  Patris  omnipotentis,  pax  et 
diieedo  D.  N.  J.  C.  et  oommunicatio  Spiritus  Sancti 
sit  semper  tarn  omnibus  nobb."  In  all  the  principal 
Eastern  liturgies  except  that  of  St.  Mark,  this  passage 
from  II  Cor.,  xiii,  is  separated  from  the  Pax  and 
comes  immediately  before  the  Sureum  corda  dia- 
logue,  its  place  before  the  Pax  being  taken  by 


«^ni  rfitf'cir  or  its  equivalent.  In  St.  Mark  and 
in  the  Roman  it  does  not  occur,  but  in  the  latter 
ever  since  the  late  fourth,  or  early  fifth  century 
at  least,  the  Pax  has  been  associated  with  the 
Communion,  not  with  the  beginning  of  the  Misaa 
Fidelium.  In  the  Galilean  the  Pax  came  as  in  the 
Mozarabic.  The  Ambrosian  now  follows  the  Roman, 
but  probably  did  not  always  do  so.  (See  Ambrosian 
Rite;  Celtic  Rite;  Galucan  Rite.)  In  the  Mo- 
zarabic Mass,  Hie  priest  says  "Quomodo  adstatis 
pacem  facite,"  and  the  choir  sing  a  responsory, 
Pacem  meam  do  vobis  etc.",  "Novum  mandatum 
do  vobis,  etc.",  during  which  "accipiat  Saccrdos 
pacem  de  patena",  saym^  "Habete  osculum  dilec- 
tionis  et  pacis  ut  apti  sitis  sacrosanctis  mysteriia 
Dei",  ana  gives  the  kiss  of  peace  to  the  deacon 
{vel  jmero),  who  passes  it  on  to  the  people. 

(17)  The  lUatio  or  Ihlatio.—Thia  is  called  Pfxefatio 
in  the  Roman  and  Conteatatio  or  Immolatio  in  Uie 
Galilean.  With  the  Post-Sanctus  it  forms  St. 
Isidore's  fifth  prs^^er.  There  are  proper  lUaHonea 
to  every  Mass.  The  form  is  similar  to  the  Roman 
Preface,  but  generally  longer  and  more  diffuse,  as 
in  the  (jrallican.  It  is  preceded  by  a  longer  dialogue 
than  the  usual  one:  ''Introibo  ad  altare  Dei  mei. 
I^.  Ad  Deum  qui  Isetificat  juventutem  meam.  ¥. 
Aures  ad  Dominum.  Q.  Habemus  ad  Dominum. 
^.  Sursum  Corda.  Q.  Levemus  ad  Dominum. 
^j,  Deo  ac  D.  N.  J.  C.  qui  est  in  ccelis  dignas  laudes, 
dignasQue  natias  referamus.  Q.  Dignum  et  justum 
est.  \C.  Dignum  et  justum  est,  etc."  The  lUatio 
ends  in  all  manner  of  ways,  but  always  leading  by 
way  of  the  angels  to  the  Sanctus.  This  is  "Sanctus, 
Sanctus,  Sanctus,  Dominus  Deus  Sabaoth.  Pleni 
sunt  cceli  et  terra  gloria  majestatis  tus.  Osanna 
filio  David.  Benedictus  etc.  Agyos,  A^os,  Agyos, 
Kyrie  o  Theos." 

(18)  The  PoatrSanaus,  part  of  St.  Isidore's  fifth 
prayer,  is  variable  according  to  the  day,  but  almost 
always  besins  "Vere  sanctus,  vere  benedictus  D.  N. 
J.  C",  andf generally  ends  "Ipse  Dominus  ac  Redemp- 
tor  setemur'.  All  liturgies  except  the  Roman  and 
the  Romanized  Celtic  have  some  form  of  a  very  similar 
Post-Sanctus,  which  leads  up  to  the  Recital  of  the 
Institution.  Even  the  Ambrosian  has  one  for  Easter 
Eve.  The  occurrence  of  a  part  of  the  Intercession 
after  the  Sanctus  in  the  Roman  makes  a  great  differ- 
ence here.  The  last  words  of  the  MozimUbic  Post- 
Sanctus  ought  to  anticipate  "Qui  pridie  etc.",  as  in  the 
Galilean,  but  there  is  an  interpolation — "  more  suo  adeo 
imperite  ut  interpolatio  manifesta  est",  as  Leslie  says 
— as  follows:  "Adesto.  adesto,  Jesu  bone  Pontifex  m 
medio  nostri  sicut  tuisti  in  medio  disdpulorum 
tuorum,  et  sancti  t  fica  hanc  oblationem  t  ut  sancti- 
ficata  sumamus  per  manus  sancti  Angeli  tui  [cf.  the 
clause  "Supplices  te  rogamus"  of  the  Roman  Canon] 
sancte  Domine  et  R^emptor  steme."  The  age 
of  the  interpolation  is  unknown,  but  it  is  probably 
much  older  than  the  Ximenian  Missal,  thou^  it  does 
not  occur  in  the  Mieaa  Omnimoda  in  the  Silos  Liber 
Ordinum  of  1052.  It  may  have  originated  as  a 
sort  of  parenthetical  ejaculation  (influenced  by  the 
Roman  Canon)  said  secretly  by  the  priest  with  bowed 
head  before  beginning  the  Recital  of  the  Institution, 
which,  like  the  Post-Sanctus,  was  possibly  then  saia 
aloud.  The  present  printed  form  of  the  Recital  is 
that  of  I  Cor.,  xi,  23-6:  "D.  N.  J.  C.  in  qua  nocte 
tradebatur  etc."  This  agrees  with  the  principal 
Eastern  liturgies,  but  the  Gallican  had  "Qui  pridie 
quam  pateretur'  or  some  variant  thereof,  and  the 
Mozan^ic  must  once  have  had  the  same,  possibly 
(as  Leslie  suggests)  combining  both  datings  with 
"Qui  pridie  quam  pateretur"  and  "in  ipsa  nocte  qua 
traidebatur  etc."  The  form  in  the  Silos  Liber  Or^ 
num  of  1052  begins  as  at  raesent,  and  in  Toledo 
35.0  it  b^ins  "Quoniam  Dominus  Jesu  in  qua 
nocte."    It  is  certain  that  the  Roman  form  of  the 


MOZAEABIG                           621  MOZAEABIG 

Words  of  Institution  was  not  used  by  the  Spanish  able  according  to  the  day,  with  a  response  of  Amen  to 

Church  before  the  mission  of  ZanneUo  (see  above)  each  clause.    In  the  Gallican  Rite  the  long  Benedic- 

in  924.    It  was  then  that  the  practice  arose  of  saying  tion  was  reserved  for  bishops  only,  a  short  form  (Pax 

the  Roman  form,  instead  of  what  was  written,  and  et  caritas  D.  N.  J.  C.  et  communicatio  sanctorum 

that  is  what  is  done  now.    In  the  Ximenian  edition  omnium  sit  semper  nobiscum)  being  said  by  priests, 

the  Roman  Words  were  not  printed  at  first,  but  later  The  Benedictions  continued  in  France  long  after  the 

were  printed  on  separate  sups  and  gummed  on  to  extinction  of  the  Gallican  Rite  (see  Gallican  Rrrs) 

the  maiigin.    In  the  later  editions  the^  appear  as  and  in  England.    In  the  Sarum  Manual  of  1554  di- 

f ootnotes.    Elevation  is  ordered  in  the  printed  Missal  rections  are  ^ven  for  Episco^Mil  Benedictions,  with  the 

after  the  Consecration  of  each  species.  same  prelimmary  proclamation  as  in  the  Mozarabic. 

(19)  The  Po^UPridie. — St.  Isidore  calls  it  con)Erma(io  (22)  The  Communion, — ^The  choir  sing  a  fixed  re- 
tacrameniif  ''ut  oblatio  quse  Deo  offertur  sanctificata  sponsory  called  Ad  Accidenles,  beginning  "Gustate  et 
per  Sanctum  Spiritum  corpori  Christi  et  sanguine  videte",  composed  of  Ps.  xxxiii,  8,  1,  22^  with  AUe- 
confirmetur ",  wnich  seems  as  if  he  took  it  to  he  an  luias  after  each  verse.  There  are  variants  m  Lent  and 
Epiklesia  (q.  v.),  needed  to  complete  the  consecration,  Eastertide  (cl.  CEi;nc  Rrrs;  Gallican  Rite).  The 
but  (in  Ep.  vii  ad  Redemptorem,  sect.  2)  he  speaks  also  same  verses  are  mentioned  by  St.  Cyril  of  Jerusalem 
of  "verba  D&.  .  .  .  sdhcet,  Hoc  est  corpus  meum'',  and  occur  in  some  Eastern  liturgies.  Then  follows 
being  the  "substantia  sacramenti".  In  the  Gallican  the  antiphon  wluch  answers  to  the  Roman  Communio 
boolra  there  are  several  of  these  prayers  with  some  sort  which  is  usually '  *  Ref ecti  Christi  Corpore  et  Sangiune, 
of  Invocation  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  some  q|uite  unmis-  te  laudamus,  Domine.  Alleluia  (3)  ,  with  a  variant 
takable,  others  qtiite  vague.  The  majonty  have  no  in  Lent  "Repletum  est  gaudio  os  nostrum,  etc."  This 
siffn  of  any  Epudesia,  and  this  is  the  case  with  the  is  followed  by  the  Poet-Communion,  a  prayer  or  a 
Mozarabic,  perhaps  fourteen  or  fifteen  Masses  have  Bidding  Prayer  variable  with  the  day,  out  with  a 
either  a  definite  Epiklena  or  what  with  some  ingenuity  rather  small  selection,  onl^  a  few  days  having  sepa- 
and  emendation  can  be  made  to  look  like  one,  while  in  rate  proper  Post-Commumons  of  their  own,  four  or  five 
the  rest  it  is  generally  the  Great  Oblation,  often  with  being  used  over  and  over  again,  one  for  Feasts  of  our 
allusions  to  the  day.  It  is  followed  by  a  fixed  prater  Lord  and  another  for  saints'  days,  varied  only  in  the 
resembling  the  clause  Per  quern  hcec  omnia  in  the  Ro-  name  of  the  feast.  During  the  singing  of  the  Ad  Ac- 
man  Canon,  and  a  second  devation  preceded  by  **  Do-  cidentes  and  Communio  the  priest  makes  his  commun- 
minus  sit  semper  vobiscum  etc."  and  "fldem  quam  ion,  with  private  devotions  not  unlike  those  of  the  Ro- 
corde  credimus  ore  autem  dicamus".  On  Sundays  man  Rite,  but  including  the  two  "Ave  in  sevimi.  etc.", 
and  most  feasts  sex  capparum  and  quatuor  capparum  passaoes  which  are  found  also  in  the  Sarum  and  other 
the  Creed  is  recited;  this  has  several  verbal  differences  local  Missals.  Just  before  his  conununion  the  priest 
from  the  Roman  form,  among  others,  credimus^  con-  holds  the  particle  Regnum  over  the  chalice  sa3ring 
fUemur  and  expedamuSf  mviftcaSn-emf  adorandum  et  con-  aloud  '  *  Memento  pro  mortuis "  (or  "  pro  defunctis  , 

?lorifiocmdum,  Omousion  Patri,  hoc  est  eiusdem  cum  for  both  forms  are  found). 
^aire  substanticB  etc.  St.  Isidore  (De  Eccl.  Off.,  I,  (23)  The  Dismiseol. — Of  this  there  are  two  forms, 
xvi)  mentions  the  recitation  of  the  Creed  ''tempore  that  for  ordinary  days  being  "Missa  acta  est  in  no- 
sacrifidi'',  but  with  him  saerificium  sometimes  means  mine  D.  N.  J.  C.  pernciamus  cum  pace.  R.  Deo  sra- 
the  offertory,  sometimes  the  whole  Mass.  On  certain  tias'',  and  that  for  greater  feasts,  ''Solemnia  compTeta 
days,  chiefly  in  Lent  and  in  votive  Masses,  there  is  an  sunt  m  nomine  D.  N.  J.  C.  votum  nostrum  sit  accep- 
Antij^uma  ad  Confractionem  Pania  (cf.  the  Confrac-  tum  cum  pace.  R.  Deo  gratia8'\  Then  follows 
iorivm  of  the  Ambrosian  Rite),  said  instead  of  the  "SalveRe^na'' with  versicle  and  responses  and  the  col- 
'' I>ldem  quam  corde  credimus  etc."  During  it  or  the  lect,  "Concede  nos  famulos  tuos  etc.^',  which  of  course 
Creed  the  Fraction  takes  place.  The  Host  is  first  di-  is  not  Mozarabic,  and  after  that  the  Blessing  "In 
vided  into  two  halves,  then  one  half  is  divided  into  unitate  Sancti  Spiritus  benedicat  voe  Pater  et  fuius". 
five  and  the  other  into  tour  parts.  Seven  of  these  par-  It  will  be  seen  that  the  fixed  elements  of  this  Mass 
tides  are  arranged  in  the  form  of  a  cross,  five,  named  are  very  few.  These  are:  the  Preparations;  generally 
Corporaiio  (Incarnation),  Natiinlas,  CircumcisiOf  Ap-  the  Gloria;  the  Prayers  etc.  of  the  Offertorv;  the 
pariHo  (Epiphany),  and  Paaeio  forming  the  uprignt  Nomina;  the  Pax,  but  not  its  prayer;  the  Sursum 
part,  and  two,  named  Mors  and  Resurrrectio,  the  arms.  Corda;  the  Sanctus;  the  Recital  of  the  Institution  with 
These  last  are  arranged  on  dther  side  of  the  Particle  its  preliminary  prayer;  a  prayer  following  the  Post- 
Natvntas  with  the  Gloria  and  Regnum,  placed  to-  Prioie;  the  Creed;  the  priest's  part  of  the  Fraction, 
rother  on  one  side.  (For  instances  of  complicated  Commixture,  and  Communion;  the  Lord's  Prayer  and 
Fractions,  see  Csimc  Rite;  Gallican  Ritb.)  Then  Embolismus,  but  not  its  introduction;  and  the  Salve 
the  priest  washes  his  fingers,  "purget  bene  digitoe",  Regina  and  Blessing.  The  variables,  which  in  point 
and,  the  chalice  being  covered,  says  aloud  "  Memento  of  time  and  written  space  take  up  by  far  the  lar|;er  pro- 
pro  vivis".  portion  of  the  Mass,  are:  The  Officium  (Introit);  the 

(20)  Tfie  Ad  Oraiionem  Dominicam,  St.  Isidore's  Oratio  after  the  Gloria,  the  I^phecy,  the  Psallendo; 
seventh  and  last  prayer,  varies  with  the  day,  and,  like  the  Epistle;  the  Gospel;  the  Lauda;  the  Saerificium; 
the  Agyos  softer  toe  Ad  Missam  Oratio  is  preceded  by  Ad  Afissam  Oratio;  Alia  Oratio;  Post  Nomina;  Ad  Pa^ 
Oremus.  It  ends  introducing  the  Pater  Moster,  sung  eem;  lUatio;  PosirSanctus;  Post^Pridie;  Antiphona  ad 
t^  the  priest,  the  choir  responding  Amen  to  each  clause  Cor^raxUonem  Pants;  Ad  Oraiionem  Dominicam'  the 
except  ^'  Panem  nostrum  ^uotidianum  da  nobis  hodie"  Benediction; '  Ad  Accidentes;  Communio;  Post-Com- 
when  the  response  is  ''Quia  Deus  es".  The  invariable  munion;  the  Dismissal.  To  these  may  be  added  the 
EniMiamus  is  a  long  intercessory  prayer  followed  by  additional  Canticles  on  certain  days. 

the  Commixture.    The  particle  Regnum  is  held  over  VI.    The  Occasional  Services. — ^At  the  pres- 

the  chalice,  during  Paschal  time  and  on  Corpus  ent  day  those  who  belong  to  the  Mozarabic  Rite 

Christi,  with  the  words  "Vidt  Leo  ex  tribuJuda,  radix  use  the  Roman  Ritual,  and,  as  their  bishop  is  the 

David,  Alleluia.    Qui  sedes  super  cherubim,  radix  Archbishop  of  Toledo,  who  is  of  the  Roman  Rite,  the 

David,  Alleluia",  and  then  dropped  into  the  chalice,  Roman  Pontifical  is  also  used  for  them.    The  date  at 

with  the  words  "Sancta  Sanctis  et  oonjunctio   Cor-  which  the  old  Spanish  Ritual  and  Pontifical  services 

poris  D.  N.  J.  C.  sit  sumentibus  et  potantibus  nobis  ad  ceased  to  be  used  is  not  known.    The  four  existing 

veniam  et  defunctis  fidelibus  prsBstetur  ad  requiem."  MSS.  of  the  Liber  Ordinum,  which  contains  these  ser- 

(21)  The  Benediction. — ^The  deacon  proclaims  "Hu-  vices,  are  all  of  the  eleventh  century,  and  bdonged 
miliate  vos  ad  Benedictionem",  and  the  priest  pro-  either  to  Silos  or  to  San  Millan  de  la  Cogolla.  There 
oounces  a  Blessing  in  three,  four,  or  five  clauses,  van-  are  none  at  or  from  Toledo,  and,  when  Cardinal 


MOZABABIC 


622 


MOZABABIG 


Ximenes  had  the  Missal  and  Brevianr  printedy  there 
was  evidently  no  need  to  print  a  Ritual  and  Pontifical, 
as  they  were  probably  no  longer  used.  Of  the  elev- 
enth century  MSS.  of  the  lAber  Ordinum  published  by 
Dom  F^rotin,  one  (the  Silos  MSS.  of  1052)  contains  a 
very  complete  set  of  occasional  services.  They  con- 
sist of:  (1)  The  Blessing  of  Oil,  Salt,  and  Water:  (2) 
Baptism:  (3)  Ordinations:  (4)  The  Unction  and  Visi- 
tation ot  the  Sick;  (5)  Ttie  Blessing  of  Virgins,  Ab- 
besses, Widows,  and  Conuersi;  (6)  The  Order  of  Pen- 
ance and  Reconciliation  of  heretics  and  schismatics 
and  for  the  conversion  of  Jews:  (7)  The  Order  of 
Death  and  Burial;  (8)  Ritus  pro  Rege  observandua;  (9) 
Various  Blessings;  (10)  Orders  for  Holy  Week  and 
Easter ;  (1 1 )  The  Order  of  Matrimony.  These  are  fol- 
lowed by  a  large  number  of  Masses,  chiefly  votive.  Of 
these  services  the  following  may  be  noted: — 

(1)  Baptism. — ^The  order  is: — (a)  Insufflation.  The 
priest  breathes  thrice,  with  the  words  "Exorcizo  te 
mmiunde  spiritus  hostis  human!  generis '\  (b)  Insig- 
nation.  Tne  sign  of  the  Cross  on  the  forehead,  and 
exorcism  towards  the  west,  (c)  Unction  with  oil  on 
mouth  and  ears,  with  ''Effeta,  effeta  cum  sancto 
spiritu  in  odorem  suavitatis.  Bene  omnia  fecit  et 
surdos  fecit  audire  et  mutosloqui^'.  (d)  Imposition 
of  hands,  (e)  Traditio  symbolu  (f)  Blessing  of  the 
font  preceded  by  exorcism,  (g)  Interrogations  and 
Renunciations,  (h)  Baptism,  with  ''Ego  te  baptizo 
in  Nomine  etc.,  ut  habeas  vitam  setemam."  (i)  Cnris- 
mation  on  forehead,  with  "Signum  vitas  setemae  quod 
dedit  Deus  Pater  Omnipotens  per  Jesum  Christum 
Filium  suum  credentibus  in  salutem.''  (k)  Imposi- 
tion of  hands,  with  prayer.  (1)  "Post  hsc  velantur  a 
sacerdote  infantes  ipsi  aui  baptizati  sunt  caput:  quo 
peracto  communicat  eos  '  (i.  e.  the  Vesting  and  Com- 
munion). On  the  third  day  the  children  are  brought 
to  the  priest,  who  says  ov^  them  the  ''Benedictio  de 
Albis''.  Except  in  me  case  of  converts  from  Arian- 
ism,  no  separate  order  of  Confirmation  is  given.  The 
Chnsmation  and  Imposition  of  hands  after  Baptism, 
followed  as  it  was  by  Communion,  was  evidently  the 
only  normal  form  of  Confirmation.  In  the  case  of  Arian 
converts  the  words  are:  ''Et  ego  te  chrismoin  Nomine 
etc.,  in  remissionem  omnium  peccatorum  ut  habeas 
vitam  setemamj^  followed  by  tne  imposition  of  hands 
and  a  prav^.  Tne  ceremony  of  feet-washing,  retained 
in  the  Celtic  and  Galilean  Baptisms,  does  not  appear 
in  the  Spanish  Liber  Ordtntim,  though  mentioned  by 
the  Council  of  Elvira  in  305  (see  Gallican  Rrrs). 

(2)  Ordinations, — ^The  minor  ordinations  are  those 
of  dericuSf  sacristaj  and  custos  librorum.  Tliese  or- 
ders are  preceded  by  "Oratio  super  eum  qui  capUlos  in 
sola  fronte  tendere  vult" — which  looks  hke  a  reUc  of 
the  Celtic  tonsure  (see  Celtic  Rite),  but,  as  Dom 
Fdrotin  conjectures,  is  probably  of  the  nature  of  an 
offering  "des  premisses  de  la  chevelure'^  (cf.  the 
TptxoKovpla,  seven  days  after  Baptism,  in  the  Byzan- 
tine Rite) — ^by  "Oratio  super  parvulum  quern  par- 
en  tes  ad  doctrinam  offerunt"  and  "Benedictio  super 
parvulum  qui  in  ecclesia  ad  ministerium  Dei  detondi- 
tur  ".  The  "  clericus "  of  the  next  section  is  evidently 
also ' '  parvulus  " .  The  sacrista  has  a  ring  given  to  him 
with  the  words:  "Esto  ianitor  adituimi  et  prsepositus 
oetiariorum".  The  custos  librorum  receives  "anulum 
de  scriniis",  and  is  also  appointed  "senior  scribarum". 
Then  follows  a  curious  '  6rdo  super  eum  qui  barbam 
tangere  cupit".  The  priest  takes  wax  from  a  taper 
and  puts  a  crumb  of  it  on  the  right,  left,  and  middle  of 
the  chin.  Prayers  are  said  alluding  te  the  anointing 
of  Aaron's  beard.  Then  "Ista  explicita  intromittit 
in  anulo  barbam  cum  cera  et  in  anulo  baibam  et  ceram 
capulat  qui  barbam  tangit  dicens,  In  Nomine  ete.  et 
accipit  in  linteo  nitido.  Peracta  ista  omnia  absolvit 
diaconus  dicens,  Missa  acta  est.  Et  post  hsc  si  est 
monachus  radit  barbam".  The  ordinations  of  sub- 
deacon,  deacon,  archdeacon,  priest,  archpriest,  and 
abbot  are  very  simple     To  the  subaeaoon  is  given  by 


the  archdeaoon  the  "ministerium  ad  manuslavandos" 
and  a  chalice  and  paten.  The  bishop  gives  him  the  book 
of  St.  Paul's  Epistles.  The  bishop  puts  the  stole  (ora- 
rium)  on  the  \&t  shoulder  of  a  deacon,  and  delivers  a 
"ferula"  to  an  archdeacon  and  archpriest,  a  "manuale" 
(book  of  sacraments)  to  a  priest,  and  a  sta£f  and  book 
of  the  Rule  to  an  abbot.  In  each  case  these  are  ac- 
companied by  prayers,  and  a  confirmatio  addressed  to 
the  newly  ord^uned,  which  is  more  or  less  an  explana- 
tion of  his  duties  and  status.  In  the  case  of  a  priest  the 
asmstant  priests  are  directed  to  lav  their  hands  on  him 
as,  vested  in  stole  and  chasuble,  he  kneels  before  the 
altar,  and,  thou^  there  is  no  du-ection  for  the  bishop 
to  do  so,  it  is  evident  from  the  wording  of  his  "Bene- 
dictio" that  he  lays  his  hands  on  him  also.  There  is 
no  order  given  for  the  consecration  of  a  bishop.  The 
blessings  of  nuns  and  other  religious  are  quite  simple, 
vdlinff  with  prayer  and  benediction,  and  for  an  abbess 
the  d^very  of  a  staff  and  the  putting  on  of  a  mitre. 


(3)  The  Unction  of  the  Sick  is  given  together  with  an 
order  for  the  blessing  of  the  unauent.  This  was  done 
on  Uie  Feast  of  Sts.  Cosmas  and  Damian,  the  physician- 
martyrs  (27  Sept.),  not,  as  elsewhere  in  the  West,  on 
Maundy  Thursday.  The  bishop  makes  a  cross  (a 
cross  pattie  with  a  pendant  and  the  A  and  Q  is  figured 
in  the  book)  with  a  graphium  (style),  saying  an  anti- 
phon  "Sicut  unguentum  in  capite  etc.".  andf  a  prayer 
and  benediction,  both  referring  to  the  nealing  of  the 
sick.  The  Unction  of  the  sick  was  on  the  head  only, 
with  the  sign  of  the  Cross  and  the  words  "  In  Nomine 
Patris  ete.  Antiphons  referring  to  sickness  and  its 
healing  are  then  said.  There  is  provision  for  anoint- 
ingmany  sick  persons  at  the  same  time. 

The  rest  of  the  occasional  services  do  not  call  for 
much  remark.  They  are  for  the  most  part  very  sim- 
ple blessings  and  prayers,  not  unlike  those  found  in 
the  Roman  Ritual.  They  include,  however,  a  few  of 
a  type  found  also  in  the  Greek  Euchologion  for  the 
cleansing  of  any  polluted  person,  place,  or  thing,  e.  g. 
"  super  his  qui  morticinum  comedunt  vd  suffocatum  , 
"super  vas  m  quo  (sic)  aliquid  immundum  ceciderit", 
etc.,  and  the  Orders  when  the  king  goes  out  to  battle 
with  his  army,  and  when  he  returns,  have  a  consider* 
able  historical  interest. 

PiNxus.  De  LUwffia  Antigua  Hitpanica  in  Ada  SS.^  July,  VI, 
1-112,  reprinted  in  Bianchini's  edition  of  Tbomaaius;  Tboma- 
Biua,  Opera  omnia,  ed.  Bianchiki,  I  (Rome,  1741);  Flokh, 
BepaHa  Sagrada  (Madrid,  1748);  FiBonN,  Liber  Ordinum  in 
Cabrol  and  Lkclbbcq,  Monum.  BceUe.  LUurg.,  V  (Paris, 
1004);  FiBOTiN.  Uiat.  de  VAbbaye  de  Silo*  (Paria,  1897);  Idbm. 
Deux  Manueerite  ipieioothiouee  de  la  Bibliothique  de  Ferdinand 
I  in  Rewe  de  VBeoU  de  Chartee,  LXII  (1901);  P.  L.:  toL 
LXXXIII.  St.  laiDOBs;  vol.  LXXXV.  Mozarabie  AfwMl.  ed. 
Lbsub;  vol.  LXXXVI,  Moearabie  Breviary ,  ed.  Lobbnsaka' 
vol.  XCVI,  St.  lLOBroK8U%  and  Br.  Juuak  of  Toledo;  Mo- 
balbda  t  Ebtaban,  Bl  Rito  Mozdrabe  (Toledo,  1857) ;  Hekxam- 
DBX  DB  ViBBA,  Rubriooe  genereUee  de  la  Miea  Gothica  Jtuzdrabe 
(Salamanca,  1772);  Pbbbs.  Dewcionario  Muadrabe  (Toledo, 
1903) ;  Nbalb,  The  Moearabie  Liturgy  in  his  Beeaye  on  Liturgi' 
ology  (London,  1863);  W.  C.  Bishop,  The  Motarabie  Riu  in 
Church  Quarterly  (Oct.,  1906;  Jan.,  1907) ;  Siu onbt.  Hietoria  de 
lot  Motdrabea  in  Memoriae  de  la  Real  Acadtmia  de  la  Hietoria, 
XIII  (Madrid,  1903):  Buldu,  Hittmia  de  la  IgUtia  de  BepaHa 
(Barcelona,  1856-7);  Pabbo,  Toledo  en  la  mano  (Toledo.  1857); 
Oambbo,  Hietoria  de  la  dudad  de  Toledo  (Toledo.  1862) ;  Pisa, 
Deecripcion  de  la  imperial  dudad  de  Toledo  (Toledo,  1605); 
BuBBtBL,  Correepondeneiat  He.  in  vol.  XIII  (1848)  of  Fbbnan> 
DBZ  DB  Navabbbttb,  btc..  CoUceiin  de  ttoeumentoe  iniditoe  para 
la  hietoria  de  BepaHa  (Madrid,  1842—);  Idbm.  Paleografta  ee- 
paliaia  (Madrid,  1768);  Equbbn,  Memoria  deeeripHea  de  lee 
cddicee  notablee  eoneervadoa  en  loe  €wehivoe  edeeidatieoe  de  Be' 
pana  (Madrid,  1859) ;  RiaAbs,  Critical  and  bibliographicai  neiee 
on  earlu  Spanieh  mueic  (London,  1887):  Ewald  and  Lobvb, 
Bxempla  ecriptura  Vieigotiea  (Heidelberg.  1883);  Bbbb, 
Handeehriftenechdtee  Spaniene  in  Siteungtberiehte,  Pkiloe^ 
phiech'Hietorieehe  Claeee  der  kaieerL  Akad.  der  Wieeeneekafien 
Wiene,  CXXI-CXXIV;  Audbt.  Iter  Hiepanieum  (Paria,  1906); 
Ddchbsnb,  Originee  du  cuUe  ehritien  (Paris,  1902;  tr.  Lon* 
don,  1904);  Pbobst,  Die  abendland.  Meeee  tom  fUnften  bie 
eum  adUen  Jahrh.  (MQnster,  1896);  Mabillon,  De  Liturg, 
OaUieana  (Paris,  1685);  Mdbatobi,  Liturgia  Romana  Vetue 
(Venice,  1748);  Nbalb  and  Forbbs,  Ancient  LUurgy  ef  the 
Oallioan  Church  (Burntisland.  1855-67);  Ldcas,  Early  Gal' 
liean  Liturgiee  in  Dublin  Review  (July,  1893;  Jan..  1894); 
Motbs,  Motarabie  Rite  and  Angliean  Oidere  in  The  nUet  (15, 
22,  29  Jan.,  1910),  86-8,  123-4.  163-5;  HAUHOirD,  Aneteni 
LUurgiet  (Oxford.  1878);  BaOubb.  Oeeek,  dee  Breeitn  (FM 


HOZA&T                              623  HOZIB* 

l«ir«.iM6;F™nohtr.,P»ri^iKi5);ii  B»HOF,KirK««Wt(Hiin  H&ydn  and  Anton  Cajetan  Adlgasaer  reepectivd;. 

MiTa^a^y^^^  «lSJ^  (Flo?eno/"r7M^)^  A^  't-   •«"  published    at   Salzburg   m    1767,    and   pel^ 

BMioihtea  Hitpana  VMui  (Miidrid,  1788);  loxit,' BMioiktra  formed  during  Lent  or  the  same  year.     A  year  later,  at 

Uiipana  f/ata  {Msdrid.  1783-88).    Ct.  kJM  the  vsrioui  edi-  the  age  of  twelve,  Wolfgang  visited  Vienna  anew,  and 

3  tha  section  ol  tbu  srti-  ^^  commissioned  to  write  an  opera  bi0a,  "  La  Finta 

Henht  Jbnner.  Semplice",  for  which  Marco  Coltellini  furnished  the 
libretto.     Intrigues  of  all  kinds,  especially  on  the  part 

Mosort,  JoHANM  Chrtbostoicitb  Woltoanq  Aua-  of  the  members  of  the  theatre  orchnstra,  who  objected 

DETI9,  one  of  the  greatest  musical  geniusee  in  history,  to  playing  under  the  direction  of  a  twelve-year-old 

b,  at  Salzburg,  Austria,  27  Jan.,  1756;  d.  at  Vienna,  5  boy,  prevented  its  performance. 

Dec,  1791,     His  father,  Leopold  Moiart,  assistant  Returning  to  Salzburg,  Wolfgang  was  appointed 

choir-master  and  court  musician  to  the  Prince-Arch-  concert-master,  at   first   without  compensation,  but 

bishop  of  Salzburg,  was  one  of  the  most  distinguished  later  was  allowed  a  monthly  stipend  of  twelve  florins, 

musicians  of  his  time.     He  was  the  author  of  the  beat  Leopold  Moiart.  chafing  under  Wolfgang's  lack  of 

method  for  violin-playing  written  up  to  that  period,  recognition,  made  every  effort  to  Becure  for  him  a 

and  was  a  man  of  thorough  education  and  steriing  suitable  appointment  in  the  larger  field  of  Munich  and 

character.    Realizing  his  son's  extraordinary  endow-  VienDa,aodalBoFlorence,butnotsucceeding,hefinally 

ments,  and  also  the  great  musicnl  gifts  of  his  daughter  decided  to  visit  Italy,  with  a  view  to  gaining  there  the 

Maria  Anna,  five  years  Wolfgang's  senior,  he  devoted  prestigewhichauccesainthat  country  then  carried  with 

aJl  his  energy  and  knowledge  it.     In  Bologna  thev  became 

to  their  education.     Wolfgang  acquainted  with  Paare  Giam- 

at  the  ase  of  three  waa  wont  to  battista  Martini  (1706-1784), 

spend wnolehoursattbepiano,  the  most  learned  musician  of 


_._  raveriDg,  to  his  great  joy,  his  time.  This  master  put 
consonant  mtervals,  and  was  Wolfganx  through  tests  in  con- 
not  ^ct  four  when  he  began  to  trapuntal  writing,  which  the 
receive  from  his  father  syste-  latter  withstood  with  ease^d 
matic traininginpiano-playing  consummate  skill.  In  Rome 
and  in  the  theory  of  music,  im-  young  Mozart  performed  his 
provialng  even  before  he  could  famous  feat  of  scoring  All^pi's 
writ*  notes.  Violin- play iog  "Miserere"  tordouble  chorus, 
came  to  him  practically  by  in-  after  listening  to  its  perFonn- 
tuition,afactwhichhcdemon-  ance  on  Wednesday  of  Holy 
strated  to  the  astonishment  of  Week.  Hearing  the  work  re- 
hia  father  and  a  company  of  peated  on  the  following  Friday, 
artists,  by  performing  at  flrst  ne  had  but  a  few  minor  cor- 
nght  the  second  violin  part  in  rections  to  make  in  hia  man- 
a  trio  for  stringed  instruments.  uacript.  After  being  created 
He  was  not  yet  five  when  his  Knignt  of  the  Golden  Spur, 
father  wrote  [or  him  a  theme  (fitea,  and  acclaimed  through- 
for  the  piano  with  variations,  out  Italy  by  the  artistic  and 
which  ne  bad  himself  com-  aristocratic  world  as  the  great- 
posed.  So  correct  waa  the  est  Uving  musicnlgeniua,  Wolf- 
child's  car  that  he  would  re-  I  gang  returned  to  hia  modest 
member  the  tone  pitch  of  a  position  in  Salzburg.  Again 
violin  which  he  had  heard  even  and  again  he  tried  to  find  a 
weeks  before.    His  sensitive-  |   more  congenial  atmosphere  in 

ness    was    such    that    harsh  — .     ,,__  Munich,  Mannheim,  Paris,  and 

Bounds  were  distressing  to  woi«i™  Aiuiai«  mou«t  elsewhere,  but  without  success. 
him,  a  blast  of  a  trumpet  almost  caudng  him  to  faint  He  continued,  except  for  occasional  visits  to  other 
away.  cities  for  the  purpose  of  conducting  new  works,  to 
Wolfgang  waa  not  yet  eight  years  old  when  his  reside  in  Salzbui^  until  his  twenty-firat  year,  when 
fathra  undertook  a  concert  tour  with  his  two  chil-  be  took  up  his  permanent  abode  in  Vienna. 
dren,  visiting  Munich,  Vienna,  and  Preaburg.  Every-  An  offer  from  Frederick  William  II  of  Prussia  to  be- 
where  their  performances,  especially  the  boy  B,  created  come  court  conductor  at  Berlin  at  a  salary  of  three 
great  astonishment.  In  1763  Leopold  Mozart  vis-  thousand  thalers  he  refused  on  patriotic  grounds. 
Ited  Faria  with  hia  prodigies,  and  the  following  April  Mozart  was  now  in  the  full  maturity  of  his  powers. 
London,  where  they  remained  until  July,  1764.  Re-  creating  with  astonishing  rapidity  works  which  will 
ceived  and  fSted  by  royalty  and  people  of  high  station,  remain  classic  for  all  time :  operas,  symphoaies,  quar- 
the  Moiart  children,  but  particularly  Wolfgang,  were  lets,  concertos,  etc.,  all  of  which  increaaedhiafame,  but 
considered  the  musical  wonders  of  the  world.  On  did  not  ameliorate  hia  material  condition.  Not  only 
their  way  back  to  Salzburg  they  visitod  The  Hague  waa  due  recognition  denied  him,  but  his  life  was  one 
and  the  principal  citiea  of  France  and  Switzerland,  continuous  battle  for  existence.  His  application  for 
During  all  these  travels,  and  the  diatraction  and  ex-  the  aaaistant  conductorship  of  the  imperial  opera 
cil«ment  incident  thereto,  Wolfgang  made  progress  in  house  failed.  He  applied  for  a  similar  position  at  the 
all  branchesof  musical  and  other  knowledge.  He  com-  cathedral  of  St.  Stephen,  in  the  hope  ol  ultimate  pro- 
posed constantly  and  in  almost  every  known  instru-  motion  to  the  post  of  choir-master.  Onlyoohisdeath- 
mental  form.  Returned  home,  he  devoted  himself  to  bed  did  he  receive  the  news  of  his  appointment.  The 
the  mastery  of  counterpoint,  and  the  perfecting  of  his  great  master  died  at  the  aj^  of  thirty-four  and  was 
technique  m  piano,  violin,  and  organ-playing.  His  buried,  with  the  least  possible  expense  because  of  ei- 
patroo,  Archbishop  von  Schlatterbach,  sceptical  re-  treme  poverty,  in  a  pauper's  grave,  hia  enact  reating- 
garding  the  boy's  repoH^  achievementa  as  a  com-  place  being  now  unknown.  Only  a  few  persons 
poacr,  invited  Wolfgang  to  bis  palace,  forbidding  followed  hia  remaina  to  the  cemetery, 
communication  of  any  kind  with  him,  and  giving  Mozart's  individuality  waa  of  an  exquisitely  deli- 
hjm  the  text  of  the  first  part  of  an  oratorio,  prepared  catc.  tender,  and  noble  character.  His  operas,  "Don 
by  the  archbishop,  to  set  to  music.  The  second  and  Juan", "TheMagicFlute","TheMarriMeof  Figaro", 
toird  oarts  of  this  work  were  composed  by  Michael  "Cod  fan  tutte",  "LaClemenia  di  "nto",  on  «» 


MOZETINA 


624 


count  of  their  melodic  beauty  and  truth  of  expression, 
have  as  strong  a  hold  upon  the  affections  of  the  musi- 
cal public  to-day  as  they  did  at  the  end  of  the  eigh- 
teenth centuiy.  His  instrumental  works  continue  to 
delight  musicians  the  world  over.  As  a  composer  for 
the  Church,  however,  he  does  not,  even  artistically, 
reach  the  high  level  he  maintained  in  other  fields.  In 
his  day  the  music  of  the  Church,  Gregorian  chant,  was 
practically  ignored  in  Germany,  and  sadly  neglected 
m  other  countries.  Mozart  had  but  little  knowledge 
of  the  masters  of  the  sixteenth  century,  and  conse- 
quently his  style  of  writing  for  the  Church  could  not 
have  been '  influenced  by  them.  The  proper  of  the 
Mass,  which  brines  singers  and  congregation  in  inti- 
mate touch  with  the  liturgy  of  the  particular  day,  was 
rarely  sung.  The  fifteen  masses,  litanies,  offertories, 
lus  great  ''Requiem",  as  well  as  manv  smaller  set- 
tings, most  of  them  written  for  solij  chorus,  and  or- 
ch^ra.  in  the  identical  style  of  his  secular  works,  do 
not  reflect  the  spirit  of  the  universal  Church,  but 
rather  the  subjective  conception  and  mood  of  the 
composer  and  the  Josephinist  spirit  of  the  age. 
What  Mozart,  with  his  Raphaelesque  imagination 
and  temperament,  would  have  been  for  church  music 
had  he  hved  at  a  different  time  and  in  different  sur- 
roundings, or  risen  above  his  own,  can  easily  be 
imagined. 

Jahic.  W,  a.  Moutrt,  tr.  Townbbwd  (London,  1882);  Nohu 
MotarVt  Leben,  tr.  Lalob  (Chicago,  1893);  Nottbbobm,  Motart^ 
iana  (1880);  KOcrbl,  Chront^gueK^hetnatiaehet  Verteiehnit 
tatnmtlieher  Tonwerke  W,  A.  MozarV*  (Letpiig,  1862-1889); 
Mbizvabdus,  MoMort  ein  KiLtutUrleben  (Leipiig,  1882). 

JoaEPH  Otten. 

Mosetana  Tndlanii. — A  group  of  some  half  dozen 
tribes  constituting  a  distinct  linguistic  stock  upon  the 
headwaters  of  the  Beni  river,  Department  of  Beni,  in 
north-western  Bolivia.  Among  their  peculiar  customs 
is  the  cauvade.  In  the  early  part  of  the  eighteenth 
century,  throu^  the  efforts  of  the  Jesuits,  a  part  of 
them  were  Chnstianized.  They  now  number  about 
1300,  and  are  living  in  three  mission  towns,  viz.,  Mu- 
chanes  (founded  1725),  Santa  Ana,  and  Magdalena, 
all  on  the  Beni  river,  near  the  confluence  of  the  Mapisi. 

Bbimtok,  Amerioan  tcaee  (New  York,  1891) ;  Hbath  in  Kanmu 
City  Review  t^f  Science.  VI  (Kansas  City,  1883) ;  Wbddbll,  Voyaoe 
done  U  Nord  de  la  Boiine  (Paris.  1853). 

Jamss  Moonbt. 

Monetta,  a  short,  cape-shaped  garment,  covering 
the  shoulders  and  reaching  onlv  to  the  elbow,  wiw 
an  open  front,  which  may  be  fastened  by  means  of 
a  row  of  small  buttons;  at  the  neck  it  has  a  very  small 
and  purely  ornamental  hood.  The  privilege  of 
wearing  the  mozzetta  belongs  properlv  to  no  one 
but  the  pope,  cardinals,  exempt  scoots,  sabots 
general,  and  the  four  prelates  di  fiochetti;  only  throu£^ 
a  special  privilege  may  it  be  worn  by  other  ecdesia^ 
tics,  abbots,  canons,  etc.  Cardinals  wear  the  mozzetta 
over  the  mantdletta,  but  bishops  wear  it  without 
the  mantelletta;  the  latter,  however,  may  wear  the 
mozzetta  only  within  their  own  jurisdiction,  outside 
of  which  the  mantelletta  must  be  worn  instead  of  the 
mozzetta.  Canons  who  have  the  priviWe  of  wearing 
the  mozzetta  may  not  use  it  outside  of  the  church, 
save  when  the  chapter  appears  in  carpore  (as  a  cor- 
porate body).  The  pope's  mozzetta  is  always  red, 
except  that,  in  Easter  week,  he  wears  a  white  one. 
As  regards  material,  his  mozzetta  during  the  winter 
half-year,  that  is,  from  the  feast  of  St.  Catherine  to 
Ascension  Day,  is  made  of  velvet  or  of  cloth  accord- 
ing to  the  character  of  the  day  or  ceremony;  in  the 
summer  half-vear  it  is  made  of  satin  or  fine  wool- 
len material  (merino).  It  is  edged  with  ermine  only 
ia  the  winter  half-year.  A  cardinal's  mozzetta  is 
senerally  red;  the  colour  is  pink  on  Oaudeie  and 
iMBtare  Sundays,  and  violet  in  penitential  seasons  and 
for  mourning.  According  to  the  time  of  vear,  it 
is  made  of  silk  or  wool.  When  worn  by  bishops, 
preUteSi  canons,  etc,  the  mozzetta  is  violet  or  blM( 


in  colour:  the  material  for  these  digxiitaries  is  piopcAy 
not  silk  but  wool  (camlet).  Cardinala  and  bidiops 
who  belong  to  an  oider  wearing  a  distinctive  religious 
habit  (e.  g.  the  Benedictines,  Dominicans,  etc.)  retain 
for  the  mozzetta  the  colour  of  the  outer  garment  of  the 
habit  of  the  respective  order.  This  also  applies  to 
abbots  and  Reformed  Augustinian  canons  who  have 
the  privilege  of  wearing  the  mozzetta.  The  mozzetta 
is  not  a  litui^cal  vestment,  consequently,  for  example, 
it  cannot  be  worn  at  the  administration  of  the  sacra- 
ments. Sometimes  it  is  traced  back  to  the  cappa, 
this  making  it  merely  a  shortened  cappa;  sometimes 
to  the  almutia.  From  which  of  the  two  it  is  derived, 
is  imcertain.  The  name  mozzetta  permits  both  deri- 
vations. In  all  probability  the  garment  did  not  oome 
into  use  until  the  latter  Middle  Ages.  It  was  cer- 
tainly worn  in  the  latter  half  of  the  fifteenth  century, 
as  is  proved  b^  the  fresco  of  Melozzo  da  ForB  paintea 
in  1477:  "Sixtus  IV  giving  the  Custodv  of  the 
Vatican  Library  to  Platina  .  From  the  beginning 
the  mozzetta  has  been  a  garment  distinctive  of  the 
higher  ecclesiastical  dignitaries,  the  pope,  cardinals, 
and  bishops.     (See  Hood.) 

Bbauk.  Die  liturQ.  Qewandung  im  Occident  u.  Orient  CFteStmrg, 
1007),  357  sq.;  Babbxbb  db  Montaux^t,  TraiU  praKovc  de  la  ooi»- 
etrudion  dee  iolieee,  II  (Paris,  1878),  506,  519,  541.  561;  Caremon, 
•PMC,  I.  i.  n.  5;  iii,  nn.  1^  j^g^p^  BraVVI. 

MoEsi,  LniGi,  controversialist,  b.  at  Bergamo,  28 
May,  1746;  d.  near  Milan,  24  June,  1813.  He  en- 
tered the  Society  of  Jesus  in  1763,  and  on  its  suppres- 
sion was  receiv^  into  the  Diocese  of  Bergamo,  where 
he  was  shortly  made  a  canon,  and  appointed  arch- 
priest  and  examiner  of  candidates  for  the  priesthood. 
The  zeal  and  ability  with  which  he  opposed  the  prog- 
ress of  Jansenism  in  Italy  gained  him  a  well-merit^ 
reputation,  and  Pius  VI  called  him  to  Rome,  where  he 
became  an  Apostolic  missionary.  He  was  elected  a 
member  of  the  Accademia  degli  Arcadi  (see  Academ- 
ies, Roman)  .  In  1804  he  hastened  to  rejoin  the  Soci- 
ety, which  had  been  restored  in  Naples.  Worn  out  at 
length  by  his  charitable  labours  and  penitential  prac- 
tices, he  retired  to  the  residence  of  Marquis  Scotti  near 
Milan,  where  he  died.  Among  his  important  writings 
are : '  'Vera  idea  del  Giansenismo"  (1781 ); "  Storia  com- 
pendiosa  della  scisma  della  nuova  chiesa  d'Utrecht" 
(Ferrara,  1785) ; "  Storia  delle  revoluzioni  della  Chiesa 
a*Utrecht"  (Venice,  1787) ;  "Compendio  storico-crono- 
logioo  .  .  .  sopra  il  Baianismo,  Giansenismo  e  Ques- 
nellismo"  (Foli^o,  1792),  all  against  Jansenism;  "U 
falso  discepolo  di  S.  Agostino  e  di  S.  Tommaso"  (Venice, 
1779) ,  a  defence  of  Molinism.  He  translated  from  the 
English  the  Duke  of  Brunswick's  "Fifty  Reasons  for 
preferring  the  Roman  Catholic  Religion"  (Baasano, 
1789);  and  from  the  French.  "Les  projets  des  incr6- 
dules  pour  la  mine  de  la  religion,  d6voil^  dana  les 

oeuvres  de  Fr6d6ric,  roi  de  PruMc"  (Assisi,  1791). 
Hubtbb,  NommdatoT,  III,  540;  Vita  dd  P,  L,  Maeei  (Novara, 

^^^^'  A.  A.  MacErlean. 

Mraki  Ignattcts,  second  Bishop  of  Marquette, 
U.  S.  A.,  b.  16  October,  1818,  in  Hotovle,  in  the 
Diocese  of  Laibach  (Cuinthia),  Austria;  d.  at  Mar- 
(juette,  2  Jan.,  1901.  He  made  his  classical  studies 
in  the  grymnasium  of  Laibach  and  his  theology  in 
the  local  diocesan  seminary.  On  13  August,  1837, 
Prinoe>Bishop  Anton  Aloys  Wolf  raised  him  to  the 
priesthood.  To  qualify  for  a  tutorship  in  the  house 
of  Field-Marshal  Baron  Peter  Firqiuet,  the  young 
priest  passed  a  rigorous  state  exammation,  and  ao- 
joumed  two  years  at  Legnago  near  Verona,  Italy, 
then  an  Austrian  possession.  In  1840  he  returned  to 
his  native  diocese,  and  occupied  several  positions  as 
assistant  before  emigrating  to  the  United  States  five 
years  later.  Bishop  Lefebre  of  Detroit  received  him 
cordially,  and  sent  him  immediately  to  Arbre  Croehe 
to  assist  the  celebrated  Indian  missionarjr,  Father 
Francis    Piers.    For   two   yean    the   nuoBiooaries 


HUGEEAB 


625 


ICUHLBAi 


w:i^: 


loxAiius  Mbak 


vroiked  fruitfully  together,  and,  when  in  1861  Fieri 
removed  to  Minnesota,  Mrak  retained  charge  of  the 
Indian  miaaion.  For  his  devotion  to  the  red  race 
Baraga  appointed  him  his  vicar-general,  and  upon  the 
death  of  Baraga  he  was  created  second  Bishop  of 
Marquette.  For  a  long  time  he  refused  to  accept, 
but,  finally  yielding  to  the  urgency  of  Archbishop 
Puroell,  he  was  consecrated  at  Cincinnati  on  9 
February,  1869.  After  ten  years'  devotion  to  the 
administration  of  the  diocese,  although  he  was  not 
unaccustomed  to  hardships^  his  health  besan  to  fail, 
and  he  was  permitted  to  resign  in  1879,  ana  was  made 

titular  Bishop  of 
Antinoe.  For 
some  years  he  re- 
mained with  his 
successor.  Bishop 
Vertin^  and,  when 
necessity  remiired, 
performea  the 
duties  oi  an  ordi- 
nary pastor.  With 
the  return  of  his 
healtii,  his  love  for 
Uie  Xnoians  awoke, 
and  he  returned  to 
the  Indian  mis- 
sions, which  he  had 
left  so  reluctantly 
to  accept  the  epis- 
copate. Bishop 
Richter  of  Grand 
Rapids  most  cor- 
dially welcomed 
him,  and  at  his  own 
request  gave  him 
the  Indian  mission 
at  Eagle  Town, 
Leeland  County. 
Here  he  lived  a  simple  life  sharing  his  small  annuity 
of  eight  hundred  doUars  with  the  two  Dominican  Sis- 
ters whom  he  had  induced  to  open  a  school  for  his 
charges.    In  his  eighty-first  year  he  retired  to  Mar- 

Siette,  and  filled  thencdTorth  a  chaplaincy  at  St.  Mary's 
ospital  to  the  last  day  of  his  life.  His  charity  was  as 
proveri>ial  as  his  humility.  He  outlived  his  successor 
m  the  episcopate,  and  saw  the  election  of  the  fourth 
bishop,  whom  he  himself  had  nused  to  the  priesthood. 
His  hiody  rests  in  the  vault  under  the  cathedral  be- 
side those  of  his  predecessors,  Baraga  and  Vertin. 

Rbsbx,  HuHoiry  of  Uu  DioctM  of  8auU  <Sto.  Motm  and  Mar^^tlU 
(Houghton,  Michi^tt,  1906) ;  VEBwrnv  Life  <ff  Biahop  Baraga 
(Milwaukee.  1900) ;  BeriehU  der  LeopMinen  Stijtuno  im  itoucr- 
tkunu  Onimrwkh  (Vienna,  1832-66);  Diocuan  AtxhivM  (Mar- 
quette). 

Antoinb  Ivan  Rbzxk. 

Muchar.  Albvrt  Anton  von,  historian,  b.  at  Lines, 
I^Tol,  22  Nov.,  1781;  d.  at  Graz,  Styria,  6  June,  1849. 
He  was  descended  from  the  noble  and  ancient  family 
of  the  Muchars  of  Bled  and  Rangfeld,  studied  at  the 
lyceum  in  Graz,  entered  the  Benedictine  Order,  and 
made  his  vows  on  16  Oct.,  1808,  at  Admont.  Or- 
dained a  priest  shortly  afterwards,  he  devoted  him- 
self entirely  to  the  study  of  the  oriental  langui^cs, 
became  librarian  and  keeper  of  the  archives  in  1813, 
and  later  on  professor  of  Greek  and  Oriental  languages 
at  the  theological  school  of  his  monastery.  From 
1823  to  1825  he  was  supplementary  professor  of  Bib- 
lical science,  becoming  afterwutis  professor  of  ibb- 
thetics  and  classical  philology  at  the  University  of 
Graz.  Pure  philological  studies,  however,  did  not 
suit  his  taste,  and  in  this  branch  we  possess  from  him 
only  a  somewhat  mediocre  edition  of  Horace  with 
German  translation,  which  appeared  in  1835  at 
Graz.  His  researches  dealt  chiefly  with  the  history 
of  Austria,  for  which  purpose  he  made  extensive 
visits  to  the  libraries  of  Austriai  Bavarii^  and  Upper 
X.-40 


Italy;  thus,  nearly  all  his  historical  works  are  based 
upon  caraul  examination  of  the  original  sources. 
In  1829  the  Academy  of  Sciences  in  Vienna  elected 
him  a  member  in  reco^tion  of  his  important  con- 
tributions to  national  history,  and  he  was  one  of  the 
founders  of  the  Historical  Society  for  Inner  Austria. 
Of  his  more  important  works  may  be  mentioned: 
''Das  rdmische  Norikum"  (2  vols.,  Graz,  1825-6); 
"Geschichte  des  Herzogtums  Steiermark"  (Graz, 
1845-74)  in  nine  volumes,  of  which  the  first  four  were 
edited  by  himself,  the  following  two  bv  his  colleagues, 
Pranflmer  and  von  Grftf  enstein,  and  the  last  three  by 
the  Historical  Society  of  Styria.  Beside  this  he 
wrote  numerous  excellent  essays  for  historical  period- 
icals, e.  f,  Hormayr's  "Archiv'',  the  "Steierm&rkische 
Zeitschnft",  and  the  "Archiv  fUr  Kunde  osterreich- 
ischer  Geschichtsouellen"  (in  which  he  published  his 
valuable  "  Urkunaenregesten  fUr  die  Geschichte  In- 
ner6sterreichs  vom  Jahre  1312-1500"  (Vienna,  1849). 
The  library  of  Admont  possesses  in  manuscripts  some 
still  more  extensive  works,  which  show  Muchar's  great 
diligence  as  a  compiler. 

Ilwolt,  Albert  von  MueKar  in  MiOeil.  det  hiMto.  Verwu  Steier- 
mtark,  faao.  ziy  CQntf,  1866);  AUg.  DeuUeKe  Bioor.,  XXII  (Leipiig. 
1886).436-& 

Patbicixtb  Schlagbr. 

Mllhlbaiditr,  Engblbbbt,  historian,  b.  at  Gresten, 
Austria.  4  Oct.,  1843 ;  d.  at  Vienna,  17  July,  1903.  He 
recdvea  his  classical  education  at  Vienna,  his  father's 
native  city.  In  1862  he  became  a  novice  among  the 
Austin  Canons  at  St.  Florian.  After  completing  his 
theological  studies  there,  he  was  ordainea  priest  in 
1867.  As  Ameth  relates  in  his  memoirs,  historical 
studies  had  been  successfullv  cultivated  at  St. 
Florian's  since  Provost  Ametn's  time,  and  Mflhl- 
bacher  was  soon  active  in  this  domain.  Among  his 
writings  are  articles  on  St.  Florian 's  Gerhoh  von 
Reidbersberg,  and  the  literary  productions  of  St. 
Florian's.  In  1872  we  find  Mflhlbacher  studying 
under  Julius  Ficker  at  Innsbruck,  where  after  two 
years  he  received  the  degree  of  Doctor  of  Theology. 
He  then  hastened  to  Vienna  to  finish  his  historical 
training  under  Sickel's  guidance.  When  Ficker  en- 
trustea  the  youthful  scholar  with  the  revision  of  the 
Carlovin^an  period  of  Bdhmer's  "Regesta",  he  was 
directing  him  to  a  domain  in  which  he  was  to  do  im- 
p^shi£le  woric.  In  1878  he  was  formallv  received 
as  academical  lecturer  into  the  philosophical  faculty  of 
the  University  of  Innsbruck,  and  between  1880  and 
1889  published  his  masterly  edition  of  the  imperial 
"Regesta"  of  the  Carlovin^an  period.  As  Redlich 
says,  "the  technique  of  compihng  regeata  received 
exemplary  development  at  MUhlbachers  hands,  and 
his  work  served  as  a  model  for  the  entire  new  edition 
of  the  imperial  "Rc«;e8ta".  In  1892  MUhlbacher 
was  entrusted  with  the  editing  of  the  Carlovingian 
documents  for  the  "Monumenta  Germanis  Histor- 
ical. At  the  same  time  it  became  necessary  to 
bring  out  a  new  edition  of  his  Carlovingian  "  Regesta". 
Hie  two  works  proved  of  mutual  assistance,  and 
Mflhlbacher  devoted  tiie  greatest  care  and  diligence 
to  his  tasks.  He  was  able  to  see  only  the  first  part 
of  each  work  through  the  press,  but  left  considerable 
material  for  the  use  of  nis  successors.  No  other 
German  scholar  was  so  well  qualified  to  write  the 
"Deutsche  Geschichte  unter  den  Karolingem", 
which  appeared  in  1896.  Since  1879  MUhlbacher 
edited  tne  "  Mitteilungen  des  Instituts  fUr  oster- 
reichische  Geschichtsforschung".  ^  In  1881  he  was 
appointed  extraordinary,  and  in  1896  ordinary 
professor  at  Vienna.  In  1895  Ficker  turned  over  to 
nim  the  management  of  the  "Regesta  Imperii". 
With  the  utmost  enerzy  he  took  jn  hand  the  arrange- 
ment of  the  Austrian  State  Archives,  and  the  prepara- 
tion of  the  more  recent  history  of  Austria.  His 
leaming'and  efforts  did  not  fail  to  receive  due  recog- 
nition.   He  was  chosen  an  active  member  of  the 


MULDOON 


626 


MULLER 


Imperial  Academy  of  Sciences  in  Vienna.  Miihl- 
bacher's  unwearying  labours  continued  until  his  all 
too  early  death. 

Rkdlich,   Obituary  in  MiUeil.  dea  InalUulea  far  dtUrr.  Oe- 
9ekichtsforaekun4f,  XXV  (Innsbruck.  1904).  201>7,  with  portrait. 

C.  WOLFSGRUBER. 

Muldoon,  Peter  Jambs.    See  Rockford,  Dio- 
cese OF. 


[ulhalli  Michael  George,  statistician^b.  in  Dub- 
lin, 29  September,  1829:  d.  there  13  Dec.,  1900.  He 
was  educated  at  the  Irish  College,  Rome.  Going 
to  Buefios  Aires  he  estabUshed  there  in  1861  the 
''Standard'',  the  first  paper  in  English  published  in 
South  America.  In  1869  he  brought  out  "The  Hand- 
book of  the  River  Plate",  the  first  English  book 
printed  in  Argentina.  This  was  followed  by  his 
^'Prowess  of  the  World"  (1880);  "Balance  Sheet  of 
the  World,  1873-1880"  (1881);  "Dictionary  of 
Statistics"  (1883),  a  standard  work  of  reference,  few 
modem  compilations  having  been  more  extensively 
used;  "History  of  Prices  since  1850"  (1885).  In 
1896  he  travelled  extensively  in  Europe  collecting 
material  for  the  Committee  of  the  English  Parlia- 
ment reporting  on  a  proposed  department  of  agricul- 
ture for  Ireland.  The  pope  decorated  him  in  recogni- 
tion of  his  literary  work,  in  which  his  wife,  Marion 
McMurrough  Mulhall,  who  has  also  written  exten- 
sively, was  his  active  and  practical  assistant. 

Tablet  (London,  22  Deo..  1900). 

Thomas  F.  Meehan. 

Mulhollandi  St.  Clair  Augustine,  soldier,  b. 
at  Lisbum,  Co.  Antrim,  Ireland,  1  April,  1839;  d.  at 
Philadelphia,  17  Feb.,  1910.  Emigrating  to  Phila- 
delphia with  his  parents  while  a  boy,  his  youthful 
tastes  inclined  him  to  military  affairs  and  he  became 
active  in  the  ranks  of  the  militia.  At  the  breaking 
out  of  the  Civil  War  he  was  commissioned  Lieutenant- 
Colonel  of  the  116th  Pennsylvania  Volunteers  which 
was  attached  to  Meagher's  Irish  Brigade,  and  later 
was  made  its  colonel.  He  was  wounded  during  the 
famous  charge  of  the  Irish  Brigade  up  Marye's 
Heights,  at  the  battle  of  Fredericksburg,  13  Dec., 

1862,  At  the  battle  of  Chancellorsville,  3,  4  May. 

1863,  he  led  his  regiment  and  distinguished  himself 
by  saving  the  guns  of  the  Fifth  Maine  Battery  that 
had  been  abandoned  to  the  enemy.  For  this  he 
was  complimented  in  general  orders  and  received  the 
Medal  of  Honor  from  Congress.  In  this  campaign 
he  was  nven  the  command  of  the  picket-line  by 
General  Hancock  and  covered  the  retreat  of  the  Army 
of  the  Potomac  across  the  Rappahannock.  At  Getr- 
tysburg  his  own  regiment  was  so  badly  cut  up  in  the 
first  day's  fight,  that  he  changed  to  the  140tn  Peim. 
Volunteers  and  led  it  into  action.  He  was  wounded 
a  second  time  at  the  battle  of  the  Wilderness,  5  May. 

1864,  and  for  his  gallant  conduct  was  brevetted 
brigadier-general.  At  Po  River  he  was  wounded 
a  third  time  but  remained  in  hospital  only  ten  days, 
and  resuming  his  command  was  dangerously  wounded 
again  at  Tolpotomoy.  He  recovered  rapidly  and 
commanded  his  brigade  in  all  the  actions  around 
Petersburg,  particularly  distinguishing  himself  by 
storming  a  fort  for  which  he  was  brevetted  major- 
general  27  October,  1864.  Returning  to  civil  life 
after  the  war  he  was  appointed  Chief  of  Police  in 
Philadelphia  in  1868,  and  signalize  his  administra- 
tion by  the  good  order  in  which  he  kept  both  the 
force  and  the  city.  President  Cleveland  appointed 
him  United  States  Pension  Agent,  in  which  office  he 
was  continued  by  Presidents  McKinley  and  Roosevelt. 
He  was  considered  an  authority  on  the  science  of  penol- 
ogy, and  also  devoted  much  of  his  leisure  time  to  art 
studies,  and  as  a  lecturer  and  writer  on  the  Civil 
War  and  its  records.  He  compiled  a  history  of  the 
116th  Regiment  of  Pennsylvania  Volunteers,  and  an- 
other of  those  to  whom  Congress  voted  the  Medal 


of  Honor.  In  the  Catholic  affsdrs  of  Philadelphia 
he  was  always  active  and  a  leader  among  the  oest 
known  and  most  respected  laymen. 

CoNTHOHAif,  The  Irish  Brigade  and  ite  Campaigna  (Boston. 
1809):  America  (New  York.  26  Feb.,  1910),  files;  Cath.  Standard 
and  Timee  (Philadelphia,  26  Feb.,  1910),  files. 

Thomas  F.  Meehan. 

Mullanjphy,  John,  merchant,  philanthropist,  b. 
near  EnniskUlen,  Co.  Fermana^,  Ireland,  1758;  d. 
at  St.  Louis,  Missouri,  U.  S.  A.,  29  August,  1833. 
At  twenty  he  went  to  France  where  he  served  in  the 
Irish  Brigade  until  the  Revolution  drove  him  back  to 
Ireland.  In  1792  with  his  wife  and  child  he  emigrated 
to  Philadelphia,  thence  going  to  Baltimore  where  he 
remained  until  1799.  He  next  went  to  Kentucky 
where  he  opened  a  store  at  Frankfort,  but  left  there  in 
1804,  and  settled  finally  in  St.  Louis,  then  a  French 
settlement.  His  enterprise  in  business  brought  him 
large  returns  which  he  invested  in  real  estate.  He  waij 
in  Baltimore  during  the  War  of  1812  with  England, 
and  took  part  in  its  defence,  and  later  was  with 
Jackson  in  1815  at  the  battle  of  New  Orleans.  His 
business  instinct  prompted  him  to  then  buy  a  large 
Quantity  of  cotton  at  low  rates,  which  the  ending  of 
the  war  enabled  him  to  sell  at  an  immense  profit.  He 
had  fifteen  children,  and  spent  his  last  years  in  dispens- 
ing much  of  his  great  fortune  in  chanty.  In  1827  he 
established  the  St.  Louis  Convent  of  tne  Religious  of 
the  Sacred  Heart,  the  second  in  the  United  States. 
The  following  year  he  gave  a  hospital  to  the  Sisters  of 
Charity.  A  church,  the  Jesuit  novitiate,  and  a  con- 
vent for  the  Sisters  of  Loretto  at  Florisant,  were  also 
his  gifts,  and  when  he  died  25,000  dollars  was  left  in 
his  will  for  education  and  charity.  His  children  con- 
tinued his  benefactions.  His  only  son  Bryan,  who 
died  in  1851,  a  bachelor,  lived  an  eccentric  life.  He 
was  mayor  of  St.  Louis  in  1847,  and  for  four  years 
judge  of  the  County  Court.  His  will  left  one  third  of 
his  estate  (about  200,000  dollars)  as  a  trust  fund  *'  to 
furnish  rekef  to  all  poor  emigrants  passing  through 
St.  Louis  to  settle  in  the  West".  Changed  conditions 
have  frustrated  that  intention,  and  it  is  now  devoted 
to  charity.  John  MuUanphy's  name  is  perpetuated  in 
St.  Louis  by  the  hospital  and  orphan  asylum  so  desig- 
nated, and  the  name  of  his  daughter,  Mrs.  Ann  Biddle, 
is  preserved  in  the  Biddle  Home  and  St.  Ann's  Found- 
ling Asylum  which  she  founded. 

The  Meuenger  (New  York,  July.  1908);  Church  ProoreMa  (St. 
Louis,  Februaiy.  Alarch,  1906),  files;  Darbt,  RecoUectione  of  SL 
Louie  (St.  Louis);  Brackenridgb,  JReeoUeetume  ofPeraonetmd 
Placee  in  the  Weet  (1834);  Eneydopedia  of  the  Hietory  of  St. 
Louie, 

Thomas  F.  Meehan. 

Mtiller,  Adam  Heinrich,  publicist  and  political 
economist,  convert,  b.  at  Berlin,  30  June.  1779;  d.  at 
Vienna,  17  Jan.,  1829.  It  was  intended  that  he 
should  study  Protestant  theology,  but  from  1798  he 
devoted  himself  in  Gottinpen  to  the  study  of  law, 

Ehilosophy,  and  natural  science.  Returning  to  Ber- 
n.  he  was  persuaded  by  his  friend  Gentz  to  take  up 
political  science.  After  workins  for  some  time  as 
referendary  in  the  Kurm&rkische  Katnmer  in  Berlin,  he 
travelled  in  Sweden  and  Denmark,  spent  about  two 
years  in  Poland,  and  then  went  to  Vienna,  where  he 
was  converted  to  the  Catholic  Faith  on  30  April,  1805. 
From  1806  to  1809  he  lived  at  Dresden  as  tutor  of  a 
prince  of  the  Sax&-Weimar  family  and  lecturer  on 
German  literature,  dramatic  art,  and  political  science. 
In  1808  he  edited  with  Heinrich  von  Kleist  the  pm- 
odical  "Phoebus".  In  1809  he  returned  to  Berlin. 
and  in  1811  to  Vienna,  where  he  lived  in  the  house  oi 
Archdidce  Maximilian  of  Austria-Este  and  became  the 
friend  of  Clement  Maria  Hoffbauer.  In  1813  he  was 
appointed  imperial  commissioner  and  major  <rf  the 
rme-corps  in  Tyrol,  and  took  part  in  the  wan  for  lib- 
erty ana  later  on,  as  counsellor  of  the  government,  in 
the  reorganisation  of  the  country.    In  181{>  he  wm 


HttLUB  6 

called  to  Vienna,  and  went  to  Paiis  with  the  tTDperial 
staff.  On  the  oonclumon  of  peace,  he  become  Aiu- 
ttian  eoDBul-general  for  Saxony  at  Leipiig.  and  agent 

for  Anhalt  and  Schwariburg.  He  edited  here  the 
periodicak:  "Deutacher  Staatsanzeiger"  (18I&~18} 
and  "  Unparteiischer  Literatiir-  und  Kirchenkorre- 
spondent,  and  attended  the  mmiaterial  conferences  at 
Carlsbad  and  Vienna  {1819-20).  In  1828,  at  the  in- 
stance of  Prince  von  Mettemich.  he  waa  ennobled  as 
Hitter  von  NitterHdorf,  was  recalled  to  Vienna  (1827), 
appointed  imperial  counsellor,  and  employed  in  the 
service  of  the  chancery. 

Mailer  was  a  man  c^  great  and  versatile  talents,  an 
excellent  orator,  and  a  suggeative  writer.  Several  of 
his  works  were  based  upoatua  own  lectures;  the  most 
important  (besides  the  above-mentioned  periodicals) 
are:  "Die  Lehre  von  Gegenaatii"  (Berlin,  1804); 
"Vorleaungen  Uber  die  deutsche  Wiseenschoft  u.  Litr 
eratur"  {Oreaden,  1806;  2nd  ed.,  1807);  "Von  der 
Idee  der  SchOnheit"  O^turea;  Berlin,  1809);  "Die 
Elemente  der  Staatskunat"  (lectutefl;  3  porta,  Berlin, 
1809);  "Ueber  Konig  Friedrich  II.  u.  die  Natur, 
Wilrde  u.  Beatinunung  der  preusdschen  Monarchie 
(lectures;  Berlin,  1810) ;  " Die  Theorie  der  Staatahaus- 
haltung  u.  ihre  Fortschritte  in  Deutachlond  u.  Eng- 
land seit  Adam  Smith"  (2  vols.,  Vienna,  1812); 
"Vermischte  Sohriften  Uber  Staat,  Philosophie  u. 
Kunst"  (2  vols.,  Vienna,  1812;  2nd  ed.,  1817);  "Ver- 
such  einer  neuen  Theorie  des  Geldes,  mit  besonderer 
Rucksicbt  Buf  Groesbritannien"  (I«imig,  1818); 
"Zwdlf  Reden  Ober  die  Beredsamkeit  u.  deren  Verfoll 
in  Deutschlond"  (Leipzig,  1817);  "DioFortschritte 
der  nationaldkonomischen  Wissenschaft  in  England" 
(Leipzig,  1817);  "Von  der  Notwendigkeit  einer  theo- 
logischen  Grundloge  der  gesamtcn  Staatswissenschaf- 
ten  u.  der  Staatswirtschaft  inabesondere"  (Leipiig, 
1820;  newed.,  Vienna,  1898);  "DieGewerbe-Polizeiin 
Besiehung  auf  den  Landbau"  (Leipzig,  1824);  "Vor- 
Bchlag  zu  einem  historisGhen  Ferien-Cursus"  (Vienna, 
1829).  A  critical  pamphlet,  which  was  written  in 
1817  on  the  occoMon  of  the  Protestant  jubilee  of  the 
Reformation  and  entitled,  "Etwaa  das  Goethe  sesagt 
hat.  Beleuchtet  von  Adam  MUUer.  Leipsig  den  31 
Oktober,  1817",  was  printed  but  not  published  (rc- 

nt«d  in  Vienna,  1910).  Nevertheleae,  Traugott 
g's  reply,  entitled  "Etwas,  das  Herr  Adam  MUUer 
gesagt,  hat  Uber  etwas,  daa  Goethe  gesagt  hat,  und 
noch  etwas,  das  Luther  gcsagt  hat"  (Leipzig,  1817), 
appeared  in  two  editions. 

In  the  field  of  literature  and  ssthetica,  MUller  be- 
longs to  the  Romantic  school.  He  is  a  Romanticist 
even  in  his  specialty,  politics  and  poUtical  economy. 
As  EichendorfT  save  in  his  "Geechicnte  der  poetischea 
Literatur  Deutschlonds"  (new  ed.,  by  W.  Koech, 
Kempten,  1906,  p.  352),  MUller  "mapped  out  a  do- 
main of  his  own,  the  application  of  Romanticism  to 
the  social  and  political  conditions  of  life."  MOller 
himself  declares:  "The  reconciliation  of  science  and 
art  and  of  their  noblest  ideas  with  serious  political  lite 
was  the  purpose  of  m^  lazier  works"  (Veimischte 
Sehriften,  I,  p.  iii).  His  chi^  workis  the  "Elemente 
der  Staatskunst",  originating  in  lectures  ddivered  be- 
fore Prince  Bernhord  of  Saxe-Weimar  and  an  as- 
sembly of  poUticians  and  diplomats  at  Dresden  in  the 
winter  1808-09.  It  treats  in  six  books  of  the  state,  of 
right,  of  the  spirit  of  legislation  in  antiquity  and  in 
the  Middle  Ages,  of  money  and  national  wealth,  of 
the  economical  factors  of  tne  state  and  trade,  of  the 
relation  between  the  state  and  religion.  MUller  en- 
deavoured to  comprehend  the  connexion  between 
political  and  social  science,  and,  while  using  the  his- 
torical method,  to  base  them  upon  philosophy  and  re- 
ligion. (Of.  the  preface  to  the  first  volume  of  the 
"Elemente",  where  he  treats  exhaustively  of  the 
differences  between  his  work  and  Montesquieu's  "Es- 
prit deslois";  cf.  also  the  sixth  book  of  this  work,  and 
tiie  above-mentioned  work  of  1820.)    With  Edmund 


!7  MttLUR 

Burke,  Friedrich  von  Gents,  Joseph  de  Maistre,  and 
Karl  Ludwig  von  Ualler,  be  must  tje  reckoned  among 
the  chief  oppoDeats  of  revolutionary  ideas  in  pofitics. 
In  his  work,  "Von  der  Notwendigkeit  einer  theolo- 
gischen  Grundl^e  der  gesammten  Staatswissenschaf- 
ten"  (1820),  MUUer  rejects,  like  HaUer  (Restouration 
der  Staat8wiBBenschaft«D.  1816),  the  distinction  be- 
tween constitutional  and  civil  law,  which  rests  en- 
tirely on  the  false  idea  of  the  state's  omnipotence. 
His  ideal  is  medieval  feudalism,  on  which  uie  reor- 
ganisation of  modem  poUticol  institutions  should  be 
modeUed.  His  position  in  political  economy  is  de- 
fined by  his  strong  opposition  to  Adam  Smith's  sys- 
tem of  oiaterialistic-hberal  (so-called  classical)  poht< 
ical  economy,  or  the  so-caUed  industry  system.  He 
is  thus  also  an  adversary  of  free  trade.  In  contrast 
with  the  economical  individualism  of  Adam  Smith,  be 
emphasises  the  ethical  element  in  national  economy, 
the  duty  of  the  state  toward  the  individual,  and  the 
religious  ba^  which  is  also  necessary  in  this  field. 
MiiUor's  importance  in  the  history  of  political  econ- 
omy is  acknowledged  even  by  the  opponents  of  his 
reli^ous  and  political  point  of  view.  His  reaction 
against  Adam  Smith,  says  Roscbcr  (Geschichte  der 
National-Oekonomik,  p.  763),  "is  not  blind  or  hostile, 
but  is  important,  and  often  truly  helpful."  The  re- 
actionary and  feudolistic  thouglit  in  his  writings, 
which  agreed  so  little  with  the  spirit  of  the  times,  pre- 
vented his  political  ideas  from  exerting  a  more  not- 
able and  lasting  influence  on  his  age,  while  their  re- 
ligious character  prevoited  them  from  beingjustly 


appreciated. 

WUUBICH.    B 


,  Bicgraph.  Lex.  da  Kaitertunu  OaUmieh,  XIX 

18681,322-8;  MtKBixa  ia  AUg.  druticht  Bine- 'XXII 
i,uiipiig,  1SS5),  601-11;  Rosenthal.  CmttriitenbiUa,  I.  i  (3rd 
»d.,  lUtisboo.  1888),  70-03;  Schuidt  in  SlaaUUx,,  t,  t.;  Qob- 
DEiE,  GmnJriu  dtr  Gttch.  ie  dtviitiwn  Die/Uum,  VI  |2Dd  ed., 
Ldpiis,  ISSSli  IWS:  RoiCHEB,  CficA.  dn-  Walional-OekimBmii 
in  DniUihlaTUl  (Muoich.  1874).  763-7S:  Bne/atrhia  ntitdten 
Friedrich  Oenit  u.  Adam  Ucinrich  MoUrr  1800-lSiB  (Stuttsart, 

1857).  Friedrich  Laucbebt. 

HUUer,   Johann,   physiolog^t  and   comparative 
anatomist,  b.  at  Coblenti,  U  July,  1801;  d.  at  Ber- 
lin, 28  April,  1858.    He  was  theaonof  a  shoemaker, 
but   his  mother  suc- 
ceeded in  obtaining  for 
hJTn  a  good  education. 
During  his  college 
course  at  Coblentz,  he 
devoted  himself  to  the 
classics  and  made  his 
own    translations   of 
Aristotle.      His    first 
intention  was  to  be  a 

S'est,  but  atrighteen 
love  for  natural 
science  turned  him  to 
medicine  and  he  en- 
tered the  University 
of  Bonn  in  1819. 
WhUe  a  student  he 
won  a  prize  for  ori^- 
nal  work  on  "Respi- 
ration of  the  FiEtus", 
a  thesis  that  has  been 
declared  the  beat  scientific  work  ever  presented  by  a 
student  in  a  prize  competition.  He  received  his  de- 
gree of  doctor  for  a  thesis  on  animal  movement. 
In  1824  he  became  Privatdoctni  at  Bonn,  and  in  1830 
ordinary  professor  of  medicine.  Before  teacldng  at 
Bonn  he  had  studied  for  two  yeaia  with  Rudolphi  at 
Berlin,  and  in  1832  was  appointed  his  successor  in 
the  professorship  of  anatomy  there.  In  1847  he  was 
elected  Rector  of  the  University. 

MUUer  is  justly  regarded  as  tne  founder  of  modem 
phymology.     His  claim  to  this  title  rests  not  only 

ra  his  personal  contributions  to  the  science,  but 
upon  his  Dower  of  co-ordinating  the  results  o^ 


JOBAIIN  MOUXB 


Bsttmsa 


628 


IffULLIB 


tained  bjr  his  predecesBors,  and  of  directing  Into  new 
fidds  of  investigation  the  disciples  who  profited  by 
his  suggestive  teaching.  To  accuracy  of  observation 
he  adoM  such  a  srasp  of  principles  and  so  clear  a  com- 
prehension of  the  bearing  of  other  sciences  upon 
physiolofi^  that  his  reasoning,  baaed  throughout  upon 
tacts,  is  philosophical  in  breadth  and  penetration. 

His  met  mono^ph.  an  elaboration  of  his  prise  e&- 
say,  **  De  respiratione  fcetus^',  was  published  m  1823, 
and  was  followed  (1826)  by  two  others  on  optical  illu- 
sions and  on  the  comparative  physiology  of  vision. 
The  last-named  abounds  in  observations  upon  the 
structure  and  functions  of  the  eye  in  lower  animals, 
especiallv  in  insects.  Among  the  other  subjects  to 
which  MOller  devoted  careful  and  successful  research 
may  be  mentioned:  reflex  action,  the  chemical  com- 
position of  blood  plasma,  the  presence  of  chondrin  in 
cartilage,  hermaphroditism  in  numan  beings,  the  mi- 
nute structure  and  origin  of  slands  in  man  and  ani- 
maJs,  the  lymph  hearts  of  amphibia,  and  those  ducts  of 
the  prelimmary  kidney  in  the  foetus  which  have  since 
been  caJled  b)r  his  name.  His  study  of  the  lower  ani- 
mals resulted  in  the  discovery  of  alternate  generations 
and  in  a  satisfactory  account  of  the  metamorphoses  of 
echinodermata 

From  1834  to  1840  he  edited  the  "Archives  of  Anat- 
omy and  Physiology"  (Mailer's  Archives)  and  con- 
tributed articles  to  various  scientific  reviews.  His 
own  contributions  to  medical  literature  number  over 
two  hundred,  most  of  them  of  great  significance.  His 
principal  work  is  the  ''Handbuch  der  Physiologie  des 
Menschen",  which  was  published  In  1833  and  has 
appeared  in  numerous  editions  and  translations.  ^  But 
the  benefit  which  he  rendered  to  science  as  an  original 
investigator  and  medical  editor  is  surpassed  by  his 
work  as  a  teacher.  Among  his  pupils  were  most  of 
the  men  who  made  Germany  the  Mecca  for  scientific 
students  in  the  latter  half  of  the  nineteenth  century. 
They  included  Virchow,  Helmholti,  Schwann,  Du 
Boia-Re3rmond,  Lieberktmn,  Max  Schultze,  BrUcke, 
Clapar^de,  Haeckel,  Henle^  Guido  Wagener,Keichert, 
Luowig^  Vierordt,  and  Adlliker.  All  of  uiese  men 
agreed  m  procl^ming  him  the  foremost  physiolo^st 
01  his  time.  Most  of  the  important  scientific  societies 
of  the  world  honoured  him.  Throughout  his  life  he 
was  loyal  in  his  adherence  to  the  Catholic  Church, 
and  his  fellow-Catholics  of  the  Rhine  land  have  erected 
a  noble  monument  to  his  memory  at  Coblentz. 

YmcHOW,  Jt^umn  MHUsr  (Berlin,  1858);  BbOcxx,  Medical 
Timea  and  QatdU  (London,  17  July,  1858);  Du  Bois-Ritmond, 
Qtddcktniwrede  auf  Johanna  MUMer  (Berlin,  i860):  Walsh, 
JfaJbert  of  Modem  Medieina  (New  York,  1010). 

James  J.  Walsh. 

MtUlor  (RsaioHOMTANXTB),  JoHANN,  German  as- 
tronomer, b.  in  or  near  Kdnissberg,  a  small  town  in 
lower  Franconia  (Dukedom  ofCoburg),  6  June,  1436; 
d.  in  Rome,  6  July,  1476.  The  name  of  the  family 
agreed  with  the  trade  of  the  father  who  operated  a 
mill.  Rej^iomontanus  mpned  himself  Johannes  de 
Monteregio,  while  in  foreign  countries  he  was  known 
as  Joannes  Germanus  or  Francus.  His  calendars 
were  published  under  various  names,  like  Meister 
Hans  von  Kungsbog.  About  the  age  of  twelve  he 
was  sent  to  Leipzig  to  study  dialectics.  In  the  uni- 
versity matriculations  (published  by  Erler,  1895)  his 
name  is  not  registered.  Hearing  of  the  celebrated  as- 
tronomer Peim>ach  (George  ofPeurbach  in  Upper 
Austria,  1423-61),  Mmier  left  Leipzig  for  Vienna, 
where  he  was  matriculated  in  1450  as  Johannes  Mo- 
litoris  de  Kunigsperg.  In  1452  he  recdved  the  bacca- 
laureate and  in  1457  the  title  Magister,  Lectures  of 
his  at  the  university  are  recorded  as  follows:  in  1458 
on  perspective,  in  1460  on  Euclid,  in  1461  on  Virgil's 
Buoohcs.  His  master  and  friend  Peurbach  showed 
him  how  incorrect  were  the  Alphonsine  Tables  and 
how  false  the  Latin  translations  of  the  Greek  astron- 
omers from  intermediate  Arabic  translations.    To- 


gether they  observed  the  planet  Mars  two  degrees  off 
uie  place  assigned  to  it  and  a  lunar  eclipse  over  an  hour 
late  on  the  Tables.  A  new  field  opened  to  the  two 
astronomers  with  the  arrival  in  Vienna  of  the  Greek 
scholar  Cardinal  Bessarion  of  Tr^izond,  then  papal 
legate  to  the  emperor^  and  his  brother  Sigismund,  for 
the  purpose  of  adjusting  differences  and  uniting  them 
against  the  Turks.  Having  changed  to  the  Latin  Rite, 
Bessarion  mastered  the  Latin  language  like  his  own, 
and  commenced  translating  Ptolemy  directly  from  the 
Greek.  On  the  other  hand  Peurbach  was  engaged  in 
composing  an  epitome  on  Ptolemv's  "Almagest". 
The  double  circumstance  that  neither  of  them  was 
able  to  accomplish  his  task,  the  one  for  want  oi  time, 
the  other  for  not  knowing  Greek,  brought  about  an 
agreement  that  Peurbach  should  accompany  Bes- 
sarion to  Italy  together  with  Resiomontanus.  Peur- 
bach died  8  April,  1461,  not  yet  thirty-eight  yean  old^ 
and  left  the  ''Epitome"  to  his  pupil  to  be  finiahed 
and  publii^ed  as  a  sacred  legacy. 

In  companv  with  his  new  patron,  MQller  reached 
Rome  in  tne  Fall  of  1461 .  Under  George  of  Trebizond 
and  other  teachers  he  acquired  so  much  knowledge  of 
Greek  that  he  understood  all  of  the  obscure  points  of 
the  "Epitome"  of  his  late  master.  During  his  stay 
in  Italy  MUller  continually  observed  the  sun,  the  moon, 
and  the  planets,  and  searched  the  libraries  for  Greek 
manuscnpts.  He  found  another  lunar  eclipse  over  an 
hour  in  advance  of  the  Tables.  What  manuscripts  he 
could  not  acquire  he  had  copied.  A  new  Testament, 
written  in  Gr«ek  by  his  own  nand,  was  his  companion. 
The  summer  of  1432  was  spent  at  Viterbo,  and  when 
Bessarion  left  for  Greece  in  the  Fall  of  the  same  year, 
MUller  accompanied  him  as  far  as  Venice.  On  the 
recommendation  of  his  patron,  MCdler  was  well  re- 
ceived in  various  Italian  cities.  In  Ferrara  he  be- 
came acquainted  with  an  old  friend  of  Peurbach. 
Bianchim.  then  ninety^  years  of  age,  with  Theodore  of 
Gaza,  and  with  Guanm.  He  profited  so  well  in  the 
knowledge  of  Greek  that  he  understood  the  whole  of 
Ptolemy,  and  was  able  to  complete  the  ''Epitome" 
of  Peurbach  by  adding  seven  books  to  the  six  already 
written  by  his  master.  In  Padua  he  was  at  once  en- 
rolled among  the  Academicians  and  was  invited  to 
lecture.  Wmle  awaiting  the  return  of  his  patron  in 
Venice,  he  discovered  a  portion  of  the  Greek  Arith- 
metic of  Diophimtus,  continued  his  observations,  re- 
futed the  quadrature  of  the  circle  given  by  Cuse,  and 
computed  a  calendar  with  the  places  of  sun  and  moon, 
the  eclipses  and  the  dates  of  Easter  for  the  next  thirty 
years.  After  two  years'  absence  from  Rome,  Mullor 
returned  there  alone  in  October,  1464,  to  spend  four 
more  years  in  studying  and  copying.  His  rich  col- 
lection of  manuscripts  comprised  at  that  time  Be»- 
sarion's  own  copy  of  the  Greek  "  Almagest ".  Miiller 
was  now  able  to  point  out  grave  errors  m  the  commen- 
taries on  Ptolemy  and  Theon  by  George  of  Trdbizond. 
The  consequent  enmity  of  the  latter,  and  the  absence 
of  his  patron,  may  have  induced  him  to  leave  Italy  in 
1468. 

The  university  registers  in  Vienna  contain  no  record 
of  MOller  ever  resuming  his  lectures  after  his  return. 
The  next  three  years,  or  part  of  them,  he  seems  to 
have  spent  in  Buda,  being  recommended  by  the  Arch- 
bishop of  Gran  to  King  Matthias  Corvinus  of  Hun- 
gary as  custodian  of  the  librazy,  so  rich  in  spoils  from 
Athens  and  Constantinople.  Tlie  ensuing  wars  of  the 
king  in  Bohemia  led  Mfmer  to  look  for  a  place  where 
he  could  carry  out  his  life's  plan:  the  determinatioa 
of  Uie  astronomical  constants  by  observation  and  the 
publication  of  the  literary  treasures  in  print.  NOrem- 
oerg.  then  the  centre  of  industry  and  oommeroe  in 
southern  Germany,  was  his  choice,  and  in  the  FaQ  of 
1471  he  was  admitted  to  the  city  and  even  invited  to 
lecture.  A  wealthy  citizen,  Bemhard  Walther,  fur- 
nished the  means  for  an  instrument  shop,  an  obeJerva- 
tory,  and  a  printing  office  and  jdned  SAQUer  in  the 


MtTLLBB                               629  MULLOCK 

work.  The  fruits  soon  appeared.  The  latitude  of  '  Mtiller.  Karl,  professor  at  DUsseldorf,  b.  at  Darm- 
the  place  (49^  24')  and  the  obliquity  of  the  ecliptic  stadt,  29  Oct.,  1818;  d.  at  Neuenahr,  15  Aus.,  1893,  b^ 
(23^  28')  were  determined  free  from  the  efifects  dt  re-  longs  to  the  more  recent  members  of  aschoolof  German 
fraction :  the  planet  Venus  was  made  the  link  between  religious  painters  known  as  the  "  Nazarenes  ",  who  sue- 
Uie  fixed  stars  and  the  sun,  instead  of  the  moon;  the  ceededfelicitouslvinpK)pular  but  beautiful  representa- 
n^at  comet  of  1472  was  observed  during  January  and  tion  of  religious  devotion,  and  gave  new  renown  to  the 
Februaiy  in  such  a  way  that  its  orbit  could  be  calcu-  Dusseldorfsohool  even  in  foreign  lands.  His  style,  deli- 
lated.  Halley  writes:  "This  comet  is  the  very  first  cate  even  to  softness,  exhibits,  however,  as  much  nat- 
of  which  any  proper  observations  have  been  handed  uralness,  fresh,  simple  piety  and  spiritual  peace  as 
down  to  us"  (Fhil.  Trans.,  XXIV,  1706,  p.  1883).  The  the  subjects  demand.  Schadow,  director  of  the  Dtts- 
earlier  observations  of  the  comet  of  1456  by  Tosca-  seldorf  academy,  had  selected  in  1837  the  nineteen 
nelli,  were  unknown  to  HaUey,  although  the  comet  year  old  student,  alonjs  with  his  brother  Andreas,  and 
happened  to  be  the  one  that  bears  his  name.  The  Deger  (who  were  later  joined  by  Ittenbach),  for  the  con- 
prmting  office  of  Walther,  with  the  iinproved  methods  templated  fresco  punting  in  the  FQrstenburg  church 
and  types  of  MilUer,  turned  out  Feurbach's  New  on  tne  Apollimuisberg  at  Kemagen.  They  had  first  to 
Theory  of  the  Comets  and  an  astronomical  poem  of  study  carefully  in  Italy  the  technique  of  fresco  paint- 
Manihus  (1472-73) ;  then  Midler's  own  **  Calendarium  ing,  then  little  known.  Karl  MOller  arrived  in  Rome 
Novum''  and  Ins  astronomical  ''Ephemerides"  at  the  end  of  1839.  The  study  and  imitation  of  the 
1473-74)  with  the  positions  of  the  sun,  moon,  and  art  treasures  of  the  Eternal  City,  as  later  of  those  of 
planets,  and  the  eclipses  from  1475  to  1506.  The  lat-  Florence,  Pisa,  Assisi,  and  other  places,  brought  to 
ter  guided  Columbus  to  America  and  enabled  him  to  maturity  his  great  natural  talent.  His  taste  for  land- 
predict  the  lunar  eclipse  of  29  February,  1504.  scape,  which  he  brought  with  him  from  Dtisseldorf ,  now 
MUller's  scientific  activity  in  Nuremberg  was  found  the  greatest' encouragement;  he  regarded  more- 
brought  to  a  close  by  a  letter  of  Sixtus  IV  calling  him  over  the  study  of  models  as  indispensable  in  the  prac- 
to  Rome  for  the  purpose  of  finally  settling  the  reform  tical  exercise  of  his  art.  A  larse  circle  of  German  and 
of  the  calendar.  Gassendi  relates,  on  the  authority  of  Italian  friends  mutually  helpea  each  other  by  artistic 
Peter  Ramus  (1515-72)  and  of  Paul  Jovius  (Giovio:  excursions.  His  evenmgs  ne  spent  in  composition 
1483-1552),  both  humanists,  that  Mtlller  was  created  and  the  like.  At  the  end  of  four  years  the  master 
Bishop  of  Ratisbon.  Jovius  writes  in  his  '' Eulogies  brought  home  his  characteristic  German  religious 
appended  to  the  true  pictures  of  celebrated  men'' in  style,  lig^tty  mins[led  with  some  southern  elements, 
the  museum  of  Como  (p.  75):  "Ab  hac  commenda-  In  his  principal  pamtings  of  the  ''Crowning"  and  the 
tione  eruditi  nominis  creatus  est  a  Xysto  Quarto  "Birthof  Mary"  (entirely  finished  in  1850)  he  showed 
Ratisponensis  Episcopus"  etc.  This  testimony  of  a  lumself.accordingto  the  judgment  of  connoisseurs,  the 
man  contemporcuy  of  Regiomontanus  is  not  improb-  equal  of  the  elder  De^er.  Tne  former  paintins  unf or- 
able,  since  by  this  dignitary  title  the  pope  coula  give  tunately  is  in  a  bad  light  the  greater  part  of  the  year, 
moreforceto  his  invitation.  Yet  it  seems  certain  that  The  lower  part^  the  Apostles  by  the  grave,  out  of 
MiiUer  never  occupied  the  episcopal  chair.  Whether  which  spring  lihes  and  roses,  is  widely  known.  The 
a  papal  command  was  needed,  or  whether  the  world's  leading  scene  in  the  upper  part  presents  the  Vimn 
problem  of  adjusting  the  calendar  had  in  itsolf  sufficient  Mother  bowed  before  tne  Saviour  in  a  Raphaeute 
attraction,  Mliller  was  again  in  Rome  towards  the  end  beauty  of  colour.  The  painter  worked  so  long  over 
of  1475.  Death  overtook  him  in  less  than  a  year  at  the  "  fiirth  of  Mary"  that  he  hoped  to  succeed  in  some 
the  age  of  forty,  and  the  Panthton  is  said  to  be  his  <lc&ree  in  satisfying  the  spirit  at  once  of  Raphael  and 
resting-place,  although  his  tomb  is  unknown.  The  of  Dtbrer.  In  this  work  the  eight  typical  women  e&- 
cause  of  his  death  was,  according  to  Jovius,  a  pesti-  peciaUy  deserve  to  be  noticed.  Besides  these  there 
lence  then  ra^ng  in  Rome;  but  according  to  Ramus,  belong  to  MUller  in  the  same  church  the  "Annuncia- 
poison  administered  to  him  by  the  sons  of  his  enemy,  tion",  the  "Visitation",  the  "Wedding  of  the  Vir- 
George  of  Trebizond.  The  historical  exactness  ot  gin",  and  the  "Lamb  of  God",  adored  by  angels  in 
Ramus,  however,  is  very  doubtful  from  his  poetical  uie  mi,dst  of  the  i^mbols  of  the  Evangelists  on  a  tri- 
stories  of  the  iron  fly  and  the  wooden  eai^e,  said  to  umphant  arch.  In  1859  a  contract  was  made  with 
have  been  constructed  in  the  laboratories  of  NU-  the  authorities  of  the  church  of  Notre-Dame  de  La 
remberg.  In  consequence  of  the  untimely  death  of  Garde  at  Marsdlles  in  rege^  to  a  greatpictorial 
Muller^  many  of  his  works  and  manuscripts  were  lost,  scheme,  unfortunately  never  carried  out.  The  upper 
in  particular  everything  on  the  reform  of  the  calendar,  part  of  the  cartoon  of  a  new  "Coronation  of  Mary". 
Some  works  were  published  posthumously,  like  the  wonderful  in  execution,  is  in  the  Berlin  National 
five  books  on  triangles  and  the  quadrature  of  the  Gallery.  For  the  cathedral  church  at  Bonn,  under- 
circle  (Nuremberg,  1533):  his  trigonometrv  (1541);  taken  m  1866,  eighteen  paintings  were  contemplated, 
the  "Scripta  CI.  Math.  lo.  Regiomontani"  (1544);  The  objections  of  the  ecclesiastical  authorities  also 
the  "Epitome"  on  Ptolemy's  Almagest  (Venice,  caused  this  monumental  work,  to  the  master's  un- 
1496) ;  and  part  of  his  correspondence  with  Bessarion.  utterable  sorrow,  to  fail.  His  easel  pictures,  how- 
Roder,  Bianchini,  and  other  scientists.  The  principal  ever,  are  all  the  better  known:  "The  Magnificat", 
works  are  reviewed  by  Gassendi;  the  astronomical  "Wonder  of  Roses",  "Immaculate  Conception", 
books  are  described  by  Delambre;  and  the  mathe-  "Joseph  with  the  Boy  Jesus",  "The  Disciples  in  Em- 
matical  treatises  are  discussed  by  Cantor.  Bibli-  maus";  the  popular  round  pictures:  "Mary  and 
ographies  on  Regiomontanus  are  enumerated  by  Elizabeth",  the  ^' Holy  Family  at  Work",  also  "The 
Stem  and  Ziegler.,  A  statue  of  Miiller  was  erected  in  Holv  Family",  "The  Holy  Night",  and  so  on.  Of 
the  market-place  of  Kdnigsberg  in  1873.  the  hifldiest  value  in  art  are  the  altar  painting,  "Christ 

JoviuB.  Imoinnes  dararum  virarum;  RAMtm.  Schdarum  mathe-  jnth  the  Disciples  at  EmmaUS,"  W^ch  he  undertook 

mtuicarum  libri  XXXI  (Basle,  1569),  65;  Gabsendi,  Opera.  V  for  the  chuTch  of  St.  Remigius  at  Bonn,  and  his  last 

(LyoDfl,  1658),  iifMc«ften«;   MoNTDCLA.  Hi^e  dn  Maiht-  cartoon  for  the  Same  church.  Completed  by  his  nephcw 

moHguf  (Ann.  VII),  I,  641-547;  DsLAiniRB,  Hiatotre  de  Vavtro-  t?--»t»«  AyTnllai. 

nom%*  du  Moyen  Affe  (Paris,  1819),  285-365;    Stbrn  in  EacH-  '^S^  £!i,n      a   ^»        rv^  ^^  ^  tc»'>%  v,          tr    i  ir^ii 

GRXiBmR'B  Bneyehpddie,  II  (Leipaig,  1843),  20&-213;  AacHBACH.  rJE^^^^'^r'*^''?^  ^^^^S^a^^*^^^*^''l}  ^^' 

Gesch,  der  Wiener  Univernldt,  T  (Vienna,  1866),  537-557;   Zeio^  i^,Y'  ?^^^,  JSS***S?» i®?2j>v*'"^^??^Ji''"'  ^^^'  ^ 

hKR,  Reg%cmontanu»,eingeiatreieherVorlan/erdeMCoiumbu9(Dn^  />flMeWor/er  Xun«<  (DQsaeldorf.  1902).           Q.  GlETlfANN. 
den,  1874) :  Wour,  (7«teA.  der  Attronomie  (Munioh,  1877) ;  QOn- 

S5iJ;^terS'"&Si2S?^^JSI?ff!^§''(}Pt|:  ,  Mjnodt,  John  T.,  Bishop  of  St.  John's,  N«r- 

Utentun.,  41-53;  Idbm,  Vorleeungen  ul^r  Ge»eh.  der  MathefnaHie,  foundland,  b.  m  1807  at  Limenck,  Ireland:  d.  at  St. 

11  (Ldpaig.  1900).  254-280.                     J.  Q.  Hagbn.  John's,  Newfoundland,  26  March,  1869.    He  became 


MtmCH-BELLINaHAnSEN 


630 


HUNaBlT 


a  Franciscan  and  was  educated  at  St.  Bonaventure's 
College,  Seville^  and  at  St.  Isidore's,  Rome,  where  in 
1830  ne  was  ordained  priest.  After  long  service  in 
Ireland,  particuUu-ly  at  Ennis^  he  was  appointed  in 
1847  coaajutor  to  Bishop  Fleming  of  St.  John's,  New- 
foundluid,  with  the  right  of  succession,  and  was  con- 
secrated by  Cardinal  Fransoni  on  27  December,  1847. 
at  St.  Isiaore's,  Rome.  In  July,  1850,  he  succeeded 
Bishop  Fleming.  The  church  made  great  progress  in 
Newfoundland  during  the  episcopate  of  Dr.  Mullock, 
a  new  diocese — Harbour  Grace — ^being  erected.  The 
splendid  cathedral  of  St.  John's,  begun  in  1841,  was 
consecrated  on  9  September,  1855.  Dr.  Mullock  al- 
ways took  a  keen  interest  in  the  commercial  develop- 
ment of  Newfoundland,  and  was  most  enthusiastic 
about  its  natural  resources.  He  was  frequently  con- 
sulted bv  the  governor  on  matters  relating  to  the  wel- 
fare of  the  colony,  and  many  of  his  suggestions  relat- 
ing to  the  fishenes  and  other  matters  were  adopted. 
Before  leaving  Ireland  he  was  a  f reauent  contributor 
to  the  periodical  literature  of  the  day,  and  took  an 
active  part  in  the  Irish  literary  movement  of  the 
forties.  Long  before  the  first  attempts  to  lay  a  sub- 
marine cable  across  the  Atlantic  was  made  (1857), 
Dr.  Mullock  had  on  several  occasions  publicly  pro- 
pounded the  feasibility  of  connecting  Europe  with 
America  by  means  of  submarine  telegraph.  He  was 
the  first  to  bring  before  the  English-speaking  world 
the  life  and  works  of  the  great  Samt  Alphonsus  Maria 
Liguori,  publishing  his  '^Life"  at  Dubhn  in  1846,  and 
in  the  following  year  a  translation  of  the  saint's 
"  History  of  Heresies  and  their  Refutation  " .  In  1847 
appeared  at  Dublin  his  "Short  History  of  the  Irish 
Franciscan  Province",  translated  from  the  Latin  work 
of  Francis  Ward;  he  also  wrote  '^The  Cathedral  of  St. 
John's,  Newfoundland  and  its  consecration"  (Dub- 
lin, 1856). 

Gams.  Striea  episc.  eeel,  oath.;  Howubt,  Bed,  Hi»t,  of  Nete- 
foundiand  (Boston,  1888);  oontempora^  files  of  the  Nation 
(Dublin).  Ta6fee  (London),  and  Cork  Examiner;  MSS.  in  the 
Franciscan  Convent,  Dublin. 

Gbegort  Clbabt. 

Mtlnch-BeUinghaiuon,  Baron  Eliqius  Franz 
Joseph  von  (pseudonym:  Frirdrich  Halm),  an  Aus- 
trian dramatist,  b.  at  Cracow,  2  April,  1806;  d.  at 
Vienna,  22  May,  1871.  He  was  educated  at  the  sem- 
inary of  Melk  and  later  at  Vienna,  where  he  studied 
philosophv  and  jurisprudence,  and  where  he  besaiL 
nis  official  career  in  1826.  Even  as  a  boy  he  took  a 
keen  interest  in  the  theatre  and  since  1833  enjo3red 
the  friendship  of  his  former  teacher,  the  Benedictine 
Michael  Leopold  Enk  von  der  Burg,  who  himself  had 
a  strong  bent  for  the  drama  and  encouraged  the  poet 
to  offer  his  drama  ''Griseldis"  to  the  Hofburg  thea- 
tre. Its  successful  production  in  1835  established 
Halm's  reputation  as  a  playwright  and  henceforth  he 
continued  to  write  for  the  stage  with  varying  success. 
In  the  meantime  he  advanced  in  his  official  career,  be- 
coming Government  councillor  in  1840  and  Kuatoa 
(chief  keeper)  of  the  Court  Library  in  1844,  a  position 
that  Grillparzer  had  sought  in  vain.  He  was  elected 
member  of  the  Acadeniv  of  Sciences  in  1852  and  life 
member  of  the  Upper  House  of  Parliament  in  1861. 
In  1867  he  was  appointed  superintendent  of  the  two 
court-theatres,  but  three  years  later  resigned  this  po- 
sition which  disputes  had  made  distasteful  to  him. 
His  health  also  had  been  failing. 

Of  his  many  dramatic  works  the  best  known  are 
"Griseldis"  (1837);  "Der  Sohn  der  Wildnis"  (1842); 
and  "Der  Fechter  von  Ravenna"  (1857).  "Gri- 
seldis"  is  baaed  on  the  well-known  story  of  the  faith- 
ful wife  whose  loyalty  and  devotion  are  put  to  the 
severest  tests  but  who  triumphs  in  the  end.  "Der 
Sohn  der  Wildnis"  (The  Son  of  the  Wilderness)  is  a 
romantic  drama  depicting  the  power  of  womanly  love 
and  virtue  over  rude  barbarian  strength.  It  was  pre- 
sented on  the  English  stage  under  the  title  of  "Ingo- 


mar  the  Barbarian ".  "Der  Fechter  von  Ravenna" 
(The  Gladiator  of  Ravenna),  regarded  as  Halm's  best 
work,  is  a  tragedy  having  for  its  hero  Thumelicus 
the  son  of  Arminius,  the  liberator  of  Germany  from 
Roman  rule.  Theatrically  these  plays  are  very  ^ac- 
tive, but  the  characters  are  improoable  and  the  situar 
tions  are  often  strained.  Their  popularity,  which 
they  owe  largely  to  their  smooth,  poBsned  diction  and 
skilfully  interspersed  lyrics,  has  not  been  lasting. 
Of  Haun's  numerous  other  dramas  we  may  mention 
"Iphigenie  in  Delphi"  (1856);  "Begum  Somni" 
(1863); "  Wildfeuer'^  (1864) :  and  a  German  vendon  ol 
Shakespeare's  "Cymbcdine  that  appeared  on  the 
stage  in  1842.  Halm  is  also  the  author  of  l3rric8,  short 
stories,  and  of  a  narrative  poem  "Charfreita^"  (Good 
Friday)  (1864).  A  complete  edition  of  his  works, 
arranged  m  chronological  order,  appeared  at  Vienna 
(1856r-64)  in  8  vols.:  four  additional  volumes  were 
edited  posthumously  by  Faust  Pachler  and  Emil  Kuh 
(Vienna,  1872);  selections  were  edited  by  Anton 
ochloesar  (Leipzig,  — ■). 

See  the  introduction  to  Schiomab'b  edition;  8bdl  in  Album 
dtterreieh,  Diehter  (Vienna,  1850),  139  oq.;  RuDOur  Oottschall, 
PortraU  und  Studim,  V  (Leipiic.  1876).  83-129;  Hakb  Hopfem, 
Streitfiragen  tmd  Brinnerungen  (Stuttgart,  1876). 

Abthttb  F.  J.  RXMT. 

Munden,  John,  Venerable.  See  Hatdock, 
George,  Venerable. 

Mundwiler,  Fintan,  abbot  of  the  Benedictine 
monastery  of  St.  Mdnrad,  Indiana,  b.  at  Dietikon  in 
Switzerland,  12  July,  1835;  d.  at  St.  Meinrad's  Abbey, 
14  Februaiy,  1898.  He  studied  at  the  monastic 
school  of  Einsiedeln  in  Switzerland,  where  he  took  the 
Benedictine  habit  in  1854,  made  profession  on  14  Oct., 
1855,  and  was  raised  to  the  priestiiood  on  11  Sept., 
1859.  A  year  later  he  accompanied  his  oonfr^, 
Martin  Marty,  afterwards  Bishop  of  St.  Cloud,  to  the 
newly  founded  monastery  of  St.  Meinrad  in  Indiana. 
Havmg  arrived  there  in  September,  1860,  he  tau^t 
in  the  seminarv  and  attended  a  few  neigbbounng 
missions.  While  stationed  at  Terre  Haute,  Indiana 
(1864).  he  organized  the  German  Catholic  Congrega- 
tion 01  St.  Benedict,  for  which  he  built  a  church  in 
1865.  In  1869,  when  St.  Meinrad  was  raised  to  an 
abbey  and  Father  Marty  became  its  first  abbot, 
Father  Fintan  was  appointed  prior  and  master  of 
novices.  While  Abbot  Marty  worked  among  the 
Indians  in  Dakota  (1876-80),  Prior  Fintan  was  ad- 
ministrator of  the  abbey,  and,  upon  the  resignation  of 
the  former,  who  had  meanwlule  been  appointed  Vicar 
Apostolic  of  Dakota,  Fintan  was  elected  Abbot  o^  St. 
Meinrad  on  3  February,  1880,  and  received  abbatial 
benediction  from  Bishop  Chatard  of  Vinoennes  on  16 
May,  1880.  Though  above  all  intent  upon  the  ob- 
servance of  monastic  discipline,  he  in  no  way  neg- 
lected the  secular  interests  of  his  abbey.  He  enlarged 
the  college,  founded  the  Priory  (now  Abbey)  of  Sub- 
iaco  in  Arkansas  and  the  Priory  (now  Abbey)  of  St. 
Joseph  in  Louisiana,  and  obtained  from  R^ome  the 
permission  to  erect  the  Helvetioo-American  Congre- 
gation of  Benedictines,  of  which  he  became  the  mst 
E resident.  When  St.  Meinrad's  Abbey  was  destroyed 
y  fire  on  2  Sept.,  1887,  the  undaunted  abbot  refc^t 
the  monastery  on  even  a  greater  scale,  founded  a  com- 
mercial college  at  Jasper,  Indiana,  jmd  assisted  in  the 
foundation  of  the  Priory  of  St.  Gall  in  North  Dakota. 
But,  in  the  midst  of  temporal  cares,  he  remained  a  man 
of  prayer.  He  laboured  most  zealously  for  the  spread 
of  the  adoration  of  the  Blessed  Sacrament  and  was  a 
fervent  promoter  of  the  Priest's  Eucharistic  Leacue. 
In  1893  ne  took  part  in  the  Eucharistic  Congress  held 
at  Jerusalem. 

Necrologies  in  Paradieeea/rCehte,  III  (St.  Meinrad,  Indiana, 
1808).  d5-8;  St,  John*»  Univereity  Record,  IX  (CoUccet-ille. 
Minnesota,  1898),  81-2;  Rome  BMAfidtfM,  XV  (Mamisoui, 
1898).  188-90.  MiCHABL  OlT. 

MuDgrety  School  or.  See  Ldcxbick,  Diocbbb  or- 


aSUKICH-FBlISINQ 


631 


aSUKICH-FBEISINO 


Miiziidh-FroiBing,  Archdiocbsb  of  (Monacbn- 
BI8  BT  Frisinoensis)^  in  Bavaria. — ^This  archdiocese 
oiig;inated  in  the  ancient  Diocese  of  Freising.  The 
Church  of  Freising  dates  back  to  St.  Corbinian,  who, 
after  his  consecration,  came  in  716  to  organize  the 
Church  in  Bavaria.  On  a  mountain  near  Freising  the 
saint  erected  a  Benedictine  monastery  and  a  school. 
He  was  succeeded  in  the  government  of  the  abbey  by 
his  brother  Erembert.  when  St.  Boniface  in  738 
regulated  ecclesiastical  affairs  in  Bavaria  by  the  crea- 
tion of  four  dioceses,  Erembert  was  chosen  first  Bishop 
of  Freising,  which  see  was  made  suffragan  to  Mainz. 
Tlie  sanctuary  of  Our  Lady,  which  existed  on  the 
mountain  near  Freising  before  the  coming  of  St.  Cor- 
binian,  became  the  cathedral,  and  was  served  by  the 
Benedictine  monks.  At  the  time  the  diocese  em- 
braced the  country  of  the  Upper  Isar  as  far  east  as  the 
Inn  and  south  to  the  watershed  of  the  Inn  and  the 
Isar.  The  third  bishop,  Joseph  of  Verona  (747-64), 
established  a  collegiate  church  in  Isen,  and  shared  in 
the  founding  of  the  convents  of  Sch&ftlarn  and 
Schamitz,  placing  the  government  of  the  latter  in  the 
hands  of  Abbot  Atto.  The  last-named  foundation 
was  particularly  si^ficant,  in  view  of  the  later 
acQuisitions  of  the  diocese  in  the  Pustertal. 

Other  important  convents  of  the  diocese  were  Te- 
gemsee,  Moosburg,  Ilmmunster,  Altomtlnster,  Schli- 
ersee,  and  Rot-on-the-Inn.  The  learned  Aribo,  or 
Arbeo  (764-84),  the  biographer  of  St.  Corbinian, 
translated  the  remains  of  this  saint  from  Mais  to 
Freising  and  interred  them  in  the  Semdchrum  Corbini- 
ani  which  he  had  built  (765-68)  in  tne  church  of  Our 
Lady.  During  his  episcopate,  Duke  Tassilo  II  pre- 
sented Innichen  to  the  Abbot  of  Schamitz.  With 
the  newly  acquired  territory,  Freising  gained  a  port 
of  entr^  into  Carinthia,  and  the  diocese  soon  acquired 
possessions  also  in  Styria  and  Camiola.  Atto,  Abbot 
of  Schamitz,  also  Archbishop  of  Freising  (784-810), 
zealously  undertook  the  task  of  Christianizing  the 
Slavs  of  the  Pustertal.  On  the  summit  of  the  moun- 
tain upon  which  Freising  cathedral  stood  he  erected  a 
secona  Benedictine  monastery  under  the  same  govern- 
ment as  ihe  first.  During  his  time  the  diocese  was 
made  suffragan  to  Salzburg.  Hitto  (811-34)  made  a 
visitation  of  his  diocese:  he  installed  a  provost  and 
six  secular  canons  in  tne  church  on  the  mountain 
Weihenstephan  near  Freising. 

During  the  episcopate  of  his  successor  Erchambert 
(835-54).  a  deed  of  gift  for  the  first  time  mentions 
cathedral  canons,  who  were  not  monks  (842  and  845). 
the  cathedral  chapter  being  thereafter  composed  ot 
monks  and  canons.  Under  Bishops  Anno  (855-75). 
Arnold  (875-83).  and  Waldo  (883-903)^  brother  of 
Bishop  Salomo  of  Constance,  the  monastic  element  in 
the  cathedral  chapter  gradually  withdrew;  the  Bene- 
dictines of  the  cathedral  mountain  seem  to  have  aban- 
doned it  and  to  have  established  themselves  at  the 
foot  of  the  Weihenstephan.  Waldo  rebuilt  the  cathe- 
dral, which  had  been  burned  down;  he  was  given  juris- 
diction over  the  neighbouring  Abbey  of  Moosburg.  and 
received  from  Louis  the  ChUd  in  906  the  right  ot  free 
choice  of  bishops  for  the  cathedral  chapter. 

The  Hunganans  gained  an  entry  into  Bavaria  and 
destroyed  almost  entirely  the  spiritual  life  of  ihe  coun- 
try. Bishop  Utto  fell  in  a  battle  against  them  in  908. 
Under  St.  Lantpert  (938-57),  Freising  was  set  on  fire 
by  the  Hungarians  and  almost  entirely  destroyed. 
Jdter  the  victory  of  Otto  I  at  Lechfeld,  peace  came 
again  to  the  city,  and  the  Church  of  Freising,  under 
the  guidance  of  competent  rulers,  rose  from  its  ruins, 
and  acquired  newpossessions.  Abraham,  of  the  race 
of  the  counts  of  Cidrz  (956-94),  obtained  for  his  dio- 
cese from  the  Emperor  Otto  II  (973)  extensive  posses- 
sions in  Camiola.  Gottschalk,  Kni^t  of  Hagenau 
(994-1006).  obtained  for  Freising  a  comage,  the  privi- 
lege of  holding  fairs,  and  civic  rights;  and  Egilbert  of 
Moosburg  (1006-i39),  the  founder  of  the  Benedictine 


Abbey  of  Weihenstephan,  which  replaced  the  old  con- 
vent of  the  canons,  was  the  recipient  of  additional 
lands  in  Upper  Camiola.  In  Austria  and  in  the  Tyrol 
the  colonies  founded  from  the  diocese  were  remark- 
^ly  successful  in  development  and  stability.  During 
the  disturbances  resulting  from  the  conflict  of  investi- 
tures, EUenhard,  Count  of  Meran  (1052-78),  was  ever 
to  be  found  on  the  side  of  Henry  IV,  who  repeatedly 
visited  the  bishop  in  Freising;  Meginhard,  Count  of 
Scheyem  (1078-98),  who  distinguished  himself  by 
spreading  the  Christian  doctrine  in  Bohemia,  was 
more  favourable  to  the  pope;  Heinrich  I,  of  Ebersdorf 
(1098-1137),  was  in  his  tum  an  adherent  of  the  em- 
peror. Heinrich  I  lived  to  see  the  destruction  of 
Freising  by  Duke  Welf ,  and,  when  dying,  bequeathed 
his  possessions  to  the  diocese. 

He  was  succeeded  by  the  most  distinguished  bishop. 
Otto  I  (1137-58),  the  historian  and  philosopher.  He 
saved  the  see  from  the  ruin  which  threatened  it,  re- 
established many  monasteries,  and  delivered  the  dio- 
cese from  the  oppressive  jurisdiction  of  the  counts  of 
Scheyem.  A  distercian  himself,  he  once  more  estab- 
lished monastic  discipline  and  austerity.  In  the  last 
years  of  his  administration  occurred  the  destmction 
of  the  episcopal  bridge,  custom  houses,  mint,  and  salt 
works  near  Oberfohring  by  Duke  Henry  the  Lion, 
who  transferred  the  custom  houses  and  bridge  site  to 
the  upper  part  of  Oberfdhring,  placing  them  in  the  vil- 
lage of  Munich  on  the  Isar.  Albert  I  (1158-84) 
brought  the  diocese  safely  through  the  conflicts  of 
Barbarossa  with  the  pope;  he  rebuilt  the  cathedral, 
which  had  been  burned  aown  in  1169,  making  it  larger 
and  more  magnificent;  his  successor  Otto  11  (1184- 
1220)  completed  the  work,  the  cathedral  bein|;  conse- 
crated in  1205.  The  troubled  period  of  the  thirteenth 
century  was  generally  unfavourable  to  the  spiritual 
life  of  the  diocese;  in  addition,  the  acquisition  of  prop- 
erty through  donation  ceased  altogether,  and  the 
bishops,  in  particular  Konrad  of  Wittelsbach  (1258- 
1278)  and  Emicho  of  Wittelsbach  (1283-1311),  or- 
ganized and  brought  together  their  scattered  posses- 
sions by  purchase,  sale,  and  exchange.  By  inheriting 
Werdenfels  (1294),  the  diocese  became  an  immediate 
principality  of  the  empire. 

The  schism  which  occurred  under  Louis  the  Bavar- 
ian also  divided  the  Church  of  Freising.  In  opposi- 
tion to  the  bishops  chosen  by  the  cathedral  chapter, 
which  was  favourable  to  the  emperor,  three  others 
were  named  in  succession  by  the  pope,  and  for  more 
than  a  century  afterwards  the  popes  appointed  the 
bishops  of  this  diocese,  ignoring  the  privilege  of  free 
choice  possessed  by  the  chapter.  Under  the  rule  of 
Bishop  Albert  of  Iiohenberg  (1349-59),  chancellor  of 
Charles  IV,  the  diocese  recovered  from  the  evil  effects 
produced  by  the  schism.    His  successors  were  in  great 

Sart  lords  from  Austrian  territory.  In  opposition  to 
tishop  Nicodemus  of  Scala  (1421-43),  named  by  Mar- 
tin V,  who  proved  himself  an  excellent  regent  and  pro- 
moter of  ecclesiastical  reform,  the  cath^ral  chapter 
chose  ihe  vicar-generaL  Johann  GrUnwalder,  recog- 
nized by  the  antipope,  Felix  V,  and  by  Duke  Albert  of 
Bavaria;  but  after  the  resignation  of  Heinrich  II  of 
Schlick  (1443-48),  appointed  by  the  pope,  he  obtained 
general  recognition  as  bishop,  and  showed  himself  to  be 
eminently  fitted  for  the  office  (1448-52).  His  succes- 
sor. Johann  IV  of  Tuelbeck  (1453-73),  was  the  first 
bishop  in  many  years  to  owe  his  election  to  the  cathe- 
dral cnapter.  He  resigned  in  favour  of  his  chancellor, 
the  pious  Sixtus  of  Tannberg,  who  worked  zealously 
for  reform  and  for  the  maintenance  of  ecclesiastical 
discipline.  During  his  time,  Veit  Ampeck  wrote  his 
history  of  Bavaria  and  of  Freising. 

After  the  death  of  Sixtus,  the  chapter  elected  in  suc- 
cession three  brothers  of  the  house  of  Wittelsbach: 
Ruprecht  (1495-98),  Philipp  (1499-1541),  and  Hein- 
rich (1541-1551);  of  these,  however,  only  Philipp  re- 
ceived consecration.    Given  up  to  field  sports,  Pnilipp 


mmiOH-nttttta             632  MtymcH-ntittma 

nevertheleaB  steadfastly  opposed  the  ecclesiastical  in-  archbishop  and  the  cathedral  chapter  in  Munich.  The 
novations  which  seemed  about  to  ^;ain  a  footing  in  his  new  archoiocese  was  also  to  comprise  those  portions 
diocese.  Philipp  was  also  administrator  of  the  Dio-  of  the  former  iSince-Bishopric  of  Sakburx  which  lay 
cese  of  Naumbui]g.  Under  Bishop  Leo  (1552-59),  a  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Inn.  On  the  other  hand,  those 
visitation  of  the  bishopric  took  place.  Moritz  of  Sandi-  parishes  in  the  Tyrol,  Carinthia,  Camiola.  etc.,  which 
sell  (1599-66),  an  admirable  administrator,  resigned  in  were  formerly  under  ihe  bishops  of  Freising  and 
favour  of  Duke  Ernest  of  Bavaria  (1556-1612).  The  Chiemsee,  were  subjected  to  the  Ordinariesof  Sals- 
latter  was  at  the  same  time  Bishop  of  Hildesheim,  of  burg  and  Brixen.  Tne  church  of  Our  Lady  in  Munich 
Lidge,  Elector  of  Cologne,  and  Bishop  of  Mtinster.  was  made  the  cathedral.  The  Bishops  of  Augsburg, 
On  account  of  his  zealous  activity  in  tne  North  Ger-  Paasau,  and  Ratisbon  became  the  suffragans  of  the 
man  sees,  he  was  unable  to  remam  long  at  Freising.  new  ecclesiastical  province.  The  papal  Bull  of  drcum- 
Nevertheless  he  introduced  many  reforms,  established  scription,  ''Dei  ac  Domini  nostn'',  bears  the  date  of 
a  ducal  and  ecclesiastical  town  council  in  Munich,  1  April,  1818. 

and  promul^ted  the  first  Bavarian  concordat  (1583).  Lothar  Anselm,  Freiherr  von  Gebsattel,  dean  of 

Under  the  pious  Vitus  Adam  von  Gebeck  (1618-51),  the  cathedral  of  WOrsburg  and  a  personal  friend 

the  bishopnc  was  shockingly  devastated  by  the  Thirty  of  the  king,  was  named  the  first  arcnbishop  (1817). 

Years  War.    Emperor  Ferdinand  II  conferred  upon  As,  at  the  same  time  as  the  publication  of  the  concor- 

him  and  his  successors  the  dignity  of  Prince-bishops,  dat,  a  reli^ous  edict  had  been  promul^^ated  as  part  of 

Once  more  two  princes  of  the  house  of  Bavaria  were  the  constitution,  which  agam  unfairly  abrogated 
elected  to  the  See  of  Freising:  Albert  Sigismund  (1652-  many  of  the  stipulations  of  the  concordat,  Gebsattel 
85),  at  the  same  time  Bishop  of  Ratisbon  and  Provost  refused  to  take  the  oath  to  abide  by  the  constitution; 
of  EUwangen.  an  art-loving  prince,  who  adorned  the  and  it  was  only  after  the  Tegemsee  proclamation  of 
cathedral  with  a maffnificent  portal;  and  Joseph  Klem-  the  king,  15  Sept.,  1821,  that  he  was  consecrated  in 
ens  (1685-94),  brother  of  the  Elector  Max  Emanuel,  the  cathedral  of  Munich  (1821).  He  attained  great 
an  ostentatious  and  extravagant  prince,  also  Bishop  of  distinction  by  his  regulation  of  ecclesiastical  affairs. 
Ratisbon,  Elector  of  Cologne,  and  Bishop  of  Lidge.  Under  his  nue,  a  large  number  of  monasteries  were 
Papal  confirmation  of  his  appointment  to  the  last-  re-established  or  newly  founded,  and  many  churches 
named  see  was  given  only  in  the  event  that  he  should  and  charitable  institutions  were  erected.  In  Freising, 
resi^  from  the  Sees  of  Freisinx  and  Ratisbon.  In  on  the  site  of  the  old  episcopal  residence,  which  Louis 
Freising  he  was  succeeded  by  Johann  von  Kapfing  had  restored  to  the  bishop  in  1826,  an  ecclesiastical 
(1695-1727),  who  caused  the.  cathedral  to  be  deco-  seminary  was  established,  to  which  were  added  later 
rated  by  the  Asam  brothers,  erected  a  number  of  a  lesser  seminary,  a  gymnasium,  and  a  lyceum. 
schools  and  charitable  institutions,  made  numerous  His  successor  was  Aarl  August,  Count  of  Reisach. 
visitations,  and  founded  a  lyceum  at  Freising,  one  of  previously  Bishop  of  Eichst&tt,  and  coadjutor  of 
the  professors  being  the  learned  Benedictine  Meichel-  Munich.  He  became  unpopular  under  Maximilian 
beck,  who  wrote  the  history  of  the  bishops  of  Freising.  II  because  of  his  efforts  to  uphold  the  rights  of  the 
Johann  Theodor,  Duke  of  Bavaria  (1727-63).  m  Church.  The  king  finally  used  his  influence  to  have 
whose  hands  were  united  the  Dioceses  of  Ratisbon,  him  withdrawn,  and  Pius  IX  in  1855  raised  him  to  the 
Li^ge,  and  Freising,  built  an  ecclesiastical  seminary  at  cardinalate  and  called  him  to  Rome.  Gregor  von  Scherr 
Munich  (1735).  Klemens  Wenceslaus  of  Saxony  (1856-77),  former  Abbot  of  Metten,  endeavoured  to 
(1763-68),  who  from  1764  was  also  Bishop  of  Ratis-  preserve  the  Catholic  character  of  the  schools.  For 
Don  and  coadjutor  of  Augsburg,  resigned  the  See  of  the  maintenance  of  the  lesser  seminaries  of  the  diocese 
Freising  when,  in  1768,  ne  was  chosen  Elector  of  which  had  been  obliged  to  receive  an  exceptionally 
Trier.  Ludwig  Joseph  von  Welden  (1769-88)  was  large  number  of  candidates  to  the  priesthood,  he 
specially  distinguished  for  his  erection  of  schools  for  founded  St.  (Dorbinian's  Association,  and  erected  a 
the  people.  During  his  episcopate,  a  papal  nuncia-  lesser  seminarv  in  Freising.  He  introduced  into  his 
ture  for  the  lands  of  Elector  Itarl  Theoaor  was  e&-  diocese  the  devotion  of  the  Perpetual  Adoration 
tablished  in  Munich  (1786),  which  was  the  immediate  of  the  Blessed  Sacrament,  and  instituted  pastoral  oon- 
cause  of  the  convoking  of  the  Congress  of  Ems.  Max-  ferences  of  the  clergy.  At  the  Vatican  Coundl,  he 
imilian  Prokop,  Count  of  Tdrrin^-Jettenbach  (1788-  voted  with  the  minority,  but  submitted  at  once  to  the 
89),  was  succeeded  by  the  last  Prmce-Bishop  at  Frei-  decision  of  the  council.  The  last  years  of  his  episco- 
sing,  Joseph  Konrad  von  SchroffenberK  (1780-1803),  pate  were  embittered  by  the  support  which  the  Ba- 
the dissolution  of  the  diocese  taking  place  during  his  varian  Crovemment,  under  the  leadership  of  Luts, 
lifetime  (d.  4  April,  1803,  at  BerchtSsgaden).  minister  of  worship,  gave  to  the  Old  Catholic  move- 

At  the  time  of  the  secularization  of  church  prop-  ment,  whose  foundfer  (DdUinser)  and  most  x^ous 

erty,  the  prince-bishopric  fell  to  Bavaria,  the  pails  champions  were  resident  in  Munich. 

Ivine  in  Austria  and  the  Tyrol  being  turned  over  to  His  successor,  Anton  von  Steichele  (1878-89),  the 

SalzDurg.    The  reformers  undertook  the  destruction  learned  church  historian  and  historiopapher  of  the 

of  monasteries  and  diocese,  numerous  churches  were  Diocese  of  Au^burg,  by  the  foundation  of  Church 

sold  for  the  material  they  contained,  graves  were  dese-  Building  Associations  kept  pace  with  the  ever-grow- 

crated.  the  sacred  vessels  were  sold  at  auction  or  ing  City  of  Munich  by  the  erection  of  new  churches  and 

meltect  down,  and  the  most  valuable  libraries  were  de-  puishes,  and  enlarged  the  seminary  at  Freising.    In 

spoiled  of  their  treasures.    Owing  to  Uie  dissolution  January.  1887,  he  summoned  the  bishops  of 


of  the  cathedral  chapter  by  the  'Bavarian  Govern-  to  a  conference  at  Freising,  which  resulted  in  a  resolu- 

ment.  the  election  of  a  vicar  capitular  was  impossible,  tion  to  send  to  the  Government  ajoint  memorandum 

and  tne  spiritual  guidance  of  the  diocese  was  entrustea  in  r^ird  to  the  status  of  the  Catholic  Church  in 

to  the  vicar-general,  Heckenstaller,  appointed  from  Bavaria,  which  when  carried  into  effect  brought  about 

SalzbuiK,  who.  in  1819,  was  named  vicar  Apostolic  of  a  better  arrangement  of  the  relations  between  Church 

the  abandoned  diocese.    Tlie  most  important  episco-  and  State  and  guaranteed  to  the  Church  a  greater  in- 

pal  functions  were  performed  by  the  coadjutor  Bishop  fluence  upon  the  intermediate  and  higher  schools, 

of  Ratisbon,  Johann  Nepomuk  von  Wolf.    After  the  Under  Archbishop  Antonius  von  Thoma  (1889-^), 

concordat  between  Pius  VII  and  King  Max  Joseph  I  the  Old  Catholic  question  was  finally  settled  in  a 

(5  June,  1817),  an  orderly  condition  of  affurs  was  manner  favourable  to  the  Catholic  Church  and  to 

af^ain  finally  inaugurated.    From  the  territory  of  the  justice.    Franz  Joseph  von  Stein  (1897-1909)  feai^ 

dissolved  Sees  of  Freising  and  Chiemsee,  and  the  for-  lessly   espoused  in  the  Bavarian  Chamber  of  the 

mer  Provoetship  of  Berchteqsadci^  was  created  the  Council  of  the  Empire  the  cause  of  the  CathoUc 

Archdiocese  of  Munich-Freisingy  with  the  seat  of  the  Churdi  regarding  mstruction,  upholding  Catholie 


■■      ■'■                      ' 

1 1 

i 

1 

i 

L 

1 

mNICH-FBEISINa                     633  mNICH-TREISINa 

knowledge  as  opposed  to  the  unchecked  freedom  Sisters  of  St.  Benedict,  7  sisters;  Briggitines,  1  house, 

of  university  teaching.    In  accordance  with  the  re-  41  sisters;  Dominicans,  1  establishment,  16  sisters; 

quirements  of  the  times,  he  bestowed  special  care  Franciscans,  5  houses,  139  sisters;  Franciscans  from 

upon  the  encouragement  of  Catholic   orders  and  the  mother-house  of  MariarStem,  in  Augsburg,  12 

associations,  the  fostering  of  Christian  charity,  the  establishments,.  83  sisters;  Poor  Franciscans  oi  the 

education  of  the  clerpy,  and  the  awakening  and  con-  Third  Order,  from  Mallersdorf,  65  houses,  429  sisters; 

servation  of  the  spirit  of  the  Qiurch  in  the  hearts  of  Sisters  of  the  Congreeation  of  St.  Joseph  of  Ursberg, 

the  people.    The  present  archbishop  is  Franz  Bet-  2  houses,  31  sisters;  ^ters  of  the  Good  Shepherd,  1 

tinger,    appointed  on  23  May,    1909,   and   conse-  house  in  Munich,  94  sisters;  Carmelites,  1  house,  9 

crated,  15  Aug.  sisters;  Salesians,  3  establishments,  179  sisters;  Poor 

Statistics. — ^The  archdiocese  comprises  the  Bavar-  School  Sisters,  with  a  general  mother-house,  Sankt 
ian  district  of  Upper  Bavaria,  excepting  those  por-  Jacob  am  Anger,  in  Munich,  and  49  filial  convents,  in 
tions  lying  west  ana  north  of  the  Danube,  &  communes  all,  764  sisters:  Ursulines  in  Landshut,  55  sisters; 
in  the  domains  of  Landshut,  and  Vilsbiburg  in  the  Sisters  of  the  Most  Holy  Redeemer  from  the  mother- 
district  of  Lower  Bavaria.  The  suffragan  dioceses  house  at  Niederbronn  (Alsace),  23  establishments, 
are  Auspsburg,  Passau,  and  Ratisbon.    The  diocese  is  203  sisters. 

divided  into  36  deaneries,  3  town  commissariats  Of  the  associations  in  the  archdiocese,  the  following, 
(Munich,  Landshut,  and  Freising),  417  parishes,  20  more  or  less  widespread,  may  be  named:  Ludwig- 
exposUuren  (parishes  in  all  but  the  name)  and  vica-  missionsverein  (Loms  missionary  union),  the  Associa- 
riates.  The  diocese  has  460  benefices  and  manual  tion  of  the  Holy  Childhood  of  Jesus,  the  Society  of 
benefices  (i.  e.,  benefices  the  incumbents  of  which  may  St.  Vincent  de  Paul,  St.  Elizabeth's  Guild,  the  Arch- 
be  removed  at  the  will  of  a  superior),  400  curacies,  and  confraternity  of  the  Perpetual  Adoration  of  the 
100  other  places  where  church  services  are  held.  Blessed  Sacrament,  Catholic  Gesellenvereine  (Jour- 
Tlie  clergy  numbers  (1910)  412  pastors,  162  invested  neymen's  Unions)  and  ArbeUervereine  (Unions  of 
beneficiaries,  677  other  priests,  210  regular  priests  Labourers),  Catholic  Students'  Unions,  Catholic 
(in  all  1461  priests).  The  number  of  Catholics  is  Associations  for  the  Young,  Unions  of  Clerks  and  Em- 
1,069,300.  In  addition  to  the  cathedral  chapter,  ployees,  Servants'  Unions,  Associations  for  the  Edu- 
there  are  three  collegiate  churches:  in  Mumch  (St.  cation  of  Neglected  Children,  and  so  forth. 
Cigetan's),  Laufen,  and  Tittmoning.  Of  the  churches  of  the  archdiocese,  those  of  the  city 

For  the  education  of  the  clergv  there  are  lesser  of  Munich  are  especially  noteworthy;  this  is  so  in  par- 
seminaries  in  Scheyem  (conduct^  by  the  Benedic-  ticular  of  the  Cathedral  of  Our  Lady,  a  brick  building 
tines)  and  in  Freising,  having  respectively  175  and  in  the  Gothic  style,  which  dates  from  1468-88,  with 
215  students^  as  well  as  two  ecclesiastical  seminaries,  two  towers  324  ft.  in  height,  whose  copper  cupolas,  the 
viz..  the  archiepiscopal  seminary  in  Freising,  with  171  so-called  "w&lschen  Kappen"  (Romanesque  caps), 
students,  and  the  Ueorgianum,  founded  m  1494  by  are  the  town's  most  famous  landmarks.  Other 
Duke  Georg  the  Rich  at  Ingolstadt,  now  transferred  churches  are  St.  Peter's,  the  oldest  parish  church  of 
to  Munich  and  administered  by  the  State,  with  103  the  city,  dating  from  the  year  1180,  built  in  the 
students,  of  which,  however,  only  23  belong  to  the  Gothic  and  later  restored  in  the  Baroque  style;  Sankt 
Diocese  of  Municn-Freising.  The  students  attend  Jacob  am  An^r,  the  oldest  church  in  Munich,  still  re- 
the  philosophical  and  theological  lectures  at  the  taining  its  original  form  and  dating  from  the  thir- 
University  of  Munich  and  at  the  state  lyceums  at  teenth  century;  the  court  church  of  St.  Michael,  built 
Freising.  for  the  Jesuits,  1583-97,  the  most  distinguished  ec- 

The  following  orders  are  represented  in  the  arch-  clesiastical  production  of  the  German  Raiaissance; 

diocese: — ^The  Benedictines  possess  the  two  Abbeys  of  the  court  church  of  St.  Cajetan,  built  (1663-75)  for 

Scheyem  and  St.  Boniface  in  Munich,  founded  by  the  Theatines,  in  the  Baro<iue  style;  the  church  of  St. 

King  Louis  I,  as  well  as  the  Abbeys  of  EttaJ  and  Louis,  built  (1830-44),  mainly  through  the  generosity 

Schaftlam,  and  2  colleges  for  students  in  Munich, —  of  King  Louis  I,  in  medieval  Italian  style,  containing 

in  all   (1910)   91   fathers,  27  scholastics,   and   162  the  famous  fresco  of  the  '^Last  Judgment"  by  Cor- 

brothers.    The  Franciscans  have  5  convents,  with  49  nehus;  the  court  of  All  Saints,  built  in  1827-37  in  the 

fathers,  23  scholastics,  and  58  lay  brothers;  the  Car  Romanesoue-Byzantine  style;  and  the  Basilica  of  St. 

puchins,  5  convents,  with  43  fathers,  9  novices,  and  Boniface,  built  (1835-50)  for  the  Benedictines,  in  the 

53  lay  brothers;  the  Brothers  of  Mercy,  2  convents,  form  of  an  early  Christian  basilica,  containing  frescoes 

with  3  fathers,  and  47  brothers;  the  Minorites,  1  taken  from  the  life  of  St.  Boniface.    The  numerous 

hospital,  with  3  fathers,  and  3  lay  brothers;  the  Ke-  churches  of  the  most  varied  styles  which  have  been 

demptorists,  2  colleges,  with  28  fathers,  29  scholas-  erected  in  Munich  during  the  last  ten  years,  and 

tics,  and  46  lay  brothers;  the  Augustinians,  1  convent,  constitute  one  of  the  beautieaof  the  city.  e.  g.,  those 

with  4  fathers,  and  6  lay  brothers.  of  St.  Anna,  St.  Paul,  St.  Joseph,  St.  Rupert,  bear 

Numerous  female  orders  and  congregations  are  to  witness  to  the  people's  devotion, 

be  found  in  the  archdiocese.    Of  the  ancient  con-  Of  the  other  churches  of  the  archdiocese,  the  f oUow- 

vents  of  women  only  a  few  are  still  in  existence,  in^  are  worthy  of  mention:  the  cathedral  of  Freising, 

notably  the  Benedictines  of  the  Island  of  Frauenchiem-  built  1 161-1205,  often  restored  and  altered,  in  which 

see.  with  an  educational  establishment  and  72  sisters,  is  to  be  found  the  shrine  containing  the  relics  of  St. 

ana  the  convent  of  the  Servites,  near  the  pilgrimage  Corbinian;  the  Gothic  church  of  St.  Martin,  in  the 

church  of  the  ducal  hospital  in  Munich,  with  55  sisters,  city  of  Landshut,  dating  from  the  fourteenth  and 

The  recent  congregations  are  occupied  entirely  with  fifteenth  centuries,  surmounted  by  the  highest  tower 

the  instruction  of  girls,  with  the  care  of  the  sick  and  in  Bavaria;  in  the  same  city  the  church  of  St.  Jodock, 

the  orphans,  with  the  management  of  Catholic  in-  also  in  the  Gothic  style,  built  in  1338-68;  the  Roman- 

stitutions,  and  so  on,  while  the  Brigittines  and  the  esquechurchofMoosburg,  erected  1160;  the  collegiate 

Carmelites  give  theniselves  up  to  contemplation.  churches  of  Tegemsee,  Isen.  Berchtesgaden,  IlmmQn- 

Besides  the  two  establishments  already  named,  ster,  Dietramszell,  and  others.  The  places  of  pil- 
there  exist  (1910)  in  the  archdiocese:  Sisters  of  Charity  grimage  include  the  church  of  the  Ducal  Hospital  in 
of  St.  Vincent  de  Paul,  from  the  mother-house  in  Munich,  Maria-Eich,  Maria-Rammersdorf,  Maria- 
Munich.  61  convents,  842  sisters;  Sisters  of  Charity  Blutenburg  in  Munich,  Maria-Eich  at  Traunstein, 
of  St.  Vincent  de  Paul,  from  the  mother-house  in  Tuntenhausen,  EttaL  Scheyem,  Mariadorfen,  Birken- 
Augsdburg,  5  establishments.  35  sisters;  English  Ladies  stein,  Heiligblut  at  Erding. 

(Institute  of  Mary),  1  mother-house  and  15  filial  in-  Univsrsitt  of  Mxtnich. — It  was  first  established 

9titute8, 609  sisters;  1  establishment  of  the  Missiooaiy  (1472)  i^t  lagolstadt  (q.  v.  for  its  history  up  to  1800). 


ICTJNKicS                             634  BftiNSTEB 

In  1800  it  was  transferred  to  Landshut,  and,  later,  hy  nation  in  1458.  In  King  Wladislaw  II's  documents 
decree  of  Ludwig  I  (3  Oct.,  1826)  to  Munich,  where  it  a  certain  John  is  mentioned  as  bishop  in  1491  and 
has  developed  in  peace,  its  earliest  location  was  the  1498;  thence  until  1551  we  hear  nothing  more  about 
former  college  of  the  Jesuits,  but  in  1840  it  removed  the  bishops,  nor  are  we  even  sure  that  the  see  was  occu- 
to  a  new  building  which  has  recently  (1908)  been  con-  pied.  The  nrst  document  recording  the  actual  appoint* 
siderably  enlarged.  Through  the  munificence  of  the  ment  of  a  bishop  dates  from  1623.  In  1641,  under 
Wittelsbach  dynasty,  abundant  provision  has  been  Bishop  Theodore  Tharassovics  (1639-48),  union  with 
made  for  its  organization  and  equipment,  and  it  now  Rome  was  facilitated  by  the  wish  to  have  done  with  de- 
ranks  as  the  second  largest  among  the  German  uni-  pendence  on  the  lords  of  Munkdcs,  but  George 
versities.  The  revised  statutes  were  published  in  Kdk6czi  I  of  Transylvania,  Lord  of  Munk^ks,  being 
1835,  and  new  regulations  for  the  student  body  in  unfavourably  disposed  towards  union,  took  Tharas- 
1849.  The  fourth  centenary  of  the  university  was  sovics  prisoner,  and,  although  the  latter  obtained  his 
celebrated  in  August,  1872.  The  faculty  of  theology  freedom  in  16^,  he  did  not  r^ain  possession  of  the 
at  Munich  has  a  long  list  of  distingmshed  names:  see.  In  1649  the  union  with  Rome  was  again  pro- 
Allioli,  D5llin^er,  Haneberg,  Hergenrother,  Klee,  claimed  by  the  cler^  of  Munkdcs  influenced  by 
Mohler,  Philhps,  Permaneder,  Keischl.  Schegg,  Bishop  George  Jakusich  of  Eger;  henceforth,  espe- 
Thalhofer.  The  Colle^um  Georgianum,  rounded  in  cially  from  1689^  date  the  efforts  of  the  bishops  of 
1494  by  George  the  Rjch  for  the  special  benefit  of  Eger  to  bring  Munkdcs  into  close  subjection, 
theological  students,  was  transferred  to  Munich  with  After  the  union  of  1649,  Peter  Parthenius  was  ap- 
the  rest  of  the  university,  and  still  serves  its  original  pointed  Bishop  of  Munk^s,  and  was  confirmed  both 
purpose.  The  faculty  numbers  (1910)  twelve  pro-  by  King  Leopold  and  the  pope.  His  death  was  fol- 
fessors  and  nine  Dozents;  there  are  150  theological  lowed  by  a  period  of  decadence:  the  diocese  was  di- 
students.  Among  illustrious  representatives  of  the  vided  into  several  parts,  administered  more  or  less  in- 
other  sciences  may  be  mentioned:  in  philosophy,  dependently  of  one  another,  and  conflicts  arose 
Schelling  (1827-41);  in  chemistry,  Liebig  (1852-73);  between  the  emperor,  the  pope,  and  the  R^6czi 
in  surpery,  Thiersch  (1848-95),  and  Nussbaum  (1860-  family,  concerning  the  right  of  nomination  to  the  see. 
90);  m  medicine,  Ringseis  (1817-80):  in  history,  Appomted  bishop  in  1689  through  the  c^orts  of 
Giesbrecht  (1862-89) ;  in  Germanic  philology,  Schmel-  Archbishop  Kolonics,  Joseph  de  Camelis,  a  Greek, 
ler  (1827-29);  in  Celtic  philology,  Zeuss  (1847-56).  devoted  his  chief  energy  towards  fostering  the  re- 
in 1910  the  total  number  of  instructors  was  252;  of  ligious  life  of  the  people  and  extirpating  incontinence 
students,  6890.  among  the  clergy.  To  promote  these  objects  he  held 
„•'^?"^"^^?^^f'*«'?'*»'^^*"5^?*•»*  (2  vols.,  Augsburg,  1724);  twelve  synods  within  three  years,  that  of  SzatmiLr 

5&i"fiSSih^tl^t;^^'^'^^/Sr^SSnii^^  beinji  of  special  iinportance.    After  CameUs'e  d«th 

Bistuma  Freiting  (3  vols.,  Munich,  1849-50);  Idem.  BeUrdoe  nr  the  nght  of  appomtment  was  again  disputed.      Kmg 

Q€»ehiehu,Topo^avhieund^i»t^^  Joseph  I  appointed  Joseph  Hodermars£ky  bishop  in 

^\r^%^C^t^ii)^>^i^l^G^^,SSS^ ^  1705;  Francf  Mc6c«  Ii:  as  Lord  of  MmikAcs.  filed 

FreUino  und  ihrer  Bitchofe  (Freisins,  1854);  von  Hdnd,  Urkun'  the  episcopal  office  independently;  the  HoIy  See,  on 

den  dea  BistunuFreinno  (Munich.  1873} ;  Zamv,  Codex-dijOamati'  jtg  part,  appointed  an  administrator,  not  regarding  the 

1^i!f^^^^:!'SlSL^°kJ^'ii,  iU'^aiin.^lf^  ^legally  ^tabliriied  for  lack  of  canonical  creation. 

ehen^Freinno  (3  vols.,  Munich  and  Ratisbon,  1879-84) ;  Schlbcht.  Hodermarszkv  had  to  resign  the  See  m  1715.  and  the 

Bayerru  Kirehenpronnten  (Munich,  1902);  Bittsrauf,  Die  Tror  endeavOUrs  01  the  bishopS  of  Eger  tO  treat  Munk^CS 

J1^r^tr2«^fj^S3K?AS^Iiv1US^  «  a  Buff"*'"*  tl»»  .triumphed     Hod«,n«n«ky'. 

PaUoralblaU  [AmtsblaU  since  1880]  /fir  die  BrzdidzeMe  MUnchen-  SUCCesSOr,  GeunadlUS  BlZanczi  (1716-33),  had  already 

Freuing  (Munich,   IMO7-};  S^ematitmiu  der  OeiMtlichkeit  de»  acted  as  vicar  Apostolic.      Both  he  and  Still  more  his 

BrMbietunu  MUnehen-Fretetng  (Munich,  1821—);  Oberbayensehea  sainoffuuw   M\oht^}  OlaAvsKlrv   t*nnti>at^  fh«>  anffirtni  v 

Arehiv  fUr  valerlandiache^Geaehiehte  (Munich.  1839—);  Samtnel-  ^V  f?^f ?  Micnaei  UlsavsZKy,  COnt^tCQ  tne  autnonty 

hIaU  dM  hieloriaehen  Vereina  Freiaing  (Freising,  1894—).     Re-  of  the  Blshop  of  Eger;  OlsaVBZky's  SUCCeSSOr,  John 

P^^f^Si?  churches  see:  Siohart,  D«r  Dom  in  FrHHng  (Lands-  Braddcs,  Continued  the  Conflict,  and  finally  triumphed. 

kJi22?i^^S''(^!2iiS!^hS5:jf«^^  to  1771  the  See  of  Mu^4«  w«  ertabliahed  c«.oni- 

I;  Regienmgabenrk  Oberbayem  (Munich,  1892—).  cally  by  Clement  XIV.  Brad&CS  becommg  first  canon- 

Joseph  Linb.  ical  bishop.    Under  him  the  chapter,  with  seven 

canons,  was  also  established.    In  1816  the  See  of 

Munk&cSi  Diocese  of,  in  Hungary,  of  Greek  Eperjes  was  separated  from  Munkdcs,  and  in  1856 

Catholic  Rite,  suffragan  of  Gran.    It  dates  from  the  ninety-four  parishes  were  incorporated  in  the  new 

fifteenth  century.     Until  then  the  Greek  Ruthenians  See  of  Szamosujv^.    Basil  Popovics  (1837-64)  made 

who  had  emigrated  to  Hungary  a  generation  before,  a  lasting  impression  on  the  religious  Ufe  of  the  diocese; 

1254,  were  subject  to  tite  See  of  Przemysl.    In  1458  Stephen  Pankovics  (1866-74)  displayed  great  activity 

the  Diocese  of  Munkdcs  is  mentioned  for  the  first  in  the  domain  of  diocesan  administration,  and  John 

time  in  a  document  of  King  Mathias  as  a  parish  with  Pdszt^lyi-Kovdcs    (1879-94)    performed    especially 

episcopal  jurisdiction.    It  was  probably  established  prominent  service  in  the  cause  of  public  education, 

between  1439  and  1458,  as  the  document  mentions  Since   1894  Julius  Firczdk  has  been  bishop.    The 

that  Lucas,  the  occupant  of  the  see,  had  already  residence  is  at  Ungv^.    The  see  is  divided  into  two 

exercised  the  usual  jurisdiction  for  a  considerable  vicariates    (M&rmaros    and    Hajdu-Dorog),    seven 

Seriod.    Its  history  is  connected  with  that  of  the  archdeaneries,    and    forty-eight    vice-archdeancries. 

iasihan  monastery  at  Csemckhcgy  near  Munkdcs,  The  parishes  number  387,  the  right  of  patronage  being 

established  supposedly  in  1360  by  Duke  Theodore  exercised  by  ninety  patrons,  the  parochial  clergy  over 

Koriatovics,  but  demonstrably  as  late  as  1418.    The  5(X).    There  are  five  monasteries,  and  the  chapter 

history  of  the  diocese  falls  naturally  into  three  periods,  consists  of  six  canons. 

Until  1641,  when  union  with  Rome  took  place,  Mun-  ,«5S°''«?*',?^y**;?rs4.^*^*«  ^/'^^•!i!l**,S!?*eS: 

kAcs  endeavoured  to  extend  its  episcopal  jurisdiction  S?^^iJ^**'~*^*  ^*^*"  ^""^  *«dM«t.  immT^Hih 

over  the  thirteen  districts  (Komitate)  of  Hungary,  later  A.  AldXst. 
its  territory.    The  second  period  lasts  from  1641  to 

1771,  when  the  see  was  canonically  established.  A  Mttziftar,  Diocese  of  (Monasteriknsis),  in  the 
third  period  brings  its  history  down  to  the  present.  Of  Prussian  Province  of  Westphalia,  suffragan  of  Co- 
its  history  during  the  fifteenth  and  sixteenth  centuries  logne. 

we  know  very  little,  especially  in  regard  to  the  mode  1.  Secular  History.— The  earnest  name  of  MQ»- 

of  episcopal  appointment,  although  it  was  probably  by  ster  was  Mimegemeford,  the  later  form  being  Mimi- 

election  until  1561,  with  the  exception  of  the  nomi-  ^ardeford,  while  from  1076  it  was  called  by  the  Latin 


ictfNBnB 


d35 


irthlBTEB 


name  Monasterium.  It  is  first  mentioned  in  705, 
when  St.  Ludger  founded  a  monastery  herei  and  the 
place  became  his  see  when  he  was  consecrated  bishop. 
Even  at  this  early  date  it  must  have  been  a  place  of 
some  importance.  Among  the  earliest  possessions  of 
the  Church  at  MUnster  were  three  large  landed  estates, 
apparently  the  gift  of  Charlemagne.  These  lands,  at 
least  in  part,  lav  within  the  area  of  the  later  city. 
They  were  callea  the  Brockhof ,  the  Kampwordeshof, 
and  the  Bispinghof .  The  last-named  belonsed  to  the 
bishop  and.  probably  for  this  reason,  bore  his  name. 
The  Brocknof  was  owned  by  the  cathedral  chapter, 
the  Kampwordeshof  belonged  later  to  the  collegiate 
church  of  St.  Moritz,  to  which  it  was  apparently  iis- 
signed  when  the  church  was  founded.  The  fourth 
great  estate,  and  one  that  is  mentioned  from  the  ear- 
nest davs,  the  Judefelderhof,  appears  to  have  belonged 
originaUy  to  the  Church,  by  wnich  it  was  given  in  fief 
to  a  family  called  Jiidefeld.  In  1386  the  cathedral 
chapter  obtained  it  by  purchase.  Near  these  four 
estates  were  quite  a  number  of  farms  owned  indepen- 
dently by  free  peasants;  many  of  these  in  the  course 
of  time  came  into  the  possession  of  the  Church.  The 
monast^y  of  St.  Ludger  was  placed  in  the  centre  of 
these  properties  on  the  ground  now  surrounding  the 
cathedral.  From  the  banning  the  monastery  was 
independent  of  the  jurismction  of  the  count.  How 
large  a  district  enjoyed  this  immunity  cannot  now  be 
ascertained.  Neither,  for  lack  of  original  authorities, 
can  the  extent  of  the  guild  in  which  the  free  peasants 
were  united  be  positively  settled,  nor  the  earhest  state 
of  the  commumty  and  the  legal  jurisdiction  exercised 
in  it.  In  regard  to  the  public  administration  of  justice, 
Miinster  was  from  the  earliest  times  under  the  author- 
it3r  of  the  Counts  of  Dreingau  until,  on  account  of  the 
privileges  granted  by  Otto  I,  the  rights  of  the  count 
were  transerred  to  the  bishop,  who  exercised  them, 
especially  the  higher  jurisdiction,  through  governors. 
Tne  relation  of  the  bishop  to  the  commune  in  the  early 
period  is  not  entirely  clear,  though  it  is  evident  that  he 
exercised  a  certain  influence  over  the  affairs  of  the 
community. 

At  first  the  population  was  very  small:  there  ap- 
pears to  have  been  a  lar^e  increase  in  the  eleventh 
century,  when,  in  addition  to  the  cathedral,  the 
churches  of  Ueberwasser  (1040),  St.  Moritz  (about 
1070),  and  St.  Lambert  (after  ^1085)  were  built. 
MUnster  at  this  time  offered  great  advantages  to  mer- 
chants and  mechanics,  besides  being  the  see  of  a 
bishop,  with  a  chapter  and  cathedral  school.  Thus, 
close  to  the  episcopal  castle,  that  had  been  built  near 
the  minster,  there  arose  an  outlying  city  in  which 
commerce  and  trade  were  fairly  prosperous,  as  early 
as  the  twelfth  century.  In  1115  the  castle  was  pro- 
vided wiUi  walls,  gateways,  and  a  moat.  In  the 
twelfth  century  three  more  parish  churches  were  built, 
those  of  St.  Ludger,  mentioned  in  1173,  St.  iEgidius 
(1181),  and  St.  Martin  (before  1199).  By  the  end  of 
the  twelfth  century  the  place  was  virtually  a  city, 
^though  it  cannot  now  be  ascertained  when  the  dis- 
tinctive municipal  privileges  were  secured  by  it. 
From  not  later  than  1168  the  city  formed  a  separate 
judicial  district,  and  with  this  the  development  into  a 
municipality  was  essentially  complete.  Yet  Miinster 
was  not  a  free  imperial  city;  it  was  always  dependent 
on  the  bishop.  In  1173  the  right  of  administering  the 
city  passed  to  the  bishop  ana  the  cathedral  chapter. 
From  the  thirteenth  centuiy  these  two  powers  en- 
trusted the  exercise  of  legal  jurisdiction  to  officials 
{minUierialen)  of  the  bishop.  From  the  thirteenth 
century,  in  addition  to  the  judge  appointed  by  the 
bishop,  there  were  city  judges,  who  are  first  mentioned 
in  12d5.  They  were  e^pomted  by  the  burgomasters 
from  the  members  of  the  city  council.  When  court 
was  held  they  sat  by  the  judge,  who  was  the  bishop's 
appointee  in  order  to  guard  the  interests  of  the  city, 
but  outside  of  this  had  not  much  influence.   Tlie  city 


ooundl  acted  as  a  board  of  assessors  in  the  city  oourl. 
The  extensive  commerce  of  the  city  rapidly  increased 
its  imponance.  As  early  as  1253  it  formed  a  defensive 
alliance  with  the  neighbouring  cities  of  OsnabrQck, 
Dortmund,  Soest,  and  lippstadt,  and  one  with  the 
cathedral  chapter  in  1257.  At  a  later  date  it  joined 
the  confederation  of  the  cities  of  the  Rhine,  and  about 
1368  entmd  the  Hanseatic  League.  In  this  period 
the  commercial  relations  of  MOnster  extended  as  far 
as  England  and  Flanders,  and  eastwards  to  Livonia 
and  Novgorod. 

During  the  fourteenth  and  fifteenth  centuries  im- 
portant changes  appeared  in  the  government  of  the 
city.  In  medieval  times  the  population  consisted  of 
citizens  and  non-citizens.  The  citizen  body  was  di- 
vided into  the  ruling  patricians,  who  from  the  six- 
teenth century  were  also  called  '^hereditary  proprie- 
tors ",  and  the  commonalt>r.  A  bodv  of  city  patricians 
can  be  proved  to  have  existed  at  Mttnster  from  the 
thirteenth  century.  At  least  the  burgomasters  and 
the  members  of  the  city  council  were  chosen  from  a 
limited  number  of  famihes.  From  the  fourteenth  cen- 
tury the  patricians  had  control  of  the  court  of  the  city : 
they  mamtained  themselves  in  the  sole  ownership  ot 
the  city  government  up  into  the  fifteenth  century. 
The  representatives  of  the  city  were  the  burgomasters, 
first  mentioned  in  1253,  and  the  assessors,  mentioned 
in  1221.  Besides  its  judicial  authority,  the  body  of 
assessors  performed  the  duties  of  a  city  council.  It 
was  presided  over  by  the  burgomasters,  who,  from 
1268,  were  not  appointed  by  the  bishop,  out  by  those 
citizens  (guden  tuden)  who  had  the  n^t  of  voting. 
Taking  advantage  of  the  bishop's  pecuniary  needs,  the 
municipaUty  gradually  obtained  large  rights  and  priv- 
ileges. Thus,  besides  its  own  autonomy,  it  acquired 
the  military  authority,  the  administration  of  a  number 
of  church  prebends,  and  supreme  jurisdiction  in  certain 
courts  in  the  neighbouring  towns  and  villages.  In  tiie 
fourteenth  century  it  had  a  court  formed  from  its  own 
council.  After  1309  it  was  represented  in  the  diet  of 
the  diocese  along  with  the  cathedral  chapter  and  the 
lower  nobility. 

Nevertheless,  the  bishop  always  appointed  the 
judges  and  reserved  to  himself  the  confirmation  of 
sentence  in  important  cases.  He  levied  the  town- 
taxes  which,  however,  he  generally  mortgaged;  he 
owned  the  mint,  and  claimed  certain  rights  at  the 
death  of  every  citizen.  The  guilds  formed  by  the 
leading  trades  in  the  fourteenth  century  (in  the  six- 
teenth century  seventeen  guilds  are  mentioned)  orig- 
inally exercised  no  control  over  the  city  government; 
in  the  second  half  of  that  century  they  formed  a  con- 
federation. Thus  confederated,  the  guilds  were  able 
to  influence  both  the  internal  and  external  affairs  of 
the  citv,  working  apparently  in  amicable  agreement 
with  the  Council.  In  1447  the  confederated  guilds 
were  r^arded  as  a  ruling  corporation  co-ordinate  and 
acting  in  union  with  the  Council.  Their  veto  could 
stop  any  proceedings  of  the  Council,  which  was  still 
chosen  from  the  patrician  body.  On  the  oUier  hand, 
the  Council  retained  a  certain  right  of  supervision  over 
the  internal  affairs  of  the  guilds.  A  good  understand- 
ing between  Council  and  guilds  was,  therefore,  the 
primary  condition  for  a  prosperous  development  of  the 
city.  As  a  matter  of  fact  the  two  bodies  worked  har- 
moniously together  until  the  outbreak  of  the  diocesan 
feud  which  split  the  city  into  two  armed  camps  (see 
below,  under  II).  In  1454,  after  the  close  of  this  feud, 
it  was  decided  to  choose  the  burgomasters  and  mem- 
bers of  the  Council  thenceforward  from  both  the 
patricians  and  mass  of  the  citizens.  This  arrangement 
was  maintained  until  the  AneJi)aptist  outbr^k.  In- 
ternal peace  promoted  prosperity  and  schools  and 
learning  flourished  greatly.  MUnster  was  reguded  as 
the  leading  commercial  city  between  the  lUiine  and 
the  Weser,  and  the  school  conducted  by  the  Canon 
Rudolf  of  Langen  had  a  great  reputation. 


MthrSTEB 


63d 


MtfalSTBtt 


In  1533-35,  however,  MUnster  was  the  scene  of  the 
wild  excesses  of  the  Anabaptists.  Durins  the  episco- 
pate of  Bishop  Frederick  UI,  brother  of  Hermann  of 
Wied,  Archbishop  of  Cologne,  the  doctrines  of  Luther 
spread  widely  in  the  Diocese  of  MtLnster.  In  his  agree- 
ment with  the  city  (14  February,  1533)  Bishop  Franz 
of  Waldeck  ceded  to  it  full  religious  liberty  and 
granted  the  six  parish  churches  to  the  adherents  of  the 
new  doctrine,  in  return  for  which  the  city  promised 
him  obedience  and  support  against  the  cathedral 
chapter.  From  1533  the  city  undertook  the  prepara- 
tion of  new  church  ordinances.  The  drawing  up  of  a 
form  of  worship  was  assigned  to  Bemt  Rothmann.  a 
preacher  of  Anabaptist  proclivities.  Supported  by 
some  preachers  from  Wassenberg  in  Jiilich  and  by  the 
Melchiorites  (followers  of  Melchior  Hoffmann),  he 
began  to  spread  his  views.  The  strength  of  the  Ana- 
baptist party  was  steadily  increased  by  accessions 
from  Holland,  until^  in  February,  1534,  their  leaders, 
John  of  Leyden,  a  tailor,  and  Jan  Matthiesen,  a  baker, 
came  to  MUnster  from  Haarlem,  when  the  sect  gained 
oom|)lete  control  of  the  city,  ana  the  peaceable  minor- 
ity either  left  the  city  voluntarily  or  were  expelled. 
The  Anabaptists  now  indulged  in  the  wildest  orgies  in 
"the  New  Jerusalem*'  &s  they  called  MUnster,  intro- 
ducing polygamy  ana  communism,  plundering  and 
selling  churches  and  monasteries. 

Notwithstanding  his  inclination  to  Protestantism, 
the  bishop  was  now  obliged  to  go  to  war  with  the 
city  in  oitier  to  maintain  his  secular  authority.  In 
alliance  with  Philip  of  Hesse,  he  began  (28  February, 
1534)  a  siege  of  the  city  in  which  John  of  Leyden,  as 
king  of  the  New  Zion,  had  established  a  reign  of  terror. 
After  a  siege  of  sixteen  months  the  city  was  taken  in  a 
bloody  assault  (25  June,  1535).  The  leaders  of  the 
insurrection  were  executed  with  horrible  tortures  and 
their  bodies  were  exposed  in  three  cages  hung  on  the 
tower  of  St.  Lambert's  Church.  The  return  of  the  ex- 
pelled citizens  and  the  restoration  of  the  Catholic 
Church  proceeded  slowly.  A  small  Protestant  com- 
munity was  still  maintained.  In  1553  the  city  re- 
gained its  old  privileges  and  rights.  Trade,  com- 
merce, and  learning  once  more  flourished.  Although 
disputes  now  arose  between  the  guilds  and  the  town 
council,  and  these  two  combined  against  the  growing 
importance  of  the  bishop,  MUnster  enjoyed  general 
peace  and  prosperity  until  the  Thirty  Years' War. 
Several  times  during  that  war  the  city  was  obliged 
to  pay  heavy  contributions,  but  it  was  not  utterly 
impoverished  like  so  many  other  cities. 

The  peace  negotiations  carried  on  at  MUnster  by  the 
Catholic  Powers,  beginning  in  1643,  led  to  the  neutral- 
ization of  the  city  and  its  substantial  benefit.  Thus 
encouraged,  the  Council,  a  few  years  ^ter  the  Peace 
of  Westphalia,  persuaded  tHe  citizens  to  make  a  bold 
attempt  to  throw  off  the  sovereignty  of  the  bishop  and 
raise  MUnster  to  the  rank  of  a  free  city  of  the  empire. 
In  the  struggle  with  the  Prince-Bishop  Christopher 
Bemhard  of  Ualen,  MUnster  was  defeated  in  March, 
1661.  It  lost  its  privileges,  and  an  episcopal  citadel, 
the  Paulsburg,  was  erected  in  the  western  part  of  the 
city.  Never,  while  the  prince-bishops  remained 
rulers,  did  MUnster  regain  its  full  civic  lioerty.  After 
the  Seven  Years'  War,  during  which  MUnster  was  not 
able  to  hold  out  against  a  second  siege,  in  1750,  the 
fortifications  were  turned  into  promenades,  and  the  cit- 
adel razed.  In  place  of  the  latter  a  castle  was  built  in 
1768  as  a  residence  for  the  prince-bishop.  In  1780 
a  university  was  founded  with  the  property  of  the 
suppressed  Jesuits  and  of  the  Abbey  of  Ueberwasser. 
A  circle  of  learned  men  gathered  at  MUnster  around 
the  Princess  Galitzin,  amongst  them  being  Frederick 
Leopold  Count  zu  Stolberg  and  Overbeck. 

By  the  Imperial  delegate's  enactment,  the  city  of 
MUnster  and  a  part  of  the  diocese  fell  to  Prussia,  which 
had  already  (23  May,  1802)  made  an  agreement  con- 
cerning it  with  the  Consul  Bonaparte.    The  Prussian 


troops  under  BlUcher  entered  the  dty,  3  August.  A 
commission  accompanied  the  army  to  shape  the  con- 
stitution and  administration  of  the  newly-acquired 
district  conformably  with  the  Prussian  model.  Al- 
though the  president  of  the  commission,  Fkieihenr  von 
Stein,  showed  a  very  friendly  spirit  towards  the  city, 
yet  the  suppression  of  its  independence  and  the  over- 
bearing behaviour  of  the  Prussian  officers  disgusted 
the  citizens  with  Prussian  supremacy.  MUnster  joy- 
fully welcomed  the  French,  who  entered  it  in  1806, 
after  the  defeat  of  Prussia  at  Jena  and  Auerstftdt.  In 
1808  the  city  was  assigned  to  the  Grand  Duchy  of 
Beig,  in  1810  to  Holland,  and  in  1811  to  France^  as 
capital  of  the  Department  of  Lippe.  The  old  city- 
govemment  was  dissolved  and  replaced  by  the  French 
municipal  organisation.  Manv  good  measures  of  ad- 
ministration were  introduced,  but  the  enthusiasm  for 
them  was  rapidly  chilled  by  the  extensive  billeting  of 
soldiers  upon  the  citizens,  and  by  arbitrary  action, 
especially  m  ecclesiastical  matters.  When,  therefore, 
after  the  overthrow  of  the  Napoleonic  power  at  the 
battle  of  Leipzig,  the  Prussians  again  entered  MUnster, 
they,  in  turn,  were  greeted  with  great  joy.  The  Prus- 
sian Government  was  wise  enou^  to  retain  many  im- 
provements made  by  the  French,  which  they  further 
developed,  so  that  tne  city  quickly  reached  an  unpre- 
cedented prosperity.  In  1836  the  Prussian  muniopal 
ordinance  was  applied  to  MUnster.  The  population, 
13,000  at  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century, 
rapidly  increased  with  tibe  growth  of  commerce  and 
traffic,  and,  as  capital  of  the  Province  of  Westphalia, 
the  quiet  cathedral  city  developed  into  an  important 
centre  of  traffic  for  North-Westem  Germany. 

According  to  the  census  taken  at  the  close  of  1905, 
MUnster  had  81,468  inhabitants,  of  whom  67,221 
were  Catholics,  13,612  Protestants,  and  555  Jews;  in 
1910  the  population  was  about  87,000,  including  72,- 
800  Catholics.  The  city  has  25  Catholic  churches 
and  chapels,  including  12  parish  churches.  Catholic 
institutions  of  learning  are:  the  theological  faculty  of 
the  university  with  (in  the  summer  of  1910)  316  stu- 
dents; the  seminary  for  priests;  2  preparatory  semi- 
naries, namely,  the  Collegium  Borromeum  and  the 
CoUe^um  Ludgerianum ;  a  Catholic  state  gymnasium ; 
a  seminary  for  teachers;  a  hish  school  for  girls. 

II.  DiocBSAN  HiSTORT.— Towards  the  end  of  the 
Saxon  War,  Charle^iagne  founded,  about  795,  several 
Saxon  dioceses,  all  su£fragans  of  Cologne,  among  than 
MUnster,  or  Mimigemelord.  The  first  bishop  was 
Lud^er,  who,  since  the  year  787,  had  been  a  aealoas 
missionary  in  five  Frisian  "hundreds",  or  districts. 
The  territory  of  the  Diocese  of  MUnster  was  bounded 
on  the  west,  south,  and  north-west  by  the  Dioceses  of 
Cologne  and  Utrecht,  on  the  east  and  north-^ast  by 
OsnabrUck.  The  diocese  also  included  districts  re- 
mote from  the  bulk  of  its  territory,  namely,  the  five 
Frisian  hundreds  on  the  lower  Ems  (Hugmerid,  Hu- 
nusgau,  Fivelgau.  Federit«ku,  and  Emagau),  also  the 
island  of  Bant,  wnich  has  disappeared,  leaving  behind 
it  the  islands  of  Borkum,  Juist,  and  Nordemey.  Men- 
tion has  alr^uiy  been  made  above  (see  I)  of  the  eariiest 
landed  estates  of  the  see.  Most  of  the  territory  over 
which  the  bishop  eventually  exercised  sovereign  rights 
lay  north  of  the  River  Lippe,  extendiug  as  far  as  the 
upper  Ems  and  the  Teutoburg  Forest.  The  most  im- 
portant accession  was  in  1252,  when  the  see  purchased 
the  Countship  of  Vechta  and  the  district  of  the  Ems 
with  the  town  of  Meppen.  The  country  between 
these  new  districts  was  acquired  later:  in  1403  the  di»> 
trict  about  Cloppenburg  and  Oyte  was  gained,  in  1406 
Uie  manorial  domain  of  Ahaus  and  the  castle  of  Strom- 
berg  with  its  jurisdiction;  and  in  1429  Wideshausen 
in  pledge  from  the  Archdiocese  of  Bremen.  This  last 
addition  made  the  new  territory,  which  was  entirely 
separate  from  the  southern  part  of  the  diocese,  a  com- 
pact body  subsequently  known  as  "the  lower  dio- 
cese"; it  remained  an  integral  part  of  the  Diocese  of 


MtJNSTEB                             637  MtlNSTEB 

Mfinster  until  the  Refonnation,  which  somewhat  re-  The  temporal  power  of  the  see  increased  greatly 
duced  its  size;  what  was  left  was  retained  until  the  during  the  episcopate  of  Bishop  Otto  II,  Count  of 
secularization.  Lippe  (1247-^59).  The  city,  at  the  same  time,  stnig« 
St.  Ludger  established  his  see  as  Mimegemeford  glea  to  become  independent  of  the  bishop,  not,  how- 
and  foimded  there  a  monastery,  following  the  rule  of  ever,  with  complete  success,  notwithstanding  its 
Bishop  Chrodegang  of  Metz,  bishop  and  clergy  living  alliance  with  the  cathedral  chapter.  Even  as  eany  as 
in  commimity.  But  the  most  important  monastery  the  eleventh  century  the  bishops  all  belonged  to  noble 
founded  by  St.  Ludger  was  the  Benedictine  Abbey  of  families,  generally  to  those  possessing  lands  in  the 
Werden,  which  became  a  nursery  for  the  deigy  of  the  neighbourhood;  only  too  often  the  diocese  was  admin- 
diocese.  He  also  assisted  in  founding  the  convent  of  ist^ed  for  the  ben^t  rather  of  the  bishop's  family 
Nottuln.  under  his  sister  Heriburg.  He  was  sue-  than  of  the  Chiurch.  The  bishop  were,  in  conse- 
ceeded  m  the  administration  of  the  diocese  by  two  quence,  frequently  involved  in  the  quarrels  of  the 
nephews,  Gerfrid  (809-39)  and  Altfrid  (839-49),  both  nobility;  ecclesiastical  affairs  were  neglected  and  the 
of  whom  also  presided  over  the  monastery  of  Werden.  prosperity  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  prince-bishopric 


founder.  There  were  even  •  disputes  between  the  (1424-50)  had  aroused  a  very  bitter  feeling  in  the  dty. 
bishop  and  the  monastery,  which  the  Synod  of  Mains  After  his  death  the  majority  of  the  cathedral  chapter 
settled  in  favour  of  the  latter,  awarding  it  the  right  of  elected  Walnun  of  Mors,  brother  of  Henry  and  also  of 
freely  electing  its  abbot.  Bishop  Wuffiielm  (875-95)  the  Archbishop  of  (Cologne,  while  the  city  and  a  minor- 
changed  the  collegiate  body  founded  by  Ludger  into  a  itv  of  the  chapter  demanded  the  election  of  Eric  of 
cathedral  chapter,  with  which  he  divided  the  property  Hoya,  brother  of  Count  John  of  Hoya.  Although  the 
till  then  held  in  common,  the  bishop  having  thence-  election  of  Walram  was  confirmed  bv  the  pope,  open 
forth  his  special  residence.  Among  tne  religious  foun-  war  for  the  possession  of  the  see  broke  out.  ana  Wal- 
dations  of  the  diocese  in  the  ninth  century  should  be  ram  was  unable  to  gain  possession  of  tne  city  of 
mentioned  the  monasteries  for  women  at  Liesbom  Miinster.  In  1457^  after  his  death,  a  compact  was 
(814),  Vreden  (about  839),  Freckenhorst  (before  857),  made  by  which  Enc  of  Hoya  received  a  life  income, 
and  Metden  (before  889).  The  development  of  reU-  and  the  privileges  of  the  city  were  confirmed,  while 
gious  and  intellectual  life  was  checked  in  the  first  part  both  parties  recognized  the  new  bishop  appointed  by 
of  the  tenth  century  by  political  disquiet.  Better  days  the  pope,  John  IL  Count  Palatine  of  Simmem  (1457- 
did  not  becpn  until  the  reign  of  Emperor  Otto  I  (930-  66).  After  order  had  been  re-established,  the  ecclesi- 
73).  Under  Bishop  Duodo  (867-93),  in  968,  the  abbey  astical  reform  of  the  diocese  was  taken  seriously  in 
of  Borghorst  was  founded  for  women;  the  same  bishop  hand.  Bishop  Henry  III  of  Schwarzburg  (1466-96), 
built  a  stone  cathedral  near  the  old  wooden  one.  Conrad  of  Rietberg  (1497-1508),  and  Eric  of  Saxe- 
Hermann  I  (1032-42)  founded  the  Abbey  of  Our  Lady  Lauenburg  (1508-^)  produced  excellent  results  by 
of  Ueberwasser;  Bishop  Frederick  I,  dJount  of  Wettin  holding  synods  and  reforming  religious  foundations. 
(1064-84),  established  the  collegiate  church  of  St.  Rudolf  of  Langen  and  John  Murmdlius  made  the  ca- 
Moritz  at  Mtknster;  Bishop  Erpho  (1085-97)  built  the  thedral  school  a  nursery  of  humanism, 
church  of  St.  Lamtfert.  Both  tne  two  just  named  and  Under  the  indolent  and  thoroughly  worldly  Fred* 
Bishop  Burchard  of  Holte  (1098-1118)  were  partisans  erick  III  (1522^2),  brother  of  the  Archbishop  of 
of  the  emperor  in  the  investiture  conflict.  During  Cologne,  Hermann  of  Wied,  Lutheranism  spread 
the  episcopate  of  Dietrich  II,  Count  of  Zutphen  rapidly  after  1524,  especially  in  the  city.  Scarcely 
(1118-27),  several  Prsemonstratensian  and  Cistercian  any  opposition  to  the  innovation  was  made  by  the 
abbey}9  arose.  Hermann  II  (1174-1203)  founded  next  bishop,  Franz  of  Waldeck  (1532-53)^  who  from 
collegiate  churches  for  the  canons  of  St.  Ludger  and  the  first  planned  to  aid  the  Reformation  m  his  three 
St.  Martin.  dioceses  of  MUnster.  Minden,  and  OsnabrUck,  in  or- 
The  twelfth  century  was  marked  by  a  considerable  der  to  form  out  of  these  three  a  secular  principality 
erowth  of  the  bishops  secular  power.  Bishop  Ludwig  for  himself.  He  was  obliged,  indeed,  for  the  sake  of 
L  Count  of  Tecklenburg  (1 169-73),  restored  to  the  see  his  endangered  authority,  to  proceed  against  the  Anar 
the  temporal  jurisdiction  over  its  domains  previously  baptists  in  the  city  of  MUnster;  but  he  did  little  for 
exercised  by  the  Counts  of  Tecklenburg.  Hermann  the  restoration  of  the  Faith,  and  at  last  joined  the 
II,  like  his  immediate  predecessors.  Frederick  II,  Smalkaldic  League.  William  of  Ketteler  (1553-57) 
Count  of  Are  (1152-68),  and  Ludwig  I,  was  a  partisan  was  more  Protestant  than  Catholic:  althou^  he  re- 
of  Frederick  Barbarossa.  With  the  overthrow  of  garded  himself  as  an  administrator  of  the  olaChurch, 
Henry  the  Lion,  Duke  of  Saxony,  the  last  obstacle  in  and  took  the  Tridentine  oath,  he  refused  to  comply 
the  way  of  the  complete  sovereignty  of  the  bishops  was  with  the  demands  of  Rome,  and  resigned  in  1557. 
removed,  and  Hermann  appears  as  a  great  feudatory  of  Bemhard  of  Raesfeld  (1557-66)  was  genuinely  de- 
the  empire.  During  the  episcopate  of  his  second  sue-  voted  to  the  Catholic  Faith,  but  he,  too,  finding  him- 
cessor,  Dietrich  HI  of  Isenbuig  (1218-26),  the  poei-  self  unequal  to  the  difficulties  of  his  position,  resigned, 
tion  of  the  bishop  as  a  prince  of  the  empire  was  for-  John  of  Hoya  (1566-74),  a  faithful  Catholic,  in  order 
mally  acknowledged  in  1220  bv  Frederick  II.  Hermann  to  reorganize  ecclesiastical  affairs,  undertook  a  gen- 
ii was  the  last  bishop  directly  appointed  by  the  em-  eral  visitation  of  the  diocese  in  the  years  1571-73. 
peror.  Dissensions  arose  about  the  election  of  his  The  visitation  revealed  shocking  conditions  among 
successor,  Otto  I,  Count  of  Oldenburg  (1204-18),  and  clergy  and  people,  and  showed  to  what  extent  the  Re^ 
Emperor  Otto  IV  decreed  that  thenceforward  the  cathe-  ormation  had  spread  in  the  diocese  under  previous 
dral  chapter  alone  should  elect  the  bishop.  The  See  bishops.  Not  only  were  Prote^;ant  ideas  predomi- 
of  Cologne  retained  the  right  of  confirmation,  and  the  nant  m  the  northern  part  of  the  country,  or  "lower 
emperor  that  of  investiture.  The  bishop's  temporal  diocese  ",  but  the  western  part  as  well  had  been  almost 
authority  was  limited  in  important  matters,  particu-  entirely  lost  to  the  Church.  In  the  cities  in  other  parts 
Varly  in  taxation,  the  consent  of  representative  bodies  of  the  diocese,  too,  the  Faith  had  suffered  greatly, 
of  his  subjects  was  necessary.  Amon^  these,  the  cathe-  The  good  this  bishop  accomplished  was  almost  un- 
dral  chapter  appears  early  m  the  thirteenth  century;  done  after  his  death.  His  successor,  John  William  of 
later,  the  lower  nobility,  and,  lastly,  the  city  of  MUn-  Cleves  (1574-85),  inherited  the  Duchy  of  Cleves  in 
ster.  In  course  of  time  tne  cathedral  chapter  extended  1575,  married,  and  gave  up  the  administration  of  the 
its  rights  by  agreements  made  with  bishops  before  diocese.  A  long  diplomatic  battle  as  to  his  successor 
election.  arose  between  the  Catholic  and  Rrotestant  powers. 


MIONSTBB  638  MtfNSTlB 

during  which  the  diocese  was  administered  by  Cleves.  pleted  by  the  Bull  of  16  July.  1821,  "De  salute  bA 
The  maintenance  of  Catholicism  in  the  diocese  was  marum  ,  the  diocese  was  given  its  present  boun- 
assured  by  the  victory  of  Ernst  of  Bavaria  (1585-  daries  (see  below).  The  see  had  been  vacant  for 
1612),  who  was  also  Bishop  of  Freising,  Hildesheim,  twenty  years  when  Ferdinand  von  Lunninck  (1821- 
and  Li^e,  and  Archbishop  of  Cologne.  He  zealously  25),  formerly  Prince-Bishop  of  Corvey.  was  appointed, 
undertook  the  Counter-Reformation,  invited  the  Jes-  On  account  of  illness,  he  left  the  aoministration  to 
uits  to  aid  him,  and  encouraged  the  founding  of  monas-  Jodok  Hermann  von  zurmUhlen,  already  an  old  nuMt^ 
teries  of  the  old  orders,  although  he  could  not  repair  all  whom  he  madepro-vicar.  The  succeeding  bishop  was 
the  losses.  The  western  part  of  the  Frisian  district  Caspar  Max,  Ireiherr  von  Droste-Vischering  (1824- 
under  the  ecclesiastical  jurisdiction  of  Munster  was  46),  who,  having  been  auxiliary  bishop  of  the  diocese 
transferred,  in  1569,  to  the  newlv-founded  bishoprics  since  1795,  had  confirmed  many  hundreds  of  thou- 
of  Groninc^en  and  Deventer,  and  with  them  fell  into  sands  and  ordained  over  2200  priests.  His  adminis- 
Protestantism.  In  the  same  way  the  possessions  of  tration  was  greatly  hampered  Dy  the  petty  and  far- 
the  Counts  of  Bentheim-Steinfurt  and  some  other  for-  reaching  supervision  of  the  Government.  In  place  of 
tified  towns  pajssed  from  the  ecclesiastical  jurisdiction  the  university,  suppressed  in  1818,  he  was  able  to 
of  the  bishop.  The  two  immediate  successors  of  open,  in  1832,  an  academy  with  philosophical  and  the- 
Bishop  Ernst  laboured  in  the  same  spirit.  Ferdinand  ological  faculties;  in  1902  this  academy  became  a  uni- 
of  Bavaria  (1612-50)  was  at  the  same  time  Elector  of  versity .  Ecclesiastical  life  in  the  diocese  was  in  a  some- 
Cologne  and  Bishop  of  Paderbom,  Hildesheim,  and  what  unsatisfactory  condition,  the  clergy  being  largely 
Li^e.  He  founded  a  seminarv,  which  he  placed  under  inclined  to  Rationalistic  and  Hermesian  opinions, 
the  direction  of  Jesuits.  Christopher  Bemhard  of  An  intellectual  and  religious  revival  throughout 
Galen  (1650-78)  was  equally  efficient  both  as  bishop  Germany  followed  the  events  at  Cologne  in  1837  (see 
and  as  secular  ruler:  he  forced  the  refractory  city  of  Cologne).  This  revival  and  the  larger  freedom 
MUnster,  after  a  long  siege,  to  acknowledge  his  sover-  ^^nted  the  Catholic  Church  of  Prussia  under  King 


eign  rights,  succeed^  in  freeing  his  territory  from  for^    Frederick  William  IV  produced  excellent  results  in  the 


system  for  his  territory.                             ^           ^  lar^e  number  of  religious  houses  and  benevolent  insti- 

The  immediate  successors  of  the  three  distinguished  tutions  were  founded  with  the  active  assistance  of  the 

rulers  just  mentioned  were  Ferdinand  II  of  FUrsten-  laity.     His  successor,   John   Bemhard   Brinkmann 

berg  (1678-83),  Maximilian  Henry  of  Bavaria  (1683-  (1870-89),  laboured  in  the  same  apostolic  spirit.   Dur- 

88).  Frederick  Christian  of  Plettenberg  (1688-1712),  ing  the  KuUvrkampf  he  suffered  fines,  imprisonment, 

and  Francis  Arnold  of  Wolf-Mettemich  (1708-18).  and,  from  1875  to  1884,  banishment.    He  was  obliged 

Unfortunately,  under  these  men  church  disciphne  de-  to  witness  the  destruction  of  much  that  had  been  es- 

clined,  and  much  that  was  excellent  decayed  for  lack  tablished  by  his  predecessors  and  by  himself.    The 

of  proper  care,  or,  like  the  seminary  for  pnests,  ceased  present  bishop  is  Hermann  Dingelstad,  bom  2  March, 

to  exist.    The  next  bishop  was  the  frivolous,  vain,  1835,  elected  15  August,  1889,  consecrated  24  Febru- 

and  pomp-loving  Clement  Augustus  of  Bavaria  (1719-  ary.  1890. 

61).  who  was  also  Elector  of  Cologne,  and  Bishop  of  SUUistics. — ^The  Diocese  of  MUnster  includes:  the 

Paderbom,   Hildesheim,   and    Osnabrdck.     During  Prussian  Department  of  Mttnster  in  Westphalia;  the 

his  episcopate  the  diocese  suffered  terribly,  in  1734-35  parish  of  Lette,  in  the  Department  of  Minden;  three 

and  during  the  Seven  Years  War.  being  almost  ruined  enclaves  in  the  Department  of  Arensberg:  the  city 

financially.    The    succeeding    bishop,    Maximilian  district  of  Duisberg;  the  districts  of  Dinslaken,  Rees, 

Frederick  of  Konigsegg-Rottenfels  (1761-84),  who  Cleves,  Gildem,  Kempen,  and  Mors  in  Rhenish  Pru»- 

was  also  Elector  of  Cologne,  was  a  weak,  though  well-  sia;   the  city  of  Wilhelmshaven  in  the  Province  of 

meaning,  man.    Happily,  he  left  the  administration  Hanover;  the  Duchy  of  Oldenburg.   The  408  parishes 

of  the  Diocese  of  MUnster  to  a  young  cathedral  canon,  of  the  diocese  are  distributed  in  22  deaneries,  of  which 

Ftsjiz  Friedrich  Wilhelm  von  FUrstenberg  (q.  v.),  12  are  in  Westphalia,  8  in  Rhenish  Prussia,  and  2  in 

during  whose  administration  the  diocese  at&ned  un-  Oldenburg.    In  1910  there  were  in  the  diocese  1,427,- 

exampled  prosperity.    At  the  election  of  an  auxiliary  203  Catholics,  664,737  Protestants,  8758  Jews.    The 

bishop,  von  FUrstenberg  was  defeated  by  Maximilian  diocesan  priests  numbered  1333.  of  whom  1259  were 

Franz  of  Austria,  who  became  the  last  Prince-Bishop  engsjged  in  parochial  work,  teacning.  or  ecclesiastical 

of  MUnster  and  Electorof  Cologne  (1774-1801).  Upon  administration;  74  were  absent  on  leave  or  were  re- 

the  death  of  Maximilian  Franz,  his  nephew,  the  Arch-  tired;  there  were  133  regulars.    In  addition,  38  eccle- 

duke  Anthony  Victor,  was  elected,  but  could  not  siastics  not  belonging  to  the  diocese  were  domiciled 

enter  upon  the  administration  on  account  of  the  op-  in  it.     There  has  been  an  unbroken  succession  of 

position  of  Prussia,  which  had  long  coveted  the  do-  auxiliary  bishops  since  1218.    The  cathedral  chi^>ter 

mains  of  the  Church  in  Northern  Germanv.  consists  of  a  provost,  dean,  8  canons,  and  6  honorary 

In  1803  the  diocese  was  secularized  by  the  Imperial  canons.     The  vicariate-general  is  composed  of  the 

Delegates  Enactment  and  broken  up  into  numerous  vicar-general,  6  ecclesiastical  coimciUors,  a  notary 

parts.     The  larger  share  was  assigned  to  Prussia,  ApostoUc  for  the  diocese,  a  justiciary,  3  secretaries, 

which  took  possession  in  March,  1803.     The  rich  and  7  other  officials.   Besides  the  oj^ZcioZit^  at  MOnster, 

treasury  of  the  cathedral  was  transferred  to  Magde-  there  is  also  one  at  Vechta  for  the  Oldenburg  section 

burg  and  has  never  been   returned.     Freiherr  von  of  the  diocese.    The  diocesan  institutions  are:    the 

FUrstenberg  administered  as  vicar-general  the  ecclesi-  seminary  for  priests  (36  students  who  were  already 

astical  affairs  of  the  diocese  even  during  the  short  deacons  in  1910).  the  Collegium  Borronueum  for  theo- 

supremacy  of  the  French  (1806-13).    After  his  death,  logical  students  (182  students),  the  Collegium  Ludger- 

in  1810,  the  administrator  was  his  former  coadjutor,  ianum  (111  pupils),  the  institute  for  Church  music — 

Clement  Augustus  von  Droste-Vischering,  later  Arch-  all  at  Munster;  at  Gaesdonck,  near  Goch,  an  cpift- 

bishop  of  Cologne.  In  the  years  1813-15  the  diocese  was  copal  seminary  for  assistant  priests,  and  the  Collegium 

administered,  without  the  authorization  of  the  pope,  Augustinianum:   4   episcopal    institutions  for   poor 

by  Count  Ferdinand  Augustus  von  Spiegel,  arbitrarily  children,  and  the  Maria-Uilf  institute  at  Tilbeck  for 

appointed  by  Napoleon,  and  to  whom  von  Droste-  epileptic  women  and  girls.   There  are  13  ecclesiastical 

tischering  had  given  his  faculties  by  subdelegation.  professors  in  the  theolosical  faculty  and  one  in  the 

hi  1813  the  principality  was  again  ceded  to  Prussia,  philosophical  faculty  at  MUnster.    Among  the  state- 

IJpon  the  ecclesiastical  reorganization  of  Prussia,  com-  uded  Catholic  higher  schools  are  11  Gymnatia,  one 


BritNSTEB 


639 


lCi)N8TEB 


RedlschvXe,  6  Beminaries  for  male  and  2  for  female 
teachers.  There  are  also  a  large  number  of  high 
schools  for  girls,  generally  carri^  on  by  nuns. 

The  city  of  MUnster  contains  27  houses  of  religious 
orders  and  congregations.  The  members  conduct 
most  of  the  25  Catholic  institutions  for  public  benefit 
and  chanty  in  the  municipalitv.  The  male  orders  and 
congregations  represented  in  the  diocese  are:  Francis- 
cans, 5  monasteries,  40  fathers,  13  clerical  novices,  11 
lay  brothers;  Capuchins,  4  monasteries,  34  fathers,  9 
clerics,  23  brothers;  Trappists  in  the  colony  for  men 
out  of  work  at  Maria-Venn,  8  fathers,  12  brothers; 
Benedictines,  an  abbey  and  a  priory,  15  fathers,  28 
brothers;  Dominicans,  2  monasteries,  12  fathers,  7  lay 
brothers;  Society  of  Missionaries  of  the  Sacred  Heart 
of  Jesus,  1  house,  19  missionaries;  Alexian  Brothers, 
1  institution  for  the  care  of  insane  men,  46  brothers: 
Brothers  of  Mercy,  2  houses,  41  brothers;  Brothers  of 
St.  Francis,  3  houses,  19  brothers.  Female  religious 
orders  and  congregations:  Benedictine  nuns  of  the 
Perpetual  Adoration,  3  houses,  151  sisters;  .Sisters  of 
the  Visitation  of  Mary,  1  house,  35  sisters;  Poor 
Clares,  3  houses,  92  sisters;  Ursulines  at  Dorsten, 
where  they  have  a  higher  school  for  girls,  a  boarding- 
school,  a  seminary  for  female  teachers  etc.,  60  sisters; 
Sisters  of  Mercy,  mother-house  at  Mtlnster,  81 
branches  in  the  diocese,  240  sisters;  Sisters  of  Our 
Lady  of  Charity  of  the  Good  Shepherd,  mother-house 
and  branch  house,  125  sisters;  Sisters  of  the  Divine 
Providence,  a  mother-house,  63  filial  houses,  and  640 
sisters  who  conduct  a  large  number  of  schools  for  girls, 
homes  for  girls,  houses  for  the  needy  and  helpless, 
etc. ;  Nursing  Sisters  of  the  Third  Order  of  St.  Francis, 
a  mother-house,  83  branch  houses,  894  sisters;  Sisters 
of  Our  Lady,  a  mother-house,  41  bnmch-houses,  which 
carry  on  bosuding  schools,  daynachools,  homes  for 
girls  etc.,  590  sisters;  Sisters  of  the  Christian  Schools 
of  Mercy,  who  conduct  higher  schools  for  girls,  day- 
nurseries,  sewing-schools,  take  care  of  the  sick,  etc., 
24  houses.  146  sisters;  Poor  Serving  Maids  of  Jesus 
Christ,  4  nouses,  47  sisters;  Poor  Franciscans  of  the 
Sacred  Heart  of  Jesus  and  Mary,  a  hospital  with  7 
sisters;  Sisters  of  Penitence  and  Christian  Charity  of 
the  Third  Order  of  St.  Francis,  3  houses,  152  sisters; 
Sisters  of  St.  Charles  Borromeo  at  Cleves,  13  sisters; 
Grey  Sisters  of  St.  Elizabeth,  1  house,  8  sisters; 
Dau^ters  of  the  Holy  Cross,  4  houses,  99  sisters; 
Missionary  Sisters  of  the  Sacred  Heart  of  Jesus,  a 
mother-house,  78  sisters;  Dominicui  Nuns  from  the 
mother-house  at  Arenberg  in  the  Diocese  of  Trier,  3 
houses.  10  sisters.  Among  the  reUgious  associations 
are:  tne  association  of  priests,  young  men's  associa- 
tions (84),  Marian  sodaUties  for  young  men  (262), 
joumevmen's  unions  in  81  towns,  merchants'  associa- 
tions (36),  workmen's  unions  (134),  miners'  unions 
(47),  sodalities  for  men  (77),  congregations  of  Cath- 
olic young  women  (250),  societies  of  Christian  mothers 
(325),  the  Bonifaciusverein.  the  Societies  of  St.  Vin- 
cent, of  Blessed  Albertus  Magnusj  etc. 

The  principal  churches  are:  the  cathedral  (built 
for  the  most  part  between  1225  and  1265^  in  the 
transition  i>eriod  from  Romanesque  to  Gothic  archi- 
tecture, while  the  great  doorway,  Duilt  in  1516,  is  late 
Gothic  in  style);  the  Gothic  church  of  St.  Lambert, 
built,  on  the  site  of  an  old  parish  church,  in  the  second 
half  of  the  fourteenth  century,  with  a  new  Gothic 
tower,  about  312  feet  high,  ad.ded  in  1887-90,  to  re- 
place the  old  one  on  which  had  hung  the  iron  cages 
that  held  the  bodies  of  the  executed  Anabaptists;  the 
church  of  Our  Lady,  a  fine  fourteenth-century  Gothic 
building  erected  on  the  site  of  the  chapel  of  the  Virgin, 
built  by  St.  Ludger;  the  church  of  St.  Ludger,  built 
about  1170,  enlarged  1383;  the  collegiate  church  of 
St.  Moritz,  founded  1070,  and  enlarged,  1862,  in 
Romanesque  style.  Besides  these,  the  following  de- 
serve particular  mention:  the  Romanesaue  churches 
Qf  Freckenhorst  and  Enunerich;  the  Qotnic  churches 


at  Xanten  (Cathedral  of  St.  Victor),  LtldinghauBexiy 
Cleves,  Kalten^  Kempen,  and  Nottidn. 

Works  on  the  City  of  MOiuter:  Wilckens,  Veraueh  einer  atto9- 
meinmi  QeachichU  der  SUuU  MUruter  (Manater  and  Hamm,  1824) ; 
NxJBAERT,  BeitrOoe  zu  einem  mUnaterischen  Urkundenbuch  (2  vols., 
Monster,  1823) ;  Idem,  Mi^ntteriteha  Urkundenaammlung  (7  vola., 
Coeafeld,  1826-37);  Ebbasd.  OesehidUe  MUrutert  (MQnster. 
1837) ;  TiBUS.  Die  Stadt  MUruter  (Manster.  1882) ;  von  Dbtten. 
MUnaler  in  Weslfalen.aeine  EnUlehung  und  das  KtiUurbild  sei- 
ner tauaendjdhrigen  sntwicklung  (Milnster,  1887);  Qudlen  und 
Fortchunoen  ntr  Gewhidde  der  Stadt  MUnUer,  I  (MOnster,  1889) ; 
PiBPER,  Die  aUe  UnivertitOt  MUntter  (MQnster,  1902) ;  Savelb.  Der 
Dom  su  MUnster  (MQnster,  1904) ;  BAmer,  Das  literarieche  Lebim  in 
MUneter  bia  nar  endoOUioen  Reeeption  dee  Humaniamua  (MQnster, 
1906);  Huppbbti,  Mlkneter  im  7-i6hrioen  Krieg  (MQnster.  1908). 

On  the  Diocese:  WettfOliechee  Urkundenbuch,  I-VIII  (MQnster, 
1847-1908)  (especially  II  and  VIII);  Die  GeeehichUqueUen  dee 
Bistuma  MCnater,  I-VI  (MQnster.  1851-1900) ;  Codex  Traditionum 
Weaifalicarum  (6yo]a.,  MQnster,  1872-1907);  Tjbvb,  OrHndunga^ 
geachichte  der  Stifiert  Pfarrkirchen,  Kldater  und  Kapellen  im  Be- 
reich  dea  alien  Bialuma  MCnater  (MQnster,  1893) ;  Bahlmann.  Der 
Reffierunffahezirk  MUnater  (MQnster,  1893) ;  Stapper,  Die  dUeate 
Agenda  dea  Bistuma  MUnster  (MQnster,  1906);  SekemaHsmua  der 
^DiSaeae  MUnster  (MQnster,  1910). — On  the  Diocesan  Feud  and 
the  Period  of  the  Counter-Reformation:  Hansen  in  PuJblihdionen 
aus  den  k.  preussischen  Staatsarchiven,  XLII  (Leipsig,  1890); 
Keller,  tm,  IX,  XXXIII  (Leipsig,  1881  and  1887).— On  the 
Episcopate  of  Bishop  Galen:  TCckino.  Geschiehte  des  Sti/ls  MCn^ 
ster  unter  Ch.  B.  von  Galen  (MQnster.  1865) ;  HOsino,  FUrstbiachof 
Ch.  B.  ton  Galen  (MQnster,  1887).— -On  the  Secularisation  of  the 
Diocese:  von  Olters,  Beitriga  sur  Geachichte  der  Verfaaaung  und 
der  Zeratackelung  dea  Oberatifta  MUnster  (MQnster,  1848).— Nu- 
merous contributions  to  the  historv  of  the  city  and  diocese  of 
MQnster  are  to  be  found  in  the  foilowins :  Zeitschrifl  fikr  vater^ 
landische  Geachichte  und  AUertumakunda  (MQnster)  (67  vols,  up 
to  1910);  Beitrdge  zur  Geachichte  Niederaachaena  una  Weaifalent 
(Hildesheim)  (22  parts  up  to  1910);  MUnsteriache  Beitrdge  nor 
Geachichtsforschung  (MQnster)  (26  parts  up  to  1910).     See  also 

ANABAPTUm;  WxfflTBAUA.  JOSEPH    LiNB. 

Untversitt  op  MttNSTER. — ^Tho  town  of  Miinster  m 
Westphalia  obtained  its  university  in  1771  throng 
the  initiative  of  the  prince-bishop's  vicar-gen^ral, 
Freiherr  von  FQrstenberg. 

The  fomidation  for  the  university  was  the  cathedral 
school  at  MUnster,  which  dated  from  the  Middle 
Ages.  This  school,  about  the  end  of  the  fifteenth 
century,  had  reached  a  flourishing  condition  through 
the  efforts  of  the  famous  humanist  Rudolph  von 
Langen  (1438-1519).  The  disturbances  caused  by 
the  Anabaptists  (1533--35)  had  a  depressing  influence, 
but  Dean  Gottfried  von  Raesfeld  succeeded  in  restor- 
ing it  to  its  former  position  by  turning  its  supervision 
over  to  the  Jesuits  in  1588.  The  school,  now  called 
Gymnasium  Paulinum,  was  enlarged  by  the  addition 
of  coul'ses  in  philosophy  and  theology  for  the  scien- 
tific education  of  priests,  and  was  raised  by  Pope 
Urban  VIII  to  the  rank  of  an  academy,  9  Sept.,  1629. 
The  latter  action  was  taken  at  the  urgent  request  of 
Prince-Bishop  Ferdinand  I  (1612-31),  who  also  ob* 
tained  from  the  Emperor  Ferdinand  II  the  document 
of  21  May,  1631,  in  which  the  latter  granted  permis- 
sion to  found  a  complete  university  with  four  facul- 
ties. The  death  of  the  bishop,  the  disturbances  of 
the  Thirty  Years'  War  and  the  want  of  funds  pre- 
vented the  execution  of  this  plan  during  the  next  cen- 
tury and  a  half.  The  clever  work  of  Vicar-General 
Franz  Friedrich  von  Furstenberg  finally  accomplished 
the  desired  end:  on  4  August,  1771,  Prince-Bishop 
MaximiUan  Friedrich  von  K6nigseck-Rotenfels  signed 
the  document  making  Munster  a  university,  rope 
Clement  XIV  grant^  to  the  universit}r,  m  a  bull 
dated  28  May,  1773,  all  the  privileges,  indults  and 
liberties  which  other  universities  enjoyed.  The  char- 
ter, signed  by  Emperor  Joseph  II  in  Vienna,  is  dated 
8  Oct.  of  the  same  year.  For  more  than  thirty  years 
Fikstenberg,  as  curator,  laboured  earnestly  for  the 
development  of  the  university.  He  filled  it  with  the 
spirit  of  positive  Christianity,  so  that  it  had  a  benefi- 
cent influence  at  a  time  when  rationalistic  philosophy 
and  false  enlightenment  appeared  everywhere.  In 
1803  MUnster  was  ceded  to  Prussia  by  the  imperial 
deputation  assembled  at  Ratisbon.  The  Prussian  ad- 
mmistrator  of  Mtinster^  Baron  von  Stein,  showed 
Rreat  interest  in  the  umversity,  but  endeavoured  to 
do  away  with  its  Catholic  character.    His  succeaaQr^ 


XfttNTZ                                 640  XfttNTZ 

IVendent  von  Vincke,  accomplished  this  purpose  and  dinary  profoBBon,  14  doxents,  and  4  lecturare;  in 

disnuflsed  FOratenberg,  the  founder  of  the  university,  the  meoical  faculty,  1  extraordinary  and  2  ordinary 

in  1805.    In  the  autumn  of  1806  the  French  took  pos-  professors.  2  lecturers,  1  dosent. 

session  of  the  town.    During  the  seven  years'  sway  of  Pisputt  Die  cMe  Univerniat  Munster  (Manster,  1002) ;  Ram- 

the  foreigners  no  remarkable  progress  was  made  in  the  S^?*^'  Muneterldn^ehe  Mrifltt^  (MQnrtcr.  1866) ;  Anok.. 

.        *^l^"w  w    Y  *  '^Z"  «-«*»«  M*  v^A  «»^  TT  oo  Auouc  UA  vuo  Sntmerungen  atu  alttr  una  netur  ZeU  ton  etnan  aUen  Memteranet 

umv^ty.     After  Mtlnster  had  agam  become  PniS-  (MQnBter.  1880);  aee  abo  the  official  annual  reports,  two  Beoato 

sian  in  1813,  the  Protestant  government  raised  the  memoriala(190i,  1910),  on  the  derelopment  of  tne  university  and 

miMitinn  wTipfhpr  tfiA  univpnaif v  a>irkii1H  Via  mrkTwan-  Another  on  the  same  subject  by  the  Macistrate  of  the  City  of 

puesuon  wnetner  ine  university  snouid  be  reorgan-  Mttnster  (i9io).                             w.  Enqelkbhpkb 

wed  or  removed  to  another  town.    No  decision  was  •  ^«"*.*-»J5*»*'*«- 

reached  until  King  Frederick  William  III  in  1815  Mttnti,  Eug^nb. — ^French  savant  and  historian;  b. 

promised  his  new  subjects  on  the  left  bank  of  the  at  SouLs-sous-For^ts,  near  Miilhausen,  Alsace,  11 


took  place  in  the  summer  of  1818.    Only  one  theo-    certain  articles  which  caused  much  comment.    Just 


logical  course,  and,  by  wa^  of  preparation  for  the  at  that  time — followixig  upon  the  great  eflBorescence  of 
same,  a  philological  and  scientific  course,  remained,  learned  criticism  in  Germany — attention  was  being 
under  the  name  of  an  academy.  While  this  academy  directed  in  France  to  the  organised  study  of  history, 
possessed  the  character  of  a  university  and  the  rights  Albert  Dimiont  founded  at  IU>me  the  £cole  Frangaise, 
of  conferring  degrees,  it  was  conducted  on  a  rather  in  the  Famese  Palace,  and  Eiig^e  MOnts  b^uune 
modest  scale.  ^  A  department  of  medicine,  which  had  one  of  its  |irst  pupils.  Among  his  fellow-students  was 
been  started  in  1821,  was  discontinued  in  1848.  It  Louis  Duchesne,  who  afterwards  became  director  of 
was  not  until  1870  that  the  increasing  importance  of  the  school.  MQntx  explored  the  Vatican  Archives 
Germany  as  a  nation  infused  new  life  into  the  en-  and  Library^  and  began  to  amass  that  vast  fund  of 
deavour  to  uplift  the  academy.  In  1880  the  model-  erudition  which  he  revealed  in  later  years.  From  that 
lin^  of  the  present  magnificent  main  edifice  of  the  time  he  devoted  himself  to  the  taeJc  of  unravelling  the 
umversity  was  completed,  and  in  1886  there  was  history  of  art  in  Italy.  About  the  year  1880,  he,  to- 
added  to  the  academy  a  pharmaceutical  institute.  getherwithsuchmenasMoreUiandMilanesi,  contrib- 
The  continued  efforts  of  the  town  and  of  the  province  uted  immensely  to  this  branch  of  study,  and  applied  to 
of  Westphalia  finally  led  to  the  issue  of  a  royal  dec^,  it  the  positive  method  of  inquiry.  Mdnts's  work  is 
dated  1  July.  1902,  restoring  to  the  academy  a  faculty  based  on  an  exact  acquaintance  with  original  docu- 
of  law  and  tne  title  "  University  "  (since  1907  "West-  mente— papers  preserved  in  archives,  memoranda,  bills, 
ph&lische  Wilhelms-Universitfit",  in  honour  of  the  inventones,  contracts — supported  by  an  extensive  and 
Emperor  William  II).  In  1906  there  followed  the  profound  knowledge  of  monuments.  He  never  loses 
establishment  of  the  chairs  and  institutions  required  si^t  of  the  bond  between  the  artSj  that  close  relation- 
for  the  first  half  of  the  course  in  medicine,  the  further  ex-  ship  by  which  all  the  art  industnes  of  a  period — its 
tension  of  which  may  be  expected  in  the  next  few  years,  engraviri^,  its  tapestry-weaving,  its  pottery,  its  cabi- 

Noteworthy  among  the  teachers  of  the  old  epis-  net-making — contribute,  as  so  many  expression^ofcon- 

oopal  university  were:  Clemens  Becker,  S.J.,  professor  temporary  thought^  to  form  the  ^nius  of  its  painters, 

of  canon  law  and  moral  theology  ul.  1790);  Joh.  sculptors,  and  architects.    Captivated  by  that  Rome 

Hyac.  Kistemaker,  philologist  and  theologian,  who  where  the  fairest  years  of  his  life  had  been  spent  in 

taught  the  classical  languages  from  1786  to  1834.  and,  studious  research,  he  never  ceased  to  regard  the  Rome 

later  on,  exegesis.    A.  M.  Sprickmaim  laboured  as  a  of  Julius  II  and  Leo  X.  of  Bramante,  Michelangelo, 

jurist  in  MUnster  from  1778  to  1814.  when  he  was  and  Raphael,  as  the  hignest  expression  of  human  civi- 

called  to  the  University  of  Breslau  ana  later,  in  1817.  lisation.    This  attitude  of  mind  at  times  hindered  his 

to  Berlin.    Anton  Bruchhausen,  8.J.,   professor  oi  doirig  justice  to  other  schools — for  instance,  to  those  of 

physics  (1773-^2),  gained  a  nreat  reputation  among  Venice  and  Siena. 

Grerman  scientists  through  ms  ''Institutiones  phy-        The  earliest  works  of  MOnts  at  once  won  for  him  a 

sics"    (1775);    and    the   philosopher   Havichhorst  high  place  among  the  historians  of  art.    In"LesArts 

(1773-83)     through     his     ''Institutiones    logics".  &  la  courdes  panes  pendant  leXV^'etXYP  sidles"  (4 

Georee  Hermes  was  professor  of  dogmatic  theology  vols.,  1875-98)  ne  nas  collected  evidence  to  show  the 

in  MUnster  from  1807-20;  ha  founded  the  so-called  splendid  part  played  by  the  papacy  as  leader  of  the 

Hermesianism,  a  rationalistic  tendency  in  theology.  Renaissance.    When  two  volumes  of  this  work  had 

and  d.  in  1831  at  Bonn,  where  he  taught  from  1820;  appeared,  its  author  issued  "Prdcurseurs  de  la  Renais- 

his  teachings  were  condenmed  at  Rome  in  1836.    J.  sance"  (1881),  and  followed  this  with  "Raphael",  to 

Th.  H.  Katerkamp,  who  was  counted  among  the  which  it  is  a  sort  of  introduction.    The^Prdcurseurs'' 

friends  of  Princess  Galitsin,  was  professor  of  Uieol-  and  "Raphael"  are  still  classics  (1st  ed.  1881;  2nd  ed. 

ogy.    Of  the  teachers  in  the  academy  there  deserve  to  1886) ;  to  them  must  be  added  a  small  but  important 

be  mentioned  the  neo-echolastic  St6ckl.  professor  of  volume  "Les  Historiens  et  les  critiques  de  Raphael" 

philosophy  (1862-71);  furthermore.  Wilhelm  Storck,  (1884),  in  which  Mtints  defends  traditional  against 

mterpreter  of  Portuguese  poems  (Camoens)  and  pro-  modem   criticism,   especially  acainst   Morelli.     He 

fessor  of  German  literature  (1859-1905);  and  especially  afterwards  developed  his  cherished  ideas  in  a  work 

Johaim   Wilhelm    Hittorf.   since   1852  professor  of  which  became  the  most  popular  manual  in  France  on 

physics  and  chemistry,  wno  discovered  tne  cathode  Italian  art,  "Histoire  ae  Vart  en  Italie  pendant  la 

rays,  and  made  valuable  investigations  concerning  Renaissance"  (I,  "Les  Primitifs",  1888;  ll,  "L'Age 

electric  phenomena  in  vacuum  tubes  and  contribu-  d'Or",  1891;  III,  "La  Fin  de  la  Renaiaaanoe",  1895). 

tions  to  the  theory  of  ions.    Mention  should  also  be  His  views  are  not  very  origiiial,  his  taste  is  somewhat 

made  of  Professors  Berlage  (dogxnatics),  Reinke  (Old  academic,  with  a  bourgeois  tinge;  but  this  history  is 

Testament  exegetics),  and  Bisping  (New  Test,  ex-  nevertheless  a  most  valuable  popular  treatma:it  of 

egetus),  Schwane  (dogmatics).  that  glorious  period.    His  picture  of  the  Renaissance 

The  number  of  matriculated  students  is  at  present:  is  completed  by  an  exceUent  study,  "L6onard  de 

summer  of  1910,  2008  (including  68  women);  there  Vinci",  which  appeared  in  1898.    These  books  form  a 

are  besides  115  auditors.    Teachers r  in  the  theo-  group  oy  themselves;  Mdnts  published  many  others, 

logical  faculty,  9  ordinazT'  and  2  extraordinary  pro-  some  of  them  works  of  sheer  erudite  research,  but 

fessors,  2  dozents  and  1  lecturer;  in  the  law  facmty,  most  of  them  bearing  on  the  main  work  of  his  life,  and 

7  ordiiiary  and  3  extraordinary  professors,  4  dosents;  forming  supplements  or  additions  to  it.    Among  the 

in  the  philosophical  faculty,  28  ordinary  and  6  extraor-  former  are:    Notee  sur  lee  moealquee  d'ltalie  "  (1874^ 


BCnU.  641  UDRATOBI 

91);"Etude8SurrhiHtoiredelapeinturcctdel'icono-  appointed  him  archivist  and  librarian  in  Moden&, 

graphiechT^tieiuiee"(1^^2);"  Etudes iconoi;raphiquea  which  position  he  held  until  hta  death.  Id  1716  Mu- 
et  archtelogiquee  Burle  Moyen-Age"  (1888).  Among  ratari  became,  in  additioo,  provost  of  St.  Maria  della 
the  latter  we  may  mention:  "Donatello"  (1885);  "Le  Fomposa,  and  conducted  this  parish  with  ^eat  zeal 
Palais  des  papea  i  Avignon"  (1886-92);  "La  Biblio-  until  1733.  He  continued  publialiinR  unedited  writ- 
th^ue du Vatican au xvi° si^le " (written to coUabora-  ings,  first  among  which  was  a  volume,  "Anecdota 
tionwithP.Fabre— 1887);"CollftctionBde8Medicisau  gneca"  (Padua,  1709).  At  the  same  time  he  culti- 
xv' allele"  (1887);  "  AntiquitSs  de  Rome  au  jov",  icv*,  vated  literature,  as  is  shown  by  his  woriiH,  "Delia 
etivi*M6cles"(1887);"FlorenceetIaToBcane"C1897):  perTetta  poesia  italiana"  (Modena,  1706)  and  "Ri- 
"La  Tiare  Pontificale  du  viii"  sifele  au  xvi*-  siftcle  ilessioni  soprn  il  buon  gusto  nelle  scienze  e  nelle  arti" 
(1897).  In  a  third  series  of  works  he  took  up  the  (Veoice,  17US).  He  even  intended  to  establish  some- 
study  o[  the  influence  of  the  Italian  Renaissance  in  tliinR  like  a  general  siciety  of  Italian  literature,  and  aa 
other  European  countries,  especially  France:  "La  early  as  I7U3  published  for  this  purpose,  under  the 
Renaissance  en  Italic  et  en  France  k  I'^poque  de  p^teuilonym  "Lamindo  Pritanio",  a  plan  "Primi  di- 
CharlesVIII"  (1885);  "Le Chateau deFontainebleau  wRiii  dclla  repubhca  letteraria  d'ltalia".  In  1708 
au  xvi°  ei^cle"  (1886),  in  which  he  collaborated  with  a  quarrel  brote  out  between  the  Holy  See  (aided 
Molinier.  He  contemplated  extending  these  studiiis  by  the  emperor) 
to  the  whole  of  Europe  when  death  interrupted  them,  and  the  Dukes 
In  Miintz's  writings  we  should  look  in  vain  for  a  of  Estc,  over  the 
personal  view,  or  for  any  such  system  or  philosophy  as  possession  of  Co- 

B'ves  a  work  a  loftier  scope  than  the  merely  hisUiric:Ll.  niachio,     which 

is  cannot  compare  with  the  great  histories  of  the  involved  the  sov- 

Renaissance  given  ue  by  Taine,  Uurckhardt,  or  Jolin  ereignty     of    the 

Addin^on  Symonds.      Still  it  is  a  treasury  of  in-  district  of  Feirara. 

formation.     It  presents  in  an  easy  agreeable  form  a  Muratori    sup- 

r^umiS  of  what  research  has  discovered  and  crilicisn  ported  the  claims 

accepted.     The  complete  edition  of  this  History  wiv-i  of    his    sovereign 

the  first  model  for  that  class  of  de  luxe  books  which,  and  of  the  house 

thanks  to  modem  processes  of  reproduction,   have  of  E^te  against  the 

done  so  much  in  the  last  thirty  years  te  spread  infer-  pope  by  means  of 

mation  on  art  and  to  improve  the  public  taste.     After  numerous   histor- 

1878  Mtinti  was  conni-cCed  with  the  Ecoie  dea  Beaux-  ical        researches, 

Arts,  where  he  took  Taine's  place  in  the  chair  of  le.s-  which  he  later  on 

thetica  from  1885  to  1892.      He  entered  the  Institute  utilized  in  the 

in  1893.  preparation  of   a 

Louis  Gili^t.  great     historical 

„  „  .      .      „       „  work,    "Antichiti  Loroyico  Ahton.o  Mub^toe. 

Hun,  Saint,  b.  m  Co.  Donegal,  Ireland,  ebout  Estensi  ed  Italiane"  (2  vols.,  Modena:  Ist  vol.,  1717; 
550.  He  was  appointed  Abbot  of  Fahan  by  St.  Co-  2nd  vol.,  1740).  He  continued  studying  the  sources 
lumba.  The  monastery  was  anciently  known  as  for  a  history  of  Italy,  and  as  a  fruit  of  his  untiring  re- 
Othan  Mor,  but  after  the  death  of  our  saint  was  searches  there  appeared  the  monumental  work,  "  R»- 
called  Fahan  Mura.  He  was  highly  esteemed  by  Hugh,  njm  italicarura  Scriptores  ab  anno  tens  christianiB 
Head  King  of  Ireland,  whose  obit  is  chromcled  in  soo  ad  annum  1500'\  It  was  published  in  twenty- 
607.  Numerous  legends  are  told  of  Mura;  he  wrote  eight  folio  volumes  with  the  assistance  of  the  "So- 
many  works,  including  chronicles  and  a  rhymed  Ufe  eieti  PaJatina"  of  Milan  (Milan,  1723-51).  A  new 
of  St.  Ck>!umba,  which  is  auot«d  in  the  Martyrology  critical  edition  is  now  (since  1900)  appearing  in  serial 
of  Donegal.  He  is  regarded  as  the  special  patron  form  under  the  direction  of  Giosue  Carducci  and  Vit- 
aaintottheO'Neillclan,beingBixthindB8Centfromthe  torio  Fiorini  in  "Citti  di  Castello".  J.  Calligarie, 
founder,  whose  name  survives  in  Innishowen  (Inis  J,  FUippi,  and  C.  Merkel  published  "Indices  chrono- 
E^^han).  His  death  occurred  about  f>45,  and  his  logici'^  (Turin,  1885)  for  the  same.  At  thesame  time 
feast  is  observed  on  12  March.  Among  his  relics  Muratori  edited  a  collection  of  seventy-five  essays  on 
still  preserved  are  his  crozier  (SocAoii  Miiro),  now  in  different  historical  themes,  entitled  "AntiquHates 
the  National  Museum,  Dublin,  and  his  bell-ahrmc,  italicte  medii  levi"  (6  vols,  fols.,  Mihin,  17;i8-12),  as 
now  in  the  Wallace  Collection,  London.  In  the  ej\  elucidation  and  supplement  to  his  work  on  the 
ruined  church  of  St.  Mura  at  Fahan  is  a  beautiful  sources.  In  the  third  volume  of  this  collection  there 
Irish  cross,  and  not  tar  off  is  St.  Mura's  Well.  jg  found  the  Muratorian  canon  (q.  v.)  whirh  is  of  the 
ihU-^hS:»^UUDib\i^''dTo-DoB,:^"D^  greatest  importance  for  the  history  of  the  New  Tcsta- 
lin,  1902).  '  ■  ■  ■'■  •  ment  canon.  In  order  to  render  these  researches  ac- 
W.  H.  G rattan-Flood.  cessible  to  greater  massoa  of  his  countrymen,  he  him- 
self published  a  new  edition  in  Italian,     Dis.<wrtaztoni 

Mmtal,  Luioi  Antonio,  librarian  in  Modena,  sopra  to  AntichitA  italiane"  (3  vols.,  Milan,  1751). 

one  of  the  greatest  scholars  of  his  time,  b.  21  Oct.,  Other  important  publications  of  sources  are  his  col- 

1672;  d.  23  Jan.,  1750.    Though  he  came  from  a  poor  lections  of  ancient  inscriptions  ("Novus  thesaurus 

family   of   Vignola   in   the   district   of    Modena,   he  vetcrum   inscriptionum ",  4   vols.,   Milan,  1739-42), 

received  opportunities  to  devote  himself  to  the  higher  the  fourth  volume  containing  also  the  ancient  Christian 

studies.     Having  first  been  instructed  by  the  Jesuits,  inscriptions;  and  the  edition  of  the  Roman  Sacramen- 

he   studied   law,   philosophy,    and   theolfwy   at   the  taries  ("LitU[^aromanavctus",2vol8.,Vcnice,1748), 

UmveiBtty  of  Modena,  where  he  plainly  showed  his  of  value  to  this  day.     He  wrote  a  great  chronological 

extraordinary   talents,    especially   in   literature   and  representationofItalianhistory("Annalid' Italia   ,12 

history.     In  1894  he  was  ordained  prieat.     In  1695  vols,  quarto,  Milan,  1744— 19). "based  upon  the  numer- 

Count  Charles  Borromeo  called  him  to  the  college  of  oua  sources  which  he  published  or  which  otherwise 

"Dottori"  at  the  Ambrosian  library  in  Milan,  where  were  known.     After  his  death  this  work  was  re-edited 

he  immediately  started  collecting  unedited  ancient  and  continued  (Milan,  1753-56 in  17  vols.;  new  edition 

writings  of  various  kinds.     His  first  publication  was  in  18  vols.,  1818-21). 

the   "Anecdota  latina  ex   Ambrosianffi   Bibliothecie         The    great    mind   of   this   learned   man  was   not 

codicibus"  (2  vols.,  Milan,  1697-88),  followed  by  two  limited    to  the   wide  province  of  history;   he  was 

other  volumes  (Pvlua,  1713).     Duke  Rinaldo  I  (1700)  also  interested  in  religious  questions,  and  he  published 


MITRATORUN  642  BIUBET 

a  work,  which  attracted  considerable  attentioiii  on  served  entire,  concerning  the  third  and  fourth 

the  question  as  to  how  far  freedom  of  thinking  nught  Then  there  are  mentioned:  The  Acts,  St.  Paul's 

^  in  religious  matters,  "  De  ingeniorum  moderatione  ties  (including  those  to  Philemon,  Titus,  and  Timothy; 

m  religionis  ne^otio''   (Paris,  1714).     Many  of  his  the  spurious  ones  to  the  Laodiceans  and  Alexandrians 

views  and  opimons  were  openly  challenged;  for  in-  are  rejected);  furthermore,  the  Epistle  of  St.  Jude 

stance  those  concerning  the  Immaculate  Conception  and  two  Epistles  of  St.  John;  among  the  Scriptures 

of  the  Blessed  Virgin  and  the  manner  of  worshipping  which  "in  catholica  habentur",  are  cited  the  ''Sapi- 

the  saints.    Another  work,  which  touches  upon  re-  entia  ab  amicis  Salomonis  in  honorem  ipsius  sczipta", 

Ugious    questions,    "Delia   regolata   divozione   de'  as  weU  as  the  Apocalypses  of  St.  John  and  St.  Peter, 

Cristiani''  (Venice,  1723),  also  called   out  attacks,  but  with  the  remark  that  some  will  not  allow  the 

He  defended  himself  in  his  work,  "De  superstitione  latter  to  be  read  in  the  church.    Then  mention  is 

vitanda''    (Milan,    1742).     In    the    quarrel    about  made  of  the  Pastor  of  Hennas,  which  may  be  read 

Hermesianism,  his  book,  "De  ingeniorum  modera-  anjrwhere  but  not  in  the  divine  service;  and,  finally, 

tione",  was  translated  into  German  by  Biunde  and  there    are    rejected    false    Scriptures,    which    were 

Braun  (Coblexiz,  1837)  in  the  interest  of  the  followers  used  by  heretics.    In  consequence  of  the  barbarous 

of  the  Hermesian  doctrines.    Charity  is  discussed  by  Latin  there  is  no  complete  understanding  of  the  oor 

Muratori  in  his  "Delia  carit&  cristiana"  (Modena,  rect  meaning  of  some  of  the  sentences.    As  to  the 

1723).    He  still  continued  his  literary  studies,  as  is  author,  many  conjectures  were  made  (Papias,  Hege- 

shown  by  his  works  on  Petrarch  ("Vita  e  rime  di  F.  sippus,  Caius  of  Rome,  Hippolytus  of  Rome,  Rhodon. 

Petrarca",  Modena,  1711)  and  Castelvetro  ("Vita  ed  Melito  of  Sardis  were  proposed.);  but  no  well  founded 

opere  di  L.  Castelvetro'',  Milan,  1727).    On  phi-  hypothesis  has  been  adduced  up  to  the  present.    The 

losophy  he  wrote,  "Filosofia  morale  esposta"  (Yen-  Muratorian  Canon  was  newly  edited  by  Tregelles, 

ice,  1735),  "Delle  forze  dell'  intendimento  umano"  "Canon  Muratorianus"   (Oxford,   1867);  Westoott, 

(Venice,   1735),   and   "Delle  forze  della  fantasia"  "A  general  survey  of  the  history  of  the  canon"  (6th 

(Venice,  1745).    Law  and  politics  are  treated  in  ed.,  1889);  Buchanan,  in  "Journal  of  Theol.  Stud.", 

"Govemo  deUa  Peste  politico,  medico  ed  ecclesias-  VIII (1907), 540-42 ;llamack in" Zeitschr.f. Kirchen- 


be  a  universal  genius  of  rare  calibre,  at  home  in  all  "Florilesium  patristicum".  III  (Bonn,  1905). 

fields   of   human  knowledge.      He  showed  extraordi-  ^Zahn,  Ge9eh.d^neiUeat.  Kanon»,l,  l  (1890).  1-156;    Kuhx. 

nary  qualities  as  priest  and  man;  he  was  realous  in. the  K'^S'SMi^iriK.SllS^.Sr^K^^ 

mmistry.  charitable  to  the  poor,  and  diligent  in  visit-  Unian  Cawmm  The  Expontor,  I  (1906),  481  sq.;  Babtlkt.  Ibid^ 

ing  the  abandoned  and  imprisoned.    He  corresponded  II  (1906),  210  sq.                                      t   i>   tz- 

with  a  large  circle  of  acquaintances.     A  collection  •*•  P*  Kibsch. 

of  his  letters  by  Sehni  appeared  in  Venice  (2  vols.,  Murda.    »See  Cartaqena,  Diocesb  or. 

1789) ;  another  by  Ceruti  in  Modena  (1885).    A  com-  Murder,    See  Homicide. 

plete  edition  is  being  Dubushed   by   M.   Campon  •,      ^    ,,         *                »,       ,    •           .       , 

("Epistolario  di  L.  ATMuratori",  Modena,  1901  sq.).  ^  Muiet,  MaroAntoinb,  French  humanist,  b.  at 

In  spite  of  many  attacks  which  he  had  to  suffer  for  Muret,  near  Limo^,  m  1526;  d.  at  Rome,  m  1585. 

his  religious  views,  and  notwithstanding  many  of  his  He  studied  at  Poitiers  and  was  greatly  mfluenced  by 

opinions  regarding  ecclesiastical  politics  were  not  ap-  Scahger,  whom  he  twice  visited  at  Agen.    He  taught 

proved  of  in  Rome,  he  was  highly  esteemed  in  the  most  successively  at  Poitiers  (1546)^  Bordeaux  (1547),  and 

exalted  ecclesiastical  circles,  as  is  shown  in  the  let-  g^is.    Becommg  mtimate  with  Dorat,  Joachim  du 

ter  which  Benedict  XIV,,  on  15  Sept.,  1748.  wrote  to  gellay,  and  the  poets  of  the  Pleiad,  he  published  in 

him  with  the  intention  of  easing  his  troubled  mind.  ?^«5nch  a  commentary  on  the  "Amours'^  of  Ronsard 

Cardmal  Ganganelli,  later  on  Clement  XIV,  also  sent  (1553)  and  a  collection  of  Latm  verses,  the  "  Juve- 

him  a  letter  in  1748,  in  which  he  assured  him  of  his  mlia".    His  prosperity  seemed  unclouded,  when  accu- 

highest  esteem  and  respect.  sations  of  heresy  and  immorality  drove  him  from 

Muratori.  Vita  del  vropoHo  L.  A.  Muratori  CVenioe.  1756);  Paris  tO  Toulouse,  and  thence  tO  Lombardy.     At  last 

ScHBDONi,  Eiogio  di  L.  A.  Muratori  (ModenA,  1818) ;  Reina,  Vita  he  settled  at  Venice,  where  ho  tausht  for  four  vears 

di  L,  A.  Muratori  in  Anrudid' Italia,  1  (Milan.  1818);  Fabronxub.  n  »;^»;ft^                          w"«^  ""  w»u,iiii.  tur  iuur  ycara 

Vita  Italorum,  X.  8^-391;  Hietoriech-^itieehe  Blotter.  LXXIV  ^^2?^r*^Vr       ^.               •   j     /•  nir       .i     ,-*     .    i 

(1874).  353.  524;  Gat.  L.  A,  Muratori,  padre  della  etoria  italiana  To  the  Venetian  penod  Of  Muiet  S  life  belong  his 

(ABti,  1885).                                           J.  P.  EiBSCH.  editions  for  Paulus  Manutius,  of  Horace,  Terence 

(1555),  Catullus,  Tibullus,  and  Propertius  (1558),  to 
Mnratoiian  Oanon,  or  Muratorian  Fragment,  which  must  be  added  the  three  orations  '^Destudiis 
after  the  name  of  the  discoverer  and  first  editor,  litterarum"  (1555).  It  was  at  Venice  that  he  became 
L.  A.  Muratori  (in  the  ''Antiquitates  italicse ".  III.  connected  with  Lambinus.  In  1559  Muret  pub- 
Milan,  1740, 851  sq.)}  the  oldest  known  canon  or  list  ot  lished  the  first  eight  books  of  his  "  Varise  lectiones'', 
books  of  the  New  Testament.  The  MS.  containing  which  occasioned  Lambinus  to  accuse  him  of  plagiar^ 
the  canon  originally  belonp^ed  to  Bobbio  and  is  now  ism  and  brought  their  friendship  to  an  end.  With 
in  the  Bibliotheca  Ambrosiana  at  Milan  (Cod.  J  101  the  year  1559  began  the  insecure  period  of  Muret *s 
sup.).  Written  in  the  eighth  century ^t  plainly  shows  life,  when  he  devoted  himself  to  pnvate  tuition.  He 
the  uncultured  Latin  of  that  time.  The  fragment  is  next  entered  the  service  of  Ippouto  d'Este,  Cardinal 
of  the  highest  importance  for  the  history  of  the  Bib-  of  Ferrara,  in  whose  suite  he  went  to  Paris,  and  thence 
Ucal  canon.  It  was  written  in  Rome  itself  or  in  its  to  Rome,  where  he  spent  the  remainder  of  his  life 
environs  about  180-200;  probably  the  original  was  in  (1563-85)  expounding  Aristotle,  Cicero,  Plato,  Juve- 
Greek,  from  which  it  was  translated  into  Latin.  This  nal,  and  Tacitus,  and  teaching  jurisprudence.  In  1576 
Latin  text  is  preserved  solely  in  the  MS.  of  the  Am-  he  received  Holy  orders. 

brosiana.  A  few  sentences  of  the  Muratorian  Canon  are  Muret's  editions  of  Latin  authors  and  translations 

preserved  in  some  other  MSS.,  especially  in  codices  of  Plato  and  Aristotle,  while  the^  hardly  entitled  him 

of  St.  Paul's  Epistles  in  Monte  Casino.    The  canon  to  rank  with  the  great  philologists  of  his  time,  show 

consists  of  no  mere  list  of  the  Scriptures,  but  of  a  good  taste,  acumen,  and  care.    As  a  stylist,  he  was 

survey,  which  supplies  at  the  same  time  historical  and  long  esteemed  one  of  the  modem  masters  of  Latinity. 

other  information  regarding  each  book.    The  begin-  He  succeeded  in  imitating  Cicero  rather  by  a  fdict* 

ning  is  missing;  the  preserved  text  begins  with  the  last  tons  resemblance  between  his  own  temperament  and 

line  concerning  the  second  Gospel  and  the  notices,  pre-  that  of  his  model  than  by  any  painfully  laboiicMM 


MUBI                                  643  BCUBI 

search  for  Cioeronian  locutions,  and  he  felt  compelled  disastrous  conflagrations,  in  1300  and  in  1363;  wars 

to  protest  against  the  exaggerations  of  contemporary  and  riongs  checked  for  a  time  its  prosperity.    It  re- 

Qceronians.    He  himself  tells  of  an  amusing  incident,  covered  somewhat  of  its  old  life  under  Abbot  Conrad 

when  he  purposely  employed,  in  speaking  Latin,  a  II,  only  to  suffer  again  under  his  successor  George 

word  not  to  oe  found  in  Nisolius's  Ciceronian  Lexi-  Russinger  in  the  war  between  Austria  and  Switzer- 

con:  some  of  his  hearers  exclaimed  in  horror  at  the  land.    Russinger  had  taken  part  in  the  Council  of 

apparent  slip,  and  then,  when  he  showed  them  the  Constance  andhad  caught  something  of  the  reforming 

word  in  Cicero's  own  text,  were  equally  enthusiastic  spirit  of  that  assembly.    He  was  the  means  of  aggre- 

in  thdr  plaudits.    His  most  interesting  work,  "  Var  g;ating  his  conununity  to  the  newly  formed  Congre^^ 

rise  lectiones"  (1559,  1580,  1585),  contains  not  only  tion  of  Bursfeld,  the  first  serious  attempt  to  brmg 

observations  on  ancient  authors,  but  notes  of  real  about  among  the  continental  monasteries  of  northern 

value  in  relation  to  the  history  of  his  own  times.  Europe  a  sane  and  much  needed  reform  of  the  Black 

Such,  for  instance,  is  his  account  of  a  conversation  Monks  of  St.  Benedict.    It  was  owing  to  him  too  that 

with  his  patron,  tne  Cardinal  of  Ferrara,  about  St.  the  Helvetic  Confederation  took  over,  as  it  were,  the 

Pius  V,  whose  election  had  put  an  end  to  the  cardi-  old  Hapsburg  friendliness  towards  his  abbey  which, 

nal's  ambitions  (XVI,  4) .    Muret's  works  were  edited  thus  strengthened  both  in  its  inner  life  and  observance, 

by  Ruhnken  (Leyden,  4  vols.,  1789),  and  another  and  safe  under  the  protection  of  the  new  political 

edition  appeared  at  Verona  (5  vols.,  1727-30).    Be-  powers,  was  enabled  to  withstand  the  shock  of  the 

sides  the  editions  of  authors  above  mentioned,  we  are  relimous  wars  and  ecclesiastical  upheavals  which 

indebt^  to  him  for  Cicero's  Catalinian  Orations  manced  the  advent  of  the  Protestant  Reformation. 

(Paris,  1581),  the  first  book  of  his  Tusculan  Dispu-  When  the  first  fury  of  that  movement  had  abated 

tations,  his  Philippics  (Paris,  1562),  Seneca's  **Ue  Muri  was  fortunate  in  having  as  abbot  a  man  of  ro- 

providentia",  and  some  notes  on  Sallust  and  Tacitus,  markable  ability.    Dom  John  Jodoc  Singisen  elected 

Dbjob.  Mare-AfUoine  MwH  (Pa™,  1881) ;  Sandtb,  A  Hiatory  in  1596  proved  himself  a  second  founder  of  his  mon- 

^  Classical  Scholarship,  11  (Cambndge.  ^^)f^^  aatenr,  and  extending  his  care  to  the  other  Benedio- 

*  tine  houses  of  Switzerland  is  rightly  revered  as  one  of 

Mmi  (Muri-Gries),  an  abbe^  of  monks  of  the  the  foimders  of  the  Swiss  Congregation  established 

Order  of  S.  Benedict,  which  flourished  for  over  ei^t  in  1602.    Largely  throu^  his  SSorta  discipline  was 

centuries  at  Muri  near  Basle  in  Switzerland,  and  which  everywhere  restored;  monks  of  piety  and  letters  went 

is  now  established  under  Austrian  rule  at  Gries  near  forth  from  Muri  to  repeople  the  half  ruined  cloisters; 

Bozen  in  Tyrol.  by  his  wisdom  suitable  constitutions  were  drawn  up 

The  monastery  of  St.  Martin  at  Muri  in  the  Canton  for  such  communities  of  nuns  as  had  survived  so  many 
of  Aargau,  in  the  Diocese  of  Basle  (but  originallv  in  revolutions.  His  successor  Dom  Dominic  Tschucu 
that  of  Constance),  was  founded  in  1027  by  the  ifius-  was  a  man  of  like  mould,  and  a  scholar  whose  works 
trious  house  of  Hapsburg.  Rha,  a  daughter  of  Fred-  were  held  in  sreat  repute.  He  was  bom  at  Baden  in 
erick,  Duke  of  Lorraine,  who  married  Rabets,  Count  1595  and  died  there  m  1654.  His  "Origo  et  genealo- 
of  Hapsburg,  and  Werner.  Bishop  of  Strasburg,  with  gia  comitum  de  Hapsburg"  is  his  best  known  work, 
one  accord  gave  the  lands,  which  each  possessed  at  With  the  eid^teenth  centurv  fresh  honours  came  to 
Muri,  to  a  monaster/  which  they  established  in  that  Muri.  The  Emperor  Leopold  I  created  Abbot  Placid 
place.  To  people  the  new  foundation  a  colony  of  Zurlauben  and  nis  successors  ^nces  of  the  Holy 
monks  was  drawn  from  the  Abbey  of  St.  Meinrad  at  Roman  Empire,  and  8F>ent  a  vast  sum  of  money  in  re- 
Einsicdcln,  under  the  leadership  of  Prior  Reginbold,  building  and  embellishing  the  monastery  and  church, 
on  whose  death  in  1055  the  first  abbot  was  chosen  in  the  ancient  mausoleum  of  the  imperial  family.  The 
the  person  of  Burchard.  During  his  rule  the  abbey  abbey  continued  to  prosper  in  every  wav;  good  disci- 
church  was  consecrated  in  1064;  it  was  for  many  pime  was  kept  up  and  many  distinguished  ecclesias- 
years  the  burial  place  of  the  Hapsburg  dvnasty.  tics  and  learned  men  were  educated  within  its  walls. 
About  this  time  the  community  was  reinforced  by  the  With  the  spread  of  revolutionary  ideas,  however,  a 
accession  of  a  new  colony  of  monks  from  the  Abbey  of  great  and  disastrous  change  was  impending.  Some  of 
St.  Blaise  in  the  Black  Forest,  one  of  whom,  the  the  Swiss  Cantons,  Aargau  among  tnem,  following  the 
blessed  Luitfrid.  continued  the  government  ol  both  melancholy  example  of  the  revolutionary  party  which 
communities  till  his  holy  death  31  December,  1096.  had  wrecked  religion  in  France,  turned  all  their  ener- 
During  the  Middle  A^es  the  monasterv,  like  so  many  g;ies  to  the  overthrow  of  the  monasteries,  the  confiscar 
hundreds  of  similar  institutions  of  the  Benedictine  tion  of  their  estates,  and  the  elimination  of  Catholic 
Order,  pursued  its  quiet  work  of  religion  and  civilizar  influence  from  civil  hfe.  They  were  only  too  succes»- 
tion,  and  enjoyed  the  advantage  of  being  governed  by  f ul.  Muri  after  a  long  series  of  attacks  was  obliged  to 
a  remarkable  succesnon  of  able  men.  Among  the  succumb.  Its  abbot,  an  old  man.  had  withdrawn  to 
names  of  its  more  distinguished  abbots  are  those  of  the  monastery  of  Engelberg,  more  ravourabl^r  situated, 
Ranzelin;  Cuno.  founder  of  its  school,  and  a  generous  and  there  died  on  5  November.  1838,  leaving  to  his 
benefactor  to  tne  library  of  the  monastery;  Henry  successor,  D.  Adalbert  Regli,  tne  brunt  of  the  final 
Scheuk  who  greatly  increased  its  landed  property;  conflict.  The  crisis  came  when  on  a  winter's  day  in 
and  Henry  de  Schoenwerd.  The  history  of  the  last  1841  an  armed  force  drove  the  monks  into  exile  and 
named  presents  a  curious  instance,  almost  without  the  cantonal  authorities  seized  the  abbey  and  its  es- 

Earallel,  of  a  whole  family  embracing  the  religious  tates.    Despite  this  violent  expulsion  the  community 

fe.    The  father  with  his  sons  entered  the  abbey  of  never  wholly  disbanded:  the  abbot  and  some  of  the 

the  monks,  whilst  his  wife  and  daughters  betook  them-  monks  held  together  ana  soon  found  a  welcome  from 

selves  to  the  adjoining  convent  of  nuns,  a  community  the  Catholic  Canton  of  Unterwalden,  which  invited 

which  later  on  was  transferred  to  Hermetschwil,  a  them  to  undertake  the  manaeement  of  the  cantonal 

mile  or  two  distant  from  Muri.    The  good  reputation  college  at  Samen.    The  kindly  offer  was  accepted, 

enjoyed  by  the  Abbey  of  Muri  procured  it  many  and  there  the  main  body  of  the  monks  resided,  the 

friends.    In  1114  the  Emperor  Henry  V  took  it  under  Lord  Abbot  himself  taking  his  share  in  the  school 

his  special  protection;  and  the  popes  on  their  side  work,  until  the  Austrian  Emperor,  Ferdinand  I,  of- 

were  not  less  solicitous  for  its  welfare;  it  would  seem,  fered  them  a  residence  at  Gries  near  Bozen  in  Tyrol,  in 

however,  that  the  use  of  pontificalia  was  not  granted  an  old  priory  of  Augustinian  Canons  of  the  Lateran 

to  the  abbots  of  Muri  until  the  time  of  Pope  Julius  which  had  been  unoccupied  since  1807.    The  Holy 

II  (1503-1513).                                              ....  ^^  concurred  in  the  grant,  and  confirmed  the  transfer 

Like  all  other  institutions  the  place  had  its  vicissi-  of  the  community  of  Muri  to  Gries  by  a  Brief  of 

tudes  of  good  and  bad  fortune.    It  was  laid  low  by  two  Gregory  XVI,  dated  16  September,  1844.    In  order 


MUBILLO 


644 


MUBILLO 


to  avoid  complications  the  house  of  Gries  was  con- 
tinued in  its  former  status  as  a  priory  and  incorporated 
with  the  Swiss  Abbey  of  Muri,  which  is  regarded  as 
temporarily  located  in  its  Austrian  dependency,  the 
Abbot  of  Muri  being  at  the  same  time  Frior  of  Gries. 
The  persecution  which  drove  the  community  from  its 
stately  home  at  Muri  seems  in  no  way  to  have  lessened 
the  numbers  and  good  works  of  the  monks;  indeed 
there  has  been  a  notable  increase  in  the  personnel  of 
the  convent  in  recent  years  and  fresh  demands  are 
ever  being  made  on  their  manifold  activities.  At 
Gries  itself,  the  centre  of  this  fraternity  of  nearly  a 
hundred  monks  (over  seventy  priests  and  clerics,  the 
rest  lay-brothers),  who  constitute  the  monastic  family 
of  St.  Martin  of  Muri,  the  monks  conduct  a  college  of 
158  boys,  and  also  a  training  college  for  schoolmasters 
attended  by  nearly  sixty  students;  while  at  Sarnen  in 
Switzerland  their  college  educates  about  two  hundred 
and  forty  boys,  and  at  the  technical  school  in  the  same 
place,  carried  on  by  the  monks,  the  classcis  number 
usually  between  seventy  and  eighty  scholars.  The 
Abbot  of  Muri  has  under  his  care  five  "incorporated'' 
parishes  with  two  chapeb  of  ease  serving  for  the  spir- 
itual needs  of  about  nine  thousand  souls;  another  par- 
ish,  not  incorporated  with  the  abbey,  ministers  to 
about  418  people;  and  the  oversi?;ht  of  the  convent 
long  established  at  Hcrmetschwil-IIabsthal  near 
Muri  is  also  included  in  the  work  of  the  monks  of 
Muri-Gries. 

Album  Benedxt^inum  (St.  Vincent's,  Pennsylvania,  18S0);  SS. 
Patriarcha  Benedicti  familu;  confaderat*£  (Rome,  Vutican  Press. 
1905). 

John  Gilbert  Dolan. 

Murillo,  Bartolom£  Esteban,  Spanish  painter; 
b.  at  Seville.  31  December,  1617;  d.  there  5  April, 
1682.  His  lamily  surname  was  Esteban;  that  of 
Murillo,  which  he  assumed  in  accordance  with  an  An- 
dalusian  custom,  was  his  mother's.  His  father  was  an 
artisan.  An  orphan  at  the  age  of  ten,  Bartolom6  was 
brought  up  by  his  uncle,  J.  A.  Lagards,  a  barber.  He 
became  the  pupil,  probably  while  still  very  young,  of 
Juan  del  Castillo,  a  mediocre  painter,  but  good 
teacher,  whose  atelier  was  at  that  time  much  fro-, 
quented.  It  is  said  that,  to  gain  a  living,  the  young 
man  in  those  days  made  sargas — cheap  paintings  on 
rough  canvas  sold  at  country  fcrias  (fairs),  and 
shipped  to  America  by  traders.  The  Museum  of  Ca- 
diz claims,  but  without  proof,  that  one  of  these  Mu- 
rillo sargas  h  in  its  possession.  In  1640  Castillo  went 
to  live  at  Cadiz.  In  the  meantime,  Moya,  having 
just  arrived  from  England,  where  he  had  been  Van 
byck's  pup!l,  showed  Murillo,  who  was  an  old  friend 
of  his,  the  cartoons,  drawings,  copies,  and  engravings 
he  had  brought  with  him.  Murillo  set  out  on  a  jour- 
ney to  study  the  great  masters,  but  went  no  farther 
than  Madrid.  Velasquez,  the  king's  painter  and  the 
friend  of  Olivares,  was  himself  a  native  of  Seville;  he 
welcomed  his  young  compatriot  and  gave  him  the  en- 
tree to  all  the  royal  galleries,  where  Alurillo  saw  the 
masterpieces  of  I'itian,  Veronese,  Tintoretto,  and  Ru- 
bens, not  to  mention  Velasquez  himself.  lie  spent 
three  years  here,  and  this  was  all  his  travel.  He  ro- 
turnea  to  Seville  in  1644.  After  this  he  left  Seville 
but  once,  in  1681,  when  he  went  to  Cadiz  to  paint  an 
altar  for  the  Capuchins  whirh  he  never  had  the  time  to 
finish.  A  fall  from  his  scaffolding  or  else  a  serious  ill- 
ness— accounts  differ — forced  hhu  to  let  himself  be 
taken  back,  hurriedly,  to  Seville,  where  he  died  after  a 
brief  period  of  suffering. 

His  was  a  very  pure  life,  and  perfectly  happy,  all 
spent  within  that  one  Sevillian  horizon  which  the  art- 
ist never  wished  to  change  for  any  other.  His  paint- 
ings in  the  porteria  of  the  Minims  made  a  celebrity  of 
him  at  the  age  of  twenty-eight  (1646).  From  that 
time  he  devoted  himself  to  work  on  a  large  scale  for 
the  convents  of  his  native  Seville,  work  which,  in  some 
respects,  recalls  the  Giottesque  paintings  of  the  four- 


MUBZUO 

Paintiiig  by  himself — ^EnsraTinsbr 
CaUunmtta 


teenth  century.  In  contrast  with  Velasgues  and  the 
Madrid  school,  Murillo  is  wholly  a  religious  painter. 
With  the  exception  of  a  few  portraits  and  some  genre 
pieces,  not  one  profane  picture  of  his  is  known  to  ex- 
ist. The  product  of  his  life's  work  is  summed  up  in 
the  great  cycles  of  Santa  Maria  la  Blanca  (1665),  of 
the  Caridad  Hospital  (1670-74).  of  the  Capuchins 
(1676),  of  the  Venerables  Sacerdotes  (1678),  of  the 
Augustinians  (1680),  and,  lastly,  of  the  Cadis  Capu- 
chins, together  with  a  large  number  of  pictures  made 
at  different  times  for  the  cathedral  of  Seville  or  other 
churches  and  many  devotional  works  for  private  in- 
dividuals. Murillo 
was  the  national 
painter  of  a  coun- 
try where  all  sen- 
timent waa  still 
merged  in  the  one 
sentiment  of  re- 
ligion. The  critics 
have  distin- 
guished three  pe- 
riods, or  manners, 
in  his  work:  the 
cold,  the  hot,  and 
the  "vaporous". 
Ihe  classification 
is  foolish  and 
pedantic.  It  is 
enough  to  look  at 
his  "Angels'  Kit- 
chen" (1646),  his 
"  Birth  of  the  Vir- 
gin" (1655),  and 
his  "Holy  Family"  (1670),  all  in  the  Louvre:  here  we 
can  see  nothing  but  the  natural  evolution  of  a  talent 
which  from  first  to  last  pursued  but  one  ideal^tfae 
poetical  transfiguration  of  facts  and  ideas. 

This  ideal  is  alreadv  fully  perceotible  in  the  first  of 
the  examples  cited,  or  in  the  "Death  of  St.  Clare" 
(Dresden  Museum),  which^so  belongs  to  the  porleria 
series.  In  the  "Angels'  Kitchen",  as  in  manv  others 
of  his  paintings,  the  artist's  problem  is  to  combine  the 
supernatural  with  the  real  and  familiar.  Here  we 
have  a  holy  Franciscan  in  ecstasy,  lifted  from  thr 
ground,  while  angels  with  shining  wings  attend  to  the 
service  of  the  refectory  and  wash  the  pans;  and  la£tly. 
some  spectators  are  peeping  through  a  half-open  door. 
The  whole  scene  is  displayed  with  admirable  cleames.^, 
without  a  suggestion  of  hiatus  between  the  three  part^ 
which  are  so  diverse  in  character. 

From  this  period  date  those  few  genre  painting^ 
which  may   oe  regarded  as  exceptional   works  oi 
Murillo,  the  most  famous  example  being  the  "Pou- 
illcux"  of  the  Louvre.     Like  every  great  Spani£>h 
painter,  Murillo  is  a  realist,  and  ^oes  as  far  as  anyone 
in  the  pathetic  painting  of  suffennff.     But  he  reiuses 
to  paint  these  horrors  with  the  frightful  dilettantism, 
the  cold,  cruel  detachment,  of  other  Spanish  artiste. 
For  him,  pain  and  misery  are  objects  of  pity,  not  of 
curiosity  or  pleasure.    Alone  of  the  great  painters  of 
his  race,  his  genius  is  tender,  affectionate.     Murillo's 
realism,  however  exact  and  sound,  is  never  altogether 
impersonal  or  objective.    In  spite  of  himself,  he  com- 
municates, together  with  the  record  of  the  reality,  the 
emotions  which  it  produces  in  himself;  he  does  not 
alter  its  form,  but  he  adds  to  it  something  of  his  own. 
In  Spain,  the  classic  land  of  brutal  observation,  of  the 
"slice  taken  from  fife"  served  up  raw  and  bleeding. 
Murillo  invents,   combines,   achieves  compositions. 
He  has  an  imagination,  and  he  does  not  make  a  point 
of  honour  of  ignoring  it.    With  more  than  average 
gifts  for  portraiture — as  witness  his  portrait  of  Padn^ 
Cabanillas,  at  Madrid,  or  the  admirable  figure  in  the 
Museum  of  the  Hispanic  Society  in  New  York — ho 
made  very  few  portraits.    On  the  other  hand,  he  has 
the  gift  and  the  instinct  for  story-telling.    The  Italia.'* 


bartolomE  esteban  murillo 


MADONNA  AND  CHILD 


mubhsb 


645 


neDBe  of  fine  arrangement,  of  a  happy  symmetry  and 
harmonioufl  balance  of  grouping,  as  m  his  Holy  Fami- 
lies, in  the  Louvre^  is  a  quality  which  he  alone  seems 
to  have  possessed  m  his  age. 


Murillo  was  a  great  painter  of  sentiment.  Like 
Rembrandt,  he  understood  that  the  true  lan^age  of 
the  Gos]3el  was  the  language  of  the  people.  Like  him, 
he  especially  delighted  in  the  merciful  and  tender  as- 
pects of  the  Gospel.  Nothing  can  be  more  touch- 
mg  than  the  ''Prodigal  Son"  of  the  Hermitage — ^not 
even  Rembrandt's  treatment  of  that  subject— or  his 
sketches  on  the  same  parable  in  the  Prado.  Like 
Rembrandt,  he  loves  to  bring  the  sacred  truths  near  to 
us,  to  make  us  see  them  aa  intimate  and  familiar  real- 
ities, to  show  us  the  Divine  all  about  us  in  our  lives. 
Munllo,  no  doubt,  has  the  defects  of  these  Qualities. 
He  never  suffered  enough.  His  optimism,  nis  bon- 
homie, his  grace,  lack  the  seriousness  that  trials  should 
have  imparted.  His  serene  smile  lacks  that  intangi- 
ble qu^ty  of  having  been  through  sorrow.  Failing 
this  experience,  the  soul  tends  somewhat  to  levity 
and  to  preciosity. 

His  pre-eminence  as,  superlatively,  the  painter  of 
the  Immaculate  Conception  seems  to  have  oeen  fore- 
shadowed in  the  circumstances  of  his  birth.  At  Se- 
ville, in  1617,  the  dogma  of  the  Immaculate  Concep- 
tion was  solemnly  promulgated  for  Spain;  and  this 
splendid  celebration  took  place  in  Murillo's  native 
aty  only  a  few  months  before  his  birth.  The  pictorial 
treatment  of  the  subject  had  long  been  determined,  in 
its  main  outlines,  by  a  vision  said  to  have  been  vouch- 
safed to  a  Franciscan  of  the  sixteenth  century,  and  a 
hundred  examples  of  it  are  found  among  earlier  paint- 
ers. The  mere  theological  dogma  of  the  Immaculate 
Conception — exemption  from  the  original  taint — 
necessarily  eluded  all  material  representation:  the 
eauivalent  chosen  was  the  theme  of  the  Assumption. 
Tne  body  is  seen  exempt  from  all  the  laws  of  gravita- 
tion. Murillo  has  treated  this  theme  more  than 
twenty  times,  without  repeating  himself  or  ever  weary- 
ing: SIX  versions  at  Madrid,  six  others  at  Seville,  the 
famous  Louvre  picture  (dated  1678),  and  still  others 
scattered  over  Europe — all  these  did  not  exhaust  the 
painter's  enthusiasm  or  his  power  of  expressing  apoth- 
eosis. 

It  is  a  remarkable  fact  that  these  pictures,  which 
represent  the  most  transcendently  spiritual  action, 
are  the  most  thoroughly  feminine  paintings  in  Spain. 
But  for  religious  representations  of  the  Blessed  Virgin 
and  the  saints,  indeed,  woman  is  almost  absent  from 
Spanish  painting.  The  most  famous  portraits  of 
women,  the  infaniaa  or  meninas  of  Velasquez,  retain 
nothing  of  feminine  charm:  they  are  svmdacra  and 
phantoms  without  verisimilitude.  Side  by  side  with 
thene  apparitions,  Murillo's  Virgins  produce  a  com- 
forting effect  of  relief.  Here  are  women,  true  and  vital, 
with  the  most  thoroughly  external  charms  of  their  sex. 
In  them  the  impulse  of  love  rises  to  ecstasy,  and  with- 
out Murillo  Spanish  painting  would  be  deprived  of  its 
most  beautiful  love  poems.  Many  persons,  it  is  true, 
see  in  this  style  of  painting  the  symptoms  of  decadence 
in  Spanish  reUgious  sentiment.  This  question  of  the 
soundness  or  unsoundness  of  his  devotional  tendencies 
cannot  be  treated  here,  but  it  may  at  least  be  claimed 
for  Murillo  that  his  art — notably  in  these  Immaculate 
Conceptions — ^is  no  less  genuinely  religious  than  the 
dry  productions  of,  say,  a  Philippe  de  Champaigne. 

Palomiko,  Notieiat^  Elogioa  y  Vidat  de  loa  Pintorea  (Madrid, 
1715-24) ;  Cban  Bebmudez.  Diccionario  histdrico  de  loe  mde  ilxu' 
tree  profeeoree  (Madrid,  1800) ;  Viardot,  Notices  sur  les  principaux 
neintree  de  VEepoffne  (Paris.  1839);  Passayant,  Die  chrietliehe 
KttnM  in  Spanien  (Leipzig,  1853) ;  Tubino,  Murillo,  »u  Spoca,  «u 
t4da,  8tu  euadroa  (Seville,  1864) ;  Cubtis,  Velasquez  and  Murillo 
(London,  1883);  Jubtx,  Muriuo  (Leipcuc,  1892);  Knackfuss, 
Murilio  (Leipzig,  1897) ;  Calvaert,  Murillo  (London,  1908). 

Louis  GiLLBT. 

Murner,  Thomas,  greatest  German  satirist  of  the 
azteenth  century,  b.  at  Obcrehnheim,  Alsace,  24  Dec, 


1475;  d.  there,  1537.  Durine  the  epoch  immediately 
preceding  and  during  the  early  years  of  the  Ref ormar 
tion,  three  fipures  are  especially  prominent  among  the 
loyal  champions  of  the  Church  m  Germany,  namely 
Johann  Geuer  von  Kaysersberg,  his  friend  Sebastian, 
the  well-known  satirist,  and  Thomas  Mumer,  the 
ablest  and  most  formidable  of  Luther's  opponents. 
In  1481  Mumer's  parents,  pious  people  in  comfortable 
circumstances,  settled  in  Strasburg,  where  his  father 
practised  as  an  advocate.  Thomas,  who  was  of  deli- 
cate health,  entered  the  Franciscan  Order  at  the  age  of 
sixteen.  After  his  ordination,  he  began  his  restless 
and  unsettled  life,  visiting  the  most  celebrated  univer- 
sities either  as  a  student  or  as  a  teacher.  He  studied 
theology  at  Paris,  philosophy  and  mathematics  at 
Cracow,  and  law  at  Freiburg,  where  he  was  awarded 
the  degree  of  Bachelor  of  Theology  in  1500.  Six  years 
later,  when  again  at  Freiburg,  he  was  made  Doctor  of 
Theolo^.  In  1518  he  graduated  Doctor  of  Laws  at 
Basle.  His  impulse  towards  a  roving  life  was  due,  not 
only  to  his  love  of  learning,  but  also  to  his  mission  as  a 
preacher  and  his  zeal  for  the  interests  of  his  order. 
From  1519  he  took  part  in  the  controversies  which 
began  with  the  appearance  of  Luther  as  a  refonner. 
In  1523  he  went  to  England  and  was  cordially  received 
by  Henry  VIII,  whose  book  on  the  sacraments  he  had 
translated  into  German  the  previous  year.  On  his 
return  to  Strasburg,  he  found  himself  compelled  to  fly 
before  the  rebellious  peasants  and  seek  rcluge  at  Lu- 
cerne. Here  he  became  the  most  determined  adver- 
sary of  Zwingli.  Together  with  Dr.  Eck,  he  took  part 
in  the  religious  discussion  at  Baden  in  1526.  When 
Lucerne  was  taken  in  the  first  War  of  Kappel  (1529), 
Mumer  waa  to  have  been  given  up.  He  managed, 
however,  to  escape,  and,  after  many  wanderings,  was 
appointed  pastor  in  his  birth-place,  where  he  spent 
tne  rest  of  his  days. 

As  an  author,  Mumer  was  at  first  an  enthusiastic 
friend  of  Humanism.  In  Cracow  he  lectured  on  liter- 
ary ffisthetics.  and  in  Freiburg  on  Veipl,  whose 
"Aneid"  he  nad  translated.  In  token  of  gratitude 
for  his  appointment  as  poet-laureate  in  1505,  he  dedi- 
cated this  translation  to  Emperor  Maximilian.  In  his 
"Ludus  studentum  Friburgensium"  (1511),  Mumer 
explains  the  rules  of  prosody  and  quantity  after  the 
fashion  of  a  game  of  chess  and  backgammon.  This 
method  he  had  already  employed  four  years  before  at 
Cracow  in  his  ''Chartiludium  fogicee'',  but  his  applica- 
tion of  it  to  jurisprudence  provoked  the  derision  of  the 
lawyers.  His  sympathy  with  Humanism  did  nol^save 
him  from  the  resentment  of  the  Alsacian  Humanists, 
when  he  attacked  Wimpfeling's  "Germania",  which 
aimed  at  proving  that  Alsace  had  never  belonged  to 
France.  Mumer's  defence  of  his  position,  the  "Ger- 
mania  nova'',  was  suppressed  by  the  Strasburg  au- 
thorities: a  further  attempt  at  justifying  himself 
against  the  attacks  of  the  partisans  of  Wimpf eling  also 
proved  unsuccessful,  and  cud  not  prevent  his  opponents 
from  distorting  his  name  into  Mumar  (growhng  fool). 
Even,  in  this  early  controversy,  Mumer  had  shown  a 
sharp  eye  for  his  opponents'  weaknesses,  and  a  marked 
gift  for  exposing  them  to  ridicule:  in  his  subsequent 
writings,  he  is  revealed  as  a  master  of  satire.  Just  as 
Geiler  illustrated  his  popular  sermons  with  compari- 
sons drawn  from  everyday  life,  Mumer  compares,  in 
his  "  Andachtige  geisthche  Badefahrt"  (1511),  the  tor* 
giveness  of  sins  to  a  hydropathic  treatment.  In  **  Nar- 
renbeschworung"  and  "Schelmenzunft"  he  deals  with 
the  same  subject  as  Brant's  '^Narrenschiff",  but  his 
work  is  entirely  original  in  treatment  and  far  surpasses 
the  earlier  work  in  its  popular  appeal,  its  wit,  and  its 
vigoui^— degenerating,  indeed,  at  times  into  coarse- 
ness. His  subsequent  satires,  "Gauchmatt"  (Fools' 
Meadow)  and  "Die  Miihle  von  Schwindelsheim  und 
Gretmiillerin  Jahrzeit",  in  which  he  severely  criticizes 
a  special  kind  of  fools,  the  *' fools  of  love",  form  a 
kind  of  sequel  to  the  "Schelmenzunft".    There  is  no 


ICUBO-LUCANO 


646 


ISUBBAT 


station,  either  clerical  or  lay,  that  b  spared  from 
his  castigation. 

The  appearance  of  Luther  diverted  Mumer's  satire 
mto  a  new  course.  Regarding  the  Wittenberg  monk 
at  first  as  a  well-intentioned  ally  in  the  battle  against 
the  evils  afflicting  the  Church,  Mumer  addressed  to 
him  in  1520  an  appeal  entitled  "Christliche  imd  brd- 
derliche  Ennahnimg  an  den  hochgelehrten  Doctor 
Martin  Luther *',  which  was  followed  by  other  pam- 
phlets refuting  and  warning  him  and  beseeching  hmi  to 
abandon  his  ruinous  undertaking.  In  his  **  Neues  Lied 
vom  Untergang  des  christlichen  Glaubens"  (1521), 
Mumer  gives  feeUng  expression  to  his  sorrow  over  the 
destructive  tendencies  of  the  reUgious  innovation. 
But,  when  the  sole  efifect  of  his  attempts  at  concilisr 
tion  was  to  bring  upon  him  a  shower  of  lies  and  calum- 
nies, Mumer  dealt  Luther  a  crushing  blow  in  his  work, 
''Von  dem  grossen  Lutherischen  Narren  wie  ihn  Doc- 
tor Mumer  beschworen  hat".  Here  Mumer  rises  to 
heights  of  satire  elsewhere  imattained  during  this 
whole  epoch.  All  the  reformatory  endeavours  are 
embodied  in  the  '* Great  Fool",  and  the  newly- 
founded  church  is  treated  allegorically  as  Luthers 
daughter  Adelheid,  who  ''has  a  shocking  scald-head." 
Mumer  wrote  many  other  satires  against  the  reform- 
ers, but  none  which  in  energy  and  wit  equals  this 
work.  This  work,  so  full  of  fight  and  honest  zeal  for 
the  old  Faith,  was  subjected  to  much  calumny  and 
derision  during  his  lifetime,  but  was  never  vanquished 
in  controversv.  Later  generations  did  him  justice. 
Lessing  intended  to  write  a  "defence"  of  Mumer,  and 
literary  historiographers  (especially  Kurtz,  Vihnar, 
and  Gddeke)  have  recognized  his  great  importance  in 
the  history  of  literature.  Critics  have  pointed  out  in 
his  works  a  peculiar  and  original  metrical  and  rhyth- 
mical system,  which  distinguished  him  from  all  poets 
of  his  time.  His  writings  show  that  he  possessea  in  a 
conspicuous  degree  the  culture  of  his  age.  No  doubt 
is  entertained  to-da^  of  the  purity  of  nis  intentions 
and  the  probity  of  his  character. 

GoDEKB,  Grundriu  (2nd  ed.,  1884-1904).  II,  2ll!k20,  mentions 
all  Murner's  (59)  works.  Recently  edited  are:  Schelmeruunft  by 
Matthias;  GiuchnuUt  by  Ubl;  NarrenbeschtoOrung  by  Spanieb. 
Consult  Popp.  Die  Metnk  u.  Rhvihmik  M.'»  (1898);  Ott.  UAer 
Jlii.'t  VerhaUniatuGeiler  {AUemaniat23),  Mumer  is,  of  course, 
not  forgotten  in  the  numerous  Protestant  writinss  on  the  Refop- 
mation,  which  generally  criticise  him  severely.  Among  recent 
Catholic  writings  of  Janssen-Pastob,  Oeach,  de»  deiuUcfun  Vbttea, 
VI  (15th  ed.,  1901);  Saueb,  lUuttrierU  Geeeh.  dm-  deuUehen  Lit, 
(in  course  of  publication),  pp.  520-24. 

N.  SCHEID. 

Moro-Lncano,  Diocese  of  (Muranensib),  in  the 
province  of  Potenza,  in  Basilicata,  southern  Italy.  The 
town  is  situated  on  the  site  of  the  ancient  Numistri,  at 
the  foot  of  the  Apennines,  the  scene  of  a  battle  be- 
tween Hannibal  and  Marcellus  in  the  second  Punic 
war.  The  town  has  a  beautiful  cathedral;  and  it  was 
in  its  castle  that  Queen  Joan  of  Naples  was  killed  by 
order  of  her  adopted  son  Carlo  of  Durazzo.  The  first 
Bishop  of  Muro  of  whom  there  is  mention  was  Leo 
(1049).  Its  bishop  Antonio  (1376)  became  a  partisan 
of  the  antipope  Clement  VII;  he  was  therefore  driven 
by  Carlo  of  Durazzo  to  seek  refuge  at  Polsino,  where- 
upon Clement  VII  suppressed  the  Diocese  of  Muro. 
In  1418,  however,  Guiduccio  de  Porta  was  appointed 
to  this  see;  he  was  a  virtuous  man,  and  learned  m  civil, 
as  well  as  in  canon  law;  among  his  successors  were 
Flavio  Orsini  (1560),  who  became  a  cardinal;  the  poet 
Gian  Carlo  (Doppola  (1643),  who  later  became  Bishop 
of  Gallipoli,  his  native  town;  Alfonso  Pacello  (1674), 
founder  of  a  congregation  of  priests  for  the  care  of  the 
sick  of  the  diocese.  The  see  is  suffragan  of  Conza:  it 
has  12  parishes,  with  40,280  inhabitants,  100  secular 
priests,  2  religious  houses  of  women,  and  an  educi^ 
tional  establishment  for  girls. 

Cappbllxtti,  Le  Chieae  tVItalia,  XX  (Venice,  1857). 

U.  Benigni. 

Murray,  Daniel,  Archbishop  of  Dublin,  b.  1768, 
at  Sheepwalk,  near  Arklow,  Ireland;  d.  1852  at  Dub- 


lin. He  was  educated  at  Dr.  Beta^'s  school  in  Dublin 
and  at  Salamanca  and  ordained  priest  in  1790.  After 
some  years  as  curate  in  Dublin  ne  was  transferred  to 
Arklow,  and  was  there  in  1798  when  the  rebellion 
broke  out.  The  soldiers  shot  the  parish  priest  in  bed, 
and  Murray,  to  escape  a  similar  fate,  fled  to  the  city, 
where  for  several  years  after  he  ministered  as  curate. 
In  1809  at  the  request  of  Archbishop  Troy  he  was  ap- 
pointed ooadjuto^bishop^  and  in  1823.  on  Dr.  Troy's 
death,  he  became  Archbishop  of  Dublin.  While  co- 
adjutor he  had  filled  for  one  year  the  position  of  presi- 
dent of  Maynooth  College.  Dr.  Murray  was  an  un- 
compromising opponent  of  the  "veto"  and  a  strong 
supporter  of  the  Catholic  Association.  On  other 
questions  he  was  less  advanced,  and  was  in  such  far 
vour  at  Dublin  Castle  that  he  was  once  offered  a  seat 
on  the  Privy  Council,  which  he  declined.  He  sup- 
ported Stanley's  National  Education  scheme  and  was 
among  the  first  Education  Comnussioners;  he  also 
wished  to  tolerate  the  Queen's  Colleges,  in  opposition 
to  the  views  of  Archbishop  MacHale.  He  had  no 
hesitation,  however,  in  accepting  the  adverse  decision 
of  Rome,  and  was  ^present  at  the  Synod  of  Thurles 
where  the  Queen's  Colleges  were  fonnally  condemned. 
He  was  a  charitable,  kindly  man,  respected  even  by 
his  opponents. 

D' Alton,  ArehbiBkov  of  Dublin  (Dublin,  1838);  Hbalt,  Cenr 
Unary  History  of  Maynooth  CoUeff  (Dublin,  1895);  Mbaoheb, 
Life  of  Archbxthop  Murray  (Dublm.  1853) ;  Ftrpatiuck.  Life  o) 
Dr.  Doyle  (Dublin,  1880);  O'Rhllt.  Life  of  AreMnehop  MacHaU 
(New  York.  1890).  g.  A.  D'AltoN. 

Murray,  Jambs  D.  See  Cooktown,  Vicariate 
Apostolic  of. 

Murray,  Patrick,  theologian,  b.  in  Clones,  County 
Mona^an,  Ireland,  18  November,  1811;  d.  15  Nov., 
1882,  m  Maynooth  College.  He  received  his  early 
education  in  his  native  town  of  Clones,  entered  Mav- 
nooth  College  25  August,  1829^  the  year  of  Cath- 
olic emancipation,  among  the  nrst  class  of  emanci- 
pated entrants,  went  through  tiie  ordinary  course  with 
preat  distinction  and  was  elected  a  Dunboyne,  or  sen- 
ior student  in  June,  1835.  Towards  the  end  of  the 
Dunbosme  course  he  accepted  a  curacy  in  Francis 
Street,  Dublin,  where  in  a  short  time  he  acquired  the 
reputation  of  a  zealous  worker  and  an  eloquent 
preacher.  He  was  appointed  professor  of  Rngliyh  and 
French  in  Maynooth,  on  7  Sept..  1838,  after  tiie  usual 
ooncursus^  or  examination,  ana  after  three  vears  in 
this  i>osition  he  was  appointed  professor  of  tneology, 
after  another  brilliant  concursus,  on  27  Ausust,  1841. 
The  remainder  of  his  life  he  devoted  mainfy  to  theo- 
logical science.  In  1879  he  was  appointed  pnofect  of 
the  Dunboyne  Establishment,  which  position  he  re- 
tained until  his  death  in  1882.  His  princiiMJ  works 
are:  ''Essays.  Chiefly  Theological"  (4  vols.,  Dublin, 
1850-53);  '^De  Ecclesia  Chi^i"  (3  vols.,  Dublin, 
1860-62-66);  "  De  Ecclesia  Christi",  compendium 
(DubUn,  1874);  "De  Gratia"  (Dubhn,  1877);  "De 
Veneratione  et  Invocatione  Sanctorum",  etc.;  "De 
Impedimentis  MatrimonI  Dirimentibus  (Dublin, 
1881);  "Prose  and  Verse"  (Dublin,  1867);  "Lectura 
(on  Moore's  poetry)  before  Cork  Young  Ma:i's  So- 
ciety" (Ck)rk,  1856). 

Dr.  Murray  was  a  man  of  hi|^  intellectual  power, 
of  big  projects,  and  of  great  activity  and  perseverance. 
He  would  certainly  have  risen  to  great  eminence  in  the 
world  of  literature,  had  he  remained  professor  of  Eng- 
lish, as  he  was  possessed  of  literary  and  poetic  gifts 
of  a  high  order.  But  he  chose  the  domain  of  theology. 
He  wrote  for  the  Dublin  Review  and  for  mag^nAR, 
In  1850  he  announced  his  intention  of  publishing  a 
series  of  volumes  on  subjects  chiefly  theolo^cal,  to 
supply  the  Catholic  Isity  with  exact  and  reliable  in- 
formation on  the  debated  religious  questions  of  the 
day.  He  published  four  volumes  under  the  title: 
"Essays,  Chiefly  Theological".  But  though  he  in- 
tended at  the  beginning  to  extend  the  woric  to  seven  or 


1CUSEUM8                              647  MUSH 

eight  volumes,  he  discontinued  the  Essays  after  the  portant  collections  of  Christian  antiquities  are  less 

fourth  volume^to  devote  himself  to  the  great  work  of  numerous,  although  those  of  Cairo,  Alexandria,  Ath« 

his  life,  his  "De  Ecclesia  Christi".    This  work  in-  ens,  of  St.  Louis  ofCarthage  (the  Lavigerie  Museum), 

volved  immense  labour.    It  is  a  work  of  gr^t  learn-  of  Aries,  Autun,  Trier,  etc.  deserve  mention.    The 

ing,  a  masterpiece  in  positive  and  controversial  theol-  museimis  of  the  great  capitals,  London,  Paris,  Berlin, 

ogy,  which  at  once  placed  its  author  in  the  front  etc.,  and  the  treasuries  of  some  churches,  e.  g.,  the 

rank  of  dogmatic  theologians.  While  not  neglecting  cathedral  of  Sens,  have  ivories  and  various  woven  stuffs 

the  views  of  the  continental  reformers,  the  author  dating  from  the  early  Christian  epoch.    Such  woven 

made  a  special  study  of  the  works  of  all  the  leading  An-  stuffs,  principally  of  Coptic  origin,  and  very  ancient, 

glican  divines;  and  hence  his  work  became  the  stiemd-  have  lately  oeen  introduced  into  many  collections, 

ard  authority  for  the  exposition  and  refutation  of  the  Church  treasuries,  especially  the  richer  ones  of  some 

then   current   Anglican   views   about   the   Church.  German  churches  (cathedrals  of  Cologne,  Trier,  Hil- 

Though  writing  in  1860,  ten  years  before  the  Vatican  desheim,  Bamberg  and  the  abbatial  church  of  Essen, 

definition,  the  author  with  ^preat  power  establishes  etc.).  are  noted  for  their  medieval  relics  and  may  pass 

the  doctrine  of  papal  infallibihty.    The  treatise,  "De  for  tnc  oldest  Christian  musetuns. 

Gratia'',  excellent  in  itself,  was  intended  as  a  text-  In  addition  to  the  large  museums  of  all  coimtries, 

book  for  students;  as  was  also  the  less  perfect  work,  many  museums  of  industrial  art,  provincial  museums, 

''De  Veneratione  et  Invocatione  Sanctorum".    Dr.  private  collections  and  archaeological  societies,  also 

Murray  was  ever  kind  and  considerate  for  his  stu-  episcopal  museums,  e.  g.,  the  rich  ones  of  Cologne  and 

dents,  by  whom  he  was  always  respected  and  loved.  Utrecht,  contain  many  valuable  and  ancient  Christian 

He  was  of  a  retiring  disposition,  of  a  deeply  religious  relics  of  an  artistic  kind.    As  a  Christian  museum  of 

nature,  and  of  great  saintliness  of  life.  the  Middle  Ages,  the  Schntitgen  collection  at  Cologne 

HsALT,  Maynooth  CoUege;  lu  Centenary  Hitiory,  1795-1  SOS  deserves  special  notice.    It  Contains  many  religious 

(Dublin,  1896).                               Danibl  CoQEnLAN.  objects,  chalices,    crosses,   ecclesiastical  vestments, 

etc.,  and  offers  a  better  opportunity  than  any  other 

Museoma,  Christian. — ^Though  applicable  to  col-  collection  for  studying  the  changing  forms  of  these 

lections  composed  of  Christian  objects  representative  objects  from  age  to  age.  A  word  is  due  to  the  museums 

of  all  epocbks,  this  term  is  usually  reserved  to  those  of  copies  or  reproductions  annexed  to  certain  institu- 

museums  which  abound  chiefly  in  Christian  objects  tions  of  higher  education.    The  most  remarkable 

antedating  the  Middle  Ages,  namely,  sarcophagi,  in-  Christian  museum  of  this  kind  is  that  of  the  Univer- 

scriptions  and  products  of  the  minor  arts.    These  ob*  sity  of  Berlin,  founded  1849-1855  bv  Ferdinand  Piper, 

jects,  as  also  tnose  peculiar  to  the  Middle  Ages,  are  Although  largely  representative  of  the  Middle  Ages, 

found  in  a  laifie  number  of  museums,  but  not  many  of  it  is  unparalleled  for  its  facsimiles  of  Christian  an- 

these  institutions  are  exclusively  or  even  primarily  de-  tiquities.    More  recently  M.  G.  Millet  founded  at  the 

voted  to  them.    The  first  collections  that  were  fonned  Ecole  des  Hautes  Etudes,  in  Paris,  a  Byzantine  mu- 

(by  humanists,  by  the  Medici  in  Florence,  etc.)  occa-  seum,  rich  in  copies  and  stereotypes  gathered  during 

sionally  included  the  earUer  types  or  works  of  medi-  the  explorations  and  study  tours  made  by  French 

oval  art,  but  more  on  account  of  their  artistic  merit  scholars.    (See  Lateran,  Christian  Museum  of; 

than  because  of  their  Christian  character.    Collec-  Vatican.) 

tions  of  inscriptions  had  been  made  from  the  time  of  ,  JK^^"*^**^- ^"'•<*«^  derehrieai^  ArduMooie  (Paderbora. 

the  Renaii»an<»,  but  Christian  inscriptions  found  no  }§g^:«^'Ja^*'^Sni.^^t:^^?t^SJ;f'^)<PrS 

place  among  them.      It  was  not  until  after  tne  OlS-  Topopraphie:    Fobreb  and  Fischer.  Adressbnch  der  Mueeen, 

COVery  of  the  Roman  catacombs  by  Antonio  Bosio  that  BiUioiheken,  SammUr  und  Antiquare  (Strasburg,  1896). 

these  inscriptions  were  visited  by  collectors  from  Rome  R*  Maerb. 
and  other  cities.    The  first  Christian  museum,  properly  ^m    x.         a         •      i-i  xi.  i.                     .  .      ^t. 
so  caUed,  was  that  of  the  Vatican,  and  its  origm  dates  Vxan,  an  Anneman  Cathohc  see,  comprising  the 
from  Beiedict  XIV,  who  ioxindedit  under  the  name  of  ??^1^  ^^  Mush  and  Seert,  in  the  ^ayet  of  Bitlis. 
"  Museum  Christianum  ".    Thanks  to  Marchi  and  de  \  ^^^SS^^-.^Y  ,^  ^^^^  ^  ^^^'  JS^t  numbers 
Roflffl,  a  part  of  the  Vatican  collections  was  taken  to  a^^*  ^(WO  faithful,  7  secular  pnests,  7  chmxihes  or 
form  the  Lateran  Museum,  founded  by  a  decree  of  f.*^P®S  6 schools,  andan estabhshment of  the  Vene- 
Pius  IX  in  1854.    For  Christian  antiquities  no  other  ^  Mechitansts.    The  chief  stations  outside  of 
museums  equal  the  latter  in  point  of  importance.  Mush  are  some  neighbouiing  viU^^^^ 
During  the  pontificate  of  Benedict  XIV  (1740-50)  a  ^an.    The  town  is  bmlt  on  a  hiU,  at  the  foot  of  a 
taste  for  Christian  antiquities  was  developed  by  other  ™*^«i  citadel  aiid  in  the  midst  of  vineya^;  below 
distinguished  men,  e.  g?,  Cardinal  Passionei  aid  Car-  ftretches  a  well-cultivated  pljon,  a.bout  fiftv  miles 
dinal   Quirini,   Bwhop  of   Brescia,   whose   diligent  lone  Inr  eighteen  mles  jnde.    The  chmatew  health 
search^  were  prolific  of  important  results.  ?f  V^®  country  tolerably  nch,  but  exposed  to  con- 
Italy  isparticularly  rich  in  valuable  coUections  of  jtant  incursions  of  the  Kurds  and  other  nomads,  who 
antique    dhristian   reUcs.    In    Rome,    besides   the  terronze  the  mhabitants,  especiaUy  the  Chns^^ 
Christian  Museums  of  the  Vatican  and  the  Lateran,  f^^^^  Vi,?^  if^^^^  J^.^"^^^ 
the  Museo  Kircheriano  and  the  San  Paolo,  Propa-  town  of  Mush  hw  about  27,000  mhab^^ 
ganda,  and  Campo  Santo  collections  are  aU  note-  3,0W  are  i^eniwaCathohcs,  10,000  Airoe 
worthy.    The  atria  of  certain  churches,  e.  g.,  St.  °^^>^»  ^^.J^  ^^A^^'v^^^"^^  *^'il?  Muflsul- 
Mark,  Santa  Maria  in  Trastevere,  and  St.  Agnes,  also  ^^^^'  .  Besides    the   Catholic    b^p    there  is  ^  an 
the  Grotte  Vaticane,  have  Christian  inscriptions  or  ArmemwiGregonanbishop;  also  a  Protestant  mission- 
sculptures,  and  coUections  of  inscriptions  have  been  ^'    .TJe  celebrated  Mos^  of  Chorene  was  bom  u 

mJe  in  the  vicinity  of  ^veral  Roman  catacom^^^^^^  **^^ri^te!^^te?^S?57;  Mieeianee  catKolic 

e.  g.,  St.  Domitilla  and  St.  Agnes;  mention  should  (Rome,  1907),  757: 

be  made  also  of  private  collections.    Moreover,  al-  S.  VAiLHi. 
most  all  the  large  museums  of  Italv  and  the  treasuries 

of  some  churehes  have  objects  belon^ng  to  the  early  Mush  (alias  Ratclifte),  John,  priest,  b.  in  York- 
Christian  era^  e.  g.,  the  Museum  and  Library  of  Brescia  shire,  1551  or  1552;  d.  at  Wenge,  Co.  Bucks,  1612  or 
and  those  ot  the  Ufiizi  at  Florence,  the  municipal  1613,  not  as  Bishop  Challoner  thought,  in  1617. 
Museum  of  Florence,  the  Trivulzi  collection,  the  treas-  Having  spent  six  months  in  the  English  College  at 
uries  of  the  cathedrals  of  Milan  and  Monza,  the  Douai  ne  went  to  Rome  (1576)  where  he  studi^  for 
Museo  Nazionale  at  Palermo,  the  Museum  of  the  seven  years.  Ordained  priest,  he  returned  to  Eng« 
Villa  Cassia  at  Syracuse,  etc.    Outside  of  Italy,  im-  land  (15S3)  and  laboured  at  York,  being  confessor 


MUSIC                               648  MUSIC 

k>  Venerable  Margaret  Clitherow  who  suffered  for  be  such,  to  the  words  uttered  in  praver,  to  the  devo- 

harbouring  him,  and  Venerable  Francis  Ingleby.    Ar-  tion  of  the  heart :  they  must  be  calculated  to  edify  the 

rested  28  Oct.,  1586,  and  condemned  to  die.  he  escaped  faithful,  and  in  short  must  serve  the  purpose  for  which 

with  two  other  priests.    For  many  years  ne  laboured  Divine  service  is  held.    Whenever  music,  instead  of 

in  the  North  becoming  a  recognized  leader  among  his  assuming  a  character  of  independence  and  mere  or- 

brother  priests.    When  the  dissensions  among  the  nament,  acts  as  an  auxiliary  to  the  other  means  of 

imprisoned  priests  at  Wisbech  broke  out  in  1595,  he  promoting  the  worship  of  God  and  as  an  incentive  to 

with  Dr.  Dudley  went  there  to  arbitrate.    Failing  in  good,  it  not  only  does  not  interfere  with  the  religious 

this^  together  with  John  Colleton  he  set  himself  to  ceremony,  but,  on  the  contraiy,  imparts  to  it  the 

devise  some  organization  of  a  voluntary  character  greatest  splendour  and  effectiveness.    Only  those  who 

among  the  clergy  which  might  supply  the  want  of  are  not  responsive  to  its  influence,  or  stubbornly  cul- 

episcopal  government  much  felt  alter  the  death  of  tivate  other  ways  of  devotion,  can  imaj^e  that  th^ 

Cardinal  ^en  in  1594.    Opposed  by  Persons,  it  was  are  distracted  in  their  worship  by  music.    Appropn- 

rendered  superfluous  by  the  appointment  of  an  arch-  ate  music,  on  the  contrary,' raises  man  above  common- 

priest  (1599).    In  the  ensuing  controversy  Mush  was  place  everyda^r  thoughts  into  an  ideal  and  joyous 

one  of  the  appellant  clergy  who  appealed  to  Rome  mood,  rivets  mind  and  heart  on  the  sacred  words  and 

against  the  archpriest.    In  connexion  with  this  he  actions,  and  introduces  him  into  the  proper  devotional 

wrote '^DeclaratioMotuum'' and  in  1602,  with  Champ-  and  festive  atmosphere.    This  appropriateness  takes 

ney  Bluet  and  Cecil,  went  as  a  deputation  to  Rome  into  account  persons  and  circumstances,  variations 

where  for  eight  montns  they  fought  for  their  petition,  being  introduced  according  to  the  nature  and  use  of 

Their  petition,  first  for  six  bishops  and  then  for  six  the  texts,  according  to  the  character  of  the  liturgical 

archpnests,  was  refused;  but  though  the  archpriest  action,  according  to   the  ecclesiastical  season,  and 

succeeded  m  maintaining  his  position,  the  appellants  even  according  to  the  various  needs  of  the  oontempla- 

were  acquitted  of  the  charges  of  rebellion  ana  schism,  tive  orders  and  the  rest  of  the  faithful. 

On  his  return  to  England,  Mush  was  one  of  the  thir-  Natural  religious  instinct  urges  man  to  honour  God 

teen  priests  who  signed  the  protestation  of  allegiance  by  means  of  music  as  well  as  b^  the  other  arts,  and  to 

to  Queen  Elizabeth  (1603).    In  his  later  years  he  heighten  his  religious  exaltation  by  joyous  sinking, 

act^  as  assistant  to  two    successive    archpriests,  This  significance  of  singing  in  connexion  with  Divine 

Blackwell    and    Birkhead,    in    Yorkshire,    but    he  service  has  never  been  lost  sight  of.    Under  the  Old 

seems  to  have  been  acting  as  chaplain  to  Lady  Dor-  Law  the  music  of  the  Temple  filled,  in  compliance 

mer  in  Buckinghamshire  at  the  time  of  his  death,  with  the  commands  of  God  Himself,  a  very  elaborate 

His  works  are  *^he  Life  and  Death  of  Mistress  Mar-  r61e.    Songs  of  victory  of  a  religious  nature  are  men- 

garet  Clitherow"  (written  1586,  first  printed  1849);  tioned  in  Ex.,  xv,  and  in  Judges^  v.    Often  the  proph- 

^An  account  of  the  sufferings  of  Catholics  in  the  ets  are  elated  by  sacred  music.    David  beautified 

Northern  Parts  of  England"  (probably  the  same  as  religious  ceremonies  by  hymns  and  the  use  of  instru- 

the  MS.  account  printed  by  Father  Morris,  S.J.,  in  ments  (Amos,  vi,  5;  II  Esd..  xii,  35;  II  Par.,  xxix,  25 

"Troubles  of  our  Catholic  Forefathers",  series  iii):  sqo.).    With  him  appears  Asaph  in  the  r61e  of  poet 

''Declaratio  Motuum"  (Rouen,  1601).    His  diaiy  of  and  singer,  and  the  '^'Sons  of  AsSsiph"  with  other  fami- 

the  deputation  to  Rome  in  1602  is  preserved  in  MS.  in  lies  were,  from  the  davs  of  David,  organized  into 

the  Inner  Temple,  London.    Dodd  also  says  he  wrote  classes  (I  Par.,  xxv).    The  primitive  Christian  Church 

against  the  apostate  priest  Thomas  Bell,  and  Pitts  was,  on  account  of  external  circumstances,  very  much 

quotes  his  Engli^  translation  of  "Lectiones  Panago-  restrained  in  its  religious  manifestations,  and  the 

raU  Turini",  but  these  latter  works  are  not  now  known  adoption  of  the  music  of  the  Temple,  in  so  far  as  it  had 

to  exist.  survived,  would  have  been  difficult  on  account  of  the 

Knox,  Recorda  of  the  BngliMh  Caihalica  (London,  1878,  1882) ;  converts  from  paganism.    Furthermore,  the  practice 

Dodd,  CAurcA  HuUrv,  ed.  Tibrkbt  (London,  1839-43);  Mobrib.  ^f  religion  on  the  part  of  the  early  Christians  was  of 

Trou62e<o/aurCa<Aofu:For«/aXA«r«, seriefl  11  and ui( London,  1875-  «»    ^  ^*  a*         »   v^^«vv«  w^^  ^^xj  v^jiuju>wm».w  T«ao  vi 

77);    Law,  JeauiU  and  Seculara  in  the  Reign  of  Queen  Elizabeth  SUCh  a  purelv  spiritual  nature  that  any  SensUOUS  SB- 

gA>ndon,  1880),  and  in  IKd.  Nat,  Biog,  a.  v.;  Gillow,  Bibi.  Diet,  sistance,  such  as  that  of  music,  could  be  for  the  time 

Bng,  Cath,                                        Edwin  Bubton.  easily  dispensed  with.    Nevertheless,  the  words  of  St. 

Paul,  even  if  only  taken  in  a  spiritufd  sense,  remind 

Music,  Ecclesiastical. — ^By  this  tenn  is  meant  oneforciblyof  the  conception  of  music  in  the  Old  Tee- 
the music  which,  by  order  or  with  the  approbation  of  tament:  Speaking  to  yourselves  in  psalms,  and 
ecclesiastical  authority,  is  employed  in  connexion  with  hymns,  and  spiritual  canticles,  singing  and  nnJring 
Divine  service  to  promote  the  glorification  of  God  and  melody  in  your  hearts  to  the  Lord"  (Eph.,  v,  19). 
the  edification  of  the  faithful.  Tertullian  relates  that  during  Divine  service  Holy 

Nature  AND  Significance. — ^Just  as  St.  Philip  Neri  Scripture  was  read  and  psalms  sun^,  and  that  even 

spontaneously  sang  the  prayers  of  the  last  Mass  which  Pliny  had  ascertained  that  the  Christians  honoured 

he  celebrated,  so  is  all  true  religious  music  but  an  ex-  their  Lord  before  dawn  by  singing  a  h3rmn  (ApoL,  ii). 

alted  prayer — an  exultant  expression  of  religious  feel-  Eusebius,  in  confirmation  "of  the  regulations  hereto- 

ing.    Praver,  song,  the  pla3ring  upon  instruments,  and  fore  followed  by  the  Church  '^  quotes  the  testimonv  of 

action,  when  arranged  by  authority,  constitute  the  Philo,  who  relates  that  the  Therapeut®,  during  their 

dements  of  public  worship,  especially  of  an  official  festive  repasts,  sang  psalms  from  Holy  Writ  and  other 

Htur^.    This  was  the  case  with  the  pagans,  the  Jews,  hymns  of  various  kinds  in  solemn  rhythm  in  monodic 

and  uso  in  the  Church  from  time  immemorial.   These  stvle  with  choral  responsories  (Hist.  eccL,  I,  xvii). 

elements  constitute,  when  combined,  an  organic  unity.  Whatever  may  have  been  the  nature  of  the  sinking  of 

in  which,  however,  music  forms  apart  only  on  solemn  the  Therapeuta),  Eusebius  b^krs  testimony  to  the  tr&> 

occasions,  and  then  only  in  accoraance  with  the  regu-  ditional  custom  of  the  Church.    While  St.  Athanasiua 

lations  ot  proper  authority.    As  man  owes  to  God  restricted  the  singing  of  the  psalms  to  a  kind  of  recita- 

Uiat  which  is  highest  and  most  beautiful,  music  may  tion,  St.  Ambrose  introduced  in  Milan   (and  the 

employ  on  these  occasions  her  noblest  and  most  efTec-  greater  part  of  the  Western  world)  with  sreat  success 

tive  means.    Church  music  has  in  common  with  secu-  antiphonal  singing  of  the  psalms  "  after  the  manner  of 

lar  music  the  combination  of  tones  in  melody  and  har-  the  East''.    St.  Augustine  asks  himself  whether  it 

mony,  the  ctivision  of  time  in  rhythm,  measure,  and  would  not  be  more  perfect  to  deny  himself  the  delight 

tempo,  dynamics,  or  distribution  of  power,  tone-col-  derived  from  singing,  but  concludes  his  reflecti^^y 

our  in  voice  ana  instruments^  the  simpler  and  more  concurring  with  existing  practices,  and  frequently  tes- 

compHcated  styles  of  composition.    All  these,  how-  tifies  to  the  customs  of  Lis  time  (df.  Conf.,  ix,  7;  x,  33; 

ever,  must  be  adapted  to  the  liturgical  action,  if  there  In  Ps.  xxi  and  xlvi;  Rctr.,  ii,  11).    St.  Jerome,  refer- 


MUSIC                               649  MUSIC 

ring  to  Eph  f  Yi  ^^i  exhorts  as  follows  the  young  whose  favourable  judgment.    Wagner  was  an  enthumastie 

duty  it  is  to  sing  in  Church:  ''Let  the  servant  of  God  admirer  of  Palestrina;  Mendelssohn  made  eveiy  efifort 

sing  in  such  a  manner  that  the  words  of  the  text  to  collect  masses,  impropreria,  psalms,  motets  of  the 

rather  than  the  voice  of  the  singer  cause  delight,  and  old  masters,  which  he  preferred  to  all  ecclesiastical 

that  SauFs  evil  spirit  may  depart  from  those  who  are  music  by  modem  writers.    There  are,  indeed^  many 

under  its  dominion,  and  may  not  enter  into  those  who  works   by   Orlandus   de   Lassus,   Allegri,    Vittoria, 

make  a  theatre  out  of  the  house  of  the  Lord".    A  cer-  wherein  the  most  elaborate  means  of  expression  are 

tain  class  of  liturgical  singers  are  also  mentioned  in  used,  but  which,  nevertheless,  conform  to  eveiy  Utur- 

the  "Canones  apostolorum'\    The  above-mentioned  gical  requirement  and  are,  as  it  were,  spontaneous 

antiphonal  and  responsorial  chant  intended  for  the  outpourings  of  adoring  hearts  (cf.  contrapuntal  or 

people  shows  that  the  singing  was  not  confined  to  the  polyphonic  music).     Besides  plain  chant  and  the  poly- 

choir.    St.  Augustine  wrote  a  long  h}rmn  to  be  sung  phonic  style,  the  Church  also  admits  to  her  service 

bv  the  people  in  the  form  of  Psalm  cxviii — not  in  nomophonic  or  figured  compositions  with  or  without 

classic  metre,  but  in  popular  accented  verses  With  six-  instrumental  accompaniment,  written,  not  in  the  old 

teen  unaccented  syllables  and  rhyming  on  the  final  ecclesiastical  modes,  but  in  one  of  the  modem  major 

vowel.    Hvmnology  in  classic  form  goes  back  to  Am-  or  minor  keys.    Gregorian  chant  the  Church  most 

brose  and  Uilarius.     But  sufficient  has  been  said  to  in-  warmly  recommends,  the  polyphonic  style  she  ex- 

dicate  the  practice  and  nature  of  chant  in  the  early  pressly  praises,  and  tne  modem  she  at  least  tolerates. 

Church,  under  whose  fostering  protection  it  developed  According  to  tne  "  Motu  proprio"  of  Pius  X  (22  Nov., 

so  wonderfully  later  on.    History  bears  the  most  1903),  the  following  are  the  general  guiding  principles 

convincing  testimony  to  the  importance  which  the  of  the  Church:  "Sacred  music  should  possess,  in  the 

Church  has  always  attached  to  music  in  connexion  highest  degree,  the  qualities  proper  to  the  liturgy,  or 

with  her  worship.  more  precisely,  sanctity  and  purity  of  form  from  which 

Church  Regulations. — ^The  interest  taken  by  the  its  other  character  of  imiversality  spontaneously 
Church  in  music  is  also  shown  by  her  numerous  enact-  springs.  It  must  be  holy,  and  must  therefore  exclude 
ments  and  regulations  calculated  to  foster  music  all  profanity,  not  only  from  itself  but  also  from  the  man- 
worthy  of  Divine  service.  The  right  of  the  Church  to  ner  in  which  it  is  presented  by  those  who  execute  it. 
determine  the  matter  and  manner  of  what  shall  be  It  must  be  true  art,  for  otherwise  it  cannot  exercise  on 
sung  in  connexion  with  her  liturgy  is  incontestable,  the  minds  of  the  hearers  that  influence  which  the 
Narrow-minded  musical  partisans  seem  disposed  to  Church  meditates  when  she  welcomes  into  her  liturgy 
fear  that  music  as  an  art  does  not  receive  due  consid-  the  art  of  music.  But  it  must  also  be  universal,  in  the 
eration,  if  it  be  not  permitted  to  go  its  own  way  un-  sense  that,  while  every  nation  is  permitted  to  admit 
controlled.  These  fears  generally  have  for  their  basis  into  its  ecclesiastical  compositions  those  special  forms 
the  theory  that  art  is  an  end  in  itself,  and  should  not  which  may  be  said  to  constitute  its  native  music,  still 
serve,  except  indirectly,  any  end  outside  of  and  other  these  forms  must  be  subordinated  in  such  a  manner  to 
than  itself.  This  principle  could  only  have  a  certain  the  general  characteristics  of  sacred  music,  that  no  one 
justification,  if  the  external  dependency  were  to  hin-  of  any  nation  mav  receive  an  impression  other  than 
der  the  full  development  of  music.    But  this  is  not  good  on  hearing  them." 

the  case.  In  point  of  fact,  the  histoi^  of  its  develop-  Regarding  modem  music,  the  "Motu  proprio'' 
ment  shows  that  ecclesiastical  music  need  fear  no  says:  "The  Church  has  always  recognized  and  hon- 
comparison  between  its  achievements  and  those  of  oured  progress  in  the  arts,  admitting  to  the  service  of 
secular  music.  Many  competent  musicians  have  reli^on  everything  good  and  beautiful  discovered  bv 
frankly  admitted  this  in  the  case  of  the  simple  Gre-  gemus  in  the  course  of  ages — always,  however,  with 
gorian  chant — ^not  only  men  like  Witt  and  Gevaert,  but  due  regard  to  the  htur^cal  laws.  Consequently, 
also  Hal^vy,  Mozart,  and  Berlioz.  Hal^vy  considers  modem  music  is  also  admitted  in  the  Church,  since  it, 
the  chant  the  most  beautiful  religious  melody  that  too,  furnishes  compositions  of  such  excellence,  sobri- 
exists  on  earth''.  Mozart's  statement,  "that  he  ety,  and  gravitv,  that  they  are  in  no  way  unworthy  of 
would  gladly  exchange  all  his  music  for  the  fame  of  the  liturgical  functions.  Still,  since  modem  music 
having  composed  the  Gregorian  Preface",  sounds  al-  has  risen  mainly  to  serve  profane  uses,  care  must  be 
most  h3rpeH)olic.  Berlioz,  who  himself  wrote  a  gran-  taken  that  musical  compositions  in  this  style  admitted 
diose  R€K]uiem,  declared  that  "nothing  in  music  could  to  the  Church  may  contain  nothing  profane,  be  free 
be  compared  with  the  effect  of  the  Gregorian  Dies  from  reminiscences  of  theatrical  motives,  and  be  not 
irse"  (cf.  Krutschek,  "Kirchenmusik").  Ambros  fashioned,  even  in  their  external  forms,  after  the  man- 
says:  "The  fundamental  power,  animating  all  music  ner  of  profane  pieces."  It  is  very  much  to  be  re- 
which  is  not  made  but  which  grew  (as  is  the  case  with  gretted  that  the  greatest  masters  of  modem  times, 
the  folk-music),  belongs  pre-eminently  to  Gregorian  Mozart,  Joseph  Haydn,  and  Beethoven,  devoted  their 
chant."  For  this  reason  Grevaert  considers  the  most  wonderful  gifts  mainly  to  secular  uses,  and  that 
characteristic  quality  of  the  chant  to  be  the  fact  that  their  masses  are  entirely  unsuitable  for  liturgical  pur- 
it  never  grows  stale,  "as  though  time  had  no  power  poses — an  unsuitability  freely  acknowledged  by  Men- 
over  it".  Not  the  most  conspicuous,  but  the  most  delssohn,  Liszt,  and  Wagner.  The  reason  for  their 
simple  artistic  means  produce  the  deepest  and  most  inadmissibility  lies  in  their  treatment  of  the  sacred 
lastmg  impression,  wnen  skilfully  employed.  The  text,  the  instrumentation,  in  the  fact  that  they  do  not 
first  requisite  is  that  the  sentiments  contained  in  the  conform  to  the  liturgical  action,  and  often  in  an  undue 
text  be  given  true  expression,  and  be  not  obscured  by  elaboration  of  form  which  seriously  interferes  with  the 
obtrusive  extemal  forms.  It  must  be  acknowledged  devotion  of  the  faithful.  A  few  compositions  by  these 
that  pieces  like  the  Te  Deum,  Lauda  Sion,  the  Lamen-  masters  (such  as  Mozart's  Ave  verum)  do  not  deserve 
tations.  the  Requiem  Mass,  as  well  as  many  an  introit,  this  reproach.  The  mere  fact  that  a  Gloria  or  Credo 
gradual,  and  tract,  afTord  a  never-failing  pleasure,  that  by  Haydn,  for  instance,  delays  the  progress  of  the  ser- 
they  employ  only  the  simplest  means  to  express  the  vice  twenty  minutes,  while  the  other  parts  of  these 
desired  mood,  that  they  are  admirably  adapted  to  masses  are  of  equally  excessive  length,  is  sufficient  to 
promote  devotion.  render  them  unsuitable  for  liturgical  use.    The  fol- 

The  Church,   however,   does  not  despise  artistic  lowing  words  from  the  "Motu  proprio  "are  applicable 

means  of  a  more  elaborate  nature,  as  is  shown  by  the  to  numberless  compositions:  "Among  the  ai£ferent 

long jrMli  of  the  traditional  chant  (as  contained  in  kinds  of  modem  music,  that  which  appears  least  suit- 

the  Vatican  edition)  and  still  more  by  ecclesiastical  able  for  accompanying  the  functions  of  public  worship 

polyphonic  music  (Palestrina  style).    Upon  this  style  is  the  theatrical  style,  which  was  in  the  greatest  vogue, 

modem  musicians  of  the  first  rank  have  pronounced  especially  in  Italy,  during  the  last  century.    ThiSi  of 


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650 


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its  very  nature,  is  diametrically  opposed  to  the  Gre- 
gorian chant  and  classic  polyphony,  and  therefore  to 
the  most  important  law  of  all  good  music.  Besides 
the  intrinsic  structure,  the  rh3rthin  and  what  is  known 
as  the  conventionalism  of  this  style  adapt  themselves 
but  ill  to  the  requirements  of  true  liturgical  music.'' 

This  wish  of  the  Church,  so  frequently  reiterated, 
should  never  be  ignored  by  composer  or  performer.  As 
the  sacredness  of  the  liturgy  has  caused  the  Church  to 
dictate  to  the  priest,  to  the  smallest  detail,  what  vest- 
ments, words,  vessels^  and  actions  he  should  employ 
in  the  fulfilment  of  his  duties — ^which  regulations  he 
may  not  disregard  without  sinning — so  also  the  regu- 
lations concerning  church  music  are  binding  on  the 
singers,  whether  the  reasons  for  these  regulations  be 
understood  by  the  individuals  or  not.  It  is  indeed 
true  that  unimportant  deviations  from  the  rules  are, 
owing  to  special  circumstances,  sometimes  excusable. 
The  regulations  are  contained  in  the  Missal,  the 
**  Caeremoniale  episcoporum",  and  the  decrees  of 
councils  and  of  the  popes.  The  universally  binding 
decrees  of  the  Congregation  of  Rites  are  collected  in 
"Decreta  authentica  ,  and  have  been,  since  1909, 
published  in  the  "Acta  Apostolic®  Sedis".  Purely 
local  directions  need  no  special  publication  for  those 
inunediately  concerned.  It  is  in  some  cases  legitimate 
to  assume  that,  in  unessential  matt^rs^  a  given  rule 
has  rather  a  directive  than  a  prescriptive  character, 

Erovided  the  wording  docs  not  declare  the  contrary, 
decrees  called  forth  by  plainly  local  conditions  are 
binding  only  in  the  place  to  which  they  have  been  di- 
rected. In  some  cases  it  is  legitimate  to  inquire  about 
and  remonstrate  against  a  regulation  before  it  becomes 
binding.  Whenever  exceptionally  serious  difficulties 
stand  in  the  way,  positive  laws  are  not  binding,  un- 
less the  lawgiver  explicitly  insists  on  their  fulfilment. 
Owin^  to  the  difference  in  local  conditions  bishops 
may,  in  the  application  of  a  given  law,  sometimes  use 
their  own  discretion.  Customs  of  long  standing  are 
to  be  treated  with  some  leniency,  unless  ecclesiastical 
authority  explicitly  determines  the  contrary.  An- 
sw^crs  to  inquiries  contained  in  the  "Decreta  Authen- 
tica" or  *' Acta  Apostolicaj  Sedis"  are  usually  consid- 
ered as  binding,  if  they  are  for  general  and  not  merely 
for  local  application.  The  decree  of  binding  force 
depends  on  the  importance  of  the  matter  in  question, 
and  it  rnay  be  gathered  from  the  degree  of  firmness  or 
emphasis  with  which  the  lawgiver  inculcates  a  given 
law.  The  verbal  and  musical  texts  are  eaually  sub- 
iect  to  ecclesiastical  control.  The  use  of  the  Vatican 
'edition  of  the  Gregorian  chant  has  been  generally 
binding  since  25  Sept..  1905.  However,  bishops  may, 
o\ring  to  local  difficulties,  defer  the  execution  of  the 
law.  (The  command  is  given  in  mild  form :  *'  It  is  our 
most  keen  desire  that  bishops",  etc.)  The  "Motu 
proprio"  directs  that  all  other  musical  performances 
be  watchetl  over  by  a  commission  appointed  by  the 
ordinary,  so  that  m  all  places  compositions  of  the 
proper  character  and  within  the  capacity  of  the  sing- 
ers may  be  performed. 

Regulations,  so  wise  as  these,  compel  our  obedience. 
Consequently,  the  Holy  Father  has  a  right  to  expect 
that  "we  obey  from  the  conviction  that  by  so  doing 
we  act  from  reasons  which  are  clear,  plain  and  beyond 
dispute."  Consideration  of  the  purpose  for  which 
music  is  employed  in  church,  of  its  close  connexion 
with  the  liturgy,  and  of  the  inspiration  of  the  Holy 
Ghost,  is  sufficient  basis  for  this  conviction.  No  one 
is  bound  to  admire,  as  in  every  particular  unsurpassed 
and  unsurpassable,  the  prescribed  chant.  It  is  suffi- 
cient to  accept  the  Gregorian  chant  as  the  norm  and 
supreme  model  for  all  Catholic  church  music  and  ap- 
prove its  use.  We  are  not  asked  to  abandon  every 
personal  scientific  and  sesthetic  view,  or  to  eschew  re- 
search and  theoretic  discussion.  If,  however,  the  law- 
giver does  not  urge  the  immediate  execution  of  a  law 
wherever,  on  account  of  the  difficulties  to  be  over- 


come, it  is  more  likely  to  do  more  harm  than  good,  it 
must  not  be  understood  that  by  these  are  meant  the 
ordinary  difficulties  which  had  been  foreseen,  nor  may 
the  difference  in  our  own  taste  be  considered  an  ol>> 
Btacle.  The  regulations  concerning  church  muac  are 
generally  binding  under  pain  of  sin,  and  subtle  dis- 
tinctions to  escape  this  responsibiUty  are  useless.  For 
the  composer  of  genius  these  prescriptions  are  not  fet- 
ters, but  rather  serve  to  show  him  how  to  make  his 
work  a  source  at  once  of  artistic  delight  and  of  edifica- 
tion.   All  these  remarks  apply  equally  to  the  singer. 

Qualities. — The  first  and  most  urgent  condition 
which  the  Church  imposes  in  regard  to  her  music  is 
that  it  be  in  conformity  with  the  place,  time,  and  pur- 
pose of  Divine  worship;  that  it  be  sacred  and  not  pro- 
fane, in  other  words  that  it  be  church,  and  not  theatri- 
cal, mu«c.  Theatrical  music  is  just  as  much  out  of 
place  in  church,  as  the  performance  of  a  secular  drama, 
the  exposition  of  a  battle  scene,  or  even  a  statue  rep- 
resenting a  pagan  deity.  The  performance  of  such 
music  directs  the  attention  not  to  the  altar  but  to  the 
organ  loft.  Musicians  themselves  have  frequently 
failed  to  recognize  clearly  the  difference  between  con- 
cert and  church  music.  Mozart  used  parts  of  his  re- 
ligious compositions  in  secular  cantatas  and  extracts 
from  his  operas  for  church  purposes.  A  mass  has  also 
been  compiled  from  some  of  Haydn's  profane  compo- 
sitions. The  '^wassail  of  notes",  the  complete  ab- 
sorption of  our  consciousness  by  artistic  melodic  or 
harmonic  combinations  and  sensuous  melodies,  the 
display  of  instrumental  virtuosity,  the  joyous  rush  of 
tonal  masses  put  to  flight  all  devout  recollection  of  the 
sacrificial  act  and  all  heartfelt  prayer.  March,  dance, 
and  other  jerky  rhythms,  bravura  arias,  and  the 
crash  of  instruments  affect  the  senses  and  nerves,  but 
do  not  touch  the  heart.  Even  a  reminiscence  of  the 
concert  hall  is  a  distraction  to  those  who  wish  to  pray. 

Not  the  least  element  in  the  effectiveness  of  churdi 
music  is  the  sacred  texts,  which  inspire  composer, 
singer,  and  hearer,  although  in  different  ways.  In  the 
"  Motu  proprio "  we  read: " The  liturgical  text  must  be 
sung  as  it  is  in  the  books,  without  alteration  or  inver- 
sion of  the  words,  without  undue  repetition,  without 
breaking  syllables  and  always  in  a  manner  intelfigible 
to  the  faithful  who  listen."  Only  in  this  way  are  the 
sacredness  of  the  text  and  the  needs  of  the  hearer  safe- 
guarded. For  all  official  chants  (Mass,  Vespers,  etc.) 
the  texts  are  prescribed,  and  are  in  the  Latin  language. 
On  this  point  the  **  Motu  proprio"  says: "  It  is  not  law- 
ful to  confuse  the  order  or  to  change  the  prescribed 
texts  for  others  selected  at  will  or  to  omit  them  either 
entirely  or  in  part.  However,  it  is  permissible  accord- 
ing to  the  custom  of  the  Roman  Church,  to  sing  a 
motet  to  the  Blessed  Sacrament  after  Uie  Benedict  us 
in  a  solemn  mass.  It  is  also  permitted,  after  the 
Offertory  of  the  mass  has  been  sung,  to  execute  dur- 
ing the  time  that  remains  a  brief  motet  to  words  ap- 
proved by  the  Church."  On  account  of  the  diversity 
and  changeableness  of  modem  languages,  the  Church 
retains  for  her  Uturgical  functions  (even  for  the  simple 
missa  cantata)  the  Latin  language^  hallowed  by  ages 
of  service.  Nor  does  she  permit  that  individual 
prayers  and  chants  be  translated  into  the  vernacular 
for  liturgical  puiposes.  (The  most  important  decision 
on  this  point  will  be  found  in  the  "Decreta  authen- 
tica" under  "Cantilena"  and  "Cantus".)  The"Motu 
proprio"  says:  "  It  b  forbidden  to  sing  an3rthing  what- 
ever in  the  vernacular  in  solemn  liturgi<^  functions; 
much  more  to  sing  in  the  vernacular  the  variable  or 
common  parts  in  the  Mass  and  Office." 

To  the  traditional  language  of  her  lituiigy  the 
Church  joins  her  own  traditional  musical  form,  which 
characterizes  her  chant  and  distinguishes  it  from  the 
masic  of  concert  and  opera.  The  "  Motu  proprio  "  saj-s: 
''The  different  parts  of  the  Mass  and  of  the  OflRce 
must  retain,  even  masically.  that  particular  concept 
and  form  which  ecclesiastical  tradition  assigned  to 


MUSIC  651  MUSIC 

them,  and  which  ia  admirably  expressed  in  the  Ore-  in  too  strong  contrast  to  the  lofty  religious  dignity 
gorian  chant."  By  retaining  her  musical  form  for  her  and  gravity  of  Palestrina.  Maurice  Brosig,  although 
various  chants  (e.  g.  for  the  Sanctus,  the  hymns^  the  rather  imrestrained  and  subjective  in  his  own  compo- 
psiJms),  or  admitting  of  its  modification  only  within  sitions,  always  excluded  their  works  from  church, 
certain  limits,  the  Church  protects  her  own  music  Concert  instruments  may,  under  certain  circum- 
agunst  the  destruction  of  that  character  which  is  stances,  produce  in  church  a  very  brilliant  effect  and 
proper  to  it.  The  relation  of  church  music  to  the  text  an  exalted  mood.  In  general,  however,  they  are 
on  the  one  hand  and  to  instrumental  music  on  the  rather  obtrusive  than  devotional.  Their  tendency  ia 
other  is  what  distinguishes  it  essentially  from  secular  to  predominate,  and  they  are  apt  to  obsciure  the  dec- 
music.    The  attitude  of  reserve  maintained  by  the  lamation  of  the  text. 

Church  on  this  point  is  expressed  in  the  "Motu  pro-  Richard  Wagner  says  a  vigorous  word  in  favour  of 
prio"  as  follows:  "AJthou^  the  music  proper  to  the  purely  vocal  music  in  church:  "To  the  human  voice, 
Church  is  purely  vocaX  music,  music  wiUi  tne  accom-  the  inmiediate  vehicle  of  the  sacred  word^  belongs  the 
paniment  of  the  organ  is  also  permitted.  In  some  first  place  in  the  churches,  and  not  to  mstrumental 
special  cases,  within  due  limits  and  within  the  proper  additions  or  the  trivial  scraping  found  in  most  of  the 
regards,  other  instruments  may  be  allowed,  but  never  churches  pieces  to-day.  Catholic  Church  music  can 
without  the  special  licence  of  the  ordinary,  accord-  regain  its  former  purity  only  by  a  return  to  the  purely 
ing  to  the  Cseremoniale  episcoporum.  As  the  chant  vocal  style.  If  an  accompaniment  is  considered  abso- 
should  always  have  the  principal  place,  the  organ  or  in-  lutely  necessary,  the  gemus  of  Christianity  has  pro- 
struments  should  merely  sustain  and  never  suppress  vided  the  instrument  worthy  of  such  function^  the 
it.  It  is  not  permitted  to  have  the  chant  preceded  organ"  (Gesammelte  Werke,  II,  337).  There  is  no 
by  lonff  preludes  or  to  interrupt  it  with  intermezzo  doubt  but  that  those  qualities  absolutely  necessary  to 
pieces?'  The  pianoforte  and  noisy  and  frivolous  in-  church  music,  namely  modesty,  dignity,  and  soulful- 
struments  (e.  g.  drums,  cymbals,  and  bells)  are  abso-  ness,  are  more  inherent  in  the  purely  vocal  style  than 
lutely  excluded.  Wind  instruments,  by  their  nature  in  any  other.  Reserve  and  humble  restraint  befits  the 
more  turbulent  and  obtrusive,  are  admissible  only  as  house  of  God.  Sentimental  and  effenunate  melodies 
an  accompaniment  to  the  singing  in  processions  out-  are  incompatible  with  the  dignified  seriousness  of  the 
side  of  the  church.  Within  the  edifice  "it  will  be  per-  pjolyphonic  a  capella  style,  and  a  composer's  tempta- 
missible  only  in  special  cases  and  with  the  consent  of  tion  to  indulge  in  them  is  more  easily  counteracted  by 
the  ordinary  to  admit  a  number  of  wind  instruments,  this  style  than  any  other.  Like  the  external  attitude 
limited,  judicious,  and  proportioned  to  the  size  of  the  of  the  worshipper  in  church,  the  vocally  interpreted 
place,  provided  the  composition  and  accompaniment  liturgical  word  and  the  organ-playing  must  be  respect- 
to  be  executed  be  written  in  a  grave  and  suitable  style  ful  and  decorous.  That  vocal  music  is  in  general  more 
and  similar  in  all  respects  to  that  proper  to  the  organ."  expressive  than  the  mechanically  produced  tone  of 
The  restrictions  imposed  by  the  Church  in  this  regard  instruments  is  undeniable.  Religious  feeling  finds  its 
were  formerly  still  greater.  Although  Josephus  tells  most  natural  expression  in  vocal  utterance,  for  the  hu- 
of  the  wonderful  effects  produced  in  the  Temple  by  man  heart  is  the  source  of  both  devotion  and  song, 
the  use  of  instruments,  the  first  Christians  were  of  too  From  these  considerations  it  follows  that  the  tone 
spiritual  a  fibre  to  substitute  lifeless  instruments  for  quality,  tempo,  and  rhythm  of  vocal  music  accom- 
or  to  use  them  to  accompany  the  human  voice.  Clem-  panied  by  the  organ  are  more  in  conformity  with  the 
ent  of  Alexandria  severely  condemns  the  use  of  instru-  religious  mood  than  is  the  character  of  orcnestral  in- 
ments  even  at  Christian  banquets  (P.  G.,  VIII,  440).  struments.  The  organ  can  indeed  be  sweeping  and 
St.  Chrysostom  sharply  contrasts  the  customs  of  the  powerful,  but  its  tone  volume  is  always  more  even. 
Christians  at  the  time  when  they  had  full  freedom  and  is  not  so  subject  to  the  arbitrary  will  of  the  player 
with  those  of  the  Jews  of  the  Old  Testament  (ibid.,  as  is  the  orchestra.  Orchestral  instruments  permit  of 
LV.  494-7).  Similarly  write  a  series  of  early  ecclesi-  a  wide  range  in  the  division  and  subdivision,  retard- 
astical  writers  down  to  St.  Thomas  (Summa,  II-II,  Q.  ing,  and  acceleration  of  time — subtleties  whicn  are  not 
xci,  a.  2).  conducive  to  the  calm  necessary  for  prayer.  The  same 
In  Carlovingian  times,  however,  the  organ  came  holds  good  with  regard  to  rhythm.  Just  as  the  great 
into  use,  and  was,  until  the  sixteenth  century,  used  flexibility,  the  frivolous  or  passionate  character  of 
solely  for  the  accompaniment  of  the  chant,  its  inde-  irregular  rh3rthm  in  general  are  expressive  of  a  worldly, 
pendent  use  developing  only  gradually  (Scarlatti,  superficial,  and  restless  mood,  so  is  reposeful  and  sym- 
Couperin,  Bach).  Perfected  organ-playmg  found  in-  metrical  rhythm  expressive  of  and  conducive  to  a 
creasing  favour  in  the  eyes  of  the  church  authorities,  prayerful  mood.  A  slow  and  orderly  movement  is 
and  only  occasionally  was  it  found  necessary  to  cor-  more  in  keeping  with  the  nature  of  the  organ.  It  was 
rect  an  abuse.  The  Council  of  Trent  (Sess.  XXII)  not  by  accident  that  the  measured  rhythm  of  Grego- 
says:  "All  musical  forms,  whether  for  the  organ  or  for  rian  chant  was  early  abandoned,  nor  is  If  desirable  to 
voices,  which  are  of  a  frivolous  or  sensuous  character,  interpret  in  too  mechanical  a  rnythm  even  the  poly- 
should  be  excluded  from  the  Church."  The  nature  of  phomc  works  of  the  old  masters.  The  more  the 
the  organ  is,  to  a  great  extent,  a  protection  against  its  purely  mechanical  element  yields  to  the  expression  of 
misuse;  its  power  and  fullness  lend  themselves  admir-  the  religious  mood,  the  more  suitable  the  performance 
ably  to  the  majesty  of  the  Divine  service,  while  other  becomes  for  churcn.  On  the  other  hand,  a  delicately 
instruments  more  re^ily  serve  profane  purposes,  defined  measure  is  sesthetically  preferable  to  excessive 
After  the  sixteenth  century,  orchestral  instruments  freedom.  Another  element  of  tne  highest  importance 
found  admittance  into  some  churches  and  court  chap-  in  church  music,  which  is  indeed  generally  suggested 
els,  but  restrictive  regulations  soon  followed.  While  by  the  text,  is  the  interrelation  between  the  melodic 
Lasso  in  Munich,  Monteverde  in  Venice,  and  Scarlatti  phrases,  the  rhythmical  proportion  or  symmetry  be- 
in  Naples  had  at  their  disposal  large  orchestras,  tween  tne  various  parts  of  the  composition:  these  seem 
smaller  churches  with  more  modest  resources  satisfiea  to  conform  externally  to  the  breathing  of  the  singers 
themffelvpq  with  the  use  of  the  trumpet  or  trombone  in  and  internally  to  the  emotions  of  the  pious  heart, 
addition  to  the  organ.  The  cultivation  of  both  sa-  while  the  measure  is  solely  a  means  to  regulate  time, 
crcd  and  profane  music  by  the  same  musicians  proved  Finally  must  be  considered,  as  one  of  the  distinctive 
detrimental  to  church  music,  and  finally  the  Church  attributes  of  church  music,  the  character  of  the  Gre- 
had  to  wage  open  war  on  modem  theatrical  music  gorian  modes.  The  modes,  which  have  most  in  com- 
in  church  services.  Mozart's  insinuating  sweetness,  mon  with  our  modem  minor  key  and  contain  the  inter- 
Haydn's  pious  hilarity,  Beethoven's  violent  passion-  val  of  the  minor  third,  the  symbol  of  moderation  and 
atdaeas,  and  Chembini's  dramatic  intensity  stand  restraint,  greatly  predominate  in  Gregorian  chant. 


MUSIC                               652  MUSIC 

Hannonic  music  has  gradually  narrowed  down  to  the  stances  consume  as  much  as  ten  minutes.    Of  the 

two  modes  or  keys,  major  and  minor:  the  major  key  other  invariable  parts  of  the  mass,  the  Sanctus  should 

has  freer  motion,  greater  brightness  and  decision,  be  of  reasonable  length,  so  that  the  celebrant  may 

while  the  minor  scale  in  its  lower  portion  has  a  hesitat-  have  to  wait  as  Uttle  as  possible.    If  the  organ  be 

ing  and  mysterious  character,  and  resembles  the  ma-  plaved  during  the  Elevation,  it  must  be  done  softly 

jor  onl^  in  its  upper  section.    This  hesitation  and  and  in  a  reverent  manner.    The  Benedictus  must 

mystenousness  happily  express  in  church  music  the  breathe  the  spirit  of  adoration,  while  the  following 

modesty  and  humility  of  the  worshipper.    Even  those  Hosanna  gives  moderate  expression  to  jubilation.    In 

Gregorian  modes  (F  and  G)  which  have  most  resem-  the  Agnus  Dei  the  tenderest  pleading  of  the  heart 

blance  to  our  major  scale  lose  that  character  in  their  must  mid  subdued  expression. 

upper  portion.  The  major  character,  as  we  have  it  in  The  Proper,  or  variable  parts  of  the  Mass,  must 
our  C  major  scale,  occurs  very  seldom  in  Gregorian  never  be  changed  by  the  choir.  The  recitation  of  the 
chant.  The  self-restraint  so  delicately  conveyed  in  Introit  has  never  been  expUcitly  allowed:  in  any  event, 
the  church  modes  completely  disappears  in  the  appar-  the  Gloria  Patri  must  be  stmg,  on  acooimt  of  the  en- 
ently  boundless  freedom  and  stormy  movement  of  joined  inclination  on  the  part  of  the  celebrant  and 
concert  music.  The  latter  makes  use  of  the  chro-  people.  As  in  the  Gradual  with  the  adjoined  parts, 
matic  element,  modulation  from  one  key  into  another,  the  organ  prelude  and  alternation  between  chuiters 
tone  colour,  the  various  forms  of  composition  (sonata,  and  choir  create  an  agreeable  contrast.  In  the  Tract 
etc.) I  and  every  other  artistic  means  to  carry  the  and  Sequence,  on  account  of  their  great  length,  the  re- 
hearer  from  one  mood  to  another  and  finally  to  citing  of  certain  parts  is  desirable.  To  omit  parts  of 
heighten  the  impression  to  the  degree  of  passion.  As  the  text,  even  in  the  lengthy  Lauda  Sion  or  Dies  irae, 
sucn  purposes  are  foreign  to  church  music,  it  makes  of  is  forbidden.  If  the  Gradual,  Tract,  and  Sequence  be 
these  means,  whenever  it  employs  them,  a  different  set  to  figured  music,  it  must  be  done  in  accordance 
use.  It  will  be  remembered  that  the  contrapuntal  with  the  spirit  of  the  text.  .  The  Gregorian  melodies  to 
vocal  school,  at  one  period  in  its  history,  also  degener-  these  texts  offer  to  the  composer  the  best  possible 
ated  into  artificality  and  the  cultivation  of  form  for  its  models  for  imitation.  After  tne  proper  offertory  text 
own  sake,  but  this  abuse  was  not  only  reproved  by  the  has  been  sung  or  recited,  a  motet  to  approved  words 
Church,  out  also  remedied  by  repeated  reforms  since  may  be  sung,  provided  the  celebrant  be  not  too  long 
the  Council  of  Trent.  detained  thereby.  The  same  applies  to  any  antiphon 
Vabious  Parts  of  the  DrsrixE  Service. — ^The  or  motet  in  honour  of  the  Ble^ed  Sacrament,  which 
Church  has  frequently  legislated  concerning  even  the  may  be  sung  with  the  Benedictus  after  the  Elevation, 
smallest  details  of  the  liturgy.  In  connexion  with  the  Silence  on  the  part  of  the  organ  between  the  Pater 
Mass,  the  centre  of  Cathohc  worship,  the  service  of  Noster  and  the  following  Per  omnia  is  desirable.  If 
various  arts  are  utilized — architecture,  with  its  deco-  Holy  Communion  be  given,  a  short  motet  with  ap^ 
rative  and  plastic  elaborations,  symbolic  action  at  the  proved  Latin  text  may  be  inserted.  The  chants  of 
altar  with  the  accompan3rin^  vestments  and  sacred  the  Requiem  Mass  may  be  accompanied  on  the  organ 
vessels,  the  significant  liturgical  prayers,  and  fiuaally  in  an  unobtrusive  manner.  (The  use  of  the  organ  is 
the  chant  carried  on  the  waves  of  the  organ.  AU  also  permitted  during  Advent  and  Lent,  but  only  for 
these,  including  the  music,  are  regulated  by  ecclesias-  the  accompaniment  of  the  chant.  On  feast  days  and 
tical  precepts.  The  intonations  of  the  celebrant  and  on  Gaudete  and  Lstare  Sundays,  it  may  be  used  as 
his  ministers,  the  Oratioxis,  Epistle,  Gospel,  Preface,  usual.) 

Pater  Noster,  Dominus  vobiscum,  Ite  missa  est,  must  Passing  over  various  other  liturgical  functions,  we 
be  unaccompanied — at  most  the  pitch  may  be  given,  shall  say  a  word  about  Solemn  Vespers  and  Compline. 
The  reponses  of  the  choir  or  the  people  may  be  accom-  Nothing  may  be  abbreviated  or  omitted  in  the  Ves- 
panied  on  the  organ.  The  choir  sings  the  Kyrie,  pers  of  the  day  (or  the  Votive  Vespers,  when  allowed), 
Gloria,  and  Credo.  In  these  as  in  all  litureical  texts,  and  no  psalm  may  be  sung  otherwise  than  antipho- 
the  omission,  transposition,  alteration,  substitution,  nally.  Palairbordoni,  alternating  with  a  Gregorian 
or  awkward  combination  of  the  words  (even  in  in-  melody,  are  successfully  used  in  many  places.  Ihe 
serted  pieces,  e.  g.  the  Ave  Maria  at  the  Offertory,  repetitions  of  the  antiphons  and  certam  verses  of  the 
after  the  proper  offertory  has  been  recited)  is  forbid-  h3rmn  and  Magnificat  may  be  recited.  The  hynm 
den.  On  the  other  hand,  the  occasional  repetition  of  may  also  be  peiformed  in  figured  settings,  but  musical 
words,  as  an  artistic  necessity,  is  permitted.  It  is  ^-  forms,  differmg  widely  from  the  general  character  of 
lowed  in  most  cases  for  sufficient  reason  (e.  g.  fatigue  the  Gregorian  chant,  are  to  be  avoided  in  all  parts  of 
or  inability  of  the  singers)  to  recite  in  an  audible  voice  the  liturgy.  On  these  points  the  '*Motu  proprio"  of 
certain  texts  with  subdued  organ  accompaniment,  or  Pius  X  says:  '^The  different  parts  of  the  Mass  and 
to  alternate  recitation  with  singing.  The  Credo,  how-  Office  must  retain,  even  musically,  that  particular  con* 
ever^  must  be  sung  always  in  ite  entirety,  and  that  in  a  cept  and  form  wnich  ecclesiastical  tradition  has  as- 
particularly  distinct  manner,  and  the  celebrant  may  signed  to  them,  and  which  is  admirably  expreraed  in 
not  continue  the  liturgical  action  during  its  perform-  Gregorian  chant.  Different,  therefore,  must  be  the 
ance.  (Furthermore  must  be  sung  the  first  and  last  method  of  composing  an  introit,  a  gradual,  an  anti- 
verse  of  the  h3rmns  and  everything  wherein  genuflec-  phon,  a  psalm,  a  h3rmn,  a  Gloria  in  excelsis. 
tion  is  prescribed  or  which  contains  an  intercession,  as  ''In  particular  the  following  rules  are  to  be  ob- 
is the  case  with  the  Dies  irae.)  The  intonations  of  the  served : 
Sriest  should  never  be  repeated  by  the  choir.  The  ''(a)TheKyrie,  Gloria,  Credo,  etc.  of  the  Mass  must 
[yrie,  a  cry  for  mercy,  must  never  degenerate  into  a  preserve  the  unity  of  composition  proper  to  their  text. 
bnlliant  operatic  performance,  nor  should  the  Credo,  It  is  not  lawful,  therefore,  to  compose  them  in  sepa- 
an  open  profession  of  faith,  become  an  occasion  for  rate  pieces  in  such  a  way  that  each  of  such  pieces  may 
artistic  display;  besides  being  utterly  inappropriate,  form  a  complete  composition  in  itself,  and  oe  c^Mible 
this  style  tends  towards  excessive  length.  In  general  of  being  detached  from  the  rest  ana  substituted  by 
the  Credo,  sung  to  one  of  the  Gregorian  melodies,  with  another. 

possibly  a  harmonized  setting  of  the  Et  incamatus  est  "  (b)  In  the  office  of  Vespers  it  should  be  the  rule  to 

and  finale,  is  decidedly  preferable  to  an  exclusively  fig-  follow  the  'Csremoniale  Episcoporum',  which  pre^ 

ured  composition.    In  the  Gloria  the  music  may  show  scribes  the  Gregorian  chant  for  the  psalmody,  aiKi 

brilliancy,  but  it  must  be  noted  that  not  only  joy,  but  permits  figured  music  for  the  versicles  of  the  Gloria 

also  deep  devotion  and  humble  petition  (Qui  tollis  ratri  and  the  hymn. 

.  .  .)  are  contained  in  the  text.    A  very  ^reat  abuse  ''It  will,  nevertheless,  be  lawful  on  the  greater  sol- 
consists  in  the  endJcss  repetitions,  which  m  some  in-  emnitics  to  alternate  the  Gregorian  chant  of  the 


MUSIC  653  MUSIC 

choir  with  the  so-called  faUi-bordoni  or  with  verses  we  possess  the  melody,  the  notation  of  which,  how* 

similarly  composed  in  a  proper  manner.  ever,  is  difficult  to  determine  exactly.    The  frequent 

"It  mav  also  be  allowed  sometimes  to  render  the  pilgrimages  and  the  religious  plays  subsec^uently  fo»- 

mngle  psalms  in  their  entirety  in  music,  provided  the  tered  singing  among  the  people,  while  the  invention  of 

form  proper  to  psalmody  be  preserved  in  such  compo-  printing  afforded  a  means  for  the  universal  propaga^- 

sition,  that  is  to  say,  provided  the  singers  seem  to  be  tion  of  popular  hymns.    Even  Luther  and  Melanch- 

poalmodizing  among  themselves,  either  with  new  mo-  thon  testify  to  the  general  use  of  German  hymns  be- 

tifs  or  with  those  taken  from  the  Gregorian  chant  fore  their  time.    The  Protestant  custom  of  singing 

based  upon  it.  hymns  in  the  vemactdar.  instead  of  the  liturgical 

**  The  psalms  known,  as  di  concerto f  are  therefore  for  chant,  reacted  upon  Catholics,  and  found  its  way  even 

ever  excluded  and  pronibited.  into  the  missa  cantcUa. 

"(c)  In  the  h3rmns  of  the  Church  the  traditional  form        The  development  of  congregational  singing  is  of 

of  the  hymn  is  preserved.    Thus,  it  is  not  lawful  to  early  origin.    St.  Augustine  tells  us  (Conf .  vii.  9)  that 

compose,  for  instance,  a  'Tantum  ergo'  in  such  wise  St.  Ambrose  introduced  it  in  his  own  diocese  trom  the 

that  the  first  strophe  presents  a  romanza,  a  cavatina.  Orient,  and  that  it  soon  spread  throughout  the  West- 

an  adagio,  and  the '  Genitori'  an  allegro.  em  Church.    Ambrose  modified  the  still  classic  Latin 

"  (d)  The  antiphons  of  the  Vespers  must  be,  as  a  metre  to  meet  the  popular  requirements,  while  Augus- 

rule,  rendered  with  the  Gregorian  melody  proper  to  tine  abandoned  it  altogether,  to  get,  as  he  said,  nearer 

each.    Should  they,  however,  in  some  special  case,  be  to  the  people.    So  far  we  have  oeen  concerned  only 

sung  in  figured  music  they  must  never  have  either  the  with  the  antiphonal  sinking  of  Latin  psalms  and 

form  of  a  concert  melody  or  the  fulness  of  a  motet  or  a  h3rmns,  although  the  people  sang  in  addition  the  short 

cantata.''  responses  to  the  liturgical  intonations  of  the  celebrant 

All  this  shows  not  only  the  great  solicitude  of  the  in  solemn  services.  From  this  latter  practice  it  is 
Church  to  foster  worthy  ecclesiastical  music,  but  also  likely  that  the  congregational  song  developed,  at  first 
the  reasonableness  of  her  regulations  on  the  matter,  by  applying  to  thelongneumsoftne"Kyrie"and  the 
Greater  latitude  is  given  at  benediction  services.  It  jubilations  of  the  "Alleluia'' first  Latin  texts,  then  texts 
is  lawful  to  sing  hymns  in  the  vernacular  before  the  m  the' vernacular,  and  finally  by  original  compositions 
Blessed  Sacrament  exposed,  but,  immediately  before  in  imitation  of  the  hymns  and  litanies.  The  later  hymns 
the  Benediction,  the  "Tantum  ergo"  and  "Genitori"  in  the  vernacular  may  be  defined  (cf.  Baumker)  as 
must  be  sun^  in  Latin,  either  to  a  Gregorian  melody  strophically  arranged  sacred  songs  in  the  vulgar 
or  to  a  devotional  figured  setting,  as  a  liturgical  close,  tongue,  which,  because  of  their  ecclesiastical  charao- 
During  and  after  the  removal  of  the  Blessed  Sacrament,  ter,  are  suitable  to  be  sung  by  the  whole  congregation, 
it  is  permitted  to  sing  in  the  vernacular.  An  antiphon  and  have  been  either  expressly  approved  for  this  pur- 
or  hymn  in  honour  of  the  Blessed  Virgin  may  also  be  pose  by  ecclesiastical  authority,  or  at  least  tacitly  ad- 
sung,  but  only  after  the  reposition.  If  litanies  (sane-  mitted.  The  sacred  song  meditates  on  truths  of 
tioned  by  the  Church  or  the  ordinary)  be  sung,  there  religion,  gives  expression  to  a  lyric  religious  mood,  or 
must  be  no  omissions,  although  the  invocations  may  rehearses,  in  the  form  of  a  litany,  praises  or  petitions 
be  taken  in  groups  of  three,  followed  by  one  Ora  pro  (e.  g.,  pilgrimage  of  songs).  According  to  Kommuller, 
nobis.  As  in  the  case  of  the  "Tantum  ergo.",  all  pre-  the  requisites  for  a  good  sacred  song  are  a  genuinely 
scribed  liturgical  chants,  like  the  "  Te  Deum",  must  be  ecclesiastical  character  and  doctrine,  lyric  musical  ex- 
sun^  in  Latin:  any  text  chosen  on  the  choir's  own  ini-  pression,  and  popular,  but  at  the  same  time  poetic, 
tiative,  however,  may  be  sung  in  the  vernacular.  language.    Before  the  advent  of  Luther  about  one 

Singing  by  thb  People. — Singing  by  the  people,  so  hundred  church  h3nnns  were  in  general  use  in  Ger- 

widely  customary  at  different  devotions  (Benediction  many.    These  early  hymns  are  simple,  greatly  re- 

of  the  Blessed  Sacrament,  low  Mass,  etc.),  requires  semble  the  Gregorian  chant  in  melody,  and  are  grave 

special  mention.    The  participation  of  the  people  in  and  noble  in  expression.    The  later  development 

tne  singing  of  the  Gregorian  chant  has  been  discussed  (seventeenth  and  eighteenth  centuries)  was  on  the 

under  Conoregational  Singing.    Singing  in  the  whole  unpropitious,  out  in  recent  years  the  reform 

vernacular  may  not  be  substituted  for  the  latter,  initiated  by  Meister,  Baumker,  and  Dreves,  has  been 

This  abuse  crept  in  after  the  Reformation,  and  flour-  attended  with  gratifying  success. 
ished  in  the  eighteenth  century,  particularly  in  Ger^        Women  in  Church  Choirs. — In  connexion  with 

many  and  adjacent  countries.    The  wish  of  the  Church  singing  in  the  vernacular  it  is  necessary  to  advert 

is  that  this  abu^e  should  be  ever3rwhere  extirpated,  briefly  to  the  question  of  women's  participation  in 

while  violence  to  local  customs  be  avoided.    But  Pius  choirs.    As  the  injunction  of  the  Apostle  that  woman 

X  has  expressed  himself  warmly  in  favour  of  singing  keep  silence  in  church  was  never  made  applicable  in 

by  the  people  within  proper  limits  (e.  g.,  in  his  endorse-  the  matter  of  her  participation  in  the  singing  of  the 

ment  of  the  endeavours  of  the  Society  itaUana  per  la  congregation,   and  as  in  religious  commumties  of 

musica  populare),  and  is  far  from  being  opposed  to  women  the  liturgical  chant  has  to  be  performed  by 

such  in  extrarliturgical  services.    Naturally,  it  would  women,  we  may  take  it  for  granted  that  in  our  ordi- 

be  undesirable  to  accustom  the  people  to  »ng  rather  nary  lay  choirs,  representing  the  congregation,  the 

than  pray,  but  well-ordered  singing  by  the  congrega-  participation  of  women  is  not  forbidden.    The  foUow- 

tion  is  alwa\^  edifying  and  devotional.    In  his  ps^dm  mg  words  from  the  "Motu  proprio"  have,  however, 

against  the  Donatists,  which  he  intentionally  couched  caused  a  great  deal  of  uncertainty:  "With  the  excep- 

in  popular  form,  St.  Augustine  had  an  absolutely  tion  of  the  melodies  proper  to  the  celebrant  at  the  altar 

practical  object.    Greek  and  Latin  hymnody  is  to  a  and  to  his  ministers,  which  must  always  be  sung  only 

certain  extent  even  more  specially  intended  to  be  sung  in  Gregorian  chant  and  without  the  accompaniment 

by  the  people  than  the  Gregorian  chant.    H3rmns  in  of  the  organ,  all  the  rest  of  the  liturgical  chant  belongs 

the  vernacular  were  widely  employ ckI  (e.  g.,  by  the  to  the  choir  of  levites;  therefore,  singers  in  church, 

early  apostles  of  Germany)  to  wean  the  people  from  even  when  they  are  laymen,  are  really  taking  the  place 

the  pagan  songs  to  which  they  were  accustomed,  and  of  the  ecclesiastical  choir."     "On  the  same  principle 

to  initiate  them  in  an  agreeable  manner  into  the  mys-  it  follows  that  singers  in  church  have  a  real  liturgical 

teries  of  the  Faith,    llie  oldest  of  these  h3rmns  are  office^  and  that,  therefore,  women,  as  being  incapable  of 

Joflt  to  us.  but  we  possess  a  Latin  translation  of  a  ninth-  exercising  such  office,  cannot  be  admitted  to  form  part 

century  hymn  written  in  honour  of  St.  Gall  by  the  of  the  cnoir  or  of  the  musical  chapel.    Whenever, 

monk  Katpert  and  sung  in  church  by  the  people.    Of  then,  it  is  desired  to  employ  the  acute  voices  of  so- 

the  "  Wessobrunner  Gebet "  the  German  text  has  been  pranos  and  contraltos,  these  parts  must  be  taken  by 

preflerved;  of  the  "Petruslicd"  (also  ninth-century)  boys,  according  to  the  most  ancient  usage  of  the 


MUSIC  654  MUSIC 

Church.''    But  the  Holy  Father  speaks  here  (as  in  the  Italy)  North  America,  and  elsewhere.   Dr.  F.  X.  Witt, 

beginning)  of  the  choir  of  levites,  among  whom  lay-  burmng  with  zeal  for  the  cause  of  reform,  founded  this 

men  may  be  included,  and  declares  soon  after  these  society  in  1868,  and,  shortly  after  its  papal  approba- 

quoted  words  that  it  is  becoming  for  them  to  wear  the  tion,  became  its  first  president.    The  object  of  the 

ecclesiastical  habit  and  surplice.    But  our  ordinary  society  is  to  ctdtivate  the  chant,  polyphony,  hymns  in 

lay  choir  represents  not  only  the  congregation,  but  the  vernacular,  orean-playing,  and  orchestral  music  in 

also  the  official  choir,  without  wishing  to  play  the  r61e  conformity  with  the  r^ulations  of  the  Church.    The 

of  '^levites'';  for  this  reason  it  is  not  stationed  in  the  reform  endeavours  were  bv  no  means  confined  to  Ger- 

sanctuary,  and  no  one  would  think  of  proposing  that  many,  but  extended  to  Holland,  Ital^,  the  United 

its  members,  like  acolytes,  should  wear  the  ecclesiastical  States,  etc.   The  introduction  of  tihe  Vatican  ^ition  of 

habit.    The  lay  chou*  is  simply  a  substitute  for  the  the  chant  has  been,  since  the  decree  of  Pius  X,  the 

absent  chorus  carUorumf  in  the  liturgical  sense,  as  is  main  object  of  the  society's  activity.    In  the  restora^ 

the  nun  for  the  absent  acol3rte  when  me  supplies  from  tion  and  worthy  performance  of  the  traditional  chant, 

a  distance  the  responses  to  the  celebrant  during  the  the  Benedictines  have,  even  before  the  publication 

celebration  of  Mass.  of  Dom  Pothier's  work  (Les  melodies  gi^goriennes, 

Consequently,  the  presence  of  women  in  choirs  is  ex-  1880),  displayed  the  greatest  zeal.   Thus,  the  fathers 

cusable  imder  certain  circumstances,  although  choirs  of  Solesmes  in  France,   Beuron  in  Germany,   St. 

composed  of  men  and  boys  are  for  many  reasons  Anselm  in  Rome^  Maredsous  in  Belgium,  Prague  and 

preferable.    It  is  true  that  an  inquiry  about  this  point  Seckau  in  Austria,  co-operate  with  the  Cecilians  of 

received  an  apparently  negative  answer  on  18  Dec.,  every  part  of  the  world  m  carrying  out  the  wishes  of 

1908,  but  this  was  in  re^ird  to  the  conditions  de-  the  Holy  Father  and  the  bishops  in  regard  to  the 

scribed  in  the  inquiry  (prout  exponitur),  and  it  is  added  reform  of  church  music.    Every  one  is  under  obliga- 

that  the  Decree  is  to  be  tmderstood  in  the  sense  that  tion  to  do  what  he  can  in  his  own  particular  field, 
the  women  must  be  kept  entirely  separate  from  the        It  is  well  to  state  briefly  in  didactic  form  what  the 

men,  and  every  precaution  taken  to  render  impossible  Church  reallv  means  by  progressive  reform.    A  finit 

all  conduct  unbecoming  to  the  sacred  edifice.    From  requisite  is  the  recognition  that  the  chant,  as  the  true 

these  clauses  it  appears  that,  in  principle^  choirs  com-  music  of  the  Churcn,  must  be  studied  and  performed 

posed  of  men  and  women  are  not  inadmissible;  how-  with  the  greatest  care.    Whenever  difficulties  stand  in 

ever,  the  desirability  of  banis^ins  every  possible  occa-  the  way  of  the  introduction  of  the  Vatican  edition,  the 

sion  of  indecorousnessfrom  the  church  renders  it  pref-  bishops  will  take  such  measures  as  are  in  conformity 

erable  to  employ  boys,  rather  than  women,  in  choirs,  with  the  will  of  the  pope.    Schools  for  church  music 

The  emplovment  of  women  as  soloists  is  all  the  more  ^..^  he  fotmded  and  fostered.    The  ''Motu  proprio" 

questionable,  since  solos  in  church  are  admissible  only  (viii,  27,  28)  says:  "Let  care  be  taken  to  restor^  at 

within  certain  limits  (Motu  proprio).    A  choir  com«  least  in  the  principal  churches,  the  ancient  sehola 

posed  of  women  only  is  not  forbidden  (Decree  of  17  cantorumf  as  has  been  done  with  excellent  fruit  in 

Jan.,  1908).    To  employ  non-Catholics  in  church  as  many  places.     It  is  not  difficult  for  a  zealous  deigy 

singers  and  organists  is  only  tolerated  in  case  of  urgent  to  institute  such  schokBf  even  in  the  minor  and  country 

necessity,  because  they  neither  believe  nor  feel  the  churches — nay,  in  them  they  will  find  a  very  easy 

words  which  they  sing.  means  for  gathering  around  them  both  the  children 

Reform  in  Practice. — ^The  decadence  of  the  Gre-  and  the  adults  to  their  own  profit  and  the  edification 

gorian  chant  is  to  be  ascribed  primarily  to  the  develop-  of  the  people.    Let  efforts  be  made  to  support  and 

ment  of  and  preference  given  to  polyphony.    To  tlus  promote  in  the  best  way  possible  the  higher  schools  of 

cause  is  due  the  disappearance  from  the  cbant  of  its  sacred  music  where  these  already  exist,  and  to  help  in 

original  rhythm  and  the  serious  neglect  of  its  simpler  founding  them  where  they  do  not.    It  is  of  the  utmost 

form.   Even  before  the  Council  of  Trent,  ecclesiastical  importance  for  the  Church  herself  to  provide  for  the 

authority  had  repeatedly  raised  its  voice  against  the  instruction  of  its  masters,  organists,  and  sinsers  ao- 

abuses  which  haa  crept  into  polyphonic  music.    The  cording  to  the  true  principles  of  sacred  art."    In  a 

Gregorian  melodies,  however,  even  in  the  hands  of  the  similar  sense  it  is  the  will  of  the  Holy  Father  that  in 

contrapuntists,  retained  their  character  in  a  wonderful  the  study  of  liturgy  attention  should  be  directed  to 

manner.    Nevertheless,  the  contrast  between  the  two  the  principles  governing  liturgical  music,  and  that  ss- 

kinds  of  music  led.  at  the  beginning  of  the  seventeenth  thetic  appreciation  should  be  fostered.    Singers  must 

century,  to  an  abbreviation  of  the  long  melismatic  ever  be  numbly  submissive  to  their  pastor,  and  espe- 

passages,  to  a  different  application  of  the  text,  and  to  cially  to  the  episcopal  commission,  and  may  never 

many  less  important  modifications  (Graduale  Medi-  entertain  the  notion  that  the  chant  can  be  sung  with- 

csum).    Many  other  editions,  edited  according  to  the  out  due  preparation,  as  though  it  were  a  question  of 

same  principle,  followed  until  the  revised  "Medicasek"  merely  smging  the  notes.    Courses  in  the  chant  are 

(printed  in  Ratisbon)  became  in  1878  the  official  chant  given  in  various  centres,  and  excellent  books  of  in- 

hock  of  the  Church  (cf.  Decreta  auth.,  n.  3830).  struction  exist  in  great  numbers  (e.  g.,  Singenberger's 

Meanwhile,  the  liturgical  researches  of  the  Benedic-  "Guide  to  Church  Music")*    To  mention  only  one 

tines  of  Solesmes  had  led  (since  1903-4)  to  the  general  point,  it  is  important  to  master,  in  accordance  with 

restoration,  in  the  Vatican  edition,  of  the  chant  from  the  instructions  of  the  Benedictines,  the  proper  rhyth- 

the  manuscripts  of  the  twelfth  centurv.    Endeavours  mical  divisions  of  periods  and  phrases  as  wdl  as  the 

to  restore  the  earlier  neumed  texta  (tenth-century),  legato  delivery  of  tne  Ions  jubilations, 
mainly  on  accoimt  of  the  primitive  rhythm,  have  so        In  general,  it  is  now-a-aays  impossible  to  do  entirely 

far  met  with  little  success.  without  polyphonic  music.    It  constitutes  a  welcome 

The  "  Motu  proprio "  of  Pius  X  had  for  its  main  means  of  giving  splendour  to  feast-days,  but  is  a  source 

purpose  the  reform  of  church  music  in  general,  and  of  danger  if  over-indulged  in.    The  works  of  some  of 


covers  about  the  same  ground  as  the  "Re^olamento  the  best  masters  of  polyphony  have  been  made 

per  la  musica  sacra  **,  which  the  Congregation  of  Sa-  sible  for  studv  and  execution  by  exceUent  editions  (e.  g., 

cred  Rites  issued  imder  Leo  XIII,  but  which  applied  the  works  of  Palestrina  in  HaberFs  edition).     Thm 

more  particularly  to  Italy  (Deer,  auth.,  loc.  cit.).   On  is  certainly  no  dearth  of  compositions  in  the  modorn 

the  basis  of  these  regulations,  with  which  the  earlier  homophonic  style;  we  have  but  to  consult  the  catft> 

precepts  and  the  modem  decrees  are  in  entire  agre&-  logue  of  the  Cecilian  Society  or  the  above-named 

ment,  composers,  singers,  critics,  and  theorists  are  to  "  Guide '^    It  is  better  to  produce  repeatedly  a  few 

carry  on  tneir  work  of  reform.    Th^  constitute  the  compositions  within  the  capacity  of  the  choir  than  to 

principle  which  the  Cficilienverein  (decilian  Society)  introduce  new  works  frequently,  without  completely 

has  long  endeavoured  to  put  into  practice  in  Gennany,  mastering  them.    Critics  who  write  on  churdi  miioc^ 


MUSIC 


655 


MUSIC 


sompoobt^  and  choir-directors,  should  familiarize 
themselves  with  the  spirit  ana  regulations  of  the 
Church  in  regs^  to  music  by  means  of  the  numerous 
theoretical  manuals.  It  is  the  spirit  which  vivifies; 
the  form  serves  merely  to  give  it  expression.  Without 
stud3ring  the  liturgy  (at  least,  that  part  of  it  directly 
connected  with  the  music)  and  the  texts  in  the  original 
or  an  easily  procured  translation,  it  is  impossible  to 
penetrate  into  this  spirit.  The  Church  may  claim  our 
ready  allegiance  and  respect  for  the  laws  and  regula^- 
tions  whidi  she,  for  grave  reasons  and  to  deal  with 
existins  conditions,  has  enacted. 

In  theoretical  and  artistic  questions,  however, 
everyone  enjoys  freedom.  Thus  the  Congregation  of 
Rites  has  declared  in  regard  to  the  official  clumt  (and 
this  declaration  is  of  course  still  in  force):  '^ While 
students  of  the  chant  always  have  enjoyed  full  free- 
dom, a  privilege  which  they  will  not  be  deprived  of  in 
the  future,  to  ascertain  by  scientific  research  what  was 
the  primitive  form  of  the  chant,  and  what  modificar 
tions  it  has  undergone  in  subsequent  periods  (a  very 
laudable  inquiry  analogous  to  that  being  prosecuted 
by  learned  scholars  into  the  primitive  rites  and  other 
departments  of  the  liturgy),  only  that  form  of  the 
chant  which  His  HoUness  has  proposed  to  us,  and 
which  has  been  approved  by  the  Congregation  of 
Sacred  Rites,  may  to-day  be  considered  as  authorita- 
tive and  legitimate''  (Deer,  auth.,  n.  3830).  As  for 
composers,  they  should  never  try  to  foist  upon  the 
faithful  productions  which  do  not  conform  to  the  in- 
tentions of  the  Church,  even  if  the  music  in  itself  be 
beautiful,  nor  should  they  aim  at  a  mere  display  of 
their  own  powers  thereby  to  gain  fame  and  merely 
delight  theur  hearers.  They  shotdd,  on  the  contrary, 
endeavour  to  imitate  in  their  compositions  the  sim- 
plicity and  objectivity  of  the  chant,  and  learn  from  it 
to  accommodate  themselves  to  the  capacity  of  ordi- 
nary choirs.  With  these  considerations  before  him, 
the  choir-director  has  to  choose  his  music,  penetrate 
into  its  spirit  so  that  he  may  be  able  to  impart  the 
same  to  his  sinsers,  who  must  sing  not  only  correctly 
but  also  with  devotion.  Order  and  disciplme  among 
the  performers  are  important  factors  in  ootaining  the 
desired  results.  According  to  the  ''Motu  proprio'', 
"only  those  are  to  be  admitted  to  form  part  of  the 
musical  chapel  of  a  chiu'ch  who  are  men  of  known 
purity  and  probity  of  life,  and  these  should  bv  their 
modest  and  devout  bearing  during  the  liturgical  func- 
tions show  that  they  are  worthy  of  the  holy  office  they 
exercise. ''  Inasmuch  as  the  impression  produced  by 
a  performance  depends  greatly  on  the  interpretation, 
it  is  incumbent  upon  the  choir-master  to  insist  upon 
distinct  pronunciation  of  the  words,  a  noble  tone  qual- 
ity, and  a  simple  expression  of  the  mood.  Church 
music  should  be  free  from  exaggerated  and  extrava- 
gant expression  of  joy  or  sorrow,  sentimental  yearning, 
and  theatrical  effects  of  every  kind;  it  shomd  be  the 
utterance  of  fervent  prayer  springing  from  faith  and 
charity.  The  good  intention  of  the  singers  will  not 
only  find  its  eternal  reward,  it  will  also  evoke  grati- 
tucle  and  respect. 

The  twofold  aspect  of  the  principle  laid  down  by  the 
Sacred  Congregation  for  our  guidance  in  the  matter  of 
singing  in  the  vernacular  is  expressed  as  follows:  ''The 
Congr^ation  urgently  admonishes  that  hymns  in  the 
vernacular  no  matter  of  what  character,  should  gradu- 
ally and  unostentatiously  be  eliminated  from  liturgical 
functions.    On  the  other  hand,  pious  hymns  to  ap- 

{>roved  texts,  which  are  extensively  employed,  particu- 
arly  in  Germany,  during  different  devotions  and  be- 
fore the  Blessed  Sacrament  exposed,  are  by  no  means 
prohibited''  (3  April,  1883;  Krutscheck,  3rd  ed.,  pp. 
151,  177).  Songs  in  the  vernacular,  alternating  with 
pT&yeTf  are  suitable  during  low  Mass  (within  narrow 
limits,  however),  benediction,  but  especially  during 
processions  outside  of  the  church.  An  excellent 
means  for  fostering  this  desirable  practice  is  the  care- 


ful training  of  the  school  children,  whose  singing  need 
not,  however,  be  confined  to  hymns  in  unison,  and  who 
also  may  be  allowed  to  perform  occasionally  more  elab- 
orate compositions  in  two  or  more  parts.  The  sing- 
ing, however,  ehould  not  be  permitted  to  gain  preced- 
ence over  prayer.  The  h3rmn-book  should  at  the  same 
time  be  a  prayer-book,  and  pra3dng  aloud  should  alter- 
nate with  the  singing.  It  is  important  that  the  sense 
and  si>irit  of  the  hymns  be  carefully  explained  to  the 
children.  The  performance  should  be  free  from  dra^g- 
ging  and  slurring,  faults  which  should  be  strongly  dis- 
couraged by  the  organist.  Arbitrary,  unindicated 
pauses  should  be  avoided.  The  children,  especially, 
should  be  taught  to  respond  to  the  celebrant  at  the 
altar;  this  is  the  oidy  way  to  educate  the  congregation 
gradually  to  do  the  same  thing.  No  one  exercises  a 
greater  influence  in  the  reform  of  church  music  than 
the  organist,  provided  he  be  animated  by  the  spirit  of 
the  Church.  His  playing  should  be,  like  the  chant  of 
the  Church,  simple  and  grave,  devotional  and  objec- 
tive. Song  preludes  and  intermezzi  during  litureical 
functions  are  forbidden.  The  organ  must  be  siibor- 
dinate  to  the  singing,  must  support  and  not  drown  it. 
The  purely  vocal  style  is  the  ideal  of  the  Church.  The 
papal  choir,  vhe  Sistine,  has  always  excluded  instru- 
mental music.  The  more  humble  and  subordinate 
the  r61e  of  the  organist,  the  more  faithful  and  conscien- 
tious he  should  be  in  filling  it.  He  should  never  oc- 
cupy the  front  of  the  stage,  scandalize  the  faithful  by 
trashy  improvisations,  or  keep  the  celebrant  waiting. 
In  extrarhturgical  functions^  however,  he  may  move 
somewhat  freely.  It  is  decidedly  preferable  to  play 
the  works  of  good  masters  than  to  improvize.  In  pre- 
paring for  a  great  Uturgical  ftmction,  he  should  aim  at 
giving  suitable  and  f im  expression  to  the  spirit  of  the 
day,  the  feast,  and  circumstance.  Unceasing  practice 
is  mdispensable,  especially  to  the  musician  of  medio- 
cre talent,  even  though  he  always  keep  the  text  before 
him.  He  must  be  able  to  perform  this  with  absolute 
sureness,  mastery,  and  freedom.  He  must  know  how 
to  modulate  from  one  key  into  another,  how  to  pro- 
ce^  from  one  number  to  another,  what  key  to  choose 
for  the  hymns  sung  by  the  congregation,  how  to  trans- 
pose the  chant  from  one  key  into  another,  how  to  com- 
bine the  organ  stops,  and  (to  a  certain  extent  at  least) 
how  to  improvize  and  to  harmonize  at  sight.  Under 
no  circumstances  must  he  permit  himself  to  carry  remi- 
niscences of  the  concert  and  opera  into  the  church. 

As  to  the  use  of  instruments,  other  than  the  organ, 
we  should  remember  that  the  special  permission  of  the 
ordinary  is  necessary,  and  that  their  nature  must  al- 
ways be  in  keeping  with  the  occasion  and  the  place. 
The  emplo3rment  of  a  full  orchestra  forms  an  excep- 
tion (cf.  Motu  proprio,  cited  above).  The  wisdom  of 
these  restrictions  nas  been  cheerfully  recognized  by 
such  unprejudiced  authorities  as  Wagner  and  Beet- 
hoven— ^a  fact  whidh  cannot  be  too  often  stated.  The 
former  maintained  that  "genuine  church  music  should 
be  produced  only  by  voices,  except  a  *  Gloria'  or  similar 
text."  As  early  in  his  career  as  1848  this  master  as- 
cribed the  decadence  of  church  music  to  the  use  of  in- 
struments. "The  first  step  toward  the  decadence  of 
genuine  Catholic  church  music  was  the  introduction 
of  orchestra  instruments.  Their  character  and  inde- 
pendent use  have  imparted  to  religious  expression  a 
sensuous  charm,  which  has  proved  very  detrimental, 
and  has  affected  unfavoun^ly  the  art  of  singinf^  itself. 
The  virtuosity  of  instrumentaUsts  provoked  imitation 
on  the  part  of  singers^  and  soon  a  worldly  and  operatic 
taste  held  full  sway  in  church.  Certain  parts  of  the 
sacred  text,  e.  g.  the  *  Kyrie  Eleison',  became  a  vehicle 
for  operatic  arias,  and  singers  trained  for  Italian  opera 
were  engaged  as  church  singers"  (Gesammelte  Werke, 
II,  335).  Every  reform  has,  in  accordance  with  the 
will  of  the  Church,  to  be  carried  out  in  such  a  manner 
that  a  greater  evil  may  not  result — that  is,  gradually 
and  without  causing  tmnecessary  friction  (sensim  8ine 


MUSIC                                656  MUSIC 

8en8u)f  but  yet  with  firmness,  regardless  of  one's  per-  Eisenach,  lo85;  d.  at  Leipzig,  1750)  has  also  set  Catho- 
sonal  views.  Moral  necessity  alone  dispenses  from  a  lie  Utnrgical  texts  to  music.  His  mass  in  B  minor  is 
command  of  the  Church.  It  must  be  considered  as  considered  one  of  his  greatest  works,  among  which  his 
progress  when  features  either  forbidden  or  discouraged  oratorio,  the  ^'Passion  according  to  St.  Matthew", 
by  the  Church  (e.  g.,  hymns  in  the  vernacular  during  must  be  also  included.  Among  his  other  oomposi- 
liturgical  functions,  the  use  of  orchestral  instruments,  tions  for  Sundays  and  festivals,  preludes  and  fugues 
women  in  choirs)  are  no  longer  fostered,  and  when  one  hold  a  prominent  place.  He  was  also  distinguish^  in 
abuse  after  another  is  gradually  reduced  to  a  mini-  the  field  of  chamber  music.  George  Frederick  Han- 
mum.  Those  in  charge  should  not  cater  to  the  false  del  (b.  at  Halle,  1685;  d.  at  London,  1759)  devoted  his 
ideas  of  the  people,  but  should  make  every  effort  by  powers  first  to  the  opera  and  later  to  the  oratorio.  He 
the  performance  of  better  compositions  to  ennoble  also  wrote  "Te  Deums",  psalms,  fugues,  and  concerti 
popular  taste.  Offence  is  perhaps  most  easil>r  given,  for  the  organ,  which,  like  Bach's  sacred  works,  suggest 
when  old  and  favourite  hymns,  though  of  an  inferior  the  lofty  purpose  of  the  older  masters,  but  do  not  fulfil 
quality,  are  withdrawn:  modem  h3rmn-books,  how-  the  requirements  of  the  Church.  The  musical  fame  of 
ever,  contain  such  an  abundance  of  excellent  melodies  these  masters  is  thereby  in  nowise  diminished.  The 
that  many  an  undesirable  hynm  is  discarded  without  church  hynm  or  chorale,  which,  with  the  cantata,  and 
diffictdty.  The  fundamental  conditions  for  success  oratorio,  is  essential  to  the  Protestant  cult,  is  a  develop- 
are  a  good  choir  of  men  and  boys,  a  capable  organist,  ment  in  popular  form  of  the  singing  of  the  Gregorian 
and  a  judicious  choice  of  masses  and  other  composi-  chant  by  the  congregation, 
tions  by  the  choir-director.  The  oratorio,  which  Handel  brought  to  the  highest 

The  Vatican  chant,  however,  presents  difficulties  of  degree  of  perfection  (Messiah,  Judas  Maccabeus, 
a  special  nature.  It  is  true  that  mere  recitation  on  a  Israel  in  Egypt,  etc.),  stands  miaway  between  secular 
straight  tone  may  in  some  cases  be  resorted  to.  It  and  liturgical  music.  Originally  intended  as  an  ethi- 
has  also  been  customary  from  time  immemorial  to  as-  cal-reli^ous  reaction  against  the  Florentine  opera,  it 
sign  to  a  few  chosen  singers  the  more  diffictdt  passages,  treats  Biblical  and  legendary  themes  in  a  lyric-dra- 
in regard  to  the  rhythm,  accent,  and  other  points  we  matic  form,  but  without  dramatic  action.  It  consists 
now  know  the  precise  intentions  of  the  Holy  See.  The  of  recitations,  arias  (duets,  trios,  quartets), and  choruses 
''Acta  Apostolicse  Sedis''  (1910,  pp.  145  sq.)  contains  with  a  brilliant  orchestral  accompaniment.  On  ac- 
a  letter  from  the  Prefect  of  the  Congregation  of  Rites  count  of  its  semi-operatic  form  the  oratorio  is  not 
to  the  president  of  the  German  Cacilienverein,  which  available  for  church  purposes,  although  it  was  custom- 
by  this  publication  becomes  binding  on  all.  In  this  ary  in  former  times  to  perform  settings  of  the  Passion 
letter  the  direction  is  given  that  the  rhythmical  inter-  in  church  on  Good  Fnday.  The  cantata  (perfected 
pretation  of  the  Vatican  edition  is  to  be  in  accordance  by  Bach)  is  more  lyric  and  less  epic  in  style  with  a 
with  the  rules  laid  down  in  the  preface  to  the  Graduate,  somewhat  more  modest  instrumentation.  The  can- 
The  wish  is  also  expressed  that  no  contrary  methods  tata  and  oratorio  are  both  developments  from  the 
should  be  advocated  in  the  press,  as  they  would  only  antiphonal  sacred  chants  and  the  mystexy  plays 
cause  confusion  and  retard  the  progress  of  music  reform,  of  the  Middle  Ages.  Side  by  side  with  por3rphony 
Theoretic  discussions  seem  not  to  have  been  prohib-  existed  the  folk-song  in  the  vernacular  and  also 
ited,  except  in  so  far  as  they  might  interfere  with  the  more  pretentious  compositions,  such  as  the  lays  of 
introduction  of  the  Vatican  edition  (cf.  the  decree  the  troubadours,  minnesingers,  and  masteisingers, 
of  the  Congregation  of  Kites  quoted  above,  which  and  the  madrigal.  The  folk-sons  of  olden  times, 
was  issued  under  similar  conditions — Deer,  auth.,  n.  springing  directly  from  and  resembling  the  music  of 
3830).  A  considerable  latitude  is  allowed  in  the  inter-  the  Church,  was  often  employed  as  motif  or  carUia 
pretation  of  the  document.  The  attempts,  disap-  firmus  in  masses  and  other  liturgical  compositions,  a 
proved  of  by  the  Holy  Father,  are  characterized  in  a  proceeding  which  would  not  be  allowed  now-a-days. 
rather  mild  manner;  critics  are  asked  to  abstain  from  Christian  pilgrims  were  wont  to  sing  antiphonally 
attempting  that  which,  in  the  present  state  of  archse-  hymns  having  for  their  burthen  the  life  and  death  of 
ological  studies,  can  have  no  other  result  than  to  our  Saviour  and  similar  subjects.  The  dramatic  de- 
spread  confusion  and  divert  attention  from  the  real  ment  inherent  in  these  subjects  was  contained  in  the 
work  of  restoring  the  Gregorian  chant  to  its  rightful  liturgy  itself.  It  had  only  to  be  brought  into  conjimc- 
place.  In  spite  of  the  many  differences  of  opinion,  tion  with  epical  recitation  or  narrative  and  sons  in 
we  should  make  every  effort  to  introduce  the  Vatican  order  to  develop  into  the  mystery  plays,  which  had 
edition  in  conformity  with  the  will  of  the  pope.  By  their  secular  counterparts.  As  far  back  as  the  elev- 
studying  the  symmetrical  construction  of  the  melo-  enth  century  these  mystery  plays  on  feast-days  served 
dies  in  the  light  of  the  explanations  of  the  Benedic-  to  present  to  the  people  in  dramatic  form  the  Passion, 
tines,  which  are  undoubtedly  of  high  esthetic  value.  Resurrection,  and  Last  Judgment.  Their  original 
the  execution  becomes  not  only  much  easier  but  the  home  was  the  church  and  the  monastery,  from  which 
profoimd  beauty  of  the  chant  is  revealed  to  us.  they  had  later  to  be  banished.    The  secular  and  semi- 

Religious  Music. — Finally  that  class  of  religious  ecclesiastical  or  simply  religious  music  of  the  Middle 

music  which  may  not  be  placed  in  the  same  category  Ages  had  a  decisive  influence  in  the  tran^ormation  of 

with  real  church  music,  must  be  mentioned.     The  polyphonic  music  into  the  harmonic  or  homophonic, 

masses  by  Mozart,  Haydn,  and  Beethoven  have  al-  and  a  comparison  between  the  various  styles  is  a  great 

ready  been  spoken  of.     The  musical  interpretation  aid  in  determining  the  character  of  genuine  <diurch 

of  the  text  and  their  operatic  form  render  them  little  music. 

suited  to  the  church.    We  must  also  name  the  older  It  is  as  important  to-day  as  ever  that  we  carefully 

Protestant  masters,  John  Sebastian  Bach  and  G.  F.  distinguish  between  simply  religious  music — be  it 

Handel,  whose  works   for  Protestant  services  un-  never  so  beautiful,  artistic,  and  conducive  to  private 

doubtedly  deserve  to  be  studied  by  the  church  musi-  devotion — and  that  kind  of  music  which  the  Churdi 

cian.    The  greater  latitude  accorded  to  organ  playing  requires  for  her  services.    Outside  of  the  Church  each 

in  the  Protestant  cult  has  given  occasion  to  the  high-  one  may  sing  such  melodies  to  religious  texts  as  best 

est  productions  of  contrapuntal  and  harmonic  art.  satisfy  his  own  pious  mood;  he  may  even  indulge  his 

We  must  not  lose  sight  of  the  fact,  however,  that  the  sesthetic  predilections  in  choosing  his  hymns.    The 

predominance  in  their  works  of  the  instrumental  ele-  house  of  God,  however,  demands  an  entirely  different 

ment,  with  its  obtrusive  arias,  duets,  and  choruses,  is  attitude;  we  must  realize  that  we  are  there  to  pray, 

in  opposition  to  the  spirit  of  the  Catholic  liturgy,  that  we  may  not  foree  our  personal  mood  on  our  fellow 

which  finds  a  more  suitable  medium  of  expression  m  Christians,  but  that,  on  the  contrary,  we  must  follow 

the  purely  vocal  style.    John  Sebastian  Bach  (b.  at  with  devout  attention  and  pious  song,  acoording  to  tbs 


MUSICAL 


667 


MUSICAL 


wiil  and  in  the  spirit  of  the  Church,  the  liturgical  ac- 
tion at  the  altar.  And,  in  according  to  the  Church  our 
filial  obedience,  we  need  entertain  no  fear  that  she,  the 
venerable  mother  and  protector  of  the  arts,  will  assign 
to  music  a  function  tm worthy  of  its  powers. 

KBirrscBBK,  Die  Kvrekenmunk  nach  dem  Willen  der  Kirehe  (5th 
ed.,  Ratiflbon,  1901);  SiNaBNBEROER,  Guide  to  Catholic  Church 
Mueie  (2nd  ed.,  Milwaukee,  1905),  published  by  order  of  the 
Provincial  Ckmncil  of  Milwaukee;  KoBNMt}LLER,  Lex.  der  kirchl, 
Tonkund  (2  parte,  2nd  ed.,  Ratisbon,  1891-5) ;  BXumker,  Daa 
kathol.  Kirchenlied  in  eeinen  Singweisen  (3  vols.,  Freiburg,  1883- 
91);  JuNOMANN,  Aeethelik  (Freiburg,  1886);  Gibtmann,  Musih- 
AeWietik  (Freiburg,  19(X)).  Special  mention  must  be  made  of  the 
periodicals  on  Church  mumc  m  German  and  French  and  to  the 
American  periodicals  Church  Mueie  and  Ccecilia  (the  organ  of  the 
American  Cecilian  Societv),  from  which  a  great  deal  of  theoretic 
and  praotioal  value  may  be  gathered. 

G.   GlETMANN. 

Musical  InBtrumentB  in  Church  Services.— For 
ahnost  a  thousand  years  Gregorian  chant,  without 
any  instrumental  or  harmonic  addition,  was  the  only 
music  used  in  connexion  with  the  liturgy.  The  organ, 
in  its  primitive  and  rude  form,  was  the  first,  and  for  a 
long  time  the  sole,  instrument  used  to  accompany  the 
chant.  It  gave  the  pitch  to  the  singers  and  added  bril- 
liancy and  sonority.  In  secular  music,  however,  in- 
struments played  an  important  rdle  at  an  early  date. 
It  may  be  said  that  instrumental  music  developed 
simidtaneously  with  secular  music  itself.  The  trouoa- 
dours,  trouvSres,  and  jongleurs  (who  flourished  in 
France,  Italy,  and  Spain  from  the  eleventh  to  the  four- 
teenth centuries  inclusive),  and  their  English  contem- 
poraries, the  minstrels  or  wayfarers,  as  well  as  the 
minnesingers  in  Germany  during  the  twelfth  and  thir- 
teenth centuries,  accompanied  their  chants  and  lyric 
improvisations  on  instruments.  Among  these  were  a 
diminutive  harp,  which  was  laid  on  the  table  while 
being  played,  the  fiddle,  also  called  vielle  or  viola  (pro- 
totypes of  our  violin),  tne  very  ancient  crwthj  crowd  ar 
chroUa  (an  instrument  having  originally  three,  but 
later  five  strings,  now  obsolete),  and  the  hurd^-gurdy. 
The  last  two  were  more  especially  in  use  m  Great 
Britain.  Wind  instruments,  such  as  the  flute  in  sev- 
eral forms,  the  trumpet,  horn,  sackbut  (forerunner  of 
our  trombone),  and  others  now  obsolete  were  common 
with  the  wayfaring  musicians.  Instrumental  music  as 
an  art,  however,  failed  for  a  long  time  to  gain  the  rec- 
ognition of  the  educated  and  upper  classes,  chiefly 
because  it  served  the  purposes  of  the  dance  and  mere 
entertainment  almost  exclusively,  and  also  on  account 
of  the  more  or  less  vagabond  character  of  most  of  its 
votaries.  There  was,  nevertheless,  constant  progress 
both  in  the  construction  of  the  instruments  and  in  a 
more  and  more  widely-extended  and  skilful  use  of 
them.  Princes  maintained  bands  of  musicians  at  their 
courts  for  their  entertainments,  and  for  giving  zest  and 
splendour  to  public  festivities.  Some  of  these  earty 
orchestras  nimibered  as  many  as  thirty  or  forty  musi- 
cians. While  it  is  certain  that  as  early  as  the  fiJfteenth 
century  instruments  besides  the  organ  were  used  in 
connexion  with  polyphonic  litur^cal  compositions,  it 
has  not  been  definitely  ascertained  to  what  extent 
such  was  the  case,  what  passages  were  played  by  the 
instruments  alone,  and  where  they  simply  reinforced 
the  voices.  The  aifliculty  in  determining  the  precise 
nature  of  instrumental  co-operation  with  the  voices  is 
increased  by  the  fact  that  in  those  days  the  text  was 
applied  by  the  composer  to  only  one  voice — generally 
the  cantiuif  or  upper  voice.  In  accordance  with  this 
model,  the  singers  themselves  applied  the  text*  to  the 
other  voices  as  they  proceeded.  At  all  events  the  in- 
struments served  at  best  only  as  a  reinforcement  or  as 
substitute  for  the  human  voices  and  had  no  indepen- 
dent function  in  our  modem  sense.  Furthermore, 
thev  were  employed  with  sole  reference  to  their  pitch 
and  not  to  their  timbre,  or  tone-quality.  Thus,  instru- 
ments of  the  violin  family  and  flutes  would  play  with 
the  high  voices,  sopranos  and  altos,  whereas  horns  and 
trombones  were  assigned  to  the  tenor  and  bass  parts. 
X.- 


It  was  with  the  advent  of  monody  (see  H armont)  that 
the  use  of  instruments  in  connexion  with  the  voices 
received  a  great  impetus.  The  closely-knit,  com- 
pact polyphonic  structure  which  had  predominated  up 
to  this  tune,  needed  no  extraneous  aid  for  its  effective- 
ness and  sonority.  This  was  not  the  case  with  the 
new  style  of  composition  rapidly  superseding  the  old 
school.  It  depended  to  a  great  extent  for  its  tonal 
body  and  artistic  existence  on  the  aid  of  instruments. 
The  great  perfection  reached  in  the  construction  of 
stringed  instrument.s  in  the  sixteenth  century  was  both 
a  manifestation  of,  and  an  aid  to  the  growing  ten- 
dency; virtuosity,  not  only  on  stringed,  but  also  on 
wind  instruments  was  a  common  accomplishment. 
The  character  and  individuality  of  the  instruments, 
so  to  speak,  were  being  made  available  as  means  of 
expression  for  the  subjective  moods,  dramatic  feelings, 
and  conceptions  of  the  composer. 

While  ail  this  development  had,  up  to  the  first  half 
of  the  sixteenth  century,  served  mainly  secular  pur- 
poses, it  was  through  Ludovico  Grossi  da  Viadana 
(1564-1627)  that  the  use  of  instruments  became  more 
common  in  churches.  While  choirmaster  in  Mantua 
and  in  Venice,  this  master  pubHshed  his  "Cento  con- 
certi  ecclesiastici",  compositions  to  sacred  texts,  for 
one  or  more  voices  and  basso  continuOf  or  figured  bass 

Elayed  on  the  organ  and  supplemented  by  violins, 
ass  viols,  and  wind  instruments,  a  species  of  compo- 
sition in  vogue  before  his  time.  A  contemporary  of 
Viadana,  Giovanni  Gabrieli  (1557-1612),  choirmaster 
of  St.  Mark's,  Venice,  went  a  considerable  step  farther 
than  any  one  before  him.  He  wrote  not  only  nu- 
merous works  for  voices  and  instruments,  but  created 
works  for  instruments  alone,  and  discovered  the  prin- 
ciple of  modem  orchestration  by  doubling  the  voices 
in  octaves  and  applying  the  same  process  to  the  organ 
and  other  instruments.  Another  event  which  was 
destined  to  exercise  a  momentous  influence,  not  only 
on  the  growth  of  the  use  of  instruments  but  also  on  the 
future  development  of  liturgical  music  itself,  was  the 
birth  of  opera  with  the  first  performance  (1594)  of 
Jacopo  Peri's  "Dafne"  in  Florence.  This  new  art 
form,  originating  as  it  did  with  the  humanistic  spirit 
of  the  time  and  being  a  return  to  the  musical  and 
literary  ideals  of  antiquity  which  enthralled  the  culti- 
vated classes  of  the  day,  soon  gained  an  enormous 
popularity  and  completely  overshadowed  all  previously 
accepted  ideals  in  popular  favour.  It  was  but  a  short 
time  before  the  spirit  and  forms  of  the  theatre,  instru- 
ments and  all,  found  their  way  into  the  Church. 
While  formerly  the  spirit  and  form  of  church  music 
dominated  secular  music  (most  early  secular  melodies 
which  have  come  down  to  us  belonging  to  one  or  the 
other  of  the  Gregorian  modes)  it  was  now  the  spirit, 
taste,  and  passions  of  the  world  as  expressed  in  opera 
whicn  were  in  the  ascendency  and  began  to  dominate 
the  compositions  to  liturgical  texts.  It  was  natural 
that  the  people  should  Uke  to  hear  in  church  the  forms 
of  composition  which  delighted  them  so  much  in  the 
theatre.  The  severe  simplicity  of  liturgical  chant  was 
set  aside;  pol3rphony  was  considered  too  formal  and 
artificial.  The  spirit  of  universality  animating  them 
had  to  3deld  to  the  new  style  expressions  of  individual 
feeling  enhanced  by  the  sensuous  charm  of  the  in- 
struments. That  which  was  in  accordance  with  the 
prevailing  and  growing  taste  of  the  generality  was,  if 
not  desired,  at  least  tolerated  by  those  in  authority, 
and  there  was  no  hindrance  to  the  triumphal  conquest 
by  instrumental  music  which  we  have  witnessed  since. 
New  purely  instrumental  forms  were  developed  and 
cultivated  in  the  course  of  the  seventeenth  and  eigh- 
teenth centuries  in  Italy,  FYance,  and  especially  in 
Germany,  the  most  fruitful  soil  of  all,  until  the  sym- 
phony was  evolved,  through  which  the  composer  gives 
utterance  to  all  the  conflicting  emotions  which  sway 
him.  Peri,  for  the  accompaniment  of  his  first  opera, 
'^Dafne'',  used  but  a  few  instruments,  namely,  a 


MUSTI                                 658  MITSTI 

luurpsichord  (one  of  the  predecessors  of  our  modem  Judgment.  With  this  work,  the  last  word  of  a  mind  and 

pianoforte),  a  lute,  a  viola  da  gamba  (forerunner  of  our  age  which  still  believe  but  no  longer  adore,  mibiectiv- 

violoncello),  an  archlute,  or  lute  of  a  larger  size,  and  a  ism  finds  its  supreme  manifestation^  and  the  orchestra 

triple  flute,  while  Claudio  Monteverdi  (1567-1643)  its  most  potent  means  of  expression.    The  Qiurch 

employed  in  his  opera  ^'Orfeo''  the  formidable  num-  has  never  encouraged,  and  at  most  only  tolerated,  the 

ber  of  thirty-six  instruments,  as  follows:  two  cUwicem'  use  of  instruments.    She  enjoins  in  the  "  Cseremoniale 

bali  (another  primitive  form  of  the  pianoforte),  two  Episcoporum^' that  permission  for  their  use  should  first 

corUrabassif  ten  viola  da  brazza  (violas),  one  double  be  obtained  from  the  ordinary.    She  holds  up  as  her 

harp,  two  violini  piccolini  aUa  Francese  (violins),  two  ideal  the  imaccompanied  chant  and  polyphonic,  a 

organi  di  legno  (a  sort  of  violin  played  or  struck  with  capella,  style.    The  Sistine  Chapel  has  not  even  an 

the  wood  of  the  bow),  three  hassi  da  gamba  (celli)  four  organ. 

trombones,  one  regcde  (a  portable  organ  with  only  one  From  time  to  time  regulations  have  been  issued 
or  two  stops  or  registers) .  two  cometti.  one  flatUino  governing  the  use  of  instruments  and  condemning  ex- 
(small  flute),  one  darino  (trumpet)  ana  three  trombe  istin^  abuses.  In  1728  Benedict  XIII  rebuked  a  com- 
aordine  (muted  trumpets).  While  this  was  a  formi-  mumty  of  Benedictine  nuns  in  Milan  for  using  oUier 
dable  sonorous  body,  orchestration  in  our  present  day  instruments  than  the  organ  during  high  Mass  and 
sense,  that  is,  the  utilization  of  the  various  instru-  Vespers.  He  also  forbade  the  Franciscans  to  use  any 
ments  in  accordance  with  their  nature,  tone  quality,  other  instrument  than  the  organ  in  their  conventual 
and  compass,  and  their  combination,  with  a  view  to  churches.  Benedict  XIV  in  his  encyclical  ''Amnis 
the  greatest  variety  of  tone  colour  and  sonority,  was  qui  nunc  vertentem'^  (19  February-  1749)  tolerates 
yet  to  be  evolved.  While  Giovanni  Carissimi  (1604-  only  the  organ,  stringeid  instruments,  and  bassoons. 
74)  in  his  oratorios,  employs  the  instruments  with  Kettle-drums,  horns,  teombones.  oboes,  ^utes,  pianos, 
more  appreciation  of  their  individuality  than  was  and  mandolins  are  prohibited.  In  the  ''K^gola- 
manifested  before  him,  it  remained  for  his  gifted  pupil  mento"  of  1884,  flutes,  trombones,  and  kettleHdrums 
Alessandro  Scarlatti  (1657-1725),  founder  of  the  are  permitted  on  account  of  the  improved  manner  in 
Neapolitan  school,  to  establish  the  norm  for  the  use  which  they  are  now  used  as  compared  with  former 
of  instruments,  which  remained  unchanged  for  more  times.  In  the  name  of  Gregory  XVI,  the  Cardinal- 
than  a  hundred  years.  Scarlatti's  orchestra  for  his  Vicar  of  Rome,  Patrizi,  prohibited  (1842)  the  use  of 
oratorios  and  operas  consisted  of  first  and  second  vio-  instruments  in  the  Roman  churches,  with  the  exoep- 
lins,  violas,  violoncellos,  basses,  two  oboes  (from  haiU-  tion  of  a  few  to  be  used  in  a  becoming  manner  in  ao- 
boiSt  "high  wood"  developed  from  the  ancient  cala^  compan3ring  the  singing,  and  then  only  after  permis- 
mu8,  '^reed";  French,  chcuumeau,  Germaxif  achalmey)^  sion  had  been  secured  from  the  proper  authority, 
two  bassoons  (corresponding  to  the  oboes  in  the  lower  This  order  was  renewed  in.  1856  W  the  same  cardinal 
octaves),  and  two  horns.  This  combination  of  in-  in  the  name  of  Pius  IX.  Pius  X,  in  his  "Motu  pro- 
strumcnts  was  still  in  vogue  in  the  time  of  Haydn  and  prio"  on  church  music  (22  November,  1903)  in  para- 
Mozart,  and  was  used  in  most  of  their  works  for  the  'graph  IV,  says,  ''Although  the  music  proper  to  the 
Church  except  that  they  sometimes  added  two  flutes,  Church  is  purely  vocal  music,  music  with  the  accom- 
fwo  clarinets  (woodwind  instrument  of  ancient  ori-  paniment  of  the  organ  is  also  permitted.  In  some 
gin,  so  called  on  account  of  the  resemblance  of  its  special  cases,  within  due  limits  and  with  the  proper 
tones  to  the  high  tones  of  the  darino ,  or  trumpet),  and  regards  other  instruments  may  be  allowed,  but  never 
two  trumpets.  In  their  operas  and  oratonos  these  without  the  special  license  of  the  ordinary,  acoord- 
and  contemporary  masters  added  tympani  (kettle-  ing  to  the  prescription  of  the  *  Caeremoniale  Episco- 
drums)  and  three  trombones.  porum'.  As  the  chant  should  always  have  the  first 
The  instrumental  idea  gained  such  a  firm  hold  that  place,  the  organ  or  instruments  should  merely  sustain 
a  very  large  proportion  of  all  the  music  written  for  and  never  suppress  it.  It  is  not  permitted  to  have  the 
the  Church  was  with  orchestral  accompaniment.  At  chant  preceded  by  long  preludes,  or  to  have  it  inter- 
cathedral  and  other  churches  large  orchestras  were  ruptcd  with  intermezzo  pieces",  etc.  Among  thoee 
permanently  endowed,  many  of  which  survive  to-  who  have  recently  written,  within  the  prescribea  limits, 
day,  notably  in  Dresden,  Breslau,  Freiburg-in-Baden,  works  for  voices  and  instruments  for  liturgical  use,  are, 
Munich,  and  Vienna.  In  innumerable  other  places,  I.  Mitterer,  G.  J.  E.  Stehle,  M.  Brosig,  Max  Filke, 
the  world  over,  the  orchestra,  without  being  always  George  Zeller,L.Bonvin,S.J.,C.Greith^F.X.  Witt,  P. 
present,  would  be  called  into  service  on  festival  occa-  Griesbacher,  J.  G.  Meuerer,  and  J.  Rhemberger.  The 
sions.  Up  to  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth  century  it  present  trend  is,  however,  decidedly  away  from  the 
was  considered  bv  composers  practically  impossible  to  instrumental  idea  and  back  to  the  purely  vocal  style, 
interpret  musically  the  text  of  the  Mass  or  requiem  And  it  is  recognized,  and  in  many  places  acted  upon, 
without  calling  to  their  aid  fd\  the  resources  and  means  that  the  new  version  of  the  liturgical  chant,  proposed 
of  expression  afforded  by  a  complete  orchestra,  to  the  Catholic  world  by  Pius  X,  gains  its  full  beauty 
While  Beethoven,  in  his  "  Mass  in  C  and  "  Missa  so-  and  effectiveness  only  when  sung  without  instrumen- 
lemnis",  as  well  as  Cherubini  in  his  numerous  works  tal  accompaniment  of  any  kind. 

to  liturgical  texts,  does  not  go  beyond  the  so-called  Krdtbcheck,  Die  Kirchenmuaik  tmcH  dom  WilUn  <Ur  Kinhs 

classical  orchestra,  that  is,  first  and  second  violins,  <?VH^'''-^^?2.V^^T^^w^Kv°J!f.^i*^F 

•   1            11        u              iaxL            i-Ai_  pt.  I  (LeiDBW,  1907);  JuNOMANN,  jleM/iert*  (rreiburg,  looo/  issrp, 

Violas,  cellos,  basses,  flutes,  oboes,  ClannetS,  bassoons,  iOeschichte  der  dcutachen  InttrumerUalmuaik  (Leipiig.  1902) ;  Wooi^ 

horns,  trumpets,  trombones,  and  kettle-drums,  Liszt  dridob,  The  Oxford  History  of  A#tmc.  II  (1905);  Gixtmaxh, 

and  Gounod  in  addition  to  these  also  employ  the  pic-    MuHk^Aeethetik  (Freiburg.  1900).  

colo  (small  flute),  cantrafagoUo,  or  bassoon  bass,  the  Joseph  v/itbn. 
harp,  cymbals,  and  tvba  (a  brass  instrument  serving  as 

a  bass  to  the  trombone  family).  The  extreme  limit  Musti,  a  titular  see  of  Proconsular  Afnca,  sunrar 
in  instrumental  tone  display  in  modem  times  was  gan  of  Carthage.  This  town,  which  was  a  Roman 
reached,  however,  in  Hector  Berlioz's  "Requiem  mttnia/num  at  an  early  date,  is  mentioned  by  Ptrf- 
Mass",  performed  (1837)  for  the  first  time  in  Notre  emy,  IV,  3,  33,  the  **  Itinerarium  Antonini ",  the  Feu- 
Dam^,  Paris.  In  this  work  all  previous  efforts  in  the  tinger  Table,  and  the  Ravenna  geographer,  Vibiufl 
way  of  tonal  manifestation  are  far  surpassed.  Be-  Sequester,  who  narrates  the  killing  at  this  P^goe  dt  aa 
sides  an  orchestra  of  one  hundred  and  thirty  instru-  enormous  serpent  by  Regulus.  Its  nuns,  c^ed  Mest 
ments,  including  sixteen  kettle-drums,  the  author  em-  Henshir,  are  seen  in  the  vicinity  of  the  kowm  of  the 

Eloys  in  the  "Tuba  mirum"  four  separate  groups  of  marabout  Sidi  Abd-er-Rchou,  between  Teboursouk 

rass  instruments,  typifying  the  trumpets  calling  from  and  Keff  (Tunis).    Worthy  of  njontion  are  two  fine 

the  four  corners  of  the  earth  on  the  day  of  the  Last  gates,  and  a  triumphal  arch.    The  inscnptiona  cal» 


MUSUB08 


659 


Bcuns 


the  inhabitants  Musticenses  or  Mustitani;  the  latter 
name  is  also  used  by  St.  Augustine.  In  41 1,  at  the 
time  of  the  Carthage  conference,  Musti  had  besides 
two  Donatist  bishops  (FeUcianus  and  Cresconius)  two 
Catholic  bishops  (Victorianus  and  Leontius).  Anto- 
nianus  was  one  of  the  bishops  exiled  by  Huneric  in 
482.  Musti  was  then  included  in  Proconsular  Nu- 
midia.  In  646  Bishop  Januarius  signed  the  letter  of  the 
bishops  of  Proconsular  Africa  to  Paul,  Patriarch  of 
Constantinople,  against  the  Monothelites. 

TocTLOTTB,  Qiagr,  de  VAfrique  ehritienne.  Proconmlaire  (Rennes, 
1802),  214-217;  Smith,  Did.  of  Greek  and  Roman  Oeogr.,  a.  v. 

S.   P^TRIDfcS. 

MnBTiros,  Markos,  learned  Greek  humamst,  b. 
1470  at  Retimo,  Crete;  d.  1517  at  Rome.  The  son  of 
A  rich  merchant,  he  went,  when  quite  young,  to  Italy, 
where  he  studi^  Greek  at  Florence,  under  the  cele- 
brated John  Lascaris.  whom  he  afterwards  almost 
equalled  in  classical  scnolarship.  In  1503  he  became 
professor  of  Greek  at  Padua,  where  he  taught  with 
great  success.  Later  at  Venice,  he  lectured  on  Greek, 
at  the  expense  of  the  republic,  and  became  a  member 
of  the  Aldine  Academy  of  Hellenists.  Musuros  ren- 
dered valuable  assistance  to  Aldus  Manutius  in  the 
preparation  of  the  earliest  printed  editions  of  the  Greek 
autnors,  and  his  handwriting  formed  the  model  of 
Aldus's  Gredc  type.  He  contnbuted  greatly  in  giving 
to  the  Aldine  editions  the  accuracy  that  made  them 
famous,  while  his  reputation  as  a  teacher  was  such 
that  pupils  came  from  all  countries  to  hear  him 
lecture.  Erasmus,  who  had  attended  his  lectures  at 
Padua,  testifies  to  his  wonderful  knowledge  of  Latin. 
To  his  profound  scholarship  the  editions  of  Aristo- 
phanes, Plato,  Pindar,  Hesychinus,  Athenseus,  and 
Pausanias  owe^  their  critical  correctness.  In  1499  he 
edited  the  first  Latin  and  Greek  lexicon,  ''Etymolo- 
racum  Magnum",  printed  b^  Zacharias  Callierges  of 
Crete.  In  1516  ne  was  invited  by  Leo  X  to  Rome, 
where  he  lectured  in  the  pope's  gymnasium  and  es- 
tabli^ed  a  Greek  printing-press.  In  recognition  of 
the  beautiful  GreeK  poem  prefixed  to  the  editio  prinn 
ceps  of  Plato,  Pope  Leo  appointed  him  Bishop  of  Mal- 
vasia  (Monemvasia)  in  tne  Morea,  but  Musuros  died 
before  starting  for  his  distant  diocese.  Besides  nu- 
merous editions  of  different  authors  he  wrote  several 
Greek  epigrams  which  with  the  elegy  on  Plato  pub- 
lished in  the  Aldine  edition  (Venice,  1513)  are  about  his 
only  extant  writings. 

Sandts,  HiUory  of  Classical  Seholarahip,  II  (Cambridge,  1908); 
LaoBxifD,  Bibliographie  helUnique,  I  (Paris,  1885) ;  Didot,  AkU 
Mamtee  (Paria.  1875). 

Edmund  Bitrkb. 

Mutlfly  Jos£  CEiiBSTmo,  eminent  naturalist  and 
scientist  in  South  America,  b.  at  Cadiz,  Spain,  6 
April,  1732;  d.  at  Bogota,  Colombia,  2  Sept.,  1808. 
Mutis  studied  medicine  at  Seville  and  Madrid  and, 
from  1757.  practised  as  a  physician  at  Madrid,  where 
he  applied  himself  to  botany.  Soon  afterwards  he 
went  to  South  America  as  physician-in-ordinair  to 
the  newly-appointed  Viceroy  of  New  Granada,  Niesfa 
de  la  Cerda  (Marqu^  de  la  Vega).  In  November, 
1760,  he  landed  in  Cartagena,  and  remained  in  New 
Granada  for  five  decades.  By  his  great  zeal  for 
Bdenoe  and  his  untirins  and  versatile  activity,  he 
became  more  and  more  the  soul  of  all  scientific  under- 
takings in  Spanish  South  America.  Although  he  at 
first  taught  mathematics  and,  about  the  end  of  his 
life,  founded  an  observatory  in  Bogota  and  directed 
the  same  as  astronomer,  he  devoted  his  energies 
almost  wholly  to  researcnes  in  the  natural  history 
of  New  Granada,  even  continuing  this  work,  when, 
in  1772,  he  became  a  cleric  (priest?)  and  canon  at  the 
cathedm  of  Bogotd.  During  the  first  years  of  his 
life  at  Bogota  he  hckd  planned  the  botanical  explora- 
tion of  the  whole  country,  intending  to  write  a  book  on 
the  flora  of  New  Granada.    For  his  researches  he 


maintained  substations  at  Cdoota  and  La  Montuosa, 
which  Linn6  supposed  to  be  situated  in  Mexico.  He 
settled  in  Mariquita  after  he  had  been  appointed  in 
1783  by  Charles  III,  under  the  viceroy  and  Archbishop 
Gongora,  leader  of  the  "Expedici6n  bot^ca  del 
Nueva  Reino  de  Granada",  which  was  founded  by  the 
State.  Here,  as  Alexander  von  Humboldt,  an  eye- 
witness, relates,  Mutis  laid  out  a  plantation  of  cin- 
chona. Mutis  was  obUged  to  tram  his  whole  staff 
of  assistants  (collectors,  painters,  engravers,  etc.); 
he  also  taught  several  native  botanists,  e.  g.,  Zca, 
Caldas,  and  Restrepo,  furthermore  his  nephew  and 
successor,  Sinforoso  Mutis.  At  that  time,  Mutis  was 
widely  known;  Linn6,  who  received  from  him  South 
American  plants  and  corresponded  frequently  with 
him,  calls  nim  ''phytologorum  americanorum  prin- 
ceps".  Linux's  son  defined  the  gentia  Mutisia  in 
1781.  The  Spanish  botanist  Cavanillcs  lauded  him 
in  1791  as  '^botanioorum  facile  princeps".  At  Bogo- 
td,  where  he  spent  the  last  ten  years  of  his  life,  the 
famous  explorers  Humboldt  and  Bonpland  stayed 
with  him  for  two  months  in  1801.  filled  with  admira- 
tion for  his  rich  collections.  Their  famous  work, 
"Plantes  equinoctiales"  (1818).  is  adorned  with 
a  beautiful  portrait  of  Mutid,  ana  Humboldt  erected 
a  glorious  monument  to  the  American  investigator  bv 
writing  his  biography  ("Biographie  universelle", 
XXX,  Paris,  1821). 

Subsequent  generations  were  p^haps  justified  in 
judging  Mutis  less  favourably,  but  it  is  unjust  on  the 
part  of  some  critics  to  seek  to  degrade  Miitis  to  the 
position  of  an  imimportant  amateur  or  to  abuse  him. 
Mutis  committed  tne  faalt  that  he  never  ended  his 
researches,  and  thus  publi^ed  almost  nothing  during 
his  life-time.  He,  furthermore,  had  the  misfortune 
to  have  his  scientific  legacy  at  first  remain  totally 
unnoticed  in  consequence  of  the  political  disorders 
of  that  time.  His  museum  consisted  of  24,000  dried 
plants,  5000  drawings  of  plants  by  his  pupils,  and  a 
collection  of  woods,  sheik,  resins,  minerals,  and  skins. 
These  treasures  arrived  safely  at  Madrid  in  105  boxes, 
and  the  plants,  manuscripts,  and  drawings  were  sent 
to  the  lK>tanical  gardens,  where  they  were  buried 
in  a  tool -house.  Mutis's  cinchona  investigations 
render  his  work  of  lasting  importance.  While  he  was 
not  the  first  to  discover  the  genuine  cinchona  for 
New  Granada — as  became  known  with  certainty  only 
after  his  death — he  rendered  important  services  by 
his  study  of  the  cinchonas,  their  geographical  dis- 
tribution in  Colombia,  their  species  and  varieties, 
and  their  utilization  for  medicine.  This  is  shown  by 
the  trade,  which  developed  in  such  a  manner  that 
(e.  g.)  the  seaport  of  Cartagena  alone  exported  from 
New  Granada  1,200,000  pounds  of  cinchona  bark 
in  1806,  while  previous  to  1776  this  country  pro- 
duced no  quinquina  at  all.  This  is  furthermore 
shown  by  Nlutis  s  writings,  which,  however,  were  not 
printed  m  full  until  1870.  Mutis  himself  published 
m  1793  and  1794  a  short  monograph  on  cinchonas  in 
"Diario  de  Santa  Fe  de  BogotA' .  A  year  later  ap- 
peared '^Observaciones  y  conocimientos  de  la  quina^' 
(in  4  numbers,  608-11,  of  "Mercurio  Peruano  de 
Lima",  1795).  The  above-mentioned  Zea  published 
sometime  later  "Memoria  sobre  la  quina  segun  los 
principios  del  Seflor  Mutis"  ("Anales  de  Historia 
Natural",  Madrid,  1800).  Mutis  sent  his  chief  work 
''El  arcano  de  la  quina"  in  manuscript  to  Madrid, 
but  the  war  with  France  prevented  its  publication; 
in  1828  the  Spanish  physician  Hemdndez  de  Gre- 

forio  edited. the  first  three  parts  of  this  work  with 
iutis's  portrait  ("El  arcano  de  la  quina.  Discurso 
que  contiene  la  parte  m^dica  de  las  cuatro  especies  de 
qumas  oficinalls",  Madrid,  1828,  263  pages).  The 
manuscript  of  the  botanical-scientific  part  was  dis- 
covered by  Clements  R.  Markham  in  a  shed  in  the 
botanical  gardens  of  Madrid :  he  published  it  under  the 
title:  "TfUi>ula  synoptica  aa  specierum  generis  Chin- 


BTOZZARILLT  660  BRNDim 

ebonffi  determinationem.  Quinilo^  para  quarta"  Mlylasa,  a  titular  see  of  Asia  Minor,  suffragan  of 
(edited  in  Markham,  "The  Cinchona  species  of  New  Aphrodisias,  or  Stauropolis,  in  Caria.  This  city,  the 
Granada'',  London,  1867).  The  tables,  wMch  Mutis  ancient  capital  of  Caria,  was  the  home  of  the  kings  of 
selected  for  this  work,  were  published  in  1870  in  fac*  the  province  before  that  honour  passed  to  Halicamas- 
simile  by  Triana  ("  Nouvelles  etudes  sur  les  Quin-  sus.  It  was  situated  on  a  fertile  pliun  at  the  foot  of  a 
quina",  Paris).  Through  these  writings  it  became  moimtain  on  which  there  are  great  quarries  of  the 
evident,  as  some  special  investigators  confessed,  that  beautiful  white  marble  which  was  us^  for  the  con- 
Mutis  hadpenetrated  deeply  into  the  study  of  the  cin-  struction  or  decoration  of  the  city's  temples  and  other 
chonas  of  Central  Colombia.  It  may  be  mentioned  that  buildinra.  Mylasa  was  taken  by  Labienus  in  the  dvil 
Mutis  distinguished  four  species  of  cinchonas  with  an  wars.  In  the  Grseco-Roman  period  it  enjoyed  a  sea- 
officinal  bark,  and  he  addea  to  them  twenty-four  varie-  son  of  brilliant  prosperity,  and  the  three  neighbouring 
ties.  For  other  manuscripts  of  Mutis  see  Colmeiro;  towns  of  Olymos.  Labranda,  and  Euremos  were  in- 
a  part  of  Mutis's  correspondence  is  to  be  found  in  the  eluded  within  its  limits.  Its  finest  temples  were  that 
work:  ''A  selection  of  the  correspondence  of  Linnaeus  dedicated  to  Zeus  Osogoa,  which  recallea  to  Pausanias 
and  other  naturalists"  (London,  1881).  C^IH)  x,  3)  the  Acropolis  of  Athens,  and  those  of  Zeus 
CoLMEiTO,  iMiBoidniM  V  Im  Botdnieoade  la  Peninsula  Hispano-  Karios  and  of  Zeus  Labraudenos,  or  Stratios  (Strabo, 

^'Si^SiB.'^-JSiSSa  ^ZZ'(&'l^-  XIV,  ii,  23)      Myla«a  is  fmjuently  mention^by  the 

M.  RoMFBL.  ancient  wnters.    At  the  tune  of  Strabo  the  city 

boasted  two  remarkable  orators.  Euthydemos  and 

MnuaieUly  Alfonso,  a  learned  Italian  Jesuit,  b.  Hybreas.    Various  inscriptions  teU  us  the\  the  Phiy- 

22  August,  1749,  at  Ferrara;  d.  25  May,  1813,  at  Paris,  gian  cults  were  represented  here  by  the  worship  of 

He  entered  the  Jesuit  novitiate  on  20  October,  1768,  Sabazios;  the  Egyptian,  by  that  of  Isis  and  Osiris, 

and  taught  grammar  at  Bologna  and  Imola.    After  There  was  also  a  temple  of  Nemesis, 
the  suppression  of  the  order  in  1773  he  received  a        Among  the  ancient  bishops  of  Mylasa,  was  St. 

benefice  at  Ferrara  and,  somewhat  later,  was  made  Ephrem  (fifth  century),  whose  feast  was  kept  on  23 

director  of  the  Collegio  dei  Nobili  at  Parma.    Pius  January,  and  whose  relics    were  venerated  in  the 

VII  summoned  him  to  Rome,  and  appointed  him  the-  neighbouring  city  of  Leuke.    Cyril  and  his  successor, 

ologianof  thePcenitentiaria.    When  Pius  VII  was  ex-  Paul,  are  mentioned  bv  Nicephorus  Callistus  (Hist, 

iledin  1809,  Muzzaielli  was  also  obliged  to  leave  Rome  eccl.,  XIV,  62)  and  in  the  Life  of  St.  Xene.    LeQuien 

and  was  transported  to  Paris,  where  he  spent  his  re-  mentions  the  names  of  three  other  bishops  (Oriens 

mainirig  life  at  the  convent  of  the  Dames  de  Saint-  christianus,  I.  921),  and  since  his  time  the  inscriptions 

Michel.    He  wrote  numerous  theological,  philosophi-  discovered  refer  to  two  others,  one  anonymous  (C.  I.  G., 

cal.  and  ascetical  works.     His  chief  production  is  a  9271),  the  other  named  Basil,  who  built  a  church  in 

collection  of  philosophico-theological  treatises  pub-  honour  of  St.  Stephen  (Bulletin  de  correspondance 

lished  repeatedly  under  the  title  "II  buon  uso  della  hell^nique,  XIV^616).  The  St.  Xene  referred  to  above 

Logica  in  materia  di  Religione"  (6  vols.,  Foligno,  was  a  noble  virgm  of  Rome  who,  to  escape  the  marriage 

1787-9),  with  additions  by  the  author   (10  vols.,  which  her  parents  wished  to  force  upon  her,  donned 

Rome,  1807;  11  vols.,  Florence,  1821-3).    The  collec-  male  attire,  left  her  country,  changed  her  name  of 

tion  contains  sketches  on  the  theological  questions  of  Eusebia  to  that  of  Xene  (stranger),  and  lived  first  on 

the  day  such  as— abuses  in  the  Church,  the  temporal  the  island  of  Cos^  then  at  Mylasa.    The  site  of  the 

power  of  the  pope,  religious  toleration,  ecclesiastical  pity  is  now  occupied  by  a  little  village  called  Milas, 

unmunity,  riches  of  the  Church  and  its  clergy,  pri-  ^  Mylassa.  inhabited  by  a  few  hundred  schismatic 

macy  and  infallibility  of  the  pope,  auricular  confes-  Greeka*  and  containing  some  fine  ruins.    The  CSrclo- 

Bion,religiousorder8,mdulgence8,  Gregory  VII,  moral  P^an  walls  surrounding  the  sacred  enclosure  of  the 

liberty,  etc.    This  collection  of  treatises,  with  the  ex-  temple  of  Zeus  Osogoa  are  still  visible,  as  well  as  a  row 

oeption  of  the  last  five,  was  translated  into  Latm  by  o^  fourteen  columns.     Pococke  (Travels.  II,  2),  in  the 

Zeldmayer  de  Buzitha  ("Bonus  usus  logicae  in  ma-  eighteenth  century,  saw  the  temple  of  AuKUstua  and 

teria  refi^onis",  Kaschau,  1815-7).    A  French  trans-  of  Rome,  the  materials  of  which  have  since  been  taken 

lation,  containing  42  treatises,  was  published  at  Brus-  by  the  Turks  to  build  a  mosque.    There  is  also  a  two- 

sels  in  1837.    TVo  other  important  productions  of  stoned  tomb,  called  Dt8tega,  believed  to  be  a  simpU- 

Muzzarelli  are:  "L'Emilio  disingannato"   (4  vols.,  fied  copy  of  the  famous  tomb  of  Mausolus,  who  was  a 

Siena,  1782-3)  and"  Confutazione  del  contrattosoci-  native  of  Mylasa.  ,  .    „.       ^^    ^ 

ale  di  Gian  Jacopo  Rousseau"  (2  vols.,  Foligna  1794)  ^Sn?r^"?n1;^:  ^'  ^S^^'SJ^d^JS^^f 

— ^the  former  us  a  refutation  of  Rousseau's  "Enule'',  Asia  Minor  (London,  1890);  h>ni.  The  Citi«a  and  BiSwpria  o$ 

the  latter  of  his  " Contrat  social ".    The  most  popular  f  *nwKa  (Oxford,  1895) ;  Tembb,  Atis  itv^t  (Pmris.  I86i).  648; 

of  Muzzarelli's  many  ascetical  works  ^"  II  mese.cfi  JS^i^^Lt^Tn^^^tfc^S.*^ 

Mana  o  sia  di  Maggio"  (Ferrara,  1786)  of  which  119;  X,  433;  XI,  469;  XU,  8-37:  XIV.  616-623;  XV,640>644: 

about  100  editions  have  been  issued  (new  ed.,  Bo-  XIX,616hb23;  XXll.«i-439;  Calmblb  SjxBdu»£Ori^.  ll, 

loma,  1901).    It  has  been  translated  into  English  »«^-366:  d»bchamp».  Sur  fa.  fm<t«  d*.l««  ^•rg.iW4)»4  *,. 
"The  Month  of  Mary  or  the  Month  of  May",  Lon-  °-  oa*^v«"- 

French  (Paris,  1881,  and  often  previously);  Arabian 

fti^A'.^^c,'^*'  ASL*^i}*if  *J^);^  ^wJ'^^'S^  «««  «»<1  geographem,  was  inhabited  by  a  Ureelc . 

(MaiM,  1883).    Another  bttle  work  that  has  been  ^       Tr^en.    It  Was  rituated  on  the  coast  of  v>-™, 

fSS±J^TO^     ttlfiiul  ^Si?»  IT"  A te^n  ^ym  '^  K"'e  northwest  of  HaUcanuwus  on  the^S 

^f^'„  tlf kiltr^&Kii      kAAtJ^^thi  northerly  of  the  three  Dorian  peninsulas.   AlUiough  » 

^^h^  f™^?  ft rl^^^;  n^^^i^J^t  seaport  and  fortified  town,  ItTrtle  was  an  unlmior. 

Tr.."  a^^i^i^H Vi.Kiin  V^R^  ^  tantone,thechiefeventinit8hi8toiyb«ngthat,aSed 

^1SSJ^''il°^.^i^^'?.'  Sv  (B™«e..  «d  P«i..  by  Halicama88us.|t  repulsed  an  att«*  by„Alex«der 

1804),  1488-1614;  IX  (1900),  708-710;  HuirraH,  Nomendaior.  the  Great.    The  "NotitisB  episoopatuum "  allude  to 

Michael  Ott.  it  as  late  as  the  twelfth  or  thirteenth  century  as  one  of 

«r»i..^.«^.      c!««Tv..T«c,  Tkr^^^c^  ^«  the  suffragan  sees  of  Stauropolis.    However,  only  four 

BCykonos.    See  Tings,  Diocese  op.  ^^  j^^  y^^^^  ^  ^^^.  AiSielaus,  who  attend^  the 

Mylapur.     See    Saint   Thomas   of    Mtlapur,  Council  of  Ephesus  in  431;  Alphius.  who  aaststed  at 

DiocBSB  OF.  the  Council  of  Chalcedon  in  451 ;  Jonn  who  was  pra^ 


BCTRA 


661 


MYSOBK 


ent  at  the  Council  of  Constantinople  in  680;  and  an- 
other John  who  went  to  the  Second  Council  of  Nicsea 
in  787.  Myndus  is  now  the  little  port  of  GUmttshlU  Li- 
man  (Liman-pNort)  in  the  vilayet  of  Smyrna  where  the 
remains  of  a  pier  and  some  other  ruins  are  to  be  seen. 

Lb  Quxbn,  OnuM  ehrist.,  I,  915;  Smith,  Dictumary  oS Oreek  and 
Roman  Geography.  8.  v.;  Lxakb,  Asia  Minor ^  228. 

S.  P£tridI:s. 

Myra,  a  titular  see  of  Lycia  in  Asia  Minor.  The 
city  was  from  time  immemorial  one  of  the  chief  places 
in  the  province.  It  was  situated  on  the  banks  of  the 
River  AndriacoSi  twenty  stadia  from  the  sea  (Ap- 
pian,  "BeU.  civil.",  IV.  82;  Strabo,  XIV,  iii,  7;  Pliny, 
jCXaII,  8;  Ptolemy,  V,  vi,  3;  Stephen  of  Byzantium, 
8.  v.).  The  hamlet  of  Andriaca  served  as  its  port.  On 
his  way  from  Csesarea  to  Rome  St.  Paul  stayed  at 
M3rra  (Acts,  xxvii.  5);  at  least  the  "textus  receptus" 
reads  thus,  but  tne  Vulgate  has  substituted  Lystra. 
The  Codex  Bezse,  the  Gigas  Bible,  and  the  ancient 
Egyptian  version  also  mention  Myra  after  Patara  of 
Ly cia  (Acts,  xxi,  1 ) .  The  * '  Acta  Pauli  * '  probably  tes- 
tify as  to  the  existence  of  a  Christian  community  at 
Myra  in  the  second  century  (Hamack,  "  Mission  und 
Ausbrdtung  des  Christentums  ",  465, 487) .  Le  Quien 
(I,  965-70)  opens  his  list  of  the  bishops  of  this  city 
with  St.  Nicander,  martyred  under  Domitian  about 
A.  D.  95,  and  whose  feast  is  celebrated  4  November 
(Acta  SS.,  Nov.,  II,  225).  As  to  St.  Nicholas  Thau- 
maturgus,  venerated  on  6  December,  the  "Index"  of 
Theodorus  Lector  (sixth  century)  is  the  first  docu- 
ment which  inscribes  his  name  among  the  fathers  of 
Nicsea  in  325  (Gelzer,  "Patrum  Nicaenorum  nomina", 
67,  n.  151).  Theodosius  II  made  the  flourishing  city 
of  Myra  the  capital  of  Lycia  and,  it  is  said,  erected 
there  a  church  to  St.  Nicholas.  Peter,  Bishop  of 
Myra  composed  in  defence  of  the  Council  of  Chalce- 
don  writings  quoted  by  St.  Sophronius  and  by  Pho- 
tius  (Bibliotheca,  Codex  23).  At  the  Sixth  QBcumeni- 
cal  Council  (787)  two  bishops  of  Myra,  Theodore  and 
Nicholas,  assisted,  one  representmg  the  orthodox 
party,  the  other  the  Iconoclasts. 

Euoel  ("Hierarchia  catholica  medii  aevi".  II,  1370) 
mentions  five  Latin  titulars  of  the  fiftccntn  century. 
At  present  Myra  is  only  a  village  called  Dembr6  m 
the  sanjak  of  Adalia  and  the  vilayet  of  Koniah.  Its 
ruins  are  numbered  among  the  most  beautiful  of  Asia 
Minor.  Among  them  are  the  remains  of  a  temple  of 
Apollo,  mentioned  by  Pliny,  those  of  a  magnificent 
theatre^  several  burial-places  hewn  in  the.  rock,  with 
tombs  inscribed  in  Lycian  and  Greek,  some  of  them 
ornamented  with  bas-reliefs.  Numerous  Christian 
ruins  are  also  found,  amon^  them  those  of  the  Church 
of  St.  Nicholas,  around  wmch  Russians  have  recently 
erected  a  monastery. 

FxlzjOWS,  Diaeoveries  in  Lycia,  I  (London,  1857),  169;  Spbatt 
AND  FoBBBS,  TraveU  in  Lycia,  I  (London,  1847),  131;  Tkxieb, 
Atie  Mineure,  691-94;  Ramsat,  St.  Paul,  the  Traveller  and  the 
Roman  citizen,  297,  300,  319;  Cuinet,  La  Turquie  d'Aeie  (Paris, 
1892),  875-77. 

S.  Salaville. 

Myrina,  a  titular  see  of  Asia  Minor,  suffragan  of 
Ephesus.  Herodotus  (1, 149)  mentions  it  as  one  of  the 
eleven  cities  of  iEolia;  Strabo,  who  says  it  was  built  b^ 
the  Amazon  M3rrina,  also  assigned  to  it  an  iEolian  ori- 
gin (Geographia,  XII,  iii,  21 ;  viii,  6;  XIII,  iii,  6) ;  Xeno- 
phon  (Hellenica,  III,  i,  6)  relates  that  Artaxerxes  gave 
it  to  a  chieftain  named  Gorgion.  According  to  Pliny 
(Hist,  nat.,  V,  30;  XXXII,  6)  it  was  famous  for  its  oys- 
ters, and  must  have  borne  the  name  of  Sebastopolis, 
of  which  no  trace  is  found  elsewhere.  An  inscription 
(Bulletin  de  correspondance  helMnic|ue,  V,  283)  tells 
us  that  Myrina  formed  part  of  the  Kmgdom  of  Perga- 
mus  in  the  third  century  b.  c.  Destroyed  by  an  earth- 
quake under  Tiberius  (Tacitus,  ^*Annales'^  II,  47) 
and  again  under  the  Emperor  Trajan  (Orosius,  VII, 
12),  it  was  each  time  rebuilt.  It  was  the  birth-place 
uC  Agathias,  a  Byzantine  poet  and  historian  of  the 


sixth  century.  The  names  are  known  of  some  of  the 
bishops  of  this  diocese,  which  still  existed  in  the  four- 
teenth century:  Dorotheus,  431;  Proterius,  461;  John, 
663;  Cosmas,  787  (Le  Quien,  "Oriens  Christ.",  I, 
706).  The  site  of  Myrina  was  discovered  at  a  place 
called  Kalabassary  in  the  caza  of  Menemen  and  the 
vilayet  of  Smyrna,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Hodja-Tchai, 
the  ancient  Pythicos.  The  remains  of  the  harbour 
and  the  arsenal  have  disappeared  under  the  alluvia  of 
the  river.  Excavations  (1880-1882)  brought  to  light 
about  four  thousand  tombs,  dating  from  the  two  cen- 
turies immediately  preceding  the  Christian  Era,  in 
which  were  found  numerous  objects  representing  the 
divinities  of  the  Greek  pantheon;  children's  toys,  re- 
productions of  famous  works,  etc. :  most  of  these  may 
DC  seen  to-day  in  the  Museum  of  the  Louvre. 

PoTTiBB  AND  Reinach,  La  nScropoU  de  Myrina  (Paris,  1887); 
BuOelin  de  correspondance  helUnique,  VI.  197-209.  388-433,  557- 
680;  VII,  81-95,  204-50,  440-47,  493-501;  VIII,  609-14;  IX, 
166-207.  369-74.  485-93. 

S.  VAILHt. 

Myriophsrtum,  titular  see  of  Thracia  Prima  and 
suffragan  of  Heraclea.  The  early  history  of  this  city 
is  not  Known.  We  find  it  mentioned  for  the  first  time 
in  connexion  with  an  earthquake  which  destroyed  it  in 
the  year  1063  of  our  era  (Muralt,  ''Essai  de  chronolo- 
gic byzantine",  II,  8).  It  was  visited  by  John  Can- 
tacuzene  about  1360  (Hist.,  Ill,  76).  As  a  suffragan 
of  Heraclea  we  find  it^  under  the  title  of  Peristasis  and 
Myriophytum,  mentioned  first  in  a  "Notitia  episco- 
patuum"  of  the  end  of  the  fifteenth  century  (Gfelzer, 
"Ungedruckte  .  .  .  Texte  der  NotitisB  episcopa- 
tuum",  633).  The  title  of  Peristasis  existed  alresidy 
in  1170  (Parthey,  "Hieroclis  Synecdemus",  103).  In 
the  sixteenth  century  Myrioph3rtum  displaced  Pe- 
ristasis, and  the  diocese  took  tne  name  of  Myriophy- 
tum and  Peristasis  (Le  Quien,  ''Oriens  christianus'', 
I.  1161).  No  change  has  since  taken  place,  except 
tnat  among  the  Greeks  in  1908  it  was  elevated  to  an 
autocephalous  metropolitan  see.  To-day  Myriophy- 
tum is  a  rather  busy  port  on  the  Sea  of  Marmora;  the 
city  numbers  6000  Greeks  and  400  Turks.  The  schis- 
matic archdiocese  includes  only  ten  parishes  with 
about  22,000  souls,  of  whom  Peristasis  alone  includes 
about  6000. 

Drakos.  Tkrakika  (in  Greek,  Athezu.  1892),  72-93. 

S.  Vailh£. 

Mysore  (Maisour),  Diocese  of  (Mtsuriensis),  in 
India,  suffragan  to  Pondicherry,  comprises  the  terri- 
tory of  the  Afysore  native  state,  the  British  Provinces 
of  Coorg  and  CoUcgal,  part  of  Wynaad  and  the  taluk  of 
Ossoor,  &ilem  district;  surrounded  by  the  Dioceses 
of  Madras,  Poena,  Goa,  Mangalore,  O>imbatore,  and 
Pondicherrv.  The  Catholic  population  Is  about 
48,202.  The  diocese,  like  the  rest  of  the  Pondicherry 
province,  is  imder  the  Paris  Society  of  Foreign  Mis- 
sions. The  clergy  are  66  in  number  (63  European  and 
12  native  priests),  having  the  care  of  123  churches  and 
chapels.  They  are  assisted  by  the  Brothers  of  the 
Immaculate  Conception,  the  Brothers  of  St.  Gabriel, 
the  Nuns  of  the  Good  Shepherd  Order,  the  Little  Sis- 
ters of  the  Poor,  the  Sisters  of  St.  Joseph  of  Tarbes, 
and  Native  Sisters  of  St.  Anne  and  also  of  the  Im- 
maculate Conception.  The  cathedral  and  the  bishop's 
residence  are  at  Bangalore. 

History. — Originally  Mysore  belonged  to  the  Arch- 
diocese of  Goa,  but  what  early  mission  work  was  done 
there  is  a  matter  of  obscurity.  In  the  Canarese  or 
western  portions  a  mission  seems  to  have  been  estab- 
lished about  the  middle  of  the  seventeenth  century;  in 
the  eastern  or  Telugu  portion  another  mission  was 
brought  into  existence  about  the  year  1703  by  two 
French  Jesuits  who  came  from  Vellore  and  founded 
churches  at  Bangalore,  Devanhalli,Chikka,  Ballapoora. 
and  elsewhere.  But  their  work  was  stopped  and 
partly  destroyed  by  the  fanaticism  of  the  sultan, 
Tipu  (1782-09).    The  district  came  imder  the  Forei^pi 


MYSTERIES 


662 


MYSTERY 


Mission  Society  of  Paris  in  1776,  which  at  that  date 
began  work  at  Pondicherry.  The  celebrated  Abb6 
Dubois  (b.  1765,  d.  1848),  himself  a  member  of  the 
Foreign  Missions,  spent  most  of  his  life  among  the 
Canarese  Christians  of  Ganjam,  Palhally,  and  Satt- 
huUy  (see  Dubois).  Mysore  was  included  in  the 
Vicariate  of  the  Coromandel  Coast  (Pondicherry), 
erected  in  1836,  but  was  separated  in  1845,  and 
erected  into  a  distinct  vicariate- Apostolic  in  1850,  at 
the  same  time  as  the  district  of  Coimbatore.  On  the 
establishment  of  the  hierarchy  in  1886  it  was  made 
into  a  diocese  suffragan  to  Pondicherry  with  the  same 
boundaries  as  now. 

Succession  of  Prelates. — Vicara-Apostolic:  Ste- 
phen Louis  C^rbonaux,  1850-73;  Joseph  Augustine 
Chevalier,  1874-1880;  Jean- Yves-Marie  Coadou, 
1880-90  (became  first  bishop  in  1886);  second  bishop, 
Eugdne-Louis  Kleiner,  1890  (absent  in  Europe  since 
1903) ;  Augustine  Francis  Basle,  coadjutor  with  right 
of  succession,  1906,  now  ruling  the  diocese. 

Institutions. — St.  Joseph's  College,  Bangalore, 
teaching  up  to  F.  A.  Standard,  with  600  pupils;  Ban- 

fEklore  Convent  School  under  the  Nuns  of  the  Good 
hepherd,  with  494  pupils;  St.  Patrick's  School,  Shoo- 
lay ,  with  1 56  pupils ;  St.  Francis  Xa  vier's  School  for  ^Is, 
Cleveland  Town,  with  138  day-scholars;  St.  Aloysius's 
School,  with  210  boys:  native  ecclesiastical  seminary, 
with  26  students;  St.  Louis'  Boariing  School,  with  58 
boarders;  the  Brothers  of  the  Immaculate  Conception, 
training  school  for  teachers,  with  10  European  stuaents ; 
convent  school  at  Mysore,  imder  the  Good  Shepherd 
Nuns,  with  185  pupils;  St.  Joseph's  School,  Mysore,  with 
142  pupils;  native  Sisters  of  St.  Anne,  in  charge  of  five 
native  girls'  schools;  native  Nuns  of  the  Immaculate 
Conception,  girls'  school  at  Settihally,  also  a  dispen- 
sary; Majanma  Thumbu  Chetty  School  for  caste  girls, 
under  the  Sisters  of  St.  Joseph  of  Tarbes,  Bangalore, 
with  136  pupils.  CharitaMe  Inatitutiona. — St.  Pat- 
rick's Orphanage,  Bangalore,  with  100  inmates;  St. 
Martha's  public  Hospital  and  Dispensary,  Bangalore, 
ki  charge  of  the  Good  Shepherd  Nuns,  70  beds;  eye 
infirmary  imder  the  same;  Little  Sisters  of  the  Poor, 
Bangalore,  with  101  inmates;  two  orphanages  at 
Bangalore  and  M^rsore  under  the  Good  Shepherd  Nuns 
with  total  of  263  inmates;  also  2  Magdalene  Asylums 
with  129  inmates.  Four  agricultural  farms  for  or- 
phans, round  which  Christian  villages  have  been 
formed  at  four  places  in  the  diocese;  several  small 
orphanages  in  country  parishes. 

Madras  Catholic  Directory  (1900);  Launat,  Ilialoire  OhUrale 
de  la  SociiU  dea  Missions  Etrangires;  Atlas  des  Missions. 

Ernest  R.  Hull. 
Mysteries,  Paqan.    See  Paqanisii. 

Mystenr  (Greek  /wcrijputWj  from  t^Otipf  "to  shut"* 
"to  close  ). — ^This  term  signifies  in  general  that 
which  is  unknowiUble,  or  valuable  knowledge  that 
is  kept  secret.  In  pagan  antiquity  the  woi^  mys- 
tery was  used  to  designate  certain  esoteric  doctrines, 
such  as  P3rthagoreanism,  or  certain  ceremonies  that 
were  performed  in  private  or  whose  meaning  was 
known  onl^  to  the  initiated,  e.  g.,  the  Eleusinian 
rites,  Phallic  worship.  In  the  language  of  the  early 
Christians  the  mysteries  were  those  religious  teachings 
that  were  carefully  guarded  from  the  knowledge  of 
the  profane  (see  Discipune  of  the  Secret). 

NonoN  OP  Mystery  in  Scripture  and  in  The- 
ology.— ^The  Old-Testament  versions  use  the  word 
iw^riipiop  as  an  equivalent  for  the  Hebrew  word  «Arf, 
"secret"  (Prov.j  xx,  19;  Judith,  ii,  2;  Ecclus.,  xxii, 
27;  II  Mach.,  xiii,  21).  In  the  New  Testament  the 
word  mystery  is  applied  ordinarily  to  the  sublime 
revelation  of  the  Gospel  (Matt.,  xiii,  11;  Col.,  ii,  2; 
I  Tim.,  iii,  9;  I  Cor.,  xv,  51),  and  to  the  Incarnation 
and  life  of  the  Saviour  and  His  manifestation  by  the 
preaching  of  the  Apostles  (Rom.,  xvi,  25;  Eph.,  iii, 
4;  vi,  19;  Col.,  i,  26;  iv,  3).  In  conformity  with  the 
usage  of  the  inspired  writers  of  the  New  Testament, 


theologians  give  the  name  mystery  to  revealed 
truths  that  surpass  the  powers  of  natural  reason. 
Mystery,  therefore,  in  its  strict  theological  sense  is 
not  synonymous  with  the  incomprehenmble,  since 
all  that  we  know  is  incomprehensible,  i.  e.,  not 
adequately  comprehensible  as  to  its  inner  be- 
ing; nor  with  the  unknowable,  since  many  things 
merely  natural  are  accidentally  imknowable,  on 
account  of  their  inaccessibility,  e.  g.,  things  that  are 
future,  remote,  or  hidden.  In  its  strict  sense  a 
mystery  is  a  supcrnatiural  truth,  one  that  of  its 
very  nature  lies '  above  the  nnite  intelligence. 
Theolop;ians  distinguish  two  classes  of  supernatural 
mystenes,  the  absolute  or  theological  ana  the  rela- 
tive. An  absolute  m3rstery  is  a  truth  whose  ex- 
istence or  possibility  could  not  be  discovered  by  a 
creature,  and  whose  essence  (inner  substantial  being) 
can  be  expressed  by  the  finite  mind  only  in  tenns  of 
analogy,  e.  ^.,  the  Trinity.  A  relative  mystery  is  a 
truth  whose  innermost  nature  alone  (e.  g.,  many  of  the 
Divine  attributes),  or  whose  existence  slone  (e.  g.,  the 
positive  ceremonial  precepts  of  the  Old  Law),  exceeds 
the  natural  knowing  power  of  the  creature. 

Catholic  Doctrine. — ^The  existence  of  theologi- 
cal mysteries  is  a  doctrine  of  Catholic  faith  defined 
by  the  Vatican  Council,  which  declares:  "  If  any  one 
say  that  in  Divine  Revelation  there  are  contained  no 
mysteries  properly  so  called  {vera  et  proprie  dicta 
mysteria),  but  that  through  reason  rightly  developed 
iper  rationem  rUe  excuUam)  all  the  dogmas  of  faith 
can  be  understood  and  demonstrated  from  natural 

grinciples:  let  him  be  anathema"  (Sess.  Ill,  De 
de  et  ratione,  can.  i).  This  teaching  is  cleariy 
exi)lained  in  Scripture.  The  principal  proof  text, 
which  was  cited  in  part  by  the  Vatican  Council,  is 
I  Cor.,  u.  Shorter  passages  are  especially  Eph., 
iii.  4-9;  Col.,  i,  26-27:  Matt.,  xi,  26-27;  John,  i,  17-18. 
These  texts  speak  of  a  mysteiy  of  God,  wnich  only 
infinite  wisdom  can  understand,  namely,  the  designs 
of  Divine  Providence  and  the  inner  life  of  the  Godhead 
(see  also  Wisdom,  ix,  16-17;  Rom.,  xi,  33-36). 
Tradition  abounds  with  testimonies  that  support  this 
teaching.  In  the  Brief  "Gravissimas  Inter"  (Dm- 
zinger,  ''Enchiridion",  ed.  Bannwart,  nn.  1666-74), 
Pius  IX  defends  the  doctrine  of  supernatural  mystery 
bv  many  citations  from  the  works  of  the  Fathers. 
Numerous  other  patristic  texts  that  bear  on  the 
same  question  are  quoted  and  explained  in  Kleutgen's 
"Die  Theologae  der  Vorseit",  II,  75  sq.;  V,  220  sq.; 
and  in  Sch&zler's  "Neue  Untersuchungen  Qber  das 
Dogpaa  von  der  Gnade"  (Mains,  1867),  466  sq.  The 
manifold  excellence  of  Christian  revelation  offers  many 
theological  arguments  for  the  existence  of  supernat- 
ural mysteries  (cf.  Scheeben,  "Dogmatik",  1,24). 

Reason  and  Supernatural  Mystery. — (1)  Br* 
rors. — ^The  existence  of  supernatural  mysteries  i& 
denied  by  Rationalists  and  semi-Rationalists.  Ration* 
alists  object  that  mysteries  are  degrading  to  reason. 
Their  favourite  argument  is  based  on  the  princi- 
ple that  no  medium  exists  between  the  reasonable 
and  the  unreasonable,  from  which  they  conclude 
that  the  mysterious  is  opposed  to  reason  (Bayle, 
Pfleiderer).  This  argumentation  is  fallacious^  since 
it  confounds  incomprehensibility  with  inoonoeivable- 
ness,  superiority  to  reason  with  contradiction.  The 
mind  of  a  creature  cannot,  indeed,  grasp  the  inner 
nature  of  the  m3rsterious  truth,  but  it  can  express 
that  truth  by  analogies;  it  cannot  fully  understand 
the  coherence  and  agreement  of  all  that  is  contained 
in  a  mystery  of  faith,  but  it  can  refute  successfully 
the  objections  which  would  make  a  m3rstery  consist 
of  mutually  repugnant  elements.  Rationalists  fui^ 
ther  object  that  the  revelation  of  mysteries  would 
be  useless,  since  it  is  the  nature  of  reason  to  ac- 
cept only  the  evident  (Toland),  and  since  the  Imowl- 
edge  of  the  incomprehensible  can  have  no  influ- 
ence  on   the  moral  life  of  mankind  (Kant).    To 


MTSTEBY 


663 


MYSTICISM 


answer  the  first  objection  we  have  only  to  recall  that 
there  is  a  twofold  evidence:  the  internal  evidence  of  a 
thing  in  itself,  and  the  external  evidence  of  trust- 
woruiy  authority.  The  mysteries  of  revelation,  like 
the  facts  of  history,  are  supported  by  external  evi- 
dence and  therefore  they  are  evidently  credible. 
The  second  difficulty  rests  on  a  false  assumption. 
The  religious  life  of  the  Christian  is  rooted  m  his 
faith  in  the  supernatural,  which  is  an  anticipation 
of  the  beatific  vision  (St.  Thomas,  '^Comp.  Theol.  ad 
fratrem  Reg.,"  cap.  ii),  a  profound  act  of  religious 
homage  (Contra,  uent.,  I.  vi),  and  the  measure  bv 
which  he  judges  the  world  and  the  ways  of  Goa. 
The  history  of  civilization  he&is  witness  to  the  benefi- 
cial influence  that  Christian  faith  has  exerted  on 
the  general  life  of  mankind  (cf.  Gutberlet,  '^Apolo- 
getik,''  II,  2  ed.,  MOnster,  1895,  23).  Some  Ration- 
alists, trusting  to  far-fetched  similarities,  pretend 
that  the  Christian  mjrsteries  were  borrowed  from  the 
religious  and  philosophical  systems  of  Paganism. 
A  study  of  the  origin  of  Christianity  suffices  to  show 
the  absurdity  of  such  an  explanation.  Semi-Ration- 
alism explains  mysteries  either  as  purelv  natural 
truths  expressed  in  symbolic  language  (Schelling, 
Baader,  Sabatier) ,  or  as solubleproblems  of  philosophy 
(Gtlnther,  Frohschammer).  The  errors  of  GUnther 
were  condemned  in  a  pontifical  letter  to  the  Arch- 
bishop of  Cologne  in  1857,  and  in  another  to  the  Bishop 
of  Breslau  in  1860  (Denzinger,  ''Enchiridion",  ed. 
Bannwart,  nn.  1055-1658);  those  of  Frohschammer, 
in  the  Brief  ''Gravissimas  Inter",  11  Dec,  1862. 

(2)  Relalions  of  Natural  and  Supernatural  Truth. — 
(a)  Superiority  of  the  Supernatural. — The  mysteries 
contained  in  supernatural  revelation  are  not  simply 
disconnected  truths  lying  beyond  the  realm  of  natural 
things,  but  a  higher,  heavenly  world,  a  mystical 
cosmos  whose  parts  are  united  in  a  living  bond. 
(Scheeben,  ''Dogmatik",  I,  25.)  Even  in  those  parts 
of  this  vast  system  that  have  been  revealed  to  us 
there  is  a  wonderful  harmony.  In  his  great  work ''  Die 
Mysterien  des  Christenthums",  Scheeben  has  sought 
to  show  the  logical  connexion  in  the  supernatural 
order  by  considering  its  supreme  mystery,  the  in- 
ternal communication  of  Divine  life  in  the  Trinity, 
as  the  model  and  ideal  of  the  external  communication 
to  the  creature  of  the  Divine  life  of  grace  and  glory. 
The  knowledge  of  the  supernatural  is  more  excellent 
than  any  human  wisdom,  because,  although  incom- 
plete, it  has  a  nobler  object,  and  through  its  de- 
pendence on  the  unfailing  word  of  God  possesses  a 
greater  degree  of  certitude.  The  obscurity  which 
surrounds  the  mvsteries  of  faith  results  from  the 
weakness  of  the  human  intellect,  which,  like  the  eye 
that  gazes  on  the  sun,  is  blinded  by  the  fulness  of 
light,  (b)  Harmony  of  Natural  and  Supernatural 
Truth  .—-Since  all  truth  is  from  God,  there  can  be  no 
real  warfare  between  reason  and  revelation.  Super- 
natural mysteries  as  such  cannot  be  demonstrated  by 
reason,  but  the  Christian  apolo^t  can  always  show 
that  the  arguments  against  their  possibility  are  not 
conclusive  (St.  Thos.,  "Suppl.  Boeth.  de  trinitate". 
Q.  ii,  a.  3).  The  nature  of  God.  which  is  infinite  ana 
eternal,  must  be  incomprehensiole  to  an  intelligence 
that  is  not  capable  of  perfect  knowledge  (cf .  Zigliara, 
"  Propsedcutica  " ,  I ^  ix) .  The  powerlessness  of  science 
to  solve  the  mysteries  of  nature,  a  fact  that  Rational- 
ists admit,  shows  how  limited  are  the  resources  of  the 
human  intellect  (cf.  Daumer.  ''Das  Reich  des  Wun- 
dersamen  und  Geheimnissvollen,"  Ratisbon,  1872). 
On  the  other  hand  reason  is  able  not  only  to  recognize 
wherein  consists  the  special  mysteriousness  of  a  super- 
natural truth,  but  also  to  dispel  to  some  extent  the 
obscurity  by  means  of  natural  analogies  and  to  show 
the  fittingness  of  the  mystery  by  reasons  of  congruity 
(Council  of  Cologne,  I860).  This  was  done  with 
icreat  success  by  the  Fathers  and  the  Scholastic 
Micologians.    A   famous   example    is   St.    Thomas' 


argument  ex  convenientia  for  the  Divine  processions 
in  the  Trinity  (Summa  Theol.,  I,  QQ.  xxvii-xxxi).  (See 
Faith,  Reason,  Revelation.) 

ZiOLXABA,  Propwdeuiiea  in  S.  Theologiam  (Rome,  1890).  45  sq., 
113  sq.:  ScHSXBBN,  Die  Mytterien  des  ChristerUhunu  (Freiburg, 
1898) :  BossuKT,  EUvatiom  d  Dieu  nur  Unu  lea  myttirea  de  la  re/»- 
gion  cnritienne  (Paris,  1711);  OrrxNGBR,  ThetUogia  fundatnentali»t 
I  (Freiburg,  1897),  66  aq.;  Newman,  Critic.  Beeaye,  I  (London, 
1888),  41. 

J.  A.  McHuGH. 

MyEtery  Plays.    See  Miracle  Plats. 

Mystical  Body  of  the  Ohnrch.— The  analogy 
borne  by  any  society  of  men  to  an  organism  is  suffi- 
ciently manifest.  In  every  society  the  constituent 
individuals  are  united,  as  are  also  the  members  of  a 
body,  to  effect  a  common  end:  while  the  parts  thev 
severally  play  correspond  to  the  functions  of  the  bod- 
ily organs.  They  form  a  moral  imity.  This,  of 
course,  is  true  of  the  Churchy  but  the  Church  has  also 
a  unity  of  a  higher  order:  it  is  not  merely  a  moral  but 
a  mystical  body.  This  truth,  that  the  Church  is  the 
mystical  body  of  Christ,  all  its  members  being  guided 
and  directed  by  Christ  the  head,  is  set  forth  by  St. 
Paul  in  various  passages,  more  especially]  in  Ephe- 
sians,  iv,  4-13  (cf .  John,  xv,  6-8) .  The  doctrine  may  be 
summarized  as  follows:  (1)  The  members  of  the 
Church  are  bound  together  by  a  supernatural  life  com- 
municated to  them  by  Christ  through  the  sacraments 
{ibid.y  5).  Christ  is  the  centre  and  source  of  life  to 
Whom  all  are  united,  and  Who  endows  each  one  with 
gifts  fitting  him  for  his  position  in  the  body  {ibid.f  7- 
12).  These  graces,  through  which  each  is  equipped 
for  his  work^  form  it  into  an  organized  whole,  whose 
parts  are  knit  together  as  though  by  a  system  of  liga- 
ments and  joints  {ibid.j  16;  Col.,  ii,  19).  Through 
them,  too,  (2)  the  Church  has  its  growth  and  increase, 
growing  in  extension  as  it  spreads  through  the  world, 
and  intensively  as  the  individual  Christian  develops 
in  himself  the  likeness  of  Christ  (ibid.j  13-15).  (3)  In 
virtue  of  this  union  the  Church  is  the  fulness  or  com- 
plement (rXiJp«/*a)  of  Christ  (Eph.,  i,  23).  It  forms 
one  whole  with  Him;  and  the  Apostle  even  speaks  of 
the  Church  as  "Christ"  (I  Cor.,  xii,  12).  (4)  This 
union  between  head  and  members  is  conserved  and 
nourished  by  the  Holy  Eucharist.  Through  this 
sacrament  our  incorporation  into  the  Body  of  Christ 
is  alike  outwardly  symbolized  and  inwardly  actual- 
ized; "We  being  many  are  one  bread,  one  body;  for 
we  all  partake  of  the  one  bread"  (I  Cor.,  x,  17). 

Fransbun,  De  Bedeaia,  Thesis  XVIII;  Passaqua,  De  Beds- 
aia,  II,  XX.  742;  Pcsch,  PrmlecL  Dogm.,  I,  n.  396. 

G.  H.  Joyce. 

MyBtieal  Phenomena.  See  Theology,  Mys- 
tical. 

Mystieal  Sense  of  Holy  Scripture.  See  Ex- 
egesis. 

Mystical  Theology.    See  Theology,  Mystical. 

Mysticism  (from  fju^ip,  to  initiate),  according  to  its 
etymoloor,  implies  a  relation  to  mystery.  In  phi- 
losophy, iVlysticism  is  either  a  religious  tendency  and 
desire  of  the  human  soul  towards  an  intimate  union 
with  the  Divinity,  or  a  system  growing  out  of  such  a 
tendency  and  desire.  As  a  philosophical  system. 
Mysticism  considers  as  the  end  of  philosophy  the  di- 
rect union  of  the  human  soul  with  the  Di  vimty  through 
contemplation  and  love,  and  attempts  to  determine 
the  processes  and  the  means  of  realizing  this  end.  This 
contemplation,  according  to  Mysticism,  is  not  based 
on  a  merely  analogical  knowledge  of  the  Infinite,  but 
on  a  direct  and  immediate  intuition  of  the  Infinite. 
According  to  its  tendency,  it  may  be  either  speculative 
or  practical,  as  it  limits  itself  to  mere  knowledge  or 
traces  duties  for  action  and  life;  contemplative  or 
aJOfective,  according  as  it  emphasizes  the  part  of  intel- 
ligence or  the  part  of  the  will;  orthodox  or  heterodox, 
according  as  it  agrees  with  or  opposes  the  Catholic 
teaching.    Wc  shall  give  a  brief  historical  sketch  of 


MYSTICISM 


664 


MYSTICISM 


Mysticigm  and  its  influence  on  phUosophy,  and  pre- 
sent a  criticism  of  it. 
Historical  Sketch. — ^In  his  "History  of  Philoso- 

Ehy^'y  Cousin  mentions  four  systems,  between  which, 
e  says,  philosophical  thought  has  continually  wav- 
ered, viz.,  Sensism,  Idealism,  Scepticism,  and  M^rsti- 
ciiun.  Whatever  may  be  thought  of  this  classification, 
it  is  true  that  Mvsticism  has  exercised  a  large  influ- 
ence on  philosophy,  becoming  at  times  the  basis  of 
whole  s^^stems,  but  more  often  entering  as  an  element 
into  their  constitution.  Mysticism  dominated  in  the 
ssrmbolic  philosophy  of  ancient  Egypt.  The  Taoism 
of  the  Chinese  philosopher  Lao-tze  is  a  system  of  met- 
aphysics and  etnics  in  which  Mysticism  is  a  fundamen- 
tal element  (cf.  De  Harlez,  "Laotze,  le  premier  phi- 
losophe  chinois",  in  "  M6moires  couronnds  et  autres  de 
FAcaddmie'',  Brussels,  Januaiy,  1886).  The  same 
may  be  said  of  Indian  philosophy;  the  end  of  human 
reflection  and  effort  in  Brahmanism  and  Vedantism  is 
to  deliver  the  soul  from  its  transmigrations  and  absorb 
it  into  Brahma  forever.  There  is  little  of  Mysticism 
in  the  first  schools  of  Greek  philosophy,  but  it  already 
takes  a  large  place  in  the  system  of  Plato,  e.  g.,  in  his 
theory  of  the  world  of  ideas,  of  the  origin  of  the  world 
soul  and  the  human  soul,  in  his  doctrine  of  recollection 
and  intuition.  The  Alexandrian  Jew  Philo  (30  b.  c. — 
A.  D.  50)  combined  these  Platonic  elements  with  the 
data  of  the  Old  Testament,  and  taught  that  every 
man,  by  freeing  himself  from  matter  and  receiving 
illumination  from  God,  may  reach  the  mystical,  ec- 
static, or  prophetical  state,  where  he  is  absorbed  into 
the  Divimty .  The  most  systematic  attempt  at  a  philo- 
sophical system  of  a  mystical  character  was  that  of  the 
Neoplatonic  School  of  Alexandria,  especially  of  Plo- 
tinus  (a.  d.  205-70)  in  his  "  Enneaos  ".  His  system  is 
a  syncretism  of  the  previous  philosophies  on  the  basis 
of  Mysticism — an  emanative  and  pantheistic  Monism. 
Above  all  being,  there  is  the  One  absolutely  indeter- 
mined,  the  absolutely  Good.  From  it  come  forth 
through  successive  emanations  intelligence  (voOs)  with 
its  ideas,  the  world-soul  with  its  plastic  forces  (X67M 
ff7r€piJMTiKol)f  matter  inactive,  and  the  principle  of  im- 
penection.  The  human  soul  had  its  existence  in  the 
wok  Id-soul  until  it  was  united  with  matter.  The  end 
of  human  life  and  of  philosophy  is  to  realize  the  mysti- 
cal return  of  the  soul  to  God.  Freeing  itself  from  the 
sensuous  world  by  purification  (icd^a/xris),  the  human 
sauI  ascends  by  successive  steps  through  the  various 
degrees  of  the  metaphysical  order,  until  it  unites  itself 
iL.  a  confused  and  unconscious  contemplation  to  the 
One,  and  sinks  into  it:  it  is  the  state  of  ecstasis. 

With  Christainity,  the  history  of  M3rBticism  enters 
into  a  new  period.  The  Fathers  recognized  indeed 
the  partial  truth  of  the  pagan  system,  but  they 
pointed  out  also  its  fundamental  errors.  They  made 
a  distinction  between  reason  and  faith,  philosophy 
and  theology;  they  acknowledged  the  aspirations  of 
the  soul,  but,  at  the  same  time,  they  emphasized  its 
essential  inability  to  penetrate  the  mysteries  of  Divine 
life.  They  taught  that  the  vision  of  God  is  the  work 
of  grace  and  the  reward  of  eternal  life;  in  the  present 
life  only  a  few  souls,  by  a  special  grace,  can  reach  it. 
On  these  principles,  the  Christian  school  of  Alexandria 
opposed  tne  true  gnosis  based  on  grace  and  faith  to  the 
Gnostic  heresies.  St.  Augustine  teaches  indeed  that 
we  know  the  essences  of  things  in  ratumibua  cetemis. 
but  this  knowledge  has  its  starting  point  in  the  data  of 
sense  (cf.  Qusestiones,  LXXXIII,  c.  xlvi).  Pseudo- 
Dionysius,  in  his  various  works,  gave  a  systematic 
treatment  of  Christian  Mysticism,  carefully  distin- 
guishing between  rational  and  mystical  knowledge. 
By  the  former,  he  says,  we  know  God,  not  in  His  na- 
ture, but  throu^  the  wonderful  order  of  the  universe, 
which  is  a  participation  of  the  Divine  ideas  (^^De  Di- 
vinis  Nomin.",  c,  vii,  §§  2-3,  in  P.  G..  Ill,  867  sq.). 
There  is,  however,  he  adds,  a  more  perfect  knowledge 
of  God  possible  in  this  life,  beyond  the  attainments  of 


reason  even  enlightened  by  faith,  through  which  the 
soul  contemplates  directly  the  mysteries  of  Divine 
light.  The  contemplation  in  the  present  life  is  possi- 
ble only  to  a  few  pnvileged  souls,  through  a  very  spe- 
cial grace  of  God:  it  is  the  ^^oNnr,  /a/arur^  IroMrcf. 

The  works  of  Pseudo-Dionysius  exerciBed  a  great  in- 
fluence on  the  following  ages.  John  Scotus  Eriugena 
(ninth  century),  in  his  '^De  Divisione  Naturae"^  took 
them  as  his  guide,  but  he  neglected  the  distinction  of 
his  master,  identifying  philosophy  and  theology,  God 
and  creatures,  and,  instead  of  developing  the  doctrine 
of  Dionysius,  reproduced  the  pantheistic  theories  of 
Plotinus  (see  Eriugena,  John  Scotus).  In  the 
twelfth  century,  orthodox  Mysticism  was  presented 
imder  a  systematic  form  by  the  Victorines,  Hugh, 
Walter,  and  Richard  (cf.  Mignon,  ''Les  Drives  de  la 
Scolastique  et  Hugues  de  St.  Victor",  Paris,  1895), 
and  there  was  also  a  restatement  of  Eriugena's  princi- 

?les  with  Amaury  de  B^ne,  Joachim  de  Floris,  and 
)avid  of  Dinant.  A  legitimate  element  of  Mysticism, 
more  or  less  emphasized,  is  f  otmd  in  the  works  of  the 
Schoolmen  of  the  thirteenth  century.  In  the  fourteenth 
and  fifteenth  centuries  there  was,  as  a  protest  against  a 
sterile  dialecticism,  a  revival  of  mystical  systems^some 
orthodox — J.  Ruysbroek,  Gerson.  Peter dAilly,  Denys 
the  Carthusian — and  others  neterodox — John  of 
Ghent,  John  of  Mirecourt,  the  Beguines  and  Beghards, 
and  various  brotherhoods  influenced  by  Avaroism, 
and  especially  Meister  Eckhart  (1260-1327),  who  in 
his  ''Opus  Tripartitum"  teaches  a  deification  of  man 
and  an  assimilation  of  the  creature  into  the  Creator 
through  contemplation  (cf.  Denifle  in  "Archiv  fur 
Literatur  und  Airchex^eschichte  des  Mittelalters", 
1886),  the  ''Theolona  Germanica'',  and,  to  a  certain 
extent,  Nicholas  of  Cusa  (1401-^)  with  his  theory  of 
the  cainddentia  oppositorum.  Protestantism,  by  its 
negation  of  all  ecclesiastical  authority  and  by  advo- 
cating a  direct  union  of  the  soul  with  God,  had  its 
logical  outcome  in  a  Mysticism  mostly  pantheistic. 

Protestant  Mysticism  is  represented  by  Sebastian 
Frank  (1499-1542),  by  Valentine  Weiler  (1533-«8), 
and  especially  by  J.  Bohme  (1575-1624),  who,  in  his 
"Aurora",  conceived  the  nature  of  God  as  containing 
in  itself  the  energies  of  good  and  evil,  and  identified  the 
Divine  nature  with  the  human  soul  whose  operation 
is  to  kindle,  according  to  its  free  will,  the  fire  of  good 
or  the  fire  of  evil  (cf.  Deussen,  ''J.  Bohme  wher  sein 
Leben  und  seine  Philosophic",  Kiel,  1897).  Reuchlin 
(1455-1522)developed  a  system  of  cabalistic  Mysticism 
in  his  ''De  arte  caoalistica"  and  his  ''De  vei{>o  miri- 
fico".  We  may  also  assign  to  the  influence  of  Mysticism 
the  ontological  systems  of  Malebranche  and  of  the 
Ontologists  of  the  eighteenth  and  nineteenth  centuries. 
The  romantic  Mysticism  of  Fichte  (1762-1814),  No- 
valis  (1772-1801).  and  Schelling  (1775-1854)  was  a  re- 
action against  the  Rationalism  of  the  eighteenth 
century.  A  pseudo-Mysticism  is  also  the  lo^cal  out- 
come of  the  Fideism  and  evolutionistic  Subjectivism 
of  modem  Protestants,  inaugurated  by  Leasing  (1728- 
81),  developed  by  Schleiermacher  (1768-1834),  A. 
Ritschl  (1822-89;  cf.  Goyau,  "L'Allemagne  Religi- 
euse,  Le  Protestantisme".  6th  ed.,  Paris,  1906),  SalMk- 
tier,  etc.,  and  accepted  by  the  Modernists  in  their 
theories  of  vital  immanence  and  religious  experience 
(cf .  Encyclical ' '  Pascendi " ) .     (See  Modernism.) 

Criticism. — A  tendency  so  universal  and  so  per- 
sistent as  that  of  Mysticism,  which  appears  among  all 
peoples  and  influences  philosophical  tnought  more  or 
less  throughout  all  centuries,  must  have  some  real 
foundation  in  human  nature.  There  is  indeed  in  Uie 
human  soul  a  natural  desiro  for,  an  aspiration  towards 
the  highest  truth,  the  absolute  truth,  and  the  hig^esiy 
the  infinite  good.  We  know  by  experience  and  reason 
that  the  knowledge  and  enjoyment  of  created  things 
cannot  give  the  fulness  of  truth  and  the  perfection  of 
beatitude  which  will  completely  satisfy  our  desires 
and  aspirations.    There  is  in  our  soul  a  caiMcity  for 


MYSTICISM 


665 


MYTHOLOOY 


more  truth  and  perfection  than  we  can  ever  acquire 
through  the  knowledge  of  created  things.  We  realize 
that  God  alone  is  the  end  of  man,  that  in  the  posses- 
sion of  God  alone  we  can  reach  the  satisfaction  of  our 
aspirations.  Of.  S.  Thorn.,  Theol.,  L  Q.  ii,  a.  1,  ad  lum; 
Q.  xu,  a.  1 ;  Q.  xliv,  a.  4,  ad  3um;  I-II  Q.  iii,  a.  8;  " Con- 
tra Gentes",  III,  cc.  i,  xxv,  1;  "De  Veritate",  Q.  xxii, 
a.  2;  "Compend.  Theologiae",  104,  etc.  Of.  Sestili^ 
"De  naturali  intelligentis  animse  appetitu  intuendi 
divinam  essentiam'^  Rome,  1896.  But  the  i^tional 
effort  of  our  intelligence  and  positive  aspirations  of 
our  will  find  here  their  limits.  Is  there  truly  possible 
a  union  of  our  reason  and  will  with  God  more  inti- 
mate than  that  which  we  possess  through  created 
things?  Can  we  expect  more  than  a  knowledge  of 
God  by  analogical  concepts  and  more  than  the  beati- 
tude proportionate  to  that  knowledge?  Here  human 
reason  cannot  answer.  But  where  reason  was  power- 
less, philosophers  gave  way  to  feeling  and  imagination. 
They  dreamt  of  an  intuition  of  the  Divinity,  of  a  di- 
rect contemplation  and  immediate  possession  of  God. 
They  imagined  a  notion  of  the  universe  and  of  human 
nature  that  would  make  possible  such  a  union.  They 
built  systems  in  which  the  world  and  the  human  soul 
were  considered  as  an  emanation  or  ^art  of  the  Divin- 
ity, or  at  least  as  cont^ning  something  of  the  Divine 
essence  and  Divine  ideas.  The  logical  outcome  was 
Pantheism. 

This  result  was  a  clear  evidence  of  error  at  the 
startixig-point.  The  Catholic  Churchy  as  guardian  of 
Christian  doctrine,  through  her  teaching  and  theolo- 
gianS;  gave  the  solution  of  the  problem.  She  asserted 
the  hmitp  of  human  reason:  the  human  sotd  has  a 
natural  capacity  (poterUia  ohedienticdis) ,  but  no  exigency 
and  no  positive  aoility  to  reach  God  otherwise  than  by 
analogical  knowledge.  She  condemned  the  immedi- 
ate vision  of  the  Beghards  and  Beguines  (cf .  Denzinger- 


Bannwart,  "Enchiridion",  nn.  474-6),  the  pseudo- 
Mi^sticism  of  Eckhart  (ibid.,  nn.  501-29),  and  Alolinos 
(ibid.,  nn.  2121-88),  the  theories  of  the  Ontologists 
(ibid.,  nn.  1659-65,  1891-1930),  and  Pantheism  under 
all  its  forms  (ibid.,  nn.  1801-5),  as  well  as  the  vital 
Immanence  and  religious  experience  of  the  Modern- 
ists (ibid.;  nn.  2071-109).  But  she  teaches  that, 
what  man  cannot  know  by  natural  reason,  he  can 
know  through  revelation  and  faith;  that  what  he  can- 
not attain  to  by  his  natural  power  he  can  reach  by  the 
grace  of  God.  God  has  gratuitously  elevated  human 
nature  to  a  supernatural  state.  He  has  assigned  as  its 
ultimate  end  the  direct  vision  of  Himself,  the  Beatific 
Vision.  But  this  end  can  be  reached  only  in  the  next 
life;  in  the  present  life  we  can  but  prepare  ourselves  for 
it  with  the  aid  of  revelation  and  grace.  To  some 
souls,  however,  even  in  the  present  life,  God  gives  a 
very  special  grace  by  which  they  are  enabled  to  feel 
His  sensible  presence:  this  is  true  mystical  contempl^ 
tion.  In  this  act,  there  is  no  annihilation  or  absorption 
of  the  creature  into  God,  but  God  becomes  intimately 
present  to  the  created  mind  and  this,  enlightened  by 
special  illuminations,  contemplates  with  ineifable  joy 
the  Divine  essence. 

Prbgbr,  OmcA.  der  deuUchen  MyUik  im  MiUdaUer  (Leipsic, 
1881);  ScHMiD,  Der  Mysticismtu  in  teiner  ErUalehunggperiode 
CJena.  1824);  GOrres.  Die  chrisU.  MytHk  (Ratiabon,  1830-42); 
Cousin,  Hietoire  giniraU  de  la  philoaophie  (Paris,  1863);  Idbm, 
Du  Vrai,  du  Beau  el  du  Bien  (23rd  ed.,  Paris,  1881).  v;  Gbnnabi, 
Del  faUo  Mieticiamo  (Rome.  1907);  Delacroix,  Eeaai  »ur  le 
tnysticisme  epScukUif  en  AUemagne  au  xiv  eikcle  (Paris,  1900); 
Ueberweo,  Hist.  ofPhiloa.,  tr.  Morris  with  additions  by  Portbb 
(New  York.  1894);  Db  Wulf,  Hi»t.  de  la  Philoe,  nUdiivaU  (Lou- 
vain.  1900);  Turner,  Hi$t.  of  Philoe.  (Boston,  1903). 

George  M.  Saxtvaqe. 

BKyBticiflxxiy  Theological.  See  Theologt,  Mys- 
tical. 

Mythology.    See  Paganism. 


N 


Naasens.    See  Ophites. 

Nabo  or  Nebo  (U^;  Sept..  Na/9aOX  a  town  men- 
tioned in  several  passages  of  the  Old  Testament,  v.  g., 
Num.,  xxxii,  3;  Jer..  xlviii,  1,  22;  I  Par.,  v,  8:  Is., 
XV,  2,  etc.  In  Numbers,  xxxii,  3,  it  is  mentioned  be- 
tween Saban  and  Beon,  the  latter  being  an  abbrevia- 
tion of  Baalmeon.  In  the  same  chapter,  verse  3S, 
it  is  again  mentioned  between  Cariathaim  and  Baal- 
meon, and  it  is  found  associated  with  the  same  names 
on  the  Mesa  Stone  (line  14).  These  and  other  indi- 
cations go  to  show  that  the  town  was  situated  in  the 


tion  here.  He  was  the  oldest  son  of  Nabopolaasar, 
the  Chaldean  restorer  of  Babylonian  independence. 
His  lone  reign  of  forty-three  years  (c.  605-^2  b.  c.) 
marks  the  zenith  of  the  grandeur  reached  by  the  short- 
lived second  Babvlonian  Empire  (625-538).  Al- 
though we  possess  long  inscriptions  of  Nabuchodono- 
sor,  ^et  as  these  deal  chiefly  with  the  account  of  his 
architectural  undertakings,  our  knowledge  of  his  his- 
tory is  incomplete,  and  we  have  to  relv  for  informa- 
tion mostly  on  the  Bible,  Berosus,  and  Greek  histo- 
rians. Of  the  wars  he  waged  either  before  or  after  his 
coming  to  his  father's  throne,  nothing  need  be  said 


the  distribution  of  the  territory  (Num.,  xxxii).  The 
town  had  reverted  to  the  Moaoites  at  the  time  when 
Isaias  prophesied  against  it  (Is.,  xv,  2:  cf.  Jer.,  xlviii, 
1,  22).  Mesa  (lines  14-18)  boasts  of  naving  taken  it 
from  the  Israelites.  According  to  St.  Jerome  (Ck>m- 
ment.  in  Is.,  xv,  2,  in  P.  L.^  XXIV,  168),  the  sanctuary 
of  the  idol  Chemosh  was  m  Nabo. 

Lboendrb  in  Vigouroux,  Dietionnatre  de  la  Bible,  s.  v.;  BxN- 
NETT  in  Hastinqs.  Dictionary  of  the  Bible,  n.  v.  ffebo:  Eubbbiub, 
Ononuulieon,  s.  v.;  St.  Jebomk,  De  eitu  el  nominUnut,  b.  v 

Jambs  F.  Driscoll. 

Nabor  and  Felix,  Saints,  martyrs  during  the 

Eersecution  of  Diocletian  (303).  The  relics  of  these 
oly  witnesses  to  the  faith  rest  in  Milan,  where  a 
church  has  been  erected  over  their  tomb.  St.  Ambrose 
extolled  the  virtues  of  these  two  mar  tjrrs.  In  later  times, 
legendary  Acts  of  these  saints  have  appeared,  which 
are  imitated  from  Acts  of  other  martyrs  (Victor, 
Firmus,  and  Rusticus).  According  to  these  legends, 
which  are  without  historical  value,  Nabor  and  Felix 
were  soldiers  in  the  army  of  Maximian  Herculeus,  and 
were  condemned  to  death  in  Milan  and  beheaded 
in  Lodi.    Their  feast  is  celebrated  on  12  July. 

MoMBRinuB,  Saneluarium,  II,  fol.  158-159;  Acta  SS.,  July, 
III,  291-204;  Analecta  BoUandiana,  XXV  (1906).  361  sq.;  Bibli- 
otheea  hagiographiea  latina,  II,  879;  Allabd,  Hittoire  dee  peraia*- 
tione,  IV  (Paris,  1890).  416;  SAyio,  Di  aleune  ehieee  di  Milano  an- 
teriori  a  S.  Ambrogio  in  Ntuno  Bull,  di  arch,  ariai.  (1896).  163  sqq. 

J.  P.  KiRSCH. 

Nabuchodonosor.— The  Babylonian  form  of  the 
name  is  Nabu-kudurri-usur,  the  second  part  of  which 
is  variously  interpreted  ("0  Nebo,  defend  my  crown", 
or  "tiara'',  "empire",  "landmark",  "work").  The 
original  has  been  more  or  less  defaced  in  the  Hebrew, 
Greek,  and  Latin  transliterations,  from  which  are 
derived  the  modem  English  forms,  Nabuchodono- 
sor, Nebuchadnezzar,  and  Nebuchadrezzar.    On  the 


rians  and  Scythians  were  definitively  crushed,  all  hia 
expeditions  were  directed  westwards,  although  a  pow- 
erful neighbour  lay  to  the  North ;  the  cause  of  this  waa 
that  a  wise  political  marriage  with  Amuhia,  the  daugh- 
ter of  the  Median  king,  had  insured  a  lasting  peace  oe- 
tween  the  two  empires. 

Nabuchodonosor  seems  to  have  prided  himself  on 
his  constructions  more  than  on  his  victories.  During 
the  last  century  of  Ninive's  existence  Babylon  had 
been  greatly  devastated,  not  only  at  the  hands  of  Sen- 
nacherib and  Assurbanipal,  but  also  as  a  result  of  her 
ever  renewed  rebellions.  Nabuchodonosor,  continu- 
ing his  father's  work  of  reconstruction,  aimed  at 
making  his  capital  one  of  the  world's  wonders.  Old 
temples  were  restored:  new  edifices  of  incredible  mag- 
nificence (Diodor.  of  Sicily,  II,  95;  Herodot.,  I,  183) 
were  erected  to  the  many  gods  of  the  Babylonian  pan- 
theon; to  complete  the  royal  palace  begun  by  Nabo- 
polassar,  nothing'  was  spared,  neither  "cedar-wood, 
nor  bronze,  gold,  silver,  rare  and  precious  stones";  an 
underground  passage  and  a  stone  bridge  connected 
the  two  porta  of  the  citv  separated  by  the  Euphrates; 
the  city  jtself  was  renclerea  impregnable  by  the  con- 
struction of  a  triple  line  of  walls.  Nor  was  Nabucho- 
donosor's  activity  confined  to  the  capital;  he  is  cred- 
ited with  the  restoration  of  the  Lake  of  Sippar,the 
opening  of  a  port  on  the  Persian  Gulf,  and  the  Duilding 
of  the  famous  Median  wall  between  the  Tigris  and  the 
Euphrates  to  protect  the  couhtry  against  incursions 
from  the  North:  in  fact,  there  is  scarcely  a  place 
around  Babylon  where  his  name  does  not  appear  and 
where  traces  of  his  activity  are  not  found.  These 
gigantic  undertakings  required  an  innumerable  host 
of  workmen :  from  the  inscription  of  the  great  t«mple 
of  Marduk  (Meissner,  "  Assyr.  Studien",  II,  in  "\iit- 
teil.  der  Vorderas.  Ges.".  1904.  Ill),  we  may  infer  that 
most  probably  captives  Drougnt  from  various  parts  of 


whole,  Nabuchodonosor  appears  to  be  nearer  to  the    Western  Asia  made  up  a  large  part  of  the  labouring 


original  Babylonian  pronunciation  than  Nebuchadrez- 
zar and  especially  Nebuchadnezzar  (A.  V.,  Ezra,  ii,  1) 
taken  from  the  Massoretic  transliteration,  and  would 
be  still  nearer  if  the  "r"  were  restored  to  the  second 
element  where  "n"  has  crept  in.  Two  kings  of  this 
name  are  known  to  have  ruled  over  Babylon. 
Nabuchodonosor  I  (c.  1152-1124),  is  the  most 


force  used  in  all  his  public  works. 

From  Nabuchodonosor's  inscriptions  and  from  the 
number  of  temples  erected  or  restored  by  this  prince 
we  gather  that  he  was  a  verjr  devout  man.  What  we 
know  of  his  history  shows  him  to  have  been  of  a  hu- 
mane disposition,  in  striking  contrast  with  the  wantoc 
cruelty  of  most  of  the  iron-souled  Assyrian  rulers.    It 


famous  monarch  of  the  dynasty  of  Pashi  or  Isin.    A    was  owing  to  this  moderation  that  Jerusalem  was 
prince  of  untiring  energy,  he  led  to  victory  the  Chfd-    spared  repeatedly,  and  finally  destroyed  only  wh^  its 


dean  arxnies  east  and  west,  against  the  Lulubi,  Elam, 
and  Syria,  and  although  twice  defeated  by  the  As- 
syrian king,  Ashshur-resh-ishi,  succeeded  in  arresting 
for  a  time  the  decay  of  the  first  Babylonian  Empire 
(see  Babylonia,  II,  183). 

Nabuchodonosor  II  is  often  mentioned  in  various 
parts  of  Holy  Writ,  and  will  claim  our  especial  atten- 


6(V6 


destruction  became  a  political  necessity ;  rebel  princes 
easily  obtsdned  pardon,  and  Sedecias  himself,  ndiofle 
ungratefulness  to  the  Babylonian  king  was  particu^ 
larly  odious,  would,  had  he  manifested  less  stubborn* 
ness,  have  been  treated  with  greater  indulgence  (Jer^ 
xxxviii,  17,  18);  Nabuchodonosor  showed  much  ooo* 
sideration  to  Jeremias,  leaving  him  free  to  accompany 


NACCHIANTB 


667 


NAGASAKI 


the  exiles  to  Babylon  or  to  remain  in  Jerusalem,  and 
appointing  one  of  the  Prophet's  friends,  Godolias,  to 
the  governorship  of  Jerusalem;  he  granted  likewise 
such  a  share  of  freedom  to  the  exiled  Jews  that  some 
rose  to  a  position  of  prominence  at  Court  and  Baruch 
thought  it  a  duty  to  exhort  his  fellow-countrjrmen  to 
have  the  welfare  of  Babylon  at  heart  and  to  pray  for 
her  king.  Babylonian  tradition  has  it  that  towards 
the  end  of  his  life,  Nabuchodonosor,  inspired  from  on 
high,  prophesied  the  impending  ruin  to  the  Chaldean 
Empire  (Berosus  and  Aoydenus  in  Eusebius.  "  Prsep. 
Evang.",  IX,  xli).  The  Book  of  Daniel  (iv)  records 
how  God  punished  the  pride  of  the  ^eat  monarch. 
On  this  mysterious  chastisement,  which  some  think 
consisted  in  an  attack  of  the  madness  called  lycan- 
thropy,  as  well  as  on  the  interregnum  which  it  must 
have  caused,  Babylonian  annals  are  silent:  clever 
hypotheses  have  been  devised  either  to  explain  this 
silence,  or  in  scanning  documents  in  order  to  find  in 
them  traces  of  the  wanted  interregnum  (see  Oppert, 
"Exp6dit.  en  M^opot."  I,  186-187:  Vigouroux,  "La 
Bible  et  les  d6couvertes  modemes  ,  IV,  337).  Na- 
buchodonosor  died  in  Babylon  between  the  second  and 
sixth  months  of  the  forty-third  year  of  his  reign. 

On  Nabuchodonosor  II  see  Reeordt  of  the  Past,  Ist  sor.,  V,  87, 
111;  VII.  69.  73;  XI.  92;  2nd  ser..  III.  102;  V.  141;  Proceedings 
of  the  Society  of  Bibl.  Archaol.,  X.  87.  215.  290  8qq.;  XII.  116,  159 
sqq.;  Schradbb-Whitehoubs.  The  Cuneiform  Inaer.  and  the  Old 
Testament,  II,  47-52,  115,  315  etc.;  Pognon,  Les  inscriptions 
babyUmiennes  de  Wadi-Brieaa  (Paris,  1888) ;  Mbnant,  Bt^ione 
et  la  ChaUUe,  197-248;  Maspero,  Histoire  aneienne  des  peujAes  de 
r Orient:  Les  empires  (Paris.  1904).  517-66,  623-43:  Vigouroux, 
La  Bible  et  Us  dieouwHes  modemes  (Paris,  1898),  IV,  141-54,  244- 
333;  Pannier  in  Vigouroux.  Diet,  de  la  BibU,  s.  v.;  Scrrader, 
Keilinsehri/aiehe  Bibliothek,  III.  part  ii,  10-71.  140-41;  IV,  180- 
201. 

Charles  L.  Souvat. 

Nftcchianta  (Naclantus),  Giacomo,  Dominican 
theologian,  b.  at  Florence;  d.  at  Chioggia,  6  May, 
1569;  he  studied  at  Bologna,  where  Michael  Ghislieri, 
afterwards  Pius  V,  was  his  fellow-student.  He  sub- 
sequently taught  philosophy  and  theology  for  a  num- 
ber of  years,  in  the  college  of  St.  Thomas  of  Minerva, 
Rome.  Paul  III,  struck  with  his  talents,  made  him 
Bishop  of  Chioggia  (3  June,  1544).  At  the  Council  of 
Trent  his  vigorous  protest  against  the  words  of  the  de- 
cree of  the  ly  Session  (8  April,  1546),  which  asserts 
that  the  traditions  of  the  Church  are  to  be  received 
with  the  same  reverence  and  piety  as  the  Scriptures, 
cast  some  suspicions  on  his  orthodoxy;  but  he  gave  a 
reverent  assent  to  the  decree,  when  he  saw  it  connrmed 
by  the  authority  of  so  great  an  assembly.  Other 
serious  suspicions  of  his  orthodoxy  seem  afterwards  to 
have  arisen,  but  as  Pallavicini  remarks,  his  memory 
is  vindicated  from  such  charges  by  the  grave  affairs  of 
trust  which  were  assigned  him  under  Pius  IV.  His 
works  were  published  oy  Pietro  Fratino  at  Venice  in 
1567.  Among  the  more  important  are  "Enarra- 
tiones  .  .  .  in  ep.  D.  Pauli  ad  Ephesios";  "In  ep. 
ad  Romanes";  "S.  Scriptunc  medulla";  "Tracta- 
tiones  XVIII  theologales";  ''Theoremata  meta- 
physica";  "Theoremata  theologica". 

HuRTKR,  Nomendator  Literarivks,  1, 28. 20;  Qu^nr  andEchard, 
Script,  Ord.  Pr.^  II.  202;  Strkber  in  Kirehenlexicon,  a.  ▼. 

Edward  F.  Garesch^. 

Nachtgall  (Nachtigall).  See  Lubcinius,  Oit- 
mar. 

Nftcolia  (Nacoleia). — A  titular  metropolitan  see 
in  Phrygia  Salutaris.  This  town,  which  took  its  name 
from  the  nymph  Nacola,  hod  no  history  in  antiquity. 
It  was  there  that  Valens  defied  the  usurper  Procopius; 
under  Arcadius  it  was  occupied  by  a  garrison  of  Goths 
who  revolted  against  the  emperor.  At  first  depend- 
ent on  Synnada,  the  see  became  autocephalous  be- 
tween 787  and  862,  and  metropolitan  between  1035 
and  1066.  Seven  of  its  bishops  are  known,  among 
them  being  Constantine,  one  of  the  chief  supporters  o? 
Iconoclasm  under  Leo  the  Isaurian,  who  feigned  to 


abjure  his  error  before  the  patriarch,  St.  Germanus. 
and  was  oondenmed  as  an  neresiarch  at  the  Second 
Council  of  Niciea  (787).  Nacolia  is  the  modem  vil« 
lage  of  Sevyid  el-Gh&zi,  chief  town  of  Nahi^,  in  the 
Villayet  of  Brusa.  about  twenty-two  miles  southeast 
of  Eski  Sheir.  The  name  of  the  village  is  derived 
from  Se3r3dd  (Sidi)  el-Battal,  an  Arab  sheikh  who 
was  slain  in  739  by  the  troops  of  Leo  the  Isaurian,  and 
buried  in  a  tekke  of  Bektashi  dervishes  founded  by  the 
mother  of  the  Seljukian  sultan,  Aladdin  the  Great. 
Seyjrid  el  Gh&zi  contains  some  unimportant  ruins. 

Rambat  in  Journal  of  HeOenie  Studies,  III  (1882),  119  aq.; 
Lr  Quien,  Oriens  Christ.,  I,  839;  Cuinbt,  La  Turg^ie  d'Asie,  iV. 
213;  Radvt,  Bn  Phrygie  (Paris,  1895).  22. 

S.  PfiTRID^S. 

Nagasaki,  Diocese  of  (Nagabakiensis). — Naga- 
saki, capital  of  the  prefecture  (ken)  of  the  same  name, 
is  situated  on  a  small  peninsula  on  the  south-eastern 
coast  of  the  Island  of  Kiushiu,  Japan.  Its  harbour, 
enclosed  on  three  sides  by  mountains  sloping  down  to 
the  searshore  and  sheltered  on  the  fourth  (the  en- 
trance) by  numerous  islands,  is  one  of  the  safest  and 
most  important  in  Japan.  Being  the  first  port  of  en- 
try for  vessels  coming  from  the  south  and  west,  it  is 
also  one  of  the  leadmg  coaling-stations  of  the  Fai 
East.  The  principal  industries  of  the  town  are  the 
manufacture  of  engines  and  ship-building.  It  imports 
mainly  cotton,  coal,  sugar,  and  petroleum;  among  its 
chief  exports  are  coal,  rice,  flour,  camphor,  ana  to- 
bacco. In  the  first  ten  centuries  of  our  era  we  find 
references  to  the  town  under  no  less  than  seven  distinct 
names,  of  which  Fvkaye  no  Ura  (Fukaye  Bay)  is  the 
best  known.  Its  present  name  is  probably  derived 
from  a  certain  Nagasaki  Kotaro,  who,  about  1185- 
90,  received  Fukaye  no  Ura  as  his  fief.  Prior  to  the 
arrival  of  the  Christian  missionaries,  however,  Naga- 
saki was  an  insismificant  village. 

Although  St.  Francis  Xavicr's  missonary  labours  in 
Japan  were  confined  to  the  territory  now  included  in 
the  Diocese  of  Nagasaki^  and  the  ecclesiastical  history 
of  this  territory  is  practically  identical  with  the  early 
Christian  history  of  Japan,  the  town  of  Nagasaki  ap- 
pears not  to  have  been  visited  hy  the  missionaries 
until  1569.  In  this  year  Father  Vilela.  S.J.,  erected  a 
church  on  the  site  of  a  pagoda  which  had  been  given 
him  by  the  Christian  lord  of  the  district,  and  in  1571 
had  already  made  1500  converts.  In  1570  the  Portu- 
guese began  trading  with  Nagasaki.  Yinzeyemon, 
the  imperial  governor  of  the  province,  received  them 
kindly,  and,  perhaps  to  induce  them  to  trade  with  him 
alone,  and  thus  to  prevent  others  from  obtaining  fire- 
arms, affected  to  favour  the  Christian  religion.  When| 
however,  the  traders  and  missionaries,  as  a  safeguara 
against  future  oppression,  insisted  on  his  recognizing 
the  ecclesiastical  authority  over  the  territory  of  Naga- 
saki, he  showed  great  hesitation  and  yielded  to  their 
wishes  only  when  they  threatened  to  withdraw  and 
choose  some  other  headquarters  if  their  request  were 
refused.  From  the  arrival  of  the  foreigners  dates  the 
rapid  growth  of  Nagasaki,  numbers  of  tne  native  mer- 
chants settling  in  the  town  in  the  hope  of  enriching 
themselves  by  forei^  commerce.  By  1587  the  last 
traces  of  the  Buddhist  and  Shinto  religions  had  van- 
ished from  the  district,  which  already  contained  three 
principal  churches  (called  by  the  Japanese  Ki4cuwan 
** strange  sight")  and  numerous  chapels.  To  1587 
must  also  be  referred  Hideyoshi's  sudden  chazige  of 
attitude  towards  Christianity  (see  Japan),  uiflu- 
enced  by  the  bonzes'  insinuations  concerning  the  ulti- 
mate aim  of  the  missionaries,  he  issued,  durii^  a  ni^t 
of  orgy  (24  July)^  a  decree  proscribing  the  Christian 
religion  and  ordering  the  Jesuits  to  leave  Japan  within 
twenty  days.  Subsequently,  however,  the  taiko  grew 
calmer  and  consented  to  ten  fathers  remaining  at 
Nagasaki,  nor  did  he  adopt  any  active  measures  to 
suppress  Christianity  as  long  as  outward  respect  wa€ 
shown  for  his  decrees. 


NAQASAKI 


668 


NAQASAKI 


The  San  Felipe  incident,  however  (see  Japan),  led 
to  a  newpersecution  in  1596,  and  twenty-six  mission- 
aries (6  Franciscans.  3  Jesuits,  and  17  Japanese  Chris- 
tians) were  crucifiea  at  Nagasaki  in  1597.  Persistent 
rumors  that  the  taiko  was  about  to  revisit  Kiushiu 
in  person  led  the  Governor  of  Nagasaki,  who  had  pre- 
viously shown  himself  not  unfavourable  towards  the 
Christians,  to  send  a  force  to  destroy  the  chiurches  and 
residences  of  the  missionaries  in  1598.  In  the  terri- 
tory of  the  present  Diocese  of  Nagasaki  137  churches 
of  the  Jesuits  were  demolished,  as  well  as  their  college 
in  Amakusa  and  their  seminary  in  Arima.  The  death 
of  Hideyoshi  on  16  Sept.,  1598,  put  an  end  to  this  per- 
secution. Ijreyasu,  anxious  to  promote  commerce  with 
the  Philippmes,  allowed  free  mgress  to  the  mission- 
aries, and,  beyond  enforcing  the  law  that  no  daimio 
should  receive  baptism,  showed  at  first  no  hostility 
to  Christianity.  In  1603  Nagasaki,  the  population 
of  which  had  grown  from  about  2500  to  24,500  in 
fifty  years,  possessed  eleven  churches.  About  1612 
or  1613  the  bonzes — assisted,  it  is  to  be  feared,  by 
some  English  and  Dutch  captains — succeeded  in 
thoroughly  alarming  lyeyasu  as  to  some  imaginary 
intrigue  between  certain  of  his  officers  and  the  repre- 
sentatives of  Philip  III  of  Spain  and  Portugal.  On  27 
January,  1614,  orders  were  issued  for  the  expulsion  of 
the  missionaries  and  the  destruction  of  the  chiurches. 
In  1622.  Nagasaki  was  the  scene  of  the  ''Great  Mar- 
tyrdom". (See  Mabtyrs,  Japanese.)  In  1629  the 
custom  of  Fumi-ye,  or  trampling  on  the  crucifix,  was 
introduced;  paper  pictures  were  at  first  used,  but  later 
more  durable  images  were  utilized — at  first  wood,  and 
still  later  (1669)  20  bronze  images  cast  by  an  engraver 
of  Nagasaki  from  metal  obtained  from  the  altars  of 
the  demolished  churches.  Between  the  4th  and  9th 
day  of  the  first  month  of  each  year  all  suspect  Chris- 
tians were  ciJled  upon  to  trample  on  these  images: 
those  who  refused  were  banished  fom  their  homes,  and 
when  again  caught,  if  still  recalcitrant,  were  taken  to 
the  boinng  springs  of  Shimabara  and  thrown  in,  or 
subjected  to  crucifixion  and  various  kinds  of  refined 
torture.  Goaded  into  action  by  such  persecution 
and  by  the  miseries  consequent  on  the  suppression 
of  the  religious  houses,  which  had  been  tne  only 
source  of  alleviation  for  the  needs  of  the  impover- 
ished peasantry,  the  people  rose  in  revolt,  in  1637, 
but,  Mter  some  fierce  fighting,  were  crushed  by 
the  shogun's  forces,  assisted  by  Dutch  artillery.  In 
1640  four  Portuguese  envoys  from  Macao  were  seized 
at  Nagasaki,  and,  on  refusmg  to  apostatize,  were  put 
to  death. 

For  more  than  two  centuries  after  1640,  Japan  was 
practically  closed  to  the  outside  world.  The  persist- 
ent attempts  of  missionaries  to  penetrate  into  the 
coimtry  during  the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth  centu- 
ries had  no  other  success  than  that  of  winning  them  the 
martyr's  crown.  The  discovery  of  a  large  body  of 
Christians  by  Father  Petitjean  on  17  March,  1865, 
when  he  was  establishing  the  first  Catholic  church  in 
Nagasaki,  after  the  reopening  of  Japan  to  the  mission- 
aries, has  been  referred  to  in  the  article  Japan.  In 
1866  this  zealous  missionary  was  created  Bishop  of 
Myriophyte  and  Vicar  Apostolic  of  Japan,  and  in 
1876,  on  the  division  of  the  territory  into  two  vicari- 
ates, he  retained  the  administration  of  Southern 
Japan  (1879-85).  On  the  cessation  of  persecution 
(see  Japan),  Mgr  Petitjean  devoted  his  whole  energy 
to  winning  back  into  the  Fold  the  descendants  of  the 
old  C!hristians,  organizing  the  first  Christian  districts, 
and  founding  a  seminary  for  the  formation  of  a  native 
clergy.  He  was  succeeded  as  vicar  Apostolic  by  Mgr 
Julius  Alphonsus  Cousin  (b.  April,  1842),  now  Bishop 
of  Nagasaki.  Father  Cousin  landed  in  Japan  in  1866, 
and  was  the  first  missionary  to  penetrate  into  the 
Goto  Islands.  In  1869  he  founded  the  first  Catholic 
station  at  Osaka,  where  he  laboured  for  eighteen  years. 
Created  Bishop  of  Acmonia  in  1885,  on  succeeding 


Mgr  Petitiean,  he  fixed  his  residence  at  Nagasaki, 
when  Southern  Japan  was  divided  into  two  vicariates, 
in  1887.  In  1890  the  First  Synod  of  Japan  was  held 
at  Nagasaki,  of  which  Mgr  Cousin  oecame  first 
bishop,  on  tne  establishment  of  the  Japanese  hier- 
archy, in  1891.  In  1897  the  third  centennial  of  the 
twenty-six  Japanese  martyrs,  canonized  by  Pius  IX  in 
1867,  was  celebrated  by  the  construction  and  solemn 
benediction  of  the  church  of  Oiu:  Lady  of  Martyrs  at 
Nagasaki.  The  episcopal  jubilee  of  Bishop  Cousin 
was  celebrated  in  1910.  During  his  episcopate  of 
twenty-five  years.  Bishop  Cousin  has  I^>oured  to  in- 
crease the  native  clergy  and  to  extend  the  woric  of 
the  mission.  He  has  ordained  40  Japanese  priesta, 
founded  35  new  stations  (with  residences),  established 
38  new  Christian  settlements,  and  built  50  churches 
and  chapels.  During  his  administration  the  Catholic 
population  has  more  than  doubled. 

The  Diocese  of  Nagasaki  includes  Kiushiu  and 
the  neighbouring  islands — ^Amakusa,  Goto,  Ikitsuki, 
Tsushima,  Oshima,  and  the  Ryukyu  (Lu  Chu)  Archi- 
pelago. The  total  population  is  about  7,884,900;  the 
Catholic  poptilation  was  47,104  on  15  Aug.,  1910  (23,- 

000  in  1885).  The  personnel  of  the  mission  is:  1 
bishop,  36  missionaries  (French),  26  diocesan  priests 
(Japanese),  6  tonsured  clerics,  35  native  (male  or  fe- 
male) catechists  labouring  for  the  conversion  of  pa- 
gans, 350  catechists  entrusted  with  the  instruction  of 
the  Christian  communities^  15  itinerant  baptizers  (fe- 
male). The  mission  auxiharies,  engaged  in  works  of 
education  and  charity,  are:  17  Brouiers  of  Mary  (14 
foreigners,  including  3  priests),  21  Sisters  of  the  Holy 
Child  Jesus  (Chauif allies — 5  Japanese),  16  Franciscan 
Sisters  (Missionaries  of  Mary),  8  Sisters  of  St.  Paul 
of  Chartres  (3  Japanese),  10  communities  of  native 
women,  with  177  members.  The  establishments  in- 
clude: 40  mission  stations  with  residences;  35  sub-star 
tions;  153  Christian  communities;  67  blessed  churches 
and  chapels;  52  unblessed  oratories  and  chapels;  1 
seminary  with  31  students  (8  theolos^cal;  4  philosophi- 
cal; 19  studying  Latin);  1  Apostolic  school  with  18 

Iiupils  (10  postulants  of  the  Brothers  of  Mary) ;  1  col- 
ege,  primary  and  commercial,  with  325  pupils  (30 
boarders):  1  school  for  women  catechists,  with  15 
pupils;  3  Doarding-houses  for  girls  with  224  pupils;  1 
professional  school,  with  18  pupils:  1  primary  Rchool 
for  girls,  with  149  pupils;  2  kmdergartens,  with  79 
pupils;  8  orphanages,  with  244  children  (65  boarders); 

2  workrooms,  with  39  workers;  1  leper  asylum,  with  2S 
lepers;  3  hospitals,  with  92  patients;  6  dispensaries 
(4005  patients  cared  for);  15  conference  nsdls  for 
religious  instruction  (total  number  of  hearers  about 
2730).  The  Brothers  of  Mary  have  the  direction  of 
the  Apostolic  school  and  the  college.  The  Sisters  of 
the  Holy  Child  Jesus  manage  2  boaiding-houses  (high- 
schools),  the  professional  school,  primary  school,  kin- 
dergartens, 2  orphan  asylums,  1  nospitaJ  dispensaiy, 

1  conference  hall,  and  1  work-room.  The  Franciscan 
Sisters  have  charge  of  the  leper  asylum.  1  hospital, 

3  dispensaries,  2  conference  halls,  1  orpnan  asylum, 
and  1  work-room;  the  Sisters  of  St.  Paul  of  Chartres; 
1  boarding-house  (high -school),  1  hospital  dispen- 
sary, 1  conference  haU,  and  1  orphan  asylum.  As 
the  State  insists  on  the  attendance  of  all  children  be- 
tween the  ages  of  six  and  twelve  at  the  secular  public 
primary  schools,  parochial  schools  are  practically  im- 
possible in  Japan  at  present.  The  administrative 
statistics  for  the  year  ending  15  Aug.,  1910,  are:  bap- 
tisms of  adults,  592  (208  in  extremis  and  8  i^jura- 
tions);  baptisms  of  pagan  children  (in  extremis),  811; 
baptisms  of  Christian  children,  1645;  annual  confes- 
sions, 29,414;  paschal  conmiunions,  25,015;  Holy 
Viaticums,  340;  extreme  unctions,  476;  marriages, 
323;  known  deaths,  1067;  increase,  1179. 

In  addition  to  the  works  named  under  Japan,  ooiuroli  Tin7S»> 
TON,  Japan  and  Chriatianiiu  in  The  Month  (Feb.-May,  1906); 
WooLKT,  HiH.  NoUa  on  fmoaaaki  in  Atiatie  Sodd^  ii  Jai 
Tranmution;   IX   (Yokohama.    1881).  126-61;  Cast. 


NAaPUB 


669 


NAHANB8 


ChrisL  in  Japan,  I  (New  York.  — );  Chambebs  and  Mason, 
Handbook  cf  Japan  (8th  ed.,  London.  1907) ;  Okuma,  Fifty  Yean 
oS  New  Japan  (2  voIb.,  2nd  ed.,  London,  1910). 

Thomas  Kennedy. 

Nagpnr,  Diocese  of  (Nagpurensis),  in  India, 
suffragan  to  Madras.  Formerly  the  north-western 
portion  of  the  Vicariate  Apostolic  of  Vizagapatam,  it 
was  erected  into  a  diocese  on  29  July,  1887,  and  its 
boundaries  finally  readjusted  on  10  July.  1895.  It 
comprises  the  greater  portion  of  the  Central  Provinces, 
Berar,  a  portion  of  the  Indore  State,  a  strip  of  the 
Nizam's  dominions  as  far  south  as  the  Godavery  River, 
etc.,  the  boundaries  being  in  many  parts  independent 
of  civil  divisions.  The  area  is  about  124,(X)0  square 
miles  with  a  Catholic  population  of  15,000  out  of  a 
total  oi  about  15,000,0(X)  inhabitants.  It  is  served  by 
28  priests  of  the  Congregation  of  the  Missionaries  of 
St.  Francis  de  Sales,  Annecy,  and  7  secular  clergy, 
assisted  by  7  brothers  of  the  above  congregation;  13 
Franciscan  Brothers  from  Paderbom  in  Germany ;  4 
Sisters  of  St.  Joseph  from  St.  Jean  de  Maurienne,  Sa- 
voy; 23  Daughters  of  the  Cross:  and  28  Catechist 
Sisters  of  Mary  Immaculate.  The  diocese  has  12 
churches  and  33  chapels.  The  cathedral,  bishop's 
residence,  and  diocesan  seminary  are  at  Nagpur. 

History. — Although  the  territories  comprised 
under  Nagpur  were  included  within  the  Vicariate  of 
the  Great  Mogul,  there  is  no  trace  of  any  missionary 
ever  having  set  foot  there  till  the  beginning  of  the 
nineteenth  century.  Nagpur,  Kamptee,  Auranga- 
bad,  and  Jaulnah  were  first  visited  by  priests  of  the 
Goan  jurisdiction,  from  Poona,  about  1814.  A  chapel 
in  honour  of  St.  Anthony  existed  at  Takli,  suburb  of 
Nagpur,  where  the  troops  of  the  Rajah  of  Nagpur  were 
quartered.  Another  was  built  in  Kamptee,  and  held 
in  great  veneration  by  native  Christians.  A  Goan 
priest  died  at  Nagpur  in  1834.  Simultaneously, 
Goan  priests  establisned  themselves  at  Aurangabacl, 
and  built  a  chapel  in  honour  of  St.  Francis  Xavier  in 
1816;  another  chapel  was  built  by  them  at  Kannar, 
two  miles  from  Aurangabad .  Military  cantonments  for 
British  troops  were  created  at  Kamptee  in  1821,  and 
at  Jaulnah  m  1827.  The  Goan  priests  retained  their 
jurisdiction  in  these  parts  until  1839,  when,  in  conse- 

Xience  of  the  Apostolic  Brief  ''  Multa  prseclare''  of  24 
pril,  1838,  the  district  fell  to  the  jurisdiction  of  the 
Vicar  Apostolic  of  Madras.  In  January,  1839,  priests 
from  Madras  took  possession  of  Kamptee  and  Jaulnah. 
They  were  Fathers  Breen  (died  1844)  and  Egen  at 
Kamptee,  and  D.  Murphy  at  Jaulnah.  Father  Mur- 
phy, whose  registers  are  preserved  in  the  bishop's  rciii- 
dence  at  Nagpur,  subsequently  became  Vicar  Apos- 
tolic of  Hyderabad  and  then  Archbishop  of  Hooart 
Town,  Tasmania,  where  he  died  in  1908.  In  1845 
some  missionaries  of  St.  Francis  de  Sales,  from  Annecy 
(Savoy,  France),  were  appointed  to  the  chaige  of  the 
northern  portion  of  the  Vicariate  of  Madras,  which 
was  thus  separated  and  made  into  the  Vicariate  of 
Vizagapatam.  They  took  possession  of  Aurungabad, 
Jaulnah,  and  Kamptee  in  1846,  and  visited  Nagpur, 
Ellichpur  (1848),  Jubbulpur  (1850),  and  Khandwa. 
Jubbiupur  became  a  military  cantonment  in  1857. 
From  1846  to  1870  Nagpur  was  a  sub-station  of 
Kamptee,  and  then  became  a  residential  station.  It 
developed  into  the  headquarters  of  the  mission  when 
the  district  was  finally  separated  from  Vizagapatam 
and  made  into  an  episcopal  see,  suffragan  to  M!adras, 
in  1887. 

Succession  op  Bishops. — Alexis  Riccaz,  1887-92; 
Charles  Felix  Pelvat,  1893-1900;  J.  M.  Crochet,  1901- 
03;  E.  M.  Bonaventure,  1905-07;  F.  E.  Coppel,  pres- 
ent bishop  from  1907. 

Institutions. — Schools  for  Boys:  St.  Francis  of 
Sales'  College,  Nagpur,  Calcutta,  with  350  pupils,  also 
industrial  school,  printing  press  and  Catholic  youne 
men's  institute ;  St.  Francis  of  Sales'  Native  School, 
Nagpur,  with  220  pupils;  St.  Joseph's  Day  School, 


Kamptee,  with  130  pupils;  St.  Aloysius'  School,  Jub* 
bulpur,  with  120  pupils ;  small  schools  at  Amraoti  and 
Aurangabad;  native  training  school  at  Ghogargaon 
with  15  boaraers,  and  26  other  schools  in  the  villages 
with  215  pupils;  thirty  schools  in  Khandwa  under  25 
catechist  teachers  with  396  pupils;  17  schools  round 
Ellichpur  under  17  catechists  with  155  pupils. 

Schools  for  Girls. — Under  the  Sisters  ol  St.  Joseph: 
six  schools  at  Na^ur,  Kamptee,  Jubbulpur,  Khandwa, 
Harda,  Pachmari  with  565  pupils,  besides  two  smaller 
schools.  Under  the  Daughters  of  the  Cross:  three 
schools  at  Amraoti,  Aurangabad,  and  Badnera  with 
191  pupils.  Under  the  Catechist  Sisters:  two  schools 
in  Nagpur  with  105  pupils. 

Charitable  Institutions, — Pooihouse,  Nagpur,  with 
156  inmates;  also  foundling  home  with  30  inmates; 
14  dispensaries  in  various  places ;  boys'  orphanages  at 
Nagpur,  Kamptee,  Thana,  Jubbulpur,  and  Amraoti, 
witn  249  inmates,  and  girls'  orphanages  at  the  same 
places  with  229  inmates.  St.  Vincent  de  Paul  So- 
ciety at  Nagpur;  catechumenates  at  Ghogargaon, 
Khandwa,  ana  Ellichpur;  training  schools  for  cate- 
chists at  Ghogargaon  and  Ellichpur  with  38  students. 
The  mission  centres  are  (1)  Ghogargaon  near  Auranga- 
bad, created  in  1893,  with  55  villages,  23,288  Catholics, 
and  26  schools;  (2)  Passan  near  Bilaspur,  opened 
in  1900  with  80  Catholic;?;  (3)  Aulia  in  Khandwa, 
opened  in  1902,  36  villages  with  2100  Catholics  and  30 
schools;  (4)  Ellichpur  in  Berar,  opened  in  1903,  16 
villages  with  870  Catholics. 

Madraa  Catholic  Directory  (1909  and  previous  years);  Dtbe- 
esan  Directory  (1907  and  1908);  La  Mission  de  Vizoffapalam 
(Annecy,  1890). 

Ernest  R.  Hull. 

Nahanes,  or  ''People  of  the  Setting  Sun",  a  tribe 
of  the  great  D6n^  family  of  American  Indians,  whose 
habitat  is  east  and  west  of  the  Rocky  Mountains 
just  north  of  latitude  58°  N.  Broadly  speaking  they 
are  divided  into  two  branches,  the  eastern  and  the 
western  Nahancs.  The  latter  are  themselves  sub- 
divided into  the  Thalhthans,  so  called  after  their 
general  rendezvous  at  the  confluence  of  the  river  of 
the  same  name  with  the  Stickine,  and  the  Takus, 
whose  territory  is  the  basin  of  the  Taku  River,  to- 

§  ether  with  the  upper  portions  of  the  streams  which 
ow  northward  to  the  Lewes,  as  far  east  as  the  upper 
Liard  River.  The  Kaskas  live  just  west,  and  through 
the  Rocky  Mountains,  and  by  speech,  physique,  and 
sociology  they  are  eastern  Nahanes,  wnile  just  east  of 
the  same  range  another  subdivision  of  the  tribe  roams 
over  the  mountains  of  the  Mackenzie.  The  entire 
tribe  cannot  now  number  much  more  than  1000  souls, 
viz.,  175  Thalhthans,  200  Kaskas,  150  Takus,  and 
500  eastern  Nahanes  proper.  The  latter,  as  well  as 
the  Kaskas,  are  pure  nomads,  without  any  social 
organization  to  speak  of,  following  patriarchal  lines 
in  their  descent  and  laws  of  inheritance,  while  the 
westernmost  Nahanes  have  adopted  the  matriarchal 
institutions  of  their  neighbours  on  the  Pacific  Coast, 
the  clans,  with  petty  chiefs  (some  of  whom  are  quite 
influential  and  are  occasionally  women),  potlatches  or 
public  distributions  of  goods  or  eatables,  cremation 
of  the  dead,  ceremonial  dances,  etc.  Physically  they 
also  resemble  the  coast  Indians,  with  whom  they  have 
intermarried  to  a  great  extent,  and  from  the  language 
of  whom  they  have  borrowed  not  a  few  words. 

From  a  religious  standp)oint  the  Nahanes  have 
fared  badly.  The  secluded  position  of  the  western 
branch  and  the  nomadic  habits  of  the  eastern  sub- 
division have  conspired  to  keep  them  away  from  re- 
ligious influences.  Moreover  contact  with  the  miners 
of  the  Cassiar  goldflelds  has  considerably  demoralized 
the  Nahanes  of  the  Far  West  and  sadly  thinned  their 
ranks.  The  Anglican  Church  has  for  a  dozen  of 
years  or  so  maintained  a  mission  at  Thalhthan,  which 
has  met  with  a  limited  measure  of  success.  The 
only  visit  of  a  Catholic  priest  to  the  same  was  paid 


NAHABBO 


670 


NAHUM 


by  the  writer  in  the  eummer  of  1903,  and  it  is  under- 
stood that  it  is  now  to  be  followed  up  by  either  the 
establishment  of  a  permanent  post  there  or  by  periodi- 
cal visits  of  Oblate  missionanes.  As  to  the  eastern 
branch  of  the  tribe,  they  have  been  more  or  less  within 
reach  of  the  priests  of  the  Mackenzie  valley.  To  this 
dav,  however,  both  east  and  west  of  the  Rockies  the 
tribe  can  be  pointed  out  as  one  of  the  least  civilized  of 
the  North  American  Indians. 

See  bibliography  to  DiNis,  Habes,  and  Loucbxux;  Mobics. 
The  Nah*ane  ana  their  Langtiage  in  Traruacliona  of  the  Canadian 
InstiltUe  (Toronto.  1903). 

A.  G.  MORICE. 

Naharro,  Bartolom£  db  Torres.  See  Torres 
Naharro,  Bartolom:^  de. 

Nahuzn,  one  of  the  Prophets  of  the  Old  Testament, 
the  seventh  in  the  traditional  list  of  the  twelve  Minor 
Prophets. 

Name. — ^The  Hebrew  name,  probably  in  the  in- 
tensive form,  Nahhum  (Gesenius-Kautzsch,  ''Heb. 
Gramm.",  §84b,  g).  signifies  primarily  *'  full  of  conso- 
lation or  comfort  ,  hence  consoler"  (St.  Jerome, 
consoUUor).  **  comforter  " .  The  name  Nahiun  was  ap- 
parently ot  not  rare  occurrence.  Indeed,  not  to  speak 
of  a  certain  Nahum  Usted  in  the  Vulgate  and  Douay 
Version  (II  Esd.,  vii,  7)  among  the  companions  of  Zoro- 
babel,  and  whose  name  seems  to  have  been  rather  Re- 
hum  (I  Esd.,  ii,  2;  Heb.  has  Rehum  in  both  places),  St. 
Luke  mentions  in  his  genealogy  of  Our  Lord  a  Nahum, 
son  of  Hesli  and  father  of  Amos  (iii,  25) ;  the  Mishna 
also  occasionally  refers  to  Nahum  the  Mede,  a  famous 
rabbi  of  the  second  century  (Shabb.,  ii,  1,  etc.),  and 
another  Nahum  who  was  a  scribe  or  copyist  {Peahf  ii, 
6);  inscriptions  show  likewise  the 'name  was  not  un- 
common among  Phoenicians  (Gesenius,  "Monum. 
Phcen.",  133;  Boeckh,  "Corp.  Inscript.  Gnec",  II, 
25,  26;  "Corp.  Inscript.  Semitic",  I,  123  a*  b»). 

The  Prophet. — The  little  we  know  touching  the 
Prophet  Nahum  must  be  gathered  from  his  book,  for 
nowhere  else  in  the  canonical  Scriptures  does  his  name 
occur,  and  extracanonical  Jewish  writers  are  hardly 
less  reticent.  The  scant  positive  information  vouch- 
safed by  these  soiu-ces  is  m  no  wise  supplemented  by 
the  worthless  stories  concerning  the  Prophet  put  into 
circulation  by  legend-mongers,  and  which  may  be 
found  in  Carpzov^  "Introd.  ad  lib.  canon.  Bibliorum 
Vet.  Test."  (Ill,  386  sqq.).  We  will  deal  only  with 
what  may  be  gathered  from  the  canonical  Book  of 
Nahum.  the  only  available  first-hand  document  at  our 
disposal.  From  its  title  (i,  1).  we  learn  that  Nahum 
was  an  Elcesite  (so  D.  V.;  A.  V.,  Elkoshite;  Heb., 
^fi^p^K) .  On  the  true  import  of  this  statement  conunen- 
tators  have  not  always  been  of  one  mind.  In  the  pro- 
logue to  his  commentary  of  the  book.  St.  Jerome 
informs  us  that  some  understood  'Elqosnite  as  a  pat- 
ronymic indication:  "  the  son  of  Elqosh  " ;  he,  however, 
holds  the  commonly  accepted  view  that  the  word  'El- 
qoshite  shows  that  the  Prophet  was  a  native  of  Elqosh. 

But  even  understood  in  this  way,  the  intimation 
eiven  by  the  title  is  disputed  by  biblical  scholars. 
Where,  mdeed,  should  this  Elqosh,  nowhere  else  re- 
ferred to  in  the  Bible,  be  sought:  (1)  Some  have  tried 
to  identify  it  with  'Alqdish,  27  miles  north  of  Mossul, 
where  the  tomb  of  Nahum  is  still  shown.  According  to 
this  opinion,  Nahiun  was  bom  in  Assyria,  which  would 
explam  his  perfect  acquaintance  with  the  topography 
and  customs  of  Ninive  exhibited  in  the  book.  But 
such  an  acquaintance  may  have  been  acquired  other- 
wise; and  it  is  a  fact  that  the  tradition  connecting  the 
Prophet  Nahum  with  that  place  cannot  be  traced  back 
beyond  the  sixteenth  century,  as  has  been  conclusively 
proven  by  Assemani.  This  opinion  is  now  generally 
abandon^  by  scholars.  (2)  Still  more  recent  and 
hardly  more  credible  is  the  view  advocated  by  Hitzig 
and  Knobel,  who  hold  that  Elqosh  was  the  old  name 
of  the  town  called  Caphamaum  (i.  e.,  "the  village  of 
Nahum")  in  the  first  century:  a  Galilean  origin,  they 


claim,  would  well  account  for  certain  slight  peculiari- 
ties of  the  Prophet's  diction  that  smack  of  provincial- 
ism. Apart  from  the  somewhat  precarious  etymol- 
ogy, it  may  be  objected  against  this  identification  that 
Caphamaum,  however  well  known  a  place  it  was  at 
the  New  Testament  period,  is  never  mentioned  in  ear- 
Uer  times,  and,  for  all  we  know,  may  have  been  founded 
at  a  relatively  recent  date;  moreover,  the  priests  and 
the  Pharisees  would  most  likely  have  ass^ted  less 
emphatically  "that  out  of  Galilee  a  prophet  riseth 
not"  (John,  vii,  52)  had  Caphamaum  been  associated 
with  our  Prophet  in  the  popular  mind.  (3)  Still,  it  is 
in  Galilee  that  St.  Jerome  located  the  birthplace  of 
Nahum  ("Comment,  in  Nah."  in  P.  L.,  XXV,  1232), 
supposed  to  be  Elkozeh,  in  N.  Galilee;  but  "out  of 
Gahlee  doth  a  prophet  rise?  "  might  we  aisk  again.  (4) 
The  author  of  the  "  Lives  of  the  Irophets  "  long  attrib- 
uted to  St.  Epiphanius  tells  us  "Elqpeh  was  beyond 
Beth-Gabre,  m  the  tribe  of  Simeon  (Greek  text  in 
P.  G.,  XLIIL  409;  Syriac  text  in  Nestle,  "Syrische 
Grammatik,  Chrestomathia",  99).  He  unquestion- 
ably means  that  Elqosh  was  in  the  nei^bourhood  of 
Beth-Gabre  (Beit  Jibrin),  the  ancient  Eleutheropolis, 
on  the  borders  of  Juda  and  Simeon.  This  view  has 
been  adopted  in  the  Roman  Martyrology  (1  Decem- 
ber; "  Begabar  "  is  no  doubt  a  corrupt  spdling  of  Beth- 
Gabre),  and  finds  more  and  more  acceptance  with 
modem  scholars. 

The  Book.— Contente. — ^The  Book  of  Nahum  con- 
tains only  three  chapters  and  may  be  divided  into  two 
distinct  parts:  the  one,  including  i  and  ii,  2  (Heb.,  i-ii, 
1-3),  and  the  other  consisting  of  ii,  1, 3-iii  (Heb.,  ii,  2, 
4-iii).  The  first  part  is  more  undetermined  in  tone 
and  character.  After  the  twofold  title  indicating  the 
subject-matter  and  the  author  of  the  book  (i,  1),  the 
writer  enters  upon  his  subject  by  a  solemn  affirmation 
of  what  he  calls  the  Lord's  jealousy  and  revengeful- 
ness  (i,  2^  3),  and  a  most  forceful  description  of  the 
fright  which  seizes  all  nature  at  the  aspect  of  Yahweh 
coming  into  judgment  (i,  3-6).  Contrasting  admira- 
bly with  this  appalling  picture  is  the  comforting  as- 
surance of  God's  loving-Kindness  towuxls  His  true  and 
trustful  servants  (7-8);  then  follows  the  announce- 
ment of  the  destruction  of  His  enemies,  among  whom 
a  treacherous,  cruel,  and  god-ridden  city,  no  doubt 
Ninive  (although  the  name  is  not  found  in  the  text),  is 
singled  out  and  irretrievably  doomed  to  everUsting 
ruin  (8-14) ;  the  glad  tidhigs  of  the  oppressor's  fall  is 
the  signal  of  a  new  era  of  glory  for  the  people  of  God 
(i,  15;ii,2;Heb.,ii,  1,3). 

The  second  part  of  the  book  is  more  directly  than 
the  other  a  "burden  of  Ninive";  some  of  the  features 
of  the  great  Assyrian  city  are  described  so  accurately 
as  to  make  all  doubt  impossible,  even  if  the  name 
Ninive  were  not  explicitly  mentioned  in  ii,  8.  In  a 
first  section  (ii),  the  Prophet  dashes  off  in  a  few  bold 
strokes  three  successive  sketches:  we  behold  the  iq>- 
proach  of  the  besiegers,  the  assault  on  the  city,  and, 
within^  the  rush  of  its  defenders  to  the  walb  (ii.  1,  ^-5; 
Heb.,  li,  2,  4-6) ;  then  the  protecting  dams  ana  sluices 
of  the  Tigris  being  burst  open,  Ninive,  panic-strick^i, 
has  become  an  easy  prey  to  the  victor:  her  most  sa- 
cred places  are  profaned,  her  vast  treasures  plundered 
(6-9 ;  Heb. :  7-10)  \  and  now  Ninive,  once  the  den  where 
the  lion  hoarded  nch  spoils  for  his  whelps  and  his  lion- 
esses, has  been  swept  away  forever  by  the  mi^ty 
hand  of  the  God  of  hosts  (10-13;  Heb.,  ll-13)rThe 
second  section  (iii)  develops  with  new  details  the  same 
theme.  The  bloodthirstiness,  greed,  and  crafty  and 
insidious  policy  of  Ninive  arc  the  cause  of  her  over- 
throw, roost  graphically  depicted  (1-4);  complete  and 
shameful  will  be  her  downfall  and  no  one  will  utter  a 
word  of  pity  (5-7).  As  No-Ammon  was  mercilessly 
crushed,  so  Ninive  likewise  will  empty  to  the  dregs  the 
bitter  cup  of  the  Divine  vengeance  (8-11).  In  vain 
does  she  trust  in  her  strongholds,  her  warriors,  her 
preparations  for  a  siege,  andhcr  officials  and  scribes 


NAHUM 


671 


NAHUM 


(12-17).  Her  empire  is  about  to  crumble,  and  its  fall 
will  be  hailed  by  the  triumphant  applause  of  the 
whole  universe  (18-19). 

Critical  Questions. — Until  a  recent  date,  both  the 
unity  and  authenticity  of  the  Book  of  Nahum  were 
•jndisputed,  even  by  such  critics  as  Kuenen  (Onder- 
zoek,  li,  §  75),  Wcllhausen  (Skizzon  und  Vorarbeiten, 
1893,  p.  155),  and  Comill  (Einleitung,  1892,  p.  188), 
and  the  objections  alleged  bv  a  few  against  the  gen- 
uineness of  the  words  'The  burden  of  Ninive"  (i,  1) 
and  the  description  of  the  overthrow  of  No-Ammon  (iii, 
8-10)  were  regarded  as  trifling  cavils  not  worth  the 
trouble  of  an  answer.  In  the  last  few  years,  however, 
things  have  taken  a  new  turn:  facts  hitherto  imno- 
ticedf  have  added  to  the  old  problems  concerning  au- 
thorship, date,  etc.  It  may  be  well  here  for  us  to  bear 
in  mind  the  twofold  division  of  the  book,  and  to  begin 
with  the  second  part  (ii,  1,  3-iii)  which,  as  has  been 
noticed,  unquestionably  deals  with  the  overthrow  of 
Ninive.  That  these  two  chapters  of  the  prophecy 
constitute  a  unit  and  should  be  attributed  to  the  same 
author,  Happel  is  the  only  one  to  deny;  but  his  odd 
opinion,  grounded  on  unwarranted  alterations  of  the 
text,  cannot  seriously  be  entertained. 

The  date  of  this  second  part  cannot  be  determined 
to  the  year;  however,  from  the  data  furnished  by  the 
text,  it  seems  that  a  sufficiently  accurate  approxima- 
tion is  obtainable.  First,  there  is  a  higher  timit  which 
we  have  no  right  to  overstep,  namely,  the  capture  of 
No-Ammon  referred  to  in  iii,  8-10.  In  the  Latin  Vul- 
gate (and  the  Douay  Bible)  No-Ammon  is  translated  by 
Alexandria,  whereby  St.  Jerome  meant  not  the  great 
£g3rptian  capital  founded  in  the  fourth  century  b.  c, 
but  an  older  city  occupying  the  site  where  later  on 
stood  Alexandria  (''Comment,  in  Nah.",  iii,  8:  P.  L., 
XXV,  1260;  cf.  "Ep.  CVIII  ad  Eustoch.",  14;  P.  L., 
XXII,  890;  "In  W',  XVIII:  P.  L.,  XXIV,  178;  "In 
Os.",  IX,  &-6:  P.  L.,  XXV,  892).  He  was  mistaken, 
however,  and  so  were  Champollion  and  Bru^h,  ac- 
cording to  whom  No-Ammon  should  be  sought  m  Lower 
Egypt  (L'Egypte  sous  les  Pharaons,  ll,  131-33);  As- 
syrian and  Egyptian  discoveries  leave  no  doubt  what- 
ever that  No-Ammon  is  the  same  as  Thebes  in  Upper 
Egypt.  Now  Thebes  was  captured  and  destroyed  by 
Assurbanipal  in  664-663  b.  c,  whence  it  follows  that 
the  opinion  of  Nicephorus  (in  the  edition  of  Geo.  Syn- 
oell.  ^*Chronographia",  Bonn,  1829,  I,  759),  mating 
Nanum  a  contemporary  of  Phacee,  King  of  Israel,  the 
early  tradition  according  to  which  this  prophecy  was 
uttered  115  years  before  the  fall  of  Ninive  (about  721 
B.  c;  Josephus,  "Ant.  Jud.",  IX,  xi,  3),  and  the  con- 
clusions of  those  modem  scholars  who,  as  Pusey, 
Nagelsbach,  etc.,  date  the  oracle  in  the  reign  of  Eze- 
chias  or  the  earlier  vears  of  Manasses,  ought  to  be  dis- 
carded as  impossible.  The  lower  limit  which  it  is  al- 
lowable to  assign  to  this  part  of  the  Book  of  Nahum  is, 
of  course,  the  fall  of  Ninive,  which  a  well-known  in- 
scription of  Nabonidus  permits  us  to  fix  at  607  or  606 
B.  c,  a  date  fatal  to  the  view  adopted  by  Eutychius. 
that  Nahum  prophesied  five  years  after  the  downfall 
of  Jerusalem  (therefore  about  583-581;  "Annal."  in 
P.  G.,  CXI,  964). 

Within  these  limits  it  is  difficult  to  fix  the  date  more 
precisely.  It  has  been  suggested  that  the  freshness  of 
the  allusion  to  the  fate  of  Thebes  indicates  an  early 
date,  about  660  b.  c,  according  to  Schrader  and 
Orelli:  but  the  memory  of  such  a  momentous  event 
woula  lon^  dwell  in  the  minds  of  men,  and  we  find 
Isaias,  for  instance,  in  one  of  his  utterances  delivered 
about  702  or  701  b.  c.  recalling  with  the  same  vivid- 
ness of  expression  Assyrian  conquests  achieved  thirty 
to  forty  years  earlier  (Is.,  x,  5-34).  Nothing  there- 
fore compels  us  to  assign,  within  the  limits  set  above, 
664-606,  an  early  date  to  the  two  chapters,  if  there 
are  cogent  reasons  to  conclude  to  a  later  date.  One  of 
the  arguments  advanced  is  that  Ninive  is  spoken  of  as 
lost  a  great  deal  of  her  former  prestige  and 


sunk  into  a  dismal  state  of  disintegration ;  she  is,  more* 
over,  represented  as  beset  by  mif^ty  enemies  and  pow< 
erless  to  avert  the  fate  threatening  her.  Such  condi- 
tions existed  when,  after  the  death  of  Assurbanipal, 
Babylonia  succeeded  in  regaining  her  independence, 
(625),  and  the  Medes  aimed  a  first  blow  at  Ninive 
(623;  Kuenen,  Van  Hoonacker).  Modem  critics 
(Davidson,  Kennedy,  etc.)  appear  more  and  more  in- 
clined to  believe  that  the  data  furnished  by  the 
Prophet  lead  to  the  admission  of  a  still  lower  date, 
namely  "the  moment  between  the  actual  invasion  oi 
Ass3rria  by  a  hostile  force  and  the  commencement  of 
the  attack  on  its  capital "  (Kennedy) .  The  "  mauler  ", 
indeed,  is  already  on  his  way  (ii,  1 ;  Heb.,  2) ;  frontier 
fortresses  have  opened  their  gates  (iii,  12-13) ;  Ninive 
is  at  bay,  and  although  the  enemy  has  not  yet  invested 
the  city,  to  all  appearances  her  doom  is  sealed. 

We  may  now  return  to  the  first  part  of  the  book. 
This  first  chapter,  on  account  of  the  transcendent 
ideas  it  deals  with,  and  of  the  lyric  enthusiasm  which 
pervades  it  throughout  has  not  inappropriately  been 
called  a  psalm.  Its  special  interest  lies  in  the  fact 
that  it  is  an  alphabetical  poem.  The  first  to  call  at- 
tention to  this  feature  was  Frohnmeyer,  whose  obser- 
vations, however,  did  not  extend  beyond  w.  3-7. 
Availing  himself  of  this  key,  Bickell  endeavoured  to 
find  out  if  the  process  of  composition  did  not  extend  to 
the  whole  passage  and  include  the  twenty-two  letters 
of  the  alpnabet,  and  he  attempted  repeatedly  but 
without  great  success  ("Zeitschr.  derdeutsch.  morg. 
Gesell.",  1880,  p.  559;  "Carmina  Vet.  Test,  metrice", 
1882 ;  "Zeitschr.  fOr  kath.  Theol."^886),  to  restore  the 
psalm  to  itspristine integrity.  This  failure  did  not 
discourage  Gunkel  who  declared  himself  convinced 
that  the  poem  is  alphabetical  throughout,  although 
it  is  difficult,  owing  to  the  present  condition  of  the 
text,  to  trace  the  initial  letters  D  to  D  (2^itschr.  f ur 
alttest.  Wissensch.,  1893,  223  sqq.).  This  was  for 
Bickell  an  incentive  to  a  fresh  study  (Das  alphab.  Lied 
in  Nah.  i-ii,  3,  in  "Sitzungsbericnte  der  philos.-hist. 
Classe  der  kaiser.  Akademie  der  Wissensch.",  Vienna, 
1894.  5  Abhandl.),  the  conclusions  of  which  show  a 
notable  improvement  on  the  former  attempts,  and 
suggested  to  Gunkel  a  few  corrections  (Schdpf ung  und 
Chaos,  120) .  Since  then  Nowack  (Die  kleinen  Proph- 
eten,  1897),  Gray  ("The  Alphab.  Poem  in  Nah.'^^in 
"The  Expositor'^  for  Sept.  1898,  207  sqq.),  Arnold 
(On  Nah.,  i,  1-ii,  3,  in  "Zeitschr.  fur  alttest.  Wis- 
sensch.". 1901,  225  sqq.),  Happel  (Das  Buch  des 
Proph.  Nah.,  1903),  Marti  (Dodekaproph.  erklilrt, 
1904),  Lohr  (Zeitschr.  ftir  alttest.  Wissensch.,  1905, 1, 
174),  and  Van  Hooiuicker  (Les  douze  petits  proph., 
1908),  have  more  or  less  successfully  undertaken  the 
difficult  task  of  extricating  the  original  pssdm  from 
the  textual  medley  in  which  it  is  entangled.  There  is 
among  them,  a  sufficient  agreement  as  to  the  first  part 

of  the  poem  (H-h)  ]  but  the  second  part  still  remains  « 
classical  ground  for  scholarly  tilts. 

Wellhausen  (Die  kleinen  Proph.,  1898)  holds  that 
the  noteworthy  difference  between  the  two  parts  from 
the  point  of  view  of  poetical  construction  is  due  to  the 
fact  that  the  writer  abandoned  halfway  his  undertak- 
ing to  write  acrostically.  Happel  believes  both  parts 
were  worked  out  separately  from  an  unacrostic  origi- 
nal. The  first  corrector  went  as  far  as  the  line  begin- 
ning with  the  letter  D,  and  as  the  last  sentence  closed 
on  the  word  (^p,  he  noted  in  the  title  that  his  revision 

extended  from  i>K  to  ^p;  and  so  the  mysterious  fi^p-i>N 

Oater  on  misconstrued  and  misspelled  ^^pi>K)  has 

neither  a  patronymic  nor  a  gentile  connotation.  Critita 
are  inclined  to  hold  that  the  disorder  and  corruption 
which  disfigure  the  poem  are  mostly  due  to  the  way  it 
was  tacked  on  to  the  prophecy  of  Nahum:  the  uppel 
margin  was  first  used,  and  then  the  side  margin ;  and  as, 
in  the  latter  instance,  the  text  must  have  oeen  over* 
crowded  and  blurred,  this  later  on  caused  in  the  sec* 


HAILS  672  MAIM 

ond  part  of  the  psalm  on  inextricable  confunon  from  tion  of  four  nails,  and  the  langua^  of  certain  hiat  li- 

whicn  the  firat  was  preservetl.    This  explanation  of  cal  writers  (none,  however,  earlier  than  Gregory  of 

the  textual  condition  of  the  poem  implies  the  assump-  Toura,  "De  glor.  mart.",  vi;  for  the  supposed  sermon 

tion  that  this  chapt«r  is  not  to  be  attributed  to  Na-  of  St.  Cyprian,  "De  passione",  is  ametUeval  fabrica- 

hum,  but  is  a  later  addition.     So  much  indeed  was  tion),  favours  the  same  view.     On  the  otier  hand,  in 

granted  by  Bickell.  and  Van  Hoonacker  (not  to  speak  the  thirteenth  century,  Western  art  began  to  repre- 

of  non-Catholic  scnolara)  is  inclined  to  a  like  conces-  sent  the  feet  of  the  Crucified  as  placed  one  over  the 

sion.     On  the  one  hand,  the  marked  contrast  between  other  and  pierced  witli  a  single  najl.     This  accOfJu 

the  abstract  tone  of  the  composition  and  the  concrete  with  the  language  of  Nonnus  and  Socrates  and  with 


_       language  o:  _  

character  of  the  other  two  chapters,  we  ore  told,  be-  the  poem  "Christus  patiens"  attributed  to  St.  Grtg- 

speaks  a  difference  of  authorshipi  and,  on  the  other  ory  Nazianzus,  wbicn  speaks  of  three  nails.     More 

hand,  the  artificiality  of  the  acrostic  form  is  charac-  recent  archteological  criticism  has  pointed  out  not 

teriatic  of  a  late  date.    These  arguments,  however,  are  only  that  the  two  earliest  representations  of  the  cruci> 

not  unanswerable.  Inanycaseitconnotbedeniedlhat  Bxion  (the  Palatine  trriU^aoes  not  here  come  into  ao- 

the  psalm  is  a  most  fitting  preface  to  the  prophecy.  count),  viz.,  the  carved  door  of  Santa  Sabina  in  Rome, 

Little  will  be  found  in  tne  teaching  of  the  book  of  and  the  ivory  panel  of  the  British  Museum,  show  no 
Nahum  that  is  really  signs  of  noils  in  the 
new  and  original  feet,butthatSt. Ant- 
The  orixtnolity  of  brose  ("De  obit  a 
Nahum  is  that  his  ITieodosii"  in  P.  L., 
mind  is  so  engrossed  XVI,  1402)  and  other 
by  the  iniquities  and  early  writers  distinct- 
impending  fate  of  ly  imply  that  there 
Ninive,  that  he  ap-  were  only  two  najla 
pears  to  lose  sight  of  (see  Forrer  and  Mtll- 
the  shortcomings  of  ;  ler,  "Kreui  u.  Kreu- 
his own  people.  The  Eigung  Christi"). 
doom  of  Ninive  was  Further,  St.  Ambrose 
nevertheless  in  itself  ioforma  us  that  St. 
for  Juda  an  object-  Helen  had  one  nail 
lesson  which  the  im-  converted  into  a 
passioned  language  bridle  for  ConstaD- 
of  the  Prophet  was  tine's  horse  (early 
well  calculated  to  commentators  quote 
impress  deeply  upon  Zach.,  xiv,  20,  in  this 
the  minds  of  thou^t-  connexion),  and  that 
fut  Israelites.  De-  an  imperial  diadem 
spite  the  uncert^nty  was  made  out  of  the 
of  the  text  in  several  other  nail.  Gregory 
places,  there  is  no  of  Tours  speaks  of  m 
doubt  that  the  book  nwl  being  thrown 
ofNahumis  truly  "a  (deponi),  or  possibly 
masterpiece"  (Kauicn)  of  literature.  The  vividness  and  dippedinto  the  Adriatic  to  calm  a  storm.  Itisimpo»> 
picturesqueness  of  the  Prophet's  style  have  already  uble  to  discuss  these  problems  adequately  in  brief 
been  pointed  out;  in  his  few  short,  flashing  sentences,  space,  but  the  information  derivable  from  tlie  Keneral 
most  graphic  word-pictures,  apt  and  forceful  figures,  archieology  of  the  punishment  of  crucifixion  as  Known 
grand,  energetic,  and  pathetic  expressions  ru^  in,  to  the  Romans  does  not  in  any  way  contradict  the 
thrust  vehemently  upon  one  another,  yet  leaving  the  Christian  tradition  of  four  nails. 

impression  of  perfect  naturalness.     Withal  the  Ian-  Very  little  reliance  can  be  placed  upon  the  autben- 

gua^e  remans  ever  pure  and  classical,  with  a  tinge  of  ticity  of  the  thirty  or  more  holy  nails  which  ore  still 

partiality  for  alliteration  (i,  10;  ii.  3,  11)  and  the  use  of  venerated,  or  which  have  been  venerated  until  recent 

prim  and  rare  idioms'  the  sentences  are  perfectly  bal-  times,  in  such  treasuries  as  that  of  Santa  Croce  in 

anced;  in  a  word  Nahum  is  a  consummate  master  of  Rome,  or  those  of  Venice,  Aachen,  the  Escurial,  Nil- 

his  art,  and  ranks  among  the  most  accomplished  writ-  rcmbei^,  Prague,  etc.    Probably  themajority  began  by 

ers  of  the  Old  Testament.  professing  to  De  facsimiles  which  had  touched  or  con- 

Pn«Bi,  TA.  Minor  Praphrt,.  II  (London.  1800);  Davidson,  tained  filings  from  some  other  noil  whose  claim  waa 

Kahum,   Nabaktuk  and  Zep>ianu>h   (CimibnclRP,    180(1),   8-44;  „__  ._.:-„,       Will,™.!  i^n<u-\„iia  fraiiH  nn  tk.  r^r* 

Burra.  Th,  Minor  Prop/id.,  II  (London,  iBos)i  Dbivkb.  iniro-  "^"f*  onciont.     witnout  conscious  iraua  OH  the  part 

ductirai  lo  the  Liirraiurt  0/  Ihe  Old  Teiiamtnl  lEdinburgh.  1898),  of  anj^One,  it  IS  very  easy  for  imitations  m  this  Way  U> 

33*-3T;  Giooi,  Sparial  iniraduoion  lo  ihr  Siudu  of  Ihe  Old  Teiia-  come  in  a  vcrv  brief  Space  of  time  to  be  reputed  origi- 

SS^M;L^^-fTi1o«^'^v™?,:^""^^^  ^^-    The  bndle  of  Constantine  is  believed  tote 

1.  T.;  Vas  HooKAciiH.  Lm  dona  peiiit  prnptiiiee  (Psris,  1008)!  identical  with  a  relic  of  this  form  which  for  severai 

4ia-B3;  WutieADBEN.  Skirien  und  VorarMim,  V:  Dit  kliinm  centuries  has  been  preserved  at  Carpentras,  but  there 

ilarly  the  diadem  of  Constantme  is  as8ert«d  to  be  at 

Monza,  and  it  has  long  been  known  aa  "the  iron 

n  of  Lombardy". 


r.  Die  Prophelcn  Obadja.  Jona.  Muha.  Nahum.  Habakuk 


vAriJI  det  Nakumi  ton  Elkoech  in  Beilragc  lur  StmUKchrn  Sprach- 


:..-.. ».i...ri    TTT  /iB«iQ\    H7  IBB.  u.r.Wi-1     ft..  ii.,..j,  J-.  £».ni,       (P*n»,  1870),  105-181;  Foaata  and  Muij.vb.  Krwm 


BnlnvtiurlritruiAtn  ArrAdiW.  (Tritr,  lgas1:FDLDA.iiu  Knu 


II  fPi^  'ibmCiS  '•'""'«™^""  "•  "'"pi-*"  «.nor«.      „  ^^  Kreunm-i;  (Bml.u.  1878) ;  F.«i»,  L«  -i-i  -ar.  d.  Co- 

ll [P«w.  1886),  l-EO.  „„  ,      G„„.   „  p™(™(CMi*ntr«,1874);  Di!Co»i»».r*.ftt«»«,^A»C™-. 

CBARLZa  h.  bODVAT.  tr.(Londoo,llK»7):RiAllTAJ<BM4Li.«n.naSoc™Ceiu«mtow 

ptlilana  (P»i«,  18T7— ).  HebBEBT  TaUBOTON. 

Hftim  (Nain),  the  city  where  Christ  raised  to  life 


NUffAQUALAND 


673 


able"  to  a  place  called  D^y^  (Nairn)  in  the  territory  of 
lasachar,  in  Gidilee.  Eusebius  and  St.  Jerome  (Ono- 
mastioon)  place  Nairn  south  of  Mount  Thabor,  and 
not  far  from  E^dor.  Now,  opposite  to  Thabor.  and  a 
mile  and  a  half  north  of  Enddr  (doubtless  the  Biblical 
Endor),  lies  a  village  called  Natn  f" pleasantness"). 
It  is  situated  on  the  north-western  rioge  of  Jebel  Dahy , 
the  Little  Hennon,  and  commands  a  magnificent  view. 
There  are  traces  of  ruins  beyond  its  boundary  to  the 
north,  but  no  sign  of  fortifications.  ''The  gate  of  the 
city"  (Luke,  vii,  12)  might  have  belonged  to  a  wall  of 
enclosure,  built  to  protect  the  place  agamst  marauding 
tribes,  as  was  often  the  case  in  the  East.  A  steep  fiath 
leads  up  to  the  village,  passing  by  the  site  of  an  ancient 
church  which  had  been  converted  into  a  mosque, 
''MouldUn  lidna  Aisa"  (Oratory  of  the  Lord  Jesus). 
The  mosque,  having  fallen  into  ruins,  was  replaced  by 
another  m  the  vicmity.  In  1880  the  Franciscans 
bought  the  ruins  of  the  first  building,  and  erected 
thereon  a  chapel.  Not  far  away  may  be  seen  Jewish 
rock-tombs.  Thus  the  details  of  Naim's  graphic  story 
find  an  easy  localisation. 

RoBncsoir.  BiUical  ReMorchsa  in  Paiutine,  III  (Boston.  1841), 
226:  Suney  of  W.  PaUaUfu,  Mmnoira,  II  (London,  1882).  86; 
GnixDi.  La  QaliUe,  I  (Paris.  1880).  113-115. 

Barnabas  Mbibtbbmann. 

Namaqnalandt  Pbefbcture  Apostouc  of  Gbeat. 
See  Orangb  Rivkb,  Vicariate  Aposroiiic  of  the. 

Name,  Baptisual.  See  Baptism,  sub-title  XV: 
Names,  Christian. 

Name  of  Jeius,  Religious  Commxtnities  of  the. 
— (1)  Knights  of  the  Name  of  Jesus,  also  known  as 
Senmhim,  founded  in  1334  by  the  Queens  of  Norway 
and  Sweden  to  defend  their  respective  countries  from 
the  onslaught  of  heathen  hordes.  They  did  not  sur- 
vive the  Reformation.  (2)  Sisters  of  the  Name  of 
Jesus  comprise  six  congregations  founded  in  France 
during  the  nineteenth  century  in  the  Dioceses  of 
BesanQon,  with  mother-house  at  Grande-Fontaine, 
Paris:  of  Valence  (1815  or  1825),  mother-house  at 
Lorial;  of  Rodes,  mother-house  at  Ste-Radegonde;  of 
Toulouse  (1827);  and  of  Marseilles  (1852).  These 
sisters  devote  themselves  chiefly  to  the  work  of  teach- 
ing and  caring  for  the  sick.  (3)  Confraternity  of  the 
Name  of  Jesus,  formed  by  the  amalgamation  of  the 
Portuguese  Confraternity  of  the  Most  Holy  Name  of 
Jesus,  founded  bv  Andreas  Dfas,  O.P.,  in  1432,  with 
the  Spanish  Confraternity  of  the  Most  Holy  Name  of 
God,  establii^ed  by  Diego  Victoria,  O.P.,  m  the  six- 
teenth century.  Approbation  was  granted  by  Popes 
Paul  V  (1606)  and  Innocent  XI  (1678),  and  the  con- 
fraternity was  enriched  with  indulgences  and  placed 
under  the  Dominican  general. 

Bkissbl  in  KirehenUx.,  s.  v.  Namen  Jem ;  Kbllbr,  Lu  eongri' 
gationt  rdigieiuea  en  Prance  (Paris,  1880);  KonvermUion^tx, 

Florence  Rudoe  McGahan. 

Name  of  Hazy,  Feast  of  the  Holt. — ^We  vene- 
rate the  name  of  Mary  because  it  belongs  to  her  who 
is  the  Mother  of  God,  the  holiest  of  creatures,  the 
Queen  of  heaven  and  earth,  the  Mother  of  mercy. 
The  object  of  the  feast  is  the  Holy  Virgin  bearing  the 
name  of  Mirjam  (Mary) ;  the  feast  commemorates  all 
the  privileges  given  to  Mary  by  God  and  all.the  graces 
we  have  received  through  her  mtercession  and  media- 
tion. It  was  instituted  in  1513  at  Cuenca  in  Spain, 
and  assigned  with  proper  Office  to  15  Sept.,  the  octave 
day  of  Mary's  Nativity.  After  the  reform  of  the 
Breviary  by  St.  I^ua  V,  by  a  Decree  of  Sixtus  V  (16 
Jan.,  1587),  it  was  transferred  to  17  Sept.  In  1622  it 
was  extended  to  the  Archdiocese  of  Toledo  by  Gregory 
XV.  After  1625  the  Congregation  of  Rites  hesitated 
for  a  while  before  auUionzing  its  further  spread  (cf . 
the  seven  decrees,  "Analecta  Juris  Pontificii^',  LVIII, 
deer.  716  sqq.).  But  it  was  celebrated  by  the  Spanish 
Trinitarians  in  1640  (Ordo  Hispan.,  1640).  On  16 
Nov.,  1668,  the  feast  was  granted  to  the  Oratory  of 


Cardinal  Berulle  under  the  title:  SoUmnUas  glcriosa 
VirffiniSf  dupl.  cum  oct.,  17  Sept.  Bearing  the  original 
title,  SS.  Nominis  BM.V.,  it  was  granted  to  all  Spain 
and  the  Kingdom  of  Naples  on  26  Jan.,  1671.  After 
the  siege  of  Vienna  and  the  glorious  victory  of  So- 
bieski  over  the  Turks  (12  Sept.,  1683),  the  feast  was 
extended  to  the  universal  Church  by  Innocent  XI,  and 
assigned  to  the  Sunday  after  the  Nativity  of  Mary 
by  a  Decree  of  25  Nov..  1683  ^duplex  majus);  it  was 
granted  to  Austria  as  a.  S.  dassis  on  1  Aug.,  1684. 
According  to  a  Decree  of  8  Julsr,  1908,  whenever  this 
feast  cannot  be  celebrated  on  its  proper  Sunday  on 
account  of  the  occurrence  of  some  feast  of  a  higher 
rank,  it  must  be  kept  on  12  Sept.,  the  day  on  which 
the  victory  of  Sobieski  is  commemorated  in  the  Roman 
Martyrology.  The  Calendar  of  the  Nuns  of  Perpetual 
Adoration,  O.S.B.,  in  France,  of  the  year  1827,  has 
the  feast  with  a  special  Office  on  25  Sept.  The  feast 
of  the  Holy  Name  of  Mary  is  the  patronal  feast  of  the 
Clerics  Regular  of  the  Pious  Schools  (Piarists)  and  of 
the  Society  of  Mary  (Marianists),  in  both  cases  with  a 
proper  ofSce.  In  1666  the  Discalced  Carmelites  re- 
ceived the  faculty  to  recite  the  Office  of  the  Name  of 
Mary  four  times  a  year  (duplex) .  At  Rome  one  of  the 
twin  churches  at  the  Forum  Trajani  is  dedicated  to 
the  Name  of  Mary.  In  the  Ambrosian  Calendar  of 
Milan  the  feast  of  the  Holy  Name  of  Mary  is  assigned 
to  11  September. 

Auins.  BHUkenkrdnM  (Pbd«ri»ni,  1804),  IV,  Miq.;  HoLwacx, 
Ftuti  Mariani  (Freibuzs,  1882). 

Fbsdbbick  G.  Holwbck. 

NamM,  Chbibtian. — "Christian  names",  says  the 
Elisabethan  antiquary,  Camden,  "were  imposed  for 
the  distinction  of  persons,  surnames  for  the  difference 
of  families."  It  would  seem  from  this  that,  even  in 
the  sixteenth  century,  the  etymolo^cal  and  nistorical 
significance  of  the  phrase  "Christian  name"  was 
growing  dim,  and  it  is  commonly  quite  forgotten  in 
our  own  time.  But,  strictly  speakine^  the  "Christian 
name"  is  not  merely  the  forename  distinctive  of  tiie 
individual  member  of  a  family,  but  the  name  given  to 
him  at  his  "  christening ",  i.  e.,  nis  baptism.  It  should 
be  remembered  that  in  pre-Keformation  England  the 
laity  were  taught  to  administer  baptism  in  case  of 
necessity  with  the  words:  "I  christen  thee  in  the  name 
of  the  Father"  etc.  To  "christen"  is  therefore  to 
"baptise"',  and  "Christian  name"  means  baptismal 
name. 

Origins. — Some  vague  idea  that  nomina  sunt  amina 
(names  are  omens)  seems  to  be  a  sort  of  primitive 
human  instinct.  Thus  throughout  Old-T^tament 
times  the  significance  of  names  passed  as  an  accepted 
principle.  They  were  usually  given  in  reference 
either  to  some  trait  in  the  child,  actual  or  projphetic, 
or  to  some  feeling  or  hope  in  the  parent  at  the  time  oi 
its  birth.  It  was  only  a  very  slight  devdopment  of 
this  idea  to  suppose  that  a  change  of  condition  appro- 
priately demanded  a  change  of  name.  Thus  the  con- 
version of  Abram  into  Abraham  (the  "father  of  many 
nations".  Gen.,  xvii,  5)  was  impoaed  upon  the  occa- 
sion of  the  covenant  of  circumcision  and  ratified  a 
claim  to  God's  special  benediction.  In  view,  then,  of 
this  recognised  oongruity  and  of  the  Hebrew  practice 
of  givinp  a  name  to  the  male  child  at  the  time  of  its 
circumcision  on  the  ei^th  day  after  birth  (Luke,  i, 
59),  it  has  been  maintained  that  the  custom  of  confer- 
ring a  name  upon  the  newly  baptised  was  of  Apostolic 
origin.  An  instance  in  point  is  declared  to  be  found 
in  the  case  of  the  Apostle  of  the  Gentiles  who  before 
his  conversion  was  called  Saul  and  afterwards  Paul. 
But  modem  scholarship,  and  with  reason,  has  alto- 
gether rejected  this  contention.  The  baptism  of  St. 
Paul  is  recorded  in  Acts,  ix,  18,  but  the  name  Paul 
does  not  occur  before  Acts,  ziiii9  while  Saul  is  found 
several  times  in  the  interval.  We  have  no  more  rea- 
son to  connect  the  name  Paul  with  the  Apostle'?  b^o* 


674 


don  than  we  have  to  account  in  the  same  way  for  the 

E'ying  of  the  name  Cephas  or  Peter,  which  we  know  to 
» due  to  another  cause.  Moreover,  it  is  certain,  both 
from  the  inscriptions  of  the  catacombs  and  from  early 
Qiristian  literature,  that  the  names  of  Christians  in 
the  first  three  centuries  did  not  distinctively  differ 
from  the  names  of  the  pagans  around  them.  A  refer- 
ence to  the  Epistles  of  St.  Paul  makes  it  plain  that 
even  the  names  of  heathen  gods  and  gCNddcsses  were 
borne  by  his  converts  after  their  conversion  as  before. 
Hennes  occurs  in  Rom.,  xvi,  14.  with  a  number  of 
other  purely  pasan  names,  Epaphroditus  in  Phil.,  iv, 
18,  Phebe,  the  deaconess,  in  Kom.,  xvi.  1.  Not  less 
conclusive  are  the  names  which  we  fina  in  the  Chris- 
tian inscriptions  of  the  earlier  period  or  in  Uie  lists  of 
the  signatories  appended  to  such  councils  as  Nicsea  or 
Ancyra  (see  Turner,  "Ecd.  Occident.  Mon.  Juris",  I, 
3^-90;  11,  60-53),  or  again  in  the  lists  of  martyrs. 
Even  at  a  later  date  the  names  are  of  a  most  miscel- 
laneous character.  The  following  classification  is  one 
that  has  been  worked  out  by  J.  Bass  Mullinger 
founded  on  Martigny. 

A. — ^Names  without  Christian  significance  and  prob- 
ably derived  from  pagan  ancestors: — (1)  names  de- 
rived unchanged  or  out  slightly  modified  from  pagan 
m]^ology,  e.  g.,  Mercurius,  Bacchus.  Apolloe  (I  Cor., 
xvi,  12),  uennogenes  (Rom.,  xvi,  4),  etc.;  (2)  from 
religious  rites  or  omens,  e.  g.,  Augustus,  Auspidus, 
Augurinus,  Optatus:  (3)  from  numbers,  e.  g.,  Primus, 
Primigenius,  Secunoinus,  Quartus,  Octavia,  etc.;  (4) 
from  colours^  e.  g.,  Albanus,  Candidus,  Rufus,  etc.; 
CS)  from  animals  and  birds,  e.  g.,  Agnes,  Asellus, 
Columba,  Leo,  Taurus,  Ursula,  etc.;  (6)  from  agricul- 
ture, e.  g.,  A^da,  Annentarius,  Palmatinus.  Sterco- 
rius,  etc.;  (7)  from  flowers,  e.  g.,  Balsamia,  Flosculus, 
Narcissus,  Rosula;  (8)  from  jewels,  e.  g.,  Chiysanthus, 
Margarites,  Smara^us;  (9)  from  mifitaiy  life  or  ihe 
sea,  e.  g.,  Emerentiana,  Navi^ja,  Pelagia,  Scutarius, 
ThalasBus;  (10)  from  countnes,  dties,  rivers  etc.; 
Afra,  Cydnus,  Galla,  Jordanis,  Macedonius,  Maurus, 
Sabina,  Sebastianus,  etc.;  (11)  from  the  months,  e.  g., 
Aprilis,  Januaria,  Junia,  etc.;  ^12)  from  personal  Qual- 
ities, etc.,  e.  g.,  Aristo,  Hilanus,  Modestus,  Puaens, 
etc.;  (13)  from  servile  condition,  e.  g.,  Servus,  Servili- 
anus,  Vemacla;  (14)  names  of  historical  celebrity, 
e.  p.,  Cffisarius,  Cornelia,  Pompdus,  Ptolemseus,  Ver- 
gihus. 

B. — ^Names  of  Christian  origin  and  si^^iificance. — 
(1)  Names  apparently  su^^ested  by  Christian  dosmas, 
e.  g.,  Anastasia,  Athanasia,  Christopfaorus,  Redemp- 
tus^  Restitutus,  etc.;  (2)  from  festivals  or  rites,  e.  g.. 
Epiphanius,  Eulogia,  Natalie,  Pascasia,  Sd[>batius,  ana 
the  frequently  recurring  Mart3rriuB:  (3)  from  Chris- 
tian virtues,  e.  g..  Agape,  Elpis,  Fides,  Irene,  with 
such  derivatives  as  Adelphius,  Agapetus,  Caritosa, 
etc.;  (4)  pious  sentiment,  e.  g.,  Adeoctata,  Ambrodus, 
Benedictus,  Deogratias,  etc.,  and  posdbly  such  names 
as  Gaudentianus,  Hilarius,  Sozomen,  Victorianus, 
Vincentius^ut  it  is  veiy  hard  to  be  sure  that  any  dis- 
tinctively Christian  feeling  is  here  latent. 

On  the  other  hand  though  the  recurrence  of  such 
names  as  Agnes,  Balbina,  Cornelius,  Feticitas,  Irenseus, 
Justinus,'  etc.  may  very  probably  be  due  to  venera- 
tion for  the  martyrs  who  first  bore  these  names,  it  is 
rather  curious  that  the  names  of  the  saints  of  the  New 
Testament  are  but  rarely  found  while  those  of  the 
Old  Testament  are  hardly  less  uncommon.  Susanna, 
Danid,  Mosrses,  Tobias,  occur  pretty  frequently,  but 
it  is  only  towards  the  end  of  the  fourth  century  that 
we  find  the  name  of  our  Blessed  Lady  or  become  at  all 
familiar  with  those  of  the  Apostles.  Even  then  we 
cannot  be  sure  that  in  the  case  of  Paulus  in  particular 
there  is  any  intentional  reference  to  the  Apostle  of  the 
Gentiles,  but  Johannes  at  least,  and  Andr(»8,  with 
Petrus  and  its  derivatives  like  PetroniajPetrius,  Pe- 
ttonilla,  etc.  are  less  op^  to  doubt.  The  name  of 
Maiy  ooours  oooadonalJy  in  the  catacomb  msoriptions 


towards  the  dose  of  the  fourth  oentoiy,  for  enunpleb 
in  the  fonn  uvia  mabia  in  pacb  (De  Rossiy  "Rom. 
Sot.",  1, 143)  and  there  is  a  mari^  Maria  — ^f7**>^  to 
the  date  a.  d.  256  (De  Road,  "Rom.  Sot.",  Hi,  200 
sqq.  and  compare  other  instances  of  the  name,  De 
Rosd,  "Insc.  Christ.",  I,  331;  II,  160  and  173). 

CBANcn  OF  Namb  at  Baptism. — If  we  ooM  trust 
the  authentic  and  contemporary  diaracter  of  the 
Acts  of  St.  Balsamus,  who  died  a.  d.  311,  we  should 
have  an  early  example  of  the  connexion  between  bi^ 
tism  and  the  giving  of  a  name.  "By  my  patonal 
name",  this  martyr  is  said  to  have  dedaredL  "I  am 
called  Balsamus,  but  by  the  spiritual  name  wmch  I  re- 
cdved  In  baptism,  I  am  known  as  Peter."  It  would 
seem  in  any  case  that  the  assumption  of  a  new  name 
for  some  devotional  reason  was  fairly  common  snumg 
Christians.  Eusebius  the  historian  took  the  name 
Pamphili  from  Pamphilus  the  martyr  whom  he  espe- 
daUy  venerated.  £arlier  stiU  St.  Cyprian  choae  to  be 
called  Cyprianua  Ceedlius  out  of  gratitude  to  the  Ob- 
dUus  to  whom  he  owed  his  converdon.  Moreover  St. 
Dionydus  of  Alexandria  (c.  260)  declared  "I  am  of 
opinion  that  there  were  many  of  the  same  name  as  the 
Apostle  John,  who  on  account  of  thdr  love  for  him,  and 
because  they  admired  and  emulated  him,  and  dedred  to 
be  loved  by  the  Lord  as  he  was,  took  to  themsdves  the 
same  name,  just  as  many  of  the  children  of  the  faith- 
ful are  called  Paul  or  Peter"  (Eusebius,  "Hist. Ecd.", 
VII,  xxv) .  It  would  be  only  natural  that  the  aasuinp* 
tion  of  any  such  new  name  should  take  place  f onnady 
at  baptism,  in  which  the  catechumen^  then  probably  as 
now,  had  to  be  addressed  by  some  distinctive  appdl»- 
tion.  On  the  other  hand  it  seems  likdv  that  tt»e  im* 
podtion  of  a  new  name  at  baptism  onlv  became  the 
mvariable  rule  after  infant  baptism  had  become  gen- 
eral. Evety  child  had  necessarily  to  recdve  eaate 
name  or  ol^er,  and  when  baptism  followed  soon  after 
birth,  this  must  have  offered  a  very  suitable  opportu- 
nity tor  the  public  recognition  of  tiie  choice  made. 

No  doubt  the  thirtieth  of  the  supposed  Arabian 
Canons  of  Niciea: "  Of  giving  only  names  of  Christians 
in  baptism  "  is  not  authentic,  even  thou^  it  is  of  eariy 
date;  but  the  sermons  of  St.  John  CluTSOstom  seem  to 
assume  in  many  different  places  that  the  conferring  of 
a  name,  presumably  at  baptism,  ought  to  be  regulated 
by  some  idea  of  Christian  edification,  and  he  implies, 
though  this  does  not  seem  to  be  borne  out  by  the  evi- 
dence now  available,  that  such  had  been  the  practice 
of  earlier  generations.  For  example  he  says:  "When 
it  comes  to  giving  the  infant  a  name,  caring  not  to  call 
it  after  the  saints,  as  the  andents  at  first  did,  people 
lig^t  lamps  and  give  them  names  and  so  name  the 
cmld  after  the  one  which  continues  burning  the  kmg- 
est,  from  thence  conjecturing  that  he  will  uve  a  long 
time"  (Horn,  in  Cor.,  xii,  13).  Similariv  he  com- 
mends itte  practice  of  tlie  parents  of  Antioch  in  calling 
their  childi^  after  the  martyr  Mdetius  (P.  G.,  L,  515), 
and  asain  he  urges  his  hearers  not  to  give  their  chil- 
dren the  first  name  that  occurs,  nor  to  seek  to  gratify 
fathers  or  grandfathers  or  other  family  connexions  by 
giving  their  names,  but  rather  to  choose  the  names  ct 
holy  men  conroicuous  for  virtue  and  for  their  cour- 
age before  Goa  (P.]G.,  LIII,  179).  History  preserves 
sundry  examples  of  such  a  change  of  name  in  aduH 
converts.  Socrates  (Hist.  Ecd.,  Vll,  xxi)  teDs  us  of 
Athenais  who  married  the  Elmperor  llieododus  the 
Younger,  and  who  previoudy  to  marriage  waa  bap- 
tized (A.  D.  421)  recdving  the  name  Eudoxia.  Agam 
Bede  tells  us  of  the  case  of  Kins  CedwallaiiHio  went 
to  Rome  and  was  baptised  by  the  Pope  Seigiua  who 

gave  him  the  name  of  Peter.  I>ying  soon  afterwards 
e  was  buried  in  Rome  and  his  emtaph  beginning 
" Hie  depodtus  est  Cedwalla  qui  est  Petrus"  waa  kng 
pointed  out  (Bede,  "Hist.  Ecd."  V.  vii).  Later  we 
nave  the  well-known  instance  of  Guthrum  the  Danisb 
leader  in  England  who  after  his  Ions  contest  with  King 
Alfred  waa  eventually  defeated  and,  coosenthig  to  a^ 


NAMS8  675  NAMSS 

oq>t  Chrifltianity,  was  baptised  in  878  by  the  name  of  medieval  exami>IeB  show  that  any  notable  change  of 
JBthelatan.  condition,  especially  in  the  spiritual  order,  was  often 
Pragticb  begardino  Names. — But  while  various  accompanied  by  the  reception  of  a  new  name.  In  the 
Fathers  and  spiritual  writers,  and  here  and  there  a  eighth  century  the  two  Englishmen  Winfrith  and  WU- 
synodal  decree,  have  exhorted  the  faithful  to  give  no  Ubald  goin^  on  different  occasions  to  Rome  received 
names  to  their  children  in  baptism  but  those  of  canon-  from  the  reigning  pontiff,  along  with  a  new  commission 
iced  saints  or  of  the  angels  of  God,  it  must  be  con-  to  preach,  the  names  respectively  of  Boniface  and 
fessed  that  there  has  never  been  a  time  in  the  historv  Clement.  So  again  Emma  of  Normandy  when  she 
of  the  Church  when  these  injunctions  have  been  at  aU  married  King  Ethelred  in  1002  took  the  name  ^If- 
strictly  attended  to.  They  were  certiunly  not  heeded  gifu;  while,  of  course,  the  reception  of  a  new  name 
during  the  early  or  the  later  Middle  Ages.  Any  one  upon  entering  a  religious  order  is  almost  universal  even 
who  Ranees  even  casually  at  an  extensive  list  of  medi-  in  our  own  da>[.  It  is  not  strange,  then,  that  at  confir- 
eval  names,  such  as  are  perhaps  beet  foimd  in  the  in-  mation,  in  which  the  inter|X)6ition  of  a  godfather  em- 
dexes  to  the  volumes  of  li^s^  proceedings  which  have  phasizes  the  resemblance  with  baptism,  it  should  have 
been  edited  in  modem  times,  will  at  once  perceive  that  become  customary  to  take  a  new  name,  though  usu- 
while  ordinary  names  without  any  very  pronounced  ally  no  great  use  is  made  of  it.  In  one  case,  however, 
religious  associations,  such  as  William,  Ilobert,  Roger,  that  of  Henry  III,  King  of  France,  who  being  the  god- 
Geoffrey,  Hugh,  etc.  enormously  preponderate  (Wil-  son  of  our  English  Eofward  VI  had  been  diristened 
liam  about  the  year  1200  was  by  far  the  most  common  Edouard  Alexandre  in  1551,  the  same  French  prince  at 
Christian  name  in  Eneland),  there  are  also  always  a  confinnation  received  the  name  of  Henri,  ana  by  this 
very  considerable  number  of  exceptional  and  out-of-  he  afterwards  reigned.  Even  in  England  the  prao- 
the-way  names  which  have  apparently  no  religious  as-  tice  of  adopting  a  new  name  at  confinnation  was  re- 
flociations  at  all.  Such  names,  to  take  but  a  few  sped-  membered  after  the  Reformation,  for  Sir  Edward  Coke 
mens,  as  Ademar,  Ailma,  Ailws^,  Albreza,  Alditha,  declares  that  a  man  might  validly  buy  land  by  his 
Amaury,  Ascelina,  Avice,  Aystorius  (these  come  from  confirmation  name,  and  he  recalls  the  case  of  a  Sir 
the  lists  of  those  cured  at  the  shrine  of  St.  Thomas  of  Francis  Gawdye,  late  Chief  Justice  of  the  Common 
Canterbury)  are  of  quite  frequent  occurrence.  The  Pleas,  whose  name  of  baptism  was  Thomas  and  his 
point  however  cannot  be  dwelt  on  here.  We  may  name  of  confirmation  Francis  (Co.  Litt.  3a). 
note  on  the  other  hand  that  a  rubric  in  the  official  ^^Sctrod  in^trcfc«ni«x..  «k  y.  Namat:  Bam  Mvuasqkr  in  IHeL 

«i>:4...«i^  T>^«»«»..««»  »>  An:»:«*<i  4^1. a4  *\^^  «%*:«w>4  ^....ui^  *«.  Chmi.  Ant.;  Ck>BBLET,  HtsUnre  du  9aeramerU  de  baptime,  II  (Pans, 

Rltuale  Itomanum     enjoins  that  the  pnest  OU^t  to  i^^^ .  MA^kN».  De  arUiaux*  ecdena  ntUnu,  I  (VeSoe,  178^, 

see  that  unbecommg  or  ndlCUloUS  names  of  deities  or  17-28;  Yonos,  A  Hutory  o/CknaHan  Nanua  (Loadon,  1884). 

€i  godless  pagans  are  not  j^iven  in  baptism  (curet  ne  Hebbebt  THUBaroN. 

obscoena,  fabulosa  aut  ridicula  vel  inanium  deorum 

vel  impiorum  ethnioorum  hominum  nomina  imponan-        Names,  Hebbew. — ^To  the  philosopher  a  name  is  an 

tur).    Some  of  the  seventeenth  century  French  ritu-  artificial  sign  consisting  in  a  certain  combination  of 

als  have  gone  further  than  this.    For  example  that  of  articulate  soimds,  whereby  a  particular  class  of  people 

Bourges  (1666)  addressing  parents  and  godparents  are  wont  to  designate  one  thing  and  distinguish  it  from 

urpes:  "Let  them  give  to  boys  the  names  of  male  all  others.    If  the  name  conveys  an  idea,  it  is  merely 

samts  and  to  girls  those  of  women  saints  as  right  order  because  of  a  wholly  artificial  relation  once  arbitrarilv 

requires,  and  let  them  avoid  the  names  of  festivals  established  between  the  name  and  the  thing  it  stands 

Uke  Blaster  (Pftques),  Christmas  (No^l),  All  Saints  for.   Primitive  people,  using  a  language  as  it  is  handed 

(Toussaint)  and  others  that  are  sometimes  chosen."  down  to  them  without  inquiring  into  its  origin,  are 

Despite  such  injunctions  "Toussaint"  has  become  a  inclined  to  make  much  of  names.    This  is  true  of  the 

not  tmoommon  French  Christian  name  and  "Noel"  old  Semitic  peoples,  especiaUv  of  the  Hebrews.    All 

has  spread  even  to  England.    The  addition  of  Marie.  Hebrew  names  were  supposed  to  bear  a  significance, 

especially  in  the  form  Jean-Marie,  for  boys,  and  or  as  originally  individual  subjects  were  called  by  a  name 

Joseph  for  girls  is  of  everyday  occurrence.  expressive  of  some  characteristic,  e.  g.,  Edom,  red; 

In  Spain  and  Italy  again,  ardent  devotion  to  our  Esieku,  hairy;  Jacob,  supplanter.    They  were  carefully 

Blessea  Ladv  has  not  remained  content  with  the  sim-  and  solemnly  selected,  especiaUy  personal  names, 

pie  name  Maria,  but  many  of  her  festivals  etc.  have  Leaving  aside  cases  where  the  name  was  Divinely  given 

also  created  names  for  girls:  Concepti6n,  of  which  the  (Abraham,  Gen^  xvii,  5;  Isaac,  Gen.,  xvii,  19;  Ismael, 

diminutive  is  Concha,  is  one  of  the  best  known,  but  we  Gen.,  xvi,  11 ;  John,  Luke,  i,  13;  Jesus,  Matt.,  i,  21; 

have  also  Asunci6n.  Encamaci6n,  Mercedes,  Dolores,  etc.),  the  naming  of  a  child  usuallv  devolved  upon  the 

etc.  in  Spanish  ana  in  Italian  Assunta,  Annunziata,  parents,  and,  it  appears,  preferably  upon  the  mother. 

Concetta,  etc.    It  is  strange  on  the  other  hand  that  The  women  of  the  family  (Ruth,  iv,  17),  or  the  neigh- 

^e  name  Mary  has  by  no  means  always  been  a  favour-  hours  (Luke,  i,  59),  talked  over  the  name  to  be  given. 

ite  for  oris,  possibly  from  a  feeling  that  it  was  too  au-  The  name  seems  to  have  been  given  ordinarily  at  the 

gust  to  De  so  familiarly  emploved.    In  England  in  the  time  of  the  birth;  but  at  a  late  period  the  day  of  ci> 

twelfth  century  Mary  as  a  Christian  name  is  of  v^  cumcision  was  more  usual  (Luke,  i,  59:  ii,  21).   Of  the 

rare  occurrence.  George  again  is  a  name  which  despite  customs  connected  with  the  naming  ot  cities  we  know 

the  recognition  of  the  warrior  saint  as  patron  of  Eng-  nothing,  except  what  may  be  gathered   from  the 

land,  was  by  no  means  common  in  the  thirteenth  and  names  themselves,  and  wliat  is  said  of  a  few  cities 

fourteenth  centuries,  though  strangely  enough  it  grew  named  after  their  founders  and  conquerors  (Gen.,  iv, 

in  popularity  after  the  Reformation.    A  writer  who  17:  Num.,  xxxii,  42;  Deut.,  iii,  14;  Jos.,  xix,  47:  etc.). 
has  niade  a  minute  examination  of  the  registers  of  Gx-        So  intimate  was  the  relation  conceived  to  be  be- 

ford  University  from  1560  to  1621,  has  made  out  the  tween  the  individual  and  his  name,  that  the  latter 

following  list  of  the  more  common  names  borne  by  the  came  frequently  to  be  used  as  an  equivalent  of  the  for* 

students  in  order  of  popularity:  John,  3826;  Thomas,  mer:  ''to  be  called"  meant  ''to  be",  the  name  being 

2777;  William,  2546;  Richard,  1691 ;  Robert  1222;  taken  to  be  equal  to  the  object,  nay,  identical  with  it. 

Edward,  957;    Henry,  908;  George.  647:   Francis,  Nothing  is  more  eloquent  of  this  fact  than  the  religious 

447;  James,  424;  Nicholas,  326;  Edmund,  298  (see  awe  in  which  the  Hebrews  held  the  name  of  God  (see 

Oxford   Hist.   Soc.   Transactions,   XIV).    In  Italy  Jehovah).    Similar  notions  prevailed  with  regard  to 

and  Spain  it  has  always  been  a  tolerably  common  all  proper  names.    Nor  were  the  Hebrews  an  excep- 

practioe  to  call  a  child  after  the  saint  upon  whose  tion:   all  Semitic  peoples,  and,  to  some  extent,  all 

leaat  he  is  bom.  primitive  peoples  shared  the  same  beli^.   This  is  why 

Ck>NFnuf  ATiON  Names. — ^The  practice  of  adopting  the  study  of  these  names  is  looked  upon  by  students 

a  new  name  was  not  limited  to  baptism.     Many  of  history  as  a  sort  of  key  to  the  knowledge  of  tiie  reli* 


KAMB8  676  KAMB8 

doufl  and  social  conditions  of  these  peoples.   We  shall  Sharatf  "the  great  princess";    Lot  from  Ldtu,  or 

here  discuss  only  Hebrew  names:  I.  Divinb  Names;  Ld'itUt  "the  consmner";  from  the  Egyptian  might  be 

U.  Personal  Nambs;  III.  Place  Names.  explained  likewise  a  few  names,  e.  g.,  Moees,  "the 

I.  DrviNE  Names. — Y<ihw^. — Jehovah  (q.  v.),  the  child",  etc.).    Of  the  pvue  Hebrew  names  some  are 

traditional  form  of  this  name  in  Western  lan^ages,  is  simple  and  others  compound.    Simple  names  i^pear 

based  on  a  misunderstanding  of  the  Massoretic  vocali-  to  have  been  more  fretquent  in  early  times,  but  some 

sation.    The  name  Yahweh,  of  which  an  abbreviated  are  in  reality  hypocoristic,  i.  e.,  abbreviated  fonns  of 


in  "Revue Biblique",  1003,  pp.  370-86: 1908,  pp.  383-  Simple  Names.— Of  the  simple  names  a  few  seem  to 

86).    *Elf  which  is  found  among  all  Semitic  peoples  have  been  suggested  by  particular  circumstances,  es- 

(Phcen.,  Arab.: '^I;  Assyr.:/^, /m;  Aram.: 'AloA),  is,  pecially  circumstances  attending  the  child's  birth: 

in  the  Bible,  appellative  in  most  cases,  but  was  cer-  e.g.,  Jacob  (thesupplanter),  Joee]^  (possibly  an  hypo- 

tainly  in  the  beginning  a  proper  name  (so,  e.  g.,  in  coristicname:  "Whom  God  added" — ^Eliasaph  was  at 

Gen.,  xxxi,  13;  xxxiii,  20;  xlvi,  3).    Its  etsrmology  is  to  one  time  a  favourite  name  for  the  3roungeBt  son  in  a 

the  present  day  a  much  mooted  question:  some  derive  family).    A  large  dass  of  proper  names  for  men  and 

the  word  from  a  root  *wlf  "tobestrone'';  others  from  women  is  made  up  of  adjectives  denoting  personal 

V*/,  which  might  connote  the  idea  of  "being  the  first";  characteristics.     Mere  are  a  few  instances:   Acan 

others  finally  from  'Ui,  by  which,  at  an  earlv  stage  of  (afflicting),  Achas  (possessor).  Agar  (wanderer),  'Amos 

the  development  of  the  Semitic  languages  the  idea  of  (strong),   Amri    (doquent),  Aod  (praising),  Aaaph 

mere  relation  (esse  ad)  was  conve^red.    According  to  (gatherer),  Aser  (happy) ,Acar  (captive), Ather(bouna), 

the  first  two  opinions,  the  name  is  intended  primarily  Azbai    (dwarf),    Balac    (vain),    Barudi    (bleased), 

to  express  the  superiority  of  the  Divine  nature,  Cetura   (sweet-smelling),    Dalila    (yeaniing),    Docs 

whereas,  according  to  the  third,  God  is  *El  because  (anxious),  Edom  (red),  Esthon  (woman-like),  Gadde^ 

He  is  the  term  of  the  aspirations  {finis)  of  mankind  Geddel  (tall),  Gedeon  (destroyer).  Heled  (fat),  Job 

(Lagrange,  "Etudes  sur  les  religions  s^mitiques",  70  (ruthlessly  treated),  Laban  (white),  Manahem  (con- 


more  frequently  as  proper  names.   The  plural  form  of  Oftme),  Ruth  (friend),  Sepho  (bsJd-headed),  etc. 

the  latter  to  some  extent  still  puzzles  erammarians  Names  of  A.nimft.1a  and  of  plants  were  at  the  same 

and  students  of  the  religious  belief  of  the  Hebrews  (see  period  not  infrequently  given  to  persons  both  by  the 

Gesenius-Kautzsch,   "Hebr.  Graznm.",   §   124,  g~i;  Hebrews  and  by  their  neighbours,  the  Chanaanites 

Prat,  "Le  nom  divin  est-il  intensif  en  Hebreu?     in  and  others.   Among  the  names  of  animals  assumed  as 

"Revue  bibl.",  1901.  p.  497  sqq.;  Smith  "The  ReU-  proper  names,  we  may  mention:  Achbor  (mouse).  Aia 

gion  of  the  Semites",  London,  1907.  445:  Lasrange.  (vulture), Aran (wildgoat), Caleb  (dog) . £)d>ora (bee), 

^'Etudes  sur  les  religions  stoitiques^',  77).    We  need  Eglon  (calf),  Gaal  (beetle).  Hagaba,  m  N.  T.  Aga- 

not  dwell  upon  the  many  cases  where  *El  and  *Elohim  bus  Gocust),  Hulda  (weasel),  JflSiel  (chamois),  Jonas 

are  used  as  appellatives,  either  bv  themselves,  or  as  (dove),  Nahas  (snake),  Ozi  (goose-like),  Rachd  (ewe), 

parts  of  compound  names  such  as  ^El  Ray  (the  God  of  Saphan  (coney),  Sebia  (gazelle),  Sephora  (little  bird), 

the  apparition),  'El  Vlam  (the  Eternal  God),  'El  Sual  (jackal),  Tabitha  (Aram.,  gazelle),  Tola  (worm), 

'Elyon  (the  Most  High  God),  'Elohe  Sebaoth  (the  God  Zeb  (wolf).— -Of  the  names  of  plants,  apparently  less 

of  Hosts),  etc.  (see  Lagrange  in  "Revue  biblique'',  frequentiy  used  thtm  those  of  animals,  nere  are  a  few 

1903,  pp.  364-67).    Shadday, — ^As  to  the  name  Shad-  instances:  Asena  (bush).  Cassia  (a  kind  of  balsam- 

day,  which  is  found  sometunes  alone,  and  at  other  tree),  Cos  (thorn),  Elas  (oak),  Elon  (terebinth),  Ha- 

times  in  connexion  with  *El  CEl  Shadday),  it  was  orig-  dassa  (myrtle),  (>ren  (pine),  Susan  (lilv),  etc.    Some 

inally  an  adjective  conveying  possibly  the  idea  of  modem  scholars  explain  the  relatively  fre<ment  recur- 

fecundity  (Gen.,  xvii,  1 ;  xlix,  25)  or  of  highness  (Ps.,  rence  of  tiiese  two  Kinds  of  names  among  ralestinian 

xci,  1);   at  a  later  period  the  Prophets,  m  order  to  populations  as  remnants  of  totemism  which,  these 

emphasize  their  threats  of  divine  punishment,  spoke  scholars  maintain,  prevailed  in  early  times.    This  is 

asif  the  word  were  related  to  sAoc^od,  to  "devastate";  hardly  the  place  to  discuss  such  a  question.     It  is 


B80NAL  Names. — Personal  names  are  either  such  English  names  as  Fox,  Wolf,  Hawthoniej  and 

purely  Hebrew  or  hebraicized.   To  the  latter  category  the  like.    Granting  even  that  the  names  mentioned 

belong  not  only  (passing  over  foreign  names  as  T^^th-  above  are  unmisti£able  sigps  of  totemism  among  the 

Ehalasar,  Assuenis,  etc.)  Babylonian  (Daniel-Bait-  early  populations  of  Palestine,  it  would  by  no  means 

assar)  and  Persian  (Hadassf^Esther)  names  assumed  necessarily  f oUow  that  these  names  numif est  the  prev- 

by  some  persons  of  Hebrew  origin  living  in  far-away  alence  of  the  same  rcdigious  ideas  among  the  Hebrews. 

countries^  and  the  Greek  and  Latin  names  in  use  Hebrew  was  not  the  primitive  language  of  the  desoen- 

among  Jews  of  later  times  conjointly  with  their  dants  of  Abraham,  uiev  having  adopted  it  from  the 

Hebrew  or  Aramaic  names  (John-Mark;  Saul-Paul,  natives  of  the  land  of  Cnanaan;  naturally  along  with 

etc.),  but  also  certain  very  old  names  which  were  the  language  they  adopted  certain  of  th^  modes  of 

handed  down  by  tradition,  such  as  Cain,  Abel,  Noe,  speech. 

Abraham,  etc.,  and  treated  by  the  sacred  writers  as  Sometimes  names  of  things,  also  of  natural  pheoom- 
Hebrew  words.  There  is  scarcely  any  doubt  but  that  ena,  even  (though  rarely)  abstractions,  and  words 
in  passing  from  one  language  to  the  other  these  names  referring  to  trades  or  avocations  were  taken  as  proper 
were  altered  to  some  extent;  and  as  the  etsrmological  names.  Of  the  latter  class  we  have  for  instance: 
explanation  pretends  to  interpret  the  Hebrew  form,  Abdon,  Obed  (servant),  Amon  (architect),  Benellai 
the  meaning  arrived  at  can  hardly  be  more  than  fanci-  (blacksmith),  Charmi  (vine-dresser),  Somer  (watch- 
ful. It  is  from  the  original  language  of  these  names  man),  Zamri  (singer):  of  thefonner: Agag  (fire),  Ahod 
that  their  meaning  should  be  sought  (so  Abram  and  (union),  'Amos  (burden).  Anna  (grace),  Barac  (tight- 
Abraham  may  be  explained  from  the  Assyr.  Abi^dmii,  ning),  Besec  (thunderbolt),  Cis  (straw).  Core  (frost), 
or  Abi^rdme,  ^*  my  father  loveth  " ;  Sarai  and  Sara  from  Ephron  (dust),  Hon  (strength),  Mary  (stubbonmeBB, 


NAMI8                              677  HAMS8 

disobedience,  see  Num.,  xii),  Naboth  (fruit),  Ur  G^^t),  fonn  a  compound,  as  in  Joel,  Elimelech,  etc.  In  these 
Samson  (sun),  etc.  cases  it  is  clear  that  we  should  see  a  sentence  express* 
Compound  Names. — (Dompoimd  personal  names  are  ing  an  act  of  faith  in  the  divinity  of  the  sod  the  subject 
so  numerous  that  only  a  few  main  points  concerning  of  the  sentence.  Accordin^y  Joel  will  be  interpreted 
them  can  be  touched  on  here.  First  comes  l^e  ques-  ''Yahweh  is  God",  and  Ehmelech  "Melech  is  God'', 
tion  of  the  exact  meaning  of  these  names.  Althou^  Chi  the  other  hana,  Adonias  and  Malachias  cannot 
the  sense  of  each  part  separately  Lb  usually  clear  mean  "Adonis  Yahweh"  or ''Melek is  Yahweh".  be- 
enough,  yet  that  of  the  compound  is  not.  T^e  diffi-  cause,  unlike  *El.  Yah  is  never  appellative;  in  tnese 
cu]t}r  is  to  decide  whether  these  parts  are  in  genitive  words,  Adon  ana  Mdek  are  common  nouns,  and  the 
relation,  or  in  relation  of  subject  to  predicate  (the  verb  compounds  are  equivalent  respectively  to  '^  Yahweh 
in  the  latter  case  being  understood).  In  certain  is  master"  and  "  Yahweh  is  king", 
names,  no  matter  which  view  is  taken,  the  meaning  (3)  The  rules  laid  down  for  interpreting  the  above 
remains  practically  the  same :  it  is  immaterial  whether  classes  of  compound  names  are  equally  applicable  to 
"Eliezer"  be  interpreted  "God  of  help"  or  "God  is  those  made  up  of  a  word  denoting  relationship  and  a 
help":  but  with  names  like  Abinadab,  the  difference  word  denoting  divinity.  If  the  first  part  of  these 
inbotnconstructionsbecomesmarked,  for  "Father  of  names  be  Ben,  Balk,  Bar  (Aram.,  son),  Ehed,  Ish 
generosity"  is  by  no  means  equivalent  to  "my  father  (man),  a  genitive  relation  may  be  understood  to  exist 
IS  generous".  Since  no  rule  for  all  cases  is  available,  between  it  and  the  second  part;  thus  Benadad  or 
for  the  sake  of  clearness  it  will  be  well  to  divide  com-  Barhadad  stands  for  "son  of  Hadad":  Abdeel  for 
pound  names  into  three  classes:  (1)  Names  having  as  "servant  of  God":  Esbaal  for  "man  ot  Baal".  On 
one  of  their  component  parts  a  term  connoting  either  the  other  hand,  if  the  first  element  be  Ab,  Ah,  Amm  or 
kindred  (father,  son,  etc.;  or  accidental  relations  (e.  g.,  the  like  it  seems  that  the  relation  to  the  Divine  name 
servant) ;  (2)  Names  (known  as  theophorous  names)  should  be  regarded  rather  as  one  of  predicate  to  sub- 
containine  a  Divine  element;  (3)  Names  including  ject.  It  is  clear  that  the  interpretation  indicated  here 
terms  both  of  kindred  and  Divinity.  is  the  right  one,  for  otherwise  some  names  would  con- 

(1)  There  is  no  doubt  but  that  only  a  genitive  rela-  vey  absurd  meanings:  surely  Abia,  Abiel,  Abbaal, 
tion  will  explain  names  having  as  their  first  element  Ammiel.  cannot  mean  "father",  "uncle",  "of  Yah- 
Ben  (son)j  Bath  (daughter),  Ebed  or  Ohed  (servant),  weh",  ^*of  God",  "of  Baal".  There  midit  be  no 
Thus  Benjamin  is  to  be  interpreted  "son  of  the  right  objection,  absolutely  speaking,  in  words  like  Adiiel, 
hand";  Bethsabee,  "daughter  of  the  oath";  Obed-  Achia,  b^^  understood  "brother  of  God",  "of  Yah- 
edom,  "servant  of  Edom  .  Names  in  which  the  first  weh":  but  it  is  hard  to  believe  the  sense  could  be,  as 
element  is  Ah  (father).  Ah  (brother),  Amm  (uncle  by  it  is,  oifferent  when  the  elements  appear  in  the  reverse 
^e  father's  side)  are  to  be  considered  sentences,  for  order,  as  in  Joahe. 

such  names  are  applied  equally  to  men  and  women, —  From  this  rapid  survey,  it  appears  that  students  of 

names  such  as  Abigail,  Abisag,  etc.,  if  they  meant  the  history  of  religions  mav  find  in  Hebrew  proper 

"father  of  joy",  "father  of  error",  would  oe  most  names  ample  material  for  oeductions  concerning  the 

unsuitable  for  women.   The  name  Achab  some  regard  religious  beUef  and  the  theolo^  of  God's  people.   Not 

as  a  possible  exception  to  this  rule  (it  might  then  be  to  mention  what  has  been  hmted  at  concerning  the 

interpreted  " brother  of  the  father" — ^uncle) :  whether  influence  of  Chanaanite  idolatry,  and  passing  over  the 

this  exception  is  warranted  remains  problematical,  preference  given  to  the  Divine  name  *El  in  eartier 

As  to  the  letters  t  (^)  and  u  (1)  freouently  introduced  times,  a  fainy  complete  knowled^je  of  the  attributes  of 

after  the  first  element  of  this  class  ot  names  (Abi,  Achi,  God  may  be  gathered  from  Divine  and  theophorous 

Ammi),  it  seems  rather  a  connecting  vowel  than  a  per-  names,    x  ahweh.  "  He  whose  essence  is  to  be  ",  is  God, 

sonal  suffix.  that  is  to  say,  the  term  of  eveiy  being's  aspirations 

(2)  Theophorous  names  were  at  all  times  widely  ('M);  He  is  Most  High  ('£1  'Elyon),  et^nal  ('El 
used  among  Semitic  peoples.  To  limit  ourselves  to  '01am),  perfect  (Joatham),  and  worthy  of  all  praise 
names  foimd  in  the  Bible,  although  names  including  (El-usai)  and  glory  (Jochabed).  His  eyes  b^old 
the  Divine  element  Yah,  or  Yaho,  are  by  far  the  more  evervthing  ('El  Roy) ;  His  knowledge  comprehends 
numerous,  vet  they  were  not  in  use  as  earlv  as  those  all  things  (EUada,  Joiada),  and  idl  things  are  ever 
formed  with  *EL  These  names  have  for  their  other  present  to  His  memorv  (Zacharias).  He  is  all-power- 
oomponent  element  either  a  verb  or  a  noun.  In  the  ful  ('El  Shadday).  ana  in  Him  all  thiiup  acknowledge 
former  case,  the  Divine  name  is  the  subject  of  the  v^  their  founder  (Eliacim^  Joiakim,  Joakin)  and  their 
(Elisama,  "  God  heard  " ;  Jonathan,  "  Yahweh  gave  ") ;  upholder  (Joram) ;  to  Him  they  are  indebted  for  their 
in  the  latter  the  Divine  name  may  be  regarded  again  increase  (Eliasaph),  their  beauty  (Elnaim,  Joada)  and 
as  the  subject,  and  the  noun  as  the  predicate  (Elisua,  their  stresigth  (Eliphaz,  Eliel).  His  generosity  (Jona- 
"God  is  salvation";  Josue,  "Yahweh  is  salvation")^  dab)  prompts  Him  to  communicate  His  ^ts  (Joas, 
Not  only  the  name  of  the  true  God,  but  also  names  of  Jonathan,  Jozabad,  Johanan.  John)  to  creatures.  To 
foreign  deities,  especially  Adon,  BaaL  Mdek,  entered  men  in  particular  He  is  a  father  (Abias,  Abiel,  Joab), 
into  the  composition  of  names  taken  by  Hebrews  at  a  and  a  brother  (Achias,  Achiel) :  He  loves  them  (Eli- 
period  when  the  relations  of  God's  people  with  their  dad).  Being  merciful  (Jerahmed),  He  lends  a  willing 
neighbours  were  most  intimate.  Naturally  such  ear  to  their  prayers  (Elissuna) ;  He  is  their  master 
names  are  to  be  interpreted  in  the  same  manner  as  (Adonias).  their  king  (Malachias),  their  defender 
those  including  Yah  or  *EL  Hence  Adonisedec  shall  (Jorib),  their  help  (Eleazar,  Eliezer),  their  saviour 
beunderstood"Adonisiustice",  etc.;  but  Esbaal  can  (Josue,  Jesus,  I^as),  their  protector  hi  distress 
hardly  mean  anything  else  than  "man  of  Baal".  In  (Elisaphan.  Elisur,  Eliaba);  from  Him  proceeds  all 
this  connexion  it  is  noticeable  that  at  a  later  period  justice  ana  justification  (Josedec);  in  the  end.  He 
abhorrence  of  these  foreign  deities  prompted  first  the  shall  be  their  judge  (Josaphat) ;  from  Him  also  shall 
reading,  and  soon  afterwards  the  writing  of  Bosheth  thev  receive  uidr  reward  (Elphaal,  Eliasub,  Eliho- 
(shame)  in  places  where  originally  the  text  had  Baal  reph). 

(Isboseth,  for  Isbaal).    Moreover,  it  matters  not,  in  III.  Place  Names. — When  we  speak  of  Hebrew 

theophorous  names,   whether  the  Divine  element  names  of  places  in  Palestine,  it  should  be  borne  in 

stands  in  the  first  or  in  the  last  place  (theophorous  mind  that  man^r  of  these  names,  like  the  towns  and 

names  have  among  western  Semitic  peoples  only  two  villages  they  deagnated,  were  in  existence  long  before 

component  parts,  contrarv  to  the  Assyrian  and  Baby-  the  Hebrews  settled  there,  and  even  before  anv  records 

Ionian  use) :  for  Nathan-El  is  equivalent  to  El-Nathan,  mentioningplaces  in  Palestine  were  written  (Inscr.  of 

Joeue  to  Isaias,  etc.  Thotmes  III,  about  1600  b.  c;  El-Amama  letters. 

Not  unfrequently  two  Divine  names  are  united  to  about  1450  b.  c).    Nevertheless  we  are  justified  in 


NAMSS 


678 


NABOBS 


^nadering  these  names  as  Hebrew,  sinoe  Hebrew  b 
the  Chanaanite  language  of  the  early  inhabitants  of 
Pidestine,  adopted  by  the  Israelite  conquerors. 

In  all  countries,  many  names  of  places  have  been 
suggested  b3r  the  topcMcraphy.  The  Palestinians 
named  certain  towns  Rama,  Ramath.  Ramatha, 
Ramathaim  for  the  same  reason  we  would  name  them 
''Heisht";  they  said  Gabaa,  Geba,  Gabaon,  as  we 
would  say  ''Hiu";  their  Sela  (Petra)  would  be  our 
"Cliflf*';  what  we  might  style  our  "Hollow"  they 
called  Moren  or  Horonaim.  They  had  their  Lebanon 
as  we  have  our  "White  Mountams":  and  where  we 
would  say  "Blac]at)ck",  they  saia  Hauran:  the 
names  of  some  of  thdr  rivers:  Jordan,  Cedron,  Sichor, 
resemble  our  "Rapids",  "Dusky",  "Blackwater". 
Aigob  means  a  lay  of  rich  soil;  Horeb  or  Jabes.  dry 
lands; Accaron, "BadLands".  "Spring" and " WeU'^ 
were  then  as  now  a  prominent  element  in  compound 
names  of  places  (hence,  Endor.  Engaddi,  etc.;  Beroth, 
Bersabee,  etc.) ;  to  a  native  of  the  Holy  Land,  Ham- 
math,  Hamman  sounded  like  "Hot  Springs"  to  us. 
A  large  proportion  of  compound  names  are  made  up 
of  Hasor  (enclose  settlement),  Cariath,  Ir,  Qir  (cit;jr), 
Beth  (house),  and  another  element  the  oriion  of  whicii 
is  not  always  obvious  (Cariath-Arbe,  Bethlehem). 
Sometimes  also  the  localitv  derived  its  name  from 
some  vegetable  product:  Abel  (meadow).  Atad  (some 
kind  of  Khamnus),  Baca  (mulberry-tree),  Abel-kera- 
mim.  Bethacarem,  Escol.  Sorec  (vine);  Dilan  (cu- 
cumber); Ela,  Elath,  Elim,  Eloth,  £3on  (oak  and 
terebintn):  Gamso  (sycamore);  Lus  (almond-tree); 
Mount  Olivet;  Remmon  (pomegranate);  Rithma 
(brooQi);  Samir.Bethsetta  (acacia);  Bettaffua  (apple 
tree);  Tnamar  ^aim-tree). 

Places  named  after  animalB  are  not  rare  in  Pales- 
tine: Acrabim  (scorpion):  Aialon  (stag);  Arad  (wild 
ass);  Edon.  E^glaim  (calf);  Ephron,  Ophra  (gaselle); 
En-gaddi  (kid);  Etam  (hawk);  Bethhagla  (par- 
tridge); Humta  (lizard);  Lais,  Lebaoth  (lion);  mia- 
has  (snake);  Beth-nemra  (leopard);  Para  (cow); 
Seboim  (hyena);  HasaiHsuai  (jackal);  Hasai^«usa, 
-susim  (horse);  Telaim,  Bethcar  Qamb);  Zora  (hor- 
net); etc. 

An  important  and  interesting  class  of  topographical 
names  have  reference  to  the  religious  practices  of  the 
early  inhabitants  of  Chanaan.  Such  cities  as  Beth- 
sames,  Ensemes.  the  various  Hares  clearly  owed  their 
names  to  their  being  given  up  to  sun-worship;  like- 
wise such  names  as  Sin,  Sinai  (Babyl.  Sin,  i.  e..  Moon- 
god),  and  Jericho,  tell  us  of  places  consecrated  to  the 
cult  of  the  moon.  Many  were  the  cities  and  moun- 
tains dedicated  by  the  Chanaanites  to  the  various 
Baals.  Even  Babylonian  gods  possessed  shrines  in 
Palestine:  the  names  of  Mt.  Nebo,  Nebo  of  Moab, 
Nebo  of  Juda  (Esd.,  ii,  29),  are  of  themselves  very 
suggestive;  Anath,  the  feinale  companion  of  Anu, 
flAve  her  name  to  Beth-Anath,  Beth-Anoth,  Anathoth; 
Bel  was  honoured  in  Ribla  (Ar-bela);  Ishtar  in 
Astaroth,  Astaroth-camaim,  Beestera;  the  name 
Beth-Dagon  needs  no  comment. 

Finally  a  certain  number  of  distinctly  Hebrew 
names,  which  either  superseded  older  ones,  or  were 
piven  to  localities  before  unnamed^  have  a  special 
mterest  because  they  took  their  origin  from  events 
enshrined  in  the  memoiy  of  the  Hebrews.  Bersabee 
recalls  the  league  of  Abraham  and  Abimelech  (Gen., 
xix,  20) ;  Eseg,  the  quarrel  of  the  herdsmen  of  Gerara 
with  those  of  Isaac  (uen.,  xxvi.  20) ;  Bethel,  the  vision 
of  Jacob  (Gen.,  xxviii.  17);  likewise  the  names  Abel- 
Misraim  (Gen.,  i,  11),  Mara  (Ex.,  xv,  23),  Massa, 
Meriba  (Ex.,  xvii,  7),  Thabeera  (Num.,  xi,  3),  Horma 
(Num.,  xxi,  3),  Galgala  (Joe.,  v,  9),  Bokim  (Judges,  ii, 
5),  Abeneser  (I  Kings,  vii,  12),  Pheres  Osa  (II  Eangs, 
vi,  8),  ete.,  were  for  the  Hebrew  people  so  many  rec- 
ords of  the  memorable  past.  And  this  custom  of  re- 
naming places  in  commemoration  of  momentous  facts 
persisted  until  the  times  of  the  New  Testament,  as 


we  gather  from  the  (Aramaic)  name  Haoeldama 
(Matt.,  xxviii,  18:  Acts,  i,  19)  given  to  the  potter's 
field  bou^t  with  blood-money. 

CHBTira  in  BneyeL  Bibl.^  s.  w.  Abi,  Awuni;  Clat.  Jojfrov: 
JfftMl.  and  Atayr.  Proper  Namsa  in  Lutheran  CAurcA  itmcw,  XIV, 
10<^201:  Qbat.  Hebrmp  Ptoptr  Nawua  (London.  1890);  Idbm. 
Ntbo  a$  an  BlemmU  in  Hebrtw  Proper  Ndmoa  in  BxpooUory  Tiwu$ 
(Feb.,  1899),  232-84;  Idbm  in  HABTXMOft.  Diet,  of  the  Bible,  b.  w. 
Name  and  Proper  Namee:  jAamtow,  On  Comwnmda  with  Bo^^eth- 
Baal  in  Joum.  ofBiU.  Lit,  (1894),  19  ■qq.;  Idkm,  On  Compoumde 
foith  -yah  in  Joum.  of  Bibl.  LU.  (1894),  101-27;  Smith.  The  ReK- 
gion  of  the  SemUee  (London,  1907) ;  lomi.  Animal  and  Fiant 
Namee  in  Joum.  of  Phil.,  IX,  76-100;  Hillbs,  Onomaelieum 
Sacrum  (Tabingen,  1706);  Lbubobn^  Onomaelieum  Satrum 
(Leyden,  1664) ;  Michablxs.  Ob$ermU.  phiL  de  neminibue  propr. 
Bbreor.CHBWet  1729) ;  Iobm.  Nomina  qwedam  propria  VeL  el  Noei 
Teat.  (Halle,  1754);  SiMoma,  Onomaetieum  VeL  Teat.  (Halle. 
1741) ;  Laobangb.  Btudee  aur  lee  religione  aimitimtea  (Paris,  1903) ; 
LBsiTBB  in  VioouBoux.  Diet,  de  la  Bi6{«.  a.  v.  Nom;  JELbnan.  Sur 
lea  noma  thiophorea  dana  lee  languee  aimatiquee  in  Reatte  dee  Btudee 
Juiaea  (1882).  161-77;  Gbundwald,  Dte  Bigennamen  dee  AH. 
Teai.  in  ihrer  Bedeutung  fQ,r  die  Kenntniaa  dee  hatrdiadten  Votka- 
^ubena  (Breelau,  1895);  Kbbbbb,  Die  rdaffionegeaehichtliehe 
Bedeutuna  der  hebr.  Bigennamen  (1897);  Lagabdb.  Bildung  der 
Nomina  (LeipiiK,  1889) ;  NBarui,  Die  ieraelitieehen  Bigennamen 
naeh  ihrer  religionageeehichUidtien  Bedeutung  (Harlem,  1876). 

Chablbs  L.  Souvat. 

Hamea  of  Jesna  and  lAary,  Sistbsb  of  thk  Holt, 
a  religious  congregation  founded  at  LongueuiL  Que- 
bec, 8  December,  1844,  under  the  patronage  of  Biabop 
Bourget,  of  Montreal,  for  the  Christian  education  of 
young  girls.  The  mother-house  is  at  Hochelaga, 
Montreal.  The  institute  was  incoiporated  by  Act  of 
the  Canadian  Parliament,  17  March,  1845.  A  Decree 
cum  laude  was  issued  by  Pius  IX,  27  February,  1863, 
and  a  further  Decree  of  4  September,  1877,  improved 
the  institute;  the  constitutions  received  definite  ap- 
proval 26  June,  1901,  and  the  institute  was  divided 
mto  seven  provmces,  11  May,  1894,  later  increased  to 
nine,  25  August,  1910.  Under  the  direction  of  Rev.  J. 
Allard  three  Canadian  aspirants — Miss  Eulalie  Duro- 
cher.  Miss  Henriette  C^r6,  and  Miss  M^odie  Duf resne 
— were  trained  according  to  the  institute  of  the  Holy 
Names  of  Jesus  and  Mary  established  by  Mgr  Eu^^ne 
de  Masenod  of  Marseilles.  They  took  simple  religious 
vows  at  Longueuil.  8  December.  1844,  as  Sisters  Marie- 
Rose,  Marie-Madeline,  and  Marie-Agnes.  Bidiop 
Bourget  gave  the  institute  diocesan  approval  and  u>- 
pointed  Mother  Marie-Rose,  general  superior  for  life. 
The  community  at  Marseilles  supplied  the  title  of  the 
congregation  and,  with  modifications,  the  habit  and 
the  rule.  Under  Mother  Marie-Rose,  the  oongre^ 
tion  developed  rapidly,  and  a  course  of  study  provid- 
ing equally  for  English  pupils  and  French  was  sketched 
on  lines  sufficiently  broad  to  cover  subsequent  require- 
ments. The  teaching  of  boys  was  not  at  first  contem- 
lilated,  but  missionary  conditions  rendering  it  impera- 
tive in  certain  provinces,  permission  from  the  Holy 
See  has  been  temporarily  obtained.  The  postulate 
lasts  six  months.  At  the  end  of  the  canomcal  year 
novices  are  sent  for  six  additional  months  to  the  dif- 
ferent houses,  where  they  become  practically  ac- 
quainted with  the  life  of  the  oommumty.  After  five 
years,  the  young  relip;ious  reconsiders  her  vocation 
during  a  retreat  of  thirty  days.  Final  vows  are  per- 
petual. Young  girls  desirous  of  leading  a  hidden  life 
m  the  apostomte  of  education,  or  poaseasing  little 
aptitude  for  instruction,  may  enter  as  auxiliary  sisters, 
llieir  spiritual  preparation  is  similar  to  that  of  the 
choir  sisters,  and  save  for  minor  details  in  dress,  no 
outward  distinctions  exist  Ixftween  the  two  daoses. 
A  general  superior  elected  for  five  years,  who  may 
not  be  chosen  for  more  than  two  consecutive  terms, 
governs  the  entire  congregation,  assisted  by  four  coun- 
cillors. A  general  chapter  assembles  periodically  to 
deliberate  upon  the  maior  concerns  of  toe  institute. 

In  1859  Archbishop  Blanchet  of  Oregon  CSty,  Ore- 
gon, secured  twelve  sisters  for  his  diocese.  Several 
years  later,  they  were  invited  to  Seattle,  Washington. 
To-day  these  two  States  form  one  province,  with  a 
novitiate  (1871)  and  provincial  headouarters  at  St. 
Mary's  Academy  and  College,  Portland.    This  school 


NAMUB 


679 


NAMUB 


WM  empoweaned  to  confer  depees  (July.  1883),  alao  to 
grant  aTeachers'  State  Certificate  good  for  five  years, 
and  a  Teachers'  State  Diploma  qualifying  the  holder 
for  life.  In  1907,  an  Act  of  the  Washington  State 
Legislature,  afterwards  ratified  by  the  State  Board  of 
Education,  accredited  the  Holy  Names'  Academies  at 
Seattle  and  Spokane,  as  State  Normal  Schools.  Two 
other  provinces  are  located  in  the  United  States.  That 
of  California,  established  at  Oakland  (18d8)  by  Bishop 
Alemany,  possesses  a  novitiate  since  1871;  the  New 
York  province  includes  Florida.  Quebec  has  four 
provinces;  Ontario,  one ;  Manitoba,  one.  Attached  to 
Ontario  are  parochial  schools  in  Detroit  and  Chicago. 
St.  Mary's,  Portland,  opened  (1860)  a  refuge  for  desti- 
tute and  orphaned  cnildren  and  still  conducts  a  Home 
for  Orphan  Girls.  The  congregation  numbers  (1910) 
professed  sisters,  1257;  novices,  110;  postulants,  81. 
It  conducts  99  schools,  residential,  select,  and  paro- 
chial, attended  by  24.208  pupils.  Of  these  establish- 
ments, ^  are  in  the  United  States. 

Mabib  R.  Maddbn. 

Hamnr,  Diocbsb  of  (Namurcbnsis),  constituted 
by  the  Bull  of  12  May,  1559,  from  territory  previously 
belonging  to  the  Diocese  of  Li^e,  and  made  suffragan 
of  the  new  metropolitan  See  of  Cambrai.  The  (Jon- 
ooidat  of  1801  re-established  a  Diocese  of  Namur,  its 
limits  to  coincide  with  those  of  the  Department  of 
Sambre-et-Meuse,  and  to  be  suffragan  of  Mechlin. 
On  14  Sept.f  1823,  the  Diocese  of  Namur  was  increased 
by  the  temtory  of  Luxemburg,  which  had  formerly 
belonged  to  the  Diocese  of  Metz.  and  which,  forming, 
under  the  First  Empire,  part  ot  the  Departments  of 
the  For^ts  and  the  Ardennes,  had  been  given,  in  1815, 
to  the  Kingdom  of  the  Netherlands.  After  the  Revo- 
lution of  1830,  which  brought  about  the  separation  be- 
tween the  Grand  Duchy  of  Luxemburg  and  the  Bel- 
gian Province  of  Luxemburg,  the  City  of  Luxemburg 
received  a  vicar  Apostolic.  In  1840  the  jurisdiction 
of  this  vicar  was  extended  to  the  whole  grand  duchy. 
On  7  October,  1842,  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Diocese  of 
Namur  was  definitively  restricted  to  the  two  Belgian 
Provinces  of  Namur  and  Luxemburg. 

In  1047,  Albert  II,  Count  of  Namur,  caused  the 
erection^  on  the  site  of  an  ancient  chapel,  which  an  un- 
authenticated  legend  says  was  dedicated  by  Pope 
Cornelius  in  the  third  century,  of  a  collegiate  church, 
served  by  twelve  canons,  who  had  the  ri^t  of  admin- 
istering justice  within  their  lands.  The  first  dean, 
Frederick  of  Lorraine,  brother-in-law  of  Albert  II, 
about  1050  secured  from  the  chapter  of  Mainz  a  por> 
tion  of  the  head  of  St.  Aubain,  martvr.  The  collegi- 
ate church  took  the  name  of  St.  Aubain  the  Martyr. 
In  1057  Frederick  became  pope  under  the  name  of 
Stephen  IX.  The  various  successors  of  Albert  II  en- 
riched this  foundation  with  numerous  privileges.  In 
1209  Innocent  III,  by  a  Brief,  took  it  under  his  pro- 
tection. In  1263  Baldwin,  Emperor  of  Constimti- 
nople,  heir  of  the  counts  of  Namur^sold  the  count- 
ship  to  Guy  de  Dampierre,  Count  of  Flanders,  and  the 
House  of  Dampierre  also  protected  the  collegiate 
church.  In  1429  Count  John  III  sold  the  countship 
to  Philip  the  Good.  Duke  of  Burgundy.  Thenceforth, 
until  the  French  Revolution,  Namur  belonged  to  the 
House  of  Burgundy-Austria,  except  during  the  years 
1692-95,  when  it  was  occupied  by  Louis  XlV.  Charles 
the  Bold,  Philip  the  Fair,  Charles  V,  Albert  and 
Isabella  all  knelt  and  took  the  oath  in  the  sanctuary  of 
St.  Aubain.     This  church  thus  held  a  most  important 

Elace  in  the  political  life  of  the  country.  It  was  re- 
uilt  in  the  eighteenth  centurv  after  the  model  of  St. 
Peter's  at  Rome,  as  the  cathedral.  Don  John  of  Aus- 
tria is  buried  there. 

The  Church  of  Namur  resisted  Josephinism.  In 
1789,  despite  the  formal  prohibition  of  Joseph  II,  the 
imafpe  of  the  Blessed  Virgm  was  carried  in  processions 
tiirough  the  streets  in  honour  of  the  Immaculate  Con- 


ception. Under  the  Directory,  the  vicar  capitular. 
Stevens,  formerly  a  professor  in  the  University  of 
Louvain,  and  famous  for  his  opposition  to  Josephin- 
ism, directed  the  clergy  by  mysteriously  circmated 
communications  issuedfrom  his  hiding-place  at  Fleu- 
rus.  After  the  Concordat,  when  the  Frenchman 
Leopold-Claude  de  Bexon  had  been  made  Bishop  of 
Namur,  Stevens  feared  that  the  new  bishop  would  be 
too  compliant  towards  Napoleon.  The  pamphlets 
which  he  circulated  imder  the  title  ''Sopnisme  d6- 
voil6"  advised  the  clergy  to  refuse  adhesion  to  the 
Concordat,  as  it  would  be  taken  by  the  State  for 
adhesion  to  the  Organic  Articles.  A  petUe  6gliae 
formed  of  persons  calling  themselves  "Stevenists'' 
was  formed  in  the  diocese.  It  was  strengthened  by 
the  subservience  of  Bishop  Bexon,  whom  a^  had 
weakened,  for  the  prefect  P£r^  and  by  the  circular 
(13  November,  1802)  in  which  he  denied  having  dis- 
approved of  the  Organic  Articles.  At  last  Bexon  re- 
signed, 15  Sept.,  1803,  and  was  succeeded  by  Pisani  de 
laGaude.  But  Stevenism  continued  to  exist.  Stevens 
admitted  that  the  Concordat  was  legitimate,  and  that 
the  new  bishops  might  be  received;  he  only  protested 
against  the  formula  of  adhesion  to  the  Concordat. 
But  the  Stevenists  went  farther:  they  held  that  the 
jurisdiction  of  the  bishops  was  radically  defective,  and 
they  would  recognise  no  other  spiritual  head  than 
Stevens.  The  schism  lasted  imtil  1814,  when  Pisani 
de  la  Gaude  accepted  the  declaration  recognixing  the 
legitimate  bishop  which  the  Stevenists  were  willins  to 
make.  Stevens  died  on  5  September,  1828.  He  had 
submitted  all  his  writings  to  the  Holy  See,  which  never 
passed  judgment.  Since  1866  the  right  of  appointing 
the  dean  and  chapter  of  Namur  has  been  reserved  to 
the  pope.  Dechamps,  later  Cardinal  Archbishop  of 
Mecnlm,  was  Bishop  of  Namur  from  1865  to  1867. 

Two  abbeys  in  the  Diocese  of  Namur  had  great  re- 
nown during  the  Middle  Ages:  the  Benedictine  Abbey 
of  Brogne,  founded  by  St.  Gerard  (see  G£rard^  Saint, 
Abbot  of  Brogne),  and  the  Premonstratensian  Ab- 
bey of  Floreffe  (q.  v.).  In  1819  a  preparatory  semi- 
nary was  installed  at  Floreffe,  which  was  suppressed 
bv  the  Government  in  1825  and  re-establishea  in  1830. 
The  Benedictine  Abbey  of  Gemblours,  founded  in  922 
by  Guibert  de  Damau,  acquired  great  renown  in  the 
twelfth  century.  Si^ebert  and  Gottschalk  wrote  there 
an  important  chronicle.  Ravaged  by  the  Calvinists  in 
1578,  and  b3r  fire  in  1712,  the  Aobey  of  Gemblours  was 
suppressed  in  1793.  The  Abbey  of  Waulsort  was 
fotmded  in  946  for  Scotch  (Irish)  monks  tmder  Bene- 
dictine rule.  Its  first  two  abbots  were  St.  Maccelan 
and  St.  Cadroes;  the  bishop  St.  Forannan  (d.  980) 
was  also  Abbot  of  Waulsort.  In  1131  Innocent  II 
consecrated  the  main  altar  of  the  church  of  the  Abbey 
of  Gdronsart,  administered  by  the  Canons  Regular  of 
St.  Augustine.  The  buildings  of  the  Abbey  of  Paix 
Notre-Dame,  founded  in  1613  by  the  Reformed  Bene- 
dictines of  Douai,  have  since  1831  sheltered  a  college 
of  the  Jesuits.  The  Assumptionist  fathers  have  a 
novitiate  at  Bure.  A  very  important  centre  of  studies 
was  foimded  at  Maredsous  in  1872  by  the  Benedic- 
tines; it  was  erected  into  an  abbey  in  1878,  and  in 
1888  provided  with  a  beautiful  Gothic  church.  The 
''Revue  Benedictine''  and  the  ''Analecta  Maredso- 
lana"  have  already  assured  the  fame  of  this  abbey. 
The  first  abbot  was  Placide  Wolter,  who  in  1890  be- 
came Abbot  of  Beuron;  the  second  was  Hildebrand  de 
Hemptinne,  who^  in  1893.  became  Abbot  of  St.  Anselm 
at  Rome  and  pnmate  of  the  Benedictine  Order.  In 
1907  there  were  in  the  community  of  Maredsous  140 
monks,  64  of  whom  were  priests.  A  college  for  higher 
education  and  a  technical  school  are  connected  with 
the  abbey.  At  Maredret,  near  Maredsous,  was  estab- 
lished in  1893  the  Benedictine  abbey  of  St.  Scholastica, 
which  in  1907  numbered  41  nuns. 

The  Diocese  of  Namur  honours  with  special  venera- 
tion Sts.  Matemus,  Servatus  (Servais),  and  Remacu- 


NAHCT  680  NANCT 

liu,  the  first  apOHtlea  of  the  Diocese  of  Tongrest,  which  provided  he  perfonned  no  episcopal  office.  In  1271 
later  became  that  of  Li^  (q-  v.),  and  some  saints  of  P«ve  differences  broke  out  agun  in  the  chmter  of 
the  Diocese  of  Li^ge,  Sts.  Lambert,  Hubert,  and  Toul;  after  seven  years' vacancy  the  Holy  See  re- 
Juliana.  Mention  may  also  be  made  of  St.  FoilUn,  of  scinded  the  four  elections  made  by  the  chapter,  and  in 
Irish  origin,  founder,  in  650,  of  the  mouaBtery  of  1278  Nicholas  III  peisonally  appointed  aabiabopCon- 
Possee;  St.  Begge,  sister  of  St.  Gertrude  of  Nivellee,    rad  of  TQbingen.    Thenceforth  it  was  generally  the 

"  '  "  ■  '  '     '  "  ■    "         ■  ■  '  - ™^  allepng  vari- 

,  hence  the  many 

,  .  ,  ianprelatee  who  held  this  important  see  until  1552, 

Vohy,  parish  priest  ot  Onhay  (thirteenth  centuiy) ;  St.     when  TouI  was  occupied  by  Fraoce.     In  1597  Charles 
Mary  of  Oigniea,  b.  at  Nivelles  about  1177,  celebrated    III,  Duke  of  Lorraine,  impatient  of  his  dependence  on 
for  her  visions,  d.  at  the  biguinage  of  Oignics,  where     a  diocese  henceforth  French,  asked  Clement  VIII  for 
her  director,  Jacques  de  Vitry,  who  became  Bishop  of     the  diamemberment  of  the  See  of  Toul  and  the  creation 
St.  Jean  d'Acre  and  cardinal,  wished  also  to  be  buned.    of  a  see  at  Nancy;  this  failed  through  the  oppoation 
Lastly,  the  Diocese  of  Namur  bonoun  in  a  special 
manner  the  Martyrs  of  Gorkuni,  whose  relics  it  pos- 
seeses.    At  Arlon,  which  now  belongs  to  the  diocese, 
was  bom  Henri  Busch,  famous  as  "Bon  Henri", 
founder  of  the  shoemakers'  and  the  tailors'  fraternities 
in  Paris  {seventeenth  century). 

The  religious  congregations  administer  in  the  Dio- 
cese of  Namur,  according  to  "La  Belgique  Charito- 
ble"(  2  orphanages  tor  boys,  7  for  girls,  1  mixed,  18 
hospitals  or  infirmaries,  i  clinics,  IM  infant  schools, 
1  house  of  rescue,  6  houses  for  the  care  of  the  sick  in 
their  homes,  1  asylum  for  deaf  mutes,  2  houses  of 
retreat,  1  insane  asylum.  In  1007  the  Diocese  of 
Namur  numbered  583,722  inhabitants,  36  deaneries, 
37  parishes,  677  succursals,  90  auxiliary  chapels,  111 
curacies  paid  by  the  State. 

Gaujot.  Hwtoife  gijUfoU  .  .  .  de  fa  tilU  et  pronnrt  dt  NamiAf 
(.Utue,  1788-91):  ReirrUHEio,  BoRONrT.  are.  Rah.  Monk- 
nunK  pour  icmr  i  thMairi  da  prninia  de  JVamu-,  dt  Hainaiil.  M 
dt  LunrnAoum  (10  toIi.,  Bmgwlg,  184t-eO) ;  BoBONn  and  Bo»- 
lum.  Cartiiiairt  dt  la  Commune  dt  Namur  CNsmur.  1X71-70); 
*i..>.^,  f/iitoiri  di  rtali"  "  du  chapUrt  d,  S.  Avbain  d  Namur 
IT,  1881);BEBUtHE.  i/ontufiombiliic.  I(Msred«iui,  1397): 

[.  BMiegr.  JVamurnK  (Namur,  I8S4-I00U);  Cuumsm, 

La  Biieitiu  dirtUtnnt  .  .  .  StBi-ISSO  (Iiell~.  1SB3>. 

Georqes  G  OTA  it. 

Nftncr.  Diocese  or  (Nanceiensis  et  Tullensib), 
comprises  the  Departments  of  Meurthe  and  Moselle, 
France,  suffragan  of  Bceangon.  The  See  of  Nancy  Is 
the  heir,  so  to  speak,  of  the  celebrated  See  of  Toul. 

St.  Mansuetus,  Apostle  of  the  Leuci  and  first  Bishop  Tn  CATsiDaAi.  Naj>ct 

of  Toul,  and  according  to  some  a  disciple  of  St.  Peier, 

cannot  have  been  anterior  to  the  fourth  century.  The  of  Amaud  d'Osaat,  Henn's  ambassador  at  Rome- 
dates  of  hia  saintly  succesBOrs,  Amondus,  Atchas,  and  Clement  VIII,  however,  cfccided  that  Nancy  was  to 
Cclainus,  cannot  be  determined.  Among  the  bishops  hare  a  primatial  church  and  that  its  prelat«  would 
of  Toul  should  be  mentioned:  St.  Auspicius  (about  have  the  title  of  primate  of  Lomune  and  wear  epiaco- 
470);  St.  fJrsus  (Ours),  from  whom  Clovis  in  496  re-  pal  inagnia,  but  should  not  exerdae  episcopal  juria- 
quested  an  ecclesiastic  to  instruct  him  in  the  teachings  diction. 

of  Christianity;  St.  Epvre  (Aper)  (600-505),  brother         In  1777  and  1778  Toul  lost  territories  out  of  which 

of  St.  Evronie  (Aproma) ;  St.  Alband  (about  508).  ee-  were  formed  two  new  dioceses:  Saint-Di^  and  Nancy. 

tablishcd  a  communitv  of  ecclesiastics  from  which  both  of  them  suffragans  of  Trier.     The  Conocwdat  of 

originated  the  Abbey  of  St.  Epvre;  St.  Lcudinus-Bodo  1802,  which  suppreaaed  Toul,  made  Nancy  the  seftt  of 

(second  half  of  the  seventh  century),  founder  of  the  a  vast  diocese  which  included  the  three  Departmoita 

monastery  of  Boa  Mousliers  and  brother  ot  St.  Sala-  of  Meurthe,  Meuse,  and  Voegcs;  the  latter  two  were 

berge,  foundress  and  first  abbess  of  the  monastery  of  detached  from  Nancy  in  1822  on  the  re-establishment 

LaonjSt.  Jacob  (756-e6);  St.  Gauielin  (922-62)  who  of  the  Dioceses  ot  Verdun  and  Saint-Di6.     When 

rrformedthemonasteryof  St.  Epvre  and  foundwl  that  France  lost  Alsace-Lorraine  in  1871    Nancy  lost  the 

of  Notre-Dame  de  Bouxi^res;  St.  Gerard  (963-B4);  arrondissements  of  Sarrebourg  ana  ChAtewi-Salina 

Bruno  of  Dagsbourg  (J026-5I),  eventually  St.  Leo  which,  having  become  German,  were  united  with  the 

IX;  Guillaume  tlllAtre  (1449-60);  Cardinal  John  of  Diocese  of  Mett.    Nancy  however  annexed  the  hi- 

Lorraine  (1517—13),  who  held  twelve  sees  and  six  rondimement  of  Briey  which  remained  FWieh,  and 

large  abbeys;  Charles  of  Lorraine,  cardinal  of  Vaude-  was  detached  from  the  Diocese  of  Meti  (ocHtsistorial 

mont  (1580-87);  Cardinal  Nicholas  Francois  of  Lor-  decrees  of   10  and   14  July,   1874).     ^ce  1824  the 

raine  (1625-34) ;  Andr€  du  Saussay  (1649-75),  author  bishops  of  Nancy  have  borne  the  title  of  Bishops  of 

ot  "  Mart vrologium  Gallicanum".  Nancy  and  Toul,  as  the  ancient  Diocese  of  Toul  is  al- 

Thc  title  ot  count  and  the  rights  of  sovertignty  of  moat  entirely  united  with  Nancy.     It  has  had  some 

the  medieval  Bishops  of  Toul  originated  in  certain  illuBtrious  bishops:  Korbin-Janson  (1824-44);  Dartxiv 

grants  which  Henry  the  Fowler  gave  St.  Gauielin  in  (1859-63);  the  future  Cardinal  Lavigerie  {1863-67K 

927.     The  See  of  Toul  was  disturbed  by  the  Conflict  of  and  the  future  Cardinal   Foulon   (1867-82),     Since 

Investitures  in  1108.    The  chapter  was  divided;  the  1165,  whenever  the  Bishop  of  Toul  offidatod  pontifi- 

majority  elected  Hiquin  of  Commercy  bishop;  the  cally,  he  wore  an  oniament  called  turkumeral,  <a  m- 


Ssr 


HAinn  681  HAHTBS 

etoied  this  privilege  to  the  bishops  of  Nancy  and  Mintw  (Nannxtbs),  Diocese  of  (Namcbikkbib). 
Toul.  Concerning  the  inusuationB  of  the  Old  Catho-  — This  diocese,  which  compriaea  the  entire  depart- 
lica  in  1870  Apropos  of  tlua  Brief,  see  Granderath.  ment  of  Loire  Inf^rieure,  was  re'«8tablished  by  tliB 
"Geschichte  des  Vatikamscben  Konzila'',  II,  589,  ana  Concordat  of  1802,  and  is  aufTragan  of  Tours.  Ac- 
III,  748.  St.  Siffiabert,  III  (630-54),  Kin^  of  Aub-  cording  to  late  traditions,  St.  Clams,  first  Bishop  of 
tra«a,  and  founder  of  twelve  monasteries,  is  patron  Nantes,  waa  a  diaciple  of  St.  Peter.  De  la  Borderie, 
of  the  City  of  Nancy.  however,  has  shown  that  the  ritual  of  the  Church  of 

On  5  IJec.,  1572,  Gr^jory  XIII  signed  the  Bull  tor    Nantes,  drawn  up  by  precentor  Melius  in  1263,  ignores 
the  erection  of  a  university  at  Pont-ft-Mouaaon;  the     the  apostolic  misaion  of  St.  Clams;  that  St.  Peter's 
faculties  of  theolocy  and  arts  were  entrusted  to  the    nail  in  the  cathedral  of  Nantes  was  not  brought  thither 
Jesuite;  the  learned  Father  Sirmond  made  his  profes-     b^  St.  ClaniB,  but  at  a  time  subsequent  to  the  inva- 
sion there,  and  in  1581  Queen  Mary  Stuart  established     Bions  of  the  Northmen  in  the  tenth  century;  that  St. 
a  seminaiy  for  twenty-Jour  Scotsmen  and  Irishmen.     Felix  of  Nantes,  writinK  with  mx  other  bishops  in  567 
St.  Peter  Fourier  was  a  pupil  of  this  seminary.    Car-     to  St.  Radegond,  attributes  to  St.  Martin  the  chief 
dinal  Mathieu  (d.  1908)  was  for  many  yeara  parish 
priest  of  PonUA-MouBHon.    The  congregatioo  of  Our 
Lady  of  Refuge  was  founded  at   Nancy  for  pen- 
itent womeo  in  1637,  by  Elizabeth  of  Ranfaiug,  knovni 
as  Sister  Mary  Elizabeth  of  the  Cross  of  Jesua.     This 
congregation    had    numerous    houses    throughout 
France.     Mattaincourt,  the  parish  of  St.  Peter  Fou- 
rier, belonged  to  Toul  when  the  saint  established  his 
important  Toundationa  in  the  seventeenth  century. 

The  chief  pilgrimage  centres  are;  Notre-Dame  de 
Bon  Secours,  at  Nancy,  dating  from  the  fifteenth  cen- 
tury, and  for  which  King  Stanislaus  built  (1738-41)  a 
large  sanctuary  on  the  site  of  the  humble  chapel 
enwted  by  King  Ren6;  Notre-Dame  de  Sion,  at  Saxe- 
Sion,  datmg  from  the  episcopate  of  St.  Gerard,  and 
whose  madonna,  broken  during  the  Revolution,  was 
replaced  in  1802  by  another  (miraculous)  statue  of 
the  Blessed  Virgin;  and  St-Nicolaa  du  Port,  in  honour 
of  3t.  Nicholas,  Bishop  of  Myra,  patron  saint  of  Lor- 

Prior  to  the  enforcement  of  the  Asaociationa  Law  of 
1901,  there  were  in  the  diocese,  Carthusians,  Jesuits, 
Dominicans,  Oblates  of  Maiy  Immaculate,  Redemp- 
torists,  and  several  orders  of  teaching  brothers,  one 
of  which,  the  Brothers  of  the  Christian  Doctrine 
(founded  in  J822  by  Dom  FriSchard,  former  Benedic- 
tine  of   Senones  Abbey),  had   ita   mother-house   at 

Orders  of  women:  the  Canonesscs  Regular  of  St. 
Augustine  of  the  Congregation  of  Notre  Dame,  a 
teaching  order  founded  at  Vezclisc  in  1629,  and  trans- 
ferred to  Lun£ville  in  1850;  Sisters  of  St.  Charles,  a 
nursing  and  teaching  order,  the  foundation  of  which 

in  16^1  was  due  to  the  zeal  of  two  laymen,  Joseph  and  CirammiL  of  s^-Phhm,  Sxirra 

Emmanuel  Chauvenal;  Sisters  of  the  Christian  Doc-  rflle  in  the  converaion  of  the  Nantais  to  Christianity; 

trine,  called  Vatelottes,  a  nurung  and  teaching  order  that   the   traditions   concerning   the   mission   of  St. 

founded  about  1718  by  the  Duke  of  Lorraine  and  Clarus  are  later  than  1400.    'Hie  earliest  list  of  tbe 

Father  Jean-Baptiste  Vatelot;   Sisters  of  the  Holy  bishops  of  Naates  (made,  according  to  Duchesne,  at 

Childhood  of  Maiy,  a  nursing  and  teaching  order  the  beginning  of  the  tenth  century)  does  not  favour 

which  Canon  Claucfe  Daunot  took  thirty-five  years  to  the  thesis  of  a  biahop  of  Nantes  prior  to  Constantine. 

establish(1820-55);Sistersof  the  Holy  Heart  of  Mary.  The  author  of  the  Passion  of  the  Nantes  martyrs,  Sta. 

a  teaching  order  foimded  in  1842  by  Bishop  Manjaua  Donatian  and  Ri^tian,  places  their  death  io  the 

and  Countess  Clara  de  Gondrecourt;   Daughters  of  reign  of  Constantius  Chlorus,  and  seems  to  beheve 

Compassion,  a  nursing  order  of  Servite  tertiaries,  es-  that  Ri^;atian  could  not  be  baptized,  because  the 

tabliahed  in  18S4  by  Ahh6  Thirict  at  St-Firmin.  bishop  was  absent.     Duchesne  believes  that  the  two 

The  religious  congregations  of  the  diocese  conduct  aunts  suffered  at  an  earlier  date,  and  disputes  the  in- 

6  erlchea,  57  day-nurseries,  2  institutions  for  sick  chil-  ference  of  the  ancient  writer  concerning  the  absence  of 

dien,  1  school  for  the  blind,  1  school  for  deaf-mutes,  the  bishop.  He  believes  that  the  first  bishopof  Nantes, 

3   boys'  orphanfwes,  23  girla'  orphanages^  12  sewing  whose  date  is  certain,  is  Desideriua  (453),  correepond- 

rooms  (industrial),  3  schools  for  apprentices,  32  bos-  ent  of  Sulpicius  Severus  and  St.  Paulmus  of  Nola. 

pitals  or  asylums,  17  houses  for  visiting  nurses,  16  Several  bisnops,  it  is  true,  occupied  the  see  before  him, 

bouses  of  retreat,  1  insane  asylum.   In  1909,  the  Dio-  among  others  St.  Clarus  and  St.  SimUianus,  but  their 

cese  of  Nancy  had  517,508  inhabitants,  2fl  deaneries,  dates  are  uncertain.     Mgr  Duchesne  considers  aa 

482  Buccursal  parishes,  and  91  vicariates.  legendary  the  St.  .^milianus  supposed  to  have  been 

^  n.    f.1.  .^.  „Tor,   »>.T  nr^  .n..    .  Bishop  of  Nantcs  iH  Charlemague  s  rcigD  and  to  Havo 

*iiii(-l>t<  (S  Toll.,  Nwioy,  1901-03):  TrtniM,  Hitttin d,  Namv         Among  the  noteworthy  bishops  are:  St.  Felix  (550- 

£Tnl».,,lMl-0S);  Akoh    Hutoiri  de  laCnifrttaiim  du  Sauri     83),  whose  municipal  improvements  at  Nantes  were 
CAonU  d>  Soinl   Charla   dt    Naiuil   (3  volt.    Ninoy,    1898);      nriiBoH   in    tho   nnJL.   nt  Trnrtimotno     BnH    vjhr,   nfton 

H*t.u»T».  N„nra  (Put*  iBoa>;   T™««,  SioM.  qnudau  du     P™»™  in  the  poems  Of  tortunatiw,  and  who  ott«i 

dioc^M  dd  fianet  it  it  Tovi  (Nuwy,  1902).  mediated  between  the  people  of  Bnttany  and  the 

Geoaoas  Qotac.        Prankish  kings;  S(    "  ... 

tury);   St.   Gohan 

Hannl.  Giovavni.    See  AmmiB  or  Vitkbbo.  NorUimeti  in  843,  t 


MIMTIB 


682 


MANTEUn. 


Aindre;  Actardus  (S43-71),  during  whose  time  the 
Breton  prince,  Nomeno^,  in  his  conflict  with  the 
metropoLtan  See  of  Tours  (q.  v.);  created  a  see  at 
Gu^rande,  in  favour  of  an  ecclesiastic  of  Vannes,  in  the 
heart  of  the  Diocese  of  Nantes;  the  preacher  Cospeau 
(1621-36).  The  diocese  venerates:  the  monk  St. 
Herv6  (sixth  century);  the  hermits  Sts.  Friard  and 
Secondel  of  Besn^  (sixth  century) ;  St.  Victor,  hermit 
at  Cambon  (sixth  or  seventh  century):  the  English 
hermit  Vital,  or  St.  Viaud  (seventh  or  eignth  century) ; 
the  Greek  St.  Benott,  Abbot  of  Masserac  in  Charle- 
magne's time;  St.  Martin  of  Vertou  (d.  601),  apostle 
of  we  Herbauges  district  and  founder  of  the  Benedic- 
tine monastei^  of  Vertou;  St.  Henneland,  sent  by  St. 
Lambert,  AbBot  of  Fontenelle,  at  the  end  ot  the 
seventh  century  to  found  on  an  island  in  the  Loire  the 
neat  monastery  of  Aindre  (now  Indret) :  the  cele- 
brated missionary  St.  Amand,  Bishop  of  Maastricht 
(seventh  century),  a  native  of  the  district  of  Her- 
bauges. Blessed  Franooise  d'Ambroise  (1427-85),  who 
becfune  Duchess  of  Brittany  in  1450,  had  a  great 
share  in  the  canonization  of  St.  Vincent  Ferrier,  re- 
built the  choir  of  the  collegiate  church  of  Notre-Dame, 
and  founded  at  Nantes  the  monasteiy  of  the  Poor 
Clares.  Widowed  in  1457,  she  resisted  the  intrigues 
of  Louis  XI,  who  urged  her  to  contract  a  second  mar- 
riage, and  in  1468  became  a  Carmelite  nun  at  Vannes. 
In  1477,  at  the  request  of  Sixtus  IV;  she  restored  the 
Benedictine  monasteiy  of  Counts,  near  Nantes.  The 
philosopher  Abelard  (q.  v.)  was  a  native  of  the  dio- 
cese. The  Abbey  of  La  Meilleraye,  founded  in  1132, 
was  the  beginning  of  an  establishment  of  Trappist 
Fathers,  who  played  a  most  important  part  in  the 
agricultunJ  development  of  the  country.  The  cru- 
sades were  preached  at  Nantes  by  Blessed  Robert  of 
Arbrissel,  founder  of  Fontevrault.  Venerable  Charles 
of  Blois  won  Nantes  from  his  rival  Jean  de  Montfort 
in  1341.  On  8  August,  1499,  Louis  XII  married  Anne 
of  Brittany  at  Nantes — ^a  marriage  which  later  led  to 
the  annexation  of  the  Duchy  of  Brittany  to  the  Crown 
of  France  (1532).  Chateaubriant,  a  town  of  the  dio- 
cese, was  a  Calvinistic  centre  in  the  sixteenth  centuiy. 
For  the  Edict  of  Nantes  (1595),  which  granted  Prot- 
estants relieious  freedom  and  certain  political  prerog- 
atives, see  Huguenots. 

In  1665,  by  order  of  Louis  XIV,  Cardinal  Retz  was 
imprisoned  in  the  castle  of  Nantes,  from  which  he 
contrived  to  escape.  A  college  was  created  at  Nantes 
in  1680  for  the  education  of  Irish  ecclesiastics.  Cer- 
tain legions  of  the  diocese  were,  during  the  Revolu- 
tion, the  scene  of  the  War  of  La  Vend6e,  waged  in  de- 
fence of  religious  freedom  and  to  restore  royalty.  At 
Savenay  in  December,  1798,  succumbed  the  remains 
of  the  Vendean  army,  already  defeated  in  the  battle  of 
Cholet.  The  atrocities  committed  at  Nantes  by  the 
terrorist  Carrier  are  well-known.  Four  councils  were 
held  at  Nantes,  in  660,  1127,  1264,  and  1431.  The 
mausoleum  of  Francis  II,  last  Duke  of  Brittany,  exe- 
cuted in  1507  by  Michel  Colomb,  is  one  of  the  finest 
monuments  of  the  Renaissance.    The  chief  places  of 

gilgrimage  of  the  diocese  are:  Notre-Dame  de  Bon 
rarant  at  Orvault,  a  very  old  pilgrimage,  repeatedly 
made  by  Francis  II,  Duke  of  Brittany;  Notre-Dame 
de  Bon  Secours  at  Nantes,  a  pilgrimage  centre  which 
dates  back  to  the  fourteenth  century;  Notre-Dame  de 
Toutes  Aides.  Notre-Dame  de  Mis^ricorde  became  a 
place  of  pilgrimage  in  1026  in  memory  of  the  miracle 
by  which  the  country  is  said  to  have  been  freed  from 
a  dragon;  the  present  seat  of  the  pilgrimage  is  the 
Churcn  of  St.  Similien  at  Nantes.  Before  the  law 
of  1901  against  congregations,  the  diocese  counted 
Capuchins,  Trappists,  Jesuits,  Missionary  Priests  of 
Mazy,  Augustinians,  Franciscans,  Missionaires  of 
Africa,  Premonstratensians,  Sulpicians,  and  several 
orders  of  teaching  brothers.  The  Ursulines  of 
Nantes  were  estabEshed  by  St.  Angela  of  Merici  in 
IMO. 


Among  the  oongr^pitions  for  women  originating  in 
the  diocese  are:  the  Sisters  of  Christian  Instruction,  a 
teaching  order  founded  in  1820  at  Beignon  (Diocese 
of  Vannes)  by  Abh6  Deshayes,  of  which  the  mother- 
house  was  transferred  to  St-Gildaa  des  Bois  in  182^; 
Sisters  of  the  Immaculate  Conception,  a  teaching 
and  nursing  order,  founded  in  1853  (mother-house 
at  La  Have  Mah^as) ;  Franciscan  Sisters,  founded  in 
1871  (mother-house  at  St-Philbert  de  Grandlieu); 
Oblate  Franciscan  Sisters  of  the  Heart  of  Jesus, 
founded  in  1875  by  Mile  Gazeau  de  la  Brandanni^re 
(mother-house  at  Nantes).  At  the  beginning  of  the 
twentieth  century,  the  religious  congregations  of  the 
diocese  conducted  three  crhches,  44  day  nurseries,  3 
homes  for  sick  children,  1  institution  for  the  blind,  1 
deaf  and  dumb  institution,  6  boys'  orphana^,  17 
girls'  orphanages,  3  homes  for  poor  girls,  1  institution 
for  the  extinction  of  mendicity,  2  houses  of  mercy,  1 
house  to  supply  work  to  the  unemployed^  1  vestiary. 
10  houses  of  visiting  nurses,  7  homes  for  mvalids  and 
for  retirement,  23  hospitals  or  asylums.  The  Dio- 
cese of  Nantes  has  664,971  Cathohcs,  52  parishes,  209 
succursal  parishes. 

Gaaia  ehntt.  (nova,  1856).  XIV.  7M-S42;  JnalrumeiUa,  171- 
188;  Travbiui.  Hiat,  abrigSt  de*  Mquet  d«  Nantn  (3  vols..  NaDtea. 
1836);  KKBaAUSON,  L'ijfUeopat  SantaU  d  (rawrs  Im  atkies  in 
Remu  hitt.  de  rOtteal  (1888-90);  Duchumb.  Faeiee  Bpieoopaux, 
II.  356.  368;  Cahoub,  VapotMat  de  Saint  Clair,  premier  ittque  de 
Nantee,  tradition  Nantaiee  (Nantee,  1883);  Db  la  Borokbib, 
Btudee  hiet,  brelonnee.  St.  Clair  et  lee  oriqinee  de  V4oli»*  de  Naniee 
(Rennes,  1884) ;  Richabd.  Aim2m  eur  la  Ugende  lituroique  de  Saimi 
Clair,  premier  Mque  de  rfarUee  (Nantes.  1886);  Ricbabo.  Lee 
eainU  de  Fiffliee  de  Nantee  (Nantes.  1873);  Botue,  The  Irieh  Cal- 
lege  in  Nantee  (London.  1901);  LaluA.  Le  Dioekee  de  Nantee 
pendant  la  Ritolution  ^Nantes,  1893).  For  further  bil>lioKraphy 
see  Chbvaubb,  TopobM.,  a.  ▼. 

Georges  Gotau. 

Naatas,  Edict  of.    See  Huouenotb. 

Nanteuil,  Robert,  French  engraver  and  crayon- 
ist,  b.  at  Reims,  1623  (1626,  or  1630) ;  d.  at  Paris,  1678. 
Little  is  known  of  his  early  life  save  that  his  father,  a 
merchant  of  Reims,  sent  him  to  the  Jesuit  school, 
where  he  received  a  splendid  classical  training  but  no 
encouragement  to 
draw.  In  every 
spare  moment  he 
was  busy  with  his 
pencil  or  burin, 
and  he  even  en- 
graved  on  the 
trees  in  the  forest. 
He  cut  in  wood 
a  "Christ"  and  a 
"Virgin",  copy- 
ing from  old  cop- 
{)er  plates.  He 
ater  went  to  the 
Benedictines,  who 
fostered  his  artis- 
tic bent;  one  of 
the  order,  who 

Eatiently  sat  for 
im,  is  seen  in 
the  "Buste  d'un 
Religieux"  (pub- 
lished in  1644).  He  also  engraved  ornaments  for 
his  thesis  in  philosophy  in  1645  (Pietv,  Justice, 
and  Prudence  Salutrns  the  University),  both  these 
early  attempts  with  the  graver  being  notable  suc^ 
cesses.  His  family  being  in  dire  financial  straits, 
Nanteuil  went  to  Paris  (1648),  and  woriced  with  Reg* 
nesson  whose  sister  he  had  married.  His  style  now 
changed  and  developed  quickly:  his  first  method  had 
been  to  use  straight  lines  only,  shallow  or  deep;  then 
he  practised  cross-hatching  and  added  stippung  for 
the  middle-tints  (in  this  following  Boulani^).  The 
acme  of  his  style  shows  special  strokes  and  individual 
treatment  for  each  part  of  the  face  and  for  each  tex- 
ture of  the  draperies.    His  crayon  and  pastel  par- 


NAPHTIU                             683  NAPU8 

traits  brouc^t  him  a  pension  of  1000  Iwru  and  the  to  date  from  the  time  of  Constantine.    The  fourteen 

appointment  of  Royal  Engraver  (1658)|  together  pilasters  are  adorned  with  busts  of  famous  archbishops 

with  an  atelier  in  we  Gobelins.    Two  years  later  of  Naples.    In  the  crypt,  which  was  built  bv  Malvito 

Louis  XIV  issued  an  edict,  mainly  inspired  by  Nan-  by  order  of  Archbishop  Carafa,  is  venerated  the  body 

teuil,  lifting  engraving  out  of  the  realm  of  mechanical  ot  St.  Januarius,  taken  there  from  Montevergine  in 

arts  and  giving  to  engravers  all  the  privileges  of  other  1479.    Of  the  lateral  chapels,  that  of  the  Treasure  is 

artists.  the  most  notable;   it  is  there  that  the  head  of  St. 

Nanteuil's  bold,  broad,  and  vigorous  pastel  or  Januarius  and  the  ampullie  that  contain  the  martyi'B 
crayon  life-size  sketches  have  nearly  all  disappeared,  blood  are  preserved  (see  Januarius,  St.).  The  ca- 
for  he  used  them  only  as  studies  for  his  en^vings;  thedral  contains  the  superb  sepulchres  of  Innocent 
and  his  rich,  yet  delicate  and  silvery  tones,  his  splen-  IV  and  of  Cardinal  MinutoU,  the  second,  a  work  of 
did  modelling  of  the  face,  lus  suggestion  of  colour  Girolamo  d'Auria:  also,  valuable  thirteenth-century 
throughout  the  plate  and  unaffected  justness  of  the  frescos  of  Santafeae,  Vincenzo  Forti,  Luca  Giordano, 
likeness  are  largely  due  to  his  following  the  fresh  and  and  others,  and  paintings  by  John  of  Nola,  Franco, 
ciisp  sketch  in  chalks.  He  engraved  portraits  of  Perugino,  and  Domenichino.  Among  other  churches 
many  of  the  princes  of  Europe  and  of  all  the  celebrated  are  the  church  of  St.  Augustine  of  the  Mint,  which  has 
men  of  France  in  Louis  AlV's  time.  Of  the  Orand  a  pulpit  of  the  fifteenth  century,  sculptures  oy  Vincent 
Manar^  alone  he  made  nineteen  portraits  at  vari-  d'Ana^lo  and  Jian  da  Nola,  and  a  painting  by  Diana 
ous  periods  of  his  life.  He  was  rich,  affable,  and  very  (the  Conununion  of  St.  Augustine) ;  the  churcn  of  the 
generous,  and  would  often  send  back  payments  for  Holy  Apostles,  restored  in  1608  by  the  labour  of 
great  plates  when  he  found  the  sitters  were  poor.  He  famous  artists,  among  whom  were  Giordano,  Marco 
was  recdved  by  the  nobility  and  men  of  letters,  and  da  Siena,  Bonomini,  and  Dolci,  the  tabernacle  of  the 
himself  wrote  poetry  and  recited  pleasingly.  His  high  altar  being  the  work  of  Caugiano;  the  church  of 
verses  are  often  to  be  found  beneath  his  portraits.  S.  Domenico  Maggiore,  dating  from  1255,  is  rich  in 
He  was  the  pioneer  of  modem  engraving,  and  much  of  paintings,  mosaics,  and  sepiUchres,  and  in  the  ancient 
his  work  equals  and  strongly  resembles  the  best  of  re-  monastery  connected  with  this  church  is  the  cell  of  St. 
cent  times.  He  was  a  rapid  and  prolific  worker,  Thomas  Aquinas;  the  church  of  Donna  Regina,  built 
many  of  his  243  plates  being  life-size.  Fairthome,  a  by  Mary  of  Hungary,  in  1300,  and  renewed  by  the 
n-eat  English  engraver,  learned  much  from  him,  and  Tlieatine  Guarino  in  1670,  contains  valuable  paintings 
Edelinck  was  his  friend  and  follower.  His  mastei^  and  frescos,  and  also,  the  tomb  of  the  foundress, 
pieces  are:  J.  B.  van  Steenberghen  (after  Duchatel),  The  church  of  St.  Philip  Neri,  in  baroque  style, 
called  "L'Advocat  de  HoUande''  (1668);  M.  de  Pom-  by  Dionisio  di  Bartolomeo  (1592),  contains  statues 
pomie  (after  Le  Brun) :  Jean  Loret;  Duchesse  de  Ne-  by  Sammartino,  and  both  the  church  and  the  sacristy 
mours;  and  Marshal  Turenne.  A  few  of  his  chalk  have  venr  valuable  paintings  by  Luke  Giordano, 
originals  are  in  the  Louvre  and  all  of  his  243  plates  are  Guerra,  Guide  Reni,  Qiravaggio,  Spagnoletto,  Dome- 
in  the  Bibliothdque  Richelieu.  nichino,  and  others:  the  church  of  St.  Francis  of  Paul 
F.g^SSiJl!?^';,^^  S  (1817),  an  imitation  of  the  Pantheon,  with  two  wings 
Orawun  (Paru,  ■.  d.).               v-             y.                 -.  ^^^^^  y^^^  porticos,  IS  adomed  with  pamtings  of  the 

Lbigh  Hunt.  nineteenth  century.    The  church  of  San  Giacomo  of 

Naphtali.    See  Nbphtau.  ^®  Spaniards  (1540)  is  decorated  with  works  of  art: 

St.  Jonn  Carbonara  (1343)  contains  the  mausoleums  of 

Naples,  the  capital  of  a  province  in  Campania,  Khig  Ladifdaus  and  of  the  constable  Sendanni  Carao- 
Bouthem  Italy,  and  formerly  capital  of  the  Kingdom  ciolo,  and  paintines  by  famous  artists.  The  church  of 
of  the  Two  Sicihes;  it  is  situatea  on  the  northern  side  St.  Barbara,  a  work  of  Giuliano  di  Maiano,  has  a  beau- 
of  the  bay  of  Naples,  on  the  Capodimonte,  the  Vo-  tif ul  bas-relief  of  the  Madonna  with  angels  over  the 
mero,  and  the  Posilipo  hills,  in  one  of  the  most  en-  principal  entrance,  and  another  fine  bas-relief  within 
chanting  spots  upon  the  earth.  The  most  populous  the  edifice;  adjacent  to  the  church  is  the  cell  inhabited 
town  in  It^y,  its  suburbs  stretch  along  the  bay,  as  far  by  St.  Francis  of  Paula.  The  church  of  St.  Clue 
as  Torre  Annunsiata.  Naples  is  a  very  industrial  (1310),  restored  in  1752,  contains  the  mausoleums  of 
town,  and  its  fisheries,  navigation,  and  conunerce  are  Robert  the  Wise  and  of  other  personages,  and  also, 
very  active;  conunercially,  it  is  the  most  important  paintings  by  Lanfranco.  Giotto,  and  other  artists;  the 
centre  of  Italy,  after  Genoa,  and  contains  an  arsenal  pulpit  is  a  graceful  work  of  art.  The  church  of  Santa 
of  the  Royal  Navy.  In  its  neighbourhood,  the  vine  Maria  del  Carmine,  built  in  the  thirteenth  century, 
and  all  species  of  esculent  plants  are  cultivated;  and  and  restored  in  1769{  contains  the  tomb  of  Conradm 
fruits  and  vegetables  are  exported  in  great  quantities,  executed  by  Schoepf  m  1874  by  order  of  King  Louis  of 
The  silk  industry  is  very  important.  Naples  has  fre-  Bavaria.  The  church  of  St.  Mary  of  Piedigrotta, 
quently  been  damaged  by  the  eruptions  of  the  neigh-  where  each  year,  about  September,  popular  feasts  are 
bouring  Mt.  Vesuvius;  the  most  memorfJ>le  of  these  celebrated;  the  church  of  St.  Anna  of  the  Lombards 
occurred  in  the  year  72  of  the  Christian  era,  the  first  of  Mt.  Olivet  (1411)  contains  many  works  of  art,  and 
eruption  of  Vesuvius  after  several  centuries  of  inactiv-  also  the  tomb  of  the  architect  Charles  Fontana;  the 
ity;  in  205,  407,  512,  982,  and  1139.  the  eruptions  church  of  St.  Peter  ad  aranit  so  called  beca,use  it  con- 
were  less  violent;  until  1631,  the  volcano  gave  no  tains  an  altar  upon  which  St.  Peter  is  said  to  have 
signs  of  activity,  and  was  covered  with  vegetation;  celebrated  Mass.  The  church  of  Santa  Maria  del 
there  were  more  or  less  violent  eruptions,  however.  Parte,  built  by  the  poet  Sannazaro,  contains  the  mau- 
in  1680,  1694,  1707.  1723,  1794,  1804,  1805,  1822,  soleum  of  ito  founder,  a  work  of  Fra  Giovanni  Montor- 
1828,  1839,  1850,  and  1872;  the  eruption  of  1904  was  soli;  the  church  of  S.  Paolo  Maggiore,  built  on  the 
one  of  the  most  violent  of  all,  and  caused  the  ruin  of  ruins  of  the  ancient  temple  of  Castor  and  Pollux,  after 
Ottaiano  and  of  San  Giuseppe.  the  plans  of  the  Theatin  Grimaldi;  the  church  of  SS. 

Buildings. — Sacred, — ^Tne  cathedral  or  church  of  Severinus  and  Sosius,  which  is  very  ancient,  was  re- 
Saint  Januarius,  begun  by  order  of  Charles  of  Anjou  stored  in  1490  and  in  1609.  While  painting  the  vault 
in  1272,  on  the  site  of  the  ancient  Stefania  cathednd  of  this  temple,  the  artist  Correnzio,  falling  from  the 
of  the  eighth  century,  and  completed  in  1341,  the  work  scaffolding,  was  kiUed  and  he  lies  buried  at  the  phtce  of 
of  NicoI6  Pisano.  Maglione,  and  Masuccio,  is  in  his  fall;  other  artists  have  also  adomed  this  church 
Gothic  style  with  three  naves;  the  facade,  modified  by  with  fine  works.  The  church  of  the  Most  Holy  Trinity, 
the  restoration  of  1788,  has  been  brou^t  again  to  its  or  the  New  Gesdi,  an  ancient  palace  converted  into 
orupnal  style:  its  principal  door  is  a  work  of  Babuccio  a  church  by  the  Jesuit  Provedo  (1584).  Mention 
Pifemo  (1407),  while  its  chapel  of  St.  Restituta  is  said  should  be  made,  however,  of  the  catacombs,  near  the 


NIPUU  6S4  HAPLU 


second  ceDtuiy,  and  of  the  new  cemetery,  rich  id  mediate  achools.    The  National  Ubrary  hu  neariy 

artiBtic  tnoauments,  amons  which  ore  the  Reti  by  390,000  volmnee,  and  the  Brancacciana  Library  more 

Call  in  the  chapel,  and  tLe  statue  of  ReLgion  by  than  115,000  volumes.    The  State  Archives  are  very 

Anselini.  imfxirtant.     Nearly  all  of  the  great  famihes  of  the 

iSecuZor. — The  Royal  Palace,  which  ranks  among  ancient  Kingdom  of  Naples  built  siuuptuous  palaces, 

the  grandest  of  palaces  on  account  of  the  majestic  the  private  monumental  architecture  of  Naples  ante- 

eeventy  of  iu  style,  was  begun  in  the  early  part  of  the  dating  that  of  Florence.    Naples  bos  more  than  60 


seventy ol ^__,.„_.„ .^ „  _.  _  .,._ 

seventeenth  century  by  the  viceroy  Count  of  Lemos  charitable  institutions,  some  of  which  date  from  the 

according  to  the  designs  of  Domenico  Fontana;  it  has  thirteenth  century,  as,  for  example,  the  boarding- 

aaumptuous  interior,  and  contained  valuable  artistic  school  of  St.  Eligiua  (1273),  accommoaating  300  young 

collections,  one  of  which,  consisting  of  40^000  engraV'  Kirls;  the  Caaa  Santa  dell'   Annuniiata  (1304);  the 

inga,  is  now  at  the  Museo  Nazionale.    There  is  an-  Soarding-scbool  del  Carmclo  (1C11),  for  300  ^Is;  and 

other  royal  palace  at  Capodimonte,  built  by  Charles  St.  Januarius  of  the  Poor  (1669).    Few  ancient  monu- 

III,  where  there  is  a  collection  ol  arms  and  of  mod~  ments  are  to  be  found  at  Naples;  there  is  the  piercing 

em  paintings;  the  Palace  of  the  Prefecture  is  mod-  of  the  Posilipo  ridge  {erypta  rwapolUana),  815  yards  in 

rm ;  S.  Giacomo  Palace,  formerly  the  residence  of  the  length,  done  by  one  Cocceius,  prob^ly  under  Hbe- 

n''nister  of  State,  now  contains  the  municipal  and  rius,  and  there  are  the  ruins  ot  villas  of  the  andent 


other  offices.     The  Capuan  Castle,  built  by  William  city,  of  a  theatre  and  some  temples;  there  is  alao  the 

I    in    1131,     and    thereafter    the    residence  of   the  tomb  of  Vergii  on  the  Poizuoli  road. 

DurazEos,  of  the  sovereigns  of  the  house  of  Aiagon,  Histort. — Naples  was  founded  by  Gredca  from 

and  of  the  viceroys,  is  now  the    court-house;    the  CumK,  and  CuinB.  according  to  Momrnsen,  is  the 

Castle  of  the  Egg,  also  built  by  WiUiam  1  (1154),  is  Palsopolia  to  whicii  Livy  refers  as  existing  not  far 

at  present  a  barracit  and  a  fort,  as  are  also  Cartel  from  Naples  and  as  being  allied  with  the  latter  city 

del  Cannine  and  Castelnuovo,  built  by  Charles  I,  against  tne  Samnites.    Naples,  also,  was  obliged  to 

and  having  a  triumphal  arch  of  Alfonso  of  AiaKon.  receive  the  Samnites  within  its  walls  and  to  give  to 

Cnstel  San  Erasmo  is  a  fort,  dtuated  upon  a  height  them  participation  in  the  government  of  the  rity, 

commanding  the  city  and  the  hajfoour.    The  museum  which  explains  her  ambiguous  conduct  towatds  Rome 

of  andent  art  at  Naples  is  one  of  the  beet  of  its  durinx  the  Samnite  War  (325  b.  c).    In  its  alliance 

kind  in  the  world;  its  chief  sculptures,  the  Hercu-  with  Rome,  Naples  furnished  only  ships.    During  the 

les,  the  Fameae  Bull,  and  others,  are  from  the  oollec-  Punic  War,  the  town  was  so  strongly  fortified  that 

tions  of  the  Famese  family,  and  it  possesses  many  Hannibal  did  not  venture  to  attack  it.    When  Roman 

interesting  objects  found  in  the  ruins  of  Pompeii  and  citizenship  was  offered  to  Naples,  the  latter  accepted, 

Herculaneum,  frescos  and  mosaics,  among  others;  it  on  condition  that  it  should  retain  its  language  and  its 

contains  also  rich   collections  of  cameos,  coins,  and  municipal  institutions;  and  conaequently,  even  in  the 

inscriptions  (Neaoolitan  laws),  bendes  a  gallery  of  time  of  Tacitus,  Naples  was  a  Greek  city,  to  which 

nctures.    At  S.  Martino,  a  former  convent  of  the  those  Romans  who  wished  to  devote  themaelveB  to 

Cistercians,  there  is  a  collection  of  paintings  by  Nea-  the  study  of  philosophy  betook  themselves  by  prefer- 

pohtan  artists,  which  belonged^  for  the  most  part,  to  ence.     In  the  games,  caUed  SdMsta,  cd^r^ed  at 


that  monastery.     The  FUaniieri  Museum  and  the  Naples  every  6ve  yean,  Nwo  once  appeared.    In  476, 

GaUcryoftheFondi  palace  should  also  be  noted.    The  the  last  Emperor  of  the  West  was  relegated  to  tlu« 

;.      r__  .1  .    ..  ,      ,     ,                  ^jj^y^    -The  capture  o(  Naples  bv  Belisarius,  in  ths 

Gothic  War,  when  he  entered  tne  city  through  the 

„ , , tube  ot  the  aqueduct  (636),  is  famous.    Totila  re-cap- 

imiveraity  founded  in  1224,  furnished  with  various  tured  the  town  in  643,  but  the  battle  of  Mt.  VcsuTias 

scientific  collections  and  witli  a  library  of  more  than  decided  the  fate  of  the  Goths^  and  N^les  came  under 

260,000  volumes ;  the  town  has  a  seminary,  a  theolog-  the  Byuntine  power,  receiving  a  dux  who  depended 


NAPLES                              685  NAPLES 

on  the  Eixarch  of  Ravenna;  and  that  oondilion  r&-  duke  of  all  those  atatee,  with  Palenno  for  his  capital, 
mained,  even  after  the  invasion  of  the  Lombards.  In  In  1 130  the  antipope,  Anacletus  II,  conferred  upon  him 
616,  the  dux  Cousinus  attempted  to  establish  his  the  title  of  king,  confirmed  by  Innocent  II  (1139),  to 
independence,  but  the  exardi  Eleutherius  defeated  and  whom  Roser  renewed  the  oath  of  allegiance.  On  the 
killea  him  in  the  following  ^ear.  A  hundred  years  other  hand,  Naples  under  its  duke,  Sergius  VII,  had 
later,  at  the  instance  of  the  iconoclast,  Leo  the  Isau-  thrown  open  its  gates  to  Roger,  who  extended  his 
rian,  Exhileratus  moved  upon  Rome  to  assassinate  power  in  Epirus  and  Greece  (1142  sq.),  and  also  in 
Pope  St.  Gregorv  II.  but  he  was  compelled -to  turn  Africa  (Tripoli  and  Bona,  1152).  He  gave  new  consti- 
back,  and  was  killed  oy  the  infuriated  people.  From  tutions  to  nis  states,  protected  education,  promoted 
that  time  on,  the  Byzantine  rule  at  Naples  was  merely  agriculture  and  the  industries,  especially  the  silk  and 
nominal;  in  place  of  a  dux,  there  was  frequentlv  a  textile  branches,  and  duringhis  reign  Sicily  increased  in 
consul  in  command  of  the  city,  which  flourished  in  population.  Hissuccessor  William  the  Wicked  (1154) 
wealth,  and  displayed  military  virtues  in  the  defence  became  a  prisoner  of  Matteo  Bonellocapo,  one  of  the 
of  its  indepenoence  against  the  Lombard  dukes  of  conspiring  barons,  but  was  freed  by  the  people.  Wil- 
Benevento,  Spoleto,  Gapua,  and  Salerno,  and  also  liam  the  Good  (1166-89)  conquered  Durazzo  and 
against  the  Su'acens;  in  850,  however,  the  town  was  Saloniki.  His  heiress  was  his  aunt,  Constance,  who 
nearly  taken  by  Duke  Sico  of  Benevento.  The  consul  married  Henry  VI,  the  future  Emperor  of  Germany. 
Seigius  drove  the  Saracens  from  the  island  of  Ponza,  As  this  was  contraiy  to  the  wishes  of  the  people  and  of 
whUe  his  son  Csesarius,  in  846,  went  to  the  assistance  the  Holy  See,  who  desired  the  kingdom  to  be  indepen- 
of  Leo  IV  against  the  same  foe,  and  in  852,  freed  dent  of  the  empire^  Tancred  was  acclaimed  king. 
Gaeta;  but  to  save  their  commerce,  the  Neapolitans  Tancred,  an  illegitimate  offspring  of  the  royal  house, 
thereafter  allied  themselves  with  the  Mohammedans,  was  soon  succeeded  by  his  son  William  III.  Henry  VI 
Bishop  Athanasius  II  imprisoned  Sergius  and  pro-  triumphed  in  1194,  and  was  crowned  in  the  cathedral 
claimed  himself  duke,  but  following  the  same  friendly  of  Pfdermo,  in  which  city  he  died  (1 197),  leaving  as  his 
policy  towards  the  Saracens,  he  was  excommunicated  heir  the  infant  Frederick  I  (the  II  of  Germany),  whose 
by  John  VIII.  tutelage  was  entrusted  by  Constance  to  Innocent  III. 
In  the  eleventh  century,  Pandolfo  of  Capua  sue-  In  the  long  contest  for  the  succession  of  the  empire, 
ceeded  in  taking  possession  of  Naples,  but,  assisted  by  Innocent  mially  permitted  Frederick  to  occupy  hoik 
the  Norman  Ramulf,  Duke  Sergius  was  able  to  re-  thrones,  on  condition  that  the  two  Governments 
turn  to  that  city  (1029),  and  through  gratitude,  save  should  remain  separate  and  independent  of  each  other, 
Aversa  to  his  aUy.  In  1038  the  Normaxis  assisted  the  and  that,  at  the  death  of  Frederick,  the  two  crowns 
Byzantine  general,  Maniakis.  in  his  Sicilian  undertak-  ihould  not  be  inherited  by  the  same  prince.  These 
ing,  and,  indignant  at  beins  defrauded  of  their  reward,  conditions  were  not  fulfilled,  and  the  long  struggle  be- 
tumed  their  arms  against  the  Byzantines.  Their  sub-  tween  the  emperor  and  the  Holy  See  arose,  made  all 
sequent  conouests  laid  the  foundation  of  what  came  to  the  more  bitter  by  the  ecclesiastical  usurpations  of 
be  the  Kingdom  of  the  Two  Sicilies,  or  the  Kingdom  of  Frederick.  Conrad  and  Conradin  continuedthe  8trug-> 
Naples.  After  their  victory  near  Caniue  in  1041,  the  gle,  as  did  King  Manfred,  a  natural  son  of  Frederick. 
Normans  were  masters  of  Calabria  and  Apulia,  with  whom  the  latter  made  administrator,  but  who  reigned 
the  exception  of  the  seaboard  towns;  their  capital  was  in  reality  as  sovereim.  The  Holy  See  (Innocent  IV, 
established  at  Melfi,  and  the  twelve  counts  divided  the  Clement  IV,  and  Uroan  IV)  as  suzerun  of  the  king- 
territory  amon^  themselves— its  reconquest  by  the  dom^  offered  it  to  whoever  would  free  the  pope  of  the 
Byzantmes  havmg  been  frustrated  by  the  defection  of  dommation  of  the  Swabians;  and  Charles  of  Anjou,  a 
Maniakis.  In  1052,  Argyros  was  again  defeated,  near  brother  of  St.  Louis,  Kins  of  France,  offered  himself. 
Sipontum,  and  the  troops  of  Leo  IX  were  defeated  Manfred  perished  in  the  battle  of  Benevento  (1266), 
near  Civitella:  whereupon  the  pope  confirmed  the  and  Conradin,  after  his  defeat  at  T^acozzo,  was 
Normans  in  the  possession  of  their  conquests.  The  taken  to  Naples  and  executed  in  the  Piazza  del  Mer- 
first  count  of  Apulia  whose  title  was  recognized  was  cato  (1268).  Naples  then  became  the  capital  of  ^e 
William  of  the  Iron  Arm,  who  was  succeeded  by  his  kingdom,  to  whicn,  however,  Peter  III  of  Aragon  laid 
brothers,  Drogo  (1046),  assassinated  at  the  instigation  claim  on  account  of  his  marriage  to  a  dau^ter  of 
of  the  Byzantines;  Humphrey;  and,  in  1057,  Robert,  Manfred.  The  people,  who  could  not  endure  French 
called  Guiscard,  who  by  the  capture  of  Reggio  (1060),  rule,  opened  the  way  tor  him  by  the  Sicilian  Vespers 
Otranto  (1068),  and  Bari  and  Brindisi  (1071),  put  an  (1282),  and  Sicily  remained  in  the  power  of  the  Ara- 
end  to  Byzantme  rule  in  Italy,  while  (1059)  he  ob-  eonese;  but,  under  James,  second  son  of  Peter,  it 
tained  from  Nicholas  II  the  title  of  Duke  of  Calabria,  became  an  independent  kingdom.  When  the  former 
Apulia,  and  Sicily,  which  island  he  had  yet  to  conquer,  was  called  to  the  throne  of  Aragon  (1295)  he  wished  to 
On  the  other  hand,  he  took  the  oath  of  allegiance  to  restore  Sicily  to  Charles  II,  but  a  brother  of  James, 
the  pope,  so  that  all  his  possessions  and  future  con-  Frederick  II,  was  acclaimed  king  by  the  Sicilians,  and 
quests  should  be  fiefs  of  the  Holy  See.  The  pope  Charles,  although  several  times  victorious,  was  obliged 
acquired  a  new  defender,  especially  against  the  em-  at  the  peace  of  Caltabellotta  (1302)  to  recognize  Fred- 

gire,  and  also  a  new  encumbrance.  The  conquest  of  erick  as  King  of  Trinacria.  Frederick  was  succeeded 
icUy  was  accomplished  by  Roger,  a  brother  of  by  Peter  II  (1336),  Louis  (1342),  and  Frederick  III 
Robert,  after  a  stru^le  of  thirty  years  (1061-1091);  (1355-77),  who  were  continually  at  war  with  Naples, 
the  first  city  of  the  island  that  was  taken  from  the  and  always  imder  the  domination  of  the  two  parties 
Saracens  was  Messina;  Girgenti  and  Syracuse  were  into  wUch  the  nobility  was  divided,  the  National  and 
among  the  last  (1086-1087);  the  Mussulmans,  how-  the  Catalonian.  Mary,  daughter  and  heiress  of  Fred- 
ever,  were  given  the  freedom  of  the  country.  Mean-  erick,  was  married  to  Martin,  son  of  the  King  of 
while.  Robert  conquered  the  Republic  of  Amalfi  (1073)  Aragon,  who  le-united  Sicily  to  that  realm  in  1410, 
and  the  Duchy  of  Salerno  (1077),  the  last  remnant  of  and  was  succeeded  by  Alfonso  V  (1416-58).  The 
the  Lombard  power.  He  attempted  the  conquest  of  throne  of  Naples  had  been  inherited  by  Robert  the 
Epirus  in  1082,  but  died  in  1085,  contemplating  a  Wise  (1309-1343),  whom  the  Guelphs  of  Italy  re- 
movement  against  Venice.  Robert  was  succeeded  by  garded  as  their  leader,  and  who  aspired  to  the  con- 
Roger  I  (1085-1111),  William  II  (1111-1127),  and  quest  of  the  Italian  peninsula.  He  was  succeeded  by 
then,  Roger  II,  son  of  the  conqueror  of  Sicily.  The  his  daughter  Joanna  I,  who  was  married  four  times, 
latter,  in  1098,  had  reduced  Prince  Richard  of  Capua  and  the  first  of  whose  husbands,  Andrew  of  Hungary, 
to  vassalage,  and,  it  is  said,  obtained  from  Urban  II  was  brutally  murdered  in  1345.  Louis  of  Hungary 
the  dignity  of  hereditary  Wate  of  the  Holy  See  (see  came  to  avenge  his  brother's  death,  and  drove  Joanna 
MoNABCHiA  Sicula)  ;  and  his  son  Roger  II  became  from  Naples;  but  he  was  obliged  to  return  to  his  coun- 


NAPLBS 


686 


tiy,  and  after  a  long  war  Joanna  was  reetored  (1852). 
Having  no  children,  she  adopted  as  her  heir  Louis  of 
Anjou,  a  brother  of  Charles  V,  King  of  France.  This 
action  led  Charles  of  Durazso  to  declare  war  upon 
Joanna,  in  which  he  received  the  support  of  Urban  Vl; 
the  queen  was  killed  (1382),  and  Louis,  also,  having 
died  (1384),  the  throne  was  left  to  Charles  without  a 
contestant,  but  Charles  died  in  Hungary  in  1386. 

Many  who  were  dissatisfied  with  the  r^ncy  for 
Ladislaus  I,  the  minor  son  and  heir  of  Charles,  called 
to  the  throne  Louis  (II)  of  Anjou,  also  a  minor,  and 
thereby  gave  rise  to  a  new  war  between  the  Durazzo 
and  the  Angevin  parties.  Ladislaus  was  victorious 
(1400)  and  sought  to  restore  to  Naples  its  prepondei^ 
ance  in  Italy;  in  this  attempt,  he  invaded  the  Pontifi- 
cal States,  and  entered  Rome  itself  (1408  and  1410). 
His  successor  was  Joanna  II  (1414-1434),  who  was 
noted  for  the  perversity  of  her  life.  Louis  III  (of 
Anjou)  declared  war  against  her  in  1420,  on  which 
account  she  adopted  Alfonso  V,  son  of  Ferdinand  of 
An^n  and  Sicily;  but  as  that  prince  wished  the  im- 
mediate possession  of  the  kingdom,  Joanna  adopted 
Louis  IIL  and  after  his  death  in  1434  his  brother 
Ren^.  The  latter,  assisted  by  Filippo  Visconti,  de- 
feated the  Sicilian  fleet  of  Alfonso  near  Ponza,  in  1435; 
Alfonso  himself  was  taken  prisoner  to  Milan,  but  was 
soon  set  at  liberty,  and  received  even  the  assistance 
of  Filippo  to  conquer  Naples,  which  he  accomplished  in 
1442,  establishing  Spanish  rule  in  that  kingdom,  wluch 
he  left  in  1458  to  nis  illegitimate  son,  Ferdinana,  while 
Sicily  remained  united  to  Aragon.  Ferdinand  refused 
to  pay  tribute  to  the  pope,  his  suzerain,  usurped  eccle- 
siastical rights,  violateci  boundaries,  and  in  other  ways 
provoked  the  oispleasure  of  the  barons  of  the  kingdom 
and  of  Innocent  VIII;  the  latter,  therefore,  gave  his 
support  to  the  barons,  who  revolted  (1484-87),  but 
Lorenzo  de'  Medici  restored  harmony  to  the  state. 
Scarcely  had  Alfonso  II  ascended  the  throne  (1494), 
when  Charles  VIII,  wishing  to  maintain  the  rights 
which  he  claimed  to  inherit  from  the  House  of  Anjou 
to  the  throne  of  Naples,  undertook  his  famous  expedi- 
tion into  Italy.  Alfonso  II,  knowing  the  hatred  in 
which  he  was  held,  abdicated  in  favour  of  his  son 
Ferdinand  II;  vainly,  however,  for  almost  without 
striking  a  blow,  Charles  became  master  of  the  king- 
•dom.  His  success  was  but  transitory,  and  Ferdinand 
was  able  to  return  to  Naples  in  1496,  leaving  the  prin- 
cipal ports  of  the  Adriatic  coast  in  the  hands  of  the 
Venetians.  By  the  Treaty  of  Granada,  Ferdinand  the 
Catholic  and  Louis  XII  divided  the  Kingdom  of 
Naples  between  themselves  at  the  expense  of  Fred- 
erick II,  who  had  succeeded  Ferdinand,  and  whose 
territory  they  invaded.  There  soon  arose  contentions 
between  the  two  invaders  with  the  result  that  Gonzalvo 
de  Cordova  drove  the  French  from  Italy  (battle  of 
Cerignola,  1503),  and  Naples  thereafter  was  governed 
by  Spanish  viceroys.  In  1528,  the  French  general 
Lautrec  had  reached  the  walls  of  Naples,  when  Andrew 
Doria  suddenly  passed  over  with  his  fleet  to  the  side  of 
the  Spaniards,  who  remained  masters  of  the  country. 
There  were  a  great  many  insurrections  against  Span- 
ish rule;  in  1547,  on  account  of  the  attempt  to  intro- 
duce the  Inquisition:  in  1599,  at  the  instioAtion  of 
Tommaso  Cfampanella,  O.P.;  in  1647  (Giuseppe 
d'Allessio  at  Messina,  and  Masaniello  at  Naples)  it 
was  proposed  to  offer  the  crown  to  Duke  Hennr  of 
Guise  J  in  1674,  there  was  a  revolt  at  Messina;  all  of 
these  insurrections  were  suppressed. 

In  the  war  of  the  Spanish  succession,  Naples  was 
conquered  by  the  Austrians  for  Charles  III,  son  of 
Emperor  Leopold,  and  pretender  to  the  throne  of 
Spam;  later,  he  became  emperor  as  Charles  VI.  At 
the  peace  of  Utrecht  (1713),  Sicily  was  given  to  King 
Amadeus  of  Savoy,  but  in  1720,  it  was  reunited  to 
Naples.  In  1734  Charles  of  Bourbon,  son  of  Duke 
Philip  of  Parma,  assisted  by  the  Spanish  eeneral 
Montemar,  conquered  Naples  without  much  difficulty 


and  took  the  name  of  Charles  III;  the  Austiiaas 
attempted  in  the  following  year  to  retrieve  their  loss, 
but  were  defeated  at  Velletri.  Charles  introducea 
many  reforms,  several,  however,  to  the  disadvantage 
of  the  Church  (Tannucd  ministry),  and  consequently 
he  had  difficulties  with  the  Holy  oee  which  were  not 
entirely  cleared  away  bv  the  concordat  of  1755. 
When  Charles  ascended  the  throne  of  Spain,  he  left 
Naples  to  his  third  son  Ferdinand  IV  (1759-1825). 
Having  failed  to  drive  the  French  from  Uie  Papal 
States  m  1798,  Ferdinand  was  compelled  to  withdraw 
to  Sicily;  the  French  invaded  Naples,  and  in  January, 
1799,  proclaimed  the  Parthenopian  Republic.  The 
kingdom  was  soon  restored,  however,  through  the 
efforts  of  Cardinal  Fabricius  Ruffo  Scilla.  In  1806, 
Naples  was  again  conquered  by  Joseph  Bonaptui^ 
who  became  its  king;  upon  ascending  the  throne  of 
Spain,  he  was  succeeded  at  Naples  by  Murat,  who  was 
dethroned  and  killed  in  1815.  In  1820-21  sectarian 
agitations  broug[ht  about  an  insurrection;  the  king 
gave  a  constitution,  but  was  compelled  by  Austria  to 
withdraw  it,  and  with  Austrian  assistance,  returned  to 
the  throne  (1821).  Under  Francis  I  (1825)  and  Ferdi- 
nand II  (1830-59),  conspirators  maintained  their 
activity,  especially  in  1848  and  1849,  when  Sicily 
again  attempted  to  sever  its  union  with  Naples. 
Cavour  gave  nis  support  to  the  expedition  of  Garibaldi 
against  Francis  li.  Garibaldi  landed  at  Marsala  on 
11  May,  1860,  and  soon  conquered  Sicily;  he  then 
passed  over  to  Calabria,  and  on  7  September,  took 
Naples.  After  the  battle  of  Voltumo  (1  October),  the 
regular  troops  of  Piedmont  entered  the  Kingdom  of 
Naples,  and  King  Francis  withdrew  to  Gaeta,  where, 
after  a  brave  resistance,  he  capitulated  on  12  February, 
1861,  and  signed  the  annexation  of  his  dominions  to 
the  Kingdom  of  Italy. 

According  to  a  legend  connected  with  the  church  of 
St.  Peter  ad  aram^  the  Apostle  on  his  way  to  Rome 
consecrated  as  Bishop  of  Naples  St.  Asprenus,  a 
brother  of  St.  Candida,  who  had  given  hospitality  to 
St.  Peter.  This  St.  Candida,  however,  is  probably  the 
one  who  lived  in  the  sixth  century  ana  whose  metrical 
epitaph  is  preserved.  At  all  events,  it  was  natural 
that  ChristianitjT  should  be  taken  to  Naples  at  an 
early  date,  especially  amone  the  Hebrews,  since  that 
city  was  in  the  neighborhood  of  Possuoli  (Acta,  zxviii, 
13).  and  the  catacombs  of  St.  Januarius,  St.  beverus, 
ana  St.  Gaudiosus  show  that  there  was  a  oonsidenible 
number  of  Christians  at  Naples  in  the  beginninc  of  the 
second  century.  Hence  the  establishment  of  the  epis- 
copal see  may  date  from  that  time,  as  there  is  record 
of  only  nine  bishops  prior  to  300,  the  first  of  them 
being  Asprenus;  tne  sixth,  St.  A^pppinus,  suffered 
martyrdom,  possibly  imder  Valerian;  the  deacons 
Marianus  ana  Rufus,  also,  were  martyred.  Bish<^ 
St.  Maximus  was  exiled  by  Constantius  on  account  A 
the  prelate's  firm  catholicity  (357?).  At  the  dose  of 
the  fourth  century,  the  pagans  were  still  numerous, 
and  the  pagan  Symmachus  calls  Naples  urbs  rdioiomi 
(Epist.  I,  VIII,  27).  The  first  removal  of  the  body  of 
St.  Januarius  from  Pozzuoli  to  Naples  took  place 
under  Bishop  Severus  (367);  Bishop  St.  Nostnanua 
(about  450)  fought  against  Pelagianism  and  during  his 
incumbency,  St.  Gaudiosus,  fleeing  from  the  poseciH 
tions  of  the  Vandals  in  Af nca,  landed  at  Nwles,  and 
died  there.  Bishop  Demetrius  was  deposed  by  St. 
Gregory  the  Great  (593),  who  i^ipointed  to  the  see  of 
Naples  the  Roman  Fortunatus;  tne  courage  of  Bishop 
St.  Angelus  (671-91)  saved  the  city  from  the  invasion 
of  the  Saracens;  Sergius,  before  he  became  biabop  in 
716,  was  famous  for  having  retaken  the  castle  of  Cuma 
from  the  Lombards.  St.  Paul  I  (762),  a  friend  of  Pope 
Paul  I,  was  prevented  from  takins  possession  of  bis 
diocese  by  the  iconoclast  dux;  St.  Tiberius  (818)  died 
in  prison,  in  which  he  was  confined  because  of  his  con- 
demnation of  the  wickedness  of  the  consul  Bonus;  Si. 
Athanasius  I  (850)  was  persecuted  by  his  nq^hew,  the 


1 

1 
I 

-    -r 

+  ■    ■            1 

NAPOI,W)K-l-Ai;r,  DKJ.AROCHE 


iux  Serous,  and  died  on  a  journey  to  Rome  (872).  reeearches  into  the  histoi^  of  Corsica  and  read  many 

Anaatawua  11,  a  oouain  of  Sereius,  having  become  of  the  philosophers  of  his  time,  particularly  Rousseau, 

bishop,  captured  the  dux,  blindedhim,  and  made  him-  These  studies  left  him  attached  to  a  sort  of  Deism,  an 

self  Duke  of  Naples^  ana  bv  favouring  the  Saracens,  admirer  of  the  personality  of  Christ,  a  stranger  to  all 

incurred  exoommumcation  by  John  VlII.    The  first  religious  practices,  and  breathing  defiance  against 

Neapolitan  prelate  to  bear  the  title  of  archbishop  was  "sacerdotalism"    and    "theocracy".    His    attitude 

Singius  (99(>-1005),  and  his  successors  continued  to  be  imder  the  Revolution  was  that  of  a  citizen  devoted  to 

consecrated  at  Rome,  even  after  Leo  the  Isaurian  had  the  new  ideas,  in  testimony  of  which  attitude  we  have 

made  all  of  Byzantine  Italy  dependent  on  the  Patri-  his  scolding  letter,  written  in  1790,  to  Battafuoco,  a 

arch  of  Constantinople;  their  clerp^  was  in  part  Latin,  deputy  from  the  Corsican  noble88€f  whom  the  "patri* 

and  in  part  Greek,    under  Archbishop  Anselm  (1192-  ots"  regarded  as  a  tnutor,  and  also  a  work  pubushed 

1215),  there  was  incorporated  into  the  Diocese  of  by  Bonaparte  in  1793.  "Lie  souper  de  Beaucaire",  in 

Naples  that  of  Cuma,  where,  in  the  time  of  Diocletian,  which  he  takes  the  side  of  the  Mountain  in  the  Con- 

Maxentius  was  bishop,  and  the  deacon  Maximus  was  vention  agtunst  the  Federalist  tendencies  of  the 

martyred.   Another  bishop  of  Cuma  was  the  Misenus  Girondins. 

who  went  in  483,  with  Vitalis  and  Felix,  on  a  pontifical  His  militaiy  genius  revealed  itself  in  December, 
mission  to  Constantinople,  where  he  betrayed  the  1793,  when  he  was  twentv-four  years  of  age,  in  his  re- 
pope's  interests.  This  city  was  destroyed  by  the  capture  of  Toulon  from  the  English.  He  was  made  a 
Neapolitans  in  1207,  but  many  of  its  ruins  are  still  in  penend  of  brigade  in  the  artillery,  20  December  and 
existence.  m  1794  contributed  to  Mass^na's  victories  in  Italy. 
Other  archbishops  of  Naples  are  Cardinal  Heniy  The  political  suspicions  aroused  by  his  friendship  with 
Minutolo  (1389),  a  liberal  restorer  of  churches;  Ni-  the  younger  Rooespierre  after  9  Thermidor  of  the 
cold  de  Diano  (1418),  zealous  for  the  muntenance  of  Year  III  (27  July,  1794),  the  intrigues  which  led  to 
discipline  and  ot  good  morals;  between  1458  and  1575.  his  being  removed  from  the  Italian  frontier  and  sent 
seven  archbishops  of  the  family  of  Caraffa  succeeded  to  command  a  brigade  against  the  Vendeans  in  the 
each  other,  with  only  one  interruption;  among  them  west,  and  ill-health,  which  he  used  as  a  pretext  to  re- 
was  Giovanni  Pietro  (1549-1555).  who  became  Pope  fuse  this  post  and  remain  in  Paris,  almost  brought  his 
Paul  IV.  This  series  was  followed  in  1576  by  Blessed  career  to  an  end.  He  contemplated  leaving  France  to 
Paul  Burali,  a  cardinal,  and  one  of  the  associates  of  take  command  of  the  sultan's  artillery.  But  in  1795 
St.  Cajetan  of  Tiene  who  died  at  Naples  in  1547 ;  Cardi-  when  the  Convention  was  threatened,  Bonaparte  was 
nal  Annibale  da  Capua  (1578),  who,  like  his  prede-  selected  for  the  duty  of  pouring  grapeshot  upon  its 
oessor,  was  a  reformer^  Cardinal  Alfonso  Gesualdo  enemies  from  the  platform  of  the  church  of  Saint- 
(1596) ;  Cardinals  Ottavio  Acquaviva  (1604)  and  Fran-  Roch  (13  Vend^miaire,  Year  IV).  He  displayed  great 
cesco  Boncompagni  (1626)  were  distinguished,  the  .  moderation  in  his  hour  of  victory,  and  managed  to 
one  for  his  benevolence,  and  the  other  for  his  charity  earn  at  once  the  gratitude  of  the  Convention  and 
on  the  occasion  of  the  eruption  of  Mt.  Vesuvius  in  the  esteem  of  its  enemies. 


ing  the  ancient  calendar  of  the  Neapolitan  Church,  illus-  Pagerie,  who  was  bom  in  Martinique,  in  1763,  of  a 

trated  by  Mazzocchi;  Cardinal  Uiuseppe  M.  Capece-  family  originally  belonging  to  the  neighbourhood  of 

Zurlo  (1782)  was  confined  by  the  republicans  in  the  Blois.    In  the  same  month  Napoleon  set  out  for 

monastery  of  Montevergine.  where  he  died  in  1801.  Italy^  where  the  Directory,  prompted  by  Camotjhtad 

Cardinal  Ludovico  Ruffo  Scilla  (1802-32)  fled  in  1806  appomted  him  commander-in-chief  against  the  First 

to  Rome,  was  taken  to  France  with  Pius  VII  in  1809,  Q)alition.     The  victory  of  Montenotte,   over  the 

and  returned  with  the  pope  to  Rome:  he  did  much  for  Austrians  commanded* by  Beaulieu,  and  those  of  Mil- 

the  Church,  but  was  unfortunate  under  the  restoration  lesimo,  Dego,  Ceva,  and  Mondovi,  over  Colle's  Pied- 

of  the  Bourbons  at  Naples.     In  1818,  a  new  concordat  montese  troops,  forced  Victor  Amadeus,  King  of  Sar- 

gave  to  the  hierarchy  of  the  kingdom  a  new  organiza-  dinia,  to  conclude  the  armistice  of  Cherasco  (28  April, 

tion.    Cardinal  FiUppo  Giudice  Caracciolo  (1833-54)  1796).    Wishing  to  effect  a  junction  on  the  Danube 

restored  the  cathedral  to  its  ancient  architectural  with  the  Army  of  the  Rhine.  Bonaparte  spent  the  fol- 

style;   Cardinal  Sisto  Riario  Sforza  (1854-77)  pro-  lowing  May  in  driving  Beaulieu  acrossNorthemltaly, 

tested  against  the  annexation  of  Naples  to  the  King-  and  succeeded  in  pushing  him  back  into  the  Tyrol, 

dom  of  Italy,  and  therefore,  remamed  in  exile  at  On  7  May  he  was  ordered  by  the  Directory  to  leave 

Civitavecchia,  until  1866.  half  of  his  troops  in  Lombardy,  under  Kellermann's 

The  suffragan  sees  of  Naples  are  those  of  Aoerra.  command,  and  march  with  the  other  half  agcdnst  Leg- 

Ischia,  NoliL  and  PozzuoUj  the  archdiocese  has  96  horn,  Rome,  and  Naples.    Unwilling  to  share  the 

parishes,  with  600,600  inhabitants ;  32  reli^ous  houses  j^lory  with  Kellermann.  Bonaparte  replied  by  tender- 

of  men,  27  congregations  of  nuns:  7  educational  estab-  mg  his  resignation,  ana  the  oraer  was  not  insLsted  on. 

lishments  for  boys,  and  15  for  girls;  one  CathoHc  daily  In  a  proclamation  to  his  soldiers  (20  May,  1796)  he 

paper,  and  14  weekly  and  month^  pubUcations.  declared  his  intention  of  leading  them  to  the  banks  of 

^  ^^^"frV^?^*Sf"f  ^M^'i^'^^^iS?'  St  d'Alob.  Storto  the  Tiber  to  chastise  those  who  had  "whetted  the 

U  pr<mncU  napofctena  (Naples.  1878) ;  Fimchx,  Storia  dtUa  earitA  daggers  of  civil  war  m  France    and     bssely  assassi- 

napoiuana  (4  toLb.,  NanlM,  1875-79);  Nobwat,  Napiet,  Pat  and  nated    Basseville,  the  French  minister,  to  're-estab- 

i^fi^Ji.^'^^^^^^P^HSSf^®,'!^  2JIif  v^*^^"'Vf'}-^''S'**  liah  the  Capitol,  place  there  in  honour  the  statues  of 

«ifi^8r(lS?Jl9(^^'°'°^^  heroes  who  haci  made  themselves  famous",  and  to 

U..  f  BNiQNi.  ''arouse  the  Roman  people  benumbed  by  many  cen- 
turies of  bondaee  ".  In  June  he  entered  the  Romagna, 

Kl4>ol0Oll  I  ^onapabtb).  Emperor  of  the  French,  appeared  at  Bologna  and  Ferrara.  and  made  prisoners 

seoona  son  of  Charlea-Marie  Bonaparte  and  Maria-  of  several  prelates.    The  Court  ot  Rome  demanded  an 

Letitia  Ramolino^  b.  at  Alaccio,  in  Corsica,  15  August,  armistice,  and  Bonaparte,  who  was  far  from  ea^^  for 

1769;  d.  on  the  Ldand  of  St.  &elena,  5  May.  1821.  this  war  against  the  Holy  See,  granted  it.    The  Peace 

His  childhood  was  spent  in  Corsica:  at  the  end  of  the  of  Boloma  (23  Jime,  1796)  oDUged  the  Holy  See  to 

year  1778  he  entered  the  college  of  Autun,  in  1779  the  give  up  Bologna  and  Ferrara  to  ^nch  occupation,  to 

military  school  of  Brienne,  and  in  1783  the  military  pay  twenty-one  million  francs,  to  surrender  100  pio- 

Bchool  of  Paris.    In  1785,  when  he  was  in  garrison  at  tures,  500  manuscripts,  and  the  busts  of  Junius  and 

VaJeni;e,  as  a  lieutenant,  he  occupied  his  leisure  with  Marcus  Brutus.    The  Directory  thought  these  terma 


HAMLSON                          688  MAPOLSON 

too  easyi  and  when  a  prelate  was  sent  to  Paris  to  February,  1797.    The  Peace  of  Tolentino  was  ncffotl* 

negotiate  the  treaty,  he  was  told  that  as  an  indispen-  ated  on  19  Februaiy:  the  Holy  See  surrenderecTthe 

sable  condition  of  peace^  Rus  VI  must  revoke  the  Legations  of  Bologna,  Ferrara,  and  Ravenna,  and 

Briefs  relating  to  the  Civil  Constitution  of  the  cleiigy  reco^iized  the  annexation  of  Avignon  and  the  Comtat 

and  to  the  Inquisition.    The  pope  refused,  and  nego-  Venaissin  by  France.    But  Bonaparte  had  taken  care 

tiations  were  broken  off;  they  failed  again  at  Florence,  not  to  infringe  upon  the  spiritual  power,  and  had  not 

where  an  attempt  had  been  made  to  renew  them.  demanded  of  Pius  VI  the  withdrawal  of  those  Briefs 

During  these  pourparlers  between  Paris  and  Rome,  which  were  offensive  to  the  Directory.    As  soon  aa  the 

Bonaparte  repumed  the  repeated  efforts  of  the  Aus-  treaty  was  signed  he  wrote  to  Plus  VI  to  express  to 

trian  Wurmser  to  reconquer  Lombardy.    Between  1  him  "his  perfect  esteem  and  veneration";  on  the 

and  5  August,  Wurmser  was  twice  beaten  at  Lonato  other  hand,  feeling  that  the  Directory  woula  be  dis- 

and  again  at  Castiglione;  between  8  and  15  Septem-  pleased,  he  wrote  to  it:  "My  opinion  is  that  Rome, 

ber,  the  battles  of  Koveredo,  Primolano,  Bassano,  and  once  deprived  of  Bologna,   Ferrara,  the  Romagna, 

San  Giorgio  forced  Wurmser  to  take  refuge  in  Man-  and  the  thirty  millions  we  are  takins  from  her,  can  no 

tua,  and  on  16  October  Bonaparte  created  the  Cispa-  longer  exist.    The  old  machine  ymi  ^q  to  pieces  of 

dan  Republic  at  the  expense  of  the  Duchy  of  Modena  itseu."    And  he  proposed  that  the  Directory  should 

and  of  the  Legations,  which  were  pontifical  territory,  take  the  necessary  steps  with  the  pope  in  regard  to  the 

Then,  24  October,  he  invited  Cacault,  the  French  reUgdous  situation  in  France. 

minister  at  Rome,  to  re-open  negptiations  with  Pius  Then,  with  breathless  rapidity,  turning  back  to- 

VI  "so  as  to  catch  the  old  fox";  but  on  28  October  he  wards  the  Alps,  and  assisted  by  Joubert.  Massdna, 

wrote  to  the  same  Cacault:  "You  may  assure  the  pope  and  Bemadotte,  he  inflicted  on  Archduke  Charles 

that  I  have  always  been  opposed  to  the  treatv  which  a  series  of  defeats  which  forced  Austria  to  sign  the  pre- 

the  Directory  has  offered  mm,  and  above  all  to  the  fiminaries  of  Leoben  (18  April^  1797).    In  May  he 

manner  of  negotiating  it.    I  am  more  ambitious  to  be  transformed  Genoa  into  the  Ligurian  Republic;  in 

called  the  preserver  than  the  destroyer  of  the  Holy  October  he  imposed  on  the  archduke  the  Treaty  of 

See.    If  they  will  be  sensible  at  Rome,  we  will  profit  Campo  Formio,  by  which  Flrance  obtained  Belgium, 

by  it  to  give  peace  to  that  beautiful  part  of  the  world  the  Rhine  country  with  Mains,  and  the  Ionian  Is- 

and  to  calm  the  conscientious  fears  of  many  people."  lands,  while  Venice  was  made  subject  to  Austria.   The 

Meanwhile  the  arrival  in  Venetia  of  the  Austrian  Directory  foimd  fault  with  this  last  stipulation;  but 

troops  under  Alvinzi  caused  Cardinal  Busca,  the  Bonaparte  had  already  reached  the  pomt  where  he 

pope's  secretary  of  State,  to  hasten  the  conclusion  of  could  act  with  independence  and  care  littJe  for  what 

an  alliance  between  the  Holy  See  and  the  Court  of  the  politicians  at  Paris  might  think.    It  was  the  same 

Vienna;  of  this  Bonaparte  learned  through  intercepted  with  his  religious  policy:  he  now  began  to  think  of 

letters.    His  victories  at  Arcoli  (17  November,  1796)  -  invoking  the  pope^s  assistance  to  restore  peaoe  in 

and  Rivoli  (14  January,  1797)  and  the  capitulation  of  France.    A  note  which  he  addreraed  to  the  Court  of 

Mantua  (2  February,  1797),  placed  the  whole  of  Rome,  3  August,  1797,  was  conceived  in  these  terms: 

Northern  Italy  in  his  hands,  ana  in  the  spring  of  1797  "The  pope  will  perhaps  think  it  worthy  of  his  wisdom, 

the  Pontifical  States  were  at  his  mercy.  of  the  most  holy  of  religions,  to  execute  a  Bull  or  ordi- 

The  Directory  sent  him  ferocious  instructions,  nancecommandingpriests  to  preach  obedience  to  the 
"The  Roman  religion",  they  wrote,  "will  always  be  Government,  and  to  do  all  in  their  power  to  strengthen 
the  irreconcilable  enemy  of  the  Republic;  first  by  its  the  established  constitution.  After  the  first  st^,  it 
essence,  and  next,  because  its  servants  and  ministers  would  be  useful  to  know  what  others  coidd  be  taken  to 
will  never  forgive  the  blows  which  the  Republic  has  reconcile  the  constitutional  priests  with  the  non-con- 
aimed  at  the  fortune  and  standing  of  some,  and  the  stitutional." 

prejudices  and  habits  of  others.    The  Directory  re-  While  Bonaparte  was  expressing  himself  thus,  the 

quests  ^ou  to  do  all  that  vou  deem  possible,  without  Councils  of  the  Five  Hundred  ana  the  Ancients  were 

rekindling  the  torch  of  fanaticism,  to  destroy  the  passing  a  law  to  recall,  amnesty,  and  restore  to  their 

papal  Ciovemment.  either  by  putting  Ilome  under  some  civil  and  political  rights  thepriests  who  had  refused  to 

other  power  or — ^wnich  would  be  still  better — by  estab-  take  the  oath  of  the  Civil  Constitution  of  the  Qeigy. 

lishing  some  form  of  self-government  which  would  But  Directors  Barrte,   Rewbell,  and  Lareveill^re- 

render  the  yoke  of  the  priests  odious."    But  at  the  L^peaux,  considering  that  this  act  jeopardised  the 

very  moment  when  Bonaparte  received  these  instruc-  Republic,  employed  General  Ausereau,  Bonaparte's 

tions  he  knew,  b^  his  private  correspondence,  that  a  lieutenant,  to  cany  out  the  coup  ar&al  oi  18  Fructidor 

Catholic  awakening  was  beginning  in  Flrance.   Clarke  against  the  Counols  (4  Sept.,  1797),  and  France  was 

wrote  to  him:  "We  have  become  once  more  Roman  once  more  a  prey  to  a  Jacobin  and  anti^Catholie 

Catholic  in  France",  and  explained  to  him  that  the  policy.    These  events  were  immediately  echoed  at 

help  of  the  pope  might  perhaps  be  needed  before  long  Rome,  where  Joseph  Bonaparte,  the  genearal's  brother, 

to  bring  the  priests  in  Trance  to  accept  the  state  of  and  ambassador  from  the  Directory,  was  asked  by  the 

things  resulting  from  the  Revolution.    Considera-  latter,  to  favour  the  Revolutionary  party.    Distuib- 

tions  such  as  these  must  have  made  an  impression  on  a  ances  arose:  General  Duphot  was  fdlled  in  Joseph 

statesman  like  Bonaparte,  who^  moreover,  at  about  Bonaparte's  house  (28  December.  1797).  and  the  Di- 

this  period,  said  to  the  parish  pnests  of  Milan:  "A  so-  rectory  demanded  satisfaction  from  tne  Holy  See. 

ciety  without  religion  is  like  a  ship  without  a  compass;  Genend  Bonaparte  had  lust  returned  to  Paris,  where 

there  is  no  good  morality  without  religion."    And  in  he  apparently  confined  himself  to  his  functions  as  a 

February,  1797,  when  he  entered  the  Pontifical  States  member  of  the  Institute  (Scientific  Section).    He  i 


with  his  troops,  he  forbade  any  insult  to  religion,  and    by  no  means  anxious  to  lead  the  expedition  against 
showed  kindness  to  the  priests  and  the  monks,  even  to 
the  French  ecclesiastics  who  had  taken  refuge  in  papal 


Rome,  which  the  Directory  was  projecting,  and  con- 
tented himself  with  giving  Berthier,  who  commanded 
it,  certain  instructions  from  a  distance.    For  this  ex- 


territory,  and  whom  he  might  have  caused  to  be  snot  it,  certain  instructions  from  a  distance.    For  this  ex- 

as  4miffri8,    He  contented  himself  with  levying  a  pedition  for  Berthier's  entry  into  Rome  and  the  proe- 

great  manv  contributions,  and  laying  hands  on  the  lamation  of  the  Roman  Republic  (10-15  Februaiy, 

treasury  of  the  Santa  Casa  at  Loretto.    The  first  ad-  1798),  and  for  the  captivity  of  Pius  VI,  who 


parte"  were  met  by  Bonaparte's  declanng  that  he  The  Campaign  in  Effyp^.^WMe  in  F^na,  Bona- 

was  ready  to  treat.    "  I  am  treating  with  this  rabble  parte  induced  the  Directory  to  take  up  the  plan  of  an 

of  priests  [ce^  pritratUe],  and  for  this  once  Saint  Peter  expedition  to  Egypt.    His  object  was  to  make  the 

win  again  save  the  Capitol ",  he  wrote  to  Joubert,  17  Mediterranean  a  French  lake,  by  the  mnnufBt  of 


NAPOLEON                           689  NAPOLEON 

Malta  and  the  Nile  Valley,  and  to  menace  England  in  the  existence  of  the  Church  in  France,  while  the  other 
the  direction  of  India.  He  embarked  on  19  May,  involved  the  possibility  of  serious  interference  bv  the 
1798.  The  taking  of  Malta  (10  June),  of  Alexandria  State  in  the  life  of  the  Church,  see  Concobdat;  Arti- 
(2  July),  the  battle  of  the  Pyramids  (21  July),  gave  cles,  The  Organic.  Napoleon  never  said,  "The  Con- 
Bonaparte  the  uncontested  masteiy  of  Cairo.  At  oordat  was  the  great  fault  of  my  reign."  On  the  con- 
Cairo  he  affected  a  rapeat  respect  for  Islam ;  reproached  trary,  years  afterwards,  at  St.  Helena,  he  considered  it 
with  this  later  on, lie  replied:  "It  was  necessary  for  his  greatest  achievement,  and  congratulated  himself 
General  Bonaparte  to  know  the  principles  of  Islam-  upon  having,  by  the  signature  of  the  Concordat, 
ism,  the  government,  the  opinions  of  the  four  sects,  "raised  the  fallen  altars,  put  a  stop  to  disorders, 
and  their  relations  with  Constantinople  and  Mecca,  obliged  the  faithful  to  pray  for  the  Republis,  dissi- 
It  was  necessary,  indeed,  for  him  to  be  thoroughly  ao-  patM  the  scruples  of  those  who  had  acquired  the 

auainted  with  both  religions,  for  it  helped  him  to  win  national  domains,  and  broken  the  last  thread  by 

be  affection  of  the  clergy  in  Italy  and  of  the  ulemas  which  the  old  dynasty  maintained  communication 

in  Egypt."    The  French  troops  in  Egypt  were  in  ^reat  with  the  country."    Fox,  in  a  conversation  with 

danger  when  the  naval  disaster  of  Aboukir,  inflicted  Napoleon  at  this  period,  expressed  astonishment  at 

by  Nelson,  had  cut  them  off  from  Europe.    Turkey  his  not  having  insisted  upon  the  marriage  of  priests: 

took  sides  with  England:  in  the  spring  of  1799,  Bona-  "I  had,  and  still  have,  to  accomplish  peace",  Napo- 

parte  made  a  campai^  in  Syria  to  stnke  both  Turkey  leon  replied,  "  theological  controversies  are  allayed 

and  England.     Faihng  to  effect  the  surrender  of  with  water,   not   with   oil."    The   Concordat   had 

Acre,  and  as  his  army  was  suffering  from  the  plague  wrecked  the  hopes  of  those  who,  like  Mme  de  Stael, 

(May,  1799),  he  had  to  make  his  way  back  to  Egypt,  had  wished  to  make  Protestantism  the  state  religion 

There  he  re-established  French  prestige  by  the  victory  of  France;  and  yet  the  Calvinist  Jaucourt,  defending 

of  Aboukir  (25  July,  1799),  then,  leammg  that  the  the  Oivanic  Articles  before  the  Tribunat,  gloried  in 

Second  Coalition   was  g^ning  immense  successes  the  definitive  recognition  of  the  Calvinist  religion  by 

against  the  armies  of  the  Directory,  he  left  Kl^ber  in  the  state.    The  Jewish  religion  was  not  recognized 

Egypt  and  returned  secretly  to  France.    He  landed  until  later  (17  March,  1808).  after  the  assembly  of  a 

at  frejus,  9  October,  1799,  and  was  in  Paris  seven  certain  number  of  Jewish  delegates  appointed  by  the 

days  later.    Besides  certidn  political  results,  the  ex-  prefects  (29  July,  1806)  and  the  meeting  of  the  Great 

pedition  to  Egypt  bad  borne  fruit  for  science:  Egypt-  Sanhedrim  (10  February — 9  April,  1807);  the  State, 

ology  dates  its  existence  from  the  creation  of  the  Insti-  however,  did  not  make  itself  responsible  for  the  sal- 

tute  of  Egypt  (Institut  d'Egypte)  by  Bonaparte.  aries  of  the  rabbis.    Thus  did  the  new  master  of 


Bonaparte,  First  Consul, — While  Bonaparte  was  in    France  regulate  the  religious  situation  in  that  country. 


Egypt,  the  religious  policy  of  the  Directory  had  pro-  On  9  April,  1802^  Caprara  was  received  for  the  first 

voked  serious  troubles  in  France.    Deportations  of  timebyBonapartemthe  official  capacity  of  Pius  VII's 

priests  were  multiplying  j  Belgium,  where  6000  priests  legate  a  laterCf  and  before  the  first  consul  took  an 

were  proscribed,  was  disturbed:  the  Vendue,  Nor-  oath  which,  according  to  the  text  subsequently  pub- 

mandy,  and  the  departments  of  tne  South  were  rising,  lished  by  the  "  Moniteur ",  bound  him  to  observe  the 

France  was  angry  and  uneasy.    Spurred  on  by  his  constitution,  the  laws,  statutes,  and  customs  of  the 

brother  Lucien,  president  of  the  Five  Hundred,  allied  republic,  and  nowise  to  derogate  from  the  ri^ts, 

with  Directors  Siey^  and  Roger-Ducos,  Bonaparte  liberties,  and  privilep^  of  the  Gallican  Church.    This 

caused  Directors  (johier  and  Moulins  to  be  impris-  was  a  painful  surprise  for  the  Vatican,  and  Caprara 

oned,  and  broke  up  the  Five  Hundred  (18  Brumaire;  declared  that  the  words  about  Gallican  liberties  had 

9-10  November,  1799).    The  Directorial  Constitu-  been  interpolated  in  the  "Moniteur".  Another  painful 

lion  was  suppressed,  and  France  thenceforward  was  impression  was  produced  at  the  Vatican  by  the  atti- 

ruled  by  three  consuls.    First  Consul  Bonaparte  put  tuae  of  eight  constitutional  priests  whom  Bonaparte 

into  operation  the  Constitution  known  as  that  of  the  had  nominated  to  bishoprics,  and  to  whom  Caprara 

Year  VlII,  substituted  for  the  departmental  adminis-  had  granted  canonical  institution,  and  who  after- 

trators  elected  by  the  citizens,  others  appointed  by  wards  boasted  that  they  had  never  formally  abjured 

the  Executive  Power,  and  reorganized  tne  judicial  their  adhesion  to  the  Civil  Constitution  of  the  clergy, 

and  financial  administrations.    He  commissioned  the  In  retaliation,  the  Roman  Curia  demanded  of  the 

Abb6  Bemier  to  quiet  the  religious  disturbance  of  the  constitutional  parish  priests  a  formal  retractation  of 

Vendeans,  and  authorized  the  return  of  the  non-juring  the  Civil  Constitution,  but  Bonaparte  opposed  this 

priests  to  France  on  condition  of  their  simply  promis-  and  when  Caprara  innsted,  declared  that  if  Rome 

mg  fidelity  to  the  laws  of  the  republic.    Then,  to  make  pushed  mattera  too  far  the  consuls  would  yield  to  the 

an  end  of  the  Second  Coalition,  he  entrusted  the  Army  desire  of  France  to  become  Protestant.    Talleyrand 

of  (jrermany  to  Moreau,  and,  himself  taking  command  spoke  to  Caprara  in  the  same  sense,  and  the  legate 

of  the  Army  of  Italy,  crossed  the  Great  St.  Bernard  desisted  from  his  demands.    On  the  other  hand, 

(13-16  May,  1800)  and,  with  the  co-operation  of  though  Bonaparte  had  at  first  been  extremely  irri- 

Desaix,  who  was  mortally  wounded,  crushed  the  tatea  by  the  allocution  of  24  May,  1802,  in  which 

Austrians  (14  June,  1800)  between  Marengo  and  San  Pius  VII  demanded  the  revision  of  the  Organic  Arti- 

Giuliano  at  the  venr  spot  he  had  marked  on  the  map  cles,  he  ended  by  allowing  it  to  be  published  in  the 

in  his  study  in  the  Tuileries.    The  Peace  of  Lun^ville.  **  Moniteur ''  as  a  diplomatic  document.    A  spirit  of 

concluded  with  Austria,  9  February,  1801,  extended  conciliation  on  both  sides  tended  to  promote  more 

the  territory  of  France  to  102  departments.  cordial  relations  between  the  two  powers.    The  proc- 

Bonaparte  spent  the  years  1801  and  1802  effecting  lamation  of  Bonaparte  as  consul  for  life  (Aufpist, 

internal  reforms  in  France.    A  commission,  estab-  1802)  increased  in  nim  the  sense  of  his  responsibility 

lished  in  1800,  elaborated  a  new  code  which,  as  the  towards  the  religion  of  the  country,  and  in  Pius  VII 

"Code  Napoleon",  was  to  be  promulgated  in  1804,  to  the  desire  to  be  on  good  terms  with  a  personage  who 

formally  introduce  some  of  the  "principles  of  1789''  was  advancing  with  such  long  strides  towards  onmipo- 

into  French  law,  and  thus  to  complete  the  civil  results  tence. 

of  the  Revolution.    But  it  was  Napoleon's  desire  that,  Bonaparte  took  care  to  gain  the  attachment  of  the 

in  the  new  society  which  was  the  issue  of  the  Revolu-  revived  Church  by  his  favours.    While  he  dissolved 

tion,  the  Church  should  hav%  a  place,  and  consciences  the  associations  of  the  Fathers  of  the  Faith,  the 

should  be  set  at  rest.    The  Concordat  with  the  Holy  Adorers  of  Jesus,  and  the  Panarists,  which  looked 

See  was  sisned  on  17  July,  1801 ;  it  was  published,  to-  to  him  like  attempts  to  restore  the  Society  of  Jesus, 

fetbflr  with  the  Organic  Articles,  as  a  law,  16  April,  he  permitted  the  reconstitution  of  the  Sisters  of 

802.    For  these  two  acts,  one  of  which  .established  Chaiity,  the  Sisters  of  St.  Thomas,  the  Sisters  of  St. 


NAPOUON  690  HAMUEOW 

Charles,  and  the  Vatelotte  Sisters,  devoted  to  teaching  Royalist  influences  were  at  work  against  Bonaparte  at 

and  hospital  work,  and  made  ms  mother,  Madame  the  Vatican,  and  the  pope  was  warned  against  erown- 

LfBtitia  Bonaparte,  protectress  of  all  the  congrega-  ing  an  emperor  who.  by  the  Constitution  of  1804, 

tions  of  hospital  sisters.    He  favoured  the  rei^val  of  would  promise  to  maintain  ''the  laws  of  the  Concor- 

the  Institute  of  the  Christian  Schools  for  the  religious  dat",  in  other  words,  the  Oiganic  Articles.    Pius  VII 

instruction  of  bovs;  side  by  side  with  the  lycies,  he  and  ConsalW  tried  to  gain  time  by  dilatory  replies,  but 

permitted  secondary  schools  under  the  supervision  these  veay  replies  were  interpreteid  by  Fesch  at  Rome, 

of  the  prefects,  but  directed  by  ecclesiastics.    He  did  and  by  Uaprara  at  Paris,  in  a  sense  favourable  to  the 

not  r^t  content  with  a  mere  strict  fulfilment  of  the  emperor's  wishes.    At  tne  end  of  June.  Napoleon  I 

pecuniary  obligations  to  the  Church  to  which  the  joyfully  announced,  at  tiie  Tuileries,  tnat  tne  pope 

Concordat  had  bound  the  State;  in  1803  and  1804  it  had  promised  to  come  to  Paris.    Then  Pius  VII  tried 

became  the  custom  to  pa^  stipends  to  canons  and  to  obtun  certain  religious  and  political  advantages  in 

desaervanls  of  succursal  parishes.    Orders  were  issued  exchange  for  the  journey  he  was  asked  to  make.    Na- 

to  leave  the  Church  in  possession  of  the  ecclesiastical  poleon  declared  that  he  would  have  no  conditions  dlo- 

buildinm  not  included  in  the  new  circumscription  tated  to  him;  at  the  same  time  he  promised  to  give 

of  parishes.    Though  the  State  had  not  bound  itself  new  proofs  of  his  respect  and  love  for  religion,  and  to 


their  benefit;  he  even  founded,  in  1804,  at  the  expense  he  declared,  at  the  end  of  Sei)tember,  that  he  woula 
of  the  State,  ten  metropolitan  seminaries,  re-estab-  accept  Napoleon's  invitation  if  it  were  officially  ad- 
lished,  with  a  government  endowment,  the  Lazarist  dressed  to  him;  he  asked  only  that  the  ceremony  of 
house  for  the  education  of  missionaries,  and  placed  the  consecration  should  not  be  distinct  from  the  corona- 
Holy  Sepulchre  and  the  Oriental  Christians  under  the  tion  proper,  and  that  Napoleon  would  undertake  not 
protection  of  France.  As  to  the  temporal  power  of  to  detain  him  in  France.  Napoleon  had  the  invita- 
the  popes  Bonaparte  at  this  period  attected  a  some-  tion  conveyed  to  Pius  VII,  not  dv  two  bishops,  as  Uie 
what  complaisant  attitude  towards  the  Holy  See.  pope  expected,  but  bv  a  general;  and  before  aettins 
He  restored  Pesaro  and  Ancona  to  the  pope,  and  out  for  France,  Pius  Vll  signed  a  conditional  act  <n 
brought  about  the  restitution  of  Benevento  and  Pon-  abdication,  which  the  cardinals  were  to  public^  in 


tecorvo  by  the  Court  of  Naples.    After  April,  1803,  Napoleon  should  i>revent  his  returning  to  Rome; 

Cacault  was  replaced,  as  his  representative  at  Rome,  then  he  began  his  journey  to  Fnmce,  2  November, 

bv  one  of  the  five  French  ecclesiastics  to  whom  Pius  1804. 

VII  had  consented  to  grant  the  purple  late  in  1802.        Napoleon  would  not  accord  any  solemn  reception  to 

This  ambassador  was  no  other  than  Bonaparte's  own  Pius  V II :  surrounded  by  a  huntm^  party,  he  met  the 

uncle.  Cardinal  Joseph  Fesch  (q.  v.),  whose  secretary  pope  in  the  open  country,  made  him  get  mto  the  im- 

for  a  short  time  was  Chateaubriand,  recently  made  perial  carriage,  seating  himself  on  the  right,  and  in 

famous  by  his ''Leg^nieduChristianisme".    One  of  this  fashion  took  him  to  Fontainebleau.    Pius  VII 

Bonaparte's  grievances  against  Cacault  was  a  saying  was  brought  to  Paris  by  night.    The  whole  affair 

attributed  to  the  latter:  "How  many  sources  of  his  nearly  fell  through  at  the  last  moment.    Pius  VII  in- 

glory  would  cease  if  Bonaparte  ever  chose  to  play  formed  Josephine  herself,  on  the  eve  of  the  day  set  for 

Henry  VIII!"    Even  in   those  days  of  harmony  the  coronation  of  the  empress,  that  die  had  not  been 

Cacault  had  a  presentiment  that  the  Napoleonic  married  to  Napoleon  in  accordance  with  the  rules  of 

policy  would  yet  threaten  the  dignity  of  the  Holy  See.  religion.    To  the  great  annoyance  of  the  emperor. 

The  idea  of  a  stru^le  with  England  became  more  who  was  already  contemplating  a  divorce,  in  case  no 

and   more  an  imperious  obsession  of  Bonaparte's  heir  were  bom  to  him,  and  was  displaying  a  lively  irri- 

mind.    The  Peace  of  Amiens  (25  March,  1802)  was  tation  against  Josepmne.  Pius  VII  insisted  upon  the 

only  a  truce:  it  was  broken  on  22  May.  1803.  by  Mor-  religious  oenediction  of  tne  marriage;  othermse,  Uiers 

tier's  invasion  of  Hanover  and  the  landing  ol  the  Eng-  was  to  be  no  coronation.    The  relieious  marriage  cere 

lish  in  French  Guiana.     Napoleon  forthwith  prepar^  mony  was  secretly  performed  at  the  Tuileries,  on  the 

for  his  gigantic  effort  to  lay  the  ban  of  Europe  on  first  of  December,  without  witnesses,  not  during  the 

England.    The  Due  d*Enghien,  who  was  suspecte^i  of  night,  but  at  about  four  o'clock  in  the  afternoon,  by 

complicity  with  England  and  the  French  Royidists,  Fesch.  grand  almoner  of  the  imperial  household.    As 

was  carried  off  from  Ettenheim,  a  village  within  the  Welscninger  has  proved,  Fesch  had  previously  asked 

territory  of  Baden,  and  shot  at  Vincennes,  21  March,  the  pope  for  the  necessary  dispensations  and  faculties, 

1804,  and  one  of  Cardinal  Fesch's  first  acts  as  ambas-  and  the  marriage  was  canonically  beyond  reproach, 

sador  at  Rome  was  to  demand  the  extradition  of  On  2  December  the  coronation  took  place.     Napoleon 

the  French  imigri  Vemdgues,  who  was  in  the  ser-  arrived  at  Notrc-Dame  later  than  the  hour  appointed, 

vice  of  Russia,  and  whom  Bonaparte  re^urded  as  a  Instead  of  allowing  the  pope  to  crown  him,  he  himself 

conspirator.  placed  the  crown  on  his  own  head  and  crowned  the  em- 

Napoleon  Emperor.    The  Coronation. — While  the  press,  but.  out  of  respect  for  the  pope,  this  detail  was 

Third  Coalition  was  forming  between  England  and  not  recorded  in  the  ''^Moniteur".    Pius  VII,  to  whom 

Russia,  Bonaparte  caused  himself  to  be  proclaimed  Napoleon  granted  but  few  opportunities  for  conversa- 

hereditary  emperor  (30  April-18  May,  1804),  and  at  tion,  had  a  long  memoranda  drawn  up  by  AntoneOi 

once  surroimded  himself  with  a  brilliant  Court.    He  and  Caprara,  setting  forth  his  wishes;  he  demanded 

created  two  princes  imperial  (his  brothers  Joseph  and  that  Catholicism  should  be  recognized  in  France  as  the 

Louis),  seven  permanent  hi^   dignitaries,  twenty  dominant  religion;  that  the  divorce  law  should  be 


great  officers,  four  of  them  ordinary  marshals,  and  ten  pealed;  that  the  religious  communities  should  be 

marshals  in  active  service,  a  number  of  posts  at  Court  established:  that  the  Legations  should  be  restored  to 

open  to  members  of  the  old  nobility.    Even  before  his  the  Holy  See.    Most  of  these  demands  were  to  no 

formal  proclamation  as  emperor,  he  had  given  Caprara  purpose;  the  most  important  of  the  v&ry  nsoderate 

a  bint  of  his  desire  to  be  crowned  by  the  pope,  not  at  concessions  made  by  tne  emperor  was  his  promise  to 

Reims,  like  the  ancient  kinm,  but  at  Notre-Dame  de  substitute  the  Gregorian  Calendar  for  that  of  the* 

Paris.    On  10  May,  1804,  Caprara  warned  Pius  VII  Revolution  after  1  January,  1806.    When  Pius  VII 

of  this  wish,  and  represented  that  it  would  be  neces-  left  Paris,  4  April,  1805,  he  was  displeased  with  the 

sary  to  answer  yes,  in  order  to  retain  Napoleon's  emperor. 

friend^p.    But  the  execution  of  the  Due  d'Enghien        But  the  Church  of  France  acclaimed  the  emperor. 

had  produced  a  deplorable  impression  in  Europe;  He  was  lauded  to  the  skies  by  the  bishops.    The  par- 


NAPOUON                             691  NAPOLEON 

hah  priests  not  only  in  obedience  to  instniotions,  but  emperor  (13  November,  1805) ,  of  this  "cruel  affront'', 
also  out  ot  patriotism,  preached  against  England,  and  declared  that  since  his  return  from  Paris  he  had  "ex- 
exhorted  thdr  hearers  to  submit  to  the  conscription,  perienced  nothing  but  bitterness  and  sorrow",  and 
The  splendour  of  the  Na^leonic  victories  seemed,  threatened  to  dismiss  the  French  ambassador.  But 
by  the  enthusiasm  with  wmch  it  inspired  all  French-  the  treaty  of  Presburg  and  the  dethronement  of  the 
men,  to  blind  the  Catholics  of  France  to  Napoleon's  Bourbons  of  Naples  by  Joseph  Bonaparte  and  Maa- 
falae  view  of  the  manner  in  which  their  Church  should  s6na  (January,  1806),  changed  the  European  and  the 
be  governed.  He  had  reorganized  it;  he  bad  accorded  Italian  situation.  From  Munich  Napoleon  wrote  two 
it  more  liberal  pecuniarv  advantages  than  the  Concor-  letters  (7  January,  1806),  one  to  Pius  VII,  and  the 
dat  had  bound  nim  to;  but  he  intended  to  dominate  it.  other  to  Fesch,  touching  his  intentions  in  re^[ard  to 
For  example,  in  1806  he  insisted  that  all  periodical  the  Hol^  See.  He  complained  of  the  pope's  ill-will, 
publications  of  a  religious  character  should  be  oonsoli-  tried  to  justify  the  occupation  of  Ancona,  and  declared 
dated  into  one,  the  "Journal  des  cur6s",  published  himself  the  true  protector  of  the  Holy  See.  "I  will 
under  police  surveillance.  On  15  August,  1806,  he  in-  be  the  friend  of  Your  Holiness",  he  concluded, 
stitutea  the  Feast  of  St.  Napoleon,  to  commemorate  the  "  whenever  you  consult  only  your  own  heart  and  the 
martyr  Neopolis,  or  Neopolas,  who  suffered  in  Egypt  true  friends  of  religion."  His  letter  to  Fesch  was 
under  Diocletian.  In  1806  he  decided  that  ecclesiasti-  much  more  violent:  he  complained  of  the  refusal  to 
cal  positions  of  importance,  such  as  cures  of  souls  of  the  annul  Jerome's  marriage,  demanded  that  there  should 
tot  class,  could  oe  given  only  to  candidates  who  held  no  longer  be  any  minister  either  of  Sardinia  or  of 
degrees  conferred  by  the  university,  adding  that  these  Russia  in  Rome,  threatened  to  send  a  Protestant  as 
degrees  might  be  refused  to  those  who  were  notorious  his  ambassador  to  the  pope,  to  appoint  a  senator  to 
for  their  "ultramontane  ideas  or  ideas  dangerous  to  command  in  Rome  and  to  reduce  the  pope  to  the 
authority".    He  demanded  the  publication  of  a  sin-  status  of  mere  Bishop  of  Rome,  claimed  that  the  pope 


gle'catechinn  for  the  whole  empire,  in  which  catechism  should  treat  him  like  Charlemagne,  and  assailed    tne 

he  was  called  "the  image  of  God  upon  earth",  "the  pontifical  camarilla  whidi  prostituted  reli^on". 

Aid's  anointed  ",  and  the  use  of  which  was  made  com-  reply  from  Pius  VII  (29  January,  1806),  asking  foi 

V                           •                            «                                   %         a           %       M        A               *1         4  ^\^\^t                 nPlV                         *  a                                 Aft                                                        V«1V                       A*                        IjV                             ^Y 


Lord 


A 
for  the 


^  .  sovereign 

judged  guilty  of  disobedience  to  his  orders.         '  but  I  am  its  emperor;  all  my  enemies  ought  to  be 

Tne  Great  Victories;  Occupation  of  Rome;  Imprie-  yours";  he  insisted  that  the  pope  should  drive  Eng- 

onment  of  Piue  VII  (1805-09), — ^After  1805  relations  ush,  Russian,  Su!xiinian,  and  Swedish  subjects  out  of 

between  Pius  VII  and  Napoleon  became  struned.  At  his  dominions,  and  close  his  ports  to  the  ships  of  those 

Milan,  26  May,  1805,  wnen  Napoleon,  as  King  of  powers  with  which  France  was  at  war;  and  he  com- 

Italv,  took  the  iron  Orown  of  Lombardy,  he  was  of-  plained  of  the  slowness  of  the  Curia  in  granting  ca- 

fended  because  the  pope  did  not  take  part  in  the  cere-  nonical  institution  to  bishops  in  France  and  Italy.    In 

mony.    When  he  asked  Pius  VII  to  annul  the  mar-  a  letter  to  Fesch  he  declared  that,  unless  the  pope 

riage  which  his  brother  Jerome  Bonaparte  had  con-  acquiesced  he  would  reduce  the  condition  of  the  Holy 

tracted,  at  the  age  of  nineteen,  with  Elizabeth  Pater-  See  to  what  it  had  been  before  Charlemi^gne. 
son  of  Baltimore,  the  pope  replied  that  the  decrees  of        An  official  note  from  Fesch  to  Consalvi  (2  March, 

the  Council  of  Trent  against  clandestine  marriages  ap-  1806)  defined  Napoleon's  demands;  the  cardinals  were 

plied  only  where  they  had  been  recognised,  and  the  in  favour  of  rejecting  them,  and  Pius  VII,  in  a  very 

reply  constituted  one  more  cause  of  displeasure  for  the  beautiful  letter,  dat^  21  March,  1806.  remonstrated 

emperor,  who  afterwards,  in  1806,  obtained  an  annul-  with  Napoleon,  declared  that  the  pope  nad  no  right  to 

ment  from  the  complaisant  ecclesiastical  authorities  embroil  nimseu  with  the  other  states,  and  must  hold 

of  Paris.    And  when  Consalvi,  in  1805,  complained  aloof  from  the  war;  also,  that  there  was  no  emperor  of 

that  the  French  Civil  Code,  and  with  it  the  divorce  Rome.    "If  our  words' ,  he  concluded,  "fail  to  touch 

law.  had  been  introduced  into  Italy,  Napoleon  for-  Your  Majesty's  heart  we  will  suffer  with  a  resignation 

maUy  refused  to  make  any  concession.  conformable  to  the  (^pel,  we  will  accept  every  kind 

The  great  war  which  the  emperor  was  just  then  of  cidamit}^  as  coining  trom  God."  Napoleon,  more 
oommencing  was  destined  to  be  an  occasion  of  conflict  and  more  irritate,  reproached  Pius  VII  for  naving 
with  the  Holy  See.  Abandoning  the  preparations  which  consulted  the  cardinals  before  answering  him,  de- 
he  had  made  for  an  invasion  of  England  (the  Camp  clared  that  all  his  relations  with  the  Holv  See  should 
of  Boulogne),  he  turned  against  Austria,  brought  thenceforward  be  conducted  through  Talleyrand,  or- 
about  the  capitulation  of  Ulm  (20  October,  1805),  dered  the  latter  to  reiterate  the  demands  which  the 
made  himself  master  of  Vienna  (13  November),  de-  pope  had  just  rejected,  and  replaced  Fesch  as  am- 
feated  at  Austerlitz  (2  December,  1805)  Emperor  Bassador  at  Rome  with  Alquier,  a  former  member  of 
Francis  I  and  Tsar  Alexander.  The  Treaty  of  Pres-  the  Convention.  Then  the  emperor  proceeded  from 
buig  (26  December,  1805)  united  Dalmatia  to  the  words  to  deeds.  On  6  May,  1806,  he  caused  Civitii 
French  Empire  and  the  territory  of  Venice  to  the  Vecchia  to  be  occupied.  Learning  that  the  pope. 
Kingdom  oi  Italy,  made  Bavaria  and  Wurtemberg  before  recognizing  Joseph  Bonaparte  as  King  of 
vasral  kingdoms  of  Napoleon,  enlarged  the  mar-  Naples,  wiiuied  Joi^h  to  submit  to  the  ancient 
gravate  of  Baden,  and  transformed  it  into  a  grand-  suzerainty  of  the  Holy  See  over  the  Neapolitan 
duchy,  and  reduced  Austria  to  the  valley  of  the  Dan-  Kingdom,  he  talked  of  "the  spirit  of  light-headedness" 
ube.  The  victory  of  Trafalgar  (21  October,  1805)  had  (esjmt  de  vertige)  which  prevailed  at  Rome,  remarked 
^ven  England  the  mastery  of  the  seas,  but  from  that  that,  when  the  pope  thus  treated  a  Bonaparte  as  a 
time  forward  Napoleon  was  held  to  be  the  absolute  vassal,  he  must  be  tired  of  wielding  the  temporal 
master  of  the  Continent.  He  then  turned  to  the  power,  and  directed  Talleyrand  to  tell  Pius  VII  that 
pope,  and  demanded  a  reckoning  of  him.  the  time  was  past  when  the  pope  dii^x)Bed  of  crowns. 

xo  prevent  a  landing  of  Russian  and  English  troops  Talleyrand  was  informed  (16  May,  1806)  that,  if  Pius 

in  Italy,  Napoleon,  in  October,  1805,  had  ordered  VII  would  not  recognize  Joseph,  Napoleon  would  no 

Gouvion  Saint  Cvr  to  occupv  the  papal  city  of  Ancona.  longer  recognize  Pius  VII  as  a  temporal  prince.     "  If 

The  pope,  lest  the  powers  hostile  to  Napoleon  might  this  continues",  Napoleon  went  on  to  say,  "I  will 

some  day  reproach  him  with  having  consented  to  the  have  Consalvi  taken  away  from  Rome."    He  sus- 

employment  of  a  city  of  the  Pontifical  States  as  a  base  pected  Consalvi  of  having  sold  himself  to  the  English 

of  operations,  had  protested  against  this  arbitrary'  ex-  Early  in  June,  1806,  he  seized  Benevento  and  Ponte- 

erdae  of  power:  he  had  complained,  in  a  letter  to  the  oorvo,  two  principalities  which  belonged  to  the  H0I9 


KAPOUON  692  KAPOUON 

Bee,  but  which  were  shut  in  by  the  Kingdom  of  of  not  making  provision  for  the  dioceses  of  Venetia. 

Naples.  His  grievances  were  multiplying.    On  22  July,  1807, 

Yielding  before  the  emperor's  wrath,  Gonsalvi  re-  he  wrote  to  Prince  Eugdne,  who  governed  Milan  as  his 

signed  his  office:  Pius  VII  unwillingly  accepted  his  viceroy,  a  letter  intended  to  be  shown  to  the  pope: 

resignation,  and  replaced  him  with  Cardinal  Casoni.  "There  were  kings  before  there  were  popes",  it  ran. 

But  the  first  dispatch  written  by  Casoni  under  Pius  ''Any  pope  who  dfenoimced  me  to  Christendom  would 

Vn's  dictation  confirmed  the  pope's  resistance  to  the  cease  to  be  pope  in  my  eyes;  I  would  look  upon  him  as 

emperor's  behests.    Napoleon  then  violently  apostro-  Antichrist.    I  would  cut  nov  peoples  off  from  all  eom- 

phiJBed  Caprara,  in  the  presence  of  the  whole  court,  mimication  with  Rome.    Dc^s  the  pope  take  me  for 

threatening  to  dismember  the  Pontifical  States,  it  Louis  the  Pious?    What  the  Court  of  Rome  sedcs  is 

Pius  Vn  did  not  at  once,  "without  ambiguity  or  the  disorder  of  the  Church,  not  the  good  of  religion.  I 

reservation",  declare  himself  his  ally  (1  July.  1806).  will  not  fear  to  gather  the  Galilean,  Italian,  German 

A  like  ultimatum  was  delivered,  on  8  July,  to  CiELrdinal  and  Polish  Chuidies  in  a  council  to  transact  my  buai- 


Casoni  by  Alquier.  But  Continental  affairs  were  ness  {pow  faire  mes  affaires]  without  any  pope,  and 
claiming  Napoleon's  attention,  and  the  only  immedi-  protect  my  peoples  a«dnst  the  priests  of  Rome.  This 
ate  resmt  of  nis  ultimatum  was  the  emperors  order  to  is  the  last  tune  that  I  will  enter  into  anv  discussion 
his  generals  occupving  Ancona  and  CivitH  Vecchia,  with  the  Roman  priest-rabble  [la  pribraiue  romame]". 
to  seize  the  pontmcaT  revenues  in  those  two  cities.  On  9  August  Napoleon  wrote  again  to  Prince  Eugtoe, 
On  the  other  hand,  the  constitution  of  the  Imperial  that,  if  the  pope  did  an3rthing  imprudent,  it  would  af- 
University  (May,  1806),  preparing  for  a  state  monop-  ford  excellent  grounds  for  taking  the  Roman  States 
oly  of  teaching,  loomed  up  as  a  peril  to  the  Church's  away  from  him.  Pius  VII,  driven  to  bay,  sent  Car- 
right  of  teachmg,  and  gave  ite  Holy  See  another  dined  litta  to  Paris  to  treat  with  Nimoleon:  the  pope 
cause  for  uneasiness.  was  willing  to  join  the  Continental  blockade,  and  sus- 

The  Confederation  of  the  Rhine,  formed  by  Napo-  pend  all  intercourse  with  the  English,  but  not  to  de- 
leon  out  of  fourteen  German  States  (12  July,  18(%),  clare  war  asAinst  them.  The  pope  even  wrote  to  Nsr 
and  his  assertion  of  a  protectorate  over  the  same,  re-  poleon  (11  September,  1807)  inviting  him  to  come  to 
suited,  in  Francis  II's  abdication  of  the  title  of  em-  Rome.  The  emperor,  however,  was  only  seeldng  oc- 
peror  of  Germany;  in  its  place  Francis  took  the  title  casion  for  a  ruptiue,  while  the  pope  was  seeking  the 
of  emperor  of  Austria.  Tnus  ended,  under  the  blows  last  possible  means  of  pacification, 
dealt  it  bv  Napoleon,  that  Holy  Roman  Grermanic  Napoleon  refused  to  treat  with  Cardinal  Litta,  and 
Empire  which  had  exerted  so  great  an  influence  over  demanded  that  Pius  VII  should  be  represented  by  a 
Christianity  in  the  Middle  Ages.  The  pope  and  the  Frenchman,  Cardinal  de  Bayanne.  Then  he  pie- 
German  emperor  had  long  been  considered  as  sharing  tended  that  Bayanne's  powers  from  the  pope  were  not 
between  them  the  government  of  the  world  in  the  sufficient.  And  while  the  pope  was  negotiating  with 
name  of  (jrod.  Napoleon  had  definitivdy  annihilatcKi  him  in  good  faith,  Napoleon,  without  warning,  caused 
one  of  these  "two  halves  of  God",  as  Victor  Hugo  has  the  four  pontificisd  Irovinces  of  Macerata,  Spoleto, 
termed  them.  Froderick.  William  il  of  Prussia  became  Uibino,  and  Foligno  to  be  occupied  by  General  Le- 
alarmed,  and  in  October,  1806,  formed,  with  En^and  marrois  (October,  1807).  Pius  Vll  then  revoked  Car- 
and  Russia,  the  Fourth  Coalition.  The  stunning  vie-  dinal  Bavanne's  powers.  It  was  evident  tha^  not 
tories  of  Auerst&dt,  won  by  Davoust,  and  Jena,  won  only  did  Napoleon  require  of  him  an  offensive  alfiance 
by  Napoleon  (H  October,  1806),  were  followed  by  the  against  England,  but  that  the  emperor's  pretensions, 
entry  of  the  French  into  nerlin,  the  Kiiu;  of  Prussia's  and  those  of  his  new  minister  of  foreign  affairs,  Cham- 
flight  to  K5nigsber^,  and  the  erection  of  the  Electorate  pagny,  Talleyrand's  successor,  were  now  bfgjnning  to 
of  Saxony  into  a  kinsdom  in  alliance  with  Napoleon,  encroach  upon  the  domain  of  religion.  Napoleon 
From  Berlin  itself  Napoleon  launched  a  decree  (21  claimed  that  one  third  of  the  cardinals  should  belong 
November,  1806)  by  which  he  organized  the  Conti-  to  the  French  Empire;  and  Champagny  let  it  be  un- 
nental  blockade  against  England,  aiming  to  close  the  derstood  that  the  emperor  would  soon  demand  that 
whole  Continent  against  English  commerce.  Ilien,  the  Holy  See  should  respect  the  " Galilean  liberties", 
in  1807,  penetrating  into  Russia,  he  induced  the  tsar  and  should  abstain  from  "any  act  containing  positive 
by  means  of  the  battles  of  Eylau  (8  February,  1807)  clauses  or  reservations  calculated  to  alum  eon- 
and  Friedland  (14  June,  1807),  to  sign  the  Peace  of  sciences  and  spread  divisions  in  His  Majest^s  domin- 
Tilsit  (8  July,  1807).  The  empire  was  at  its  apogee;  ions".  Henceforth  it  was  the  spiritual  authority 
Prussia  had  been  bereft  of  its  Polish  provinces,  given  that  Napoleon  aspired  to  control.  Pius  VII  ordered 
to  the  King  of  Saxonv  under  the  name  of  the  Grand-  Bayanne  to  reject  the  imperial  demands.  Napoleon 
Duchy  of  Warsaw;  the  Kingdom  of  Westphalia  was  then  (January.  1808)  decided  that  Prince  Ehig^ne  and 
being  formed  for  Jerome  BcMiaparte,  completing  the  King  Joseph  should  place  troops  at  the  disposition  of 
series  of  kingdoms  given  since  1806  to  the  emperor's  General  Miollis,  who  was  ordered  to  march  on  Rome. 
brothers — Naples  having  been  assigned  to  Joseph,  and  Miollis  at  first  pretended  to  be  covering  the  rear  of  the 
Holland  to  Louis.  A  series  of  principalities  and  auch-  Neapolitan  army,  then  he  suddenly  threw  10,000 
ies,  ''great  fiefs",  created  all  over  Europe  for  his  troops  into  Rome  (2  February).  Napoleon  wrote  to 
marshals,  ausmented  the  might  and  prestige  of  the  Champagny  that  it  was  necessary  "to  accustom  the 
empire.  At  home,  the  emperor's  personal  power  was  people  of  Home  and  the  French  troops  to  live  side  by 
becomings  more  and  more  firmly  established;  the  side,  so  that,  diould  the  Court  of  Rome  continue  to 
supervision  of  the  press  more  rigorous;  summary  in-  act  in  an  insensate  way,  it  might  insensibly  cease  to 
carcerations  more  frequent.  He  created  an  heredi-  exist  as  a  temporal  power,  without  anjrpne  notidng 
tary  nobility  as  an  ornament  to  the  throne.  the  change ".    Thus  it  may  be  said  that,  in  the  begin- 

To  him  it  was  something  of  a  humiliation,  that  the  ning  of  1808,  Napoleon's  plan  was  to  ke^  Rome. 

Court  of  Rome  persisted  in  holding  aloof^poUtically,  In  a  manifesto  to  the  Christian  powers,  Pius  VII 

from  the  great  conflicts  of  the  nations.    He  began  to  protested  against  this  invasion;  at  the  same  tim^  he 

summon  the  pope  anew.    He  had  already,  soon  after  consented  to  receive  General  Miollis  and  treated  nim 


pire;  once  more  Pius  VII  had  replied  to  Arezso  that  given  to  Miollis  became  more  severe  every  day:  he 

the  pope  could  not  consider  the  enemies  of  F^rance  his  seised  printing  presses,  journals,  post  offices;  he  ded- 

enemies.    Napoleon  also  accused  the  Pope  of  hinder-  mated  the  Sacied  College  by  havins  seven  cmdinals 

ing  the  ecclesiastical  reorganisation  ot  Gennsaiy,  and  conducted  to  the  frontier,  because  Napoleon 


NAPOLEON                             693  NAPOLEON 

them  of  dealing  with  the  Bourbons  of  the  two  Sicilies,  On  10  June  Miollis  had  the  Pontifical  flag,  which  still 

then,  one  month  later,  he  expelled  fourteen  other  car-  floated  over  the  castle  of  S.  Angelo,  lowered.    Piua 

dinals  from  Rome  because  they  were  not  native  sub-  VII  replied  by  having  Rome  ^acarded  with  a  Bull  ex- 

jects  of  the  pope.    Cardinal  I)oria  Pamphili,  who  had  oonununicating  Napoleon.    When  the  emperor  re- 

Deen  appointed  secretai^  of  state,  in  February,  1808,  oeived  news  of  this  (20  Jime)  he  wrote  to  Murat:  "So 

was  also  expelled  by  Miollis;  Pius  VII  now  had  with  the  pope  has  aimed  an  excommunication  against  me. 

huDQ  only  twenty-one  cardinals,  and  the  papal  Gov-  No  more  half  measures;  he  is  a  raving  lunatic  who 

emment  was  disorganized.     He  broke  off  all  diplo-  must  be  confined.    Have  Cardinal  Pacca  and  other 

matic  relations  with  Napoleon,  recalled  Bayanne  and  adherents  of  the  pope  arrested."    In  the  night  of  5-6 

Caprara  from  Paris,  ana  uttered  his  protest  in  a  con-  July,  1809,  Radet,  a  general  of  ^ndarmerie,  by  the 

sistorial  allocution  delivered  in  March.    Napoleon,  oroers  of  Miollis,  entered  the  Quiiinal,  arrested  Pius 

on  his  side,  recalled  Alquier  from  Rome.    The  stru^-  VII  and  Pacca,  gave  them  two  hours  to  make  their 

g;Ie  between  pope  and  emperor  was  taking  on  a  tragic  preparations,  ana  took  them  away  from  Rome  at  four 

character.  m  the  morning.    Pius  VII  was  taken  to  Savona, 

On  2  April  Napoleon  signed  two  decrees:  one  an-  Pacca  to  Fenestrella.  Meanwhile  Napoleon,  com- 
nexed  to  the  Kingdom  of  Italv  "in  perpetuity"  the  pleting  the  work  of  crushing  Austria,  had  been  the 
Provinces  of  Urbino,  Ancona,  Macerata,  and  Came-  victor  at  Essling  (21  May,  1809)  and  at  Wafiram  (6 
rino;  the  other  ordered  all  functionaries  01  the  Court  of  July,  1809),  and  the  Peace  of  Vienna  (15  October, 
Rome  who  were  natives  of  the  Kingdom  of  Italy  to  re-  1809)  put  the  finishing  touch  to  the  mutilation  of  Aus- 
tum  to  that  kingdom,  under  pain  of  confiscation  of  tria  by  handing  over  Camiola,  Croatia,  and  Friuli  to 
their  propertv.  Fius  Vll  protested  before  all  Europe  France,  at  the  same  time  obliging  the  Emperor  Francis 
against  this  decree,  on  19  May,  and,  in  an  instruction  to  recognize  Joseph  as  King  of  Spain.  The  voung 
addressed  to  the  bishops  of  the  provinces  which  Napo-  German,  Staps,  who  attempted  to  assassinate  Napo- 
leon was  lopping  off  from  his  possessions,  he  denounced  leon  at  Schdnbrunn  (13  October),  died  crying: ''  Long 
the  religious  *  *  indifferentism    of  the  imperial  Govern-  live  Germany  I " 

ment,  and  forbade  the  faithful  of  those  provinces  to  Diacussions  with  the  Captive  Pine  VII;  Second  Mar» 
take  the  oath  of  allegiance  to  Napoleon  or  accept  any  riage;  Ecdesiastical  Councils  of  1809  and  1811. — 
offices  from*  him.  miollis  retaliated,  12  June,  by  The  conflict  with  his  prisoner,  the  pope,  was  another 
driving  Gavrielli,  the  new  secretary  of  state,  out  of  embarrassment,  a  new  source  of  anxiety  to  the  em- 
Rome.  Pius  VII  then  replaced  Gavrielli  with  Cardi-  peror.  At  first  he  took  all  possible  steps  to  prevent 
nal  Pacca,  reputed  an  opponent  of  France;  on  11  July  the  public  from  hearing  of  what  had  happened  at 
he  delivered  a  very  spinted  allocution,  which,  in  spite  Rome:  the  ''Moniteur"  made  not  the  slightest  allu« 
of  the  imperial  police,  was  circulated  throughout  Eu-  sion  to  it;  the  newspapers  received  orders  to  be  silent, 
rope  J  and  Pacca,  on  24  August,  directed  a  note  against  He  also  wished  his  excommunication  to  be  ignored; 
the  institution  of  the  '* Civic  Guard'' — an  idea  re-  the  newspapers  must  be  silent  on  this  point  also;  but 
cently  conceived  by  Miollis — ^in  which  Miollis  was  the  Bull  ot  Excommunication,  secretly  brought  to 
compelling  even  the  pope's  soldiers  to  enroll.  On  6  Lyons,  was  circulated  in  France  by  members  of  the 
September,  1808,  Miollis  sent  two  officers  to  the  Quir-  Congregation,  a  pious  association,  founded  2  Febru- 
inal  to  arrest  Pacca;  Pius  VII  interposed,  declaring  ary,  1801,  by  Pftre  Delpuits,  a  former  Jesuit.  Alexis 
that  they  should  not  arrest  Pacca  without  arresting  de  Noailles  and  five  otner  members  of  the  Conerega- 
the  pope,  and  that  in  future  the  secretary  of  state  tion  were  arrested  by  the  emperor's  command,  and 
should  sleep  at  the  Quirinal,  which  was  closed  to  all  his  anger  extended  to  all  the  religious  orders.  He 
the  French.  wrote  (12  September,  1809)  to  Bigot  de  Pr^ameneu, 

The  definitive  execution   of  Napoleon's  projects  minister  of  public  worship:  "If  on  1  October  there  are 

against  the  Holy  See  was  retarded  by  the  wars  which  anv  missions  or  congregations  still  in  France,  I  will 

occupied  him  during  the  year  1808.    When  he  trans-  hold  you  responsible."    The  celebrated  Abb6  Frays- 

f erred  his  brother  Joseph  from  the  Throne  of  Naples  sinous  had  to  discontinue  his  sermons;  the  Lazarists 

to  that  of  Spain,  Spain  rose,  and  the  English  invaded  dispersed;  the  Sulpicians  were  threatened.    Napo- 

Portugal.    Dupont's    capitulation,    at    Baylen    (20  leon  consulted  Bigot  de  Pr^ameneu  as  to  the  expe- 

July,  1808),  and  Junot's  at  Cintra  (30  August,  1808),  diency  of  laying  the  Bull  before  the  Council  of  State, 

were  painful  reverses  for  French  arms.    Napoleon,  but  abstained  m)m  doing  so. 

having  made  an  alliance  with  the  tsar  in  the  cele-  It  was  not  long,  however,  before  he  had  to  face  an 

bratedinterviewof  Erfurt  (27  September-14  October,  enormous  diflSciJty:  there  were  more  than  twenty 

1808),  hastened  to  Spain.    There  he  found  a  people  bi^oprics  vacant,  and  Fius  VII  declared  to  Fesch,  to 

whose  spirit  of  resistance  was  exasperated  all  the  more  Capranu  and  to  Maurv  tiiat,  so  Ipng  as  he  was  a  pris- 

becausc  they  believed  themselves  to  be  fighting  for  oner,  so  long  as  he  could  not  communicate  freely  with 

their  liberty  and  the  integrity  of  their  faith  as  much  as  his  natural  counsellors,  the  cardinals,  he  would  not 

for  their  county.    In  November  he  gained  the  victo-  provide  for  the  institution  of  the  bishops.    Thus  the 

ries  of  Burgos,  Espinosa,  Tudela,  and  Somo  Sierra,  and  life  of  the  Church  of  France  was  partially  suspended, 

reopened  the  gates  of  Madrid  for  Joseph;  on  21  Febru-  In  November,  1809,  Napoleon  appointed  an  '^ecclesi* 

ary  Saragossa  was  taken  by  the  Frencn  armies  after  an  astical  councu"  to  seek  a  solution  of  the  difficulty, 

heroic  resistance.    A   Fifth   Coalition   was  formed  With  Fesch  as  president,  this  council  included  as 

against  Napoleon:  he  returned  from  Spain  and,  rush-  members  Cardinal   Mauiy,   Barral,   Archbishop  of 

ing  across  Bavaria,  bombarded  and  took  Vienna  (11-  Tours.  Duvoian,  Bishop  of  Nantes,  Emery.  Superior 

13  May,  1809).    On  the  day  after  the  victory  he  de-  of  S.  Sulpice,  Bi^ops  Canaveri  of  Vercelli,  fiourlier  of 

voted  some  of  his  leisure  hours  to  thinking  about  the  Evreux,  Mannay  of  Treves,  and  the  Bamabite  Fon- 

pope.  tana.    Bigot  de  Pn^ameneu,  in  the  name  of  the  em- 

For  some  time  Murat,  who  in  1808  had  replaced  p>eror,  laia  before  the  coimcil  several  sets  of  auestions 

Joseph  as  King  of  Naples,  had  been  ready  to  support  relating  to  the  affairs  of  Christendom  in  general,  then  to 

Miollis  whenever  Napoleon  should  judge  that  the  those  of  France,  and  lastly  to  those  of  Germany  and 

hour  had  come  to  incorporate  Rome  with  the  empire.  Italy,  and  to  the  Bull  of  Excommunication. 

On  17  May,  1809,  Napoleon  issued  from  Schdnbrunn  In  the  preamble  to  its  replies^  the  council  gave  voice 

two  decrees  in  which,  reproaching  the  popes  for  the  ill  to  a  petition  for  the  absolute  hberty  of  the  pope  and 

use  they  had  made  of  tne  donation  of  Charlemagne,  the  recall  of  the  cardinals.    It  declared  that  if  a  gen- 

his  "august  predecessor",  he  declared  the  Pontincal  eral  council  were  assembled  for  the  settlement  of  the 

States  annexed  to  the  empire,  and  organised,  under  reliraous  questions  then  pending,  the  pope's  presence 

Miollis,  a  oouQpil  extr^orainary  to  administer  them,  at  £e  ooundl  would  be  neoessary,  and  that  a  national 


HAFOUOir 


094 


lUFOUOH 


ooundl  would  not  have  sufficient  authority  in  ques- 
tions affecting  the  whole  Catholic  Church.  It  also 
declared  that  the  pope  could  not  complain  of  any  es- 
sential violation  oi  the  Concordat,  that,  when  he  ad- 
vanced his  temporal  spoliation,  as  one  reason  for  his 
refusal  to  institute  the  bishops  canonically,  he  was 
confounding  the  temporal  order  with  the  spiritual, 
that  the  temporal  sovereigntv  was  only  an  accessory 
of  the  papal  authority,  that  the  invasion  of  Rome  was 
not  a  violation  of  the  Concordat,  and  that  the  national 
council  would  interpose  an  appeal  from  the  Bull  of  Ex- 
communication either  to  the  general  council  or  to  the 
pope  better  informed.  The  manner  in  which  canoni- 
cal institution  might  be  secured  for  the  bishops,  if  the 
pope  should  continue  his  resistance,  was  twice  dia- 
cussed.  Urged  by  the  Government,  the  council  ad- 
mitted that,  taking  the  circumstances  into  considera- 
tion, the  concUiary  institution  given  by  a  metropoli- 
tan to  his  suffragans,  or  by  the  senior  suffragan  to  a 
new  metropolitan,  might  possibly  be  recognised  by  a 
national  council  as.  provisionally,  a  substitute  for 
pontifical  Bulls.  Emery,  thinking  the  council  too 
lenient,  refused  to  endorse  the  answers,  which  were 
sent  to  Napoleon  on  11  January,  1810. 

On  17  February,  1810,  the  Act  regulating  the  Ro- 
man territory  and  future  condition  of  the  pope,  in- 
troduced by  R^gnault  de  Saint-Jean  d'Ang^ly.  was 
gassed  unanimously  b^  the  senate.  The  Papal 
tates,  in  accordance  with  this  decree,  were  to  form 
two  departments;  from  Rome,  which  was  declared  the 
first  city  of  the  empire,  the  prince  imperial  was  to  take 
his  title  of  king.  The  emperor,  already  crowned  once 
at  Notre-Dame.  was  tojgo  within  ten  years  to  be 
crowned  at  St.  Peter's.  Tne  pope  was  to  have  a  rev- 
enue of  two  millions.  The  empire  was  to  charge  itself 
with  the  maintenance  of  the  Sacred  Congregation  of 
Propaganda.  The  pope,  on  his  accession,  must  prom- 
ise to  do  nothing  contrary  to  the  four  articles  of  the 
Gallican  Church.  Another  Act  of  the  Senate,  of  25 
February,  1810,  made  the  Declaration  of  1682  a  gen- 
eral law  of  the  empire.  Thus  did  Napoelon  flatter 
himself  that  he  would  reduce  the  papacy  to  servitude 
and  bring  Pius  VII  to  live  in  Paris.  He  even  prepared 
a  letter  to  Pius  VII  in  which  he  told  lum:  "I  hold  in 
execration  the  principles  of  the  Bonifaces  and  the 
Gregorys.  It  is  my  mission  to  govern  the  West:  do 
not  meddle  with  it."  This  letter  he  would  have  had 
taken  to  the  pope  by  bishops  who  were  to  give  notice 
to  Pius  VII  tnat  in  future  the  popes  must  swear  alle- 
giance to  Napoleon,  as  of  yore  to  Charlema^e,  and 
to  inform  him  that  he  hunself  would  be  dispensed 
from  this  obligation,  but  that  he  must  undertake  not 
to  reside  at  Rome.  Na]X)leon  expected  in  this  way  to 
bend  the  pope  to  his  will.  Wiser  counsellors,  how- 
ever, prevailed  upoi^him  not  to  send  this  insulting  let- 
ter. Nevertheless,  to  carry  out  his  plan  of  removing 
the  papal  throne  from  Rome,  he  ordered  MioUis  to 
compel  all  the  auxlinals  who  were  still  at  Rome  to  set 
out  lor  Paris,  and  to  have  the  Vatican  archives  trans- 
ported thither.  In  1810  there  were  twenty-seven  Ro- 
man cardinals  in  Paris:  he  lavished  gifts  upon  them, 
invited  them  to  the  court  festivals,  and  wished  them 
to  write  and  urge  Pius  VII  to  yield;  but,  following  the 
advice  of  Consiuvi,  the  cuxiinals  refused. 

It  was  in  the  midst  of  these  bitter  conflicts  with  the 
church  that.  Napoleon  desiring  an  heir,  resolved  to 
divorce  Josephine.  Ever  since  the  end  of  1807  Met- 
temich  had  been  aware  of  the  reports  that  were  cur- 
rent about  the  emperor's  approadiing  divorce.  On 
12  December.  1807,  Lucien  Bonaparte  had  vfunly  en- 
deavored to  obtain  from  Josephine  her  consent  to  this 
divorce;  some  time  after,  Fouch^  had  made  a  similar 
attempt  with  no  better  success.  In  December,  1809, 
at  Fontainebleau,  in  the  presence  of  Prince  Eugdne, 
Josephine's  son,  the  emperor  induced  her  to  consent; 
on  15  December,  this  was  solemnlv  proclaimed  in  the 
throne  room,  in  the  presence  of  the  Court,  in  an  ad'- 


dress  deliveored  \^  Napoleon,  and  another  read  by  the 
unhapp^r  Josephme^ho  was  prevented  bv  her  tears 
from  finiBhing  it.  The  Act  of  the  Senate  (16  Decem- 
ber), based  on  a  report  of  Lac^pdde,  the  naturatist, 
himself  a  member  of  the  Senate,  ratified  the  divorce. 
Napoleon  then  thought  of  marrying  the  tsar's  sister. 
But  Mettemich,  getting  wind  of  this  project,  made 
Laborde  and  Schwarzenberg  sound  the  Tuileries  to 
see  if  Napoleon  would  marry  an  Austrian  archduchess. 
The  idea  oleased  Napoleon.  The  Court  of  >^enna, 
however,  nrst  required  that  the  spiritual  bond  between 
Napoleon  and  Josephine  should  oe  severed. 

This  bond  the  pope  alone  was  competent  to  dis- 
solve; Louis  XII  haa  had  recourse  to  AleTander  VI; 
Henry  IV  to  Clement  VIIIj  but  Napoleon,  ezoom- 
municated  by  his  prisoner  Pius  VII,  could  not  apply 
to  him.  Cambacerds,  the  arch-chancellor,  sent  for 
the  diocesan  officials  of  Paris  and  explained  to  them 
that  the  marriage  of  Napoleon  and  Josephine  had  been 
invalid  in  consequence  of  the  absence  of  the  pariah 
priest  of  the  two  parties  and  of  witnesses.  In  vain 
did  they  object  that  only  the  pope  could  decide  such  a 
case:  they  were  told  to  commence  proceedings,  and  be 
quick  about  it.  On  26  December,  the  promoter  of  the 
case,  Rudemare,  be^^ged  Cambac^rds  to  submit  the 
matter  to  the  ecclesiastical  council  over  which  Fesch 
presided.  On  2  January,  1810,  Cambao^rds  sent  a  re- 
quest to  the  official,  Boislesve,  for  a  declaration  of 
nullity  of  the  marriage,  alleging,  this  time,  that  there 
had  been  absence  of  consent  on  Napoleon's  part.  On 
the  ne3ct  day  the  ecclesiastical  council  replied  that  if 
the  defect  of  Napoleon's  consent  could  be  proved  to 
the  officiality,  the  marriage  would  be  null  and  void. 
Cambac^rte  wished  to  produce  Fesch,  Talleyrand. 
Duroc,  and  Berthier  as  witnesses.  The  testimony  oi 
Fesch  was  very  confused;  he  explained  that  the  pope 
had  gpven  him  the  necessary  dispensations  to  bless  tne 
mama^;  that  two  da3rs  later  he  had  g^ven  Joeepbmt 
a  mamage  certificate;  that  the  emperor  had  then  up- 
braided him,  declaring  to  him  that  he  (the  emperor) 
had  only  agreed  to  this  marriage  in  order  to  quiet  the 
empress,  and  that  it  was,  moreover,  impossible  for 
him  to  renounce  his  hopes  of  direct  descendants.  T^ 
other  two  witnesses  told  how  Napoleon  had  repeatedly 
expressed  the  conviction  that  he  was  not  bound  by 
this  marriage  and  that  he  rep^arded  the  ceremonv  only 
as  ''a  mere  concession  to  circumstances  [acte  de  pun 
eiranutance]  which  ought  not  to  have  any  efiFect  in  the 
future". 

On  9  January  the  diocesan  authorities  declared  the 
marriage  null  and  void,  on  the  ground  of  the  afaaenoe 
of  the  lawful  puish  priest  and  of  witnesses^  it  pro- 
nounced this  decision  only  in  view  of  the  ''difficulty  in 
the  way  of  having  recourse  to  the  visible  head  of  the 
Church,  to  whom  it  has  always  belonged  in  fact  to 
pronounce  upon  these  extraordinary  cases."  The 
promoter  Rudemare  had  concluded  with  the  recom- 
mendation that  the  tribunal  should  at  least  lay  a  pie> 
cept  upon  the  two  parties  to  repair  the  defect  of  form 
which  nad  vitiatea  their  marria(;e;  Boilesve,  the  offi- 
cial, refrained  from  proffering  this  invitation.  Rude- 
mare then  appealed  to  the  metropolitan  authorities  on 
this  point.  On  12  January,  1810,  the  official,  Lejeas, 
wi^  much  greater  complaisance,  admitted  both  the 
grounds  of  nullity  advanced  by  Cambacdrds — ^that  is, 
not  only  the  defect  of  form,  but  also  the  defect  of  the 
emperor's  consent.  He  allesed  that  the  dvil  marriace 
of  Napoleon  and  Josephine  had  been  annulled  by  the 
decree  of  the  Senate,  that  by  the  concordatary  lawa 
(2oM  coneardatairea)  the  religious  marriage  ougjit  to 
follow  the  civil,  and  that  the  Church  could  not  now 
ask  two  parties  who  were  no  lon^  civilly  married  to 
repair  the  defects  of  form  in  their  rdigjous  marriage. 
Thus,  he  declared,  the  mamage  was  religiously  an- 
nulled. It  may  oe  noted  here  that  tlvs  Catholk 
Church  cannot  be  held  responsible  for  the  exoeasive 
oomplatsaaoe  shown  in  this  matter  by  the 


NIPOUON  695  NAFOLBOK 

cal  council  and  the  diooesan  authoritieB  of  Paris.   On  induce  them  to  apolodse  to  Napoleon,  who  received 

21  January,  1810,  Napoleon  resolved  to  ask  for  the  them,  told  them  that  the  pope  must  not  treat  him  as  a 

hand  of  Marie-Louise.    The  French  ambassador  at  roi  fcdniarUf  and  declared  that,  since  the  pope  was  not 

Vienna^  at  the  reouest  of  the  Archbishop  of  Vienna,  acting  up  to  the  Concordat  in  the  matter  of  mstitution 

gave  him  his  word  of  honour  that  the  sentence  pro-  of  bishops,  the  emperor,  on  his  ude,  renounced  the 

nounced  by  the  diocesan  authorities  of  Paris  was  legal.  Concoroat.    The  conditions  of  the  pope's  captivity 

At  last  all  the  religious  obstacles  to  the  celdbration  of  were  made  more  severe;  all  his  correspondencehad  to 

the  new  marriage  were  disposed  of.  pass  through  Paris,  to  be  inspected  dv  the  Govem- 

It  took  place  on  1  April,  1810,  but  thirteen  of  the  ment;  the  lock  of  his  desk  was  picked;  he  could  no 
cardinals  tnen  in  Paris  refuised  to  be  present.  These  longer  receive  visits  without  the  presence  of  witnesses; 
thirteen  cardinals  were  turned  away  when  Uiey  pre-  a  gendarme  demanded  of  him  the  ring  of  St.  Peter, 
sented  themselves  at  the  Tuileries  two  da3rs  later;  Uie  wmch  Pius  VII  surrendered  after  breaking  it  in  two. 
minister  of  public  worship  informed  them  that  they  Chi^rol,  the  pope's  custodian,  showed  him  the  ad- 
were  no  longer  cardinals,  that  they  no  longer  had  any  dresses  in  which  some  of  the  chapters  were  expressing 
right  to  wear  the  purple;  the  minister  of  police  for-  their  submission  to  the  emperor,  but  Pius  VII  was  in- 
warded  them,  two  by  two,  to  small  country  towns;  flexible.  A  commission  of  jurisconsults  in  Paris,  after 
their  pensions  were  suppressed,  their  property  se-  discussing  the  possibility  of  a  law  regulating  the  ca- 
questrated.  People  cimed  them  "ibe  olack  cardi-  nonical  institution  of  bishops  without  the  pope's  co- 
naJs".  The  bishops  and  priests  of  the  Roman  States  operation,  ended  by  deciding  that  to  pass  sucn  a  law 
were  treated  with  similar  violence;  nineteen  out  of  was  almost  equivalent  to  schism, 
thirty-two  bishops  refused  the  oath  of  allegiance  to  the  Napoleon  was  not  willing  to  go  so  far.  He  sum- 
emperor,  and  were  imprisoned,  while  a  certain  num-  moned  the  ecclesiastical  council  which  he  had  already 
ber  of  non-iuring  parochial  clergy  were  interned  in  established  and,  8  February,  1811,  proposed  to  it 
Corsica,  ana  the  emperor  annoimced  his  intention  of  these  two  questions:  (1)  Ail  commumcation  be- 
redudng  the  number  of  dioceses  and  parishes  in  the  tween  the  pope  and  the  emperor's  subjects  being  in- 
Roman  States  by  three-fourths.  This  policy  of  bitter  terrupted,  to  whom  must  recourse  be  had  for  the  dis- 
persecution  coincided  with  fresh  overtures  to  his  pris-  pensations  ordinarily  granted  by  the  Holy  See?  (2) 
oner,  the  pope,  throuygh  the  Austrian  diplomat  Lebsel-  What  canonical  means  is  there  of  providing  institu- 
tem  (May,  1810) .  ^us  VII's  reply  was  that,  to  ne^o-  tion  for  bishops  when  the  pope  refuses  it?  Fesch  and 
tiate,  he  must  be  free  and  able  to  communicate  with  Emery  tried  to  sway  the  council  towards  some  courses 
the  cardinals.  In  July  Napoleon  sent  Cardinals  which  would  save  the  papal  prerogative.  But  the 
Spina  and  Caselli  to  Savona,  but  they  obtained  noth-  majority  of  the  council  answered:  (1)  That  recourse 
ing  from  the  pope.  There  had  been  no  solution  of  the  might  be  had,  provisionally,  to  the  bishops  for  the 
internal  crisis  of  the  Church  of  France;  while  Pius  VII  diroensations  m  question;  (2)  That  a  clause  might  be 
was  a  prisoner  the  bishops  were  not  to  receive  canon-  adaed  to  the  Concordat  stipulating  that  the  pope 
ical  institution.  Bigot  de  Pr^^uneneu  and  Maury  sug-  must  tfnnt  canonical  institution  within  a  stated 
gested  to  the  emperor  a  possible  arrangement:  to  in-  time:  failing  which,  the  right  of  institution  would 
vite  the  chapter  in  each  diocese  to  designate  the  bishop  devolve  upon  the  coimcil  of  the  province;  and  that, 
who  had  been  nominated,  but  not  yet  canonically  in-  if  the  pope  rejected  this  amendment  of  the  Concordat, 
stituted,  provisional  administrator.  Fesch  refused  to  the  Pragmatic  Sanction  would  have  to  be  revived  so 
lend  himself  to  this  e3q>edient  and  occupy  the  Arch-  far  as  concerned  bishops.  The  council  added  that, 
bishopric  of  Paris;  but  a  certain  number  of  nominated  if  the  pope  persisted  in  nis  refusal,  the  possibility  of  a 
bishops  did  go  to  their  episcopal  cities  in  the  capacity  public  abolition  of  the  Concordat  by  the  emperor 
of  provisional  administrators.  Going  one  step  fur-  would  have  to  be  considered;  but  that  these  questions 
ther,  Napoleon  removed  Maury  from  uie  See  of  Mon-  could  be  broached  only  by  a  national  council,  after 
tefiascone,  and  d'Osmond  from  that  of  Nancy,  and  had  one  last  attempt  at  negotiation  with  the  pope, 
them  desiigpated  by  the  respective  chapters  provi-  On  16  March,  1811,  Napoleon  summoned  to  the 
aional  administrators  of  the  two  vacant  Archdioceses  Tuileries  the  members  of  the  council  and  several  of 
of  Paris  and  Florence.  Maury  and  d'Osmond,  at  the  the  great  dignitaries  of  the  empire;  invei^ng  bitterly 
emperor's  bidding,  left  the  dioceses  given  them  by  the  against  the  pope,  he  proclaim^  that  the  Concordat  no 
pope  to  install  themselves  in  these  archdioceses.  longer  existed  and  that  he  was  going  to  convoke  a 

Despite  the  rigour  of  his  captivity,  Pius  VII  was  council  of  the  West.  At  this  meeting  Emery,  who 
able  to  make  known  the  pontlncal  commands  to  Car-  died  on  28  April,  boldly  faced  Napoleon,  quotmg  to 
dinal  di  Pietro  at  Semur:  a  secret  agency  at  Lyons,  him  passages  from  Bossuet  on  the  necessity  of  the 
established  by  certain  members  of  the  Congregation,  pope%  liberty.  Pius  VII  not  yielding  to  a  last  sum- 
devised  ingemous  ways  of  facilitating  these  communica-  mons  on  the  part  of  Chabrol,  the  council  was  convoked 
tions  as  well  as  the  circulation  of  Bulls.  In  Novem-  on  25  April  to  meet  on  9  Jime.  By  this  step  Napoleon 
ber,  1810,  the  Court  was  stupefied  with  the  news  that  expected  to  subdue  the  pope  to  his  will.  In  pursuance 
two  Bulls  of  Pius  VII,  addressed  to  the  Chapters  of  of  a  plan  outlined  by  the  philosopher  Gerando,  Archr 
Florence  and  Paris,  forbade  their  recognizing  d'Os-  bidiop  Barral,  and  Bishops  Duvoisin  and  Mannay 
mond  and  Maury.  The  imperial  fury  was  let  loose,  were  sent  to  Pius  VII  to  gam  him  over  on  the  Question 
On  1  January.  1811,  Napoleon,  during  an  audience  to  of  the  Bulls  of  institution.  They  were  joined  by  the 
Maury  and  the  canons,  demanded  an  explanation  Bishop  of  Faensa,  and  arrived  at  oavona  on  9  May. 
from  d' Astros,  the  vicar  capitular,  who  had  received  At  first  the  pope  refused  to  discuss  the  matter,  not 
the  Bull,  telling  him  that  there  is  ''as  much  difference  being  free  to  communicate  with  his  cardinals.  But 
between  the  religion  of  Bossuet  and  that  of  Gregory  the  bishops  and  Chabrol  insisted,  and  the  pope's  phy- 
VII  as  between  heaven  and  hell";  d' Astros,  taken  by  sidan  added  his  efforts  to  theirs.  They  represented 
Maury  himself  to  police  headquarters,  was  imprisoned  that  the  Church  was  becoming  disorganized.  At  the 
at  Vincennes.  At  the  Council  of  State,  4  January,  end  of  nine  da3rs,  the  pope,  who  was  neither  eating 
1811,  Portalis,  a  relative  of  d' Astros,  was  openly  ao-  nor  drinking  anything,  being  very  much  fatigued,  con- 
cused  of  treason  by  Napoleon^  and  immediately  put  sented,  not  to  ratify,  but  to  take  as  "  a  basis  of  negotia- 
out  of  the  council  chamber  (with  a  brutaUty  that  the  tion"  a  note  drawn  up  by  the  four  bishops  to  the  purport 
emperor  afterwards  regretted)  and  was  then  ordered  that^  in  case  of  persistent  refusal  on  his  part,  canoni- 
to  quit  Paris.  Cardinals  di  Pietro,  Oppiszone,  and  cal  institution  Busht  be  given  to  bishops  after  six 
Gabrielli,  and  the  priests  Fontana  and  Crr^ri,  former  months.  On  20  May,  at  four  o'clock  in  tne  morning, 
counsellotB  of  the  pope,  were  thrown  into  prison,  the  bishops  started  for  Paris  with  this  note;  at  seven 
Maury  used  his  influence  with  the  canons  of  Paris  to  o'dook  the  pope  summoned  Chabrol  and  told  him 


KIPOUON                           606  NAFOLION 

that  be  did  not  accept  the  note  in  any  definitive  senBe.  will  diasolve  the  council.  You  are  a  pack  of  fools  ^, 
that  he  congidered  it  only  a  eJcetch,  and  that  he  had  Then,  on  second  thought,  he  informed  the  councO 
made  no  fonnal  promise.  He  also  adced  that  a  oou-  that  Pius  VII  by  wa^r  ot  concession,  had  formally 
rier  should  be  sent  after  the  bishops  to  warn  them  of  promised  canonical  institution  to  the  vacant  bishoprics 
this.  The  courier  bearing  this  message  overtook  the  and  had  approved  a  clause  enabling  the  metropohtans 
bishops  at  Turin  on  24  May.  Pius  VII  warned  Cha-  themselves  in  future,  after  six  months  vacancy  of  any 
brol  that  if  the  first  note  were  exploited  as  represent-  see,  to  give  canonical  institution.  Napoleon  required 
ing  an  arrangement  definitely  accepted  by  Uie  pope,  the  council  to  issue  a  note  to  this  effect  and  sent  a 
he  ''would  make  a  noise  that  should  resound  through  deputation  to  thank  the  pope.  First  the  committee 
the  whole  Christian  world".  Napoleon,  in  his  blind-  voted  as  the  emperor  wished,  then  on  more  mature 
ness,  resolved  to  do  without  the  pope  and  put  all  his  consideration,  suspecting  some  stratagem  on  the  em- 
hopes  in  the  council.  peror's  part,  it  recalled  its  vote,  and,  on  10  July,  Him, 
Council  o/ 1811. — The  council  convoked  fortune,  Bishop  of  Toumai,  speaking  for  the  committee,  pio- 
1811,  was  not  opened  at  Notre-Dame  until  17  Jime,  posed  to  the  council  that  no  decision  be  made  until  a 
the  opening  being  postponed  on  account  of  the  bap-  deputation  had  been  sent  to  the  pope.  Then,  on  the 
tism  of  the  King  of  Rome,  just  bom  of  Marie-Louise,  morning  of  11  Julv,  Napoleon  pronounced  the  council 
Paternal  pride  and  the  seemingly  assured  destinies  dissolved.  The  following  nignt  Broglie,  Him,  and 
of  his  throne,  rendered  Napoleon  still  more  inflexible  Boulogne  were  imprisoned  at  Vinoennes.  The  em- 
in  regard  to  the  pope.  Only  since  1905  has  the  truth  peror  next  thoug}it  of  turning  over  the  administration 
about  this  council  been  known,  thanks  to  Welschin-  of  the  dioceses  to  the  prefects,  but  presently  took  the 

fer's  researches.    Under  the  Second  Empire,  when  advice  of  Maury,  vis.,  to  have  all  the  members  of  the 

>'HaussonviUe  wrote  his  work  on  the  Roman  Church  council  called  up,  one  by  one,  by  the  minister  of  pub- 

and  the  First  Empire  (see  below)  Marshal  Valiant  lie  worship,  and  their  personal  assent  to  the  imperial 

had  refused  him  all  access  to  the  archives  of  the  coun-  project  obtained  in  this  way.    After  fifteen  days  de- 

cil.   These  archives  Welschinger  was  able  to  consult,  voted  to  conversations  between  the  minister  and  oer- 

Boulogne,  Bishop  of  Troyes,  in  his  opening  sermon  tain  of  the  bishops,  the  emperor  reconvoked  the  coun- 

affirmed  the  solidaritv  of  the  pope  and  the  bishops,  cil  for  5  August,  and  the  council,  b^  a  vote  of  80  to  13, 

while  Fesch,  as  president  of  the  council,  made  all  its  passed  the  decree  by  which  canomcal  institution  was 

members  swear  obedience  and  fidelity  to  Pius  VII.  to  be  nven  within  six  months^  either  by  the  pope  or,  if 

Upon  this  Napoleon  gave  Fesch  a  sound  rating,  on  he  refused,  by  the  metropohtan.    The  bicuiops  who 

the  evening  of  19  June,  at  Saint-Cloud.    The  emperor  passed  this  decree  tried  to  palliate  their  weakness  by 

had  packed  his  council  in  very  arbitrary  fashion,  saving  that  they  had  no  idea  of  committing  an  act  of 

choomng  only  42  out  of  150  Italian  bishops  to  mix  reoelbon.  but  formallv  asked  for,  and  hoped  to  obtain, 

with  the  French  bishops,  with  a  view  to  oecumenical  the  pope  s  assent.    Napoleon  believed  himself  victori- 

effect.    A  private  bulletin  sent  to  the  emperor,  24  ous;  he  held  in  his  hands  the  means  of  circumventing 

June,  noted  that  the  fathers  of  the  council  themselves  the  pope  and  organizing  without  his  co-operation  the 

were  generally  impressed  with  a  sense  of  restraint,  administration  of  French  and  Italian  dioceses.    He 

The  opposition  to  the  emperor  was  verv  firmly  led  had  brought  the  Sacred  CoUege,  the  Dataria,  the  Peni- 

by  Broglie,  Bishop  of  Ghent,  secondea  by  Avian,  tentiary,  and  the  Vatican  Archives  to  Paris,  and  had 

Archbishop  of  Bordeaux,  Dessole,  Bie^op  of  Cham-  spent  several  millions  in  improving  the  archic^iscopal 

b^ry,  and  Him,  Bishop  of  Toumai.    The  first  general  palace  which  he  meant  to  make  the  pontifical  palace, 

assembly  of  the  council  was  held  on  20  June.    Bigot  He  wished  to  remove  the  H6tel-Dieu,  install  the  de- 

de  Prdameneu  and  Marescalchi,  ministers  of  public  partments  of  the  Roman  Curia  in  its  place,  and  make 

worship  for  France  and  Italy,  were  present  and  read  the  quarter  of  Notre-Dame  and  the  Isle  de  Saint- 

the  imperial  message,  one  draft  of  which  had  been  re-  Louis  the  capital  of  Catholicism.    But  his  victor3r  was 

jected  by  Napoleon  as  too  moderate.    The  final  only  apparent:  to  make  the  decree  of  the  national 

version  displeased  all  the  bishops  who  had  any  regard  council  valid,  the  pope's  ratification  was  needed,  and 

for  the  papd  dij^nity.    Napoleon  in  this  document  once  more  the  resistance  of  Pius  VII  was  to  hold  the 

demanded  that  bishops  should  be  instituted  in  accord-  emperor  in  check. 

ance  with  the  forms  which  had  obtained  before  the  On  17  August  Napoleon  commissioned  the  Arch- 
Concordat,  no  see  to  be  vacant  for  longer  than  three  bishops  of  Tours  ana  Mechlin,  the  Patriarch  of  Ven- 
months,  "more  than  sufficient  time  for  appointing  ice,  the  Bishops  of  Evreux,  Trie^  Fdtro,  and  Piacenxa 
a  new  incumbent".  He  wished  the  council  to  present  to  ^  to  Savona  and  demand  of  the  pope  his  full  ad- 
an  address  to  him,  and  the  committee  tiiat  f^ould  hesiontothedecreeof  6  August;  and  the  bishops  were 

{>repare  this  address  to  be  composed  of  the  four  pre-  even  to  be  precise  in  stating  that  the  decree  applied  to 

ates  he  had  sent  to  Savona.    Tjie  address,  which  was  episcopal  sees  in  the  former  Papal  States,  so  that,  in 

prepared  in  advance  by  Duvoisin,  one  of  these  four  giving  his  assent^  Pius  VII  should  by  implication  as- 

prelates,  was  an  expression  of  assent  to  Napoleon's  sent  to  the  abohtion  of  the  temporal  power.    That 

wishes.    But  the  council  decided  to  have  on  the  com-  Pius  VII  might  not  allege  the  absence  of  the  cardinals 

mittee  besides  these  four  prelates,  some  other  bidiops  as  a  reason  for  postponing  his  decisions,  Napoleon  sent 

chosen  by  secret  ballot,  and  among  the  latter  figured  to  Savona  five  carninala  on  whom  he  could  rely  (Ro- 

Broglie.    Brodie  discussed  Duvoisin's  draft  and  had  verella,    Du|pani,   Fabrisio   Ruffo,    Bajanne,   and 

a  number  of  changes  made  in  it,  and  Fesch  had  some  Doria),  with  instmctions  to  support  the  bishops.  The 

trouble  in  keeping  the  committee  from  at  once  de-  emperor's  artifice  was  successful.    On  6  September, 

manding  the  Uberation  of  the  pope.    The  address,  as  1811,  Pius  VII  declared  himself  readv  to  yidd,  and 

voted,  was  nonsensical.    It  was  not  what  Napoleon  charged  Roverella  to  draw  up  a  Brief  approving  the 

expected,  and  the  audience  which  he  was  to  have  Decree  of  5  August,  and  on  20  September  the  pope 

given  to  the  members  of  the  council  on  30  June,  did  signed  the  Brief.    But  even  then,  the  Brief  as  it  was. 

not  take  place.  was  not  what  Napoleon  wanted:  Pius  VII  abetainea 

Another  committee  was  appointed  by  the  council  from  recognizing  the  council  as  a  national  coondl,  he 

to  inquire  into  the  pope's  views  on  the  institution  of  treated  tJie  Chmt)h  of  Rome  as  the  mistress  of  all  the 

bishops.    After  a  conflict  of  ten  da3rs,  Broglie  secured  Churches,  and  did  not  specify  that  the  decree  ai^lied 

against  Duvoisin,  bv  a  vote  of  8  to  4,  a  resolution  to  to  the  bishoprics  of  the  Ivoman  States;  he  also  required 

the  effect  that,  in  this  matter,  nothiiuE  must  be  done  that,  when  a  metropolitan  gave  canonical  institutioo, 

without  the  pope,  and  that  the  oouncu  ou^  to  send  it  should  be  ^ven  in  the  naaoeof  the  pope.    Napolean 

him  a  deputation  to  learn  what  was  his  wiU.    Napo-  did  not  publish  the  Brief.    On  17  October  he  (wdered 

leon  was  furious  and  said  to  Fesch  and  Barral:  "I  the  deputation  of  ptelatea  to  notify  the  pope  that  the 


NAPOLEON  697  NAPOLEON 

decree  applied  equally  to  bishoprics  in  the  Roman  and  gave  not  the  least  indication  of  being  ready  to 
States.  This  interpretation  Pius  VII  then  formally  yield  to  Napoleon's  demands, 
repudiated,  and  announced  once  more  that  any  fur-  Napoleon  definitely  declared  war  against  the  tsar 
ther  decision  on  his  part  would  be  postponed  until  he  on  22  June.  1812.  The  issue  was  soon  seen  to  be 
should  have  with  him  a  suitable  number  of  cardinals,  dubious.  The  Russians  devastated  the  whole  coun- 
Napoleon  first  wreaked  his  irritation  on  the  Bishops  of  try  in  advance  of  the  French  armies,  and  avoided 
Ghent,  Toumid,  and  Troyes.  whom  he  forced  to  resign  pitched  battles  as  much  as  possible.  The  victory  of 
their  sees  and  caused  to  be  deported  to  various  towns,  Borodino  (7  September,  1812),  an  extremely  bloody 
then,  on  3  December,  he  declared  the  Brief  unaccept-  one,  opened  to  Napoleon  the  gates  of  Moscow  (14 
able,  and  charged  tne  prelates  to  ask  for  another.  September,  1812).  He  had  expected  to  pass  the  win- 
Pius  VII  refused.  ter  there,  but  the  conflagration  brought  about  by  the 

On  9  January,  1812,  the  prelates  informed  the  pope,  Russians  forced  him  to  retrace  his  steps  westward,  and 
from  die  emperor,  that,  if  tne  pope  resisted  any  longer,  the  retreat  of  the  "  Grande  Armde"  so  heroically  cov- 
tiie  emperor  would  act  on  his  own  discretion  in  the  ered  by  Marshal  Ney,  cost  France  the  lives  of  number- 
matter  of  the  institution  of  bishops.  Pius  VII  sent  a  less  soldierB.  The  passage  of  the  Beresina  was  glori- 
personal  reply  to  the  emperor,  to  the  effect  that  he  ous.  As  far  as  Lithuania,  Napoleon  shared  the  suffer- 
(the  pope)  needed  a  more  numerous  council  and  f acil-  ings  of  his  army,  then  he  hastened  to  Paris,  where  he 
ity  ot  communication  with  the  faithful,  and  that  he  suppressed  General  Malet's  conspiracy  and  prepared  a 
would  then  do, ''  to  meet  the  emperor's  wishes^  all  that  new  war  for  the  year  1813.  When  he  set  out  for  Prus- 
was  consistent  with  the  duties  of  his  Apostolic  minis-  sia  it  was  his  idea  to  extend  his  march  beyond  that 
try."  By  way  of  rejoinder.  Napoleon  dictated  to  his  country^  through  Asia  to  India,  to  knock  over  ''the 
minister  of  public  worship,  on  9  February,  an  extraor-  scaffolomg  of  mercantile  greatness  raised  by  the  Eng- 
dinarily  vehement  letter,  addressed  to  the  deputation  lish.  and  strike  Ensland  to  the  heart ".  "After  this  ",  he 
of  prelates.  In  it  he  refused  to  give  Pius  VII  his  lib-  declared,  "it  will  be  possible  to  settle  eveiything  and 
erty  or  to  let  the  "black  cardinals"  go  back  to  him;  he  have  done  with  this  business  of  Rome  and  the  pope, 
made  known  that  if  the  pope  persisted  in  the  refusal  to  The  cathedral  of  Paris  will  become  that  of  the  Catho- 
govem  the  Church,  they  would  do  without  the  pope;  lie  world.  ...  If  Boesuet  were  living  now,  he  would 
and  he  advised  the  pope,  in  insulting  terms,  to  abdi-  have  been  Archbishop  of  Paris  lonp  ago,  and  the  pope 
cate.  Chabrol,  the  prefect  of  Montenotte,  read  this  would  still  be  at  the  Vatican,  which  would  be  much 
letter  to  Pius  VII,  and  advised  him  to  surrender  the  better  for  everybody,  for  then  there  would  be  no  pon- 
tiara.  "Never",  was  the  pope's  answer.  Then  on  23  tifical  throne  higher  than  that  of  Notre-Dame,  and 
February,  Chabrol  notified  the  pope,  in  the  emperor's  Paris  could  not  fear  Rome.  With  such  a  president,  I 
name,  that  Napoleon  considered  the  Concordats  abro-  would  hold  a  Council  of  Nicsea  in  Gaul." 
^ated,  and  that  he  would  no  longer  permit  the  pope  to  But  the  failure  of  the  Russian  campaign  upset  all 
mterf ere  in  any  way  in  the  canonical  institution  of  the  these  dreams.  The  emperor's  haughty  attitude 
bishops.  Pius  VII  answered  that  he  would  not  change  towards  the  Church  was  now  modified.  On  29  De- 
his  attitude.  Mme  de  Stael  wrote  to  Henri  Meister :  oember,  1812,  he  wrote  with  his  own  hand  an  affection- 
"  What  a  power  is  religion  which  gives  strength  to  the  ate  letter  to  the  pope  expressing  a  desire  to  end  the 
weak  when  all  that  was  strong  has  lost  its  strength! "  quarrel.  Duvoisin  was  sent  to  Fontainebleau  to  nego- 
The  difference  between  the  pope  and  the  emperor  nat-  tiate  a  Concordat.  Napoleon's  demands  were  these: 
urally  reacted  upon  the  feelings  of  the  clergy  towards  the  pope  must  swear  to  do  nothing  against  Uie  four 
Napoleon,  and  upon  the  emperor's  policy  towards  re-  articles:  he  must  condemn  the  behaviour  of  the  black 
ligion.  From  this  time  Napoleon  refused  the  semi-  cardinals  towards  the  emperor;  he  must  allow  the 
v>arists  any  exemption  from  military  service.  He  made  Catholic  sovereigns  to  choose  two-thirds  of  the  candi- 
stricter  the  university  monopoly  of  teaching,  and  nals,  take  up  his  residence  in  Paris,  accept  the  decree 
Broglie,  Bishop  of  Ghent,  who,  after  leaving  the  prison  of  the  council  on  the  canonical  institution  of  bishops, 
of  Vincennes,  nad  continued  to  correspond  with  his  and  agree  to  its  application  to  the  bishoprics  of  the 
clergy,  was  sent  to  the  Island  of  Sainte-Margue-  Roman  States.  Pius  VII  spent  ten  da3rs  discussing 
rite.  the  matter.    On  18  January,  1813,  the  emperor  him- 

Last  Great  Wars :   Concordat  of  Fontainebleau. —  self  came  to  Fontainebleau  and  spent  many  days  in 

At  this  time  Napoleon  was  absolutely  drunk  with  stormy  interviews  with  the  pope  though,  according  to 

power.    The  French  Empire  had  130  departments;  Pius  Vll's  own  statement  to  Count  Paul  Van  der 

the  Kingdom  of  Italy  2^.    The  seven  provinces  of  Vrecken,  on  27  September,  1814,  Napoleon  committed 

Illjrria  were  subject  to  France.    The  rigour  of  the  no  act  of  violence  asainst  the  pope.    On  25  January, 

Continental  blockade  was  ruining  English  commerce  1813,  a  new  ConcoroiEit  was  signea.   In  it  there  was  no 

and  embarrassing  the  European  states.     The  tsar  mention  either  of  the  Four  Articles,  or  of  the  nomina- 

would  have  likea  Napoleon,  master  of  the  West,  to  tion  of  cardinals  by  the  Catholic  sovereip;ns,  or  of  the 

leave  him  freedom  of  action  in  Poland  and  Turkey;  pope's  place  of  residence:  the  six  suburbican  dioceses 

enraged  at  receiving  no  such  concessions,  he  ap-  were  left  at  the  pope's  disposition,  and  he  could  more- 

proached  England.    The  French  armies  in  Spain  were  over  provide  directly  for   ten  bishoprics,  either  in 

exhausting  their  strength  in  a  savage  and  ineffectual  France  or  in  Italy— on  all  these  points  Napoleon  made 

war  against  a  ceaseless  uprising  of  the  native  popular  concessions.    But  on  the  other  hand,  the  pope  con- 

tion;  nevertheless  Napoleon  resolved  to  attack  Russia  firmed  the  decree  of  the  Council  of  1811  on  the  canoni- 

also.    At  Dresden,  from  March  to  June,  1812,  he  held  cal  institution  of  bishops. 

a  congress  of  kings,  and  prepared  for  war.    It  was  at        According  to  the  verv  words  of  its  preamble,  this 

Dresden,  in  May,  1812,  tnat,  under  pretext  of  satisfy-  Concordat  was  intended  only  "to  serve  as  basis  for  a 

ing  the  demands  of  Francis  Joseph  for  gentler  treat-  definitive  arrangement".    But,  on  13  February,  Na- 

ment  of  the  pope,  Napoleon  decided  to  Imve  Pius  VII  poleon  had  it  published,  just  as  it  stood,  as  a  law  of  the 

removed  from  Savona  to  Fontainebleau;  the  fact  is  state.    This  was  very  unfair  towards  Pius  VII:  the 

that  he  was  afraid  the  English  would  attempt  a  coup  emperor  had  no  right  to  convert  "preliminary  arti- 

de  main  on  Savona  and  carry  off  the  pope.    After  a  cles"  thus  into  a  definitive  act.    On  9  February  the 

journey  the  painful  incidents  of  which  have  been  re-  imprisoned  cardinals  had  been  liberated  by  Napoleon; 

lated  by  d'Haussonville,  following  a  manuscript  in  the  going  to  Fontainebleau,  they  had  found  Pius  VII  very 

British  Museum,  Pius  VII  reached  Fontainebleau  on  anxious  on  the  subject  of  the  signature  he  had  given, 

19  June.    Equipages  were  placed  at  his  disposal,  he  and  which  he  regretted.    With  the  advice  of  Consalvi, 

was  desired  to  appear  in  public  and  officiate;  but  he  re-  he  prepared  to  retract  the  "preliminary  articles".  In 

fused,  led  a  sohtary  life  in  the  interior  of  the  palace,  his  letter  of  24  March  to  Napoleon  he  reproached  him- 


NAPOLEON                             698  NAPOLEON 

lelf  for  having  signed  these  articles  and  disavowed  the  pope,  Napoleon  sent  orders  to  Lagorse,  who  was  lak« 
signature  he  nadf  given.  Napoleon  had  failed  egre-  mg  faim  tnrough  the  south  of  France,  to  let  him  make 
giously.  He  did  not  listen  to  the  advice  of  the  Comte  his  way  to  Italy.  On  10  March  the  prefect  of  Monte- 
de  Narbonne,  who,  in  a  letter  drafted  by  young  Ville-  notte  received  orders  to  have  the  pope  conducted  as 
main,  expressed  the  opinion  that  the  pope  ought  to  far  as  the  Austrian  outposts  in  the  territory  of  Pia- 
be  set  at  liberty  and  sent  back  to  Rome.  It  has  been  cenza.  The  captivity  of  Pius  VII  was  at  an  end. 
claimed  that  Napoleon  had  said  to  his  ministers  of  The  war  was  resumed  immediately  after  the  Con- 
State:  "  If  I  don't  knock  the  head  off  the  shoulders  of  gress  of  Chatillon.  In  five  days  Napoleon  gave  battle 
some  of  those  priests  at  Fontainebleau,  matters  will  to  BlUcher  four  times  at  ChampauD^t.  Montminul, 
never  be  arranged."  This  is  a  l^;end|  on  the  con-  Chateau-Thierry,  and  Vauchamp,  and  hurled  him 
trary,  he  ordered  the  minister  of  pubhc  worship  to  back  on  Chalons;  against  Schwarzenberg  he  fought  the 
keep  secret  the  letter  of  24  March.  Immediately,  act-  battles  of  Guigues,  Mormant,  Nangis,  and  M^y,  thus 
ing  on  his  own  authority,  he  declared  the  Concordat  opening  the  way  to  Troyes.  But  Lyons  was  taken  by 
of  Fontainebleau  binding  on  the  Church,  and  filled  the  Austrians,  Bordeaux  by  the  English  Exhausted 
twelve  vacant  sees.  On  5  April  he  had  Cardinal  di  as  he  was.  Napoleon  beat  BlQcher  again  at  Craonne 
Retro  removed  from  Fontaineoleau  and  threatened  to  (7  March),  retook  Reims  and  Epemay,  and  oontem- 
do  the  same  for  Cardinal  Pacca.  plated  cutting  off  the  retreat  of  Bllicher  andSchwar- 

In  the  Dioceses  of  Ghent,  Troyes^  and  Toumai,  the  zenberg  on  the  Rhine.  He  caused  a  general  levy  to  be 
chapters  regarded  the  bishops  appomted  by  Napoleon  decreed;  but  the  Allies  had  their  agents  in  Paris, 
as  intruders.  The  irregular  measures  of  the  emperor  Marmont  and  Mortier  caoitulated.  On  31  March 
only  exasperated  the  resistance  of  the  clergy.  The  the  Allies  entered  Paris.  On  3  April  the  Senate  de- 
Belgian  clergy,  warned  by  Coimt  Van  der  Vrecken  of  clared  Napoleon  dethroned.  Returning  to  Fontaine- 
the  pope's  retractation,  b^an  to  agitate  against  theim-  bleau,  the  emperor,  determined  to  try  one  last  ^ort, 
perial  policy.  Meanwhile,  on  25  April,  1813,  Napo-  was  stopped  by  the  defection  of  Marmont's  corps  at 
Icon  assumed  command  of  the  Army  of  Germany.  Essonnes.  On  20  April  he  left  Fontainebleau;  on  4 
The  victories  of  Lutzen  (2  May)  and  Bautzen  (19-22  May  he  was  in  Elba. 

May)  weakened  the  Prussian  and  Russian  troops.  At  the  end  of  ten  months,  leamii^  of  the  unpopu- 

But  the  emperor  made  the  mistakes  of  accepting  tne  larity  of  the  regime  foimded  •  in  france  by  Ix>ui8 

mediation  of  Austria — only  a  device  to  gain  time —  XVIII,    Napoleon   secretly   left    Elba,    landed    at 

and  of  consenting  to  hold  the  Congress  of  Prague  Cannes  (1  March,  1815),  and  went  in  triumph  from 

(July).    A  letter  from  Pius  VII,  secreUy  carried  in  the  Grenoble  to  Paris  (20  March,  1815).    Louis  XVIII 

face  of  manv  dangers  by  Van  der  Vrecken,  warned  the  fled  to  Ghent.    Then  began  the  Hundred  Days. 

Congress  of  Prague  that  the  pope  formally  rejected  Napoleon  desired  to  give  France  liberty  and  religious 

the  articles  of  25  January.     Napoleon    continued  peace  forthwith.    On  the  one  hand,  by  the  Ade 

nevertheless  to  send  from  his  heaoquarters  with  the  Addiiionnelf  he  guaranteed  the  country  a  oonstitu- 

army  severe  orders  calculated  to  overcome  the  resist-  tional  Government;  on  the  other  hand  (4  April,  1815). 

ance  of  the  Belgian  clergy:  on  6  August  he  caused  the  he  caused  the  Duke  of  Vicensa  to  write  to  Cardinal 

director  of  the  seminarv  of  Ghent  to  be  imprisoned,  Pacca,  and  he  himself  wrote  to  Pius  VII,  letters  in  a 

and  all  the  students  to  be  taken  to  Magdeburg;  on  14  pacific  spirit,  while  Isoard,  auditor  of  the  Rota,  was 

August  he  had  the  canons  of  Toumai  arrested.    But  commissioned  to  treat  with  the  pope  in  his  name, 

his  perils  were  increasing.   Joseph  had  beoi  driven  out  But  the  Coalition  was  re-formed.    Napoleon  had 

of  Spain.    Bemadotte,  King  of  Sweden,  one  of  Napo-  118,000  recruits  against  more  than  800^000  soldiers; 

leon^s  own  veterans,  was  driving  the  French  troops  out  he  beat  Bltlcher  at  Lignv  (16  June),  whilst  Ney  beat 

of  Stndsund.    Under  Schwarzenberi^,  Blilcher  and  Wellington  at  Quatre  Bras;  next  aay,  at  Waterloo, 

Bemadotte,  three  armies  were  forming  against  the  Napoleon  was  victorious  over  BQlow  and  Wellington 

emperor.    He  had  but  280,000  men  against  500,000.  until  seven  o'clock  in  the  evening,  but  the  arrival  of 

He  was  victor  at  Dresden  (27  August),  but  his  gen-  30,000  Prussians,  under  BlQcher,  resulted  in  the  em- 

erals  were  falling  away  on  all  sides.    He  was  deserted  peror's  defeat.    He  abdicated  in  favour  of  his  son, 

bv  the  Bavarian  contingents  in  the  celebrated  ''Battle  set  out  for  Rochefort.  and  claimed  the  hospitality  of 

of  the  Nations"  at  Leipzig  (18-19  October),  the  defec-  England.    En^^and  declared  him  the  prisoner  of  the 

tion  of  the  Wurtembergers  and  the  Saxons  was  the  Couition  and,  in  spite  of  his  protests,  nad  him  taken 

chief  cause  of  his  defeat.    The  victories  of  Hanau  (30  to  the  Island  of  St.  Helena.    There  he  remained  until 

October)  and  Hocheim  (2  November)  enabled  his  his  death,  strictly  watched  by  Hudson  Lowe,  and 

troops  to  get  back  to  France,  but  the  Allies  were  soon  dictated  to  General  Montholon,  Gourgaud,  ana  Ber- 

to  enter  that  land.  trand  those  ''Mdmoires"  which  entitle  him  to  a  place 

Liberation  of  the  Pope:  End  of  the  Empire. — The  among  the  great  writers.  Las  Casas,  at  the  same 
liberation  of  the  pope  figured  on  the  programme  of  the  time,  wrote  day  by  day.  the  "Memorial  de  Sainte- 
Allies.  In  vain  did  the  eniperor  send  the  Marchesa  di  H^l^ne",  a  journal  of  tne  emperor's  conveiBations. 
Brignoli  to  Consalvi,  and  Fallot  de  Beaumont,  Arch-  In  the  first  of  his  captivity.  Napoleon  complained  to 
bishop  of  Bourges,  to  Pius  VII,  to  open  negotiations.  Montholon  of  having  no  chaplain.  **  It  would  rest 
In  vain,  on  18  January,  1814,  when  he  leamed  that  my  soul  to  hear  Mass^',  he  said.  Pius  VII  petitioned 
Murat  had  gone  over  to  the  Allies  and  occupied  the  England  to  accede  to  Napoleon's  wish,  andf  the  Abb^ 
Roman  provinces  on  his  own  account,  did  he  offer  to  Vignali  became  his  chaplain.  On  20  AprijL  1S21, 
restore  the  Papal  States  to  Pius  VII.  Pius  VII  de-  Napoleon  said  to  him:  "I  was  bom  in  the  Catholic 
clared  that  sucn  a  restitution  was  an  act  of  justice,  and  religion.  I  wish  to  fulfil  the  duties  it  irnposesL  and 
could  not  be  made  the  subject  of  a  treaty.  Mean-  receive  the  succour  it  administers."  To  Montholon 
time,  BlQcher  and  Schwarzenberg  were  advancing  he  affirmed  his  belief  in  God,  read  aloud  the  Old 
through  Burgundy.  On  24  January,  Lagorse,  the  Testament,  the  Gospels,  and  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles, 
commandant  of  gendarmes  who  had  guardea  Pius  VII  He  spoke  of  Pius  VII  as  "an  old  man  full  of  toieranoe 
for  four  years,  announced  to  him  that  he  was  about  to  and  light " .  "  Fatal  circumstances '',  he  added,  **  em- 
take  him  back  to  Rome.  The  pope  was  conveyed  by  broiled  our  cabinets.  I  regret  it  exceedingly."  Lord 
short  stages  through  southem  and  central  France.  Rosebery  has  attached  much  importance  to  the 
Napoleon  defeated  the  Allies  at  Siunt-Disier  and  at  paradoxes  with  which  the  emperor  used  to  tease 
Brienne  (27-29  January,  1814),  the  princes  offered  Gourmand,  and  amused  himself  in  maintaining  the 
peace  on  condition  that  Napoleon  should  restore  the  supenority  of  Mohammedanism,  Protestantism,  or 
Doundaries  of  France  to  what  they  were  in  1792.  He  Materialism.  One  dav,  when  he  had  been  talking 
reused.    As  the  Allies  demanded  the  liberation  of  the  in  this  strain^  Montholon  said  to  him:  **  I  know  that 


HIPOLBON  099  NIPOLBON 


hiiv«»  itmf  heen  nAvinir"       "Ynii  ata  riahf "    raiH  ff^P  i?"**  18*7);    Miuc,  Hutovre  de  M,  Bmery  (Pans,  1896);  db 

nave  JUOT  oera  saying    .         lOU  are  ngnt    .  saia  tne  ^BANDiiAXMif,  NapoUonetla  Cardinauxno%r$llS95);  CAUsaBTTE, 

emperor.      "At  any  rate  it  helps  to  pass  an  hour."  VU  du  Card,  (TAttroa  (Paris,  1853);  Guillaumb,  VU  ipUcopale 

Napoleon  was  not  an  unbeliever:  out  he  would  not  ^e  Mgr  drO^mond  (Pans.  18G2)  ;  Mabmottan,  LHruHtutum  eano- 

•dnut  that  anyone  was  atove  bdmsdf .  not  ev««  the  lIS^^JTl^hr'fj^^SJjftlni^S^ 

pope.     "Alexander    the    Great",    he    once    said    to  of  ISOl;  Articlbs,  TbbOboanic;  Pius  VI;  Pius  VII.     For  a 

Fontaaes,  "  declared  himself  the  son  of  Jupiter.    And  '«Uer  bibliopaphy  of  the  subject,  consult  KixcraEisBN.  Bihiu>- 

in  my  time  I  find  a  priest  who  is  more  powerful  than  ZSJ^"^  1j' 'SJ^  "^  NapoUan  I  (Paro,  19M0;  Pavom.  BM^ 

»        'I  I  ^iS  7  "  t#**«.v  »T**y  *o  aaavaw  j/vw«i*i*i  i/uc»u  grapku  NapMontenne  franoatte  juMu'en  100S»  I  (Pans,  1900); 

I  am ".    This  transcendent  pnde  dictated  his  religious  fitmea  NapoUoniea  (1901  sqq.). 

policy  and  utterlv  vitiated  it.    By  the  Concordat^  as  Georqes  Gotau. 

Tall^rrand  said,  he  had  "done  not  only  an  act  of  juft- 

tioe,  but  also  a  very  clever  act,  for  by  this  one  (feed  Napoleon  m  (CHABLEs-LoniB-NAPoii^ON),  orig- 
he  had  rallied  to  himself  the  sympathies  of  the  whole  inally  known  as  Loui&-Napol£on-Bonapartb,  Em- 
Catholic  world."  But  the  same  Talleyrand  declares,  peror  of  the  French;  b.  at  Paris,  20  April,  1808;  d.  at 
in  his  "M^moires",  that  his  struggle  with  Rome  was  taiiselhurst,  England,  6  January,  1873;  third  son  of 
produoedby  "the  most  insensate  ambition",  and  that  Louis  Bonaparte,  King  of  Holland  and  Hortense  de 
when  he  wished  to  deprive  the  pope  of  the  institution  Beauhamais.  daughter  of  the  Empress  Josephine. 
of  bishops,  "he  was  ail  the  more  culpable  because  he  After  the  fall  of  the  First  Empire.  Hortense,  who  had 
had  had  before  him  the  errors  of  the  Constituent  As-  been  separated  from  her  husbana,  took  her  two  sons 
aembl^".  This  double  judgment  of  the  former  Con-  to  Geneva,  Aix  in  Savoy.  Augsburg,  and  then  (1824) 
stitutional  bishop,  later  the  emperor's  minister  of  to  the  castle  of  Arenenberg  in  Switzerland.  Louis 
foreign  affairs,  will  be  accepted  by  posterity.  By  a  Napoleon  had  for  tutor  the  scholar  Le  Bas,  son  of  a 
strange  destinv,  this  emperor  who  travelled  all  over  member  of  the  Convention.  The ''principle  of  nation- 
Europe,  and  whose  attitude  towards  the  Catholic  reli-  alities  "  attracted  him  in  youth,  and  with  his  brother,  he 
gion  was  in  a  measure  inherited  from  the  old  Roman  took  part  in  an  attempted  insurrection  in  the  States  of 
emperors,  never  set  foot  in  Rome;  through  him  Rome  the  Church,  in  1831.  He  was  on  the  point  of  setting 
was  for  many  years  deprived  of  the  presence  of  the  out  for  Poland  when  he  heard  that  the  Russians  had 
remotest  successor  of  St.  Sylvester  and  of  Leo  III;  entered  Warsaw.  On  the  death  of  the  Duke  of  Reich- 
but  the  successor  of  Constantine  and  of  Charlemagne  stadt  (1832)  he  regarded  himself  as  the  heir  of  the 
did  not  s^  Rome,  and  Rome  did  not  see  him.  Napoleonic  Empire.  The  Republican  press,  engaged 
Chzst  Soubcbs.— Cofre.p<mdan«  de  NapoUan  premier  (1888-  ?^ »  Sniggle  with  Louis  Philippe's  government,  inani- 

aq.);    Lbcbstbb,  Lettret  itUditee  de  NapoUan  I  (Paris,  1897);  fested    a    certain    Sjrmpathy    for    LouiS    Napoleon. 

ueree  df  NapoUan  Bonaparte  (Pans.  1822) ;  MimaireedicUe  a  Though  Casimir  P6ner  had  expelled  him  from  France 

Sa»nte-fflttiM.  ed.  Lacboxz  (Paris,  1904) ;   Lab  Casas.  Af<monai  :„    tooT     u^   ^„j    -.    r-^^  nCRrm  fmm    f^troAhnnr   «f- 

de  SainU-HiUne  (London.  1853);    Memoire  of  Chatbaubbiahd  P   ^°^h  ?®,?^5  f  .'©^  Officers  irom  HU^DUM;  at- 

and  Tallbtbahd.  tempted,  but  failed  m,  a  coup  de  mam  (1836).    In  his 

GninuLWoBKB.~Tm]aui.  The  ConeuttOe  and  the  Empire  under  book,  "Id^es  Napoldoniennes",  published  m  1838,  he 

5??SS:«lS±r^'^^^SZS»'l?rr2^^  aPge»»  as  the  teetementaqr  executor  of  Napoleon  I 

Bourbone  (Edinburgh,  1849-1858) :  Rosa,  The  RevoltMonary  and  and  a  bold  social  reformer.    His  attempted  descent  on 

AbpolMmie^ro  (Cambridss.  1907);  HAsun.  Life  of  NapUeon  Boulogne,  in  August,  1840.  resulted  in  a  sentence  of 

?S^^^SS%^f^]i,.^'^':'<,f'^iXii.^!^V^  W«  implement,  notwitist^ding  hi-  defence  by 

York.  1896);   Tainb.  Modem  Rioime,  tr.  DuBAitn  (London,  Benyer.    While  m  pnson  at  Ham.  he  wrote,  among 

1904);  iMVY,  NapoUoninUme  (Paris.  1893;  repmitod.  Edin-  other  brochures,  one  on  the  ''Extmction  of  Pauper- 

^OoS^^'^'^fi^-i^^i^'infa^ni  !«»"•    He  escaped  from  Ham  in  1846,    After  the 

ei  eon  file  (Paris,  1904);  Idbm,  NapoUan  ineonnu  (Paris.  1895);  Revolution  of  1848  he  returned  to  Pans,  became  a 

Inni.  Jo&eMne  emtijreee  and  queen,  tr.  Hobt  (London,  1899).  member  of  the  Constituent  Assembly,  and  finally  was 

In  France  Fr6d4no  Maason  is  now  the  foremost  student  of  Napo-  t^\ao¥pA  PmaiHAnf  of  f  hi»  Ronnhlin  hv  \  «5fl9  UXL  vnf^M 

leonie  Wstoiy.     His  numerous  works  aie  indiBpensablo  for  a  eiectearresiaent  01  tne  ItepUDUC  Dy  d,aOJ,^M4  VOtes, 

knowledfle  of  the  Empire.  on  10  December,  1848. 

SpaciALSrupxBa:— /fif  BMqimu  SmHmenU.-^^apMiK^.Pre-        Presidency  of  Louis  Navoleon, — Before  his  election 

tm^  eommunum  el  fin  chrittenne  de  NapoUan  (Tours,  1897);  t^„:-  Monnffton  hnA  Ant^rnH  infn  m^rfftin  t^ntrtun^jntn^fjt 

FiBCBBB,  NapoUon  /,  deeeen  Lebene  und  Charakterebiid  mit  beeonr  iXMUs^apoieon  naa  enterea  mto  oertam  engagements 

derer  RlUskeiehi  avJeoine  SteUine  eur  dtrieOiehen  Religion  (Leipiis.  With  Montalembert  m  regard  tO  freedom  of  teaching 

^S2i>-^/'*f.  yiwiA.— Chtjqubt.  La  feuneeee  df  NapoUm jPm,  and  the  restoration  of  Pius  IX,  who  had  been  driven 

^^'i^T^-SSI^ojiiabS:^^^^         i'SS^iSS  to  G«t»  by  the  Roman  Revolution^  When  General 

da  BonaparU  (Paris.  1902-1907).    Relatione  with  Bngland.— Co-  Oudmot's  expedition  made  its  direct  attack  on  the 

QjsmuM,  Naptieon  and  England  (/50J-/W5).  tr.  Khox  (London.  Roman  Republic,  April,  1849,  and  the  Constituent 

gSliir]&«j2Sl^1»!ri5^^  A««Mbly  pa«ed  a.reeolution  o/proteet  (7  May,  1849)^ 

Great  Terror  (^ndon.  1908);  Alqbb.  NapoUon'e  Britieh  vieitore  a  letter  from  LoUlS  Napoleon  tO  Oudinot  requested 

and  eapHeee  cwestminster.  1904);  Gbajto  Cabtbbbt.  NapoUon  him  to  persist  in  his  enterprise  and  assured  nim  of 

?«SSS^^SaS.r&iT(li,^^i.  fSS5°"'«fel  nunforoemente  (8  May.  1849) ;  at  the  same  time,  how- 

wih  S|Nitn.~DB  QBAm>MAi80N,  UEepagno  eoue  NapoUon  (Paris,  ever,  Louis  Napoleon  sent  Ferdinand  de  Lesseps  to 

^SP^h  .^.  /Htores.— WBLscnifOBii.  ifdivaree  df^NdpoUon  Rome  to  negotiate  with  Mazzini,  an  agreement  soon 

(Pans.  1889);  Rixtbbi.  Napoleone  e  Pw  VII  (,1804-182$)  (Tunn,  ^f*^  HioairnwpH       Tn  fhia  wav  ttiA  HiffinnlHAB  nf  f>iA 

1906).    Relatione  with  «uMio.— Vakdal,  NapoUon  et  Alexandre  I  J*5^  OlSavOWea.     in  tniS  way  tne  QimcUltieS  Of  tne 

^aiu.  1891-1894);  Db  stfoim.  Hietoire  de  NapoUon  et  de  la  future  emperor  reveal  themselves  from  the  bednnmg: 

P'«^A'?!!^''Sl*'"2??**'*'i&^*'**^**i?^?'***~*?^^  lie  wished  to  spare  the  religious  susceptibilities  of 

»iiSlSi.  T^fr'-5^'SrrvSS::."!t't:f  ^SS:  French  CathoUc.  and  to  avoiS^  offending  the  national 

giondon.  1900);  Bbownino.  FaU  of  NapoUan  jLondon,  1907);  susceptibilities  of  the  Italian  revolutionists — a  double 

ovmAn,  1814  (Peri*  I8?8)s  J»»H:J'*^S  ^*n^  Jfi^^V*  aim  which  explains  many  an  inconsistency  and  many 

SiSflTSfSSiili-  ^^ITH^^^Tvio^^fef^  *  •  faau«  in  tf e  relirioua  poU«qr  of  the  empin,.    "The 

Italian  and  Religioua  PoUcv.—Dn  Barral.  Fragmenie  reUoife  d  more  we  study  his  character,  the  more  nonplussed  we 

rhieioire  eeeUeiaetique  du  19*  «*«:««  (Paris.  1814) ;  Db  Phadt.,  Let  are",  writes  his  historian,  de  la  Gorce.    Oudinot's  vio- 

l!SSS."rS:5&.^^  ^"7   (?»  June,  1849).  havmg  cru8h^  the  Roman 

of  Erudition.^Boxrmn,  BonaparU  en  Italie:  1796  (Paris.  1899);  Republic,    Napoleon,   Ignoring  the  decided   Cathohp 

DaiAui/r.  NapfMon  en  itaHe  (Puis.  1906);   D'Haussonyillb,  majority  in  the  Leraslative  Assembly  elected  on  18 


£??S^T^^'IJr^-^J^(^SS^IoT'^  May  addre-ed  to  Lionel  Ney.  on  ^  Aus^at.  1849, 

UoneePio  VII,  1804-1818  (Turin.  1906);  Madbun.  La  Rome  de  a  sort  of  manifesto  m  which  he  asked  of  Pius  IX  a 

NapoUon:  la  domuuuion  frantaUe  ^  Rome  de  1809  d  1814  (PjMJf.  general  anmesty,  the  secularization  of  his  administrar 

1906):  ^■^'^"Svff  ,.»»i^  ^  J^^  *  *'S?!LilL*^'.  ^®l^'  tion.  the  establishment  of  the  Code  Napoldon.  and  a 

Dbvtbaii,  La  diporlation  dee  prUree  eoue  NapoUon  I  m   Ree.  """»    T  V^^^       •  •  ■  ■r.i  •  w  va   «u«  rY~j*  *^«**^*'^" ♦•■"**  •• 

KiK..  XI  (1879);  Db  Lamiao  oa  Labobib,  P&rU  eoue  NapoUan:  Liberal  Government.    The  Legislative  Assembly,  on 


NAPOLBON 


700 


NAPOLBOir 


Montalembcrt's  motiozii  voted  approval  of  the  "Motu 
Proprio''  of  12  September,  by  which  Pius  IX  promised 
reforms  without  yielding  to  all  the  president's  imperar 
tive  demands.  The  president  was  dissatisfied,  and 
forced  the  Falloux  Cabinet  to  resign;  but  he  was  soon 
working  with  all  the  influence  of  his  position  for  the 
passage  of  the  Falloux  Law  on  freedom  of  teaching — 
a  law  which  involved  a  great  triimiph  for  the  Catho- 
lics— ^while,  in  the  course  of  his  journeys  through 
France,  his  deferential  treatment  of  the  bishops  was 
extremelv  marked.  And  when,  by  the  Coup  d'Etat  of 
2  December,  1851,  Louis  Napoleon  had  dlseolved  the 
Assembly,  and  by  the  pUbiscite  appealed  to  the  French 
people  as  to  the  justice  of  that  act,  many  Catholics. 
foUowing  Montalembert  and  Louis  Veuillot,  decidea 
in  his  favour;  the  prince-president  obtained  7,481,231 
votes  (21  November,  1852).  The  Dominican  Lacor- 
daire,  the  Jesuit  Ravignan,  and  Bishop  Dupanloup 
were  more  reserved  in  tneir  attitude.  Lacordaire  went 
so  far  as  to  say : "  If  France  becomes  accustomed  to  this 
order  of  things,  we  are  moving  rapidly  towards  the 
Lower  Empire". 

DidaUmal  Period  of  the  Empire,  18S2-60.— The  first 
acts  of  the  new  government  were  decidedly  favourable 
to  the  Church.  By  the  "Decree  Law *'  of  31  Januarv, 
1852.  the  congregations  of  women,  which  previoudy 
could  be  authorized  only  by  a  legislative  act,  were 
made  authorizable  by  simple  decrees.  A  great  many 
bishops  and  parish  priests  hailed  with  joy  the  day  on 
which  Louis  Napoleon  was  proclaimed  emperor  and 
the  dav  (30  January,  1853)  of  his  marriage  with  the 
Spanish  Eugenie  de  Montijo,  which  seemed  to  assure 
the  future  of  the  d3masty.  At  this  very  time  Dupan- 
loup, less  optimistic,  published  a  pastoral  letter  on  the 
liberty  of  the  Church,  while  Montalembert  began  to 

Ssreeive  symptoms  which  made  him  fear  that  the 
hurch  would  not  always  have  reason  to  congratulate 
itself  on  the  new  order.  For  some  years  the  Church 
enjoyed  effective  liberty:  the  bishops  held  synods  at 
their  pleasure;  the  budget  of  puolic  worship  was 
forthcoming:  cardinals  sat  in  the  Senate  as  of  right; 
the  civil  authorities  appeared  in  religious  processions; 
missions  were  given;  from  1852-60  the  State  recog- 
nized 982  new  communities  of  women;  prinuuy  and 
secondary  educational  institutions  under  ecclesiastical 
control  increased  in  number,  while,  in  1852,  P^res 
Petetot  and  Gratry  founded  the  Oratory  as  a  Catho- 
lic centre  of  science  and  philosophy.  Catholics  like 
S6gur,  Comudet,  Baudon.  Cochin,  and  the  Vicomte 
de  Melun  founded  many  charitable  institutions  under 
state  protection.  Napoleon  III  was  anxious  that  Pius 
IX  should  consent  to  come  to  crown  him  at  Notre 
Dame.  This  request  he  caused  to  be  preferred  by 
Mgr  de  S^gur,  auditor  of  the  Rota,  and  Pius  IX  ex- 
plained that,  if  he  crowned  Napoleon  III,  he  would 
also  be  obliged  to  go  and  crown  Francis  Joseph  of 
Austria,  hinting,  at  the  same  time,  that  Napoleon 
could  come  to  Rome;  and  he  ^ve  it  to  be  understood 
that,  if  the  emperor  were  wilhhg  to  suppress  the  Or- 
ganic Articles,  he,  the  pope,  might  be  Me  to  accede 
to  his  request  at  the  end  of  three  months.  Pius  IX 
also  wished  Napoleon  III  to  make  the  Sundav  rest 
obligatory  and  abrogate  the  legal  necessity  of  civil 
marriage  previous  to  the  religious  ceremony.  After 
two  years  of  negotiations  the  emperor  gave  up  this 
idea  (1854),  but  thereafter  his  relations  with  the 
Chureh  seemed  to  be  somewhat  less  cordial.  The  Bull 
in  which  Pius  IX  defined  the  Immaculate  Conception 
was  admitted  into  France  grudgingly,  and  after  some 
very  lively  opposition  on  the  part  of  the  Council  of 
State  (1854).  Dreux  Bt€z6,  Bishop  of  Moulins,  was 
denoimced  to  the  Council  of  State  for  infringement  of 
the  Oncanic  Articles,  while  the  '^Correspondant''  and 
the  "Univers",  having  defended  the  bishop,  were 
rigorously  dealt  with  by  the  authorities.  Lastly,  the 
return  to  the  Cottr  de  Uassation  (Court  of  Appeals)  of 
the  former  procurevr  gHUral  Dupin,  who  had  resigned 


in  1852,  was  looked  upon  as  a  victory  for  Galfican 
ideas. 

The  Crimean  War  (1853-56)  was  undertaken  by 
Napoleon,  in  alliance  with  England,  to  check  Russian 
aggression  in  the  direction  of  Turkey.  The  Fall  of 
Sebastopol  (8  September,  1855)  compelled  Alexander 
II  to  sign  the  Treaty  of  Paris  (1856).  In  this  war 
Piedmont,  thanks  to  its  minister,  Cavour,  had  had  a 

Part,  both  military  and  diplomatic;  for  the  first  time 
iedmoht  was  treated  as  one  of  the  Great  Powere. 
After  all,  the  Italian  Question  interested  the  emperor 
more  than  any  other,  and  upon  this  ground  difficulties 
were  about  to  arise  between  him  and  the  Church.  As 
early  as  1856  Napoleon  knew,  through  Cavour,  that 
the  Piedmontese  programme  involved  the  dismembei^ 
ment  of  the  Pontifical  States;  at  the  promptings  of 
the  French  Government  the  Congress  of  Paris  ex- 
pressed a  wish  that  the  pope  should  carry  out  liberal 
reforms,  and  that  the  French  and  Austrian  troops 
should  soon  leave  his  territories.  The  attempt  on 
the  emperor's  Ufe  by  the  Italian  Orsini  (14  January, 
1858),  set  in  motion  a  policy  of  severe  repression 
(''Law  of  General  Security"  and  proceeding  against 
Proudhon,  the  socialist).  But  the  letter  which  Orsini 
wrote  from  his  prison  to  Napoleon,  beseeching  him  to 
give  liberty  to  twenty-five  million  Italians,  made  a 
lively  impression  upon  the  emperor's  imagination. 
Pietri,  the  prefect  of  police  obtained  from  CSsini  an- 
other letter,  pledging  nis  political  friends  to  renounce 
all  violent  methods,  with  the  understanding  that  the 
enfranchisement  of  Italy  was  the  price  to  to  paid  for 
this  assurance.  From  that  time,  it  was  Napoleon's 
active  wish  to  realize  Italian  unity.  On  21  July,  1858, 
he  had  an  interview  with  Cavour  at  Plombi^res.  It 
was  agreed  between  them  that  France  and  Piedmont 
shoulof  drive  the  Austrians  from  Italy,  and  that  Italy 
should  become  a  confederation,  under  the  rule  of  the 
King  of  Sardinia,  though  the  pope  was  to  be  its  hon- 
orary president.  The  result  of  this  interview  was  the 
Italian  War.  For  this  war  public  opinion  had  been 
schooled  by  a  series  of  articles  in  Liberal  and  n>vem- 
ment  organs— the  "Sitele",  "Presse",  and  "Patric" 
— h^  Edmond  About's  articles  on  the  pontifical  ad- 
ministration, published  in  the  "Moniteur",  and  by 
the  anonymous  brochure  ''L'Empereur  Napolton  III 
et  ritalie"  (really  the  work  of  ^hur  de  la  Gu^ron- 
ni^re),  which  denounced  the  spirit  of  opposition  to 
reform  shown  by  the  Italian  governments.  Catholics 
tried  to  obtain  Napoleon's  assurance  that  he  would 
not  aid  the  enemies  of  Pius  IX.  In  the  House  of 
Representatives  (Corps  L^gislatiO  the  Republican 
Jules  Favre  asked:  "If  the  government  of  tne  cardi- 
nals is  overthrown  shall  we  shed  the  blood  of  the 
Romans  to  restore  it?"  And  the  minister,  Baroche, 
made  no  answer  (26  April,  1859).  But  Napoleon,  in 
the  proclamation  announcing  his  departure  for  Italy 
(10  Kf  ay.  1859).  declared  that  he  was  going  to  ddiver 
Italy  as  tar  as  tne  Adriatic,  and  that  the  pope'spower 
would  remain  intact.  The  victories  of  tne  French 
troops  at  Magenta  (4  June.  1859)  and  Solferino  (24 
June,  1859)  coincided  with  insurrectionary  move- 
ments against  the  papal  authority.  CathoUcs  were 
alarmed,  and  so  was  the  emperor;  he  would  not  ap- 
pear as  an  accomplice  of  these  movements,  and  on  1 1 
July  he  siened  the  treaty  of  Villafranca.  Austria 
ceded  Lombardy  to  France,  and  France  retroceded  it 
to  Sardinia.  Venetia  was  still  to  belong  to  Austria, 
but  would  form  part  of  the  Italian  O)nfederation 
which  would  be  under  the  honorary  presidency  of  the 
pope.  The  pope  would  be  asked  to  mtroduce  the  in- 
dispensable reforms  in  his  state.  In  November.  1859. 
at  Zurich,  these  preliminaries  were  formally  emoodied 
in  a  treaty. 

Neither  the  nope  nor  the  Italians  were  pleased  with 
the  emperor.  On  the  one  hand  the  pope  did  not  thank 
Napoleon  for  his  hints  on  the  way  to  govern  the 
Romagna,  and  an  eloquent  brochure  from  the  pen  of 


_, ^ ^ „ ^ 1  regard  to  Itali&D  affaire  caused 

of  settling  the  aflura  of  Italy  by  means  of  a  congrees,  great  pain  to  Catholics.    Falloux  in  an  aj-ticle  entitled 

and  Arthur  de  la  Gu^nnifre's  pamphlet,  "Le  pape  Antec^ent^  et  cona^quencea  de  la  situation  actu- 

et  le  congrte",  demanded  of  Pius  IX,  in  advance,  the  elle",  published  in  the  "Correspondant",  implied  that 

Biurender  of  his  temporal  power.    On  1  January,  I860,  Napoleon  was  an  accomplice  in  the  Italian  revolution. 

Rub  IX  denounced  this  pamphlet  as  a  "monument  of  The  Cathohe  associations  formed  to  collect  subscnp- 

hypocriay",  and  on  Q  Januaiy  he  answered  with  a  tions  for  the  pope's  benefit  were  suppreaaed,  and  Kua 

formal  refusal  a  letter  from  Napoleon  advising  him  IX,  in  the  consistorial  allocution  of  17  December,  1860, 

to  give  up  the  Legations.    A  few  months  later,  the  accused  the  emperor  of  having  "fdgned"  to  protect 

LiegatioDS  themselves  joined  Piedmont,  while  Napo-  him. 

leon,  by  making  Thouvenel  his  minister  at  foreign  Liberal  Period  oj  the  Empire,  1860-70. — It  was  just 

tSfun  and  by  nwitiating  with  Cavour  the  aimexa-  at  this  tjme  that  the  emperor,  by  the  decree  ol  24 

tion  of  Nice  and  Savoy  to  Prance,  proved  that  he  was  November,  1860,  made  his  first  conceesion  to  the 

decidedly  more  devot«d  to  the  Bspirations  of  Pied'  Opposition,  and  to  Liberal  ideas,  by  granting  more 

mont  than  to  the  temporal  power  o(  the  pope.    Mean-  independence  and  power  of  initiative  to  the  Le^a- 

while  the  Catholics  in  France  commenced  violent  ture.    But  the  Liberal  opposition  was  not  disarmed, 

presscampaignsundertheleaderBhipof the"Univera"  and  the  Catholic 

and  the  "Correspondant".    On  24  JaDuary,  1869,  the  discontent  was 

"UniverB"  was  euppresaed.     The  minister  of  state,  aggravated  by  his 

Billault,   prosecuted  the   Catholic   publications  and  Italian  policy.  I'he 

ptUpit  utterances  deemed    seditious.     To  be    sure  emperor     replied , 

Baroche,  on  2  April,  announced  in  the.  Corps  L^gia-  to  Pius  IX   by 

latif,  that  the  French  troops  would  not  leave  Rome  so  publishing  la  Gu^ 

long  as  the  pope  was  unable  to  defend  himself.    But  ronni^re's     book. 

Napoleon,  only  too  anxious  to  withdraw  his  troops,  at  "LaFnuice,Ronie 


though  in  vain,  that  the  Powers  of  the  second  order  of  Rome.     Then 

should  be  induced  to  orumise  a  body  of  papal  troops,  Bishop    Vie  of 

to  be  paid  by  all  the  CauoUc  states  jointly.    I^us  IX,  Poitiers  published 

on  the  other  hand,  allowed  Mgr  de  Mdrode  to  make  his       pastoral 

an  appeal  to  the  aristocracy  of  France  and  Belgium  charge    in   which 

for  the  formation  of  a  special  corpe  of  pontifical  troops,  the  words, "  Lave- 

which  should  enable  the  pope  to  do  without  the  em-  tes  mains,  0  Pi- 


the  words, "  Lave- 
pope  t.     ■       "  '  "  .   ' 

peror's  soldiers.    Among  these  soldiers  of  the  pope    late"  (Wash  thy 


were  a  large  number  of  French  Legitimists;  L&mori-  hands,  0  I^latej, 

ci^,  thdr  oommander,  had  always  been  a  foe  of  the  were  addressed  to 

imperii  i^lime.    Napoleon  III  was  annoyed,  and  Napolran  HI.    In 

oraeredhisambassadorat  Rome  to  enter  into  negotia-  the  Senate,  an  Nitduoh  ill 
tions  for  the  withdrawal  of  the  French  troope:  on  11  amendment  in  fa- 
May,  1S80,  it  was  decided  that  within  three  months  vourof  the  temporal  power  of  the  pope  was  lost  by  only 
the  soldiers  given  to  the  pope  by  Napoleon  III  should  a  very  small  majority;  in  the  Corps  L^dslatif,  one-third 
return  to  France.  of  the  deputies  declared  themselves  lor  the  pontifical 
In  the  meantime,  however,  Garibaldi's  campaign  in  cause.  The  emperor  asserted  his  Italian  sympathiee 
Sicily  and  Calabria  opened.  Farini  and  Cialdmi,  sent  more  and  more  clearly:  in  June,  1362,  he  recognised  the 
by  Cavour  to  Napoleon,  represented  to  him  (28  Au-  new  kingdom;  hesent  an  ambassador  to  Tunn,  and  to 
gust)  the  urgent  necesaitjr  of  checking  the  Italian  Rome  two  partisans  of  Italian  unity;  and  he  used  his 
revolution,  that  Garibaldi  was  about  to  march  on  influence  with  Russia  and  Prussia  to  procure  their 
Rome,  and  that  France  ou^ht  to  leave  to  Piedmont  recognition  of  the  Kingdom  of  Italy.  One  striking 
tike  task  of  preserving  order  m  Italy,  for  which  puqmse  mnptom  of  the  emperor's  changed  feehngs  towards 
the  Fiedmonteee  must  be  allowed  to  cross  the  pontifi-  the  Church  was  the  circular  of  January,  1862,  by 
cal  territories  so  as  to  reach  the  Neapolitan  frontier,  which  Fersigny  declared  all  the  St.  Vincent  de  PaiB 
"Faites  vite  (act  quickly)",  said  the  emperor,  and  societies  dissolved.  Following  upon  Garibaldi's  blow 
himself  left  France,  travelling  in  Corsica  and  Algeria,  at  the  PonttScai  States,  which  hod  been  stopped  by 
while  the  Piedmontese  troops  invaded  Umbria  and  the  his  defeat  at  Aspramonte  (29  Aupist,  1862),  General 
Marches,  defeated  the  troope  of  LamoriciSre  at  Castel-  Durando,  minister  of  foreign  affairs  in  Ratazzi's  cabi- 
fidardo,  captured  Ancona,  and  occupied  all  the  States  net,  declared  in  a  circular  that  "the  whole  Italian 
of  the  Church  except  Rome  and  the  province  o(  nationdemandedilscapital".  Thus  were  the  Italians 
Viterbo,  Napoleon  publicly  warned  Victor  Emman-  proclaiming  their  eagerness  to  be  installed  at  Rome. 
uel  that,  if  he  attacked  the  pope  without  Intimate  Fearing  that  at  the  forthcoming  legislative  elections 

Erovocation,  France  would  be  oblif^ed  to  oppose  him:  the  Catholics  would  revolt  from  the  impeiial  narty, 

e  withdrew  his  minister  from  Tunn,  leaving  insteaa  Napoleon  suddenly  manifested  a  much  colder  reeling 

only  a  charge  d'aff'aires,  and  was  a  mere  spectator  of  for   Italy.     The   Catholic  influence  of   the  empress 

that  series  of  events  which,  in  Fdjruary.  1861,  ended  gained  the  upper  hand  of  Prince  Napoleon's  anti- 

in  Victor  Emmanuel's  being  proclaimed  King  of  Italy,  rehgious  influence.     Thouvenel  was  supplanted  by 

TheexpeditiontoSyria(1859),inwhich80,000 French  Drouin  de  Lhuys  (16  October,  1862),  who  was  made 

troops  went  to  the  reli^  of  the  Maronite  Christians,  to  give  out  a  curt  statement  that  the  French  Govern- 

who  were  being  massacred  by  the  Druses  with  the  ment  had  no  present  intention  of  taking  any  action  in 

connivance  of  the  Turks,  the  two  expeditions  to  China  consequence  of  the  Durando  circular,  thus  bringing 

(1867  and  1860),  in  co-operation  with  England,  which  about  the  fall  of  the  Ratoiii  cabinet  in  Italy.    Aoreat 

resulted,  among  nther  things,  in  the  restoration  to  the  many  Catholics  recovered  their  confidence  in  Napo- 

Christians  of  their  religious  establishments,  and  the  leon;  but  a  political  alliance  between  a  certain  num- 

joint  expedition  of  France  and  Spain  (1858-62)  against  ber  of  Liberal  Catholics,  devoted  to  the  Royalist  cause 

the  Annameee  Empire,  which  avenged  the  persecution  and  membera  of  the  Republican  party  resulted,  in 


NAMUON                          702  NAPOZJOH 

June.  1863,  in  the  return  of  thirty-five  Opposition  Antibes  Ledon  and  the  confidence  tepoati  by  the 
memDers  to  the  Chamber,  mostlv  men  of  great  ability,  emperor  in  Houher,  a  devoted  champion  of  Catholic 
Republicans  and  Monarcnists,  freethinkers  and  Cath-  interests,  complained  bitterly:  Napoleon  answered  by 
olics.  they  grouped  themselves  around  Thiers,  who  complaining  of  the  Garibalaian  musters  that  threat- 
had  D€«n  Louis  rhilippe's  minister,  and  who  won  the  ened  the  pope's  territories.  When  the  Garibaldians 
confidence  of  Catholics  by  pronouncing  uneouivocaUy  made  an  actual  incursion,  on  25  October,  1867,  the 
In  favour  of  the  temporal  power.  But  the  alliance  be-  French  troops  which  had  for  some  weeks  been  ooncen- 
tween  Republicans  who  wanted  Napoleon  to  desist  trated  at  Toulon,  embarked  for  Civitll  Vecchia  and 
from  protecting  the  temporal  power  and  Catholics  who  helped  the  papal  troops  defeat  the  invaders  at  Men- 
thought  he  did  not  protect  it  enough,  could  not  be  very  tana.  Cardinal  Antonelli  asked  that  the  French  forces 
stable.  From  1862  to  1864  the  einperor  did  nothing  in  should  be  directed  against  those  of  Victor  Eknmanu^ 
regard  to  Italy  that  could  cause  Pius  IX  any  uneasi-  but  the  emperor  refused.  Menabrea,  Victor  Emman- 
ness.  He  was  at  that  period  busy  with  the  early  uePs  minister,  though  he  gave  orders  for  the  amst  of 
stages  of  the  Mexican  War,  in  which  he  had  very  im-  the  Garibaldians,  published  in  spite  of  Napoleon,  a 
prudently  allowed  himself  to  become  involved.  Four  circular  affirming  Italy's  right  to  possess  Rome.  Na- 
^ears  of  fighting  against  President  Juares  were  des-  poleon  found  it  increasingly  difficult  to  extricate  him- 
tined  to  end  in  the  evacuation  of  Mexico  by  the  self  from  the  ooib  of  the  Koman  Question;  he  was  still 
French  troops,  early  in  1867,  and  the  execution  of  thinking  of  a  European  oonness,  but  Europe  declined. 
Maximilian,  orother  of  the  Emperor  of  Austria,  whom  At  the  close  of  1867,  Thiers  speech  in  support  of  the 
France  had  caused  to  be  proclaimed  Emperor  of  temporal  power  gave  Rouher  occasion  to  say,  amid  the 
Mexico.  The  impression  created  by  this  disaster  applause  of  the  majority,  "We  declare  it  in  the  name 
notably  increased  the  strength  of  the  Opposition  in  of  the  French  government,  Ital^  shall  not  take  poaseft- 
France.  sion  of  Rome.  Never,  never  will  France  tolerate  such 
Negotiations  between  Napoleon  III  and  Italy  an  assault  upon  her  honour  and  her  Catholicity", 
recommenced  in  1864,  the  Italian  Government  be-  That  never  was  extremely  unpleasant  to  the  Italian 
seeching;  the  emperor  to  put  an  end  to  the  French  patriots.  The  emperor  had  offended  both  thepope 
occupation  of  the  Pontifical  States.  The  Convention  and  Italy  at  the  same  time.  When  the  Vatican  Coun- 
of  16  September,  1864,  obli{;ed  Italy  to  refrain  from  cil  was  convoked  the  imperial  Rovemment  manifested 
attacking  the  actual  possessions  of  the  Holy  See  and,  no  antagonism.  M.  Emile  OUivier,  president  of  the 
on  the  contrary,  to  defend  them,  while  Fnmce  prom-  Ministry  of  Foreign  Affairs,  opined,  on  2  January, 
ised  to  withdraw  her  troops  within  a  period  of  not  1870,  that  the  States  ou^t  not  to  interfere  in  the 
more  than  two  years,  pari  passu  with  the  organisation  deliberations  of  the  council.  His  colleague  Daru  in- 
of  the  pope's  army.  This  arrangement  caused  pro-  structed  BanneviUe,  the  French  ambassador  to  Rome, 
found  sorrow  at  the  Vatican;  Pius  IX  drew  the  con-  on  20  February,  to  protest  in  the  name  of  French  Con- 
clusion that  Napoleon  was  preparing  to  leave  the  stitutional  law  against  the  programme  of  enactments 
States  of  the  Churoh  at  the  mercy  of  the  Italians.  ''De  ecclesia",  and  tried  to  Bring  i^ut  concerted 
The  diplomatic  remonstrances  with  which  the  em-  action  of  the  Powers;  but,  after  Antonelli's  demuner 
peror's  government  replied  to  the  Syllabus,  its  prohi-  of  10  March,  Daru  confined  himself  to  rdterating  his 
Dition  against  the  circulation  of  that  document,  and  objections  in  a  memorandum  (5  April)  which  Pius  DC 
Duruy's  project  to  organize  primary  education  with-  declined  to  submit  to  the  council.  uL,  Ollivier,  fe«^ipfft 
out  the  concurrence  of  the  Churoh,  were  causes  of  the  reouests  of  certain  anti-infallibilist  prelates,  di- 
dissatisfaction  to  Rome  and  to  the  Catholics.  The  rected  Banneville  not  to  try  to  meddle  in  the  prooeed- 
speech  of  Thiers  against  Italian  unity,  denouncing  the  inm  of  the  council. 

imprudence  of  the  Imperial  policy,  was  loudly  ap-  In  1870  Prince  Leopold  of  HohenioUem's  daim  to 
plauded  by  the  faithful  supporters  of  the  Holy  See.  the  crown  of  Spain  brought  on  a  conflict  between 
Napoleon  III.  always  a  prey  to  indecision,  no  doubt  France  and  King  William  of  Prussia.  A  dispatch  re- 
asked  himselt  from  time  to  time  whether  his  policy  lating  to  a  conversation  which  took  place  at  Ems, 
was  a  wise  one,  but  the  cireumstances  which  he  himself  between  William  and  Napoleon's  ambassador,  Bene- 
had  created  carried  him  along.  Late  in  1864  he  thought  detti,  was,  as  Bismarck  himself  afterwards  confessed, 
of  negotiating  an  alliance  between  the  Courts  of  Benin  tampered  with  in  such  a  way  as  to  make  war  inevi- 
and  Turin  against  Austria,  so  as  to  allow  Italy  to  get  table.  Bismarok's  own  "Recollections"  thus  supply 
possession  of  Venetia.  Having  paved  the  way  for  the  refutation  of  the  charge  made  by  him  in  the 
Italian  unity,  he  was  inauguratmg^a  policy  by  means  Reichstag  ^5  December,  1874),  that  the  empress  and 
of  which  Prussia  was  to  achieve  German  umty.  He  the  Jesuits  had  desired  the  war  and  driven  him  into  it. 
did  nothing  to  prevent  the  conauest  of  Austria  by  The  German  historian  Sybel  has  formally  cleared  the 
Prussia  at  Sadowa  (1866),  and  wnen  he  made  a  vain  empress  and  the  Jesuits  of  this  accusation.  (On  this 
attempt  to  have 'Luxemburg  ceded  to  him,  Bismarek  point,  which  has  provoked  numerous  polemics,  see 
exploited  the  proceedings  to  convince  public  opinion  Dtlhr,  "  Jesuitenfabeln",  4th  ed.,  Freiburp,  1904,  pp. 
in  Germany  01  the  danger  of  French  ambition  and  the  877-79).  Pius  IX  wrote  to  Emperor  William  offering 
serious  necessity  of  armmg  against  France.  By  the  end  his  good  offices  as  mediator  (22  July,  1870),  but  to  no 
of  1866  the  withdrawal  of  the  French  troops  which  had  puipose.  As  for  the  Italian  government,  on  16  July, 
guarded  the  pope  was  complete.  But  Napoleon  at  the  1870.  it  refused  an  alliance  with  France  because  Ni^io- 
very  time  when  he  was  thus  carryin|(  out  the  Conven-  leon  nad  refused  it  Rome.  On  20  Julv  Napoleon  prom- 
tion  of  15  September  was  organismg  at  Antibes  a  ised  that  the  imperial  troops  shoula  be  recalled  from 
legion  to  be  placed  at  the  disposal  of  the  pope;  he  once  Rome,  but  no  more,  and  so,  as  usual,  he  oflFended  both 
more  exacted  of  Italy  a  pledge  not  to  invade  the  Papal  the  pope,  whom  he  was  about  to  leave  defenceless,  and 
States;  he  conceived  a  plan  to  obtain  from  the  Powers  Italy,  whose  highest  ambitions  he  was  balking.  The 
a  collective  guarantee  of  the  pope's  temporal  sover-  negotiations  between  France  and  Italy  were  continued 
eignty.  On  3  November,  1866,  he  wrote  to  his  friend  in  August,  by  Prince  Napoleon,  who  made  a  visit  to 
Francesco  Arese :  '*  People  must  know  that  I  will  yield  Florence.  Italy  absolutely  insisted  upon  bdng  allowed 
nothing  on  the  Roman  question,  and  that  my  mind  is  to  take  Rome,  and,  on  29  August,  Visoonti  Venosts^ 
made  up,  while  carrying  out  the  Convention  of  15  minister  of  forragn  affairs,  afmined  the  ri|^  of  the 
September,  to  support  the  temporal  power  of  the  pope  Italians  to  have  Rome  for  their  capital,  xhe  anti- 
by  all  possible  means".  But  the  season  of  ill-ludc  and  Catholic  controversialists  of  France  nave  often  made 
of  blundering  was  setting  in  for  the  Imperial  diplo-  use  of  these  facts  to  support  their  allegation  that  the 
macy.  None  of  the  Powers  responded  to  Napoleon's  emperor  would  have  had  the  Italian  allianoe  in  the 
i^p^.    Italy,  displeased  at  tiie  organisation  of  the  War  of  1870  if  he  had  not  persisted  in  his  demand  that 


NlPPmt                              703  NIBDO 

the  pope  should  lemaiii  master  of  Rome,  and  that  under  27  Eliz.,  c.  2  for  being  a  priest.    The  posses- 

Italv^s  abstention  entailed  that  of  Austria,  which  sion  of  the  oils  was  held  to  be  conclusive  and  ne  was 

would  have  helped  France  if  Italy  had.   M.  Welschin-  condenmed,  but  reprieved.    In  gaol  he  reconciled  a 

ger  has  proved  that  in  1870  these  two  powers  were  in  condemned  felon  named  Falkner,  and  this  was  held 

no  conoition  to  be  of  material  assistance  to  Fiance,  to  araptivate  his  crime,  but  as  late  as  2  November  it 

After  the  surrender  of  Sedan  (2  September,  1870),  was  oielieved  that  he  would  have  his  sentence  com- 

Napoleon  was  sent,  a  prisoner,  to  Wilhelmshdhe,  muted  to  one  of  banishment.    As  he  refused  Uie  oath 

where  he  learned  that  the  Republic  had  been  pro-  of  allegiance,  which  described  the  papal  deposing 

claimed  at  Paris,  4  September,  and  that  the  Red-  power  as  a  '^ false,  damnable,  and  heretical''  doctrine, 

montese  had  occupied  Home  (20  September).    The  it  was  decided  to  execute  him.    He  suffered  between 

National  Assembly  of  Bordeaux,  on  28  February,  one  and  two  in  the  afternoon,  having  said  Mass  that 

1871,  confirmed  the  emperor's  dethronement.    After  morning.    His  head  according  to  Wood  was  set  up 

the  Feace  of  Frankfort  he  went  to  reside  at  Chisel-  on  Tom  Gateway;  according  to  Challoner's  lees  prob- 

hurst,  where  he  died.    His  only  son,  Eugtoe-Louia-  able  statement  on  Christ  Cnurch  steeple.    His  quar- 

Jean-Joseph-Napolton,  bom  16  March,  1856,  was  ters  were  placed  on  the  four  city  gates,  but  at  least 

killed  by  the  Zulus.  23  June.  1870.    Napoleon  III  left  some  were  secretly  removed,  ana  buried  in  the  chapel 

unfinished  a  "  Vie  ae  C6sar ' ,  begun  in  1865,  with  tiie  (now  a  bam)  of  Sanford  manor,  formerly  a  preceptory 

assistance  of  the  historian  Ehiruy,  and  of  which  only  of  Knights  Templar, 

three  volumes  were  published.     His   history   still  rJ^^^^J^f^li?^¥*f'*V^^!^^^YS^*}h'^^^'^'*9^^ 

A^ffnrvla  nootimnn  for  niirnPiY^iifl  nnlpminfl  RnimnlAH  hv  F*^«  City  of  Oxford,  III  (Oxford,  1899),  184, 186:  Wooo,il  nnalc. 

anorOB  occasion  xor  numerous  polemics  ammacea  py  u  /Qxford,  1796).  165.  166;  Fowleb,  hiatoru  of  Cormu  ChHii 

party  feehng.     The  portrait  of  him  drawn  by  Victor  CoUegt  (Oxford.  1893).  389; Staplbton,  PoU-R^ormatum  Catholie 

Hugo  in  "Les  ChAtiments"  is  extremely  unfair.    Na-  MunontinOxfonUhire  (London,  1906),  4, 190, 199, 211-«.  323-4; 

poleon  waa  a  tender-hearted  dreamer,  kindnos  was  f^^s?^^ir^}i!f^S^'S^^^f;StTi!i^ 

one  of  bis  moat  evident  qualities.   As  regards  his  per-  igo&—),  1.133-4,11, 284;  LsifOK,c<i<m(iiirAai«Pa|Mr«i>oiiiM«s 

aonal  practice  of  reUgion,  he  was  faithful  to  his  Elaster  issi-ao  (London,  1865),  flOtt.             -a  tb 

duties.    Much  of  the  censure  which  his  foreign  policy  John  B.  Wainewbioht. 

has  merited  is  equally  applicable  to  the  anticlericab  Narbooiw.    See  TouIiOuse,  Abchdiocbse  or. 

and  the  RepubUcans  of  his  time,  whose  piess  01^  j,„jj^  j^copo   It,j5^  historian;  b.  at  Florence, 

w^  clamouriM  for  French  aid  towwds  the  speedy  1478.  j'  ^^  Venice,  11  March,  1563.    His  father 

reahiation  of  ItjJmn  umty,  whUe  thev  systematic  salvitro  Nardi,  befonged  to  an  old  Florentine  fami 

Mpomtion,  m  18^,  to  the  Goverament  prognunme  ay,  originally  from  the  suburbs  of  the  city.    Jacopo 

for  stTM^themnK  the  army  was  partly  responsible  for  ^^  an  eamist  foUower  of  Savonarola,  whose  dealS 

*^lirttef  N^S^^nlSSX'uJ^^^t.en  Wo»  h.  he  witnessed.    He  was  attached  to  the.RepubUcan 

beeame  emperor,  hia  apeeohes  aa  preaident,  and  hia  military  worka  P^Utyi  under  wmcn  ne  nelQ  vanous  Omces  m  the  State, 

were  pubtiahed  in  5  vola.,  Paria,  1854-67.  and  1869;  'AmoiA,  but  nevertheless  kept  on  friendly  terms  with  the 

JS£;b»"i.^m|Ka  v?i:.°fcS:?l9a  Medici  after  thdr  r^ration  in  1512^and  even  com- 

juBOLD,  JUf€ of  Navoleim  III (4  vola.,  London,  1882) ;  Fobbsb,  Th*  posed  pageants  for  them.    Havmg  been  concerned  m 

Lite  of  NawAeon  Om  Third  (London,  1898);  Womtb.  Le  rione  d§  the  Republican  revolution  of  1527,  he  was  banished 

^rTM^mf^^^i^iri^ii:S''m^S:i.^'tA'  *^"i^°lT«  ^  .{^^O.  «nd  took  a  ie«^g  P-rt  in  the 

1896);  WBiiKstiNOBB,  La  Ouerre  da  1870,  eautu  et  responsalninit  efforts  Of  the  exiles  to  retum,  pleadmg  their  cause 

(2  Tola.,  Paria,  1910).   On  Napoleon  III  and  the  Italian  queetion,  against   the   tyranny  of   Duke   Alessandro   before 

RUl^':^!SS;;*aJ*Q'if<S^°'E;*iS^^  ^'"J'h-Si^^-    He  finally  settled  at  Venice. 

1893);  IDBM,  L'uniu  italienM  (2  vola..  Paria.  1896-98);  Thou-  Where  he  died  m  poverty.    All  his  contemporaries 

TBicBL,L«««eri<d0r«miMr«ttr(2vola.,  Paria.  1889);  Chxala,  Po<i-  bear  Witness  to  his  Upright  and  noble  character. 

niJirf&Jltv^^i^rlii^rrf^^  ^^^^  ^   e^^e*   Nari    composed   two    comedies 

SS'iiS^Vb?;^^  "L'Amiciria"  and  "I  Due  FelkiRivaU-,  together 

CAirrsbui,  ifn  Portrait  inSdit  da  NapoUon  III  in  Renu  ds  rinati'  With  a  few  canti  carruudaleschi.  or  camival-songs. 

f^  Sj^ft^.***  ?S^  <J«10),  attributed  to  Falloux.  character-  To  a  later  date  belong  his  political  discourses,  his  trans- 

i-ngtheatutudeolNapoleontllmltalgarfi^  ^^^^  ^^^  Livy  and  CiWo,  and  his  Life  of  Antonio 

Giacomini,  an  austere  soldier  of  the  republic  who  died 

-,             r      ^T          X  in.             w,                    -.  inl517.    His ''IstoriedellacittlldiFirenze"  (History 

,.  Hipper  (or  Napibr),  Gborqu,  VyNBaABM  Eng-  of  the  City  of  Florence)  was  written  in  the  last  years 

hah  naartyr,  b.  at  Holywell  manor,  Oxford,  1550;  ex-  of  his  life.    It  deals  with  the  tragic  epoch  in  Floren- 

ecutod  at  Orford  9  November,  1610.    He  was  a  son  tine  history  from  1494  until  within  a  few  years  of  the 

^«^^?^^,*PP^  ^^;  ^  ^^^'  sometime  FeUow  of  author's  death,  and  is  especiaUy  noteworthy  for  its 

All  Souls  College,  by  Anne,  his  second  wife,  daughter  ^gh  moral  tone  and  its  faithful  record  of  the  events 

^i  ^^7^^'  ?(  ^h^^^J  W^nckshire,  and  mece  in  which  Nardi  himself  had  shared. 

of    Wllham,     Cardinal     PetO.      He    entered    CoipUS  Qmua,  ^d,,  Ittorie  dOla  cUtd  di  Pireruo  di  Jaeopo  Nardi  CFIot- 

Christi  College  5  January,  1565-6,  but  was  ejectea  in  «i^m*  1868) ;   Oaboiolli,  ed.,  VUa  d%  Antonio  Giacomini  e  aUri 

1568  as  a  recusant.    On  24  August,  1579.  he  paid  a  Tu^^^jl^^J^F^^'^b^^     Pi«haixi. l^ frita 

visit  to  the  English  College  at  Reims,  and  by  Decern-  Edmund  G.  Gardner. 
ber.  1580,  he  had  been  imprisoned.    He  was  still 

in  the  Wood  Street  Counter,  London,  on  30  September,  Nardd,  Diocbbb  of  (Nbrtfonenbib),  in  southern 

1588 ;  but  was  liberated  in  Jime,  1589.  on  acknowledging  Italy.    Nardd  was  already  an  episcopal  see,  when, 

the  royal  supremacy.    He  entered  tne  English  College,  about  761,  Greek  monks  arrived  there,  fleeing  from 

Douai,  in  1596,  ana  was  sent  on  the  mission  in  1603.  the  persecutions  of  the  Iconoclasts.    Paul  I  assigned 

He  i^pears  to  have  tived  with  his  brother  WiUiam  at  to  these  monks  the  episcopal  palace  and  the  revenues 

Holywell.    He  was  arrested  at  Kirtlington,  four  miles  of  the  see,  then  vacant^  and  the  city  was  made  part 

from  Woodstock,  very  early  in  the  morning  of  19  July,  of  the  Diocese  of  Brindisi.    The  monasterv  became  a 

1610,  when  he  had  on  him  a  pyx  containing  two  con-  centre  of  Gr^  culture;  but.  in  1090,  Uit>aa  II  put 

secrated  Hosts  as  well  as  a  small  reliouary.    Brought  lAtin  Benedictines  there,  and  Paschal  II  ga^e  episco- 

before  Sir  Francis  Eure  at  Upper  Hevford  (Wood  pal  jurisdiction  to  the  abbot;  for  a  long  time  JieGre«k 

sa^rs  before  a  justice  named  Chamberlain),  he  was  and  Latin  rites  were  maintained  together  at  the  mon- 

strictly  searched;  but  the  constable  found  nothing  but  astery.    In  1388,  a  bishop  was  established  at  Nard6 

his  breviary,  his  holy  oils,  and  a  needle  case  with  by  the  antipope,  Clement  VII,  but  was  deposed  by 

thread  and  thimble.    The  next  day  he  was  sent  to  Boniface  IX,  who  entrusted  the  care  of  the  oiocese  to 

Oxford  Castle,  and  indicted  at  the  sessions  soon  after  the  Archbishop  of  Otranto.    The  latter  proposed  to 


NABm  704  NASHVnUB 

BuppreflB  the  Greek  Rite  in  the  diooeeei  but,  at  the  Terni  was  without  a  bishop  until  1217,  in  whidi  year 

instance  of  the  Benedictines  and  of  King  LadisIauB,  the  diocese  was  re-estabhshed.    Among  its  bishops 

the  pope  maintained  its  use.  .  From  the  report  made  since  that  time,  were  Ludovioo  Mauanco  III  (1406), 

on  this  subject,  it  is  known  that  the  Greek  Rite  ob-  who  governed  the  diocese  for  fifty-two  yean:  Cosmas 

tained  in  dxteen  towns  of  the  diocese,  and  that  there  Manned  (1625),  who  gave  the  high  altar  to  the  cathe- 

was  a  protopope  at  Balatone.    The  see  was  re-estab-  dral,  and  Francesco  Rapaodoli  (1646),  a  cardinal  who 

lished  m  1413,  in  favour  of  Giovanni  degli  Epifani.  restored  the  cathedral.    The  united  sees  are  immedi« 

Other  bishops  were  Ambrogio  Salvi,  O.P.  (1569),  ately  dependent  upon  Rome;  they  have  57  parishes, 

who  introduced  the  reforms  of  the  Gouncil  of  Trent;  with  66,600  inhabitants,  3  religious  houses  of  men,  and 

Fabio  Fomari  (1583),  who  also  tried  to  abolish  the  11  of  women. 

use  of  the  Greek  Rite:  Lelio  Landi  (1607),  a  learned  „  Cappbllwtx.  L€Ckiu»  d^lt^ig,  VI:  Maoalotw.  Ttrm  o« 

Orientslist,  employed  by  the  Congregation  de  aiia^Ziw  ra«to«  Jn<«m««a  (Fohgno,  1796).  R,,«miT 

and  also  m  the  correction  of  Se  Vulgate;  Fabio  ^'  ™^®"- 

Chigi  (1635),  who  became  Alexander  VII;  Antonio       Narthez,  in  early  Christian  architecture  a  portion 

Sanfelice  (1707)^  founder  of  a  pubhc  hbraiy  and  of  a  of  the  church  at  the  west  end,  separated  from  the 

workhouse  for  girls.    The  diocese  is  directly  depend-  naye  by  a  low  wall  or  screen  and  reserved  for  the 

ent  on  the  Holy  See.    It  has  16  parishes,  with  70,500  catechimiens.  energumens,  and  penitents  who  were 

inhabitants,  2  houses  of  Franciscans,  and  4  religious  not  admitted  amonmt  the  congregation.    The  nar- 

houses  of  women,  2  schools  for  boys,  and  4  for  girls,  thex  was  of  two  kinds,  exterior  and  interior:  the  for- 

CAFPBLLwn.  Le  dhi^  ^Italia,  XX  CVenioe,  issio .  ^^  consisted  of  an  open  atrium  arcade  continued 

u.  UENiGNi.  ^j^jgg  ^g  fj^^^  ^^  ^Yie  church;  in  the  latter,  the  aisle 

and  gallery  were  returned  across  the  nave.    A  sur- 

Narm  and  Teml,  UNrrED  Dioceses  of  (Nabnien-  vival  of  the  exterior  narthex  may  be  found  in  the 
818  BT  Intbbamnensis),  in  Central  Italy.  Nami  church  of  San  Ambrogio  at  Milan;  of  the  interior 
is  the  ancient  Neouinum  of  the  Sabines;  in  300  and  narthex,  in  Santa  Agnese,  at  Rome.  The  outer 
290  B.  c,  it  was  besieged  by  the  Romans,  who  de-  narthex  was  sometimes  used  as  a  hall  of  judgment 
stroyed  the  city  and  sent  there  a  Latin  colony,  chang-  and  for  other  seciUar  purposes,  and,  after  the  sixth 
ing  the  name  to  Namia.  Luitprand  ccmtured  the  century,  as  a  place  of  burial,  while  the  inner  narthex, 
town  in  726,  but  Pope  Zacharias  persuaded  him  to  re-  sometimes  called  the  maironeumj  was  used,  probably, 
store  it  to  the  Duchy  of  Rome  in  742,  after  which  it  for  certain  persons  of  rank  or  distinction,  rather  than 
remained  under  pontifical  rule.  From  1198  to  1214,  as  a  women^s  gallery.  After  the  abandonment  of  the 
Nami  was  in  rebellion  against  Innocent  III,  who  tem-  atrium  in  the  West,  about  1000,  the  narthex  developed 
porarily  suppressed  its  episcopal  see.  The  churches  by  degrees  into  the  great  west  porch  which  is  so 
of  this  city  contain  many  paintings  of  the  ancient  characteristic  of  the  churches  or  southern  France. 
Umbrian  school.  This  town  is  the  birthplace  of  the  Among  the  monastic  orders  it  continued  in  use  down 
Blessed  Lucia  of  Nami,  a  tertiaiy  of  St.  Dominic,  who  to  the  oeginning  of  the  thirteenth  century,  as,  for  ex- 
died  in  1544^  and  of  the  condaUiere  Erasmo  Gattame-  ample,  in  the  abbeys  of  Cluny  and  V^zelay.  With 
lata.  Narm  venerates  as  its  first  bishop  the  martyr  the  full  development  of  (Gothic  it  disappeared,  its 
Juvenalis,  who  died  in  the  second  half  of  the  fourth  place  being  taken  by  the  three  great  western  porches. 
century;  St.  Maximus,  who  was  bishop  in  425,  was  or  doorwa3rs.  Properly  speaking,  the  name  should 
succeeded  by  his  two  sons  Hercules  and  Pancratius;  i^ave  ceased  with  the  function,  and  the  so-called  nar- 
St.  Gregory  the  Great  refers  to  the  bishop  St.  Cassius,  thex  of  medieval  churches  and  abbeys  should  justly 
who  died  in  558;  the  same  pontiff  wrote  a  letter  to  the  be  called  a  poreh.  For  the  same  reason  there  is 
bishop  Projectinus  which  snows  that,  at  Nami,  at  that  no  excuse  for  the  recent  revival  of  the  word  as  a 
time,  there  were  still  pagans  to  be  converted;  Bishop  desimation  either  of  an  exterior  porch,  or  an  interior 
John  (940)  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  who  became  yestSbule. 

John  XIII;  among  other  bishops  were:  Williaxn.  a  Ralph  Adams  Cbam. 

Franciscan,  whom  Urban  V  employed  against  the  Fra- 

ticelli  (1367);  and  Raimondo  Castelli  (1656),  founder       NashYille,  Diocbsb  of,  comprises  the  entire  terri- 

of  the  seminary.  tory  of  the  State  of  Tennessee.    From  its  inland  loca- 

In  1008,  the  sees  of  Nami  and  of  Term  were  united,  tion  and  peculiar  civil  history,  it  has  not  profited  much 

Terni  is  on  the  river  Nera,  at  its  confluence  with  the  from  the  tide  of  immigration,  and  hence  its  Catholic 

Velino;  the  magnificent  cascade  of  the  latter  is  well-  development  has  been  chiefly  due  to  its  own  intenal 

known  through  the  noble  description  by  Lord  Byron  work.   There  is  little  need  of  consulting  any  historical 

in  ''  Childe  mux>ld ".    Terni  is  the  ancient  Interamna  references  as  to  the  growth  of  the  Churdi  in  T 

Nahars  of  the  Umbrians,  and  its  former  splendour  is  since  no  such  work  of  any  importance  exists, 

witnessed  to  by  the  ruins  of  an  amphitheatre  in  the  diiefly  due  to  the  fact  that  heretofore  the  '**" 


garden  of  the  episcopal  palace,  a  theatre,  and  baths  in  an  embrsro  state  and  those  who  could  write  its 

near  the  church  of  St.  Nicholas.    The  cathedral,  and  tory  had  neither  time  nor  opportunity  to  do  what  was 

other  churches,  are  built  on  the  sites  of  psgan  tem-  so  much  needed.    Up  to  twenty  years  a^^,  or  in  the 

pies.    After  the  Lombard  invasion,  Terni  belonged  to  decade  of  1880-90,  much  of  the  diocesan  history  oouki 

the  Duchy  of  Spoleto,  and  with  the  latter,  came  into  have  been  learned  from  the  eariy  pioneers  of  Catho- 

the  Pontifical  ^tes;  it  was  at  this  town  that  Pope  licity,  or  their  children,  who  were  then  living.    The 

Zacharias  entered  into  the  agreement  with  King  Lmt-  Diocese  of  Nashville  was  established  28  July,  1837, 

prand  for  the  restitution  of  the  cities  of  Bieda,  Orte,  havingbeen  separated  from  the  Diocese  of  Barastown 

bomano,  and  Amelia  to  the  Duchy  of  Rome.    It  is  (now  Diocese  of  Louisville)  and  the  first  Bishop  of 

believed  that  the  gospel  was  preached  at  Terni  by  St.  Nashville  was  Rt.  Rev.  Richard  Pius  Miles,  eooae- 

Peregrinus,  about  the  middle  of  the  second  century,  crated  at  Bardstown,  16  Sept.,  1838.   Before  this  date 

The  townsmen  have  g^t  veneration  for  St.  Valen-*  there  is  no  authentic  record  of  any  eccledantical  mia> 

tinus,  whose  basilica  is  outside  the  city,  and  was,  sionary  work  in  what  is  now  the  State  of  Tennessee, 

probabl3r,  the  meeting-place  of  the  first  Christians  of  except  in  sporadic  efforts.    The  earliest  reoords  at- 

Terni.    There  were  other  martyrs  from  this  city,  tainable  are  two  letters  in  the  archives  of  Baltimore, 

among  them,  Sts.  Proculus,  E^hebus,  Apollonius,  and  dated  1799,  to  Bishop  Carroll  from  Father  Badin,  ooo- 

the  holy  virgin  Agape.    In  the  time  of  Totila,  the  ceming  an  off er  from  John  Sevier,  the  first  governor  of 

Bishop  of  Tend,  St.  Proculus,  was  killed  at  Bologna,  Tennessee,  that  Father  Badin  niight  arran^  for  the 

and  St.  Donmina  and  ten  nuns,  her  companions,  were  immigration  of  at  least  one  hundred  Cathohe  families 

put  to  death  at  Terni  itself.    After  the  eighth  century  for  whoee  mmtemuice  the  governor  guannleed 


VASORMAm 


705 


NASOSAim 


arate  tracts  of  land.  The  offer  of  the  warrioiHstates- 
man  was  not  accepted,  however,  although  many 
distinctly  Catholic  names  are  to  be  found  to-day 
among  the  inhabitants  of  east  Tennessee,  probably 
due  to  the  fact  that  the  insurgents  of  Ireland  were 
sold  into  a  species  of  slaverer  by  the  English  goyem- 
ment  to  the  American  colonists.  That  the3r  or  their 
children  have  fallen  from  the  old  faith  of  their  fathers 
can  be  accounted  for  by  the  fact  that  the  exiles  had 
then  neither  church  nor  priests,  nor  Catholic  schools. 
For  a  good  many  years  the  present  writer  has  been 
seeking  information  as  to  early  CathoUc  settlers  and 
Cathofic  work,  but  must  confess  the  evidence  very 
doubtful  as  to  whether  the  first  priestly  ministrations 
were  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Nashville  or  Knoxville. 
Civic  history  and  geographical  position  seem  to  give 
thepreference  to  Anoxville. 

I^e  first  authentic  records  of  a  priest  in  Tennessee 
are  contained  in  the  archives  of  St.  Mary's  cathedral, 
Nashville,  when  Father  Abell  came  (1820)  from  Bards- 
town  to  attend  the  few  Catholics  then  living  in  Nash- 
ville. Shortly  after  his  arrival.  Father  Abell  under- 
took the  building  of  the  first  church  in  Tennessee,  at 
Nashville,  a  small  building  on  what  is  now  Capitol 
hill.  The  State  Capitol  now  occupies  the  site.  Father 
Abell  visited  Nashville  as  a  mission  for  four  or  five 
years,  and  then  (1849)  Father  Durbin  took  charge, 
and  alx)ut  the  following  year  he  was  assisted  by  Father 
Brown  who  made  Ross  Landing  (now  Chattanooga) 
his  headquarters,  just  previous  to  the  advent  of 
Bishop  ^nies.  After  a  difficult  journey  on  horseback 
and  in  a  canoe  from  Bardstown,  Ky.,-  Bishop  Miles 
took  possession  of  his  diocese  and  early  in  1839,  began 
his  first  episcopal  visitation  of  Tennessee.  At  the  end 
of  his  journey  he  declared  that  he  did  not  find  more 
than  three  hundred  Catholics  in  Tennessee.  In  1840, 
he  again  journeyed  to  Memphis  to  establish  there  the 
first  church,  under  the  management  of  Father  Mc- 
Eleer;  it  has  since  been  rebuilt  as  St.  Peter's  by  the 
Dominicans.  In  1844  he  laid  the  comer  stone  of  St. 
Mary's  cathedral,  NashviUe.  In  addition  mission 
churches  were  established  in  outl3dng  stations  so  that 
in  1847  Bishop  Miles  was  able  to  report  to  Rome  that 
he  had  6  priests,  6  churches,  8  chapeb,  and  a  Catholic 
population  of  about  1500. 

In  1849  a  church  was  erected  at  Jackson;  in  1852 
one  at  Chattanooga;  in  1854  one  at  Knoxville;  in 
1856  one  at  McEwen;  in  1857  one  at  Edgefield  (now 
East  Nashville) :  in  1858  one  at  Shelbyyille  Qater  dis- 
continued) ;  ana  in  1858  one  at  Nashville  (church  of 
the  Assumption) .  Bishop  Miles  died  on  19  February, 
1860,  at  the  outbreak  of  the  Civil  War,  and  he  was 
succeeded  by  Bishop  Whelan.  His  diocese  became  the 
great  theatre  of  war:  his  cathedral  was  converted  into 
a  hospital:  his  flock  scattered.^  The  burden  proved 
too  great  for  his  strength,  and  in  1863  he  was  forced 
to  resisn.  Two  3rearB  later  Bishop  Feehan  succeeded 
him.  Under  his  jurisdiction,  new  priests  were  added 
to  the  diocese,  new  churches  were  built,  especially  St. 
Patrick's  (1866),  St.  Bridget's  (1870),  and  St.  Joseph's 
(1875),  all  at  Memphis.  In  1881  St.  Columba's church 
in  East  Nashville  was  built,  to  replace  the  old  St. 
John's  church,  which  was  burned  down  a  few  years 
previously.  In  the  decade  1870-80,  mission  diapels 
were  erected  at  Humboldt,  Belview,  and  Lawrence- 
buigj  Bishop  Feehan  reported  to  Rome  (1880)  that 
his  diocese  had  30  churches  of  which  18  had  resident 
priests,  besides  numerous  stations.  This  was  a  rapid 
growth,  when  we  consider  the  ravages  of  pestilence 
which  ^ted  the  people  during  1873, 1878,  and  1879, 
and  which  buried  from  the  ranks  of  the  Catholics  in 
Memphis  alone,  twenty-two  priests  and  thousands  of 
lay  people.  In  1880  Bishop  Feehan  became  the 
first  Archbishop  of  Chicago.  Illinois.  Bishop  Rade- 
maoher  succeeded  him  as  Bistiop  of  Nashville  in  1883, 
but  owing  to  ill-health  his  work  was  somewhat  re- 
tarded, although  some  progress  was  made.  During 
X.-^5 


his  administration  St.  Joseph's  and  St.  Patrick's 
churches  were  built  at  Nashville.  In  July,  1893, 
Bishop  Rademacher  was  transferred  to  the  Diocese  of 
Fort  Wayne,  Ind.,  where  he  died  in  1900. 

In  1894,  the  present  head  of  the  diocese.  Bishop 
Byrne,  was  consecrated  Bishop  of  Nashville,  and  his 
work  has  not  only  been  that  of  restoration,  but  also  of 
great  progress;  while  the  ranks  of  the  clergy  have  been 
strengthened  by  the  addition  of  many  new  men.  Faith- 
ful and  tireless  in  his  eneigy,  scholarly  in  his  attain- 
ments, he  has  aroused  the  latent  zeal  in  his  clergy  and 
people.  Among  his  many  imdertakings  may  be  men- 
tioned the  building  of  the  new  pro-cathedral,  the  en- 
larging of  the  Assumption  church  and  St.  Joseph's 
church  at  Nashville,  tne  building  of  the  Holy  Family 
church  for  coloured  people  at  Nawville,  the  rebuilding 
of  St.  Patrick's  church,  and  the  building  of  the  Sacred 
Heart  church  at  Memphis,  the  building  of  the  Holy 
Ghost  churdi  at  Knoxville,  besides  numerous  mis- 
sion chapels  throughout  the  diocese.  In  addition 
to  this  he  has  directed  the  building  or  enlarging  of 
various  institutions  of  charity  and  learning.  He 
also  convoked,  10  Feb.,  1905,  the  first  synod  of 
the  diocese,  at  which  34  priests  were  present,  with 
7  unavoidcubly  absent.  Scarcely  had  the  diiocese 
been  formed,  when  its  bishops  and  priests  recognized 
the  need  of  these  institutions,  and  with  their  untir- 
ing eneigy,  as>[lums,  hospitals,  and  schools  sprans  into 
existence.  Chief  among  them  may  be  mentionea  first 
of  sJl  that  every  parish  having  a  residential  pastor 
has  also  a  Catholic  school,  ana  in  addition  there  are 
four  academies  for  young  ladies,  St.  Agnes  (Memphis), 
conducted  by  the  Dominican  (Ky.)  Sisters,  estab- 
lished in  1850;  the  Sacred  Heart  (Memphis),  con- 
ducted by  Dominican  (Nashville)  Sisters,  established 
in  1890;  St.  Cecilia's  (Nashville),  conducted  by  Do- 
minican Sisters  at  their  mother-house,  established  in 
1860;  St.  Bernard's  (Nashville),  conducted  b3r  the 
Sisters  of  Mercy,  established  in  1868.  For  the  hi^er 
education  and  technical  instruction  of  coloured  girls, 
the  Sisters  of  the  Blessed  Sacrament  (Pa.)  conduct  an 
academy  at  Nashville,  established  in  1905.  The  Chris- 
tian Brothers  at  Mexnphis.  since  1871,  conduct  a  col- 
lege for  young  men.  For  charitable  institutions,  there 
are  two  well  equipped  oiphansu^es,  one  at  Nashville 
and  one  at  Mempnis;  St.  Joseph's  Hospital  at  Mem- 
phis, erectedJn  1885,  is  conducted  by  the  Sisters  of  St. 
Francis,  while  St.  Thomas'  Hospital  at  NashviUe  is 
conducted  by  the  Sisters  of  Charity  from  Emmits- 
burg.  The  Sisters  of  the  Good  Shepherd  have  a  home 
at  Memphis  for  the  reformation  of  wayward  girls,  and 
the  Little  Sisters  of  the  Poor  have  an  institution  at 
Nashville  for  the  aged  and  infirm.  There  are  also  in 
the  diocese  the  Franciscans  and  the  Dominicans,  each 
with  a  parish  church  at  Memphis:  the  Josephite 
Fathers,  havine  churches  at  Nashville  and  Memphis; 
the  Paulist  Fathers,  with  a  Mission  house  at  Winches- 
ter; the  Sisters  of  the  Precious  Blood  (Maria  Stein), 
having  a  school  at  Lawrenceburg.  Bishop  Bjrme  has 
at  present  (1910)  under  his  direction,  46  priests;  25 
parishes  with  a  resident  priest  and  parochial  schools, 
and  under  Catholic  care  in  schools  and  institutions  for 
children,  about  5000  pupils;  the  total  Catholic  popu- 
lation is  between  20,000  and  25,000. 

Jas.  T.  Lorioan. 

NasonMms,  sometimes  called  Mandjeans,  Sa- 
BiANB,  or  Chbistians  of  St.  John,  are  pagan  Gnostics 
who  shortly  before  the  rise  of  Christianity,  formed  a  sect 
which  flourished  in  Mesopotamia  and  Babylonia,  and 
which  was  one  of  the  foremost  religions  m  Western 
Asia  in  the  early  years  of  Mohammedanism.  Though 
some  2000  families  strong  in  the  seventeenth  century, 
they  have  dwindled  at  the  present  day  to  some  1500 
-adherents  living  on  the  Shat-el-Arab  near  the  Persian 
Gulf.  It  is  the  only  Gnostic  sect  that  has  survived 
and  the  sacred  writings  of  which  are  still  extant;  a  few 


KASOaaSANS  706  nasobjbans 

remnants  excepted,  the  writings  of  the  so-called  left  being  used  at  funerals  and  being  written  for  the 

Christian   Gnostics  have   perished.    I   Names,    II  benefit  of  the  dead.    The  Genza  is  a  coUection  of 

Doctrines,  III  Discipline  and  Ritual,  IV  Histoiy.  writings  from  all  ages  and  sources,  some  dating  even 

I  Names.  Mandsean  (K^fiH^D)  is  a  Babvloman-  after  the  Mohammedan  oonouest.  Another  sacred 
Aramaic  word  in  dialectic  form,  meaning:  Gnostics,  book  is  the  Kolasta,  or  "Summa"  or  i>ractical 
ypwrriKol,  ''those  who  are  good  at  knowmg".  The  vademecum  containing  hymns,  liturgies,  rites  for 
Hebrew  word  for  knowledge  JTID  Madda  is  of  the  marriages,  etc.  (published  as  ''Qolasta"  oy  Euting. 
same  root  and  is  the  noun  from  which  the  adjective  Stuttgart,  1867).  The  Sidra  de  Yahya  i.  e.  Book  of 
Mandaya  is  derived.  It  is  the  name  adopted  by  the  St.  John  or  Drdsh^  de  malk^,  ''Lectures  of  the  Kings" 
sect  itself,  being  emplo^^ed  in  their  sacred  books,  and  was  published  in  1905  by  Lidzbarski  and  translated 
is  characteristic  of  their  worship  of  the  K^m  tn^  with  commentary  by  Ochser  in  1905.  The  Diwan,  a 
ywiru  T^f  l^utijt  or  "knowledge  of  life".  Another  priestly  ritual,  was  published  by  Eutine  (1904),  but 
name  also  found  in  their  sacred  books  is  that  of  Sa-  the  Asfar  Malwftshe,  an  astrological  work  on  the  signs 
bians  (K^^V)  which  means  Baptists  (y^V  to  bap-  of  the  Zodiac,  is  not  yet  i)ublisned.  In  recent  years 
tize  in  Syriac  and  Aramaic).  This  name  is  known  to  finds  of  Nasorsean  inscriptions  on  pottery  have  added 
die  Mohammedans  (sing.  Sabia,pL  fr.  Svhd*u)  from  to  our  knowledge  of  their  popular  superstitions  (Pog- 
the  Koran  (Sure  V,  73;  II,  59;  XXII,  17)  in  which  non,  "Une  incantation  en  MandaUe",  Paris,  1892; 
Christians.  Sabians,  and  Jews  are  enumerated  as  leli-  "Inscriptions  Mand."  Paris,  1898-9;  Lidzbarski, 
gions  which  can  be  tolerated  by  Islam.    It  is  based  on  "Ephem  f .  Sem.  Epigr. ",  Giessen,  1900). 

the  prominence  of  frequent  baptism  in  their  religious        These  sources  show  Nasorseanism  to  be  a  form  of 

discipline  and  hence  they  are  no  doubt  referred  to  by  Gnosticism  which  stands  towards  late  Babylonian 

the  Fathers  as  Hemerobaptists  ^/iepo/Saxr/o'rat  i.  e.  polytheism    somewhat    as    Neo-Platonism    stands 

practising  daily  baptism.     The  name  2ovj9a(ot  was  towards  the  Greek  and  Roman  Pantheon.     It  is  an 

even  known  in  Greek  writers.    The  name,  however,  attempt  to  allegorize  the  ancient  m3rths  as  being 

most  frequently  used  in  their  sacred  literature  is  that  phases  of  man's  creation  and  salvation,  thou^  Naso- 

of  Nasorseans,  tOmiVKJ   which   is   also   the  usual  rseanism  never  rids  itself  of  fantastic  Eastern  imagery. 

Arabic  (sing.  Nasrani^  pi.  Nas&ra)  for  Christians.  Probably  through  Nabatsean  commerce  these  south- 

The  coincidence  is  striking,  the  more  so  as  the  Naso-  em  Babylonians  came  into  contact  with  the  Jews  of 

rsanshave  no  leaning  towards  Christianity,  but  rather  the  east  of  the  Jordan  and  developed  a  worship  of  St. 

contempt  and  hatreof  for  it;  nor  do  their  doctrines  be-  John  the  Baptist.    Their  daily  baptism  is  however 

tray  an^r  approximation  to  Christian  beliefs,  except  earlier  than  St.  John's  practice  and  is  probably  the 

perhaps  in  that  of  the  existence  of  a  saviour,  although  cause  of  their  belief  regarding  St.  John  rather  than  the 

some  of  their  ceremonies  bear  a  sup^cial  resemblance  efifect  of  it.    They  likewise  absorbed  a  great  deal  of 

to  Christian  mysteries.    If,  however,  we  remember  Indian  and  Parseephilosophy  till  they  developed  their 

that  the  Manichseans  in  Europe  paraded  as  the  true  doctrine  of  the  Light-King,  which  is  similar  to  the 

Christians,  though  their  system  has  but  the  use  of  Manichsan  concept  of  the  universe,  though  without 

half  a  dozen  terms  in  common  with  Christianity,  and  an  absolutely  rigid  dualism.    No  reli^on  therefore 

that  some  Gnostic  sects  had  barely  anv  similarity  with  bears  a  nearer  resemblance  to  Nasorseanism  than  that 

the  Church  of  Christ,  though  self-styled  Christians,  it  of  Mani,  who  himself  was  an  eastern  Baptist  in  his 

becomes  less  strange  that  even  Manobeans  should  have  youth.    Finally,  through  contact  with  the  monothe- 

styled  themselves  Nasorseans.    The  term  Kristi&n&,  ism  of  Jews,  Christians,  Mohammedans,  and  later 

as  transliteration  of  the  Greek  word,  they  reserve  for  Parsees,  they  gradually  drifted  towards  the  acceptance 

the  followers  of  Jesus  Christ.    Christianity  was  no  of  one  GOd.    Their  worship  of  the  Light-King  is  one 

doubt  a  name  to  conjure  with,  but  the  absence  of  any  of  singular  beauty  and  elevation.    Their  seonology  is 

reason  for  the  adoption  of  the  title  remains  a  mystery,  extremely  intricate;  the  seons  are  called  by  the  my»- 

It  is  suggested  by  some  that  the  name  is  only  givan  tical  name  Utra  ((T^Jliy  which  means:  Riches  or 

to  the  most  perfect  amongst  them,  but  this  seoms  Potencies;  Hebrew  *1(^).    It  will  suffice  to  mention 

contrary  to  fact.    Thename"ChristiansT)f  St.  John*'  a  few  prominent  ideas.    Pint  Rabba  is  the  souit^e, 

is  of  European  origin  and  based  on  a  mistake.    The  origin,  and  container  of  all  things.    The  meaning  of 

Nasorseans  have  an   extraordinaiy   veneration   for  Pira  (tn^D)  is  uncertain;  of  various  suggested  mean- 

St.  John  the  Baptist,  who  figures  largely  in  their  ings,  perhaps  that  of  "Fruit"  (Hebr.  ^D)  is  the  most 

mjTthology.    This  veneration,  together  with  the  sim-  likely.    This  "Fruit"  is  like  the  Indian  "Golden 

ilarity  oftheir  rites  to  Christian  sacraments,  led  the  ^SS  { the  transcendental  and  unconscious  "  Fullness 

first  missionaries  from  Europe  to  regard  them  as  of  Being"  out  of  which  all  things  develop;  it  is  the 

decendants  of  the  Christians  baptized  only  with  the  seed  of  the  fig  tree  of  the  Gnostic  Docetse  (q.  v.);  it  is 

baptism  of  St.  John.    Such,  e.  g.  was  the  impression  the  P^Oot  of  the  Valentinians.    This  Fira  Rid[>ba  is 

of  the  Carmelite  Ignatius  a  Jesu,  who  lived  some  years  possessed  and  filled  by  the  M&n&  Rabb&:  the  Great 

in  Bassa  and  wrote  a  description  of  the  sect  (1652).  Spirit,  the  Great  Illustrious  One^e  Great  Splendour 

II  Doctrines.  These  are  to  be  gathered  from  a  or  Majesty.  From  the  Mdn&  Kabb&  emanates  the 
voluminous  compilation  called  Genza  or  "The  Treas-  First  Life,  who  prays  for  oompanionshiD  and  progeny, 
ure",  and  sometimes  Sidra  Rabba  or  "The  Great  whereupon  the  Second  life,  the  Utra  Mkayyema  or 
Book",  of  which  copies  dating  from  the  sixteenth  and  World-constitutine  .£on,  the  Architect  of  the  Uni- 
seventeenth  centuries  are  in  the  Biblioth^ue  Natio-  verse,  comes  into  oeing.  This  divine  architect  gives 
nale  at  Paris  and  have  been  published  by  Petermann  forth  a  number  of  seons,  who  with  his  permission  in- 
(Thesaurus  s.  Liber  Magnus,  vulgo  Liber  Adami,  etc.,  tend  to  erect  the  universe.  This  however  displeases 
Berlin,  1867)  in  Nasorsean  script  and  language.  The  the  First  Life  at  whose  request  the  MAnA  Rabbft  pro- 
former  is  not  unlike  Estrangela  with  vowels  added  in  duces  as  surveyor  or  foreman  of  the  architect's  sons 
the  modifications  of  the  consonants,  and  the  latter  the  Mand&  d'Hayye  or  yvwait  r^  ju^  the  Personified 
closely  resembles  that  of  the  Aramidc  in  the  Talmud.  Knowledge  of  Lue  i.  e.  the  friend  and  counsellor  of  the 
The  same  text  in  Syriac  characters  with  a  somewhat  First  Life. 

free  Latin  translation  was  published  by*  Norberg        This  Manda  de  Hajrye  is  the  Christ  of  the  Naso- 

(London  and  Gotha.  1817).  Selections  from  the  Gen-  raeans  after  whom  they  are  called  and  around  whom 

za  (about  one  fourtn)  have  been  translated  into  Ger-  all  their  religious  ideas  group  themselves.    As  god 

man  by  Brandt.    This  book  is  arbitrarily  divided  into  of  order  he  has  to  battle  with  the  leons  of  chaos  and 

two  sections,  called  the  Right  and  the  Left  Genza  from  thus  realize  the  divine  idea  in  the  world.    The  whole 

the  curious  Nasorsean  custom  of  writing  these  two  is  a  bold  and  obvious  alle^ry:  Marduk  is  sent  by 

portions  in  one  volume  but  in  inverted  positions,  the  bis  father  £a  to  do  battb  with  the  powers  of  Tiamat. 


NATAL 


707 


NATAL 


This  female  monster  of  chaos  Nasorseans  called  the 
Holy  Ghost,  the  Deceiver  (spirit  is  feminine  in  Ara- 
maic) or  Ruha,  no  doubt  to  spite  the  Christians. 
This  Ruha  has  a  son  called  Ur,  the  prince  of  devils. 
Manda  de  Ha3rye  conquers  him  and  throws  him  into 
chains.  Unfortimately  while  Gabriel  the  Apostle  and 
Petahiel  are  b^nnins  to  create  a  good  world,  Ur 
escapes  and  begets  witn  Ruha  the  seven  planets,  the 
twelve  signs  of  the  Zodiac,  and  the  five  elements.  A 
truce  is  called  and  Petahiel  amicably  shares  the  crea- 
tion of  the  world  with  the  sons  of  Ur  and  Ruha.  The 
lifeless  body  of  Adam  is  created,  but  the  "Image  of 
God"  is  without  motion.  With  the  help  of  Abel, 
Seth,  Enos.  and  Adakas  there  is  breathed  into  him  the 
spirit  of  lite.  The  seven  planets,  however,  and  the 
twelve  signs  of  the  Zodiac  constitute  an  evil  influence 
in  the  world,  which  is  continually  being  overcome 
by  the  Manaa  de  Ha3rye.  With  the  doctrine  of  the 
Light-Kine  a  considerable  modification  of  seonology 
was  introduced,  but  the  main  outline  remained  the 
same.  The  Light-King,  the  Father  of  the  aeons,  be- 
gets Manda  de  Hayye  or  Protanthropos,  Adam  as 
Qie  First  man.  This  Manda  de  Hayye  becomes  in- 
carnate in  Hibil  the  Glorious  or  Hibil  Ziva  (Kin  ^'TH). 
Kessler  ix>intedly  remarks  that  if  Manda  is  the  Christ 
then  EUbil  is  the  Jesus  Christ  of  Nasoraeanism.  Hibil's 
descents  into  Hades  play  a  great  rdle  in  their  theology. 
Hibil  is  the  Saviour  and  the  Prophet  of  man.  He  is 
Marduk  attempting  to  displace  Jesus  of  Nazareth. 
A  last  emanation  of  the  Light-King  was  John  the 
Baptist,  who  with  Hibil,  Seth,  and  E^os  are  brethren 
of  the  Manda  de  Ha3rye.  Frequent  mention  is  made 
of  heavenly  Jordans,  being  streams  of  Hvins  waters 
from  the  transcendental  realm  of  Ught.  Hibil  Ziva 
was  baptised  in  360,000  of  them  before  his  descent  to 
the  nether  World. 

III.  DisciPLiNB  AND  RiTUAL. — ^The  Nssorseans 
strongly  repudiate  all  ideas  of  celibacy  and  asceti- 
cism; they  have  a  true  Semitic  contempt  for  the 
unmarried  and  repeatedly  inculcate  the  precept  "in- 
crease and  multiply''.  They  reject  all  fasting  and  self- 
denial  as  useless  and  unnatural,  and  if  they  observed 
the  Mohammedan  fasts  at  least  in  outward  appearance 
it  was  only  to  avoid  trouble  and  persecutions.  They 
are  the  reverse  of  Manichseans;  there  may  be  much 
evil  in  this  world  but  man  is  bound  to  make  the  best  of 
it.  No  wonder  Mani  left  them.  They  observe  no 
distinctions  of  food,  except  that  blood  and  things 
strangled  are  forbidden  them,  also  all  food  prepared 
by  strangers,  and  even  food  bought  in  the  market, 
must  be  washed.    They  have  no  special  hours  for 

grayer  except  that  they  must  only  pray  when  it  is 
sht,  no  prayer  is  heard  as  long  as  it  is  dark.  Not  the 
Mohammedan  Friday^  or  the  Jewish  Sabbath,  but 
the  Christian  Sunday  is  their  weekly  holyda/.  This, 
however,  is  not  a  conscious  imitation  of  the  Cnristians, 
whose  ''Carpenter-god ''  they  hate  as  a  son  of  the  devil. 
The  religious  observance  of  other  hoHdays  seems  of 
more  recent  origin,  though  no  doubt  their  civil  observ- 
ance, as  in  the  case  of  New  Year's  day  (first  day  of 
Wintermonth;  their  months  have  thirty  days  with  five 
intercalary  days  to  make  a  solar  year),  is  ancient 
enough,  oeing  a  festival  of  ancient  Babylonia.  They 
observe  Ascension  day  (of  Hibil  Ziva  retumins  from 
Hades)  on  the  ei^teenth  of  first  Springmonth,  the 
Great  Baptismal  Festival  on  the  intercalary  days,  the 
Feast  of  the  Egyptians  apparently  drowned  m  the 
Red  Sea  under  Pmuraoh  (they  were  not  really  drowned, 
but  escaped  and  were  the  forefathers  of  the  Naso- 
neans),  and  a  few  other  feasts.  They  possessed  a 
hierarchical  priesthood  to  whom  they  paid  a  profound 
veneration.  Their  patriarch  is  the  Rash  Amma, 
chief  of  the  people,  but  they  seem  but  rarely  to  have 
had  such  a  aignitary;  legend  says  only  one  before  and 
one  after  John  the  Baptist.  A  land  of  bishops, 
priests,  and  deacons  form  the  hierarchy;  th^  are 
called  Ganzivrft,  TarmidhA,  and  Shecancul,  or  Treas- 


urer, Disciple,  and  Messenger.  The  ordination  to 
thp  priesthood  is  preceded  by  a  so-called  retreat  of 
sixty  days  during  which  the  candidate  submits  to 
many  quaint  rules  and  baptisms.  Hie  Shecanda 
is  only  an  assistant,  but  the  priest's  privil^e  is  the 
power  to  baptise;  the  bishop  is  the  administrator 
of  the  community.  They  possess  three  great  sacra- 
mental rites,  Masbutha  or  baptism;  Pehta  and 
Mabuha  or  communion,  really  morsel  (bread)  and 
draught  (water);  and  ICusta  or  troth,  a  handshake 
and  plighting  of  troth.  Baptism,  always  in  flowing  or 
living  water  of  rivers  and  brooks,  is  the  greatest  ofall 
the  ntes.  Children  are  baptised  as  soon  as  they  can 
bear  total  immersion.  Self-baptism  is  frequent;  the 
priest  when  baptizing  used  originally  the  formula: 
Thou  art  signecl  with  the  sign  of  life:  The  Name  of 
the  life  and  the  Manda  de  Hayye  is  named  over 
thee.  Baptism  takes  place  on  Simday  and  on  many 
other  occasions  when  forgiveness  of  sin  is  required. 
It  is  followed  by  a  kind  of  anointing  with  moist 
sesame.  Communion  is  given  in  thin  unleavened 
cakes  kept  in  the  priest's  house  and  a  handful  of 
water.  Kushta  is  a  solemn  sign  of  fellowship  with 
brother  Nasorseans.  "Brethren  of  the  flesh  pass 
away,  Kushta  brethren  remain  forever",  says  the 
proverb.  The  history  of  Nasorseanism  is  practicably 
unknown.  The  Genza  contains  a  Book  of  Kings  of  a 
pseudo-historical  character,  but  the  utter  confusion 
of  their  historical  reminiscences  makes  it  difficult  to 
find  a  kernel  of  truth.  The  Nasorseans  were  lost  to 
history  till  Imatius  a  Jesu  brought  the  news  of  their 
existence.  Iney  have  been  a  prominent  religion,  as 
they  were  classed  with  Christians  and  Jews  oy  the 
Mohammedans.  It  is  often  held  that  they  once  ac- 
tually dwelt  in  Palestine  near  the  Jordan  and  immi- 
grated into  Chaldea.  Their  bitter  hatred  of  all  that  is 
Jewish  or  Christian  (for  Moses  is  a  false  prophet, 
Jesus,  the  Great  Deceiver,  whom  Enos  justly  brings 
to  the  cross),  together  with  their  extensive  use  of 
Biblical  names,  would  lead  one  to  believe  that  thou^ 
their  "theology  "  is  Indian-Babylonian  they  were  once 
historically  connected  with  Jewish  Christians. 

Bkaitdt,  DU  numdaiache  RMgion  (Leipiis.  1889);  Idbm.  Dm 
St^iekmU  der  S^tU  nadt  dem  Tode  eU,  in  JahrbOeh.  der  proi,  Thwl, 
(1892);  Idbii,  Afafulaiaefte  5eAn/ten  (Gdttingen,  1893) ;  Kbsslbr, 
an  extenaive  article  in  RtdUnofkL  fUr  prot.  Thetioo.  (1903),  s.  v. 
MaiukLer;  Idbm .  Mandaana  in  Sneydopad.  Britan.;  Ocbbbx,  Sidra 
d^Nitmaia  (Book  of  SouU),  tr.;  ZeiUdirift  d.  deui.  morgmL  QtuU. 

il907) ;  DB  MoRGAK,  TtxtM  MandaUu  in  MUnona  Scientiflouet  «n 
'«rM,  V  (Paris,  1904) ;  Sxoum,  Etudea  aur  la  rdigion  daa  SoMaa 
Q^aris,  1880);  Babblom,  Laa  MandaUaa  in  AnnaUa  da  Philoa. 
ChrM,  (1881);  PKTBBMANir,  Reiam  im  Orient  (Ldpng,  1861); 
N0LDBKB,  Mandaiaeha  OrammaUk  (LeipiiSi  1876). 

J.  P.  Arendzbn. 

Natal,  ViCABiATB  Apostolic  of. — ^The  history  of 
the  Catholic  Church  in  South  Africa  goes  back  to 
1660,  when  a  French  bishop  and  a  few  priests  were 
saved  from  the  wreck  of  the  Marichal  near  the  Cape 
of  Good  Hop|e.  But  they  were  only  allowed  to  land, 
and  no  permission  was  given  them  to  minister  to  the 
few  Catnolics  who  were  already  in  Cape  Town.  It 
was  not  until  1803  that  a  Catholic  priest  was  pei^ 
mitted  to  say  Mass  in  Cape  Colony.  Fathers 
Joannes  Lansink,  Jacobus  Mehssen,  and  LaAibertus 
Prinsen  landed  at  Cape  Town  in  1803;  liie  following 
year  they  were  expelled.  Pius  VII  by  letters  Apos- 
tolic dated  8  June,  1818,  appointed  the  Rt.  Rev.  £kl- 
ward  Bede  Slater,  O.S.B.,  the  first  vicar  Apostolic 
of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  and  the  neighbouring  is- 
lands, Mauritius  included.  Bishop  Slater  on  his  way 
to  Mauritius  in  1820,  left  Rev.  Fr.  Scully  at  Cape 
Town  in  charge  of  the  Catholics.  In  1826  Rev. 
Theodore  Wagner  became  resident  priest.  He  was 
succeeded  by  Rev.  E.  Rishton  in  1827.  On  6  June, 
1837,  Gregory  XVI  established  the  Vicariate  of  the 
Cape  of  Good  Hope,  separate  from  Mauritius,  and  from 
tiiat  time  Cape  Colony  has  had  its  own  bishops. 

South  Africa,  comprising  the  country  between  Cape 
Agulhas  and  tne  tenth  degree  of  south  latitude  and 


NATAL 


708 


NATAL 


between  the  tenth  and  fortieth  degrees  of  east  lon^- 
tude,  was  too  much  for  one  bishop.  On  30  July,  1847, 
PiuB  IX  establisaed  a  new  vicariate  in  the  eastern  por- 
tion of  Cape  Colony.  This  new  vicaiiate  included 
fiorst  the  eastern  district  of  Cape  Colony,  Natal,  and 
the  Orange  Free  State  (Orange  River  Colony  since 
the  late  South  African  war) .  The  same  pontiff  on  15 
November,  1830  separated  Natal  and  the  Oran^  Free 
State  from  the  Eastern  Vicariate.  The  first  oishop 
appointed  by  Rome  to  take  charge  of  the  Eastern 
Vicariate  was  the  Rt.  Rev.  Aidan  Devereaux.  D.D. 
He  was  consecrated  bishop  at  Cape  Town.  27  Decern- 
ber,  1847  by  the  Ri^t  Rev.  Dr.  Griffith.  When 
Pius  IX  erected  the  Vicariate  of  Natal,  on  15  Novem- 
ber, 1830,  the  area  of  the  new  vicariate  comprised  all 
the  ]>ortion  of  South  Africa  extending  outside  the  then 
existing  boundaries  of  Cape  Colony.  The  first  vicar 
Apostolic  was  the  Right  Rev.  Dr.  Allard,  O.M.I. 
He  landed  at  Port  Natal  with  five  missionaries  of  the 
same  French  order.  The  name  of  this  colony  dates 
from  Vasco  da  Gama,  the  Portuguese  voya^r,  who 
sighted  its  headlands  on  Christmas  Day,  1497,  which 
suggested  the  name  of  Terra  Natalia,  In  1760  the 
Dutch  had  a  trading  settlement  at  the  site  of  the 
present  hariK>ur  of  Durban,  speedily  abandoned:  and 
more  than  a  hundred  years  passed  before  Natal  was 
again  visited  bv  Europeans. 

After  several  wars  between  Dutch,  British,  and 
natives.  Natal  was  declared  a  British  colony  in  1843. 
Nine  years  later.  Dr.  Allard  and  his  five  companions 
landed  on  the  African  shores.  Till  that  time,  no 
priest  had  been  residing  in  Natal.  The  country  had 
Deen  occasionally  visited  by  a  priest  from  Cape 
Colony.  The  first  missionaiy  who  ministered  to  the 
Catholics  of  Natal  was  Rev.  Father  Murphy,  sent  by 
Bishop  Devereaux.  Its  area  is  about  35,371  square 
miles,  and  it  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  Transvaal 
Colony  and  Portuguese  East  Africa;  on  the  east  by 
the  Indian  Ocean;  on  the  south  by  Cape  Colony 
(Pondoland) ;  and  on  the  west  by  Cape  Colony  (Gn- 
qualand  East),  Basutoland,  and  Oranse  River  Colony 
from  which  it  is  separated  by  the  Dn£ensberg  Moun- 
tains. At  the  time  of  the  advent  of  the  first  mis- 
sionaries^ the  white  element  of  the  population  was 
almost  insignificant.  Agriculture  was  practically 
unknown.  Industry,  at  present  a  source  of  wealth, 
was  altogether  ignored. 

The  Catholic  population  was  then  composed  of 
about  two  hundred  in  Durban  and  three  hundred  in 
Pietcrmaritzburg :  it  comprised  only  the  white  element, 
immigrants  from  England  and  especially  from  Ireland. 
The  native  population,  scattered  aU  over  Natal. 
Zululand,  ana  the  Transkei^  which  districts  formed 
also  a  portion  of  the  Vicanate  of  Natal,  was  fdto- 
gether  uncivilised.  The  agents  of  the  London  Mis- 
sionary Society  had  organized  some  missionary  work 
for  the  civilization  of  natives.  But  they  came  out 
rather  as  officials  of  the  Government,  and  there- 
fore were  not  altogether  ready  to  go  through  the  hard- 
ships of  missionary  life.  Brides  the  Europeans  and 
natives,  there  was  the  scattered  Dutch  population. 
Natives  and  Dutch  were  not  prepared  to  receive  the 
Catholic  faith.  Among  the  former,  superstitions,  a 
mckening  immorality,  and  polygamy,  and  among  the 
latter,  prejudices,  and  hatred  against  the  Church  of 
Rome,  rendered  for  many  years  all  the  efforts  of  the 
missionaries  apparently  f nutless.  However  disheart- 
ening was  the  result  of  their  work,  the  pioneers  re- 
mained at  their  post.  For  seven  years  they  had  not 
the  consolation  of  registering  one  soul  for  the  Catholic 
Church,  yet  the  intrepid  and  courageous  Dr.  Allard 
wanted  to  push  further  his  expeditions  a^^ainst  pagan- 
ism. He  founded  a  new  mission  exclusively  ror  the 
natives,  to  whom  the  missionaries  wished  to  devote 
themselves  altogether,  and  he  called  the  new  mission 
St.  Michael.  Here  they  were  destined  to  battle  anunst 
many  obstacles,  privation  of  the  necessaries  ^  life» 


difficulty  of  communication,  and  poverty,  wiiioh 
drove  tne  missionaries  to  the  verge  of  starvation. 

The  advent  of  new  missionaries  enabled  Dr. 
Allard  to  found  missions  as  far  as  Basutoland.  Re- 
ligious increase  was  slow,  owing  to  the  small  number 
of  missionaries  and  the  degradation  of  the  popu- 
lation. Communication  was  extremely  slow  ana  diffi- 
cult, and  jKras  generally  either  by 'wagons  drawn  by 
oxen,  or  on  horeeback;  during  the  rainy  season  travd 
was  very  dangerous,  owing  to  the  swollen  rivers.  Amid 
such  hardships  and  privations  Dr.  Allard  felt  that  hia 
life  was  drawing  to  a  close.  He  retired  to  Rome, 
where  he  died  soon  after.  Under  his  successor,  Rt. 
Rev.  Dr.  Charles  Jolivet,  O.M.I,  appointed  30  Nov., 
1874,  the  Vicariate  of  Natal  has  made  rapid  prog- 
ress in  the  way  of  Christianity  and  civilisation.  New 
misnons  were  founded  all  over  this  immense  vicariate, 
and  new  chapels  and  schools  for  Europeans  and  na- 
tives were  opened.  Many  obstacles  which  in  the  be- 
ginning had  rendered  the  missionary  work  very  diffi- 
cult were  removed.  Communication  became  easier, 
owing  to  the  new  railways  and  roads  laid  out  across 
the  country  by  the  Government  of  Natal.  Mission- 
ary work  has  been  of  late  years  carried  on  amongst  the 
natives  on  a  ver^  large  scale,  owing  to  the  advent  of 
some  Trappists  mto  the  Colony  of  Natal,  who  after- 
wuxls  were  organized  into  the  "Congregation  of  the 
Missionaries  of  Mariannhill".  They  have  devoted 
themselves  entirely  to  the  evangelization  of  the  na- 
tives, and  as  statistics  show,  their  efforts  and  labours 
have  been  fully  rewarded.  The  late  Anglo-Boer  war 
hampered  much  the  missionary  work  in  this  vicariate, 
but  the  consequences  of  this  war  have  practically 
disappeared.  Through  the  treaty  agreed  to  by  th^ 
British  and  the  Boers,  the  Districts  of  Utrecht,  Vry- 
heid,  and  Wakkerstroom  were  ceded  to  Natsl  and 
have  been  added  to  this  vicariate,  which  now  com- 
prises the  three  above-mentioned  (Ustricts,  Natal 
proper,  Transkei,  Swaziland,  and  Zululand. 

llie  present  bishop  (1910)  is  Rt.  Rev.  Henri  DelaDe, 
O.M.I.,  appointed  m  1904.  The  white  population 
of  the  vicariate  is  estimated  to  be  about  100,000; 
natives,  Indians,  and  Malays,  1,000,000^  the  Catho- 
lic population  is  25  J37  (whites,  7458 :  natives^  15,227; 
colouied,  3052).  Priests:  Oblates  ot  Mary  unniacu- 
late,  38;  Missionaries  of  Mariannhill,  4(5;  secular 
priests :  Europeans,  4,  natives,  3.  There  is  a  seminazy, 
with  eleven  theological  students.  Lay  brothers: 
Oblates  of  Mary  Immaculate,  Europeans,  4.  native, 
1;  Missionaries  of  Mariannhill,  305;  Marist  Brothers, 
7.  Number  of  churches,  59;  missions,  49.  Number 
of  schools:  for  whites,  24.  pupils,  653;  for  natives.  62, 
pupils,  1864;  for  colourea,  10,  pupils,  472;  most  of  the 
schools  are  conducted  by  nuns.  Orders  of  women: 
Sisters  of  the  Precious  Blood,  324;  Sisters  of  the  Holy 
Cross,  55;  Sisters  of  Nazareth,  12;  Sistera  of  the 
Holy  Family,  92;  Dominicans,  138;  Augustinians,  67; 
Franciscans,  12 ;  Sisters  of  Kermaria,  18.  Two  schools 
for  whites,  4  sanatoria  for  whites  and  natives,  and  1 
orphanage  for  coloured  children  are  under  the  manage* 
ment  of  the  Ausustinian  Sisters;  and  a  house  for  or- 
phans and  agea  is  under  the  care  of  the  Sisters  of 
Nazareth  House,  with  about  260  inmates.  At  the 
Bluff  the  Sisters  of  the  Holy  Family  have  an  orphan- 
age for  European  children;  they  have  a  novitiate  at 
Ikllair,  with  10  novices.  The  Dominican  Sisters  have 
their  mother-house  at  Oakford,  and  have  also  schools 
at  Noodsbers,  Genezzano,  Dundee,  and  Newcastle. 
At  Ladysmitn  and  Pietcrmaritzburg,  there  are  2  hos- 
pitals, and  2  sanatoria  of  the  Augustinian  Sisters. 

Besides  the  numerous  boarding-schools  established 
in  different  parts  of  the  vicariate,  there  are  many 
parochial  schools,  some  of  which  are  under  the  control 
of  the  Government,  and  receive  a  subsidy  propor* 
tioned  to  the  number  of  pupils. 

AnnaUa  dn  OUoU  (U  MarU  immacMtfc 

A.  LANoot^rr. 


NATAL  709  NATCHEZ 

Nfttal  Day. — Both  the  form  naUiIis  (sc.  dies)  and  rOm.  Sacramentarien",  124  and  247,  and  Pauliniu 

nataUcium  were  used  by  the  Romans  to  denote  what  of  Nola,  ''£p.  20")>  while  the  Gelasian  Sacramen- 

we  call  a  birthday »  i.  e.  the  anniversary  of  the  day  tary  uses  sucn  expressions  as  ''natale  consecrationis 

when  a  man  was  bom.    Also  the  Greek  words  yti^via  diaconi'',  etc.    So  also  in  the  Hieronymian  Mart^ 

and  y€Pi6i>uo9  were  similarly  employed.    But  in  both  ologium  (c.  590).  besides  the  constantly  recumng 

Greek  and  Latin  a  certain  extension  of  this  prim-  natale  applied  to  tne  festivals  of  martyrs  we  have,  e.  g. 

itive  use  seems  to  have  taken  place  even  in  pre-  on2Aug., ''InAntiochianatalisreliquiarumStephani 

Christian  times.    In  Latin  ncUalia  apparently  came,  protomartyris  et  diac."    None  the  less  a  certain 

at  least  sometimes,  to  mean  little  more  than  "anni-  stress  was  often  laid  in  Christian  sermons  and  in  mor- 

versary"  and  it  was  used  of  the  accession  day  of  the  tuarv  inscriptions,  upon  the  idea  that  the  day  of  a 

emperor  as  well  as  of  his  birthday.    Moreover  we  man's  death  was  his  birthday  to  a  new  life.    Thus  St. 

know  that  the  games  celebrated  on  an  emperor's  Ambrose  (Serm.  57,  de  Depos.  St.  Eusebii)  declares 

birthday  during  nis  life,  were  often  continuea  after  that  "the  day  of  our  burial  is  called  our  birthday 

his  apotheosis  upon  the  anniversarv  of  his  birthday  {natalU)^  because,  being  set  free  from  the  prison  of  our 

as  if  he  were  still  living.    In  Greek  ytvivia  came  to  crimes,  we  are  bom  to  the  liberty  of  the  Saviour'', 

be  frequently  used  in  connexion  with  the  annual  com-  and  he  soes  on  "  wherefore  this  day  is  observed  as  a 

memoration  of  a  dead  person  by  sacrifices  and  other  great  celebration,  for  it  is  in  truth  a  festival  of  the 

rites  (cf.  Herodotus  Iv,  26).    This  commemoration  highest  order  to  be  dead  to  our  vices  and  to  live  to 

is  said  to  have  taken  place  not  upon  the  anniversary  ri^teousness  alone."    And  we  find  such  inscriptions 

of  the  day  of  death  out  upon  the  actual  birthday  as  the  following 
of  the  defunct  person  (C.  I.  G.  3417,  and  Rhode,  «*„«,™«,  «r,,^  m^«^«T»,^  — ^ 

"Psyche",  4th  S.,  I,  235).    When,  tkerefore,  the  ™^^t^J^^^^a,- ™, 

Chrwtians  of  Smy^  about   150  A.  D.  write  to  bunt  qui  vixrr  ann  v  bt  menses  vm 

describe  how  they  took  up  the  bones  of  St.  Poly- 


NATUB  IN  PACE  ID  FEBB 


carp  "which  are  more  valuable  than  precious  stones    Where  "natus  in  pace"  clearly  refers  to  eternal  rest. 


joy  and  to  celebrate  the  birthday  of  his  martyrdom"    kept  a  feast  or  held  a  great  banquet  on  his  birthday. 
{jhriT€\ti9  r^r  rod  fiaprvptov  a^ov  -iffjjpap  ytpiffKiop),  it    It  is  only  sinners  (like  Phaiaoh  and  Herod)  who  maKe 


the  commemoration  of  the  day  on  which  he  died,  and  tain  amoimt  of  confusion  resulted  from  this  use  of  the 

all  the  subsequent  history  of  the  Church  confinns  the  same  word  natalis  sometimes  to  signify  natural  birth, 

practice  of  keeping  this  as  the  usual  feast  of  any  sometimes  the  passage  to  a  better  life.    The  former 

saint  or  martvr.    JNone  the  less,  knowing  as  we  do  was  consequently  often  distinguished  as  "natale  genu- 

that  the  Greeks  also  commonly  celebrated  what  tjiey  inum",  "natale  de  nativitate",  the  latter  as  "natale 

called  ptKOffta^  (commemorative  sacrifices),  on  the  an-  passionis"  or  "de  passione",  sometimes  abbreviated 

niversary  of  the  death  of  parents,  it  would  seem  as  N.  P. 

that  the  faithful  of  the  early  Church  did  little  more  ^ma  in  Kjaub,  RealmieyUoiMie;KmLLNmR,  Htortolon  (Ens. 

th*n  ch™tiani«  a  pagan  cuatom.  TUa  they  accpm-  g^^S-JSjklS^^^^Sb&JStsTar'^  «*»*«•  *-. 

plished,  first  by  offenng  the  holy  sacrifice  of  the  Mass  Hbbbbbt  Thubston 

m  honour  of  their  deceased  brethren  instead  of  the  w.«.-ii.  ai««..,i<i«.     o^  at»^a»«x«»    tma«atJ- 

blood  or  flesh  of  animal  victims,  and  secondly  by  ^•^^^  Alexander.    See  Aucxandeb,  Natamb. 

giving  to  this  commemoration  of  a  tme  believer 'spas-  Nfttches,  Diocese  of  (Natchesienbib)  estab- 
sage  to  another  life  the  name  ytwiffyMt,  or  in  Latin  lished  28  July^  1837,  comprises  the  State  of  Missis- 
naUdiSy  rather  than  to  the  day  upon  which  he  had  sippi.  Cathohc  missionary  work  in  this  territoiy 
been  bom  into  this  world.  b^ean  with  the  expeditions  of  Marquette,  La  Salle, 
One  cannot  however  entirely  eliminate  the  doubt  and  Iberville.  Iberville  planted  a  oolonv  in  the 
whether  at  the  introduction  of  Christianity  y€p49\Mt  home  of  the  Natchez  tribe,  and  erected  there  Fort 
and  natalis  had  not  already  come  to  mean  little  more  Rosalie,  on  a  site  within  the  present  city  of  Natchez, 
than  "  anniversary  "  or  "  commemoration  rite ".  Tei^  Capuclun,  Jesuit,  and  secular  priests  laboured  in  this 
tullian  says  "oblationes  oro  defunctis  pro  nataliciis  field,  having  missions  at  Biloxi,  Natchez,  and  Yazoo, 
annua  die  facimus "  (De  Corona,  cap.  3).  which  seems  Early  in  the  history  of  the  missions.  Fathers  St. 
to  mean  "we  offer  Masses  for  the  dead  on  their  an-  Cosme  and  Foucault,  seculars,  were  martyred  by  the 
niversary  as  a  commemoration  rite".  Similarly  the  Indians,  as  were  the  Jesuits  Du  Poisson.  Souart, 
Chronographer  of  354  notes  in  his  calendar  against  and  Senat.  In  1787  three  priests  from  Salamanca, 
22  February,  "VIII  Kal.  Martias  Natale  Petri  de  Fathers  McKenna,  White,  and  Savage,  settled  at 
cathedra";  where  natale  clearly  signifies  anniversary  Natchez  and  erected  promising  missioiis  there  and  in 
rather  than  birthday.  Indeed  where  we  find  the  the  vicinity.  When  the  territoiy  passed  from  Spain 
Fathers  emphasizing  the  etymology  of  the  word,  their  to  the  United  States,  these  missions  were  practically 
language  rather  suggests  that  they  expected  the  pri-  abandoned.  Much  viduable  property  was  lost  to  the 
mary  meaning  of  "birthday"  to  pass  unnoticed.  In  Church,  and  the  efforts  made  to  recover  it  were  in 
any  case  the  sense  of  anmversary  alone  fits  a  wide  vain.  For  many  years  the  Catholics  of  Natchez  do- 
range  of  phrases  which  meet  us  in  the  calendars  and  pended  upon  chance  visits  of  priests, 
other  documents  of  the  fifth,  sixth,  and  seventh  cen-  The  firat  Bishop  of  Natchez,  John  Mary  Joseph 
turies.  Avitus  of  Vienne  (d.  518)  and  Eligius  of  Chanche,  was  b.  4  Oct.,  1795,  at  Baltimore,  whither 
Noyon  (d.  c.  650)  both  refer  to  Maundy  Thursday  his  parents  had  fled  from  Sim  Domingo.  He  joined 
under  the  name  "  natalis  calicis  "  (the  commemoration  the  Sulpicians,  and  was  president  of  Moimt  St.  Mary's 
of  the  chalice),  a  reference,  of  course,  to  the  institution  when  appointed  bi^op.  He  was  consecrated  14 
of  the  Blessed  Sacrament  at  the  Last  Supper,  and  the  March,  1841.  Arriving  at  Natchez,  he  met  there  the 
feast  appears  under  the  same  name  in  the  calendar  of  only  priest  in  the  state.  Father  Brogard,  who  was 
Polemius  Silvius  of  448.  Again  in  the  Leonian  Sacra-  there  out  temporarily.  Taking  up  the  r61e  of  a  simple 
mentary  we  have  the  phrase  "in  natali  episcoporum".  missionary,  he  began  to  collect  the  Catholics  and  or- 
which  the  context  shows  to  mean  the  anniversaiy  of  ganize  a  diocese.  In  1842  he  laid  the  comer  stone  of 
a  bishop's  consecration  (cf.  Probost,  "Die  ftltesten  ue  present  beautiful  cathedral,  and  opened  an  acad- 


NATCHITOCHES 


710 


NATCHIT0CHI8 


emy  for  ^Is.  In  1848  he  invited  the  Sisters  of 
Charity  to  Natdies.  At  the  First  Pl^iary  Council, 
in  1852,  Bishop  Chanche  was  chief  promoter.  He 
died  shortly  uter  the  sessions  of  the  Council,  at 
Frederick.  Md.,  leaving  his  diocese  with  11  priests, 
11  churcnes  erected,  and  13  attendant  missions. 
James  Oliver  Van  ae  Velde  was  transferred  from 
Chicago  to  Nachez,  29  July,  1853.  He  served  the 
diocese  but  two  years.  On  23  Oct.,  1853,  he  broke 
his  legi  and  a  fever  set  in  which  quickly  developed 
into  yellow  fever;  he  died  13  Nov.,  1855.  (See  Chi- 
cago, Abchdiocesb  of.)  Bishop  Van  de  Velde  was 
succeeded  by  William  Henry  Elder  (q.  v.).  The  next 
bi^op,  Francis  Janssens,  was  b.  at  Tillburg,  North 
BraJbant,  Holland,  studied  at  Louvidn,  and  was  or- 
dained 21  Dec,  1867.  In  1870,  he  was  rector  of  the 
cathedral  at  Richmond,  Va.,  and  later  vicar-general 
of  that  diocese  under  Bishops  Gibbons  and  Keane. 
He  was  consecrated  Bishop  of  Natchez,  1  Mav,  1881, 
and  promoted  to  be  Archbishop  of  New  Orleans,  7 
August,  1888.  Thomas  Heslin  was  b.  in  County 
Longford,  Ireland,  1847,  and  on  the  completion  of 
his  classical  studies,  came  to  America  at  the  invita- 
tion of  Archbishop  Odin.  He  entered  the  seminary 
of  Bouligny,  New  Orleans,  was  ordained  in  1869,  and 
was  pastor  of  St.  Michael's,  New  Orleans,  when  he 
received  his  appointment  as  Bishop  of  Natchez.  He 
was  consecrated  in  1889. 

The  religious  institutes  represented  (1910)  in  the 
diocese  are:  Lazarist  Fathers:  Josepnite  Fathers 
(^iree  charges) ;  Fathers  of  the  Society  of  the  Divine 
Word  (three  charges) ;  Brothers  of  the  Sacred  Heart, 
(six  chai]zes);  Sisters  of  Charity  (Emmitsburg) ;  Sis- 
ters of  Charity  (Nazareth);  Sisters  of  the  Perpetual 
Adoration 2  Sisters  of  St.  Francis;  Sisters  of  St. 
Joseph;  Sisters  of  Mercy;  School  Sisters  of  Notre 
Dame;  Sisters  Marianites  of  the  Holy  Cross;  Sisters  of 
the  Holy  Ghost.  There  are  39  secular  and  7  regular 
priests:  33  churches  with  resident  priests,  42  missions, 
31  stations,  18  chapels,  1  college  for  boys,  2  academies 
for  girls,  32  parochial  schools,  5  ecclesiastical  stu- 
dents, 2  orphan  asylums  (158  inmates) .  Total  of  yoimg 
Ex)ple  under  Catholic  care,  4,988;  total  Catholic  popu- 
tion,  25,701. 

CathoKe  Diredary  (1910);  Shba,  De/mdert  of  Our  Faith;   Da 
CouBCT  AMD  Smu,  Hidory  «/  the  Catholic  Church  in  the  U,  3, 

Brother  Charles. 

NatchitodiM,  Diocese  of,  fonner  title  of  the  pres- 
ent Diocese  of  Alexandria  (Alexandrinensis), 
which  comprises  all  the  northern  part  of  Louisiana 
above  31^  N.  lat.,  with  an  area  of  22.212  square  miles. 
The  Venerable  Antonio  Margil  (q.  v.),  whose  canoniza- 
tion is  in  process,  was  the  first  pnest  to  minister  \7ithin 
the  territory  now  forming  the  diocese.  From  the  Ays 
Indians,  west  of  the  Sabine  river,  Father  Margil  heard 
of  the  Adayes  Indians,  and  in  March,  1717,  he  located 
them  near  Spanish  Lake,  in  what  is  now  Sabine 
county,  La.  He  founded  the  mission  of  San  Miguel 
de  Linares  and  built  there  probably  the  first  churcn  in 
Louisiana,  for,  according  to  the  historian  Martin, 
when  Pdre  Charlevoix  reached  New  Orleans  in  1721, 
he  foimd  there  "about  100  cabins,  two  or  three  dwell- 
ing houses,  and  a  miserable  storehouse  which  had  been 
at  first  occupied  as  a  chapeL  a  shed  being  now  used  for 
that  purpose''.  Leaving  Father  Gusman  in  charge. 
Father  Margil  ioumeyed  on  foot  to  Natchitoches  to 
minister  to  the  French  Catholics  there,  and  then  went 
back  to  Texas.  In  1718,  during  the  brief  war  with 
Spain,  St.  Denis,  the  French  Commandant  at  Natch- 
itoches, invaded  the  Adayes  mission,  plundered  it,  and 
carried  away  the  church  vestments.  Father  Margil 
heud  of  it,  and  in  1721  came  back,  hunted  up  the 
Adayes  who  had  taken  refuge  in  the  forests  for  fear  of 
the  French,  rebuilt  their  church,  which  he  dedicated 
to  our  Lady  of  the  Pillar  the  patroness  of  the  expedi- 
tion. For  many  years  afterwards  the  Adaves  mission 
was  attended  from  San  Antonio  by  the  Franciscans, 


who  attended  also  the  missions  of  Nacogdoches  and 
St.  Augustin,  Texas.  In  1725  there  were  50  Catholie 
families  at  Natchitoches.  In  1728  Father  Maximin,  a 
Capuchin,  was  in  charge. 

There  is  no  record  to  show  how  the  eastern  portion  of 
the  diocese  was  evangeUzed:  the  Catholic  names,  how- 
ever, given  to  villages  ana  lakes  contiguous  to  the 
Mississippi,  show  that  priests  must  have  visited  that 
coimtry,  probably  the  Jesuits,  who  in  the  eighteenth 
century  had  charge  of  the  Indians  along  the  Mississippi 
imder  the  Bishop  of  Quebec.  The  records  show  that  m 
1829  Father  Martin  of  Avovelles  attended  the  Catho- 
lics on  the  Red,  Black,  and  Ouachita  rivers:  that,  in 
1840  and  after,  Father  J.  Timon,  afterwards  Bishop  of 
Buffalo,  made  regular  trips  from  Texas  to  attend  the 
north  Louisiana  missions,  and  that  Father  O'Brien,  a 
Dominican  from  Louisville,  attended  vearly  the  Cath- 
olics along  the  Mississippi.  The  Catholics  located  on 
the  rivers  of  the  state  often  drifted  to  New  Orleans  on 
barges  to  have  their  marriages  blessed  and  their  chil- 
dren baptized,  and  came  back  cordelling  their  boats. 

In  1852  the  Fathers  of  the  First  Council  of  Balti- 
more recommended  to  the  Holy  See  the  division  of  the 
Archdiocese  of  New  Orleans,  the  formation  of  the  Dio- 
cese of  Natchitoches  and  the  appointment  of  Father 
Martin,  parish  priest  at  Natchitoches^  as  first  bishop. 
Consecrated  in  1853,  he  had  four  pnests  in  the  new 
diocese,  three  of  whom  returned  to  New  Orleans,  to 
which  diocese  they  belonged,  and  one  remained. 

Bishop  Augustus  M.  Martin  (1802-1875),  bom  in 
Brittany,  inherited  the  deep  faith  of  the  Bretons.  A 
prot^6  of  Abb6  Jean-Marie  de  Lamennais,  as  a  sem- 
inarian, he  was  employed  at  the  ^reat  AJmonry  of 
France  in  Paris  imaer  Cardinal  Pnnce  de  Troy  and 
Vicar-General  J.-M.  de  Lamennais.  There  he  came 
in  contact  with  Montalembert  and  other  disciples  of 
F61icit6  de  Lamennais^  and  acquired  tiie  polished  man- 
ners that  never  left  him.  In  1839,  while  chaplain  of 
the  royal  college  in  Rennes,  he  met  Bidiop  de  Xa  Hay- 
landi^re  of  Vincennes^  came  to  Indiana  with  him^  and 
for  six  years  was  his  vicar-^eneral.  His  health  failing, 
he  came  to  Louisiana,  and  m  1852  wse  vicar-general  m 
Mgr  Blanc  of  New  Orleans.  Bishop  Martin  l^t  a 
collection  of  unpublished  letters  that  tell  interestingly 
the  history  of  ms  diocese,  his  struggles  with  poverty, 
his  many  trips  to  France  to  recruithis  clergy.  A  flu- 
ent writer,  his  letters  to  the  Propagation  ofthe  Faith 
were  inserted  in  the  "Annals";  the  oishops  of  the  Sec- 
ond Council  of  Baltimore  and  those  of  the  provincial 
Council  of  New  Orleans  delegated  him  to  write  letters 
of  thanks  to  the  directors  of  the  Propagation  of  the 
Faith  for  their  generous  contributions.  Both  let- 
ters were  reproduced  in  ''Les  Missions  Catholiques''. 
Bishop  Martin  left  an  organized  diocese  with  20 
priests,  the  Sisters  of  the  Sacred  Heart  with  one  con- 
vent at  Natchitoches,  and  the  Daughters  of  the  Cross 
with  their  mother-house  and  several  convents  in  the 
diocese. 

He  was  succeeded  by  Bishop  F.  X.  Lebat,  also  a 
Breton,  the  hero  of  several  yellow  fever  epidemics,  and 
the  founder  of  the  Sisters  of  Mercv  in  tne  Diocese  of 
Natchez.  He  remained  in  Natchitoches  only  two 
years,  being  selected  as  coadjutor  to  the  Archbisnop  of 
New  Orleans.    He  died  in  1887. 

Bishop  Anthony  DuRiEB  succeeded  him.  Bora  near 
Lyons,  France,  he  came  to  this  country  in  1855, 
was  pastor  in  New  Orleans  for  26  years,  and  one  of  the 
theologians  of  the  Second  Council  of  Baltimore.  Con- 
secrate in  1885,  he  died  in  1904,  having  fiinished  the 
cathedral  and  built  an  episcopal  residence  at  Natdii- 
toches. 

The  present  bishop  is  Right  Rev.  Cornbuub  Van 
DE  Yen,  bom  at  Oirschot,  Holland,  16  June,  1865.  He 
studied  in  the  diocesan  seminaiy  of  Bois-le-Duc,  was 
ordained  31  May,  1890,  and  came  to  America  the  same 
year.  Aft-er  filling  important  posts  in  the  Archdio- 
cese of  New  Orleans,  ne  was  consecrated  BidM>p  ol 


NATHAN                               711  NATHnHTES 

Natchitoches  30  Nov.,  1904.    The  most  important  Chron.,  ii,  36),  of  the  tribe  of  Juda  and  of  the  branch 

act  of  his  administration  has  been  the  transferring  of  of  Caleb.    Wa  grandfather  Jeraa  was  an  E^prptian 

the  see  from  the  inaccessible  town  of  Natchitoches  to  slave  to  whom  Sesan  gave  one  of  his  daughters  m  mar- 

the  progressive  city  of  Alexandria,  a  railroad  centre  riage  (I  Chron.,  ii,  34-35). 

with  a  large  Catholic  population.    He  went  to  Rome  (5)  Nathan,  one  of  the  prominent  Jews  of  the  time 

in  1910  and  requested  Pius  X  for  the  removal  of  the  of  the  Captivity,  chosen  by  Esdras  together  with  sev- 

see.    In  August,  1910,  he  received  from  the  Consi&-  eral  others  to  mid  levites  for  the  temple  service  when 

torial  Congregation  the  decree  suppressing  the  See  of  the  Jews  were  camped  on  the  banks  of  the  Ahava  pre- 

Natohitoches  and  creating  the  See  of  Alexandria.  The  paring  to  return  to  Palestine  (I  Esdr.,  viii,  16). 

new  See  of  Alexandria  numbers  26  diocesan  priests,  10  (6)  Nathan,  one  of  the  sons  of  Bani  mentioned  in 

regulars  (Jesuits  and  Marists),  the  Brothers  of  tihe  Sa-  I  Esdr.,  x,  39.    He  was  among  those  who,  at  the  com- 

cred  Heart,  the  Daughters  of  the  Cross  with  mother-  mand  of  Esdras,  put  away  the  foreign  wives  they  had 

house  at  Shreveport,  the  Sisters  of  Divine  Providence,  mamed. 

and  the  Sisters  of  the  Incarnate  Word,  with  a  Catho-  LmAtm  in  Via.,  Didionnaire de  la  BUde,  s.  v.;  a  Lapidb.  Cori^ 

lie  population  of  about  32,431.  ^S£^8&f^"-^I  ffSl?^ 

J^^^!"/^Hi^n/^^J!^i?^^}?^r^^^'*  Shi^!^^  mentaHiu  in  Lib^s  &mi«wS(P»rii' 1886).  316  aqq.;  iDmulCtm^ 

liL^'T^aS^i^"''  """*•  ''^^'    "^  *^  unpubliah^  ^'JJkes'  F.  DRIsboLL. 

C.  MahA.  Hftthanaal,  one  of  the  first  disciples  of  Jesus,  to 

"m^*  N!t^w  «,?«iJif!rf^!^;.».  .«^ w  5«  identified  with  the  Apoitle  Bartholomew  of  the  Synop- 

fj  tW^^?{-.!riS^  sWnSS     TJ^lS^i^^i  ?.  ticwritere.    ThelattaTmakenomentionof  Nathinaa^ 

^J^tfh^^^L^iAvi^^^J^,^*^^^^fi^.  but  in  their  lists  of  the  Twelve,  one,  Bartholomew 

given  as  to  his  ongin,  and  he  appears  m  the  narrative  =.  .i„.™  a^,^^^*^  k»  ki-  fo.«,'i„  „-™^  Ro^t^i..,-.' 


dhdieiy ord.dnrf^est«blirfim-«it of MTGngdom for aS  ^LTti^a^ntfon^^L'a? tlS^thfri.^™ 

4^:,«vA   K«*  ri;ooiio^~,  k;rv»  tim^^  ♦!»«  :j^«  ^e  u..:ij-.«»  wnicn  tnis  assumption  rests  are:  (1)  tnat  tne  circum- 

fcJ?,^i^fS^1^  ^tw  Jh J  ^.sL  k^„l,'*™f^  stances  under  which  Nathanad  wis  caUed  do  not  dif- 

StS^rt),.^?  !:nH  iSl^r  m  K^T  1^^  it  fer  in  solemnity  from  those  connected  with  the  call  of 

TrhLn    ^i  Ti  ^    M«fS!^  il.™Tt'„7V;.  ^21  Peter,  whence  It  is  natural  to  expect  that  he  as  well  as 

JS  r5a^'in'"the^  JL*SThe  ra^for  W^  ^  ^  "^"^  -««  ^}^^  amoi^e  Twdve;  (2)  N^ 

&  adultly  and  murder  narrated  in  II  Iflngs?ri.''2Sd!  ^aKe'sS^'Si"  ?h?^nrdL*S  M^ 

at^tX^^'th '^"iittftr  w^l  ^=J3).  Nathar^  was  brought  .to  Jesus  by  PMH,; 

"Thou  art  the  mS^  .  He  then  d^h^es  tLlZ^f  ^^  ;,t^Xfy?me^tiS  n^t^Upl^^; 

the  Lord  and  the  pumshments  that  are  to  fall  upon  i^«  ^  fu^  TC^uiTJ^t^  K,r  fi,^  a,r«V.r>*;=t-  /tS-** 

David,  although  in  view  of  the  latter's  repentance  ^"t-  M^k  W^lSkf  vi^U^  Synoptists  (Matt., 

his  sin  is  pronounced  forgiven,  for  his  crimes  had  'iJcj^B.'La!^dJ N.-sJisuU^CPaxiB,  1883),  1,232 1^^, 

given  occasion  to  the  enenues  of  the  Lord  to  bla&-  378aQ.:  II.  63i--tr.  Hicnr  (3  vols..  New  Yodc.  1006-O8);  a Tl- 

pheme  (II  Kings,  xii,  1-16).     The  prophet  next  ap-  S?"*  CommentaHa  in  Scrip.  Sac.,  XVI  q^ans,  1874).  322  aqq.; 

pears  oi  the^e  wten  it  is  question  bf  securing  to  ^^'^^'^'^''''^''''^^'''^^fl^^ 

Solomon  the  succession  to  the  throne  of  his  father.  jAMJSb  r.  a/kibcui^. 

Adonias,  abetted  by  Joab  and  the  high  priest  Abia^  Natblnites,  or  Nathinbans  (D^J^njn,  the  given 

thar,  made  an  attempt  to  have  himself  proclaimed  ones:   LXX  generally  o{  NaStipl/i,  once  [I  Chron., 

king.    The  plan  was  frustrated  by  Nathan  who,  first  ix,  2]  ol  8€8Qftmi),  an  inferior  class  of  Temple  serv- 

through  Bethsabee  and  later  in  a  personal  interview,  ants.    The  name  occurs  in  seventeen  passages  of  the 

informed  David  as  to  the  doings  of  Adonias,  and  per-  O.  T.,  and  the  Vulgate  renders  it  always  oy  the  adapted 

suaded  the  aged  monarch  to  confirm  his  promise  in  transcription  Nathinai.    Josephus  (Ant.  of  the  Jews, 

favour  of  Solomon  and  have  him  proclaimed  king  at  xi,  i,  6)  renders  the  Hebrew  Ndkinim  by  the  equiva- 

the  fountain  of  Gihon  (III  Kings,  i,  8-45).    In  this  lent  Up6dovXo(,  i.  e.  "sacred  servants'^.     The  Na- 

instance  Nathan  served  the  interests  of  the  country  thinites  appear  imder  this  title  only  in  the  po|St- 

as  well  as  those  of  David  and  Solomon  by  averting  Exihc  writings,  but  if  we  are  to  credit  the  Jewish 

a  civil  war.    He  is  credited  by  the  Chronicler  with  tradition  reflected  in  the  Talmud,  their  origin  goes 

having  written  a  part  of  the  history  of  David,  to-  back  to  the  time  of  Josue,  viz.:  that  in  the  first  oreani- 

^ther  with  Samuel  the  seer  and  Gad  the  seer  (I  zation  of  the  Mosaic  ritual  no  provision  had  been 

Chron.,  xxix,  29;  II  Chron..  xxix,  26).    The  time  of  made  for  the  menial  services  rcj^arly  deputed  to 

Nathan's  death  is  not  given,  out  his  name  is  mentioned  slaves— all  being  performed  by  the  levites.    but  after 

in  Ecclus.,  xlvii,  1.  the  defeat   of    the    Madiamtes,   Moses   gave   (|nj 

(2)  Nathan,  son  of  David  and  Bethsabee  (II  Kings,  nathan)  one  out  of  every  60  of  the  16,000  prisoners 
V,  14;  I  Chron.,  iii,  6,  xiv,  4).  The  name  Nathan  aug-  (320  in  tdl)  to  the  levites  for  the  service  of  the  Taber- 
mented  by  the  theophorous  prefix  or  suffix  is  borne  by  nacle  at  night  (Num.,  xxxi,  47).  Josue,  however,  it 
other  members  of  the  family  of  David.  Thus  one  of  is  claimed,  was  the  first  to  officially  depute  a  number 
his  brothers  was  Nathanael  (I  Chron.,  ii,  14),  and  one  of  slaves  for  the  exclusive  service  of  the  sanctuary, 
of  his  nephews,  Jonathan  (II  Kings,  xxi,  21).  Out  of  respect  for  his  oath  he  spu^  the  lives  of  the 

(3)  Nathan,  father  of  Azarias  and  Zabud,  important  Gabaonites  (Jos.,  ix,  23,  26-27),  but  decreed  that 
functionaries  of  the  court  of  Solomon  (III  Kings,  iv,  henceforth  they  must  become  hewers  of  wood  and 
6).  By  some  scholars  he  is  identified  with  Nathan  the  drawers  of  water  in  connexion  with  the  Jewish  wor- 
raophet  (1),  and  by  others  with  Nathan  the  son  of  ship.  After  the  construction  of  the  Temple  and  the 
David  (2).  Both  opinions  are  merely  conjectural,  consequent  development  of  the  ritual,  the  number  of 
His  son  Zabud  is  designated  as  priest  (}n3),  tms  being  these  slaves  was  increased.  They  were  in  all  proba- 
an  indication,  among  many  others,  that  the  functions  bility  prisoners  of  war,  who  in  the  growing  organiza- 
of  the  priesthood  were  not  at  that  period  exercised  ex-  tion  of  the  Temple  worship  were  condemned  to  be 
clusively  by  the  descendants  of  Aaron.  the  servants  of  tne  levites,  even  as  the  latter  in  the 

(4)  Nathan,  909  pf  Btbei  and  father  of  Zabad  (I  course  of  time  hf^  b^en  differentiated  from  the  priests, 


NATIONAL                            712  NATIVITT 

Thoudi  not  of  the  Jewish  race,  it  is  probable  that  much  had  been  done  along  these  lines.  In  1883  the 
the  Nathineans  learned  and  practised  the  Jewish  Third  Plenary  Council  of  Baltimore,  in  the  Pastoral 
religion.  Ndiemias  (II  Esd.,  x,  28)  classes  them  with  Letter  of  the  Bishops  and  Archbishops,  says  of  the 
those  who  were  separated  from  the  people  to  serve  work  of  the  National  Union:  ''We  consider  as  worthy 
the  law  of  God,  but  according  to  the  Talmud  they  of  particular  encouragement  associations  for  the  pro- 
were  a  despised  class  and  were  debarred  from  con-  motion  of  healthful  social  union  among  Catholics,  and 
tracting  marriage  with  Jewish  women.  They  were  especially  those  whose  aim  is  to  guard  our  Catnolic 
carried  into  captivitjr  with  the  others  by  Nabucho-  young  men  against  dangerous  influences,  and  to  supply 
donosor,  and  according  to  Esdras,  612  of  them  (in-  them  with  the  means  of  innocent  amusement  and 
eluding  those  called  "the  children  of  the  servants  of  mental  culture.  And  in  order  to  acknowledge  the 
Solomon")  returned  to  Palestine:  392  with  Zorobabel  preat  amount  of  good  that  the  Catholic  Young  Men's 
(I  Esd.,  ii,  43-58;  II  Esd.,  vii,  47-60),  and  220  witii  National  Union  has  already  accomplished,  to  promote 
Esdras  eighty  years  later  (I  Esd.,  viii.  20).  After  the  growth  of  the  Union,  and  to  stimulate  its  mem- 
the  return  the  Nathineans  lived  most  likely  as  they  bers  to  greater  efforts  in  the  future,  we  cordially  bless 
had  previously  under  the  monarchy,  some  in  the  their  aims  and  endeavours,  and  we  recommend  the 
levitical  cities  (I  Esd.,  ii,  70;  II  Esd.,  vii,  73),  during  Union  to  all  our  Catholic  young  men." 
the  periods  when  they  were  not  detailed  for  service  The  Catholic  Summer  ochool  at  Plattsburs,  New 
in  the  Temple,  the  others  in  Jerusalem^  where,  as  York,  is  a  direct  outgrowth  of  the  National  Union. 
Nehemias  informs  us  (II  Esd.,  iii,  26,  xi,  21),  they  plans  for  its  establishment  having  been  discussed  ana 
inhabited  the  Ophel  quarter,  i.  e.  in  the  southeast  part  approved  at  the  conventions,  and  carried  into  effect 
of  the  city,  and  near  the  {^ate  leading  to  the  fountain  bv  Warren  E.  Mosher,  the  secretary  of  the  National 
now  known  as  the  foimtam  of  the  Virgin.  From  this  Union  at  the  time,  and  the  foimder  of  the  Summer 
they  drew  the  water  of  which  copious  use  was  made  in  School.  The  National  Union  has  also  furthered  the 
the  sacrificial  and  other  sacred  functions.  They  had  cause  of  education  by  contributing  to  the  endowment 
officers  chiefly  chosen  from  among  their  own  nmks  funds  of  the  Catholic  University  of  America. 
(II  Esdr.,  xi,  21;  cf.  I  Esd.,  ii,  43;  II  Esd.,  vii,  47).  At  the  convention  of  1906,  held  in  New  York  City, 
Like  the  priests  and  levites  they  were  exempted  from  a  committee  was  appointed  to  prepare  a  plan  of  re- 
taxation  by  the  Persian  rulers  (I  Esd.,  vii,  24).  No  organization,  which  plan  was  reported  and  adopted 
mention  or  trace  of  the  Nathineans  appears  in  the  at  the  convention  of  1907  held  at  Elisabeth,  New 
New  Testament.  Jersey.    Under  the  original  organisation  it  had  al- 

ViooTOoux  in  Di€i.d€laB%hU,  b.  v..  Nathinimu:  BvuMm-  ways  been  required  that  the  president  and  first  vice- 

iSS^afiirSr^""*  *"         "*  ^'^~  Ptoro/.po««um  (P«».  president  should  be  clergymen;  this  was  now  chan(sed. 

James  F.  Dribcoll.  ^^®  various  departments  of  the  Union  were  oiganisea 

on  a  business  basis,  the  athletic  work  was  systema- 

Nfttional  nnion,  Cathoug  Young  Men's. — ^This  tised  by  establishing  the  Catholic  Amateur  Athletic 

association  was  organized  on  22  February,  1875,  at  League,abranchof  the  National  Union  with  complete 

a  meeting  held  in  Newark,  New  Jersey,  at  the  call  control  over  all  athletic  affairs  of  the  Union,  and  a 

of  Very  Kev.  George  H.  Doane,  who  became  its  first  complete  and  efficient  literaiy  and  lecture  sjrstem  was 

president.    It  includes  about  one  himdred  organiza-  instituted. 

tions,  representing  an  estimated  aggregate  of  about  It  was  only  in  this  year  that  a  proper  plan  was 
30^000  persons  and  extends  as  far  west  as  Mankato.  devised  for  the  continuation  of  the  activity  of  the 
Mmnesota.  Its  obiects  are  the  furtherance  of  practical  Union  between  conventions.  The  reoi^ganisation  also 
unity,  the  spiritual,  intellectual,  moral,  and  physical  created  the  office  of  the  spiritual  director,  who  is 
advancement  of  Catholic  youth,  and  the  development  practically  the  senior  officer  of  the  National  Union, 
of  better  citizens  and  Catholics.  The  means  princi-  and  is  supreme  in  all  matters  affecting  faith  and 
pallv  relied  upon  are:  the  conscientious  practice  and  morals.  The  National  Union  has  always  been  oon- 
profession,  individually  and  collectively,  of  the  Cath-  ducted  by  voluntary  effort,  but  its  activities  have  now 
olic  religion;  the  establishment  and  promotion  of  grown  to  such  an  extent  that  they  require  an  efficient 
Catholic  yoimg  men's  associations,  libraries,  reading-  salaried  force,  for  which  purpose  an  adequate  endow- 
rooms,  and  gymnasiums ;  fraternal  unity  between  all  or-  ment  fund  is  now  being  raised, 
ganizations  aiming  in  whatever  way  at  the  promotion  W.  C.  SuLLtVAK. 
of  the  Union's  objects;  mutual  assistance  and  enlight- 
enment; maintenance  and  conduct  of  an  athletic  Nativitj  of  the  Blesied  Virgin  MuTt  Fbabt  or 
league  giving  special  attention  to  boys  of  the  parochiid  the. — ^The  earliest  document  commemorating  this 
schools;  dissemination  of  selected  courses  in  reading  feast  comes  from  the  sixth  centuiy.  St.  Romanus, 
among  Catholic  literaiy  cireles;  courses  of  lectures  the  great  ecclesiastical  lyrist  of  the  Greek  Church, 
to  Catholic  young  men's  associations,  and  securing  composed  for  it  a  hymn  (Card.  Pitra,  ''Hymnogr. 
to  organizations  of  the  National  Union  the  privilege  Graeca",  Paris.  1876, 199)  which  is  a  poetical  sketch  of 
of  having  their  own  members  received  as  guests  by  the  apocryphal  Gosp!el  of  St.  James.  St.  Romanus  was 
the  other  oi^anizations  of  the  Union.  Ori^ally,  a  native  of  Emesa  in  Sjoia.  deacon  of  Bei3rtus  and 
delegates  met  annually,  and  did  little  in  the  mterim  later  on  at  the  Blachems  cnureh  in  Constantinople, 
but  enlist  the  co-operation  of  other  organizations  in  and  composed  his  hymns  between  536-556  (P.  N^uis 
its  work.  At  the  present  time,  it  is  engaged  in  various  in  ''  Byzant.  Zeitschrift ",  1906).  The  feast  may  have 
works,  which  are  conducted  largely  throuf^  diocesan  ori^nated  somewhere  in  Syria  or  Palestine  in  Uie  be- 
unions  performing  the  National  Union's  functions  ginning  of  the  sixth  centuiy,  when  after  the  Council  of 
within  their  respective  districts.  Ephesus.  under  the  influence  of  the '' Apociypha",  the 

In  1878  the  National  Union  inaug^urated  the  move-  cult  of  the  Mother  of  God  was  greatly  intaioified,  es- 

ment  for  obtaining  appointments  of  a  greater  num-  pedaUv  in  Syria.    St.  Andrew  of  Crete  in  the  bc^n- 

ber  of  Catholic  chaplains  to  the  army  and  navy — a  ning  of  the  dghth  centuiy  preached  several  sermons  on 

movement  which  was  entirely  successful.    At  about  this  feast  (Lucius -Annch,  "Anf&nge  des  Heifi^en- 

the  same  time,  it  began  the  agitation  to  secure  recog-  kultus".  TQbingen.  1906, 468).  Evidence  is  wantix^  to 

nition  of  the  religious  rights  of  the  Indians.    At  the  show  why  the  eighth  of  September  was  chosen  for 

convention  of  1879,  the  establishment  of  coloured  its  date.    The  Church  of  Rome  adopted  it  in  the 

literary  societies,  free  night-schools,  the  fostering  of  a  seventh  century  from  the  East;  it  is  found  in  the  Ge- 

more  general  activity  among  young  men  in  teaching  lasian  (seventh  cent.)  and  the  Gre^rian  (o^th  to 

Sunday-school,  and  the  establishment  of  a  lecture  ninth   cent.)   Sacramentaries.    Sergius  I   (w7-70r 

bureau  were  among  the  questions  discussed;  by  1883  prescribed  a  litany  and  procession  for  this  feast  (P 


NATURALISM  713  NATURALISM 

L.,  cxxviii,  897  aqq.).  Since  the  storv  of  Maiy^s  N»-  world,  Naturalism  claims  that  the  laws  governing;  the 
tivity  is  known  only  from  apocryphal  sources,  the  activity  and  development  of  irrational  and  of  rational 
Latin  Church  was  slow  in  accepting  this  oriental  festi-  beings  are  never  interfered  with.  It  denies  the  possi- 
val.  It  does  not  appear  in  many  cflJendars  which  con-  bility,  or  at  least  the  fact,  of  any  transitory  interven- 
tain  the  Assumption,  e.  g.  the  Gotho-Gallican,  that  of  tion  of  God  in  nature,  and  of  any  revelation  and  per- 
Luxeuil,  the  Toledan  Csuendar  of  the  tenth  century,  manent  supernatural  order  for  man. 
and  the  Mozarabic  Calendar.  The  church  of  Angers  These  three  forms  are  not  mutually  exclusive;  what 
in  France  claims  that  St.  Maurilius  instituted  this  the  third  denies  the  first  and  the  second,  a  fortiori,  also 
feast  at  Angers  in  consequence  of  a  revelation  about  deny:  all  agree  in  rejecting  every  explanation  which 
430.  On  the  night  of  8  Sept.^  a  man  heajxl  the  angels  would  have  recourse  to  causes  outside  of  nature.  The 
singing  in  heaven,  and  on  askmg  the  reason,  they  told  reasons  of  this  denial — ^i.  e.,  the  philosophical  views  of 
him  that  they  were  rejoicing  because  the  Virgin  was  nature  on  which  it  is  based — and,  in  consequence,  the 
bom  on  that  night  (La  f^te  an^vine  N.  D.  de  France,  extent  to  which  explanations  within  nature  itself  are 
IV,  Paris,  1864,  188);  but  this  tradition  is  not  sub-  held  to  suffice,  vary  greatly  and  constitute  essential 
stantiated  by  historical  proofs.  The  feast  is  found  in  differences  between  these  three  tendencies, 
the  calendar  of  Sonnatius,  Bishop  of  Reims,  614-31  I.  Materialistic  Naturalism  asserts  that  matter  is 
(Kellner,  ''Heortologv'^,  21).  Still  it  cannot  be  stud  the  only  redity,  and  that  all  the  laws  of  the  universe 
to  have  been  generally  celebrated  in  the  ei(^th  and  are  reducible  to  mechanical  laws.  What  theory  may 
ninth  centuries.  St.  Fulbert,  Bbhop  of  Chartres  (d.  be  held  concerning  the  essence  of  matter  makes  little 
1028),  speaks  of  it  as  of  recent  institution  (P.  L.,  cxii,  difference  here.  Whether  matter  be  considered  as 
320,  BqqL) ;  the  three  sermons  he  wrote  are  the  oldest  continuous  or  as  composed  of  atoms  distant  from  one 
genuine  Latin  sermons  for  this  festival  (Kellner,"Heor-  another,  as  being  exclusively  extension  or  as  also  en- 
toloK^r'',  London,  1908,  230).  The  octave  was  insti-  do  wed  with  an  internal  principle  of  activity,  or  even 
tuted  by  Innocent  IV  (a.  1243)  in  accordance  with  avow  as  being  only  an  aggregate  of  centres  of  energy  without 
made  by  the  cardinals  in  the  conclave  of  the  autunm  any  recu  extension  (see  Atomism |  Dynamism;  Mech- 
of  1241,  when  they  were  kept  prisoners  bv  Frederick  II  anism),  the  attitude  of  Naturalism  is  the  same.  It 
for  three  months.  In  the  Greek  Church  the  apodosU  claims  that  all  reidities  in  the  world,  including  the  pro- 
(solution)  of  the  feast  takes  place  12  Sept.,  on  account  cesses  of  consciousness  from  the  lowest  to  the  highest, 
of  the  feast  and  the  solemnity  of  the  Exaltation  of  the  are  but  manifestations  of  what  we  call  matter,  and 
Cross,  13  and  14  Sept.  The  Copts  in  Egypt  and  the  obe;sr  the  same  necessary  laws.  While  some  may  limit 
Abyssinians  celebrate  Mary's  Nativity  on  1  May,  and  their  materialistic  accoimt  to  nature  itself,  and  admit 
continue  the  feast  under  the  name  of  ^'Seed  of  Jacob''  the  exi.stence  of  a  Creator  of  the  world,  or  at  least 
33  days  (Anal.  Juris  Pont.,  xxi,  403) ;  thev  also  com-  leave  this  question  open,  the  general  tendency  of 
memorate  it  on  the  first  or  every  month  (priv.  letter  Materialism  is  towards  Atheism  and  exclusive  Natu- 
from  P.  Baeteman,  C.  M^Alikiena).  The  Catholic  raUsm.  Early  Gredc  philosophers  endeavoured  to  re- 
Copts  have  adopted  the  Greek  feast,  but  keep  it  10  duce  nature  to  unity  by  ix>inting  to  a  primordial  de- 
Sept.  (Nilles,  "ICal.  man.",  11^  696,  706).  ment  out  of  which  all  things  were  composed.  Their 
Luciub-Aniuch,  iln/«n<5«dM /f«Zv«nfc^^^  1904);  views  were,  implicitly  at  least.  Animistic  or  Hylozois- 
Holwk:k.  Ffuu  Manant  (FreAurg,  1894).  118  soq.  ^ic  rather  tiian  Materialist ic,  and  the  vague  formative 

Frederick  G.  Holweck.  *    *»«**«  vr^  *»a«i-«*«»miv*v..  €»u««  w**^  1*^    i     .^^  i 

*  xua/AAi^jk  V*.  xxui^wjK.ii.  function  attnbuted  to  the  Nous,  or  rational  prmciple, 

Naturalism  is  not  so  much  a  special  system  as  a  by  Anaxagoras  was  but  an  exception  to  the  prevaiung 
point  of  view  or  tendency  common  to  a  number  of  naturalism.  Pure  mechanism  was  developed  by  the 
philosophical  and  religious  systems;  not  so  much  a  Atomists  (Democritus,  Epicurus,  Lucretius),  and  the 
well-denned  set  o{  positive  and  negative  doctrines  as  soul  itself  was  held  to  be  composed  of  special,  more 
an  attitude  or  spirit  pervading  and  influencing  many  subtile,  atoms.  In  the  Christian  era  materiafism  in 
doctrines.  As  the  name  implies,  this  tendency  con-  its  exclusive  form  is  represented  especially  bv  the 
sists  essentially  in  looking  upon  nature  as  the  one  orig-  French  school  of  the  latter  half  of  the  eighteenth  cen- 
inal  and  fimdamental  source  of  all  that  exists,  and  tury  and  the  German  school  of  the  latter  half  of  the 
hence  in  attempting  to  explain  everything  in  terms  of  nineteenth  century.  Since  matter  is  the  only  reality, 
nature.  Either  the  limits  of  nature  are  also  the  lim-  whatever  takes  place  in  the  world  is  the  result  of  ma- 
its  of  existing  reality,  or  at  least  the  first  cause,  if  its  teriai  causes  and  must  be  explained  b^  phjrsical  ante- 
existence  is  found  necessary,  has  nothing  to  do  with  cedents  without  any  teleology.  Life  is  but  a  complex 
the  working  of  natural  agencies.  All  events,  there-  problem  of  physics  and  chemistry;  consciousness  is  a 
fore,  find  their  adequate  explanation  within  nature  property  of  matter;  rational  thought  is  reduced  to 
itself.  But,  as  the  terms  nature  (q.  v.)  and  natural  are  sensation,  and  will  to  instinct.  The  mind  is  a  pow- 
themselves  used  in  more  than  one  sense,  the  term  nat"  erless  accompaniment  or  epiphenomenon  of  certain 
uralism  is  also  far  from  having  one  fixed  meaning.  (I)  forms  or  groupings  of  matter,  and.  were  it  suppressed 
If  nature  is  imderstood  in  the  restricted  sense  of  phym-  iJtogether,  the  whole  world  woula  still  proceed  in  ex- 
cal,  or  material,  nature,  naturalism  will  be  the  tend-  actly  the  same  wa^.  Man  is  a  conscious  automaton 
ency  to  look  upon  the  material  imiverse  as  the  only  whose  whole  activity,  mental  as  well  as  ^lysiolo^cal. 
reality,  to  reduce  all  laws  to  mechanical  uniformities,  is  determined  by  material  antecedents.  Wnat  we  call 
and  to  deny  the  dualism  of  spirit  and  matter.  Mental  the  human  person  is  but  a  transitory  phase  in  the 
and  moral  processes  will  be  out  special  manifestations  special  arrangement  of  material  elements  giving  rise 
of  matter  rigorously  governed  by  its  laws.  (II)  The  to  spnecial  mental  results;  and  it  goes  without  sa3dng 
dualism  of  mind  and  matter  may  be  admitted,  but  that  in  such  a  system  there  is  no  room  for  freedom,  re- 
only  as  a  dualism  of  modes  or  appearances  of  the  same  sponsibility,  or  personal  immortality, 
identical  substance.  Nature  includes  manifold  phe-  II.  Pantheism  in  its  various  forms  asserts  that  God, 
nomena  and  a  common  substratum  of  the  phenomena,  the  First  ReaUty,  World-Ground,  or  Absolute,  is  not 
but  for  its  actual  course  and  for  its  ultimate  en)lana-  transcendent  and  personal,  but  immanent  in  the 
tion,  it  requires  no  principle  distinct  from  itself.  In  world^  and  that  the  phenomena  of  nature  are  only 
this  supposition,  naturalism  denies  the  existence  of  a  manifestations  of  this  one  common  substance.  For 
transcendent  cause  of  the  world  and  endeavours  to  the  Stoics,  He  is  the  immanent  reason,  the  soul  of  the 
0ive  a  full  account  of  all  processes  by  the  unfolding  of  world,  communicating  ever3rwhere  activity  and  life, 
potencies  essential  to  the  universe  under  laws  that  are  According  to  Scotus  Eriugena,  "God  is  the  essence  of 
necessary  and  eternal.  (Ill)  Finally,  if  the  existence  all  things,  for  He  alone  truly  is"  (De  divisione  natune, 
of  a  transcendent  First  Cause,  or  personal  God,  is  ad-  III) ;  nature  includes  the  totality  of  beings  and  is  di- 
mitted  as  the  only  satisfactory  explanation  of  the  video  into  (1)  uncreated  and  creating  nature,  i.  e.,  God 


NATURALISM                          714  NAT0RALISM 

as  the  origjn  of  all  things^  unknowable  even  to  Him-  immortal,  and  if,  among  hmnan  activities,  some  are 
self;  (2)  created  and  creatmg  nature,  i.  e..  God  as  con-  exempted  from  the  determinism  of  physical  agents  and 
tainine  the  types  and  exemplars  of  all  things:  (3)  recognized  to  be  free,  all  this  is  withm  nature,  which 
created  and  not-creating  nature,  i.  e.,  the  world  of  includes  the  laws  governing  spirits  as  well  as  those 
phenomena  in  space  and  time,  all  of  which  are  partici-  governing  matter.  But  these  laws  are  sufficient  to 
pations  of  the  Divine  being  and  also  theaphaniatf  or  account  for  everything  that  happens  in  the  world  of 
inanifestations  of  God;  (4)  neither  created  nor  creat-  matter  or  of  mind.  *  This  form  of  naturalism  stands  in 
ins  nature,  i.  e.,  God  as  the  end  of  all  things  to  whom  close  relation  with  Rationalism  and  Deism.  Once  eft- 
all  things  ultimately  return.  Giordano  Bruno  also  tablished  by  God,  the  order  of  nature  is  unchange- 
professes  that  God  and  natiu-e  are  identical,  and  that  able,  and  man  is  endowed  by  nature  with  all  that  is 
the  world  of  phenomena  is  but  the  manifestation  of  required  even  for  his  religious  and  moral  development, 
the  Divine  substance  which  works  in  nature  and  ani-  The  consequences  are  clear:  miracles,  that  is,  effects 
mates  it.  According  to  Spinoza,  God  is  the  one  sub-  produced  by  God  himself  and  transcending  the  forces 
stance  which  unfolds  itself  through  attributes,  two  of  of  nature,  must  be  rejected.  Prophecies  and  so-called 
which,  extension  and  thought,  are  known  to  us.  These  miraculous  events  either  are  explainable  by  the 
attributes  manifest  themselves  through  a  number  of  known,  or  hitherto  unknown,  laws  of  nature  or,  u  they 
modes  which  are  the  finite  determinations  of  the  infi-  are  not  thus  explainable,  their  happening  itself  must 
nite  substance.  As  absolute  substance,  God  is  ncUura  be  denied,  and  the  belief  in  their  reality  attributed  to 
ncUurana:  as  manifesting  himself  through  the  various  faulty  observation.  Since,  for  rehgious  and  moral,  as 
modes  of  phenomena,  he  is  natura  naturaia.  Toniay  well  as  for  scientific  truths,  human  reason  is  the  only 
Monism  reproduces  essentially  the  same  theories,  source  of  knowledge,  the  fact  of  a  Divine  Revelation  is 
Mind  is  not  reduced  to  a  property,  or  epiphenomenon,  rejected,  and  the  contents  of  such  supposed  revelation 
of  matter,  but  both  matter  and  mind  are  like  parallels :  can  be  accepted  only  in  so  far  as  they  are  rational ;  to 
they  proceed  together  as  phenomena  or  aspects  of  beheve  in  mysteries  is  absurd.    Having  no  supemat- 


the  same  ultimate  reality.  What  is  this  reality?  By  ural  destiny,  man  needs  no  sui)ematural 
some,  explicitly  or  implicitly,  it  is  rather  conceived  as  neither  sanctif3ring  grace  as  a  permanent  principle  to 
material,  and  we  fall  back  into  Materialism;  by  others  give  his  actions  a  supernatural  value  nor  actual  grace 
it  is  claimed  to  be  nearer  to  mind  than  to  matter,  and  to  enlighten  his  mind  and  strengthen  his  will.  The 
hence  result  various  idealistic  systems  and  tendencies;  Fall  of  Man,  the  mysteries  of  the  Incarnation  and 
by  others,  finally,  it  is  declared  to  be  strictly  unknown  the  Redemption,  with  their  implications  and  conse- 
and  unknowable,  and  thus  Monistic  Naturalism  comes  quences,  can  find  no  place  in  a  Naturalistic  creed. 
into  close  contact  with  Agnosticism  (q.  v.).  Prayers  and  sacraments  have  only  natural  results  ex- 
Whatever  it  may  be  ultimately,  nature  is  substan-  plainable  on  psychological  grounds  by  the  confidence 
tially  one;  it  requires  nothing  outside  of  itself,  but  finds  with  which  they  inspire  those  who  use  them.  If  man 
within  itself  its  adequate  explanation.  Either  the  hu-  must  have  a  religion  at  all,  it  is  only  that  which  his 
man  mind  is  incapable  of  any  knowledge  bearing  on  reason  dictates.  Naturalism  is  directly  opposed  to 
the  question  of  ongins,  or  this  question  itself  is  mean-  the  Christian  Religion.  But  even  withm  the  fold  of 
ingless,  since  both  nature  and  its  processes  of  develop-  Christianity,  among  those  who  admit  a  Divine  Reve- 
ment  are  eternal.  The  simultaneous  or  successive  lation  and  a  supernatural  order,  several  naturalistic 
changes  which  occur  in  the  world  result  necessarily  tendencies  are  found.  Such  are  those  of  the  Pelagians 
from  the  essential  laws  of  nature,  for  nature  is  inn-  and  Semipel^ans,  who  minimize  the  necessity  and 
nitely  rich  in  potencies  whose  progressive  actualization  functions  of  Divine  grace;  of  Baius,  who  asserts  that 
constitutes  the  endless  process  of  inorganic,  organic,  the  elevation  of  man  was  an  exigency  of  his  nature; 
and  mental  evolution.  The  evolution  and  diferen-  of  many  sects,  especially  among  liberal  Protestants, 
tiation  of  the  one  substance  according  to  its  own  laws  who  fall  into  more  or  less  radical  Rationalism;  and  of 
and  without  the  guiding  agency  of  a  transcendent  in-  others  who  endeavour  to  restrict  within  too  narrow 
telligence  is  one  of  the  basic  assumptions  of  Monistic  limits  the  divine  agency  in  the  universe, 
and  A^ostic  Naturalism.  Nor  is  it  possible  to  see  IV.  General  Considerations. — From  the  fundar- 
how  this  form  of  Naturalism  can  consistently  escape  mental  principles  of  Naturalism  are  derived  some  im- 
the  consequences  of  Materialistic  Naturalism.  Tne  portant  consequences  in  ssthetical,  political,  and 
supernatural  is  impossible;  at  no  sta^e  can  there  be  ethical  sciences.  In  aesthetics  Naturalism  rests  on  the 
any  freedom  or  responsibihty;  man  is  but  a  speciid  assumption  that  art  must  imitate  nature  without  any 
manifestation  or  mode  of  the  common  substance,  in-  idealization,  and  without  any  regard  for  the  laws  ol 
eluding  in  himself  the  twofold  aspect  of  matter  and  morality.  Social  and  political  NaturaJism  teaches 
consciousness.  Moreover,  since  God,  or  rather  'Hhe  that  "the  best  interests  of  public  society  and  dvil 
divine",  as  some  say,  is  to  be  found  in  nature,  with  progress  require  that  in  the  constitution  and  govem- 
which  it  is  identified,  religion  can  only  be  reduced  to  ment  of  human  society  no  more  attention  should  be 
certain  feelings  of  admiration,  awe,  reverence,  fear,  given  to  religion  than  if  there  were  no  religion  at  all,  or 
etc.,  caused  in  man  by  the  consideration  of  nature,  its  at  least  that  no  distinction  should  be  made  between 
laws,  beauties,  energies,  and  mysteries.  Thus^amone  true  and  false  religion"  (Pius  IX,  Encycl.,  "Quanta 
the  feelings  belonging  to  "natural  religion",  Haeckd  cura",  8  Dec.,  1864).  Leo  XIII  lays  it  down  that 
mentions  "the  astonishment  with  which  we  gaze  upon  "the  integral  profession  of  the  Cathouc  Faith  is  in  no 
the  starry  heavens  and  the  microscopic  life  in  a  drop  of  way  consistent  with  naturalistic  and  rationalistic  opin- 
water,  tne  awe  with  which  we  trace  the  marvellous  ions,  the  sum  and  the  substance  of  which  is  to  do 
working  of  energy  in  the  motion  of  matter,  the  rever-  away  altogether  with  Christian  institutions,  and,  dis- 


vajCf  iNew  lorK,  i\fuuy  ovt),  ganisms,  social  organisms  ooey  lauu  laws  oi  aevei- 

III.  For  those  who  admit  the  existence  of  a  tran-  opment;  all  events  are  the  necessary  results  of  complex 

scendent  First  Cause  of  the  universe,  naturalism  con-  antecedents,  and  the  task  of  the  historian  is  to  record 

nsts  essentially  in  an  undue  limitation  of  God's  activity  them  and  to  trace  the  laws  of  tiieir  sequences,  ^^di 

in  the  world.    God  is  only  Creator,  not  Providence;  are  as  strict  as  those  of  sequences  in  the  i^iysi^ 

He  cannot,  or  may  not,  interfere  with  the  natural  world. 

course  of  events,  or  He  never  did  so,  or,  at  least,  In  ethics,  the  vague  assumption  that  nature  is  the 

the  fact  of  His  ever  doinjs  so  cannot  be  established,  supreme  guide  of  human  actions  may  be  u>plied  in 

Even  if  the  soul  of  man  is  regarded  as  spiritual  and  many  different  ways.    Already  the  principle  of  the 


NATUEAL  715  NATUBS 

Stoics,  fonnulated  first  by  Zeno,  that  we  must  live  fundamental  teaching  of  the  Churoh,  whidi,  while 
consistently  or  hannoniously  (rb  6fM)Soyovfi4pias  $pp),  recognizing  all  the  rights  and  exigencies  of  nature, 
and  stated  more  explicitly  by  Cleanthes  as  the  obliga-  rises  higher,  to  the  Author  and  Supreme  Ruler  of  na- 
tion to  live  in  conformity  with  nature  (t6  hiioKoyoviUvia^  ture. 
r%  ^6ffti  f^F)  gave  rise  to  several  interpretations,  some  »  Baltoub,  The  Fowukaiona  ofBdief  (New  York,  1896);  Llotd 

understandmg  nature  delusively  as  human  nature,  ^^S^i^^ll^S^^t^^-^'^Z^if^^^-J^ 

Others  Cnieny  as  the  whole  umverse.      Moreover  as  und  Natur  <1908);    Schazlkr,   Natw  und   Ud>ematur  (Maina, 

man  has  many  natural  tendencies,  desires,  and  appe-  1865):  Schbbbbn.  Katur  und  Onade  (Maim,  1861);  Schradbb, 

titAfl  it.  mAv  hfi  aaIcpH  whpfhpr  it  ia  mnrol  in  fnllnw  oil  ^*  triplici  online^  naturali,  npematurali  et  praterruUurali  CVitumm. 

11W»,  n  may  oe  aSKea  wnetner  it  is  moral  to  follow  ail  ^gQ^. .  Baldwin,  D%<ium,of  PKUm.  and  PtychoL  (New  York  and 

mdlSCrmunately ;  and  when  they  are  COnfllctmg  or  mu-  London.  lOOl) ;  Emlbb,  WarterbueK'dm'  phHo9ophiBehen  Begriffe, 

tually  exclusive,  so  that  a  choice  is  to  be  made,  on  See  also  Gracb,  Mxbaclb,  etc 

what  ground  must  certain  activities  be  given  the  pref-  C.  A.  Dubrat. 


erence  over  the  others?    Before  the  Stoics,  the  C3rmc8. 
both  in  theorv  and  in  practice,  had  based  their  rules  of 


Natural  Law.    See  Law,  Natubal. 


conduct  on  the  principle  that  notl^  natural  can  be  J'**""!  Eight.    See  Right. 

morally  wrong.    Opposing  customs,  conventions,  re-  Nature  etymologically  (Latin  ncUura  from  naacif 

finement,  and  culture,  they  endeavoured  to  return  to  to  be  bom^  like  the  corresponding  Greek  ^^(f  from 

the  pure  state  of  nature.    Rousseau,  likewise,  looks  ^^ci^,  to  bnng  forth)  has  reference  to  the  production 

upon  the  social  organization  as  a  necessai^  evil  which  of  things^  and  hence  generally  includes  in  its  connota- 

contributes  towaras  developing  conventional  stand-  tion  the  ideas  of  energy  and  activity.    It  will  be  con- 

ards  of  morality.    Man,  according  to  him,  is  naturally  venient  to  reduce  to  two  classes  the  various  meanings 

good,  but  becomes  depraved  byeducation  and  by  con-  of  the  term  nature  according  as  it  appUes  to  the  na- 

tact  with  other  men.    This  same  theme  of  the  opposi-  tures  of  individual  beings  or  to  nature  m  general, 

tion  of  nature  and  culture,  and  the  superiority  of  the  I.  Li  an  individual  being,  especially  if  its  consti- 

former,  is  a  favourite  one  with  Tolstoi.    According  to  tutive  elements  and  its  activities  are  manifold  and 

Nietzsche,  the  current  standards  of  virtue  are  against  complex,  the  term  nature  is  sometimes  applied  to  the 

nature,  and,  because  they  favour  tibe  poor,  the  weak,  collection  of  distinctive  features,  original  or  acquired, 

the  suffering,  the  miserable,  by  commending  such  feel-  by  which  such  an  individual  is  characterized  and  dis- 

ings  as  chanter,  compassion,  pity,  humility,  etc.,  they  tinguished  from  others.    Thus  it  may  be  said  it  is 

are  obstacles  in  the  way  of  true  progress.    For  the  the  nature  of  one  man  to  be  taller,  stronger,  more 

progress  of  mankind  and  the  development  of  the  inteUigent,  or  more  sociable  than  another.   Tnismean- 

" Superman",  it  is  essential  to  return  to  the  primitive  ing,  however,  is  superficial;  in  philosophical  terminol- 

and  natural  standard  of  moraUty,  which  is  energy,  ogy  and  even  in  ordinary  language,  nature  refers  to 

activity,  strength,  and  superiority;  the  most  powenul  something  deeper  and  more  fundamental.  These  fea- 

are  also  the  best.  tures  are  manifestations  of  a  man's  nature:  they  are 

If  ethical  naturalism  is  considered  in  its  relation  not  his  nature.  Nature  properly  siipifies  that  which 
with  the  three  philoeophiciJ  views  explidned  above,  is  primitive  and  original^  or,  accordmg  to  etymolo^, 
it  sometimes  means  only  the  rejection  of  any  duties  that  which  a  thing  is  at  birth,  as  opposed  to  that  which 
based  on  a  Divine  Revelation,  and  the  assumption  is  acquired  or  added  from  external  sources.  But  the 
that  the  only  source  of  right  and  wrong  is  human  rei^  line  that  divides  the  natural  from  the  artificial  can- 
son.  Generally,  however,  it  means  the  more  radical  not  be  drawn  with  precision.  Inorganic  beings  never 
tendency  to  treat  moral  science  in  the  same  manner  as  change  except  imder  the  influence  of  external  agencies, 
natural  science.  There  is  freedom  nowhere,  but  abso-  and  in  the  same  circumstances,  their  mode  of  activity 
lute  necessity  everywhere.  All  human  actions,  as  well  is  uniform  and  constant.  Organisms  present  a  greater 
as  physical  events,  are  necessary  results  of  antecedents  complexity  of  structure,  power  of  adaptation,  and 
that  are  themselves  necessary.  The  morsJ  law,  with  variet]^  of  function.  For  their  development  out  of  a 
its  essential  distinction  of  right  and  wrong  conduct,  is.  primitive  germ  they  require  the  co-operation  of  many 
not  an  objective  norm,  but  a  mere  subjective  result  of  extemid  factors,  yet  they  have  withm  themselves  the 
associations  and  instincts  evolved  from  the  experience  principle  of  activity  by  which  external  substances  are 
of  the  useful  and  agreeable^  or  of  the  harmful  and  pain-  elaborated  and  assimilated.  In  any  being  the  changes 
ful,  consequences  of  certam  actions.  It  is,  neverthe-  due  to  necessary  causes  are  called  natural,  whereas 
less,  a  motive  that  prompts  to  act  in  certain  directions,  those  pitxluoed  bv  intentional  human  activity  are 
but  the  effectiveness  of  which  is  strictly  determined  by  called  artificai.  But  it  is  clear  that  art  supposes 
the  degree  of  its  intensity  in  a  given  individual  com-  nature  and  is  but  a  special  adaptation  of  natural 
pared  with  the  resistance  it  encounters  on  the  part  of  aptitudes,  capacities,  or  activities  for  certain  sesthetio 
antagonistic  ideas.  Thus,  the  science  of  ethics  is  not  or  useful  purposes.  Stars,  rivers,  forests,  are  works  of 
normative:  it  does  not  deisJ  with  laws  existing  ante-  nature;  parks,  canals,  gardens,  and  machines  are  works 
oedently  to  human  actions,  and  which  these  ought  to  of  art.  If  necessary  conditions  are  realized,  where 
obey.  It  is  genetic,  and  endeavours  to  do  for  human  the  seed  falls  a  plant  will  grow  naturally.  But  the 
actions  what  natural  science  does  for  physical  phe-  seed  may  be  placed  purposely  amid  certam  surround- 
nomena,  that  is,  to  discover,  throueh  an  inference  ings,  the  growth  of  the  plant  may  be  hastened,  its 
from  the  facts  of  human  conduct,  thelaws  to  which  it  shape  altered,  and,  in  genmd,  the  result  to  be  expected 
happens  to  conform.  from  natural  activities  may  be  modified.    By  training 

It  is  impossible  to  state  in  detail  the  attitude  of  the  the  aptitudes  of  an  animal  are  utilized  and  its  instincts 

Catholic  Church  towards  the  assumptions^  implica-  adapts  for  specific  ends.    In  such  cases  the  final  re- 

tions,  and  consequences  of  Naturalism.    Naturalism  suit  is  more  or  less  natural  or  artificial  according  to 

is  such  a  wide  and  far-reaching  tendency^  it  touches  the  mode  and  amount  of  human  intervention, 

upon  so  many  points,  its  roots  and  ramifications  ex-  In  scholastic  philosophy,  nature,  essence,  and  sub* 

tend  in  so  many  directions,  that  the  reader  must  be  stance  are  closely  related  terms.    Both  essence  and 

referred  to  the  cognate  topics  treated  in  other  articles,  substance  imply  a  static  point  of  view  and  refer  to 

In  general  it  can  only  be  said  that  Naturalism  contra-  constituents  or  mode  of  existence,  while  nature  im- 

dicts  the  most  vital  doctrines  of  the  Church,  which  plies  a  dynamic  point  of  view  and  refers  to  innate 

rest  essentiaUv  on  Supematuralism.    The  existence  tendencies.    Moreover,  substance  is  opposed  to  ac- 

of  a  personal  God  and  of  Divine  Providence,  the  spirit-  cidents,  whereas  we  may  speak  of  the  nature  and 

uality  and  iinmortahty  of  the  soul,  human  freedom  essence  not  only  of  substances  but  also  of  accidents 

and  responsibility,  the  fact  of  a  Divine  Revelation,  the  like  colour,  sound,  intelligence,  and  of  abstract  ideals 

existence  of  a  supernatural  order  for  man,  are  so  many  like  virtue  or  duty.    But  when  applied  to  the  same 


NATUBB                              716  NATUBS 

substantial  being,  the  terms  substance,  essence,  and  principle  which  must  be  added  to  natural  faculties 
nature  in  reidity  stand  only  for  different  aspects  of  the  so  as  to  uplift  them  and  make  them  capable  of  know- 
same  thing,  and  the  distmction  between  them  is  a  ins  and  reaching  this  higher  destiny.  More  sp^fi- 
mental  one.  Substance  denotes  the  thing  as  requiring  caD^  it  includes  an  enhghtenment  of  the  intellect  by  a 
no  support,  but  as  being  itself  the  necessary  supjport  positive  revelation  of  Ood  manifesting  man's  super- 
of  accidents;  essence  properly  denotes  the  intrmsio  natural  end  and  the  conditions  for  obtaining  it;  it  also 
constitutive  elements  by  which  a  thing  is  what  it  is  implies  for  every  individual  the  indispens££le  help  of 
and  is  distinguished  from  every  other;  nature  denotes  Divine  grace  both  actual,  by  which  God  illummes 
the  substance  or  essentjiB  considered  as  the  source  of  and  strengthens  human  faculties,  and  8anctif3dng,  by 
activities.  ''Nature  properly  speaking  is  the  essence  which  human  nature  is  elevated  to  a  higher  mode 
(or  substance)  of  things  which  have  in  themselves  as  of  activity.  Hence  theologians  oppose  the  state  of 
such  a  principle  of  activity  (Aristotle,  "Metaphysics",  pure  nature  in  which  God  could  have  placed  man,  to 
1015a,  13).  By  a  process  of  abstraction  the  mind  the  suoematural  state  to  which  in  fact  man  was  raised, 
arises  from  individual  and  concrete  natures  to  those  IT.  Nature  is  frequently  taken  for  the  totality  of 
of  species  and  genera.  concrete  natures  and  their  laws.  But  here  again  a 
A  few  special  remarks  must  be  added  concerning  narrower  and  a  broader  meaning  must  be  distin- 
human  nature.  This  expression  may  mean  some-  guished.  Nature  refers  especially  to  the  world  of 
thing  concrete,  more  or  less  different  in  various  matter,  in  time  and  space,  governed  by  blind  and 
individuals,  or  more  generally  something  common  necessary  laws,  and  thus  excludes  the  mental  world, 
to  all  men,  i.  e.,  the  abstract  human  nature  by  Works  of  nature,  opposed  to  works  of  art,  result  from 
which  mankind  as  a  whole  is  distinguished  from  physical  causes,  not  from  the  actual  adaptation  by 
other  classes  of  living  beings.  In  botn  cases  it  is  human  intelligence.  This  si^ification  is  found  in 
conceived  as  including  primitive  and  fundamental  such  expressions  as  natural  history,  natural  philoso- 
characteristics,  and  as  referring  to  the  source  of  all  phy,  and  in  general^  natural  science,  which  deal  only 
activities.  Hence  nature,  as  the  internal  principle  of  with  the  constitution,  production,  properties,  and 
action,  is  opposed  in  the  first  place  to  violence  and  laws  of  material  substances.  Sometimes  also  nature 
coercion  which  are  external  prmciples  of  action  and  is  all-inclusive,  embracing  mind  as  well  as  matter;  it  is 
prevent  the  normal  play  of  numan  faculties.  It  is  our  whole  world  of  experience,  internal  as  well  as  ex- 
opposed  sJso,  but  less  strictly,  to  education  and  cul-  temal.  And  frequently  nature  is  looked  ui)on  as  a 
ture  which  at  times  may  be  the  checking  of  natural  personified  abstraction,  as  the  one  cause  of  whatever 
tendencies,  at  times  also  their  development  and  pei^  takes  place  in  the  universe,  endowed  with  qualities, 
fection.    Education,  physical  and  mental,  is  not  a  tendencies,  efforts,  and  will^  and  with  aims  and  pur- 

grimitive  endowment;  it  must  be  acquired  and  is  poses  which  it  strives  to  reahze. 

uilt  upon  nature  as  on  its  foundation.    In  this  sense  The  problems  to  which  the  philosophical  study  of 

habit  has  been  termed  a  second  nature.    But  al-  nature  has  given  rise  are  numerous.    All  however  cen- 

though  education  is  due  largely  to  external  causes  and  tre  around  the  question  of  the  unity  of  nature:  Can  all 

influences  acting  on  the  mind  and  the  organism^  from  the  beings  of  the  world  be  reduced  to  one  conmionprin- 

another  point  of  view  it  is  also  the  unfolding  of  innate  ciple,  and  if  so  what  is  this  principle?   The  first  Greek 

aptitudes,  and  hence  partly  natural.  philosophers,  who  were  aunost  exclusively  philoso- 

As  between  nature  m  general  and  art,  so  between  phers  of  nature,  endeavoured  to  find  some  primitive 
human  nature  and  education  there  is  no  clear  dividing  element  out  of  which  all  things  were  made;  air,  water, 
line.  Natural  is  also  freauently  contrasted  with  con-  fire,  and  earth  were  in  turn  or  all  together  supposed  to 
ventional;  language,  style,  gestures,  expressions  of  be  this  common  principle.  The  problem  has  peiv 
feelin^^  etc.,  are  called  more  or  less  natural.  This  sisted  throu^  all  ages  and  received  many  answers, 
opposition  becomes  more  acute  in  the  theories  of  Aristotle's  primary  matter,  for  instance,  is  of  the  same 
Hobbes  and  Rousseau  who  lay  stress  on  the  antithesis  nature  in  ul  things;  and  to-day  ether,  or  some  other 
between  the  primitive  or  natural  state  of  man  and  the  substance  or  energy  is  advocated  by  many  as  the  corn- 
present  social  condition  due  to  the  contract  by  which  mon  substratum  of  all  material  substances.  After 
men  agreed  to  surrender  their  rights  into  the  hands  static  unity,  dynamic  unity  is  looked  for,  that  is,  all 
of  the  common  authority.  the  changes  that  take  place  in  the  universe  are  re- 

From  the  theological  iwint  of  view  the  distinctions  ferred  to  the  same  principle.  Dynamism  (q.  v.)  ad- 
between  nature  and  person  and  between  the  natural  mits  forces  of  various  kinds  which,  however^  it  tries 
and  the  supematurcu  orders  are  of  primary  impor-  to  reduce  to  as  small  a  number  as  poasible,  if  not  to 
tance.  The  former  arose  from  the  dogma  of  the  Irin-  only  one  form  of  energy  manifesting  itself  in  differ- 
ity,  i.  e.,  of  one  Divine  Nature  in  three  persons,  and  ent  ways.  Mechanism  (q.  v.)  holds  that  everything  is 
chiefly  from  that  of  the  Incarnation  i.  e.,  of  the  two  explainable  by  the  sole  assumption  of  movement  corn- 
Natures,  Divine  and  human,  in  the  one  Divine  Per-  municated  from  one  substance  to  another.  Teleologi- 
son  in  Qirist.  The  Human  Nature  in  Christ  is  com-  cal  views  give  to  final  causes  a  greater  importance, 
plete  and  perfect  as  nature,  yet  it  lacks  that  which  and  look  upon  the  ends  of  various  beings  as  suboi^ 
would  make  it  a  person,  whether  tins  be  something  dinated  to  the  one  end  which  the  universe  tends  to 
negative,  as  Scotists  hold,  namely  the  mere  fact  that  realize. 

a  nature  is  not  assumed  by  a  higher  person,  or,  as  If  nature  includes  both  mental  and  ph3rBica]  phe- 

Thomists  assert,  some  positive  reality  distinct  from  nomena  what  are  the  relations  between  these  two 

nature  and  maMng  it  incommunicable.  classes?   On  this  point  also  the  history  of  philosophy 

The  faculties  of  man  are  capable  of  development  offers  many  attempts  to  substitute  some  form  of  Nlon- 
and  perfection,  and,  no  matter  what  extemalinflu-  ism  for  the  Dualism  of  mind  and  matter,  by  reducing 
ences  may  be  at  work,  this  is  but  the  unfolding  of  mind  to  a  special  function  of  matter,  or  matter  to  a 
natural  capacities.  Even  artificiaJ  productions  are  special  appearance  of  mind,  or  both  to  a  common  sub- 
governed  by  the  laws  of  nature,  and.  m  man,  natural  stratum. 

activities,  after  they  are  perfected  differ  not  in  kind  Finally,  is  nature  as  a  whole  self-sufficient,  or  does  it 

but  only  m  degree,  from  those  that  are  less  developed,  require  a  transcendent  ground  as  its  cause  and  prinei- 

The  supernatural  order  is  above  the  exigencies  and  pie?    Is  the  natura  naturans  one  and  the  same  with 

capacities  of  all  himian  nature.    It  consists  of  an  end  the  natura  naiurataf    By  some  these  expressions  are 

to  be  reached,  namely,  the  intuitive  vision  of  God  in  used  in  a  pantheistic  sense,  the  same  substance  under- 

heaven — not    the   mere    discursive    and   imperfect  lies  all  phenomena;  by  others  the  natura  noftfrmu,  as 

knowledge  which  is  acquired  by  the  light  of  reason —  first  cause,  is  held  to  be  really  distinct  from  the  nahan 

and  of  the  means  to  attain  such  an  end,  namely,  a  nottirota,  as  effect.  This  is  the  question  of  the  existence 


NATUBISM                            717  NATUBISM 

and  nature  of  Grod  and  of  his  distinction  from  the  world,  object  of  nature  as  the  sun  and  its  peraonification  as  a 
Here  the  question  of  the  possibility  of  miracles  is  sug-  bemg  possessing  life  in  some  form,  and  teaches  that  it 
gested.  Ii  nature  alone  exists,  and  if  all  its  changes  is  an  axiom  of  primitive  man's  science  to  ascribe  life 
are  absolutely  necessary,  everything  takes' place  ao-  to  all  things  (The  Study  of  Religion.  London,  1902). 
cording  to  a  strict  determinism.  If,  on  the  contrary,  Schrader  says  the  common  basis  of  tne  ancient  Indo- 
God  exists  as  a  transcendent,  intelligent,  and  free  cause  European  reli^on  was  a  worship  of  nature,  and  ap- 
of  nature  and  its  laws,  not  only  natiu^  in  all  its  details  peals  to  lingmstics  which  shows  that  the  ancient 
depends  ultimately  on  God's  will,  but  its  ordinary  Aryans  designated  objects  i)erceived  as  doine  some- 
course  may  be  suspended  by  a  miraculous  interven-  thing,  e.  g.,  the  rain  rains,  the  fire  bums  ("  Prdbistoric 
tion  of  the  First  Cause.  (See  Abtb;  Natubaubm;  Antiquities  of  the  Aryan  Peoples",  tr.  by  Jevons, 
Supernatural;  Grace.)  Ix)ndon,  1890).  Hence  the  discovery  of  the  soul  or 
Ei8«R,  irort«*Mcj  der  pAijM.  Beoriffe!  Rickabt.  General  Meta-  gpirit  aff  distinct  from  the  object  is  the  origin  of  Ani- 

J&T8^'f?Sy.?^i/S2^U?r?/^^^  mism    ThistheoiTissometim^calledpersonification 

Mbrcxkb,  OntolooU  (Louvain,  1002);  Nts,  Cotmotogie  (Louvain,  of  natural  forces,  but  only  m  the  sense  that  nature  is 

1906).  and  literature  under  NATuiuuaii.              ^^  conceived  as  living,  as  vital  with  creative  and  preserv- 

C.  A.  DuBRAT.  ative  powers.    Personification,  in  the  strict  sense  of 

investing  material  things  with  the  attributes  of  a  per- 

NaturiBm,  the  term  proposed  by  R^ville  to  desie-  son  is  far  above  the  power  of  early  man  and  appears 

nate  the  worship  of  nature.    It  diners  from  Natursu-  only  in  later  forms  of  developed  belief.    Hence,  ao- 

ism,  which  is  not  a  religion,  but  a  system  of  atheistic  cording  to  R6ville,  there  is  first  the  naive  cult  of  nat- 

philosophy,  and  from  natural  religion,  which  sets  forth  ural  objects  as  possessing  life  and  in  some  way  sup- 

those  truths  about  God  and  man  attainable  by  the  na-  posed  to  influence  man:  this  is  followed  by  Animism 

tive  power  of  human  reason  and  forming  the  prolego-  and  Fetishism;  and  finally  a  third  stage  known  as  the 

mena  to  Revelation,  e.  g.,  the  existence  of  God,  the  natural  mythologies  founded  on  the  dramatization  of 

spiritual  and  immortal  nature  of  the  human  soul,  the  nature,  e.  g.,  the  nistoric  polytheisms  of  China,  Egypt, 


moral  order.    As  a  theorv  of  religion  Naturism  ex-  Babylonia,  of  the  Teutonic,  Greek,  Latin,  and 

hibits  three  phases:  I.  Ethnogiapmc  Naturism.    II.  races. 

Philosophic  Naturism.    III.  Science-Naturism.  Primitive  man  faces  the  world  about  him  in  child- 

I.  Ethnographic  Naturism. — ^According  to  R^  like  wonder.    The  succession  of  the  seasons,  of  ni^t 

ville,  Naturism  is  the  primitive  form  of  reli^on,  the  and  day,  of  storm  and  cloud,  the  growth  of  living 

basis  and  source  of  all  existing  forms.    This  is  the  thin^,  exhibit  nature  in  constant  and  varied  changes, 

thesis  of  comparative  mythology,  which  is  said  to  re-  He  views  natural  phenomena  as  the  effects  of  causes 

veal  a  primitive  nature  worship.    Its  foundation  is  a  beyond  his  comprehension  and  control.    Conscious 

twofold  assumption:  (1)  the  philosophic  assumption  of  his  own  agency,  though  unable  yet  to  distinguish 

of  evolution,  which  maintains  that  man  is  a  develop-  soul  from  the  parts  of  the  body,  he  attributes  agency 

ment  bv  slow  and  successive  stages  from  the  anim^;  like  his  own  to  the  objects  which  surround  him.    Awe 

hence  the  corollary  advanced  by  Bpencer  and  Thomas  and  delight  possess  him.    Having  no  idea  at  all  of 

as  the  first  principle  in  the  evolutionary  history  of  re-  God,  wntes  Keary,  he  makes  the  thin^  themselves 

li^on,  viz.,  that  primitive  man  was  a  creature  of  emo-  gods  by  worshipping  them  (''Early  Rehg.  Develop." 

tion,  not  of  inteUigence  which  is  the  product  of  more  in  Nineteenth  Cent.,  Aug.,  1878).    Hence  Brinton 

advanced  culture;  (2)  the  ethnographic  assumption  writes  that  nature  is  known  to  man  only  as  a  force 

that  primitive  man  existed  in  the  savage  state,  a  con-  which  manifests  itself  in  change  (The  Religious  Senti- 

dition  and  mode  of  life  akin  to  that  prevailing  among  ment,  New  York,  1876).    Ratzd  explains  this  crav- 

the  non-civilized  races  of  to-day,  e.  g.,  Tylor,  Lutn  ing  for  causality  in  an  animistic  sense  as  tending  to 

bock,  Tiele,  R^ville,  and  Spencer.  vivify  all  the  higher  phenomena  of  nature  by  attribut- 

The  core  and  essence  ol  nature-worship  is  that  na-  ing  to  them  a  soul,  and  applies  the  word  rolytheism 
ture  is  animated  throughout.  In  the  conception  of  to  all  religions  of  the  lower  grades  ("Hist,  of  Man- 
animated  nature,  R^ville  is  in  touch  with  de  Brosses  kind",  tr.  Butler,  London^  1896).  With  Crawley  the 
and  Comte,  who  claim  that  Fetishism  is  the  primitive  phenomena  of  change  exhibits  a  vital  principle  anaJo- 
relision  and  by  Fetishism  imderstand  the  primitive  gous  to  man's  own  and  this  principle  of  life  vaguely 
tendency  to  conceive  external  objects  as  animated  by  conceived  by  primitive  man  out  strongly  felt  is  the 
a  life  analogous  to  that  of  man.  He  differs  from  Ty-  origin  of  religion;  in  a  later  stage  of  development 
lor,  who  specifies  the  cause  of  the  animation,  e.  g..  Vitalism  passes  into  Animism  (The  Tree  of  life, 
spirits  or  souls,  and  from  Comte  in  holding  that  the  London,  1905).  Shaw  says  the  difference  between 
primitive  animation  in  its  initial  stage  is  not  Fetish-  Naturism  and  Spiritism  is  largely  a  difference  of  em- 
ism,  but  becomes  so  when  in  process  of  development  phasis,  because  neither  can  be  excluded  from  the  in- 
the  spirit  or  soul  is  distinguished  from  the  object,  terpretation  of  a  primitive  which  as  yet  has  made  no 
Thus  with  R^ville,  the  Animism  of  Tylor  and  Spacer  sharp  separation  between  subject  and  object.  Hence 
is  the  intermediate  link  between  Naturism  and  Fetish-  the  worshipper  of  nature  seems  to  ally  himself  with 
ism.  Tylor,  however,  considers  nature-worship  as  the  external  objects  which,  as  he  surveys  them  anthro- 
oonnccting  bond  between  Fetishism  and  Polytheism,  popatically,  serve  as  a  support  and  mirror  of  his  own 
yet  admits  that  the  stages  of  this  process  defy  any  fleeting  fancies.  These  natural  objects  are  further 
more  accurate  definition.  Giddings  follows  Tylor  in  conceived  by  primitive  man  as  either  friendly  or  inim- 
holding  that  religious  ideas  are  of  two  ^ups:  animis-  ical  to  him.  In  the  particular  view  of  Fetishism  the 
tic  interpretation  of  the  finite,  and  animistic  mterpreta-  physical  and  psychical  further  appears.  Thus  Shaw 
tion  of  the  infinite  ("  Induct.  Sociol.",  New  York,  1901).  m  the  primitive  Naturism  resultmg  from  the  contact 
In  like  manner  Blackmar  teaches  that  nature-worship  of  man  with  the  phenomena  of  the  external  world, 
was  nothing  more  than  spirit-worship  localized  in  the  attempts  to  reconcile  the  psychologiGal  theories  of  fear 


animals,  is  a  department  (The  Non-Religion  of  the  Pfleidner  holds  that  nature  is  animated  throughout, 

Future,   New    York,    1907).     Hadden    holds    that  that  this  view  was  just  as  natural  for  the  childlike 

primitive  folk  do  not  draw  a  (diarp  distinction  between  fancy  of  the  primitive  man  as  it  is  still  to-day  for 

things  animate  and  inaminate  (The  Study  of  Man.  children  and  poets.    According  to  him  this  animation 

New  York,  1898).    Jastrow  says  that  the  savage  and  of  nature  is  not  to  be  explained  by  saying  that  the 

primitive  man  does  not  differentiate  between  such  an  primitive  man  only  compared  natural  imenomena 


NATUBI8M                            718  NATUBI8M 

with  living  beings  or  even  that  he  thought  of  them  templation  of  the  overwhelming  strength  of  nature 
as  a  domicile  or  operation  of  spirits  of  human  origin,  furnishes  the  motive  for  seeking  support  from  certain 
Such  a  view  would  suppose  a  definite  distinguishing  of  powers  of  nature  and  to  accomplish  tnis  he  must  make 
the  sense  element  and  of  the  supersensible  element;  them  favomably  disposed  to  him.  He  says  this 
but  this  distinction  only  appeared  later,  whereas,  for  theory  can  be  variously  put,  hence  can  fiunish  a 
the  original  m3rthological  notion^  the  sense  element  starting  point  for  pessimistic  views,  e.  g..  Von  Hart- 
and  the  subject  that  was  active  in  it  was  still  conceived  mann,  and  of  optimistic  views  of  man's  position  in  the 
as  one.  He  says  the  real  sources  of  religion  are  exter-  universe,  and  it  appeals  to  minds  in  svmpathy  with  re- 
nal nature  and  the  soul  of  man;  for  the  prehistoric  be-  ligion  as  to  those,  e.  g.,  Feuerbach,  who  regard  religion 
lief  in  spirits,  out  of  which  developed  the  belief  in  as  an  illusion. 

God,  cannot  yet  be  properl]^  called  religion;  it  only  Thus  Naturism  teaches  that  man  originally  was 

contained  the  germs  of  reli^on.    Tylor  teaches  ani-  destitute  of  religion,  and  that  ignorant  awe  in  face  of 

mation  of  nature,  but^  as  with  him  the  soul  or  spirit  natural  forces  was  tne  cause  of  his  earliest  faith.    But 

animates  material  objects,  nature-worship  is  ranged  this  theory  cannot  be  accepted.    (1)  Its  basis,  vis., 

under  the  concept  of  Fetishism.    De  la  Saussaye  ob»  that  man  has  evolved  from  an  animal  state,  is  false, 

iects  to  this  view  on  the  ground  that  nature-worship  "We  know  now",  writes  Max  MUller  ''that  savage 

bears  the  strongest  impress  of  originality,  and  there-  and  primitive  are  very  far  indeed  from  meaning  the 

fore  is  not  a  phase  of  Fetishism,  which  is  not  original,  same  thing"  (Anthrop.  Relig.,  150).     Talcott  Wil- 

Darwin  seems  to  combine  the  ascription  of  life  to  liams  shows  the  necessity  of  revising  and  limiting  the 

natural  objects,  dreams,  and  fears  (Descent  of  Man,  confidence  with  which  the  modem  savage  has  been 

I,  p.  65).    Thomas  says  that,  while  theoretically  sep-  used  to  explain  a  nobler  past  (Smithsonian  Report 

arable,  magic  religion,  belief  in  ghosts  and  in  nature-  of  1896).    Mtiller  and  Kunn  refute  Mannhardt  and 

worship  practically  run  into  one  another  and  become  Meyer  by  sHowing  that  popular  beliefs  of  modem 

inseparablv  mingled;  therefore  it  is  idle  to  attempt  folk-lore  are  fragments  of  a  hi^er  mythology.    (2)  It 

to  establish  a  priority  in  favour  of  any  one  of  them  does  not  explain  how  man  gained  the  predicate  God, 

(Social  Origins,  Chicago,  1909).  which  is  the  real  problem  of  relidon.    Jastrow  says 

De  la  Saussaye  con^sses  that  it  is  equally  difficult  mere  personification  of  nature  lacks  a  certain  spiritiud 

to  determine  the  limits  of  nature-worship  in  the  op-  element  which  appears  to  be  essential  to  the  rise  of  a 

C'te  direction.    The  classification  of  rehgions  shows  genuine  religious  feeling  in  man.    Hence,  he  adds, 

wide  an  area  it  covers.    Thus  Tiele  divides  the  Mtiller  postulated  "the  preception  of  the  Infinite 

religions  of  the  world  into  nature-religions  and  ethi-  (Hibbert  Lectures,  1878),  and  Tiele  appeals  to  "man's 

cal  religions,  and  holds  that  the  latter  developed  from  original  unconscious  innate  sense  of  mfinity "  (Elem. 

the  former.    Caird  keeps  the  same  division,  but  uses  of  the  Scien.  of  Rel.,  II,  233).    Thus  Fairbaim  says, 

the  terms  "objective"  and  "subjective",  and  savs  "the  constitutive  element  is  what  mind  brings  to  na- 

they  unite  in  Christianity.    Jastrow  objects  to  the  ture,  not  what  nature  brings  to  mind"  (Studies  in 

classification  of  Tiele,  that  the  higher  nature-reli^ons  the   Philos.   of   History  and  Religion,  New  York, 

contain  ethical  elements.    Hegel  holds  the  primitive  1876). 

religion  was  an  immediate  nature-religion,  which  be-  (3)  The  theory  is  defective,  for  it  does  not  e^lain  all 
trays  its  features  in  various  primitive  peoples  and  the  facts  of  early  religious  consciousness.  If  nature 
in  a  more  advanced  form  in  Cninese,  Pali,  and  San-  were  the  only  source  of  religion,  man  would  express 
scrit  cults.  The  transition  from  the  lowest  stage  to  his  ideas  of  uod  in  terms  drawn  from  nature  aJone. 
the  next  higher,  according  to  him^  is  ^ected  by  means  Now  the  science  of  language  shows  that  primitive  man 
of  the  Persian  dualism^  the  Phoemcian  reli^on  of  pain,  expresses  his  idea  of  uod:  (a)  In  terms  drawn  from 
and  the  Egyptian  rehgion  of  mystery.  De  la  Gras-  physical  nature,  e.  s.,  Dyaus  Pitar  of  the  Indo-Euro- 
sidre  (Des  religions  compart,  Paris,  1899)  says  peansj  Zeus  pater  of  the  Greeks;  Jupiter  of  the  lAtins; 
Naturism  is  at  the  origin  of  religions.  He  distin-  Tieu,  i.  e.,  heaven,  of  the  Chinese;  tne  Persian  Dseva; 
guishes  a  lesser  Naturism  and  a  greater  Naturism.  the  Celtic  Dia  from  the  Sanscrit  root  Div.,  i.  e.,  to 
The  lesser  Naturism  passes  into  Animism,  which  in  shine,  (b)  By  moral  and  metaphysical  concepts: 
turn  develops  into  Fetishism,  Idolatry,  and  Anthro-  thus,  e.  g.,  Jahweh,  i.  e..  the  one  who  is;  Ahura,  i.  e., 
pomorphism.  With  its  earlier  forms  the  object  is  the  living  one;  El,  i.  e.,  the  powerful  shown  in  Elohim, 
adorecl  in  its  concrete  re^ty;  at  a  later  period,  the  Allah,  Babvlonia;  Shaddai,  i.  e..  the  might v;  Bel,  i.  e., 
soul  or  spirit  ia separated  from  the  object  and  becomes  the  lord;  Molech,  i.  e.,  king;  Adonai,  i.  e.,  lord.  Such 
the  real  object  of  worship.  Lesser  Naturism  em-  concepts  are  found  with  barbarous  peoples,  e.  g..  Un- 
braces the  primitive  gods,  e.  g.,  those  which  person-  kululu  of  the  Zulus,  i.  e.,  father;  Papang  of  ^e  Austra- 
ify  the  woods,  mountains^  and  rivers.  It  has  many  lian,  i.  e.^  father:  the  Mongolian  Teng-ri  and  Hunnish 
forms,  e.  g.,  worship  of  ammi^lR  as  in  Greek  and  Egyp-  Tang-li,  i.  e.,  lord  of  the  sky.  Futhermore  the  earliest 
tian  mythology,  worship  of  trees,  e.  g.,  laurels  of  Indo-European  conception  of  God  is  Dyaus  Pitar, 
Apollo,  myrtle  of  Venus,  worship  of  groves  as  with  i-  e.,  the  heaven-father.  Hence  the  idea  of  patei^ 
Druids,  worship  of  stones,  water,  springs,  lakes,  moun-  nity  is  characteristic  of  their  primitive  consciousness, 
tains,  the  elements.  Hence  it  embraces  the  mytho-  Such  a  concept  is  too  sublime  and  elevated  to  be  ex- 
logic  naiads,  fauns,  dryads,  fairies,  and  sirens.  plained  on  the  principles  of  Naturism;  which  is  utterly 
Greater  Naturism  refers  to  vast  gatherings  of  ob-  unable  to  account  for  the  second  class  of  terms.  (4) 
jects  and  especially  heavenly  bodies,  e.  g.,  sim.  moon,  The  main  support  for  the  theory  of  Naturism  is  the 
stars.  This  he  says  is  the  basis  of  the  Vedic  reli-  Vedic  religion.  It  is  true  that  traces  of  nature-reli- 
gion, e.  g.,  Varuna,  i.  e.,  heaven  at  nip^t,  Mitri,  i.  e..  gion  are  found  in  the  Vedas.  But  to  say  that  the 
heaven  at  day,  Indra,  i.  e.,  rain,  Agm,  i.  e.,  fire,  and  Vedic  gods  are  nothing  more  than  nature  personified 
survives  in  Sabseism.  This  Naturism  is  at  the  origin  or  that  nature-worship  is  the  primitive  type  of  Indian 
of  Greek  and  Latin  mythology,  e.  g.,  Zeus^  1.  e.,  the  religion  is  to  betray  the  superficial  oMerver.  The 
Heaven,  Aurora,  i.  e.,  the  dawn,  Apollo,  i.  e.,  h^t,  moiral  and  spiritual  conceptions  are  older  than  the 
Hephsstos,  i.  e.,  fire,  and  Uie  worship  of  mother  earth,  physical  faith.  That  the  ancient  Aryans  viewed  na- 
Tiele  holds  that  the  religions  of  the  Redskins  and  ne-  ture  as  active  is  not  ground  to  hold  that  for  this  reason 
groes  are  just  as  much  nature  religions  as  the  Baby-  they  won^pped  nature.  We  express  ourselves  after 
Ionian,  the  Vedic,  and  Greek,  though  he  admits  a  great  this  fashion  in  ordinary  conversation.  The  great 
difference  exists  between  the  fonner  and  the  latter,  truth  shown  by  the  Vedas  is  the  fact  of  degeneracy. 
Von  Hartmann  designates  the  lowest  stage  of  religion  II.  Philosophic  Naturism. — This  phase  is  based 
as  "naturalistic  henotheism".  Jastrow  holds  that  on  the  philosophic  unity  of  animated  nature.  The 
man's  consciousness  of  his  own  weakness  in  the  con-  ancient  oosmogonies  represent  the  efforts  of  the  hu- 


HAUSU  710  NAU8I4 

D  mind  to  attain  a  unity  amid  the  mulUpEdtr  (rf  Infinite  and  eternal,  a  power  to  wbich  our  own  bdng 

extemaJ  thines.  In  the  Stoic  oooception  of  Goo  as  is  inseparably  connected,  in  the  knowledge  of  whooe 
the  aoul  of  the  world  is  set  forth  a  Naturiam  wliieti  ways  alone  ia  safety  and  well-beinp^  in  the  contempla- 
satisfiee  the  intellectual  craving  for  unity  and  givefl  tion  of  which  we  nnd  a  beatific  vision.  Reli^on  be> 
'o  the  ejcerciBe  of  the  religiouH  emotions.  Hence  gina  with  naturo-worahip  which  in  its  essence  is  ad- 
miration of  natural  objects  and  forces.  But  oatuial 
com-  mythology  has  given  place  to  science,  which  sees 
8  the  mechanism  where  will,  purpose,  and  love  had  been 

,  ;.  g.,  tie  worahij)  of  animated  nature.     To  the  suspected  before  aad  drops  the  name  of  God,  to  take 

cultured  Roman  this  principle  was  conceived  as  a  phil'  up  instead  the  lees  awful  name  of  Nature.  Nature  is  a 
oaophic  unity;  to  the  ordinary  mind  it  was  viewed  in  name  comprehending  all  the  uniform  laws  of  the  uni- 
manifold  forms  and  activities  which  were  the  source  verse  as  Known  in  our  experience.  It  is  the  residuum 
and  explanation  of  their  countless  nature^eitiee.  that  is  left  after  the  elimination  of  everything  super- 
Pantheism  in  its  various  forms  ediibita  the  same  natural,  and  comprehends  man  with  all  his  thoughto 
thought.  This  is  especially  true  of  modem  Pantheis-  and  aspirations  not  less  than  the  forms  of  the  material 
tic  theories.    The  substance  of  Spinoca,  thi!  synthesis  world. 

of  Fichto,  the  identity  of  Schelling,  the  absolute  idea  Here,  according  to  Seelev,  we  have  the  kernel  of 
of  Hegel  is  at  basis  the  same  conception.  Itsrelipoua  Christianity  and  trie  purified  worship  of  natural  forms, 
fflgnificance  is  twofold:  (a)  the  more  spiritual  and  i.  e.,  the  higher  paganism.  He  holds  that  this  is  not 
metaphymcaj  form  appears  in  Neo-Hegelianism  which  Pantheism,  for  not  the  individual  forms  of  nature  are 
teaches  the  unity  of  human  and  Divine  consciousness,  theobjectsof  worship, but  naturecoouderedasaunitv. 
This  reflects  the  nature-philosophy  of  Hegel  which  ex-  Art  and  science  as  well  as  moraUty,  form  the  sub- 
hibit«theidea,  i.  e.,  God  in  its  finitude.  (b)'nteid<^-  stance  of  religion,  hence  culture  is  the  essence  of  re- 
istic  Naturism  is  shown  in  the  writings  of  the  Fto-  ligion  and  its  fruit  is  the  hisber  life.  Thus  religion,  in 
mantjc  school,  e.  g.,  Goethe,  Shelley,  Wordsworth,  his  view,  in  the  individual  is  identified  with  culture, 
Coleridge,  and  attains  its  full  expression  in  Transcen-  in  its  public  aspect  is  identified  with  civilization.  For 
deutalism.  To  Emerson  as  to  Goethe,  God  was  the  Sceley  the  Church  is  the  atmosphere  of  thou^t,  feel- 
soul  of  the  world.  Emerson  seems  to  consider  region  ing,  and  belief  that  surrounds  the  State;  it  is  in  fact 
asthedelight  which  springs  from  abarmony  of  man  and  its  civilization  made  more  or  less  tangible  and  visible- 
nature.  Emerson  taught  that  the  universe  is  com-  His  universal  Church  is  universal  civilization.  And  as 
poeed  of  nature  and  the  soul,  and  by  nature  means  all  culture  is  a  threefold  devotion  to  beauty,  goodness, 
the  not  me,  i.  e.,  physical  nature;  art,  other  man,  and  and  truth,  so  the  term  civilization  expresses  the  same 
bis  own  body.  Hence  In  germ  the  worship  of  human-  threefold  religion,  shown  on  a  laiger  scale  in  the  char- 
ity is  contained  in  Emerson's  teaching,  just  as  it  is  actors,  institutions,  and  customs  of  nations.  (Cf. 
U^nt  in  Neo-Hegelianism,  and  appears  in  the  Hege-  Animism;  t>Kmr;  Fetisbisii;  Tonufisu;  Than- 
lian  evolution  of  the  idea,  i.  e.,  the  Absolute  or  God,  scxndentalibii.) 
when  viewed  from  its  human  side,  i.  e.,  as  a  human 

in.  Sciencb-Natttribm. — This  is  the  relidon  of  the 
sdence-philosophy  and  appears  under  two  forms:  (a) 
The  religion  of  humanity  was  first  presented  in  syste- 
matic form  by  Comte,  and  contains  the  principles  of 
the  humanitarian  theories  so  prevalent  a  generation 
KO.  God  does  not  exist  or  at  least  cannot  be  known, 
therefore  mankind  calls  forth  the  sole  and  supreme  ex~ 
pression  of  our  veneration  and  service,  (b)  Cosmic 
reli^on,  a  title  invented  by  Fiske,  and  designated  the 
liomage  of  reason  to  forces  of  nature  or  the  awe  of 

phenomena  which  suggest  m3^terious  and  destructive  JoEM  T.  DribcoUi. 

power.    Spencer  speaks  of  the  emotion  resulting  frorn 

the  contemplation  of  the  unknowable  into  wluch  as  Nftiueft  (latinised  from  the  German  Grao),  Fhbd- 
into  a  mystery  all  cosmical  questions  resolve.  Fiske  ebic,  Bishop  of  Vienna,  b.  c,  1480  at  Waischenfeld 
develops  this  thought  and  makes  the  eaaence  of  reli-  (Blancicampium)  in  Franconia;  d.  6  Feb.,  1552,  at 
giouB  emotion  very  largely  consist  in  the  sense  of  mys-  Trent.  He  was  the  son  of  a  wagonmaker  and  received 
tery.  To  Fiske  the  unknowable  manifests  itself  in  a  his  early  education  at  Bamberg  and  probably  at  Nu- 
world  of  law  and  is  yet  conceived  to  be  in  itself  some-  remberg  under  John  CochUeufl;  with  Paul  of  Schwart*- 
thing  beyond  these  manifestations.  Hence  worship  enbag,  canon  of  Bamberg,  he  pursued  humanistic, 
is  ever  the  dark  side  of  the  shield  of  which  knowledge  juristic,  and  theolopcal  studies  at  Pavia,  Padua,  ana 
is  the  bright  side.  Thus  Matthew  Arnold's  definition  later  at  Siena,  there  obtaining  degrees  in  Law  and 
of  re^on  as  morality  touched  by  emotion  becomes  Divinity.  Cardinal  Lorenzo  Campeggio,  Archbishop 
with  Tyndall  poetry  and  emotion  m  face  of  matter  in-  of  Bologna  and  papal  l^^te  in  Germany,  empWed 
stinct  with  mind.  Cosmism,  according  to  Fiske,  is,  him  as  secretair  and  as  such  Nausea  was  at  the  Diet 
however,  more  than  a  mere  sentiment.  He  says  the  of  Nurembere  (1524),  at  the  convention  of  Ratisbon, 
fundamental  principle  of  religion  is  obedience  to  the  at  the  Diet  of  Oten,  and  tor  a  time  at  Rome.  In  1525 
entire  requirements  of  nature.  This  is  righteousness,  he  accepted  the  parish  of  St.  Bartholomew  at  Frank- 
just  as  sin  is  a  wilful  violation  of  nature's  laws.  fort-on-the-Main  and  the  dignity  of  canon,  but  was 

Sdence-Nalurism  finds  its  most  complete  dcline-  soonobliged  tolcaveonaccountof  the  intrigues  of  the 

ation  in  Seeley's  "Natural  ReLgion".    He  uses  the  Lutherans  who  even  excited  popular  riots  against  him. 

term  "Naturfd  Rehgion"  in  contrast  with  the  super-  He  came  to  AschafTenburg  and  (152S)  to  Mainz  as 

natural.    In  rejecting  supematuralism  and  submit-  preacher  of  the  cathedral.    He  attended  the  Diet  of 

ting  to  science  is  presented  a  theology  to  which,  he  Speier  (1529)  and  was  chosen  counsellor  and  preacher 

says,  all  men  do  actually  agree,  viz.,  nature  in  God,  (1534)  at  the  court  of  King  Ferdinand,    On  6  Feb., 

and  God  a  mere  synonym  for  nature.    Hence  there  is  1538,  he  was  named  coadjutor  to  John  Faber,  Bishop 

no  power  beyond  or  superior  to  nature  nor  anything  of  Vienna,  succeeding  him  in  1541.    Nausea  laboured 

like  a  cause  of  nature.     Whether  we  say  God  or  prefer  zealously  for  the  reunion  of  the  Lutherans  with  the 

to  say  nature,  the  important  thing  is  that  our  minds  Catholics,   and  together  with  other  prelates,   asked 

Bie  filled  with  the  sense  of  a  power,  to  all  appearance  Rome  to  pennit  the  clergy  to  marry  and  the  laity  W 


NAVAJO                              720  NAVAJO 

use  the  communion  cup.    He  also  advised  Cologne  or  7300  were  transferred  to  Fort  Sumner  in  south-eastem 

Ratisbon  as  the  place  for  holding  the  General  Ck)uncil.  New  Mexico.    About  1500  never  surrendered;  about 

He  was  prevented  from  being  present  at  the  opening  400  fled  from  Fort  Sumner  to  their  old  homes.    On 

of  the  Council  of  Trent  by  contrary  orders  from  the  1  June,   1868,  General  Sherman  concluded  a  treaty 

kingj  but  met  Paul  III  at  Parma  (1546)  and  there  gave  with  them  by  which  they  were  permitted  to  return, 

to  mm  his  ''Sylvse  Synodales''.    When  the  Council  Ever  since  they  are  a  peaceful,  pastoral  people, 

was  reopened  at  Trent  in  1551  Nausea  was  present,  Hving  by,  with,  and  off  their  flocks  of  sheep  anagoats. 

taking  an  active  part  in  its  deliberations,  especially  Though  the  arid  character  of  their  countiy — ^good 

on  the  Sacraments.    Only  a  short  attendance  was  for  grazing  purposes  only — forces  them  to  lead  a 

granted  him,  for  he  died  there  of  a  fever.    His  body  nomadic  life,  yet  most  of  the  families  have  one  abode 

was  brought  to  Vienna  and  buried  in  the  cathedral,  for  their  mam  home,  generally  in  a  well-watered 

In  the  Acts  of  the  Council  Nausea  is  praised  for  his  valley,  where  they  raise  com,  beans,  potatoes,  melons, 

great  knowledge,  his  exemplary  virtues,  and  his  eo-  oats,  alfalfa,  etc.    The  Navajo  women  weave  the 

cleoastical  convictions  (Themer, "  Acta  genuina  Cone,  renowned  Navajo  blankets^  noted  for  their  durability, 

Trid.",  I,  Zagreb,  1874,  652).    Among  his  writings  beauty  and  variety  of  design,  and  careful  execution, 

are:  ''Distichs"  on  the  works  of  Lactantius;  ^'Ars  whilst  a  number  of  the  men  are  clever  silversmiths, 

Poetica'';  sermons  and  homilies  on  evangelical  virtues,  making  silver  necklaces,  belts,  bracelets,  wristlets, 

the  Sacrifice  of  the  Mass,  the  Blessed  virgin  Mary,  rings,  buttons,  etc.,  of  rare  beauty,  out  of  Mexican 

the  life  of  a  true  Christian;  ''Catechismus  cath.''  silver  dollars.    They  have  always  been  self-support- 

(Cologne,  1543);  ''Pastoralium  inquisitionum  elenchi  ing.    They  have  little  of  the  sullen,  reticent  di^Kid- 

tres"  (Vienna,  1547) ;  ''On  the  Resurrection  of  Christ  tion  attributed  to  Indians  generally;  anil  are  chemul, 

and  of  the  dead''  (Vienna,  1551) ;  etc.    For  full  list  see  friendly,  hospitable,  and  industrious.    Their  govem- 

Metsner.  ment  is  democratic:  there  is  no  chief  of  the  whole 

Mwnim,  Fr.NaMMaiuWew^    (Ratisbon.  1884J ;  Kirehi-  tribe,  and  their  local  chiefs  are  men  of  temporary  and 

Stes^ifcSrSii^K^^^  ilWefined  authoritv,  whose  power  depends  largely 

(188^.  upon  their  personal  influence,  theur  eloquence,  and 

Francis  Mebshman.  their  reputation  for  wisdom  and  justice.    The  tribe 

is  divided  into  about  58  clans  or  gentes,  grouped  wader 

NttVaJo  IndiaziB,  numbering  about  2O2OOO,  con-  several  original  or  nuclear  clans.  Exogamous  mar- 
stitute  the  largest  ^up  of  Indians  belonging  to  the  ria^^es  with  Mexicans,  UteS;  Apaches,  but  more  es- 
Athapaskan  or  D6ni§  stock.  Other  groups  of  the  same  pecially  with  the  neighbounng  Pueblo  Indians,  cap- 
stock  are  the  Apaches  (Nd^),  Lipanes  (lipa  Nd4),  tiired  or  enslaved  and  eventually  adopted  into  the 
Hupas  of  California,  and  various  D4n6  tribe  inhabit-  tribe,  are  responsible  for  a  nimiber  of  clans.  In  con- 
ing British  Columbia  and  Alaska  (see  D^Nis).  This  sequence  there  is  nothing  like  a  pronounced  or  a 
points  to  a  migration  of  the  Navajos,  centuries  ago,  prevailing  Navajo  type.  £very  variety  of  fonn  and 
from  the  extreme  north.  They  themselves  have  a  figure  can  be  found  among  them.  Marriage  is  con- 
vague  tradition  of  "Din6  Nahodloni",  i.  e.,  "other  tracted  early  in  life.  Polygamy  and  divorce  are  still 
Navajos'',  living  far  away.  According  to  their  myths  prevalent.  Their  marriage  ceremony  is  only  pennis- 
they  emerged  from  lower  worlds  somewhere  in  the  sible  at  the  marriage  of  a  vii^.  The  vices  of  i^p- 
San  Juan  Moimtains  in  south-western  Colorado.  At  tion,  infanticide,  race  suicide,  are  practically  unknown 
present  they  occupy  an  extensive  reservation  in  the  among  them. 

north-east  comer  of  Arizona  and  the  north-west  cor-  The  elaborate  system  of  pagan  worship,  expressed 
ner  of  New  Mexico;  but  many  of  them  live  beyond  in  chants,  sacrifices,  sand  paintings,  dances,  cere- 
its  borders,  especially  towards  the  south.  Formerly  monies,  some  of  which  last  nine  days,  make  the  Navajo 
their  habitat  extended  somewhat  farther  to  the  north-  appear  intensely  religious.  Though  they  have  no 
east.  conception  of  one  supreme  being,  their  anthropo- 

They  are  first  mentioned  in  the  writings  of  Zaiate-  morphous  deities  are  numerous  ana  strikingly  demo- 

Salmer6n  in  1626,  as  Apaches  de  Nabaju.    In  1630,  cratic.    The  ideas  of  heaven  and  hell  bein^  unknown 

a  Franciscan,  Alonzo  Benavides,  in  his  Memorial  to  to  them,  they  believe  in  a  hereafter  consistmg  in  a  life 

the  King  of  Spain  mentions  the  "Province  of  the  of  happiness  with  ^e  peoples  of  the  lower  worlds. 

Apaches  of  Navajo"  and  adds  that  "these  of  Navajo  They  are  firm  believers  in  witchcraft  and  charms. 


meaning  "plain,  or  field''.    The  Navajos  call  them-  dies  are  largely  magical  and  constitute  an  integral 

selves  Uin^,  that  is,  people.    Benavides  then  mentions  part  of  their  religion.    The  superstitions,  oeremomesy 

the  treaty  of  peace  he  concluded  between  the  Navajo  and  customs  are  diligently  kept  alive  by  an  extran^ 

and  Pudblo  Indians  at  Santa  Clara  in  1630.    Previous  dinary  large  number  of  mecudne-men  who  wield  a 

to  this  date,  as  Benavides  states,  and  subsequently,  powerful  influence  among  them.    Though  IVotestant 

tiU  1862,  an  almost  continuous  guerilla  warfare  existed  missionaries  have  been  among  the  Navajos  since  the 

between  the  Navajo  and  the  Pueblo  Indians  and  early  ei^ties,  and  have  at  present  (1910)  eleven  dif- 

Mexicans.    The  number  of  Navajo  captives  in  Mex-  ferent  missions,  an  hospital,  and  three  smidl  schools, 

ican  families  in  1862  has  been  estimated  at  between  the  number  of  their  adherents  is  very  insignificant. 
1600  and  3000.    In  1846  Colonel  Doniphan  made  an        After  the  unsuccessful  attempt  of  Fray  Benavides 

expedition  into  the  Navajo  country,  in  1849  Colonel  in  1630  to  Christianize  the  Navajos,  Padre  Menchero^ 

Washington,  in  1854  General  Simmer.    In  1859  war  in  1746,  induced  several  hundred  to  settle  at  Cd)ol- 

again  broke  out,  and  in  1860  the  Navajos  attacked  Fort  leta,  now  a  Mexican  town  north  of  Laguna;  but  the 

Defiance.    Colonel  Miles  and  Colonel  Bonneville  and  enterprise  soon  came  to  an  end.    In  1749  Padre 

General  Canby  made  campaigns  against  them.    When  Menchero  made  another  attempt,  re-establishing  the 

the  Rebellion  broke  out  and  the  Texans  made  their  Ceboeleta  mission  and  founding  another  at  EIncinaL 

invasion,  all  the  troops  were  withdrawn  from  the  now  a  Laguna  village;  but  on  24  June,  1750.  the  In- 

Navajo  country,  whereupon  the  Navajos  rode  ovei  dians  abandoned  them  to  return  to  their  wiidemesB. 

the  country  rouphnshod.    In  1862  General  Carleton  On  13  October,  1897,  the  Franciscans  of  Cincinnati, 

sent  Colonel  Kit  Carson  with  a  force  against  the  Ohio,  accepted  the  Navajo  mission  at  the  request  ot 

Navajos.    He  subdued  them,  and,  mainly  by  killing  Mgr.  Stepnan,  Director  of  the  Bureau  of  Catholio 

their  stock  and  destroying  tneir  crops,  forced  them  Inaian  Missions,  and  of  Mother  Drexel.    The  mia- 

through  starvation  to  surrender,  whereupon  about  sionaries  took  chai^  at  St.  Michael's,  Ariiona,  <m  7 


NAVABBI 


721 


NAVABBI 


October,  1898.  On  3  December,  1902,  an  industrial 
boarding-fichool  for  the  Navajos,  erected  by  Mother 
Drexel,  was  opened  at  St.  MichaePs,  and  haa  since 
been  conducted  by  her  community,  the  Sisters 
of  the  Blessed  Sacrament.  At  present  (1910)  the 
school  is  attended  by  150  Navajo  pupils.  A  branch 
mission  was  established  at  Chin  Lee,  Arizona,  in  1905, 
and  a  chi^)el  built  at  Lukachukai,  Arizona.  231  chil- 
dren and  adults  have  been  baptized  at  St.  Michael's, 
and  78  have  made  their  first  Holy  Communion.  The 
way  baa  been  prepared;  the  Navajoe  are  weIl-<lispo6ed 
towards  the  Catholic  missionaries  and  give  founded 
hopes  for  an  abundant  harvest  of  souls. 

Much  attention  has  been  g;iven  by  ^e  Franciscans 
to  the  study  and  construction  of  the  Navajo  language. 
In  1910  they  published  ''An  Ethnologic  lactionary  of 
the  Navajo  Langui^e'\  and  also  "A  Navajo  English 
Catechism  of  Christian  Doctrine  for  the  Use  of  Navajo 
Children";  other  works  are  in  preparation. 

Mattbbws,  Navajo  LeqeruU  (Boflton.  189^:  Ipbm»  Ths  Moun- 
tain Chant  in  Fifik  Ann,  Rep.  of  the  Bur.  of  BihnoL  (WMhinj^n, 
1887) ;  Idkm ,  The  Night  Chant,  a  Navajo  Ceremony  in  Memoire  of 
the  American  Mueeum  of  Natural  Hietory,  VI  (New  York.  1902); 
Franciscan  Fathbbb,  An  Ethnologic  Dictionary  of  the  Navajo 
Language  (St.  Michael's,  Arisona,  1910);  MsKDiUErF,  Navajo 
House*  in  Seventh  Ann.  Rep.  of  the  Bur.  of  EtknoL  (Washington. 
1808) ;  STkVBNSON.  Ceremonial  of  Haejelti  Daiijie,  etc.  in  Eigh^ 
Annual  Rep.  of  the  Bur.  ofEthnol.  (Washington.  1891) ;  Simpson. 
Report  on  the  Navajo  Country  (1850);  CuuN,  Oamee  of  North 
American  Indians  in  Twenty-fourth  Ann.  Rep.  of  the  Bur.  ofEthnol, 
(Washington,  1902):  Bknatidss,  Memorial,  1690  in  Land  of 
Sunshine,  XIII  (1900)^ 

Anselbc  Wbbbb. 

NaTarro. — ^The  territory  formerly  known  as  Nar- 
varre  now  beloBffs  to  two  nations,  Spain  and  France, 
according  as  it  lies  south  or  north  of  the  Western 
Pyrenees.  Spanish  Navarre  is  bounded  on  the  north 
by  French  Navarre,  on  the  north-east  by  the  Province 
of  Huesca,  on  the  east  and  south-east  by  the  Province 
of  Saragossa,  on  the  south  by  the  province  of  LogrofLo, 
and  on  the  west  by  the  Basque  Provinces  of  Guipuz- 
coa  and  Alava.  It  lies  partly  in  the  mountainous 
re^on  of  the  Pyrenees  and  partly  on  the  banks  of  the 
Ebro;  in  the  mountains  dwell  the  Basques;  in  the 
south,  the  Spaniards.  It  is  made  up  of  269  communes 
in  the  five  districts  of  Pamplona.  Aois,  Estella,  Ta- 
falla,  and  Tudela,  Pamplona  being  the  capital. 
French,  or  Lower,  Navarre  (Basse-Navarre)  belongs 
to  the  Department  of  Basses-Pyren^,  and  forms  the 
western  part  of  the  Arrondissement  of  Maulton  and 
the  Cantons  of  Hasparren  and  Labastide-Clairence  in 
the  Arrondissement  of  Bayonne.  It  borders  on 
B^am  to  the  north,  on  Soule  to  the  east,  on  the  P3rr- 
enees  to  the  south  and  south-west,  on  Labourd  to  we 
west  and  north-west,  and  extends  over  the  districts  of 
Arberoue,  Mixe,  Ostabards,  Ossds,  Baigorry,  Cise. 
The  principal  city,  Donajouna^  or  St.-Jean-lHedHde- 
Port^  stands  on  the  River  Nive,  m  the  Arrondissement 
of  Maulton. 

HisTORT. — ^The  history  of  the  two  divisions  of  the 
country  is  identical  until  the  year  1512.  when  Spanish 
Navarre  was  conquered  by  Ferdinand  the  Catholic, 
the  northern  part  remaining  French.  Little  is  known 
of  the  earliest  history  of  the  coimtry^  but  it  is  certain 
that  neither  the  Romans  nor  the  Visigoths  nor  the 
And>s  ever  succeeded  in  permanently  subjugating  the 
inhabitants  of  the  Western  Pyrenees,  who  had  always 
retained  their  own  language.  The  capture  of  Pam- 
plona by  Charlemagne  in  778  was  not  a  lasting  victory : 
m  the  same  year  the  Basques  and  Navarrese  defeated 
him  at  the  Pass  of  Roncesvalles.  In  806  and  812, 
Pamplona  seems  to  have  been  again  taken  by  the 
Franks.  When,  however,  the  Prankish  emperors,  on 
account  of  difficulties  at  home,  were  no  longer  able  to 
0ive  their  attention  to  the  outlying  borderlands  of 
their  empire,  the  countrjr,  little  by  little,  entirely 
withdrew  from  their  allegiance,  and  about  this  time 
began  the  formation  of  a  dynasty  which  soon  became 
very  powerful.  The  first  IQng  of  Pamplona  of  this 
X.-^6 


dynasty  was  Eneco  Arista  (839),  his  elder  brother, 
(]iarcia  Semen^  having  received  as  a  dukedom  Vas- 
conia,  the  original  Navarre.  After  the  death  of 
Eneco  Arista  (852),  the  two  territories  were  united 
and  Semen  Garcia,  the  eldest  son  of  the  Count  of 
Alavaris,  was  chosen  king.  In  860,  the  united  Pam- 
plonese  and  Navarrese  gave  the  Crown  to  the  son  of 
Arista,  Garcia  II  Eneco,  who  sealously  defended  his 
country  against  the  encroachments  of  Islam,  but  was 
killed  at  Aybar  (882)  in  a  battle  against  the  Emir  of 
Cordova.  He  was  succeeded  by  his  eldest  son  Fortun 
Garcia,  who  was  held  a  prisoner  for  fifteen  years  by 
the  infidels,  and  who,  after  a  reign  of  twenty-two 
years,  became  a  monk  at  Leyra,  the  oldest  convent  in 
Navarre,  to  which  no  less  than  seventy-two  other  con- 
vents were  subject. 

The  choice  of  the  Navarrese  now  fell  upon  his  son 
Sancho  Garcia  I,  sumamed  Abarca  (905-925),  who 
fou£^t  against  the  Moors  with  repeated  success  and 
joined  ultra-Puertos,  or  Basse-Navarre,  to  his  own 
dominions,  extending  its  territory  as  far  as  Najeni. 
As  a  thank-offering  for  his  victories,  he  founded,  in 
924,  the  convent  of  Albelda.  Before  his  death,  all 
Moors  had  been  driven  from  the  country.  His  suc- 
cessor, Garcia  Sanchez  (925-70),  sumamed  El  Tem- 
bl6n  (the  Trembler},  who  had  the  support  of  his  ener- 
l^etic  and  diplomatic  mother  Teuda,  likewise  engaged 
m  a  number  of  conflicts  with  the  Moors.  Under  the 
sway  of  his  son,  Sancho  el  Mayor  (the  Great— 970- 
1033),  the  country  attained  the  greatest  prosperity  in 
its  history.  He  seized  the  country  of  the  Pisuerga 
and  the  C6a,  which  belonged  to  the  Kingdom  of  Leon, 
concjuered  Castile,  and  ruled  from  the  boundaries  ot 
Galicia  to  those  of  Barcelona.  At  his  death,  he  un- 
fortunately divided  his  possessions  among  his  four 
sons,  so  that  the  eldest,  Garcia,  received  Navarre. 
Guipuzcoa,  Vizcaya.  and  small  portions  of  B^am  and 
Bigorre;  Castile  and  the  lands  between  the  Pisuerga 
and  the  C6a  went  to  Fernando;  to  Gonzalo  were  given 
Sobrarbe  and  Ribagorza;  the  Countship  of  Aragon 
was  allotted  to  the  youngest  son  Ramiro.  The  coun- 
try was  never  again  united:  Castile  was  permanently 
jomed  to  Leon,  Aragon  enlarged  its  territory,  annex- 
mg  Catalonia,  while  Navarre  could  no  longer  extend 
its  dominions,  and  became  in  a  measure  dependent 
upon  its  powerful  neighbours.  Garcia  III  (1035-54) 
was  succeeded  by  Sancho  III  (1054-76),  who  was 
murdered  by  his  brothers. 

In  this  period  of  independence  the  ecclesiastical 
affairs  of  the  coimtry  reached  a  high  state  of  develop- 
ment. Sancho  the  Great  was  brou^t  up  at  Leyra, 
which  was  also  for  a  short  time  the  capital  of  the  Dio- 
cese of  Pamplona.  Beside  this  see,  there  existed  the 
Bishopric  of  Oca,  which  was  united  in  1079  to  that  of 
Burgos.  In  1035  Sancho  the  Great  re-established  the 
See  of  Palencia,  which  had  been  laid  waste  at  the  time 
of  the  Moorish  invasion.  When,  in  1045,  the  city  of 
Calahorra  was  wrested  from  the  Moors,  under  whose 
dominion  it  had  been  for  more  than  three  hundred 
years,  a  see  was  also  foimded  here,  which  in  the  same 
year  absorbed  that  of  Najera  and,  in  1088.  that  of 
Alaba,  the  jurisdiction  of  which  covered  about  the 
same  ground  as  that  of  the  present  diocese  of  Vitoria. 
To  Sancho  the  Great,  also^  the  See  of  Pamplona  owed 
its  re-establishment,  the  km|;  having,  for  this  purpose, 
convoked  a  synod  at  Le3rra  m  1022  and  one  at  Pam- 
plona in  1023.  These  s3mods  likewise  instituted  a  re- 
form of  ecclesiastical  life  with  the  above-named  con- 
vent as  a  centre. 

After  the  murder  of  Sancho  III  (1076).  Alfonso  VI. 
King  of  Castile,  and  Sancho  Ramirez  of  Aragon,  ruled 
jointly  in  Navarre;  the  towns  south  of  the  Ebro  to* 
gether  with  the  Basque  Provinces  fell  to  Castile,  the 
remainder  to  Aragon,  which  retained  them  until  1134. 
Sancho  Ramirez  (1076-94)  and  his  son  Pedro  Sanchei 
(1094-1104)  conquered  Huesca;  Alfonso  el  Batallador 
(the  Fighter^ll04-1134),  brother  of  Pedro  Sancheip 


NAVABBB 


722 


NAVABBB 


secured  for  the  country  its  greatest  territorial  expan- 
sion. He  wrested  Tudela  from  the  Moors  (1114),  re- 
conquered the  entire  country  of  Bureba,  which  had 
been  lost  to  Navarre  in  1042,  and  advanced  into  the 
Province  of  Burgos;  in  addition,  Roja,  Najera,  Lo- 

?;ro!io,  Calahorra,  and  Alfaro  were  subject  to  him,  and, 
or  a  short  time,  Bayonne,  while  his  ships-of-war  lay 
in  the  harbour  of  Guipuzcoa.  As  he  died  without 
issue  (1 134),  Navarre  and  Aragon  separated.  In  Ara- 
gon,  Alfonso's  brother  Ramiro  became  king;  in  Na- 
varre, Garcia  Ramirez,  a  grandson  of  Sancho  the 
Great,  who  was  obliged  to  surrender  Rioja  to  Castile 
in  1136,  and  Taragona  to  Aragon  in  1157,  and  to  de- 
clare himself  a  vaial  of  King  Alfonso  VII  of  Castile. 
He  was  utterly  incompetent,  and  at  various  times  was 
dependent  upon  the  revenues  of  churches  and  convents. 
His  son,  Sancho  Garcia  el  Sabio  (the  Wise — 1150-94), 
a  patron  of  learning,  as  well  as  an  accomplished  states- 
man, fortified  Navarre  within  and  without,  gave  char- 
ters (fueroa)  to  a  number  of  towns,  and  was  never  de- 
feated in  battle.  The  reign  of  his  successor,  the  last 
king  of  the  race  of  Sancho  the  Great  (1194-1234), 
Sancho  el  Fuerte  (the  Strong),  was  more  troubled. 
He  appropriated  the  revenues  of  churches  and  con- 
vents, granting  them  instead  important  privileges;  in 
1198  he  presented  to  the  See  of  ramplona  his  paJaces 
and  possessions  in  that  city,  this  gift  being  confirmed 
by  rope  Innocent  III  on  29  January,  1199.  While 
he  was  absent  in  Africa,  whither  he  had  been  induced 
to  go  on  an  adventurous  expedition,  the  Kings  of  Cas- 
tile and  Aragon  invaded  Navarre,  and  as  a  conse- 
quence, the  Provinces  of  Alava  and  Guipuzcoa  were 
lost  to  nim. 

The  greatest  glory  of  Sancho  el  Fuerte  was  the  part 
he  took  in  the  battle  of  Las  Navas  de  Tolosa  (1212), 
where,  through  his  valour,  the  victory  of  the  Chris- 
tians over  the  Calif  En-Nasir  was  made  decisive. 
When  in  1234  he  died  in  retirement  (d  Encerrado),  the 
Navarrese  chose  to  succeed  him  Thibault  de  Chajn- 
pagne,  son  of  Sancho's  sister  Blanca,  who,  from  1234 
to  1253,  made  of  his  Court  a  centre  where  the  poetry 
of  the  Troubadoius  was  welcomed  and  fostered,  and 
whose  reign  was  peaceful.  His  son,  Theobald  II 
(1253-70),  married  Isabel,  the  second  daughter  of  St. 
Louis  of  France,  and  accompanied  the  saint  upon  his 
crusade  to  Tunis.  On  the  homeward  ioiuney .  ne  died 
at  Trapani  in  Sicily,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  brother, 
Henry  I,  who  had  already  assumed  the  reins  of  gov- 
ernment during  his  absence,  but  reigned  only  three 
years  (1271-74).  His  daughter  Juana  not  yet  beiiur 
of  age,  the  country  was  once  more  invaded  from  afl 
sides,  and  the  queen  mother,  Blanca,  sought  refuge  with 
her  diaughter  at  the  court  of  Philip  the  Bold  of  France, 
whose  son,  Philip  the  Fair,  had  already  married  Juana 
in  1284.  In  1276,  at  the  time  of  the  negotiations  for 
this  marriage,  Navarre  passed  imder  French  domin- 
ion, and,  until  1328,  was  subject  to  Kings  Philip  the 
Fair  (d.  1314),  Louis  X  Hutin  (1314-16),  his  brother, 
Philip  the  Tdl  (131&-22),  and  Charles  the  Fair  (132^ 
28).  As  Charles  died  without  male  issue,  and  Philip 
of  VaJois  became  King  of  France,  the  Navarrese  de- 
clared themselves  independent  and  called  to  the 
throne  Joanna  II,  daughter  of  Louis  Hutin,  and  her 
husband  Philip  of  Evreux  (1328-1343),  sumamed  the 
Wise.  Joanna  waived  all  claim  to  the  throne  of 
France  and  accepted  for  the  counties  of  Champagne 
and  Brie  those  of  Angoultoe,  Longueville,  and 
Mortain. 

Philip  devoted  himself  to  the  improvement  of  the 
laws  of^  the  country^  and  joined  King  Alfonso  XI  of 
Castile  in  battle  agamst  the  Moors  (1343).  After  the 
death  of  his  mother  (1349),  Charles  II  assumed  the 
reins  of  government  (1349-87),  and,  on  account  of  his 
deceit  and  cruelty  received  the  surname  of  the  Wicked. 
His  eldest  son.  on  the  other  hand,  Charles  III,  sur- 
named  the  Noole,  gave  the  land  once  more  a  peaceful 
and  happy  government   (1387-1425),   exerted  his 


strength  to  the  utmost  to  lift  the  country  from  hs 
degenerate  condition,  reformed  the  government,  built 
canals,  and  made  navisable  the  tributaries  of  the 
Ebro  flowing  through  Navarre.  As  he  outlived  his 
sons,  he  was  succeeded  by  his  daughter  Blanca  (1425- 
42)  and  her  husband  John  II  (1429-79),  son  of  Ferdi- 
nand I  of  Aragon.  As  John  ll  ruled  Aragon  in  the 
name  of  his  brother,  Alfonso  V,  he  left  his  son,  Don 
Carlos  (Charles),  in  Navarre,  only  with  the  raiik  <A 
governor,  whereas  Blanca  had  desired  that  Qiaries 
should  be  king.  In  1450,  John  II  Imnself  repaired  to 
Navarre,  and,  urged  on  by  his  ambitious  second  wife, 
Juana  Enriques  of  Castile,  endeavoured  to  obtain  the 
succession  for  their  son  Fernando  (1452).  As  a  result 
a  violent  dvil  war  broke  out,  in  which  the  ^werf ul 
family  of  the  Agramontes  supported  the  king  and 
queen,  and  that  of  the  Beaumonts,  called  after  their 
leader,  the  chanceUor.  John  of  Beaumont,  espoused 
the  cause  of  Charles;  the  highlands  were  on  the  side  of 
the  prince,  the  plains  on  that  of  the  king.  The  un- 
happy prince  was  defeated  by  his  father  at  Aybar,  in 
1451,  and  held  a  prisoner  for  two  years,  during  which 
he  wrote  his  famous  Chronicle  of  Navarre,  the  source 
of  our  present  knowledge  of  this  subject.  After  his 
release,  he  soufiit  in  vain  the  assistance  of  King 
Charles  VII  of  France  and  of  his  uncle  Alfonso  V  m 
Naples;  in  1460  he  was  again  imprisoned  at  the  insti- 
gation of  his  step-mother,  but  the  Catalonians  rose  in 
revolt  at  this  injustice,  and  he  wa&again  liberated  and 
named  governor  of  Catalonia.  He  died  in  1461,  with- 
out having  been  able  to  reconquer  his  kinicdom;  he 
named  as  his  heir  his  sister  Blanca.  who  was,  Dowever, 
immediately  imprisoned  by  John  II,  and  died  in  1464. 

Her  claim  descended  to  her  sister  Leonor,  Countess 
of  Foix  and  B6am,  and,  after  her  death  and  that  of 
John  II,  which  occurred  almost  simultaneously,  to  her 
orandson,  Francis  Phoebus  (1479-83).  His  oaughter 
Catharine,  who,  as  a  minor,  remained  under  the  guai^ 
dianship  of  her  mother,  Madeleine  of  Fnne&j  was 
sought  oy  Ferdinand  the  Catholic  as  a  bride  for  his 
eldest  son;  but  she  gave  her  hand  (1494)  to  the  Frendi 
Count  of  Perigord,  Jean  d'Albret,  a  man  of  vast  pos- 
sessions. Nevertheless,  Ferdinand  the  Catholic  did 
not  relinquish  his  long -cherished  dedims  on  Na- 
varre. As  Navarre  refused  to  join  the  ^ly  League 
against  France,  declared  itself  neutral,  and  would 
have  prevented  the  passage  through  the  oountiy  of 
Ferdinand's  troops,  the  latter  sent  his  genoal  uoa 
Fabrique  de  Toledo  to  invade  Navarre  in  1512.  Jean 
d' Albret  fled,  and  Pamplona,  EsteOa,  Olita,  Sanguessa, 
and  Tudela  were  taken.  As  the  royal  House  of  Na- 
varre and  all  opponents  of  the  Holy  League  were 
under  the  ban  ot  the  Church,  the  Navarrese  declared 
for  Ferdinand,  who  took  poasession  of  the  kinnlom  on 
15  June,  1515.  Lower  Navarre — ^the  part crfthe ooa&- 
try  lying  north  of  the  Pyrenees— he  generously  left  to 
his  enemies. 

Lower,  or  French.  Navarre,  received  from  Henry, 
the  son  of  Jean  d'Albret,  a  representative  assembly, 
the  clergy  being  represented  by  the  Bishops  of  Ba- 
yonne and  Daxy  their  vicars-general,  the  parish  priest 
of  St -Jean -Pied -de -Port,  and  the  priors  of  Saint- 
Palais,  d'Utziat  and  Haramples.  When,  in  1589,  its 
administration  was  united  with  that  of  France^  it  was 
still  called  a  kingdom.  After  Heniy  IV,  the  kmniol 
France  bore  also  the  title  Kinp;  of  Navarre.  ^^The 
Basque  language  is  still  spoken  m  most  of  ibe  piov- 
inces. 

In  the  field  of  hittorioal  reMaroh,  the  most  StAMnmpthmd  !&▼«»- 
tisaton  have  been,  for  Spaniih  NaTarre.  Morot  aaa  oUmt  Jeamt 
Bcoolan.  one  of  their  pupUa,  Ferreraa,  and  the  AuciHtijuaB  M. 
Riaoo;  for  French  Nararre,  the  Benedietinee,  de  Maie*.  and 
others.  CBArpura,  HiaUrin  du  royamnt  dt  Nmwam  (Paria,  15S0; 
1616);  Fattn.  HUUrir^iU  JVavorrt  (Paris,  1612):  Qaiajm>,  M4^ 
motrea  9ur  la  JVawrrs  (Paris,  1648) :  db  Mabca.  Biaimn  dt  Mvm 

Saris.  1640) ;  OmiNAvr,  NoHUa  uiriutquM  Vaaeamim  (Paris.  1656) ; 
OMDT,  Intutioationn  hiaUrieat  dsl  raino  dt  iWnorrs  ^aomloBa, 
1655) ;  IDBM,  AnnaUa  dti  reino  da  Naaarra  (6  Toh.,  Pamplotta, 
1684-05;  12  vols.,  Tolosa,  1890-02) ;  Fkbubab,  La  B\'  '  ' 
BapoHa  (Madrid.  1700-27);  Ruoo.  La  Vunmia  ia 


NAVARBE 


723 


NAVARBETE 


inda,  XXXII  (Madrid.  1770) ;  Yanouab  t  MnuNDA*  Cr6n%ea 
d^  lot  r^yea  de  ffatarra  (Pamplona,  1843) ;  Idbm,  Hitloria  compen' 
Mada  dd  rtino  de  Navarra  (jo,  Sebafltian,  1832) ;  Idbm,  Diceionario 
U  la»  aniigaedadea  de  Navarra  (Pamplona,  1840-<43) ;  Babcub  db 
LAOBixB,  La  Natarre  franQaiae  (Paris,  1881);  Bladb,  Lee  Vaecone 
eepoffnoU  (Agen.  1891);  Boxbsonadb,  Hietoire  delariuniondela 
Naearre  A  la  CaetUU  (Paria,  1893);  Jauboain,  La  Vaeconie  (Pau, 
1898^ — ) :  RuAKO  Pbibto,  Anexidn  dd  Reino  de  Navarra  en  liempo 
del  Rey  Catdlico  (Madrid,  1899) ;  Arigita  y  Laea,  CoUcd&n  de  doct/^- 
tnefUae  para  la  hietoria  de  Navarra  (Pamplona,  1900). 

Otto  Habtio. 

Navarra»  Andbew  L.  See  New  Guinea,  VigXri- 
ATE  Apostolic  of. 

Nayarrete,  Domingo  FernXndez,  Dommican 
miflsionarv  and  archbishop,  b.  c.  1610  at  Pefiafid  in 
Old  Castile;  d.  1689  at  Santo  Domingo.  He  received 
the  religious  habit  about  1630  and  on  completing  his 
studies  was  ofiPered  the  chair  of  Thomistic  tneology  in 
several  Spanish  univermties.  He  preferred,  however, 
to  devote  his  life  to  the  conversion  of  the  heathen,  ana 
in  1646  with  twenty-seven  of  his  brethren  left  his  na- 
tive land  and  proceeding  by  way  of  Mexico^  arrived 
in  the  Philippine  Islands,  23  June,  1648.  He  taught 
theology  in  tne  Dominican  Universitv  of  St.  Thomas, 
Manila.  In  1657  with  several  of  his  brethren  he  went 
to  China  and,  after  learning  the  language,  took  up  mis- 
sionary labour  chiefly  in  the  province  of  Fo-kien.  The 
persecution  which  broke  out  in  1665  brought  disaster 
to  the  missions.  Forbidden  to  preach,  he  occupied 
himself  with  writing,  hoping  by  tnis  means  to  spread 
and  confirm  the  faiw.  Being  hampered  too  much  he 
went  in  1673  as  prefect  of  the  Dominican  mission  to 
Rome  to  lay  before  the  authorities  tbere  the  question 
of  Chinese  Kites  which  had  reached  an  acute  stage  be- 
tween the  Jesuits  on  one  side  and  the  Dominicans  and 
Franciscans  on  the  other  (see  China)  .  He  was  highly 
esteemed  by  Innocent  XI,  who  wished  to  make  him 
bishop  of  the  Chinese  missions.  He  refused  the  hon- 
our, but  on  his  return  to  Spain  in  1677  the  pope,  at 
the  su^estion  of  Charles  li,  forced  him  to  accept  the 
Archb^opric  of  Santo  Domingo,  where  he  laboured 
with  seal  and  fidelity  till  his  death.  While  on  the 
question  of  Chinese  Kites  he  was  opposed  to  the  Jes- 
uits, sometimes  attacking  them  very  severely;  in  his 
diocese  he  entertained  the  highest  regard  for  them. 
In  his  letters  to  the  viceroy  and  to  the  king,  requesting 
them  to  permit  the  fathers  of  the  Society  to  establish  a 
college  in  his  residential  city,  he  pays  them  a  glowing 
tribute. 

Amonjg  his  principal  works  may  be  mentioned ''  Tra- 
tados  hStdricos,  pollticos,  ^ticos  y  religiosos  de  la 
monarquSa  de  China''  (Madrid,  1676);  ''Catechismus, 
lingua  sinica",  2  vols;  ''De  mirabilibus  Dei  nomini- 
bus.  lingua  sinica,"  2  vob.;  ''Prsceptor  ethnicus  ex 
optunis  quibusque  Sinensium  libris  extractus,  et  ex 
eorumdem  sententiis  oonciimatus,  lingua  sinica.'' 

Quinv-EcKABD,  <S<S.  Ord.  Prctd.,  II,  720-23;  Toxtbon,  Horn. 
/U.  de  Vordre  de  3,  Dominique,  V,  627-38. 

Joseph  Sghroedeb. 

NaTarratei  Juan  FernXndez,  a  Spanish  painter, 
b.  at  Logrofio,  1526  and  died  at  Segovia,  1579  (at 
Toledo,  February,  1579  or  28  March,  1579?).  He  is 
called  d  Mudo  (the  mute)  because  he  lost  his  hearing 
when  a  child  of  three  and,  in  consequence,  his  power 
of  speech.  His  parents,  who  were  ^1  to  do  and  per- 
haps of  noble  birth  placed  him  with  the  Hieronyniite 
monks  of  Estrella  where  Fray  Vicente,  a  gifted 
brother,  was  his  first  teacher  in  art.  Navarrete^  tal- 
ents were  early  discovered  because  he  made  all  his 
wants  Imown  through  rapid  and  vigorous  black  and 
white  sketches.  He  may  have  been  a  pu^il  of  Be- 
oena.  Spain's  great  fresco  painter,  but  it  is  certain 
that  ne  went  when  a  ^outh  to  the  great  Italian  centres 
of  art  and  under  Titian  in  Venice  acquired  that  tech- 
nique and  knowledge  of  colour  which  earned  him 
the  name  of  "the  Spanish  Titian".  He  retiuned  to 
Spain  a  painter  of  repute,  and  travelled  extensively  in 
hunatiye  oountry,  leaving  works  from  his  hand  in  her 


important  cities.  In  1568  he  was  made  painter  to 
Philip  II,  received  a  salary  of  two  hundred  ducats, 
"besides  just  payment  for  his  work'\  and  was  com- 
missioned to  decorate  the  Escorial.  In  1575  he  com- 
pleted a  "  Nativity  "  wherein  are  three  dominant  lights; 
one  from  8t.  Joseph's  candle,  one  from  the  ^oiy 
above,  and  the  most  radiant  of  all  from  the  divine 
Child  as  in  Corr^o's  "Notte".  In  one  "Holy 
Family"  he  paintecTsuch  strange  accessories,  a  cat^  a 
dog,  and  a  partridge,  that  the  kmg  made  him  promise 
never  again  to  put  "such  indecorous  thin^  in  a  holy 
picture".  Thou^  called  the  Spanish  Titian,  Navar- 
rete  was  not  an  imitator  of  any  Italian;  he  was  an 
original  and  he  painted  rapidly,  freely,  and  spontane- 
ously. His  composition,  especially  m  groups  of  fig- 
utes,  was  masterly  and  was  excelled  only  by  that  of 
Vemsquez.  "  He  spoke  by  his  pencil  with  the  bravura 
of  Rubens  without  his  coarseness".  Navarrete's 
work  greatly  influenced  the  development  of  Spanish 
art  and  after  his  death  Lope  de  Y^a  wrote:  "No 
countenance  he  painted  was  dumb  .  Despite  the 
artists's  infirmity  he  was  an  agreeable  companion, 
played  cards,  read,  and  wrote  much,  was  broad- 
minded  and  generous.  When  his  patron  ordered 
Titian's  "Last  Supper"  to  be  cut  because  it  was  too 
large  for  a  place  in  tne  refectory  of  the  Escorial,  it  was 
el  Mudo  who  protested  most.  In  the  refectory  at 
Estrella,  where  he  received  his  first  instruction  in 
painting  are  some  of  Navarrete's  best  pictures.  The 
following  works  may  be  mentioned:  "Holy  Family", 
at  Weimar;  "St.  John  in  Prison",  at  St.  Petersburg; 
"St.  Jerome",  in  the  Escorial;  "Holy  Family",  in  the 
Escorial. 

Stibuno-Maxwsll,  Anrude  of  the  ArtiUe  of  Spain  (London, 
1891) ;  VxARDOT,  Lee  Mueiee  d'Eepagne,  d'Angleterre  et  de  Bdgiipte 
(Pans,  1843);  Fobd,  Handbook  for  Traedere  in  Spain  (London, 
1847). 

Leigh  Hunt. 

Navarrete,  MabtIn  FernXndez  db,  a  Spanish 
navigator  and  writer,  b.  at  Avalos  (Logrofio),  8 
November^  1765;  d.  at  Madrid,  8  October,  1844.  He 
received  his  early  education  paxtly  in  his  native  town 
and  partlv  at  the  seminary  of  Vergara.  At  the  age . 
of  fifteen  he  entered  the  navy  and  a  little  later  in  1782 
served  with  distinction  in  the  unsuccessful  operations 
against  Gibraltar.  Through  overwork,  he  became 
broken  down  in  health  and  was  compelled  to  withdraw 
from  active  service  for  a  time;  but  during  this  period  of 
enforced  rest,  he  devoted  hiinself  to  historical  research 
and  in  1789  was  commissioned  by  the  Minister  of  Ma- 
rine to  search  the  national  archives  and  to  gather  all 
documents  and  data  in  connexion  with  the  maritime 
history  of  Spain.  He  devoted  three  years  to  this  work, 
and  among  the  documents  he  discovered  were  the 
diaries  of  the  first  and  third  voyages  of  Columbus. 
War  having  been  declared  between  Spain  and  France, 
he  rejoined  the  navy  in  1792  and  took  part  in  the  siege 
of  Toulon.  Shortly  after  this  he  was  promoted  to  the 
grade  of  captain  in  the  navy.  He  was  then  placed 
under  the  orders  of  Captain  General  Langara  of  the 
Department  of  Cddiz  with  whom  he  afterwards 
served  in  various  capacities  when  the  latter  was  made 
Minister  of  Marine.  While  in  the  Marine  Office,  he 
brought  about  many  improvements  and  reforms, 
amon^  them  the  planning  and  organizing  of  the  hydro- 
Kraphical  office  of  which  he  afterwards  became  the 
nead  (1823).  In  1808,  he  resigned  his  government 
charges  and  retired  from  public  life  rather  than  recog- 
nize the  claims  of  Josepn  Bonaparte  who  had  be^ 
seated  upon  the  Spanish  throne.  In  1814,  he  was 
made  secretary  of  the  Academy  of  St.  Ferdiniand,  and 
from  1824  until  his  death,  was  a  director  of  the  Acad- 
emy of  History.  Several  times  he  was  elected  to 
represent  his  province  as  senator,  but  his  career  in  the 
senate  was  not  a  brilliant  one.  Most  of  Navarrete's 
writing  is  historical.  His  best  work,  and  the  one 
which  gives  him  his  reputation,  is  "Coleccidn  de 


HAVS 


724 


NAZASITH 


bs  Yiaies  y  deBCubriznientos  que  hideron  por  mar  los 
espafloles  desde  el  fin  del  siglo  XV"  (Madrid,  1825- 
37).  This  was  published  at  government  expense, 
and  has  been  widely  read  and  quoted.  Among  his 
other  works  is  an  excellent  life  of  Cervantes,  pub- 
lished in  1819  in  connexion  with  an  edition  of  ''Don 
Ouijote"  broui^t  out  by  the  Spanish  Academy; 
'^Coleccidn  de  documentos  in^ditos"  written  in  col- 
laboration with  others;  ''Disertaci6n  sobre  la  historia 
delandutica;"  and^Biblioteca  maritima  espafiola''. 
The  last  two  were  published  after  his  death,  in  1846 
and  1851  respectively. 

Ventura  Fubntes. 

NavOi  architecturally  the  central,  open  space  of  a 
church,  west  of  the  choir  or  chancel,  and  separated 
therefrom  bv  a  low  wall  or  screen.  It  is  divided 
from  the  side  aisles  by  columns,  shafts,  or  piers,  is 


preaching  necessitated  an  even  greater  space  for  the 
congresation,  and  as  a  result  the  medieval  nave  in- 
creased to  vast  proportions  and  was  capable  of  holding 
crowds  that  often  numbered  tens  of  thousands.  Nor 
were  these  vast  auditoriums  reserved  exclusively  for 
religious  services;  in  many  cases  they  were  unoonse- 
crated,  and  were  used  not  only  for  nuracle  plays,  but 
for  many  strictly  secular  purposes.  The  line  between 
chancel  and  nave  was  always  very  dearlv  drawn:  in 
England,  for  example,  the  parish  priest  had  full  aur 
thority  in  the  former,  and  was  bound  to  keep  it  in 
repair  at  his  own  expense,  while  the  pariah  itself  was 
responsible  for  the  care  and  maintenance  of  the  nave. 

Ralph  Adams  Cram. 

Naylgaton'  ZsUndB.    See  Samoa. 

Nazos,  Archdiocbsb  of.    See  Ctcladbs. 


irom  xne  aae  usies  oy  columns,  snaiis,  or  piers,  is  Na«ar6ne  (Na^v1|p*f,  ATaairentw).— As  a  name  ap- 

roofed  with  timber  or  vaulted  m  ma«>my,  and^usually  ^^  ^  Christ,  the  woAi  Nazarene  occurs  only  onie 

nses  above  the  level  of  the  aisle  roofs  to  prov^^^  ^  ^he  Douai  Veraion,  viz.  in  Matt.,  ii,  23,  where 

windows  for  h^tmg.    CoUoqmaUy,  the  term  is  used  ^^e  Vulgate  reading  is  NazartBus  (Nttiwpaibf).    Else- 

tomdicate  that  portion  of  a  church  reserved  for  wor-  ^^ere  (Matt.,  xxvi,  71;  Mark,  i,  24;  x,  47;  xiv,  67; 

shipi)ers,  and  mcludmg  the  central  and  side  aislw,  j^^    ^    34.  'john,  xviii,  5;  Aki,  u,  22  etc.)     iesus 

croMmg  transepts.    TEe  name  m  denved  from  the  ATozarenia  is  uniformly  tnlnslat^  "Jesus  of  Naia- 

Latin  novw,  a  ship,  possibly  with  some  referenccto  ^^1,     i^  ^^ts,  xxiv,  5  the  Christians  are  spoken  of 

the  "s^p  of  St.  Peter"  or  the  Ark  of  Noat.    The  by  TertuUus  as  "the  sect  of  the  NasarencsX    The 

norm  of  all  subseguent  developments,  wiiethw  early  ^^  ^      obvious  reference  to  Nazareth,  the  early 

Christian,  Bvzwitme,  Norm^,  Medieval,  or  Renajs-  ^ome  of  the  Saviour,  and  it  is  appUed  to  Him  in  thr 

sance,  is  to  be  found  in  the  Roman  basilica,  with  its  ck^g^ig  ^^    ^y  ^^^  ^^o  are  outside  the  circle  of 

^de,centr^  area,  and  Its  aisles  and  gaUenes  separated  His  mtimate  fnends.    In  the  Acte,  however,  it  is  em- 

therefrom  by  cokunns  and  arches  mippprtmg  the  j    ^^  ^y  St.  Peter  and  St.  Paul,  and  by  the  risen 

upper  walls,  pierced  bv  windows,  and  the  tunber  roof.  ^^  Hiiself ,  according  to  Paul's  kccount  of  his  con- 

Dimng  the  tkrd  and  fourth  c^turies  the  apse  which  ^^^^n  given  to  the  multitude  of  angry  Jews  who  had 

m  the  classical  examples  immediately  terminated  the  attacked  him  in  the  Temple  (Adts,  xxii,  8).    In 

central  open  space,  was  pushed  back  and  separated  j^^tt.,  ii,  23  we  read  that  "^ming  he  dwelt  in  a  city 

from  the  nave  proper  by  a  transverse  nave  or  transept;  called  Nkzareth:  that  it  might  belulfilled  which  wai 

later  the  junction  of  nave,  transept,  and  apse  (now  g^id  by  the  prophets:  That  he  shaU  be  caDed  a  Naia- 

prolon^  mto  a  deep  chou-  or  chancel)  was  sur-  ^^g".    No  explicit  prediction  to  this  effect  is  found 

"^?S^  ^^  *  •     ®'  ?^i*^*T®''  the  space  below  bemff  -^  ^j^^  recorded  O.  T.  prophecies,  and  various  theories 

caUed  the  crossing,  while  the  simple  system  of  equil  ^^^^  ^yeea  advanced  to  eVplain  the  reference.    Some 

supports  equaUy  spaced  wm  for  a  time  abandoned  for  ^^^^Id  connect  the  passage  with  the  neUer  (flower)  of 

the  altematmg  system.    SimultMieouriy  the  um)er  jg    ^^   j.  others  withthe  netzure  (dregs,  Douai)  of 

walls  were  mcreased  m  hejeht.  the  ajsles  vaultedm  jg   ^  ^  ^ut  these  interpretations  seeSfai-f etched, 

masonry,  then  the  nave  Itself i  the  solids  were  reduced  to  sav  nothing  of  other  difficulties.    That  the  quality 

to  a  mmimum  in  favour  of  windows  that  tended  ever  ^f  Nazarite  S  aUuded  to  by  the  Evangelist  Is  di^ 

to  mcn»se  m^  size,  the  space  above  the  aisle  vaults  ^d  by  the  fact  that  Christ  was  not  a  Nasarite, 

and  theu-  slopmg  roofe  was  arcaded  and  thrown  open  ^^^  -^  the  theoiy  that  reference  is  here  made  to  some 

to  ^e  nave,  a  complete  system  of  buttresses  was  de-  ^^  ^j.  ^,^,^1    t^tional  prophecy  supported  by  any 

u!^it?-^fS^!l^^^^  positive  proSf.    No  more*^pliusi6le  Snatioi  hw 

mto  existence  (see  Gothic  ARCHrrBCTTOE).    Accept  g^^  f^^nd  than  the  one  pven  by  St.  Jerome  in  his 

^J^'^^^.'^'^^TJ^'ir't  Y^^.^!^^l^fl  "Commentary  on  St.  MatThew", V  that  the  men- 


two  Mves  side  by  side,  of  equal  dimenrions  and  sep-    St{S!S^/r^)^ 


lofty  nave  with  arcade,  triforium,  and  clerestory, 
flanked  by  a  comparativdy  low  aisle  on  each  side. 

In  early  Christian  basilicas  the  sanctuary  was 
hardly  more  than  a  semicireular  apse,  the  transept  or 
transverse  nave  serving  for  clergy  and  choir:  little 
by  little  the  chancel  was  deepened  to  accommodate 
the  increasing  number  of  clerics,  but  the  transept  and 
crossing  were  still  shut  off  from  the  people's  nave. 


(PariB,  B.  d). 


Jamss  F.  ThoBoohU 


Naiarenas.    See  Ebionitbb;  Judaizebs. 

Nazareth,  Sistbbs  of  Charitt  of,  founded  Dee^ 
1812,  by  tiie  Rev.  B.  J.  M.  David  (see  Louibvilus, 
Diocese  of).    Father  David,  while  establishing  his 


As  monasticism  developed,  more  and  more  of  this  seminary  on  the  faim  of  St.  Thomas,  near  Bardstown, 

portion  of  the  church  was  enclosed,  imtil  in  many  Nelson  Coimty,  Kentucky,  took  char^  of  the  mi9> 

Cistercian  abbey  churehes  the  entire  central  space  sions  among  the  surrounoins  Cathohc  pqpolataoD. 

from  east  to  west  was  reserved.    In  the  soutn  of  Here  he  found  children  without  instructors,  sick. 

Europe  the  enclosed  choir  still  frejquently  projects  a&ed,  and  poor  without  care.    The  need  oi  devoted 

far  to  the  west  of  the  crossing;  but  in  Fnmce,  in  the  rdigious  women  was  felt.    He  found  a  few  young 

great  cathedrals  of  the  Middle  Ages,  nave,  transepts,  girls  willing  to  consecrate  their  lives  to  the  senrioe  01 

and  crossing  were  cleared,  the  choir  screen  being  nxed  God  and  their  neighbour.    The  first  to  offer  herself 

at  the  eastern  side  of  the  crossing,  and  this  arranee-  was  Teresa  Carrico;  Catherine  Spalding,  her  assistant, 

J.    Durmg  Harriet  Gardiner,  and  others  followed.    Very  soot 


ment  is,  in  modem  times,  almost  universal. _      

the  Middle  Ages  also,  the  great  development  of    six  were  aaaembled,  and  the  number  oonlmaea  to  in- 


cresae.    All  were  daughtera  of  ptoi 

KENTitcKT,  Reliaitm);  their  leal  and  capacity  for  until  the  age  of  tbirty  yean,  unknown,  and  obedient 

good  works  fonned  their  only  dower.    They  taught  to  Mary  and  Joseph.    In  the  mamiseripts  of  the  New 

the  children,  spun  wool  or  flax,  and  wove  it  into  cloth  Teetament,  the  name  occurs  in  a  great  orthographical 

out  of  which  they  fashioned  garment*  tor  themaelves  variety,  such  aa  Nafa/rfr,  Sa^pte,  NofUful    Nofapdr, 

and  for  Father  David's  senimarianB,  who,  on  their  andthelike.    In  the  time  of  Euaebius  and  St.  Jerome 

side,  found  time  in  the  intervals  of  study  to  fell  trees,  (Onomasticon),  its  name  was  Naiara  (in  modem 

hew  logs,  and  build  the  seminary  and  convent.    The  Arabic,  en  NAsirah),  which  therefore,  seems  to  be  the 

lirst  Icehouse  occupied  by  the  ajatars  receiv  d  from  correct  name:  in  t^e  New  Testament  we  find  it« 

Father  David  the  name  of  Nasareth.    This  njne  the  derivativea  written  Nofii^i^,  or  NoftapaToi,  but  never 

mother-house  has  preeerved,  and  thence  the  siaters  are  TSa-lnprraMt.     The    etymolo^   of   Naxara   is  TUter, 

popularly  called     Sisters  of  Naiareth",  being  thus  which  means  "a  shoot".    The  Vulgate  renders  this 

diatinguiahed  from  other  Sisters  of  Chanty.  word  by  fioi,  "flower",  in  the  Prophecy  of  laaias 

MotherSetoncouldnotsparesistersfromEmmittft'  (id,  1],  which  is  applied  to  the  Saviour.  St.  Jerome 
burg  to  train  the  new  community,  as  Bishop  Flaget  (Epiat.,  xlvi,  "Ad  Marcellam")  gives  the  same  inters 
had  requeeted,  but  she  sent  him  the  same  copy  of  tiie  pretation  to  the  name  of  the  town. 
Rule  ai  St.  Vincent  de  Paul  which  he  himself  had  Naiareth  is  situated  in  the  moat  southerly  hills 
brought  her  from  France,  and  Father  David  carefully  of  the  Lebanon  range,  just  before  it  drops  abruptfy 
attended  to  the  training  of  the  novices.  In  February,  down  to  the  plwn  of  Esdneloa.  The  town  lies  in  a 
1816,  he  found  the  first  naters  sufficiently  prepared  to  hoUow  plateau  about  120()  feet  above  the  level  of  the 
take  the  vowa.  The  Mediterranean,  be- 
Uttle  body  was  fairly  tween  hills  which  rise 
organieea,  and  its  toanaltitudeof  1610 
work  was  fast  ei-  feet.  The  ancient 
tending.  Mias  Elea-  Naxareth  occupied 
nor  O'Connell  (Sister  the  teiangular  hillock 
Ellen),  a  scholarly  tbatextendafromthe 
woman  and  expen-  mountain  on  the 
enoed  teacher,  came  north,  having  its 
to  them  from  Balti-  point  turned  to  the 
more,  and  to  her  the  south.  Its  north- 
early  success  of  the  western  boundary  is 
educational  work  of  marked  by  numerous 
Nasarcth  is  largely  Jewish  tombs  which 
due.  The  reputation  have  been  discovered 
of  Nazareth  Acaderov  on  the  elope  of  Jebel 
was  soon  establiahed,  es  Likh.  The  south' 
and  students,  even  eastern  limit  is  the 
from  a  distance,  small  valley  that  de- 
crowded  the  class-  s  c  e  n  d  s  from  the 
rooms,  although  it  beautiful  spring 
was  not  until  1829  called  St.  Mary's 
that  the  Legislature  Well,  which  was,  no 
of  Kentucky  granted  doubt,  the  chief  at- 
its  charter  to  the  traction  for  the  firat 
"Nasareth  Literary  settlers.  In  the  last 
sad  BenevolMit  In-  ^  „^,.,  „  Nu*=n»  pf^^  ^^  '">"  POP": 
stitutton  .  Sister  lation  has  mcreaaed 
Ellen  prepared  others  to  aasist  her,  eetablishin^  what  rapidly,  and  amounts  at  the  preeent  day  to  more  than 
was  virtually  a  normal  school  for  the  sisters,  which  has  7000  souls.  The  modem  houses,  white  and  clean,  run 
been  sealously  maintained  ever  since.  In  1822  the  up  all  alon^;  the  hillsidee,  especially  on  the  north, 
mother-house  was  removed  to  a  farm  purchased  for  the  Spread  out  m  the  shape  of  an  amplutheatre,  set  in  a 
pumose  near  Bardstown.  Both  the  convent  church  green  framework  of  vegetation,  Nazareth  ofTets  to 
and  the  academy  building  were  completed  in  1825.  the  eye  a  very  attractive  picture. 
The  sisters,  at  the  same  time,  never  lost  sight  of  their  Histort. — The  town  is  not  mentioned  in  the  Old 
primaiy  work  of  succouring  the  sick  and  the  poor.  In  Testament,  nor  even  in  the  works  of  Josephus.  Yet, 
each  of  their  houses  destitute  children  were  cared  for.  it  was  not  such  an  insignificant  hamlet  as  la  generally 
St.  Vincent's  Orphan  Aaylum  was  opened  in  Louis-  believed.  We  know,  first,  that  it  possessed  a  syna- 
ville,  after  ihc  cholera  epidemic,  in  1834.  Thence-  gogue.  Neubauer{Lag^graphieduTaliaud,  p.  190) 
forth  schools,  hospitals,  and  asylums  grew  apace.  quotes,  moreover,  an  elegy  on  the  destruction  of  Jera- 

Beaides  the  mother-house,  the  congregation  now  salem,  taken  from  ancient  Midrashim  now  lost,  and 
has  sixteen  branch  academies  and  high  scnoola  mod-  according  to  this  document,  Naiareth  was  a  home  for 
elled  upon  it.  The  sisters  teach  about  15,000  children  the  prieeta  who  went  by  turns  to  Jerusalem,  for  ser- 
in parochi^  schools,  and  care  for  more  than  5000  vice  in  the  Temple.  Up  to  the  time  of  Constantine, 
«ck  in  their  hospitals  and  infirmaries.  On  petition  it  remained  excluaively|  a  Jewish  town.  St.  Epipha- 
of  the  present  superior,  Mother  Eutropia  McMahon,  nius  (Adv.  Hsreses,  I,  ii,  hter.,  19)  relates  that  in  339 
the  congregation  received  the  formal  approbation  ot  Joseph,  Count  of  Tiberias,  told  liim  that,  by  a  special 
the  Holy  See,  5  September,  1910,  nearly  98  years  after  order  of  the  emperor,  "he  built  churches  to  Christ  in 
its  first  foundation.  the  towns  of  the  Jews,  in  which  there  were  none,  for 

Bwdw  iho  hi«ioric«i  wotin  refemd  to  under  Kbwtuoit  ud  the  reason  that  neither  Greeks,   Samaritana,   nor 

LoDurtLLt  »B  SpjuiiNO.  S*<W«.  ot  Kn'«§/  (ISM) :  B*im,B.  Christians  were  allowed  to  settle  there,  viz.,  at  Tibe- 

Anaau  tftM  BaUltfittd  (ISv7);  ArmaU  of  [he  Sisltrr  of  Chanty  of  ■             ^  ■                           ...                 i          ' 


,.™._...  „  „.„.  ..^....^^  ,..~..,  of  tht  Sitttri  o/charitv  of     rias,  at  DiocsTsarea,  Or  Sepphons,  at  Naiareth,  and  at 

Hatuntk,  Ktr<iyakii  {\W»)-  Capharaaum".     St.  Paula  and  St.  Sylvia  of  Aqui- 

Marib  Menard.        taine  visited  the  shrines  of  Naiareth  towards  the  end 

of  the  fourth  century,  aa  well  as  Theodosius  about 

Nuantb,  the  town  of  Galilee  where  the  Bleeeed     530i  but  their  short  accounts  contain  no  description 

Vlr^  dwelt  when  the  Archangel  announoed  to  her    ot  its  monuments.    'The  Pilgrim  of  Piacenza  saw 


InsBiOB,  Cinnca  oi 


thwe  about.570,  besides  "the  dwelling  of  Mary  con- 
verted into  a  basilica",  the  "ancient  synBooEue".    A 
little  treatise  aS  the  same  centuiy,  entitled  "Liber 
nominum  loconim  ex  Aclia",  speaks  of  the  church  of 
the  Annunciation  and  of  another  erected  on  the  Mte  of 
the    house    "where 
ourLord  was  brought 
up".     laWOArcult    I 
^re    Adamnan    an    ! 
intereetinB    descrip- 
tion of  the  basilica 
of  the  Annunciation 
and  of   the    church 
of  the  "Nutrition  of 

The  toleration 
which  the  Moslems 
showed  towards  the 
Christiaiu,  after  con- 
quering the  country 
in  637,  did  not  last 
long.  Willibald,  who 
visited  Nasareth 
about  725,  found 
only  the  basihca  of 
the  Annunciation, 
"which  the  Chris- 
tians", he  says, 
"often  redeemed 
from  the  Saracens, 
when  they  threat* 
ened  to  destroy  it ". 
However,  in  808  the  author  of  the  "Commemo- 
ratorium  de  casis  Dei"  found  twelve  monks  at 
the  basilica,  and  eight  at  the  Precipice,  "a  mile 
awa^  from  the  town".  The  Greek  emperor,  John 
Zimiacee,  reconquered  Galilee  from  -  -  -  ..  . 

the  Arabs  in  920,  but  J  five  years  after- 
wards, he  was  poisoned  by  bis 
eunucns,  and  his  soldiers  abandoned 
the  country.  The  basiUca,  finally 
ruined  under  the  reign  of  the  Calif 
Hakem  (1010),  was  rebuilt  by  the 
crusaders  in  1101,  as  well  as  the 
church  of  the  Nutrition,  or  St.  Joseph's 
House.  At  the  same  time  the  Greeks 
erected  the  church  of  St.  Gabriel  near 
the  Virgin's  Well.  The  archiepis- 
copal  See  of  Scythopolis  was  also 
transferred  to  Nasareth.  After  the 
disastrous  battle  of  Hattin  (1187), 
the  crusaders,  with  the  European 
clergy,  were  compelled  to  leave  the 
town.  On  25  March,  1254  St.  Louis 
and  Queen  Marguerite  celebrated  the 
feast  of  the  Auiunciation  at  Naia- 
reth;  but  nine  years  later,  the  Sultan 


in  dwindled  down  to  a  poor  village. 
In  the  fourteenth  century,  a  tew  Fran- 
ciscan Friars  eetablishea  themselves 
there,  among  the  ruins  of  the  basilica.  ■ 
They  had  much  to  suffer  during  their  I 
stay,  and  many  of  them  were  even 
put  to  death,  especially  in  1385,  in     ""••« 
1448,  and  in  1548,  when  all  the  friars    <=™"«' 
were  driven  out  of  the  country.    In 
1620  Fakher  ed  Dtn,  Emir  of  the    ^^  n»mfctfw 
Druses,    allowed    them    to   build  a    r — ™  n„,tia, 

church  over  the  Grotto  of  the  Annun-  ' '  ' 

elation;  but  it  was  ruined  some  years  later  by  the 
Bedouins.  The  Franciscans  nevertheleea  remained 
near  the  sanctuary,  and  in  1730  the  powerful  Sheikh 
Dhaber  el  Amer  authoriied  them  to  erect  the  church 
which  is  still  to  be  seen. 

Smta. — ^In  the  fourth  century,  local  tradition  indi- 


!6  HAEISITB 

cated  the  house  of  the  Virgin  at  the  top  of  the  south- 
em  point  of  the  hill,  which  rises  some  3iD  feet  over  the 
plain.    The  dwelling  consisted  of  a  little  building  with 
a  ETOtto  in  the  rear.  _  Even  now,  other  dwellings  like 
this  are  to  be  found  in  Nasareth.    Explorations  made 
in  1909,  beneath  and 
around  the    present 
church,   brought   to 
light  the  whole  plan 
OUhe  ancient  basilica 
of  Constoutine.      It 
was  built  from  west 
to  east,  divided  into 
three  naves  by  two 
rows  of  syenite  col- 
umns, and  the  grotto 
wasin  the  north  nave. 
The    crusaders    fol- 
lowed the  same  plan, 


1   kept    the 


AMHOMCunOH,  NUUUTB 


they  only  added  new 
pillars  and  gave  to 
the  fa^^e,  as  well  as 
to  the  apse,  the  ap- 
pearance and  solid- 
ity of  a  fortress.  The 
Franciscans  erected 
their  church  across 
the  ancient  building, 
so  as  to  bring  the 
grotto  beneath  the 
choir  at  the  end  of  the  central  nave.  The  crypt  was 
jways  three  or  four  feet  below  the  pavement  of  the 
church.  Since  1730  there  have  been  fifteen  steps 
leading  down  to  the  Chapel  of  the  AngeL  and  two 
^  more  to  the  Grotto  itself.  The  chapel 
is  the  traditional  site  of  the  house, 
properly  so-called,  of  the  Vii^in;  at 
the  north  end  of  it,  the  mosaic  pave- 
mentiswell  preserved,  and  is  adorned 
with  an  inscription  in  Greek  letters 
which  undoubtedly  dates  from  the 
sixth  century.  A  beautiful  altar  ded- 
icated to  the  mystery  of  the  Annun- 
tnation  occupies  the  Grotlo.  On  the 
left  are  two  columns  of  porphyry, 
certainly  placed  there  in  ue  fourth 

I  century. 
About  300  paces  northeast  of  the 
basibca  of  the  Annimciatioa,  "the 
church  of  the  Nutrition"  mailed  the 
traditional  site  of  St.  Joseph's  d«dl- 
ing,  where,  after  the  warning  of  the 
Angel  (Matt.,  i,  20),  he  received 
Mary  hu  spouse  with  the  cerononial 
prescribed  by  the  law  for  matrimony. 
After  his  return  from  Egypt,  Joseph 
came  back  to  Nai&reth  and,  with  the 
Virgin  and  the  Divine  Child,  again 
occupied  his  own  house.  There  Jous 
was  Drought  up  and  dwelt  till  he  left 
the  town  at  the  be^nning  of  His  pub* 
lie  life.   Two  documents  of  the  fourth 


tion  the  church  of  the  NutnticHi, 
built  over  it.  Excavations  made  in 
r(*><wtarts*Hd  IQOQbrought  to  light  the  lower  layen 
mill  ciuiA  °^  *  ^"^  church  of  the  twelfth  cen- 

tuiy, from  which  a  staircase  hewn  in 
the  rock  descends  to  an  irregular  grotto  excavated 
beneath  the  sanctuary.  Several  interesting  details 
answer  to  the  description  given  by  Arculf  in  670.  The 
Franciscans  are  about  to  rebuild  this  sanctuary. 

'The  mountain  "whereon  the  dty  is  built"  Htdsina 
row  of  hills  that  overlook  the  to— n.    On  tbe  south. 


KAZABITB  727  MAKAfttOS 

one  mile  and  a  half  away,  the  chain  of  hills  terminates  among  the  Nazarites  for  life,  but  nothing;  is  known  of 

abruptly  in  two  precipitous  peaks  separated  by  a  deep,  him  in  that  connexion  beyond  what  is  mf erred  from 

wild  gorge.    The  western  peak  is  called  Jebel  el  Qu-  the  promise  of  his  mother:  ''I  will  give  him  to  the 

sail,  "Mount  of  the  Leap' ,  or  ''of  the  Precipice".   A  Lora  all  the  days  of  his  life,  and  no  razor  shall  come 

monastery  built  on  this  mountain,  where  the  Jews  upon  his  head''  (I  Kings,  i.  11).    It  has  likewise  been 

would  have  cast  Christ  down  headlong,  was  still  occu-  inferred  from  Jer.  (xxxv;  ci.  IV  Kings,  x,  15  saa.)  that 

pied  by  eight  monks  at  the  beginning  of  the  ninth  cen-  the  Rechabites  were  consecrated  to  the  Lord  oy  the 

tury.    The  ruins  now  to  be  seen  there  belong  to  the  Nazarite  vow^  but  in  view  of  the  context,  the  protest 

convent  of  the  time  of  the  Crusades.  against  drinkmg  wine  which  forms  the  basis  of  the 

§*S!!S'*'/^?J^''^/'*^'fr,!=*-*?*72V*^^^^^  assumption  is  probably  but  a  manifestation  on  the 

•od  328;  GuIKbin,  La  0al%U4,  I  (Pana,  1880),  83-103;  Vxaud,  __^   Jp  ^i,^  ^1-^   .*  ♦WL;»  «*a«^a«k>1  rx^f^w^nn^  fr,^  fKa 

NoMartUi  H  ««•  ^um  d'opr^  iM/ouOto  rfctniM  (Parii.  1910)1  R^^t  of  the  Clan  of  their  general  preference  for  the 

MnsraBMANN,  N9W  Ouide  to  the  Holy  Land  (London,  1907),  382-  sunplicity  of  the  nomadic  as  opposed  to  the  settled  me. 

^1*  \M  ^^  ^  passage  of  Amos  (ii,  11,  12)  the  Nazarites  are  ex- 

Babnabas  Mkistermann.  pressly  mentioned  together  with  the  Prophets,  as  young 

Nasareth.    See  Tarni  and  Barlbtta,  Diocbsb  men  raised  up  by  the  Lord,  and  the  childrwi  of  Israd 

OF.  Are  reproached  for  giving  them  wme  to  drink  m  vio- 

'  .  ,  lation  of  their  vow.    The  latest  Old  Testament  refer- 

Nasarite  (nna,  DWK  ina,  consecrated  to  God),  ence  is  in  I  Mach.  (iii,  49,  50),  where  mention  is  made 

the  name  |;iven  by  the  Hebrews  to  a  person  set  apart  of  a  number  of  ''Nazarites  that  had  fulfilled  their 

and  especially  consecrated  to  the  Lord.    Although  days."    In  the  prophecy  of  Jacob  (Gen.,  xlix,  26), 

Nazarites  are  not  unknown  to  early  Hebrew  history,  according  to  the  Douay  Version,  Joseph  is  called  a 

the  only  specific  reference  to  them  in  the  Law  is  m  "Nazarite  among  his  brethren",  but  here  the  oridnal 

Num.  (vi,  1-21),  a  legal  section  of  late  origin,  and  em-  word  natir  shouM  be  translated  "chief"  or  "leader" 

bodying  doubtless  a  codification  of  a  long-standing  — Nazarite  being  the  equivalent  of  the  defective  ren- 

usage.    The  regulations  here  laid  down  refer  only  to  dering  fuusarceus  in  the  Vulgate.    The  same  remark 

persons  consecrating  themselves  to  God  for  a  specified  applies  to  the  parallel  passage  in  Deuteronomy  (xxxiii. 

time  in  virtue  of  a  temporary  vow,  but  there  were  also  16),  and  also  to  Lam.  (iv,  7),  where  "Nazarites'* 

Nazarites  for  life,  and  there  are  even  indications  (Heb.  nezerim)  stands  for  "princes"  or  "nobles". 

Pointing  to  the  consecration  of  children  to  that  state        Nazarites  appear  in  New  Testament  times,  and 

y  their  parents.  reference  is  made  to  them  for  that  period  not  only  in 


all  intoxicating  drink,  and  even  from  all  products  of  Foremost  among  them  is  generally  reckoned  John 

the  vineyard  m  any  form.    During  the  same  period  the  Baptist,  of  whom  the  angel  annoimced  that  he 

the  hair  must  be  aUowed  to  grow  as  a  mark  of  holiness,  should  "dnnk   no  wine   nor   strong  drink".    He 

The  Nazarite  was  forbidden  to  approach  any  corpse,  is  not  explicitly  called  a  Nazarite,  nor  is   there 

eventhatof  his  nearest  relatives,  under  pain  of  defile-  any  mention  of  the  unshaven  hair,  but    the  se- 

ment  and  consequent  forfeiture  of  his  consecration,  vere  austerity  of  his  life  agrees  with  the  supposed 

If  through  accident  he  finds  himself  defiled  by  the  asceticism  of  the  Nazarites.    From  Act8(xxi,23  sqq.) 

presence  of  a  coipse,  he  must  shave  "the  head  of  his  we  learn  that  the  early  Jewish  Christians  occasionally 

consecration"  and  repeat  the  operation  on  the  seventh  took  the  temporary  Nazarite  vow,  and  it  is  probabfe 

day.    On  the  eighth  day  he  must  present  himself  at  that  the  vow  of  St.  Paul  mentioned  in  Acts,  xviii.  18, 

the  sanctuary  with  two  turtle  doves  or  young  pigeons,  was  of  a  similar  nature,  although  the  shaving  of  his 

one  of  which  was  offered  as  a  holocaust  and  the  other  head  in  Cenchrse,  outside  of  Palestine,  was  not  in  con- 

for  sin,  and  furthermore,  in  order  to  renew  the  lost  formity  with  the  rules  laid  down  in  the  sixth  chapter  of 

consecration,  it  wasnecessary  to  present  ayearlinglamb  Numbers,  nor  with  the  interpretation  of  them  by  the 

for  a  sin  offering.    At  the  expiration  of  the  period  d&-  Rabbinical  schools  of  that  period.     (See  Eaton  in 

termined  by  the  vow  the  Nazarite  brought  to  the  sane-  Hastings,  Diet,  of  the  Bible,  s.  v.  Nazarites.)   If  we  are 

tuary  various  offerings,  and  with  symbohcal  cere-  to  believe  the  legend  of  Hegesippus  quoted  by  Euse- 

momes  including  the  shavmg  of  the  head  and  the  bins  ("Hist.  EccL",  II,  »aii),  St.  James  the  Less, 

buming  of  the  hair  with  the  fire  of  the  peace  offering,  Bishop  of  Jerusalem,  was  a  Nazarite,  and  performed 

he  was  restored  by  the  priest  to  his  former  liberty  with   rigorous   exactness   all  the  ascetic  practices 

f Num.,  VI,  13-21) .    The  meanmg  symbohzed  by  these  enjoined  by  that  rule  of  life. 

different  rites  and  regulations  was  in  part  negative,  Munbabo,  i>eAimrcn«  (Jena,  1676)  :Ls8ftTKB.Muaria/ in  Via., 

separation  from  thmgs  worldly,  and  partly  positive,  ^\  <'*'*?*'••  S-^'  ^r4at;  Fovax>, Saim  Paul, m* mimoiM 

vii.  a  greater  fuhiess^f  fife  and  holin^indiSted  by  gSSJ^aif Sj.*^* ^'  Knab»«ax«e.  Adu,  Apo^olorum  (Pan.. 

the  growth  of  the  hair  and  the  importance  attached  to  '                                        Jambb  F.  Drisgoll. 
ceremonial  defilement. 

The  existence  of  a  class  of  perpetual  Nazarites  is 

known  to  us  through  occasional  mention  of  them  in  NftiAiluSi  Saint,  fourteenth  abbot  of  the  monas- 

the  Old  Testament  writings,  but  these  references  are  tery  of  Lerins,  probably  sometime  during  the  reign  of 

so  few  and  vague  that  it  is  impossible  to  determine  the  Merovingian  Clotaire  II,  584-629.    He  success- 

ihe  origin  of  the  institution  or  its  specific  regulations,  fully  attacked  the  remnants  of  heathendom  on  the 

which  m  some  respects  at  least  must  have  differed  southern  coast  of  France,  overthrew  a  sanctuary  of 

from  those  specified  in  Num.  (vi,  1-21).  Thus  of  Venus  near  Cannes,  and  founded  on  its  site  a  convent 

Samson  who  is  called  a  ''Nazante  of  God  from  his  for  women,  which  was  destroyed  b^  the  Saracens  in 

mother's  womb"  (Judges,  xiii,  5),  it  is  merely  said  that  the  eighth  century.    His  name  is  inscribed  on  the 

''no  razorshall  touch  his  head".    No  mention  b  made  calendar  of  saints  of  the  French  Church,  on  18  No- 

of  abstention  from  wine  etc.,  though  it  has  been  plau-  vember. 

Bibly  assumed  by  many  commentators,  smce  that  re-  ^J^-  tgre^nif  *^"  ■"  ^"  ^"^^  ChrUHana,  ed.  Piouk,  HI 

Btrictionisenjoinedupon  the  mother  during  the  time  ^  *^^       a        •                                 ^  p  Kibbch. 
of  her  presnancy.    That  his  quality  of  Nazarite  was 
oonsidered  to  be  independent  of  defilement  througih 

oontact  with  the  dead  is  plain  from  the  account  of  his  Naiarius,   John   Paul,    Dominican   theologian, 

mibeequent  career  and  the  famous  exploits  attributed  b.  in  1556  at  Cronona;  d.  in  1645  or  1646  at  Bologna. 

to  him.    The  prophet  Samuel  is  generally  reckoned  He  entered  the  order  at  an  early  age  in  his  native 


NAZABIUS 


728 


MEAUB 


town  and  from  the  begmning  waa  noted  for  hia  spirit- 

ualit;y  and  love  of  study.    It  is  most  probable  that  he 

studied  philosophy  and  theology  at  the  University 

of  Bologna.    He  taught  with  neat  success  in  various 

schools  of  his  order  in  Italy.    In  1592  he  was  sent  by 

Clement  VIII  and  the  General  of  the  Dominicans, 

Beccaria,  to  accompany  the  Apostolic  Nuncio  to 

Prague  to  combat  the  prevailing  neresies.    There  he 

spent  three  years  teachmg  in  the  Studium  Oenerale  of 

the  province,  lecturing  on  theologv  in  the  university, 

preaching,  and  def  enmng  the  Faith  against  the  errors 

of  the  innovators.    Returning  to  Italy  in  1596  he 

became  re|;ent  of  studies  in  the  convent  at  Milan. 

The  followmg  year  Hie  pope  appointed  him  to  defend 

in  a  public  disputation  at  Cniavenna  the  Catholic 

doctrine  of  the  Holy  Sacrifice  of  the  Mass  against 

Calvinistic  preachers.     His  learning  and  eloquence 

won  for  him  such  a  triumph  that  his  services  were 

sought  in  other  parts  of  the  countrv.    In  1620  the 

citizens  of  Milan  chose  him  as  ambassador  to  the 

Court  of  Philip  III  of  Spain  to  adjust  certain  matters 

of  importance  to  Milan;  in  May,  1622  he  represented 

as  dennitor  the  province  of  Lombardy  at  the  general 

chapter  held  at  Milan.    He  spent  the  close  of  his  life 

at  Bologna  where  he  occupied  himself  with  teaching 

and  writing.    Of  his  works  the  following  are  the  most 

important:    "Commentaria  et  Controversis  in  pri- 

mam  partem  Summse  S.  Thoms"  (Bologna,  1620) 

and  ''in  tertiam  partem  Sumnue S.  Thomse    (Bolojpia. 

1625);  ''Opuscula  varia  theologica  et  philosophica" 

(Bologna,  1630)  in  which  are  contained  the  acts  of  the 

above  mentioned  disputation;  **  De  SS.  Patrum  et  doc- 

torum  Ecdesis  auctoritate  in  doctrina  theologica" 

(Bologna,  1633). 

QniTXF-EcHABO,  88.  Ord.  Prmd,,  II,  644;  Toubon.  Horn,  III  de 
Vordrt  de  8.  Dom,,  V.  268-68. 

Joseph  Schroedbr. 

Nacarius  and  Celsus,  Saints,  Martyrs. — The 
only  historical  information  which  we  possess  regard- 
ing these  two  saints  is  the  discovery  of  their  bodies  by 
St.  Ambrose.  Paulinus  relates  (Vita  Ambrosii.  xxxu- 
zxxiii)  that  Ambrose,  at  some  time  within  tne  last 
three  vears  of  his  life,  after  the  death  of  the  Emperor 
Theodosius  (d.  395),  discovered  in  a  garden  outside 
the  walls  of  Milan  the  body  of  St.  Nazarius.  with 
severed  head  and  still  stainea  with  blood,  and  that  he 
caused  it  to  be  carried  to  the  Basilica  of  the  Apostles. 
In  the  same  garden  Ambrose  likewise  discovered  the 
body  of  St.  Celsus,  which  he  caused  to  be  transported 
to  the  same  basilica.  Obviously  a  tradition  regarding 
these  martvTs  was  extant  in  the  Christian  community 
of  Milan  which  led  to  the  finding  of  the  two  bodies.  A 
later  legend,  without  historical  foundation,  places  the 
martyrdom  of  these  witnesses  to  the  faith  auring  the 
persecution  of  Nero,  and  describes  with  many  detiuls 
the  supposed  joumeyings  of  St.  Nazarius  throu^ 
Gaul  and  Italy.  He  is  also  brought  into  relation 
with  the  two  martyrs  Gervasius  and  Protasius. 
Paulinus  says  distinctly  (1.  c.)  that  the  date  on  which 
Nazarius  suffered  mart3rrdom  is  unknown.  The 
discourse  eulogizing  the  two  saints,  attributed  to 
St.  Ambrose  (Sermo  Iv,  in  P.  L.,  XVII,  715  sqq.), 
is  not  genuine.     St.  Paulinus  of  Nola  speaks   in 

E raise  of  St.  Nazarius  in  his  Poema  xxvii  (P.  L., 
pXI,  658).  A  magnificent  silver  reliquary  with  in- 
teresting figures,  dating  from  the  fourth  century,  was 
found  in  the  church  of  San  Nazaro  in  Milan  (Venturi, 
"Storiadeir  arteitahana",  I,  Milan,  1901,  fig.  445-49). 
The  feast  of  the  two  martyrs,  with  that  of  Sts.  Victor 
and  Innocent,  is  on  28  July. 

MoMBBmns.  Sanctvarium,  II.  fol.  179  v-184  y;  Ada  83.,  /iil»t\ 
VI,  603-^533;  AnaUda  BoUandiana,  II  (1883).  302-307;  BibU- 
olheca  hagiographioa  latina,  II.  881-882;  Dufoubcq,  Siude  tur  lee 
*Qetta  Martyrum*  romaine,  II  (Paris,  1007),  61  aqq.;  Satio,  in 
AmbtotiaTui  (Milan,  1897) ;  Pubicblu,  De  at.  martynbua  Naaario 
el  CeUo,  ae  Protaeio  et  Oervasio,  MediUani  tub  Nercne  eeeeie,  defpie 
iMeiiteie  in  quibua  eorum  corpora  quieeeunl  (Milan.  1656). 

J.  P.  KiBSCH. 


Namrius  and  Gompaniona,  Saints.  In  the 
Roman  Martyrolog^  and  that  of  Bede  for  12  June 
mention  is  made  of  four  Roman  martsrrs,  Basilides, 
Cyrinus,  Nabor,  and  Nazarius,  who  suffered  death 
under  Diocletian.  Their  names  were  taken  from  the 
''Martyrolomum  Hieronyanum'',  in  ihe  Berne  MS. 
of  which  (ed.  De  Rossi-Duschesne,  Acta  SS.,  Nov. 
II  f77] )  we  read:  Roms,  via  Aurelia  miliario  V, 
Basiledis,  Tribuli,  Nagesi^agdaletis,  Zabini,  Aureli, 
Cirini,  Nabori,  Nazari,  Donatells,  Secunde.  The 
second  name  in  the  list,  Tribulus,  is  derived  from  a 
place-name,  Tripoli,  as  is  evident  from  the  Echtei^- 
nach  MS.,  and  those  following  it  have  also  an  African 
origin.  In  an  ancient  itinerary  to  the  graves  of  the 
Roman  martyrs  (De  Rossi,  ''Roma  Sotterranea",  I, 
183)  mention  is  made  of  a  mortuary  chapd  of  a  mar- 
tyr Basilides  on  the  Via  Aurelia;  he  is  another  Roman 
saint  whose  feast  is  on  10  June.  The  g^up  of  three 
Roman  saints,  Cyrinus,  Nabor,  Nazarius,  to  which 
was  added  later  Basilides,  has  in  the ''  Sacramentarium 
Gelasianum"  (ed.  Wilson,  Oxford.  1894,  174-5)  its 
special  form  of  invocation  in  the  Canon  of  the  Mass. 
The  date  and  the  circumstances  of  the  deaths  of 
these  Roman  martyrs  are  unknown.  The  bones  of 
Saint  Nazarius  and  Nabor  were  transferred  by  Bishop 
Chrod^ang  of  Mets  to  his  diocese  (Mon.  Germ. 
Hist.,  Script.,  II,  268). 

Acta  88.»  June.  Ii,  611  aqq.;  QunrriN.  Lee  martifrologee  JbiaC. 
du  moyen-^ge  (Paria,  1908),  51,  325,  373.  etc.;  Ubbaik,  Ein  Mar^ 
tyrelog,  der  ehrietL  Oemeinae  eu  Bom  (Leipiig,  1901).  150  aq. 

J.   P.   KiRSCH. 

NailailiUSf  titular  metropolitan  see  of  Cappadocia 
Tertia.  Nazianzus  was  a  small  town  the  history  of 
which  is  completely  unknown.  It  is  the  modem  vil- 
lage of  Nenizi  east  of  Ak-Serai  (formerly  Archelais), 
in  the  villayet  of  Koniah,  but  has  sometimes  been 
wrongly  identified  with  Diocsesarea.  At  the  be|^- 
ning  of  the  fourth  century  Nazianzus  was  suffragan  to 
CfleiArea;  under  Valens  it  formed  part  of  Cl^)paidocia 
Secunda,  the  metropolis  of  which  was  Tyana.  Later 
it  depended  on  Cappadocia  Tertia  and  on  Mocessus, 
and  nnally  became  a  metropolitan  see  under  the  Em- 
peror Diogenes.  In  1370  it  waa  united  to  the  metro- 
politan See  of  Csesarea.  Up  to  the  year  1200,  four- 
teen of  its  bishops  are  known.  Its  name  ia  inseparably 
connected  with  its  illustrious  doctor  and  poet-bishop, 
St.  Gregory. 

Smith,  Did.  Oreek  and  Roman  OeeiQ..  ■.  rr:  Dioomearea,  Naei- 
anaue;  Ramajlt.  Aeia  Minor,  285;  Lb  Quibn,  Oriene  dtrieL 
(1740).  I.  409;  MiKLOUCB  and  Mullbb,  Acta  vairiar^aiue  Con^ 
etaniinop.,  I  (Vienna,  1860).  468,  686;  toe  Mullbb's  notas  to 
PUtUrny,  ed.  DmoT,  I.  878. 

S.  PftTBmte. 

Neale,  Leonard,  second  Archbishop  of  Baltimore, 
b.  near  Port  Tobacco,  Charles  County,  Maryland,  15 
Oct.,  1746;  d.  at  Georgetown,  D.  C,  18  June.  1817. 
He  was  a  descendant  of  Captain  James  Neaie,  the 
founder  of  the  family  in  Amenca,  who  settled  in  Mary- 
land as  early  as  1642.  At  twelve  Leonard  was  sent  to 
the  Jesuit  College  at  St.  Omers  in  French  Flanders. 
Thence  he  went  to  Bruges,  and  later  to  Li^ge,  where 
he  was  ordained  a  Jesuit  priest.  On  the  suppression 
of  the  Societ3r  of  Jesus^  Father  Neale,  together  with  the 
English  Jesuits,  repaired  to  England,  where  he  en- 
gaged in  pastoral  work  for  four  years,  but  in  respoom 
to  his  petition  for  a  foreign  mission,  he  was  aasigiied  to 
Demarara,  in  British  Guiana,  South  America,  where 
he  laboured  from  1779-83.  Discouraged  by  the  stow 
improvement  of  the  people,  and  with  health  impaired 
by  the  cUmate,  he  set  sail  for  America  in  January, 
1783,  arriving  in  Maryland  in  April,  assoftiating  him- 
self with  his  former  Jesuit  brethren  of  the  Society  of 
Jesus,  among  Uiem  the  Rev.  John  Carroll.  During  the 
yellow  fever  epidemic  in  Philadelphia,  in  1793,  the 
two  priests  of  that  city  were  stncken.  and  Father 
Neale  gladly  took  their  place.  For  nearly  six  yeara  he 
remained  there,  acting  as  vicar^seneral  to  the  thai 


_  .  _     ^   .  lE  the  secoiid  viai- 

tation  of  the  vellow  fever  to  Philadelphia  in  1797-S, 
he  was  avertaken  by  the  dread  disease. 

In  1798  Bishop  Carroll  called  Father  Neale  from 
Philadelphia  to  succeed  Rev.  Dr.  Dubourg  in  the 
presidency  of  the  college  at  Georgetown.  He  acted  in 
the  dual  capacity  of  president  and  tutor  for  several 


venerable  Bishop  CajToU  had  some  time  pt 

this  applied  to  Rome  to  name  Father  Neale  as  his  co- 
adjutor. He  was  consecrated  by  Bishop  Carroll  in 
1800,  but  remuned  as  President  of  Geor^town  until 
1806  when  he  was  succeeded  by  the  Rev.  Father 
Molyneux. 

Upon  the  death  of  Archbishop  Carroll  on  3  Decem- 
ber, 1815,  Bishop  Neale  Huccecded  him  and  received 
the  palUum  from  Pius  Vll  the  following  year.  Al- 
ready nearly  seventy  years  old,  he  lived  most  of  the 
time  at  Georgetown  in  quiet  and  retirement,  but  when 
his  duties  as  the  highest  dignitary  of  the  Church  in  the 
United  States  call^  him  to  Baltimore,  he  was  remark- 
ably energetic  for  one  of  his  age  and  feeble  health. 
While  in  Philadelphia,  Father  Neale  had  made  the  ac- 
quaintance of  Miaa  Alice  Lalor,  through  whose  ud  he 
started  a  small  school  conducted  by  three  ladies, 
which  was  destined  to  be  the  seed  of  a  great  religious 
order  of  female  teachers  in  America.  This  school  was 
broken  up  by  the  ravages  of  yellow  fever,  but  the 

Eroject  was  revived  by  Bishop  Neale  who  requested 
lisB  LAlor  with  another  lady  From  Philadelphia  to  come 
to  Georgetown.  They  associated  themselves  with  the 
Order  o1  St.  Clare,  or  Poor  Clares.  In  1805.  on  the 
death  ol  their  Abbess,  the  Poor  Clares  returned  to 
Europe,  selling  thrir  convent  property  to  Bishop 
Neale,  who  conveyed  it  to  Miss  Lalor  and  her  associ- 
ates, whom  he  permitted  to  enter  into  simple  vows  in 
1813.  After  his  acce»ion  to  the  See  of  Baltimore,  the 
archbishop  petitioned  Pius  VII  for  the  regular  estab- 
lishment of  a  monastery  of  the  Order  of  the  Visitation 
of  the  Blessed  Virpn  Mary  at  Georgetown,  which  re- 
quest was  readily  granted. 

His  health  ftuUng,  Archbishop  Neale  appUed  to 
Rome  to  have  Bi^op  Cheverus  of  Boston  associated 
with  him  in  goveroing  the  Diocese  of  Baltimore  with 
riijit  of  succesmon.  But  Bishop  Cheverus  objected, 
propomng  instead  that  a  coadjutor  be  appointol  with 
right  of  succession.  To  this  the  archbishop  agreed, 
and  Rev.  Ambrose  Mar^chal  was  selected  by  Arch- 
bishop Neale,  who  proposed  his  name  to  the  Holy  Sec. 
By  a  brief  of  Piua  VlI,  dated  24  July,  1817,  Father 
Mar^dial  was  appointed  coadjutor  with  right  of  suc- 
cession, under  the  title  of  Bishop  of  Stauropolis  in 
partibus  infiddium.  but  before  the  arrival  of  tne  brief 
the  venerable  archbishop  had  already  died. 

CuHic,  Uki  d/  iA<  drcanri  Binhapt.  T  <Neir  york.  1BT3); 
8be«,  HiHory  ofVu  (7al*o(ie  CTiurrt  ipi  U.  S.  (Sew  YorL,  1890S; 
SCHABT.  Chronkla  o/  BaUimarc  IBnltimora.  1874).  p.  386. 

J.  Pkehton  W.  McNbal. 
Nabo,  MoTiNT(Heh.l33-in;  LXX. :  NajSoii),  a  m 


ised  IJind  (beut.,  xxxii,  49),  and  where  he  died  (ibid., 
Xixiv,  1,5).  The  same  is  probably  mentioned  in  the 
waaderingsin  Num.,  xxxiii,  47:  "And  departing  from 
Helmondeblathaim,  they  came  to  the  mountains  of 
Abarim  over  against  Nabo"  (Heb.  Nebo),  though 
here  the  reference  may  be  to  the  town  (see  Nabo). 
The  location  of  Mount  Nebo  is  doubtful.  A  eom- 
oarison  of  Deut.,  iii,  27  (cf.  Num.,  invii,  12)  with 
Deut.,  xzxii,  49  indicates  that  the  "top  of  Phasga" 
and  Nebo  were  variant  names  referring  to  the  same 
n>Ot.  Difficulty  arises  in  that  from  no  point  of  the 
Abarim  range  cloes  it  seem  possible  to  behold  all  the 
territory  mentioned  in  Deut.,  xxxiv,  1-3,  especially 
if  the  furthermost  sea"  means  the  Mediterranean, 
■s  in  Deut.,  xi,  24.     By   some   Nebo   is   identified 


!9  HEBBA8KA 

with  the  modem  Jebel  Neba,  an  obloi^  ridm  on  an 
elevated  plateau  five  miles  south-west  of  Hesebon, 
2700  feet  above  sea  level. 

HuHMiuDBB.  Comnmt.  in  Dnl.  (Fuu,  ISOl),  2n.B33.U0 
■qq.;  Om.\%.iT.  Hbuti  with  tlu  Bible.  VI  (Ne>  York.  1890),  ISO; 
Dki»«b  in  IrUimat.  Crli.  Commnu.  (New  Yoifc.  18BB).  Dtuttr- 
Oitmu.  C&ap.  xx*i: 

James  F.  Dribcoll. 

Nebruka,  meaning  in  English,  "shallow  water", 

occupies  Kcographicam'  a  central  location  among  the 
states  of  the  Umon  and  is  a  part  of  the  Louisiana  ter- 
ritory, purchased  from  France  in  1803.    It  is  bounded 
on  tne  north  by  South  Dakota;  on  the  east  by  the 
Missouri  River,  which  separates  it  from  Iowa,  and  the 
north-west  comerof  Missouri;  on  the  south  by  Kansas 
and  Colorado;  and  on  the  west  by  Colorado  and 
Wyoming.    It  has  an  area  of  76,840  souare  miles.   The 
surface  of  the  state  is  mainly  an  undulating  plain  with 
a  gradual  upgrade  from  south-east  to  north-west  of 
about  2300  feet.     It  is  drained  by  several  streams,  the 
principal  being  the  Platt«,  which  is  formed  by  the 
junction  of  two  forks 
rising  in  the  Rocky 
Mountains    and 
flowing  east  through 
the  centre    of    the 
state  to    the   Mis-  . 
souri,   and   receives  J 
many  tributaries  in  I 
its  course.     The  I 
Niobrara     flows  \ 
north  to  the  Mis- 
souri, and  the  Re- 
publ  I  can  i  n  the  south 
empties  in(o  the 
Kansas  River.    Ex- 
cept at  certain  sea- 
sons, all  these  rivers  Seal  of  «.»*.«, 
are  shallow.    The  population  by  the  census  of  1910 
is  1,192,214.    The  chmate  is  exceptionally  fiae.    The 
mountain   breeies  sweep   over   the   plains  and  ow- 
ing to  the  splendid  drainage,  the  atmosphere,  purged 
of  all  malaria,  is  dry  and  exhilarating.     The  annual 
mean  temperature  is  about  43°  Fahrenheit;  in  winter, 
22°  and  in  mid-summer,  75".     The  winters  are  com- 

Earatively  short  and  the  summers  free  from  excessive 
eat  and  humidity. 
RBBomtCBB. — Nebraska  may  be  described  as  alto- 
gether an  amcultural  state,  being  practically  without 
minerals.  Deposits  of  coal  have  been  discovered  only 
in  very  small  quantities.  Building  stone  of  the  Ume- 
stone  varieties  is  also  found,  but  not  extensively. 
Excepting  in  the  north-west  where  there  is  a  barren 
tract,  known  as  the  Bad  Lands,  rich  in  fossil  remains, 
the  soil  is  a  deep,  rich  loam,  exceedingly  fertile.  Pro- 
fessor Aughey  in  "Nebraska,  Its  Advantages,  Re- 
sources," etc.,  says  "One  of  the  most  remarkable  de- 
ports, and  most  valuable  for  agricultural  purposes,  in 
the  world,  prevails  over  three  fourths  of  the  surface  of 
Nebraska.  It  is  known  as  the  lacustrine  or  loess 
deposit".  Beneath  this  there  is  a  porous  subsoil 
which  enables  Nebraska  to  stand  a  drought  much 
longer  than  any  of  the  bordering  states.  The  report 
of  the  monetary  value  of  Nebraska's  farm  output  for 
1909  is  extraordinary,  when  we  recollect  how  recently 
this  territory  was  part  of  the  desert  and  so  designated 
on  the  maps.  The  accompanying  table  is  taken  f  ronf 
the  carefully  prepared  report  of  H.  M.  Bushnell's 
Trade  Review,  published  in  Lincoln. 

The  report  covering  the  manufactures  of  Nebraska 
for  1908,  issued  in  August,  1909,  by  the  State  Bureau 
of  Labour  and  Statistics,  gives  the  amount  of  capital 


190S,  embracing  34.419.471  acres,  wa8»I,015,040,225. 
For  1909,  the  total  valuation  of  all  property  in  the 
state  exclusive  of  r^lroads,  was  }1, 722, 197, 270;  the 


VEBRABKA 


730 


IXEBRASKA 


valuation  of  railroads  being  1274,044,325.  The  means 
of  communication  is  almost  exclusively  by  railroads, 
of  which  there  are  6105  miles  in  operation. 


Com 

Wheat 

Oata 

Hay 

Alfalfa 

Honea 

Cattle 

Hon 

Banoy,  lye,  and  cane 

Potatoes  

Poultiy  products   

Daily  products 

Minor  crops,  beets,  fruit,  etc. 


Total 


169,170,137  bushels 
50,313,600      .. 
69.653.479      „ 
6.900,269   tons 
1,971,770      „ 


4.047.964  bushels 
7.386.497 


tt 


t93.048.450 
43.659,174 
23.861,000 
59.258.812 
23.661,140 
24.513,530 
26.375,812 
33.179.177 
3.796,977 
5,096.977 
18.732.436 
36.745.600 
10,650,000 


9402,579.085 


Education  and  Religion. — Educational  facili- 
ties are  exc^tionally  good.  The  State  University, 
founded  15  February,  1869,  enjoys  a  high  reputation 
as  an  institute  of  learning,  especially  in  all  technical 
branches  of  science.  The  professors  and  teaching 
staff  number  250  persons,  with  an  attendance  of  3611 
students.  The  appropriation  for  actual  expenses  for 
the  two  years  ending  31  March.  1911,  amounts  to 
$1,238,000.  There  aro  6930  public  schools,  of  which 
103  are  normal  training  high  schools.  The  total  ex- 
penditure for  schools  for  year  ending  13  July,  1908^ 
was  $6,416,342.  Of  this  amount,  $4,032,610,  was  di- 
vided m  salaries  among  10,355  teachers.  Catholic 
education  is  well  provided  for.  Besides  Creighton 
University,  there  are  one  coll^  for  boys,  fifteen  con- 
vent boaroing  schools  for  girls,  and,  including  some 
district  schools,,  practically  Catholic,  there  are  one 
hundred  and  four  parochial  schools  with  an  attend- 
ance of  10,714  pupils.  Of  these,  nine  are  accredited 
to  the  State  Univermty,  and  three  are  recognised  by 
the  state  for  normal  training  work.  Of  non-Catholic 
educational  institutions,  the  principal  are:  Wesleyan 
University  (Methodist),  and  Cotner  University 
(Christian),  both  near  Lincoln;  Bellevue  College 
(Presbyterian)  near  Omaha;  Doane  College  (Consre- 

gitional)  at  (>ete;  Brownell  College  (EpiscopalianTat 
maha.  Other  institutions  under  state  control  in- 
clude one  penitentiaiy,  one  reform  school,  two  indus- 
trial homes,  three  insane  asylums,  one  Home  for  the 
Friendless,  one  institute  for  the  feeble-minded,  one 
hospital  for  crippled  and  defonned  children,  one  insti- 
tute for  the  blind,  one  for  the  deaf  and  aumb,  two 
homes  for  soldiers  and  sailors.  Catholic  institutions 
include  four  hospitals  (Omaha,  Lincoln,  Columbus, 
and  Grand  Island),  manased  by  the  Sisters  of  St. 
Francis;  two  orphan  asylums,  containing  210  in- 
mates; a  reformatoiy  for  women,  managed  by  the  Sis- 
ters of  the  Good  Shepherd;  one  Industrial  and  Re- 
form school.  The  Methodists  and  Presbyterians  have 
each  a  hospital  at  Omaha. 

The  Constitution  of  Nebraska  guarantees  complete 
freedom  of  worship  and  egual  rights  to  men  of  every 
creed,  but  reoogiition  is  ^ven  to  the  pre-eminence  of 
Christianity.  While  there  is  no  law  specially  directed 
asainst  blasphemy,  there  is  a  statute  against  profanitv 
wtiich  imposes  a  fine  of  twenty-five  cents  for  each  of- 
fence on  all  over  fourteen  years  who  profanely  swear 
by  the  name  of  God,  Jesus  Christ,  or  the  Holy  Ghost 
(sec.  242.  Proc.  Crim.  Code  Neb. ) .  The  observance  of 
Sunday  by  abstention  from  all  unnecessary  labour  is 
enforced  by  state  and  local  ordinances  with  reason- 
able strictness,  an  exemption  bdng  made  in  favour  of 
those  who,  by  a  precept  of  their  reUsion,  observe  the 
seventh  inst^d  of  the  first  day  of  the  week.  Oaths 
are  administered  by  raising  the  right  hand  and  calling 
God  to  witness;  where  conscientious  convictions  inter- 
pose, an  affirmation  can  be  made  instead.  Both 
houses  of  the  legislature  are  opened  with  prayer  by 
a  chaplain,  appointed  to  hold  office  during  the  ses- 
9iop.    Statutory  law  exempts  the  priest  from  revealing 


communications  made  under  seal  of  the  oonfesdonal 
without  the  consent  of  the  informant  (sec.  328, 
Civil  Code,  Neb.).  Christmas  Day  is  the  only  re- 
ligious holiday  recognised  as  such  by  law. 

Ecclesiastical  property,  by  diocesan  statute,  is 
vested  in  the  bisnop  as  trustee,  but  there  is  no  avil 
statute  so  ordainins.  Under  sees.  4193-4,  "Corpora- 
tions, 1909,  Nebraska  Civil  dkxie",  each  parish  can  or- 
giuise  and  incorporate  in  the  manner  provided:  "The 
chief,  or  presiding  or  executive  officer  of  the  rdigious 
bodies,  sects,  and  denominations  mentioned  in  the 
first  section  of  this  act,  may,  at  such  place  in  this  state 
as  he  mav  appoint  for  the  purpose,  convene  a  meeting 
of  himseli  and  some  other  officer  subordinate  to  him- 
self, but  having  general  jurisdiction  throughout  the 
state  or  part  of  the  state  aforesaid,  and  the  priest,  min- 
ister or  clergyman  of  the  proposed  chureh,  parish  or 
society,  and  at  least  two  laymen,  residents  within  the 
limits  thereof,  of  which  the  said  chief,  etc.  shall  be 
president  and  one  of  the  other  persons  present  shall  be 
secretary."  These  five  persons  shall  tnen  adopt  arti- 
cles of  incorporation  and  shall  have  power  to  luune  the 
chureh  or  parish,  decide  the  manner  in  which  it  shaO 
contract  and  be  bound  for  debts,  or  convey,  encumber 
or  charge  the  property,  regulate  succession  of  mem- 
bers, fill  vacancies,  name  time  corporation  is  to  last  and 
decide  by  what  officers  its  affairs  shall  be  conducted. 
Under  this  last  clause  the  diocesan  regulation  can  be 
adopted  as  the  rule  under  which  the  affairs  of  the 
parish  shall  be  conducted.  If  the  five  persons  neglect 
to  file  articles  of  inoori>oration  for  the  parish,  the  dioc- 
esan regulation  investing  the  property  in  the  bishop, 
as  trustee,  has  no  recognition  from  the  civil  law,  and 
without  a  supplementary  action  in  amendment,  a 
transfer  of  the  property  by  the  bishop,  as  trustee,  will 
be  def^tive  in  title.  If  the  five  persons,  at  the  time 
of  the  organisation  of  the  parish,  adopted  the  diocesan 
rule  and  then  filed  articles  of  incorix)ration,  the  action 
of  the  bishop,  as  trustee,  would  be  legal.  Otherwise, 
the  neglect  to  incorporate  obstructs  the  operation  ot 
the  diocesan  statute.^  Churches,  parochial  schools, 
and  charitable  institutions  are  exempt  from  taxation, 
and  clergymen  are  also  exempt  from  personal  taxes 
and  are  not  hable  to  military  or  jury  service.  Catho- 
lic priests  have  free  access  to  all  state  institutions  and 
their  courteous  treatment  has  been  a  rule  without 
exception. 

The  status  of  the  Bible  in  the  public  schools  has 
been  the  subject  of  contention,  but  the  decisions  of  the 
Supreme  Court  are  not  very  clear  and  seem  contradic- 
tory. In  1899,  a  teacher  in  a  Gage  County  school  ob- 
tained permission  from  the  local  school  board  to  have 
religious  exercises  during  school  hours.  The  reading 
of  the  Bible  was  a  feature  of  the  exercises.  One  Dan- 
id  Freeman,  a  free-thinker,  whose  children  attended 
the  school,  objected.  The  question  was  referred  to 
the  state  superintendent  who  decided  against  FVee- 
man.  In  the  meantime  Freeman  hmn  an  action  at 
law  in  the  Gage  Countv  District  Court;  the  deci- 
sion was  against  him.  The  case  was  M>pealed  to  the 
Supreme  Court  and  the  judgment  of  the  lower  court 
was  reversed.  Commissioner  Ames  decided  that  the 
reading  of  the  Bible  in  the  public  schools  was  a  breach 
of  the  Constitution.  In  this  opinion,  CommissionerB 
Duffie  and  Albert  coincided.  Jud^  Sedgwick  coin- 
cided on  the  ground  that  the  instruction  was  sectarian. 
Judge  Holcomb  also  coincided  as  to  the  partictdar 
case,  but  held  that,  excepting  its  use  for  sectarian  pur- 
poses, the  readini^  of  the  Bifie  was  discretionanr  with 
the  school  authonties  (State  of  NebraskiL  ex  rtC  Dan- 
iel Freeman  v,  John  Scheve,  et  oZ.,  Vol.  LXV,  page 
853).  A  motion  for  rehearing  was  filed  21  January, 
1903,  and  Chief-Justice  Sullivan,  while  overruling  the 
motion  for  a  rehearing,  ^ave  the  opinion,  that  "The 
section  of  the  Constitution  which  provided  that  no 
sectarian  instruction  shall  be  allowea  in  any  school  or 
insGtutioo  supported  i&  wfoole  or  in  part  by  the  public 


NSB11A8XA  731  mB&ASXA 

funds  set  apart  for  educational  purposes  cannot,  under  and  critics  claim  that  he  did  not  come  further  north 

any  canon  of  construction  with  which  we  are  ao-  than  a  point  in  Kansas,  near  Junction  City.    In  1662 

quainted,  be  hdd  to  mean  that  neither  the  Bible  nor  another  attempt  to  reach  Quivera  is  said  to  have  been 

any  part  of  it,  from  Genesis  to  Revelation,  may  be  made  under  command  of  Don  Diego,  Count  of  Pene- 

read  in  the  educational  institutions  fostered  by  the  losa,  and  accompanied  by  Father  Nicholas  de  Freytas 

state.    We  do  not  wish  to  be  understood  as  either  who  wrote  an  daborate  and  detailed  account  of  the 

countenancing  or  discoimtenancing  the  reading  of  the  expedition.     It  is  claimed  Penelosa  reached  the  Platte, 

Bible  in  the  public  schools.    Even  where  it  is  an  irri-  where  he  foimd  a  very  populous  dty  belonging  to 

tant  element^  the  question,  whether  its  legitimate  use  Quivera.  As  it  was  biuned  in  one  night,  it  could  have 

shall  be  contmued  or  discontinued,  is  an  administra-  been  but  a  large  Indian  village.    Penelosa  returned 

tive  and  not  a  judicifd  question;  it  belongs  to  the  to  Mexico  in  June,  1662.   Not  much  credence  is  given 

school  authorities  and  not  the  courts.    The  motion  for  to  the  storv  of  Penelosa.    In  1673  Spcdn  claimed  all 

a  rehearing  is  overruled  and  the  judgment  heretofore  the  trans-Mississippi  region,  but  ten  years  later  La 

rendered  is  adhered  to''  (ibid.,  p.  887).  Salle  asserted  the  sovereimty  of  France.     In  1762 

Marriage  and  Divorce.— -Subject  to  procuring  a  the  French  relinquished  all  this  territory  to  Spain, 
civil  licence,  marriage  can  be  le^sJly  p^ormed  oy  but  it  was  receded  to  France  in  1800;  finally  in  1803 
every  judge  and  justice  of  the  peace  and  every  under  the  name  of  Louisiana  Territory,  it  passed  by 
preacher  of  the  Gospel  authorizkl  by  the  usages  of  the  purchase  into  the  possession  of  the  United  States.  In 
Church  to  which  he  belongs.  Decrees  of  divorce  are  many  American  works  the  statement  is  made^  that, 
given  for  the  following  causes:  adultery^  Imprison-  the  first  white  men  to  visit  and  ^ve  a  description  of 
ment  for  three  years  or  more;  wilful  desertion  for  two  Nebraska  were  Lewis  and  Clark.  This  is  incorrect, 
years;  habitual  drunkenness;  extreme  cruelty;  wanton  The  sixth  volume  of  Pierre  Margrjr's  '' D^couvertes 
neglect  to  supix}rt  wife.  The  state  was  gettmg  an  un-  et  Etablissements  des  FrauQais  dans  TAmdrique" 
enviable  notoriety  for  the  facility  of  securing  (Svorces,  (Paris,  1856),  now  in  the  library  of  the  State  Histori- 
and  many  outsiders  were  taking  advantage  of  it.  To  cal  Society,  contains  the  records  of  several  expeditions 
stop  this,  amendatoiy  enactments  were  passed  by  the  to  the  re^ons  between  the  Mississippi  and  the  Mis- 
legislature  of  1909.  At  present,  no  divorce  can  be  souri  and  further  west.  Among  them  is  the  ori^nal 
granted  for  any  cause  unless  petitioner  has  had  one  report  of  the  journey  of  Pierre  and  Paul  Mallet  and 
year's  actual  residence  in  the  state  immediately  before  their  compamons  across  Nebraska  on  a  mission  to 
brin^njg  suit  and  shall  then  have  a  bona-fide  intention  Santa  F6  to  open  up  trade  facilities  with  the  Spaniards 
of  making  his  or  her  permanent  home  in  Nebraska —  of  New  Mexico.  The  Mallets  were  French  Canadians 
unless  the  marriage  was  solemnized  in  the  state  and  and  their  companions  were  PhilHpe  Robitaille,  Louis 
the  parties  shall  have  resided  therein  from  the  time  of  Morin,  Michel  Beslot.  Joseph  Bellecourt,  also  Cana- 
marriage  to  the  filing  of  petition.  No  person  ^all  be  dians,  and  Jean  Davia,  a  native  of  France, 
entitled  to  a  divorce  for  any  cause  arising  outside  of  The  report  reads:  ''To  understand  the  route  taken 
the  state  unless  petitioner  or  defendant  smill  have  re-  by  these  Canadians  to  discover  New  Mexico,  it  is  well 
sided  within  the  state  at  least  two  years  next  before  to  know  that  it  is  100  leagues  from  the  village  of  the 
brin^g  suit  for  divorce,  with  a  hononfide  intention  of  Illinois  [Indians]  to  those  of  the  Missouris  on  the  river 
makmg  his  or  her  permanent  home  in  Nebradca.  No  of  that  name;  80  leagues  from  there  to  the  Canzes 
divorce  shall  be  granted  where  collusion  seems  to  have  [Kansas];  100  leagues  from  the  Kansas  to  the  Octoc- 
existed  between  the  parties  or  where  boUi  have  been  tates  [Otoes]  and  60  from  there  to  where  the  river  of 
guilty  of  the  same  misconduct.  No  person  shall  be  the  Panimahas  [Omahas]  empties  into  the  Missouri 
entitled  to  a  divorce  unless  defendant  shall  have  be<m  [Omaha  Creek  in  the  north-east  of  Nebraska]'', 
personally  served  with  a  process,  if  within  the  state,  or  This  nation  is  located  at  the  mouth  of  the  river  of 
with  personal  notice  diuy  proved  and  appearing  of  their  name  and  it  was  there  the  discoverers  took  their 
recora,  if  outside  the  state.  After  three  months  of  rea-  starting-point,  29  M^,  1739.  All  who  had  hitherto 
sonable  search  after  filing  petition,  court  may  author-  attempted  to  reach  New  Mexico  thought  they  could 
ise  notice  by  publication.  Decree  becomes  operative  find  it  at  the  sources  of  the  Missouri,  and  with  that 
and  final  only  at  expiration  of  six  months.  In  1909  idea  had  gone  up  as  far  as  the  Ricaras  [Indians],  more 
there  were  1807  divorces.  In  the  same  period  there  than  150  leagues  above  the  Panis  [Pawnees],  with 
were  10982  marriages.  whom  th^y  confoimd  or  include  the  Omahas  or  Pani- 

LiQUOR  Laws. — Liquor  laws  are  strict  and  well  mahas.  The  discoverers^  on  the  advice  of  some'  of  the 
enforced.  The  manufacture  or  sale  of  intoxicating  aborigines,  took  an  entirely  different  direction  and 
liquor  is  forbidden  in  many  of  the  smaller  towns  and  leaving  ihe  Pawnees  took  a  route  across  the  country, 
cities,  and  notably  in  Lincoln,  the  capital.  Where  the  retracing  their  steps  almost  parallel  with  the  Missouri, 
trade  is  licensed^  it  is  under  tne  ssrstem  known  as  high  On  2  June,  they  met  with  a  river  which  they  called  the 
licence  and  subject  to  the  operation  of  the  Slocomb  Plate  LPlatte]  and,  seeing  that  it  did  not  diverge  from 
Law.  the  most  effective  law  ever  passed  for  a  severe  the  route  they  had  mapped  out,  they  followed  up  its 
regulation  of  the  liquor  traffic  under  ike  licence  sys-  rig^t  bank  for  about  25  leap;ues  when  they  found  it 
tem.  Under  its  provisions,  treating  is  a  misdemeanour  made  a  fork  with  the  river  of  the  Padocas  which  emp- 
subject  to  fine;  selling  to  minors  is  punished  by  severe  ties  itself  at  this  point.  Three  days  after  that,  on  13 
penalties,  and  the  saloon-keeper  and  those  on  his  bond  June,  they  crossed  to  the  left  bank  of  said  river.  On  the 
are  liable  to  a  maximum  or  $5,000  damages  at  the  fifteenth  and  sixteenth  they  continued  across  the  coun- 
suit  of  any  woman  whose  husband  has  been  allowed  to  tiy  and  on  the  seventeenth  thpy  fell  upon  another  river 
become  a  habitual  drunkard  by  frequenting  the  saloon-  which  they  named  Des  Costes  Blanches.  During  these 
keeper's  place  of  business.  By  statute  passed  during  three  days,  they  crossed  a  country  of  plains  where  they 
the  legislature  of  1909,  saloons  can  sell  hquor  only  be-  found  barely  enough  wood  to  make  fires  and  it  appears 
tween  the  hours  of  7  a.  m.  and  8  p.  m.  on  week  days,  from  their  Journal  that  these  plains  extended  all  the 
Sunday  trading  is  forbidden  and  the  law  rigidly  way  to  the  mountains  near  Santa  F6.  On  the  six- 
enforced,  teenth  they  camped  on  the  banks  of  another  river 

HisTORT. — (1^  Civil, — JJp  to  1541  the  history  of  which  they  crossed  and  named  Riviftre  Aimable.    On 

Nebraska  is  a  blank.    In  that  year  it  is  claimed  that  the  nineteenth  they  crossed  another  river  which  they 

Francisco  Vasquez  de  Coronado  led  a  party  of  Span-  called  Rivi^  des  Souds.    On  the  twentieth  they 

iards  in  search  for  the  fabled  Kingdom  of  Quivera,  struck  the  Rivi^  des  Cances.    This  river  was  prol>- 

supposed  to  be  a  land  of  boundless  wealth.    It  is  ably  not  tiie  Kansas  but  the  Arkansas  River.    In  any 

claimed  that  he  reached  40^  N.  Lat^  which  is  the  case,  both  are  south  of  the  Nebraska  state  line,  mak- 

aouth  boimdary  line  of  Nebraska.    Tiiis  is  disputed  ing  it  clear  that  these  French  Canadian  CawolicSy 


VEBBABKA 


732 


VKBBASKA 


Pierre  and  Paul  Mallet,  crossed  Nebraska  in  a  south- 
westerly direction  in  1739  on  their  way  to  Santa  F6 
and  gave  an  authentic  account  of  the  territory  sixty- 
five  years  before  Lewis  and  Clark  visited  it. 

Subsequent  to  that  date,  many  French  Canadians 
and  French  Creoles  of  Louisiana  made  their  homes  in 
Nebraska;  they  were  hunters  and  trappers  connected 
with  the  fur-trading  expeditions,  who  married  Indian 
women  and  lived  under  the  protection  of  the  tribes 
with  which  they  had  become  related.  When  allotting 
land  to  the  Indians,  the  government  set  aside  a  tract 
in  the  south-east  part  of  the  state  called  the  ''Half- 
Breed  Tract",  the  French  Canadians  who  had  mar- 
ried squaws  settled  on  this  land.  Among  these  were 
Charles  Rouleau,  Henry  Fontenelle,  and  Michel 
Barada,  who  had  towns  named  after  them.  Sarpy 
county  is  also  called  after  a  French  Creole,  named 
Louis  Sarpy.  As  late  as  1846,  Nebraska  had  prac- 
tically no  other  population  than  the  Omahas,  Otoes. 
Poncas,  Pawnees,  and  Sioux.  In  that  year  occurred 
the  Mormon  heaira  and  a  temporaiy  settlement  in  the 
desert  was  made  by  them  at  Florence,  near  Omaha, 
lasting  for  about  a  year,  until  they  moved  on  to  Utah. 
The  fist  permanent  white  settlers  came  in  the  train 
of  the  '49  rush  to  California,  and  on  30  May,  1854, 
Nebraska  was  organized  as  a  territory  with  an  area 
of  351,558  square  miles,  reaching  from  40°  N.  lat. 
to  the  British  boundaiy  line,  and  west  from  the 
Missouri  to  the  Rocky  Mountains.  This  was  finally 
cut  down  to  the  present  area  of  the  state.  The  cre- 
ation of  the  Kansas  and  Nebraska  territories  was 
the  cause  of  the  bitter  ouarrel  between  the  slavery  and 
anti-slavery  parties  ana  ultimately  led  to  the  secession 
of  the  southern  states.  On  1  March,  1867,  President 
Johnson  proclaimed  Nebraska  a  state  of  the  Union, 
adding  the  thirty-seventh  star  to  the  American  flag. 
After  the  Civil  War,  many  of  the  discharged  soldiers 
secured  grants  of  Nebra^a  land  under  the  Home- 
stead Law.  They  were  followed  by  men  who  worked 
in  the  construction  of  the  Union  Pacific  and  Burling- 
ton railroads  and  who  bouj^t  up  the  land  donated  to 
the  railroad  companies.  There  was  a  steady  inflow 
of  immigrants  and  land-seekers  until  the  visitation 
of  the  grasshopper  plague  in  1874,  when  many  settlers 
became  discouraged  and  left  the  state.  But  the  rush 
for  land  was  on,  the  grasshoppers  were  forgotten, 
and  an  increasing  stream  of  inm:iigration  poured  in. 
There  are  no  statistics  to  indicate  the  nationality  of 
foreign-bom  immisrants,  but  the  Germans  are  the 
most  numerous,  followed  by  the  Scandinavians,  Irish, 
Bohemians,  and  British  in  the  order  named.  In  late 
vears  Italians  have  become  an  immigrating  element, 
but  not  to  any  considerable  extent.  Althou^  the 
first  to  enter  the  state,  French  Canadian  immigrants 
are  not  numerous. 

Catholic  Immigration. — ^While  many  Catholics 
were  among  the  immigrants  subseouent  to  1849. 
there  was  no  attempt  at  Catholic  colonization  until 
1855.  when  Father  Tracy  induced  a  number  of  Irish 
families  to  settle  in  Dakota  County,  where  their  d^ 
scendants  constitute  the  wealthiest  and  most  promi- 
nent people  in  that  section.  In  1874  General  O'Neill, 
with  eighteen  Irish  Catholics  from  Boston,  colonized  a 
tract  in  Holt  Countv;  they  were  followed  by  others, 
and  a  town  was  laid  out  which  they  named  O'Neill. 
O'Neill  is  now  one  of  the  most  progressive  cities  north 
of  the  Platte  and  the  centre  of  a  prosperous  Catholic 
community.  In  1877  some  of  those  who  went  to 
Holt  County  with  General  O'Neill,  dissatisfied  with 
the  outlook  there,  took  up  land  in  Greeley  County. 
In  compliment  to  Bishop  James  O'Connor  of  Omaha, 
General  O'Neill  named  his  first  town  site,  O'Connor. 
The  town  was  subsequently  moved  to  where  the 
church  and  convent  of  O'Connor  now  stand,  while 
the  present  county  seat,  Greeley  Center,  was  built 
half  a  mile  north  of  the  original  site.  A  colonization 
company  was  formed  and  a  tract  of  land  was  secured 


by  Bishop  O'Connor,  John  Fitzgerald.  William  Quan. 
and  William  J.  Onahan  of  Chicago,  ana  others,  and  sold 
at  $2  per  acre  to  Irish  colonists  from  Massachusetts 
and  Pennsylvania.  This  is  now  a  veiy  prosperous  Cath- 
olic  section  embracing  the  thriving  towns  of  Greeley 
Center,  Spalding,  and  Scotia,  and  comprising  a  wealthy 
fanning  population.  Land  purchased  by  the  colonists 
at  $2  per  acre  is  appraised  in  1910  at  from  $60  to  $100 
per  acre.  Besides  these  orsanized  colonies,  many 
Irish  Catholic  families  drifted  into  Nebradca  during 
the  years  preceding  1874.  During  that  period  there 
was  also  a  comparatively  large  immigration  of  German 
Catholics,  but  without  anv  regular  ^ort  at  coloni- 
zation. The  Germans  followM  in  the  wake  of  tibe 
Catholic  priest.  Platte  County  is  almost  entirdy 
populated  by  German  Catholics,  the  immigration  be- 
ing^ largdv  due  to  the  efforts  of  Father  Ambrose, 
O.F.M.,  the  first  Franciscan  pastor  in  that  section. 
In  Cedar  County,  there  are  ei^t  large  parishes  of 
German  Catholics,  who  were  induced  to  settle  in  that 
district  during  the  same  period  by  the  late  FatJier 
Daxascher,  the  first  pastor  of  St.  Hdena  in  that 
county.  South  of  the  Platte  there  are  also  several 
wejl-to-do  German  settlements,  but  no  distinct  cd- 
onies.  There  is  an  Austrian  settlement  at  Bellwood 
in  Buffalo  Coimty.  Bohemian  Catholics  are  quite 
numerous  north  and  south  of  the  Platte.  The  Cath- 
olic immigrants  of  all  nationalities  who  settled  on  the 
land  have  prospered  in  a  measure  beyond  thdr  most 
sanguine  expectations.  A  pleasing  feature  in  regard  to 
Catholic  settlement  in  Nebraaka  is  the  frequent  inter- 
marriages between  the  young  people  of  different  races, 
especially  between  the  Irish  and  uerman  elements. 

Catholics  hold  prominent  positions  in  the  political, 
social,  and  industrial  life  of  the  community,  though 
Nebraska  has  not  yet  had  a  Catholic  Gfoveinor. 
Prominent  amo^  the  benefactors  and  builders  of  the 
state  have  been  Edward  and  John  Creighton,  f oimders 
of  Crdghton  University  and  other  beneficial  institu- 
tions in  Omaha.  John  Fitzgerald  of  Lincoln  was  also 
a  generous  benefactor  to  Catholic  works,  religious 
and  educational,  in  this  and  other  cities.  John  A. 
McShane  represented  the  then  First  Nebraska  dis- 
trict in  Congress  in  1886  and  in  1888  was  the  unsuc- 
cessful candidate  for  governor  in  opposition  to  Gen- 
eral John  M.  Thayer.  Constantine  J.  Smythe  was 
attorney-general  of  the  state  from  1897  to  1901.  The 
present  state  treasurer  is  Lawson  G.  Brian.  Many 
Catholics  have  represented  congressional  districts; 
the  first  district,  which  includes  the  capital,  is  now 
(1910)  represented  by  John  A.  Maguire.  In  all  cases 
where  Catholics  have  held  public  offices,  their  records 
have  been  most  creditable. 

(2)  Ecdeaiastical  History.  —  Ecclesiastically,  Ne- 
braska was  first  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Fran- 
ciscan Bernard  Boil,  Provincial  of  the  Franciscans  in 
Spain,  according  to  the  Bull  of  Alexander  VI,  dated 
25  June,  1493.  Theoretically,  it  became  part  of  the 
ecclesiastical  jurisdiction  of  Spsdn  until  1682.  when  it 
passed  over  to  the  spiritual  domain  of  the  Bishop  of 
Quebec.  In  1776  it  oecame  subject  to  the  Diocese  of 
Havana,  Cuba.  After  the  recession  of  the  liouisiana 
territory  to  Firance,  the  French  exercised  jurisdiction 
until  1805,  when  the  territories  embraced  in  the 
Louisiana  Purchase  passed  to  the  spiritual  rule  of 
Bishop  Carroll  of  Baltimore.  In  1815  the  region  was 
transferr^  to  the  Bishop  of  New  Orleans,  and  in  1827 
to  the  Bishop  of  St.  Louis.  In  1850  the  territory 
became  part  of  the  "Vicariate  Apostolic  of  the  terri- 
tory east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  :  this  vicariate  em- 
braced all  the  territory  from  the  Missouri  River  to 
the  Rocky  Mountains  and  from  the  south  boundary  of 
Kansas  to  the  British  line.  Rt.  Rev.  John  B.  Miege, 
S.  J.,  was  appointed  vicar-Apostolic.  In  1857  Kan- 
sas was  cut  off  and  the  Vicariate  of  Nebraska  was 
erected.  This  vicariate  was  fiirther  reduced  to  the 
territories  of  Nebraska  and  Wyoming,  and  in  1885  the 


NBBUCHADNXZZAB 


733 


NECBSSXTT 


State  of  Nebraska  became  the  Diocese  of  Omaha,  with 
the  then  yicar-Apostolic,  Rt.  Rev.  James  O'Connor, 
as  its  tot  bishop.  In  1887  all  that  part  of  Nebraska, 
south  of  the  Platte  and  of  the  south  fork  of  the  Platte, 
was  erected  into  the  Diocese  of  Lincoln,  with  Rt. 
Rev.  Thomas  Bonacum  as  its  first  bishop.  The  Cath- 
die  population  of  Nebraska  is  estimated  at  a  slight 
increase  over  117,058,  the  figures  given  in  Wiltzius's 
Directoxy  for  1910.  The  coloured  and  Indian 
Catholics  included  are  too  few  to  be  worthy  of  special 
enumeration.  For  the  last  week  in  September,  1909. 
the  following  figures  were  ^ven  as  the  numerical 
strength  of  uie  various  non-<)atho]ic  denominations 
in  Nebraska:  Methodists,  64,352;  Lutherans,  59,- 
485;  Presbyterians,  23,862;  Disciples  (Christians), 
19,613;  Baptists,  17,939;  Con^;regationalists,  16,629; 
Episcopaliims,  6.903  (commumcants) ;  United  Breth- 
ren, 6,086:  all  other  Protestants,  19,657. 

CuBUBT,  ive6.  lU  Advantage  «te.  (New  York,  1875) ;  Bubhnbll, 
Lincoln  Trade  Review  (Lincoln,  1010) ;  Stale  Bureau  Labor  and  In' 
duetrial  Stalielice  (Linooln,  1909) ;  Nebraeka  Bdi^Uional  Directory 
(Lincoln,  1910);  Wiltsiub,  Directory  (1910);  Reports  Neb.  State 
Hiatorieal  Society;  Mabobt,  Dicouvertee  H  Bteiblieeementa  dee 
Frantaie  done  rAm^rft^tM /Paris,  1856);  Sbinb,  The  Morion  Hie- 
tory  of  NAtaeka  (Lincoln,*  1906). 

John  P.  Sutton. 

Nebuehadnosiar.    See  Nabuchodonosor. 

Neceisi^i  in  a  general  way  denotes  a  strict  con- 
nexion between  different  beines,  or  the  different  ele- 
ments of  a  being,  or  between  a  being  and  its  existence. 
It  is  therefore  a  primary  and  fundamental  notion,  and 
it  is  important  to  determine  its  various  meanings  and 
applications  in  philosophy  and  theology. 

In  Logic,  the  Schoolmen,  studying  the  mutual  re- 
lations of  concepts  which  form  the  matter  of  our  judg- 
ments, divided  the  judgments  or  propositions  into 
judgments  in  necessary  matter  {in  materia  necessaria), 
and  judgments  in  contingent  matter  (in  materia  cori' 
tinffmti).  (Cf.  S.  Thorn.,  I  Perihermen.  lect.  xiii.) 
The  judgments  in  necessary  matter  were  known  as 
vropositUmes  per  se;  they  are  called  by  modem  phi- 
losophers "analytic",  ''rational",  "pure",  or  "a 
priori"  judgments.  The  propositio  perseia  defined 
by  the  Schoolmen  as  one  the  predicate  of  which  is 
either  a  constitutive  element  or  a  natural  property  of 
the  subject.  Such  is  the  case  with  primary  truths, 
metaphysical;  and  mathematical  principles.  (Cf.  S. 
Thom.,  "In  I  Anal.",  lect.  x  and  xxxv;  "de  Anima", 
II,  lect.  xiv.)  It  is  oy  ignoring  the  last  part  of  this 
definition  and  arbitrarily  rest  noting  the  concept  of 
analytic  judgments  to  those  of  which  the  predicate  is  a 
constitutive  element  of  the  subject^  that  Kant  in- 
vented the  false  notion  of  synthetic-a  priori  judg- 
ments. 

Considered  under  its  metaphysical  aspect,  being 
in  its  relation  to  existence  is  divided  into  necessary 
and  contingent.  A  necessary  being  is  one  of  which  the 
existence  is  included  in  and  identical  with  its  very  es- 
sence. The  different  beings  which  we  observe  in  our 
daily  experience  are  subject  to  beginning,  to  change, 
to  perfection,  and  to  destruction;  existence  is  not  es- 
sential to  them  and  they  have  not  in  themselves  the 
reason  of  theur  existence;  they  are  contingent.  Their 
existence  comes  to  them  from  an  external  efficient 
cause.  It  is  from  the  real  existence  of  contingent 
beings  that  we  arrive  at  the  notion  and  prove  the  ex- 
istence of  a  necessarv  being — one  that  produces  them 
but  is  not  produced,  one  whose  existence  is  its  own 
essence  and  nature,  that  is  at  the  same  time  eternal, 
all-perfect,  infinite,  viz.,  God  (see  Contingbnct). 
And  so  in  relation  to  existence,  God  alone  is  abso- 
lutelv  necessary;  all  other  beings  are  contingent. 

When  we  consider  the  divers  beings,  not  from  the 
point  of  view  of  existence,  but  in  relation  to  their  con- 
stitution and  activity,  necessity  may  be  classified  as 
metaphysicalf  physicaly  and  moral.  Metaphysical  ne- 
ceseity  implies  that  a  thin^  is  what  it  is,  viz.,  it  has 
the  dements  essential  to  its  specific  nature.    It  is  a 


metaphysical  necessity  for  God  to  be  infinite,  man 
rational,  an  animal  a  living  being.  Metaphysical 
necessity  is  absolute.  Physical  necessity  exists  in  con* 
nexion  with  the  activity  of  the  material  beings  which 
constitute  the  imiverse.  While  they  are  contingent 
as  to  their  existence,  contingent  also  as  to  their  actual 
relations  (for  God  could  have  created  another  order 
than  the  present  one),  they  are,  however,  necessarily 
determined  in  their  activity,  both  as  to  its  exercise 
and  its  specific  character.  But  this  determination 
is  dependent  upon  certain  conditions,  the  presence  of 
which  is  requii^,  the  absence  of  one  or  the  other  of 
them  preventing  altogether  the  exercise  or  normal  ex- 
ercise of  this  activity.  The  laws  of  nature  should 
always  be  understood  with  that  limitation:  all  con- 
ditions being  realized.  The  laws  of  nature,  therefore, 
being  subject  to  physical  necessitv  are  neither  abso- 
lutely necessary,  as  materialistic  Mechanism  asserts, 
nor  merelv  contingent,  as  the  partisans  of  the  phi- 
losophy of  contingency  declare;  but  they  are  con- 
ditionally or  hypothetically  necessary.  This  hy- 
pothetical necessity  is  also  called  by  some  consequent 
necessity.  Moral  necessity  is  necessity  as  applied 
to  the  activity  of  free  beings.  We  know  that 
men  imder  certain  circumstances,  although  they  are 
free,  will  act  in  such  and  such  a  wajr.  It  is  morally 
necessary  that  such  a  man  in  such  circumstances  act 
honestly;  it  is  morally  necessary  that  several  histo- 
rians, relating  csrtsdn  facts,  should  tell  the  truth  con- 
cerning them.  This  moral  necessity  is  the  basis  of 
moral  certitude  in  historical  and  moral  sciences. 
The  term  is  also  used  with  reference  to  freedom  of  the 
will  to  denote  any  undue  physical  or  monll  influence 
that  might  prevent  the  will  from  freely  choosing  to 
act  or  not  act,  to  choose  one  thing  in  pr^erence  to  an- 
other. The  derivatives,  necessitation  and  necessa- 
rianism,  in  their  philosophical  signification  express  ^e 
doctrine  that  the  will  in  all  its  activity  is  invariably 
determined  by  physical  or  psychical  antecedent  con- 
ditions (see  Determinism;  Free  Will). 

In  theology  the  notion  of  necessity  is  sometimes 
applied  with  special  meaning.  Theologians  divide 
necessity  into  (i)soluie  and  moral.  A  thmg  is  said  to 
be  absolutely  necessary  when  without  it  a  certidn 
end  cannot  possibly  be  reached.  Thus  revelation  is 
absolutely  necessary  for  man  to  know  the  mysteries 
of  faith,  and  grace  to  perform  any  supernatural  act. 
Something  is  said  to  be  morally  necessary  when  a 
certain  end  could,  absolutely  speaking,  be  reached 
without  it,  but  cannot  actually  and  properly  be 
reached  without  it,  under  existing  conditions.  Thus, 
we  may  say  that,  absolutely  speaking,  man  as  such 
18  able  to  Imow  all  the  truths  of  the  natural  order  or 
to  observe  all  the  precepts  of  the  natural  law;  but 
considering  the  concrete  circumstances  of  human  life 
in  the  present  order,  men  as  a  whole  cannot  actually 
do  so  without  revelation  or  grace.  Revelation  and 
g^e  are  morally  necessary  to  man  to  know  suffi- 
ciently all  the  truths  of  the  natural  law  (cf .  S.  Thom., 
"Sum.  TheoL",  P.  la.,  Q.  1,  a  1;  "Contra  Gentil.", 
I,  iv). 

Again,  in  relation  to  the  means  necessary  to  salva- 
tion theologians  divide  necessitv  into  necessity  of  means 
and  necessity  of  precept  In  the  first  case  the  means 
is  so  necessary  to  salvation  that  without  it  (absolute 
necessity}  or  its  substitute  (relative  necessity),  even 
if  the  omission  is  guiltless,  the  end  cannot  be  reached. 
Thus  faith  and  baptism  of  water  are  necessary  by  a 
necessitv  of  means,  the  former  absolutely,  the  latter 
relatively,  for  salvation.  In  the  second  case,  neces- 
sity is  based  on  a  positive  precept,  commanding  some* 
thing  the  omission  of  which,  unless  culpable,  does  not 
absolutely  prevent  the  reaching  of  the  end. 

Mbbcisb,  Oniologie  (Louvain.  1902),  ii,  3;  Rickabt.  Piret  Frit^ 
eiplee  of  Knowtedge  (London,  1902),  I,  v;  Idbm,  Oeneral  Mekh 
fthyeiee  (London,  1901).  I,  iv. 

Gborqb  M.  Sauvaqb. 


MSCKAM                               734  NECBOI.OOIE8 

Neckam    (Necham),    Alexander    of,   English  ever-stainless  Virgin  Mary,  and  also  of  the  twdre 

scholar;  b.  in  Hertfordshire,  1157;  d.  at  ICempsey,  holy  Apostles  by  whose  teaching  the  world  is  rendered 

Worcestershire.  1217.    His  first  studies  were  in  the  glorious  in  the  true  faith,  to  whose  honour  this  Min- 

abbey  school  ol  St.  Albans;  his  higher  courses  began  in  ster,  which  is  called  the  New  Minster  in  distinction  to 

Paris,  in  the  school  of  Petit  Pons.    In  1180  he  com-  the  old  monastery  hard  by^  there  are  set  down  here 

menced  his  career  as  teacher  with  great  success,  his  in  due  order  the  names  of  brethren  and  monks,  of 

comprehensive  knowledge  of  philosophy  and  of  theol-  members  of  the  household  idso  IfamiUariorum  (sic)], 

ogy,  and  his  Latin  style,  both  in  prose  and  verse,  at-  or  of  benefactors  living  and  dead,  that  by  the  perish- 

tracting  many  students  to  his  lectures.    Returning  to  able  memorial  of  this  writing  they  may  be  written  in 

England  in  1186,  he  was  first  appointed  teacher  at  the  page  of  the  heavenly  book,  by  the'viitue  of  whose 

Dunstable,  and  afterwards  at  St.  Albans.    After  join-  almsdeeds  this  same  family,  tnrough  Christ's  bounty, 

ing  the  Au^ustinian  Order,  he  was  chosen,  in  1213,  is  fed.    And  let  also  the  names  of  all  those  who  have 

Abbot  of  Qrencester.  conmiended  themselves  to  its  prayers  and  its  fellow- 

Neckam  was  a  prolific  writer  on  various  subjects,  ship  be  recorded  here  in  general,  in  order  that  remem- 

but  his  works  are,  for  the  most  part,  still  in  manu-  brance  may  be  made  of  uiem  daily  in  the  sailed  cele- 

script.    He   wrote   a   grammar,    commentaries   on  bration  of  the  Mass  or  in  the  harmonious  chanting 

Scnpture  and  the  works  of  Aristotle,  theological  trea-  of  psalms.    And  let  the  names  themselves  be  pre- 

tises,  and  sermons.    He  also  translated  the  Fables  of  sented  dail^  by  the  subdeacon  before  the  altar  at  the 

JEaop  into  elegiac  verse.    Only  two  of  his  works,  early  or  pnncipal  Mass,  and  as  far  as  time  shall  allow 

however,  have  been  printed:  the  "De  naturis  rerum''  let  them  be  recited  by  him  in  the  sidit  of  the  Most 

and  the  poem  "De  laudibus  divin^e  sapientis"  (ed.  High.    And  after  the  oblation  has  been  ofifered  to 

Th.  Wright  in  Rolls  Series).    In  the  former  he  dis-  God  by  the  right  hand  of  the  cardinal  priest  who  cele- 

cusses  the  heavens,  the  stars,  the  atmosphere,  the  earth,  brates  the  Mass,  let  the  names  be  laia  upon  the  holy 

water,  and  living  organisms.    Neckam  is  the  first  altar  during  the  very  mysteries  of  the  sacred  Mass 

European  author  to  mention  the  mariners'  compass,  and  be  commended  most  humbly  to  God  Almighty; 

Hunt  in  Diet,  of  Nat.  Biogr.,  ■.  v.;  TtmjLafacuUide  tf^Mogi^  so  that  as  remembrance  is  made  of  them  upon  earth 

<M  luntveratU  de  Porta  .  .  .  moyen  Age,  I  (Pans,  1894),  268-76;      r«-*^,i  ^,y^,^  m,t4^^,yi^'^  ^^u,m  v..   #><>....*• «  ^\^^^  t ^— 

HuKTBR.  Nomenelator.  II  (innsbniakTiW).  22?-25;  HiMtoire  lit!-  [^^^^^^X^^^-  memona  ogUwr  in  tem^—a.  phrase  from 

Urairt  de  la  France,  XVIII  (Paru.  1835).  521-23.  the  Ordinanum  Misssej.  80  m  the  life  to  come,  by  His 

J.  p.  ICiBSCH.  indulgence  who  alone  knows  how  they  stand  or  are 

hereafter  to  stand  in  His  sight,  the  glory  of  those  who 
Necrologies,  or,  as  they  are  more  frequentlv  are  of  greater  merit  may  be  augmented  m  Heaven  and 
called  in  France,  obittutires,  are  the  registers  in  which  the  account  of  those  who  are  less  worthy  may  be 
religious  communities  were  accustomed  to  enter  the  lightened  in  Hb  secret  judgments.  Be  ye  glad  and  re- 
names of  the  dead — notably  their  own  deceased  mem-  joice  that  your  names  are  written  in  Heaven,  through 
bers,  their  associates,  and  their  principal  benefactors —  Jesus  Christ  our  Lord,  to  whom  with  God  the  Eternal 
with  a  view  to  the  offering  of  prayers  for  their  souls.  Father  and  the  Holy  Ghost,  there  remains  all  honour, 
The  institutions  which  maintained  such  necrologies  power,  and  glory  for  ever  and  ever.  Amen." 
differed  almost  as  much  as  the  form  in  which  the  en-  This  account  is  particularly  interesting,  because, 
tries  were  made.  There  are  necrologies  connected  although  the  laying  of  the  necrology  upon  the  altar 
with  cathedral  chapters,  others  (and  those  the  most  during  Mass  afterwwis  fell  into  disuse,  and  the  names 
numerous)  belonging  to  monasteries  and  religious  were  read  in  chapter  instead  of  in  choir,  stiU  the  extract 
houses,  others  to  colleges,  such  as,  e.  g.  the  Sorbonne  clearly  shows  that  the  book  of  obituaries  had  its  ori- 
(in  Molinier  et  Longnon,  "Obituaires",  I,  737-52),  gin  in  the  old  "diptychs"  (see  Diptych),  or  tablets, 
others  to  collegiate  churches,  others  again  to  parishes,  upon  which  were  formerly  entered  the  names  which 
while,  as  for  the  registers  themselves,  some  are  drawn  were  read  out  by  the  priest  at  the  Conunemoration  of 
up  in  the  form  of  mai^ginal  entries  in  martyrologies  the  Living  and  the  Commemoration  of  the  Dead  in 
or  calendars,  others  form  a  book  apart,  but  arranged  the  Canon  of  the  Mass.  So  far  as  can  be  seoi,  the 
according  to  the  days  of  the  month^  others  again  are  recitation  of  the  names  of  the  defimct  bishops  in  the 
mere  disorderlv  lists  of  names,  which  seem  to  have  diptychs  was  later  on  represented  by  the  reading  of 
been  written  down  just  as  they  were  sent  in,  or  as  the  martyrologium  proper,  while  the  commemoration 
occasion  arose.  Not  less  diversified  are  the  names  of  benefactors  and  other  dec»Eised  was  retained  in  the 
by  which  these  registers  were  known.  Perhaps  the  form  of  a  necrology.  It  will  be  remembered  that  in 
commonest  was  martyroloffium,  because  they  often  the  everyday  Reouiem  Mass  {misaa  quotidiana  de- 
took  the  form  of  mere  additions  to  the  martyrologium,  functorum)  of  our  Missals,  the  priest  is  first  directed 
or  list  of  martvrs  and  saints  commemorated  on  each  to  pray  "pro  defunctis  episcopis  seu  sacerdotibus", 
day.  We  find  also  necrologium,  memariale  mortuch  nejct  'pro  fratribus,  propmquis  et  benefactoribus", 
rumi  or  memoriale  frcUrum,  mortttologium,  liber  cbir  and  lastly  "pro  omnibus  fidelibus  defunctis".  This 
tuwrif  and,  more  rarely,  ohUuariuSj  sometimes,  owing  corresponds  to  the  classification  here,  vix.  of  those 
to  its  connexion  with  the  calendar,  ccdendariunif  some-  included  in  the  mart3rrologium,  those  named  in  the 
times,  because  the  monastic  rule  was  commonly  necrology,  and  those  not  specially  mentioned  at  afl. 
bound  up  in  the  same  book,  liber  reoulcB  or  simply  The  entry  of  the  names  of  the  dead  in  the  register  of  a 
reguUif  sometimes,  from  the  occasion  when  it  was  r^^  monastery  or  other  religious  institution,  and  the  oon- 
aloud,  liber  capUvU  (chapter  book),  sometimes,  in  sequent  participation  in  the  prayers  and  good  works 
reference  to  the  entries  of  the  names  of  benefactors,  of  all  its  members,  was  a  privilege  which,  from  the 
liber  Jundalionum,  or  liber  benefactorum.  Also,  al-  eighth  century  onward,  was  greatly  coveted.  Su^ 
thou^  Molinier  seems  to  contest  this  usage  (^'Les  mutual  rights  of  the  insertion  of  the  names  of  de- 
Obituaires  fran^ais'',  p.  22),  such  a  collection  of  ceased  brethren  in  each  other's  necrologes  was  a  oon* 
names,  consisting  largely  of  benefactors,  was  occasion-  stant  subject  of  negotiation  betwe^i  different  abbeys, 
allv  caJled  liber  vitce  (book  of  life).  etc.,  and  at  a  somewhat  later  date  it  became  the  cos- 
No  better  description  of  the  purposes  served  by  tom  for  monasteries  to  send  messengero  with  "mor- 
these  lists  and  of  the  spirit  which  animated  the  whole  tuary  rolls"  (rottdi)  requesting  the  promise  of  prayers 
institution  of  necrologies  can  be  found  than  that  which  were  to  be  entered  on  the  roll  and  engaging  the 
contained  in  the  preface  to  the  Winchester  book  of  the  senders  to  pray  for  the  deceased  brethren  of  the  moo* 
eleventh  century  known  as  the  "Hyde  Register",  asteries  who  rendered  them  this  service.  (But  for 
In  spite  of  its  length,  it  deserves  to  be  quoted  entire:  this  see  Rotuli.) 

"Behold,  in  the  name  of  God  Almighty  and  of  our  Although  the  entries  in  the  extant  necrok)gieB  of 

Lord  Jesus  Christ  and  of  His  most  ^ly  Mother,  the  monasteries  and  cathedrals  are  generally  of  the  bcief- 


MEGBOMANCY          735  MECBOMANCT 

est  poaeible  character,  only  the  day  of  the  month,  and  As  paralld  to  this  passage  of  Homer  ma^^  be  men- 

not  the  year,  being  mdicated,  still  in  indirect  ways  tioned  the  sixth  book  of  Virgil's  iEneid,  which  relates 

these  lists  of  names  have  been  regarded  as  of  consid-  the  descent  of  iEneas  into  the  infernal  regions.    But 

erable  importance  both  for  philological  and  histori-  here  there  is  no  true  evocation,  and  the  hero  himself 

cal  purposes.    A  large  nimiber  have  been  published  goes  through  the  abodes  of  the  souls.    Besides  these 

in  Germany^  France,  England,  and  other  countries,  poetical  and  mythological  narratives,  several  instances 

MoLiNiBR,  Lf  Qhitwxirw  FrangaU  au  moyen  Age  (Paria,  1890);  of  necromantic  practices  are  recoraed  by  historians. 

^"J^^iiil^&^t^^S^^^.  f^>^:  d:S^  At  Cape  Tamana  Gallon^  evoked  the  «>ul  of  Archi- 

RouUaux  det  MmU  du  IX'  auXV*  ti^eU  (Paris.  1866).  ,  Several  lochus,  whom  he  had  killed  (Plutarch,  ''De  sera  nu- 

▼olumee  of  Neerologiee  have  been  printed  in  the  auarto  aeries  of  the  minis  vindicta  ",  xvii) .     Periander,  tyrant  of  Corinth. 

^^i^.Z^t^^'ZSe^a:.''SSS^i^  ««d  one  of  the  seven  wise  men  of  dieece,  sent  m««en. 

LoNONoir  AND  MouNisB  (Paris,  1902—).    The  first  volume  of  gers  to  the  Oracle  on  the  River  Acheron  to  ask  his  dead 

the  last-named  ooUeotion  contains  an  excellent  bibliography  of  wife,  Melissa,  in  what  place  she  had  laid  a  stranger's 

^^^:^^;t^^SSS^-^''i^r^*°ti£^kA'&f^^  dep««t.    Her  phanu>m  apoeared  twice  and,  at  the 

rmKBACB.  Deuuddandi  Oeachichu^ueUen,  Second  appearance,  gave  the  required  mformation 

Herbert  Thttrston.  (Herodotus,  V,  xcii).    Pausanias,  King  of  Sparta,  had 

killed  Cleonice,  whom  he  had  mistaken  for  an  enemy 

Necromancy      (ycxp^r.      "dead",     and    tt^rrtta,  during  the  ni^t,  and  in  consequence  he  could  find 

''divination'')  is  a  special  mode  of  (uvination  (q.  v.)  neither  rest  nor  peace,  but  his  mind  was  filled  with 

by  the  evocation  of  the  dead.    Understood  as  ni^ro-  strange  fears.    After  trying  many  purifications  and 

mancy  {nigeTf  black),  which  is  the  Italian,  Spanish,  expiations,  he  went  to  the  p^vcAopompeion  of  Phigalia, 

and  old  French  form,  the  term  suggests  ''black  or  Heraclea,  evoked  her  soul,  and  received  the  assur- 

magic  or  ''black"  art,  in  which  marvellous  results  ance  that  his  dreams  and  fears  would  cease  as  soon  as 

are  due  to  the  agency  of  evil  spirits,  while  in  "white"  he  should  have  returned  to  Sparta.    Upon  his  arrival 

magic  they  are  due  to  human  dexterity  and  trickeiy.  there  he  died  (Pausanias  III,  xvii,  8, 9;  Plutarch,  "De 

The  practice  of  necromancv  supposes  belief  in  the  sur-  sera  num.  vind.",  x;  "  Vita  Cimonis  ",  vi).    After  his 

yivalof  the  soul  after  death,  the  possession  of  a  supe-  death,  the  Spartans  sent  to  Italy  for  psychagogues  to 

nor  knowledge  by  the  disembodied  spirit^  and  the  evoke  and  appease  his  manes  (Plutarch,  "Desera 

possibility  of  communication  between  the  hvine  and  num.  vind.",  xvii).    Necromancy  is  mixed  with  one- 

the  dead.  The  circumstances  and  conditions  of  this  iromancy  in  the  case  of  Elysius  of  Terina  in  Italy, 

communication — such  as  time,  place,  and  rites  to  be  who  desired  to  know  if  his  son's  sudden  death  was 

followed — depend  on  the  various  conceptions  which  due  to  poisoning.    He  went  to  the  oracle  of  the 

were  entertamed  concerning  the  nature  of  the  de-  dead  ana,  while  sleeping  in  the  temple,  had  a  vision 

parted  soul,  its  abode,  its  relations  with  the  earth  and  of  both  his  father  andf  his  son  who  gave  him  the 

with  the  body  in  wnich  it  previously  resided.    As  desired  information  (Plutarch,  "Consolatio  ad  Apol- 

divinities  frequently  were  but  human  heroes  raised  to  Ionium",  xiv). 

the  rank  of  gods,  necromancy,  mvtholog^,  and  demon-  Among  the  Romans,  Horace  several  times  alludes  to 

ology  are  in  close  relation,  and  the  oracles  of  the  dead  the  evocation  of  the  dead  (see  especially  Satires,  I,  viii, 

are  not  always  easily  distinguished  from  the  oracles  25  sq.).    Cicero  testifies  that  his  friend  Appius  prao- 

of  the  gods.  tised  necromancy  (Tuscul.  qusest.,  I,  xvi),  and  that 

I.  Necbomangt  in  Pagan  Countries. — Along  with  Vatinius  called  up  souls  from  the  netherworld  (in 

other  forms  of  divination  and  magic,  necromanc)r  is  Vatin.,  vi).    The  same  is  asserted  of  the  Emperors 

found  in  every  nation  of  antiquity,  and  is  a  practice  Drusus  (Tacitus,  "Annal.",  II,  xxviii),  Nero  (Sueto- 

oommon  to  paganism  at  all  times  and  in  all  countries,  nius,  "Nero",  xxxiv;  Pliny,  "Hist,  nat.",  XXX,  v), 

but  nothing  certain  can  be  said  as  to  the  place  of  its  and  Caracalla   (Dio  Cassius,   LXXVII,  xv).    Tlie 

origin.    StriJtK)  (Geogr.,  XVI,  ii,  39)  says  that  it  was  grammarian  Apion  pretended  to  have  conjured  up  the 

the  characteristic  form  of  divination  among  the  Per-  soul  of  Homer,  whose  country  and  parents  he  wished 

sians.    It  was  idso  found  in  Chaldea,  Babylonia,  and  to  ascertain  (Pliny,  "Hist,  nat.",  XaX,  vi).  and  Sex- 

Etruria    (Clemens   Alex.,    "Protrepticum",    II,    in  tus  Pompeius  consulted  the  famous  Thessalian  magi- 

Migne,  P.  G.,  VIII,  69;  Theodoret,  "Grsecarum  aifec-  cian  Erichto  to  learn  from  the  dead  the  issue  of  the 

tionum  curatio",  X,  in  P.  G.,  LXXXIII,  1076).  struggle  between  his  father  and  Caesar  (Lucan,  "Phar- 

Isaias  (xix,  3)  refers  to  its  practice  in  Egypt,  and  salia",  VI).    Nothing  certain  can  be  said  concerning 

Moses   (Deuter.,  xviii,  9-12)   warns  the  Israelites  the  rites  or  incantations  which  were  used;  they  seem 

against  imitating  the  Chanaanite  abominations,  among  to  have  been  very  complex,  and  to  have  varied  in  al- 

which  seeking  the  truth  from  the  dead  is  mentioned,  most  every  instance.    In  the  Odyssey,  Ulysses  digs  a 

In  Greece  and  Rome  the  evocation  of  the  dead  took  trench,  pours  libations  around  it,  and  sacnfices  black 

place  especially  in  caverns,  or  in  volcanic  re^ons,  or  sheep  whose  blood  the  shades  drink  before  speaking  to 

near  rivers  and  lakes,  where  the  communication  with  him.    Lucan  (Pharsalia,  VI)  describes  at  length  many 

the  abodes  of  the  aead  was  thought  to  be  easier,  incantations,  and  specJcs  of  warm  blood  poured  into 

Among  these,  Mxpoftarrela,  }pvxoMArr€la,  or  ypvxowoiixtla,  the  veins  of  a  corpse  as  if  to  restore  it  to  life.    Cicero 

the  most  celebrated  were  the  oracle  in  Thesprotia  (In  Vatin.,  VI)  relates  that  Vatinius,  in  connexion 

near  the  River  Acheron,  which  was  supposed  to  be  with  the  evocation  of  the  dead,  offered  to  the  manes 

one  of  the  rivers  of  hell,  another  in  Laconia  near  the  entrails  of  children,  and  St.  Gregory  Nazianzen 

the  promontory  of  Tsenarus,  in  a  large  and  deep  mentions  that  boys  and  virgins  were  sacrificed  and  dis- 

cavem  from  which  a  black  and  unwholesome  vapour  sected  for  conjurmg  up  the  dead  and  divining  (Orat.  I 

issued,  and  which  was  considered  as  one  of  the  en-  contra  Julianum,  xcii,  in  P.  G.,  XXV,  624). 

trances  of  hell,  others  at  Aomos  in  Epirus  and  Hera-  II.  Necromancy  in  the  Bible. — In  the  Bible  neo- 

clea  on  the  Propontis.    In  Italy  the  oracle  of  Cums,  romancy  is  mentioned  chiefly  in  order  to  forbid  it  or 

in  a  cavern  near  Lake  Avemus  in  Campania,  was  one  to  reprove  those  who  have  recourse  to  it.    The  He- 

of  the  most  famous.                                                  ^  brew  term  *(lb6ih  (sing.,  *6hh)  denotes  primarily  the 

The  oldest  mention  of  necromancy  is  the  narrative  spirits  of  the  dead,  or  '^pythons",  as  the  Vulgate  calls 
of  Ulysses'  voyage  to  Hades  (Odyssey,  XI)  and  of  his  tnem  (Deut.,  xviii,  11;  Isa.,  xix,  3),  who  were  con- 
evocation  of  souls  by  means  of  the  various  rites  indi-  suited  m  order  to  learn  the  future  (Deut.,  xviii,  10, 11 ; 
cated  by  Circe.  It  is  noteworthy  that,  in  this  in-  IKings,  xxviii,  8),  and  gave  their  answers  through  cer- 
stance,  although  Ulysses'  purpose  was  to  consult  the  tain  persons  in  whom  they  resided  (Levit.,  xx,  27;  I 
shade  of  Tireeias,  he  seems  unable  to  evoke  it  alone;  a  Kings,  xxviii.  7),  but  is  also  applied  to  the  persons 
oumb^  Qf  Qtber9  also  appear,  toother  or  suQc^vely.  them^elv^?  who  were  supposed  to  foretell  events  undor 


HSCBOMANCY 


736 


NEGBOMANOr 


the  guidance  of  these  "divining"  or  "pythonic" 

?>iiit8  (Levit..  xx,  6;  I  Kings,  xxviii,  3,  9;  Isa..  xix.  3). 
he  tenn  yidae  *onim  (from  yada,  ''to  know'Oi  wnich 
is  idso  used,  but  always  in  conjunction  with  *oh6ihj  re- 
fers eitiber  to  knowing  spirits  and  persons  through 
whom  they  spoke,  or  to  spirits  who  were  known  and 
familiar  to  the  wizsrds.  The  term  *6bh  simplifies  both 
"a  diviner"  and  "a  leathern  bag  for  holdmg  water" 
(Job — ^xxxii,  19— uses  it  in  the  latter  sense),  but  schol- 
ars are  not  agreed  whether  we  have  two  disparate 
words,  or  whether  it  is  the  same  word  with  two  re- 
lated meanings.  Manv  maintain  that  it  is  the  same 
in  both  instances,  as  the  diviner  was  supposed  to  be 
the  recipient  ana  the  container  of  the  spirit.  The 
Septuagmt  translates  *cb6th,  as  diviners,  by  "ventrilo- 
amsts  (^ooT/MAt^uoQ,  either  because  the  translators 
tnought  that  the  diviner's  alleged  commimication  with 
the  spirit  was  but  a  deception,  or  rather  because  of  the 
belief  common  in  antiquity  that  ventriloquism  was 
not  a  natural  faculty,  but  due  to  the  presence  of  a 
spirit.  Perhaps,  also,  the  two  meanings  may  be  con- 
nected on  account  of  the  peculiarity  of  the  voice  of  the 
ventriloquist,  which  was  weak  and  indistinct,  as  if  it 
came  from  a  cavity.  Isaias  (viii,  19)  says  that  nec- 
romancers "mutter"  and  makes  the  following  predic- 
tion concerning  Jerusalem:  ''Thou  shalt  speak  out  of 
the  earth,  and  thy  speech  shall  be  heard  out  of  the 
ground,  and  thy  voice  shall  be  from  the  earth  like  that 
of  the  pvthon,  and  out  of  the  ground  thy  speech  ^all 
mutter"  (xxix,  4).  Profane  authors  also  attribute  a 
distinctive  sound  to  the  voice  of  the  spirits  or  shades, 
although  they  do  not  agree  in  characterizing  it. 
Homer  (lUad,  XXIII,  101;  Od.,  XXIV,  5,  9)  uses  the 
verb  rpl^tip^  and  Statins  (Thebais,  VIl,  770)  airidere, 
both  of  which  mean  "to  utter  a  shrill  cry";  Horace 
qualifies  their  voice  as  iriste  et  acuium  (Sat.,  I,  viii.  40) : 
Virgil  speaks  of  their  vox  exigua  (iEneid,  Vl,  492)  ana 
of  the  gemitua  lacrymabilis  which  is  heard  from  ti^e 
grave  (op.  cit..  Ill,  39);  and  in  a  similar  way  Shake- 
speare says  that "  the  sheeted  dead  did  squeak  and  gib- 
ber in  the  Roman  streets"  (Hamlet,  I,  i). 

The  Moasic  Law  forbids  necromancy  (Levit.,  xix, 
31;  XX,  6),  declares  that  to  seek  the  truth  from  the 
dead  is  abhorred  by  God  (Deut..  xviii,  11,  12),  and 
even  makes  it  punishable  by  deatn  (Levit.,  xx,  27;  cf. 
I  Kings,  xxviiL  9).  Nevertheless,  owing  especially  to 
the  contact  of  the  Hebrews  with  pagan  nations^  we 
find  it  practised  in  the  time  of  Saul  (I  ICings,  xxviii,  7, 
9)  2  of.  Isaias,  who  strongly  reproves  the  Hebrews  on 
this  ground  (viii,  19;  xix,  3;  xxix,  4,  etc.),  and  of  Manas- 
ses  (IV  Kings,  xxi,  6;  II  Par.,  xxxiii,  6).  The  best 
known  case  of  necromancy  in  the  Bible  is  the  evoca- 
tion of  the  soul  of  Samuel  at  Endor  (I  Kings,  xxviii). 
King  Saul  was  at  war  with  the  Philistines,  whose  army 
had  gathered  near  that  of  Israel.  He  "was  afraid  and 
his  heart  was  very  much  dismayed.  And  he  con- 
sulted the  Lord,  and  he  answered  him  not,  neither  by 
dreams,  nor  by  priests,  nor  by  prophets  "  (5. 6) .  Then 
he  went  to  Endor,  to  a  woman  who  had  "a  divining 
spirit",  and  persuaded  her  to  call  the  soul  of  SamueL 
The  woman  alone  saw  the  prophet,  and  Saul  recog- 
nized him  from  the  description  she  gave  of  him.  But 
Saul  himself  spoke  and  heard  the  prediction  that,  as  the 
Lord  had  abandoned  him  on  account  of  his  disobedi- 
ence, he  would  be  defeated  and  killed.  This  narrative 
has  given  rise  to  several  interpretations.  Some  deny 
the  reality  of  the  apparition  and  claim  that  the  witch 
deceived  Saul;  thus  St.  Jerome  (In  Is.,  iii,  vii,  11,  in 
P.  L.,  XXrV,  108;  in  Ezech.,  xiii,  17,  in  P.  L.,  XXV, 
119)  and  Theodoret,  who,  however,  adds  that  the 
prophecy  came  from  God  (In  I  Reg.,  xxviii,  QQ. 
DCIII,  LXrV,  in  P.  G.,  LXXX,  589) .  Others  attrib- 
ute it  to  the  devil,  who  took  Samuel's  appearance; 
thus  St.  Basil  (In  Is.,  viii,  218,  in  P.  G.,  XXX,  497), 
St.  Gregory  of  Nyssa  ("De  pythonissa,  ad  Theodos, 
cpisc.  epist.",  m  P.  G^  XLV,  107-14),  and  Tertullian 
(De  amma,  LVII,  in  P.  L.,  II,  794).    Others,  finally, 


look  upon  Samuel's  apparition  as  real;  thus  Josephus 
(Antiq.  Jud.,  VI,  xiv,  2),  St.  Justin  (Dialogus  cum 
Tryphone  Jud»o,  105,  in  P.  G.,  VI,  721),  Origen  (In  I 
Bjeg.f  xxviii,  "De  Engastrimytho",  in  P.  G.,  XII, 
1011-1028),  St.  Ambrose  (In  Luc.  i,  33,  in  P.  L..  XV, 
1547),  and  St.  Augustine,  who  nnaily  adoptea  this 
view  after  having  held  the  others  (De  diversis  qusst. 
ad  SimpUcianum.  Ill,  in  P.  L^  XL,  142-44;  De  octo 
Dulcitii  qusBst.,  VL  in  P.  L.,  XL,  162-^;  De  cura  pro 
mortuis,  xv,  in  P.  L.,  XL,  606;  De  doctrina  Christiana, 
II,  xxiii,  in  P.  L.,  XXXI V,  52) .  St.  Thomas  (Summa, 
II-II,  Q.  clxxiv,  a.  5j  ad  4  um)  does  not  pronounce. 
The  last  inteipretation  of  the  reality  oi  Samud's 
apparition  is  favoured  both  by  the  details  of  the 
narrative  and  by  another  Biblical  text  which  convinced 
St.  Augustine:  "After  this,  he  [Samuel]  slept,  and 
he  made  known  to  the  king,  and  showed  him  the  end 
of  his  life,  and  he  lifted  up  his  voice  from  the  earth 
in  prophecy  to  blot  out  the  wickedness  of  the  nation" 
(Ecclus.,  xlvi,  23). 

III.  Nbcrom ANCT  IN  THE  Chbibtian  Era. — In  the 
first  centuries  of  the  Christian  era  the  practice  d 
necromancy  was  common  amongpagans,  as  the  Fa- 
thers frequently  testify  (see,  e.  g.,  Tertullian, "  Apol. ", 
xxiii,  P.  L.,  I,  470;  "De  anima^'j  LVI,  LVII,  in  P.  L., 
II,  790  s(}q.:  Lactantius,  "Divinie  institutiooes", 
rV,  xxvii,  m  r.  L.,  VI,  531).  It  was  associated  with 
other  magical  arts  and  oUier  forms  of  demoniacal 
practices,  and  Christians  were  warned  against  sudh 
observances  "in  which  the  demons  represent  them- 
selves as  the  souls  of  the  dead"  (Tertullian,  De 
anima^  LVII,  in  P.  L.,  II,  793).  Nevertheless,  even 
Christians  converted  from  paganism  sometimes  in- 
dulged in  them.  The  efforts  of  Church  authorities, 
popes,  and  councils,  and  the  severe  laws  of  Christian 
emperors,  especially  Constantine,  Constantiua,  Valen- 
tinian,  Valens,  Theodosius,  were  not  directed  specif- 
ically against  necromancy,  but  in  j^eral  against 
pagan  ma^c.  divination,  and  superstition.  In  fact, 
little  by  httie  the  term  necromancy  lost  its  strict 
meaning  and  was  applied  to  all  forms  of  black  art, 
becoming  closely  associated  with  alchemy,  witch- 
craft, and  magic.  Notwithstanding  all  efforte,  it  sur> 
vivea  in  some  form  or  other  during  the  Middle  Ages, 
but  was  given  a  new  impetus  at  the  time  of  the  Ke- 
naissance  by  the  revival  of  the  neo-Platonic  doctrine 
of  demons.  In  his  memoirs  (translated  by  Roeooe, 
New  York,  1851,  ch.  xiii)  Benvenuto  Celfini  shows 
how  vague  the  meaning  of  necromancy  had  become 
when  he  relates  that  he  assisted  at  ''necromantic" 
evocations  in  which  multitudes  of  "devils"  app^jed 
and  answered  his  questions.  Cornelius  Agrippa 
("De  occulta  philoeophia".  Cologne,  1510,  tr.  by  J.  F., 
London,  1651)  indicates  the  magical  rites  by  which 
souls  are  evoked.  In  recent  times,  necromancy,  as  a 
distinct  belief  and  practice,  reappears  under  the  name 
of  spiritism,  or  spiritualism  (see  SpmrnsM). 

Tne  Church  does  not  deny  that,  with  a  special  per- 
mission of  God,  the  souls  of  the  departed  may  af^iear 
to  the  living,  and  even  manifest  things  unknown  to 
the  latter.  But,  imderstood  as  the  art  or  science  of 
evoking  the  dead,  necromancy  is  held  W  theologians 
to  be  cme  to  the  agency  of  evil  spirits,  for  the  means 
taken  are  inadequate  to  produce  the  expected  results. 
In  pretended  evocations  of  the  dead,  there  may  be 
many  thin^  explainable  naturally  or  due  to  fraud: 
how  much  is  real,  and  how  much  must  be  attributea 
to  imannation  and  deception,  cannot  be  determined, 
but  re^  facts  of  necromancy,  with  the  use  ci  incanta- 
tions and  magical  rites,  are  looked  upon  by  theolo- 
gians, after  St.  Thomas,  II-II,  Q.  xcv,  aa.  iii^  iv, 
as  special  modes  of  divination^  due  to  demoniacal 
intervention,  and  divination  itself  is  a  form  of 
superstition. 

Lbnormant,  La  maoie  ehet  U»  ChaldUru  (Puna,  1S75) :  Idbm.  Lm 
dinncUion  el  la  •eitnct  dea  priaagM  eke*  U$  ChaldieHa  (Paris,  1875) : 
BouchA-Lsclbbcq,  Hietoire  de  la  divinatum  daiu  rosifiovitt 
(Paris,  187(^-32) ;  Ttlor,  AmmtvAm  into  the  BarlwHimmy  afMmm' 


mOTABIUS  737 


^:l  -t'l 


tffad  (Lcmdoii.  1868):  DOLUMon.  Hndtiuhum  wd  JvdmUkwm    is  not  oommonly  esteemed  to  be  more  than  a  veidal 
(Baiiibon.  1867) ;  Fbsut.  ObttfrtoiuMu  9ur  u»  Orad§§  rtndut  por    m.    There  are,  howevcT,  two  notable  exceptions  to 


Diet.  d«  la  BihU,  ■.  v.  Xvoeolion  dsi  tnoiU;  Bchahi  in  KireUnian-'  Qyg,     Negtigence  IB  A  factor  tO  be  reckoned  With  m 

«m.i.v.  Todunb0$ehwonmo.                             nnitwAv  detenninmg  the  liability  of  one  who  has  damaged 

Kj,  a.  i^uBRAT.  another  m  any  way.    In  the  court  of  oonsdence  the 

Neetarius  (Ncxrdpiof),  Patriarch  of  Constantmo-  perpetrator  of  dama^  can  only  be  held  responsible 

pie,  (381t397),  d.  27  Sept.,  397,  eleventh  bishop  of  and  bound  to  restitution  when  his  action  has  been  at- 

that  city  mnce  Metrophanes,  and  may  be  counted  its  tended  with  moral  culp^ty^  i.  e.  has  been  done 

first  patriarch.    He  came  from  Tareus  of  a  senatorial  freely  and  advertently.    The  civil  law  acacts  the  ex- 

fanily  and  was  pnetor  at  Constantinople  at  the  time  erase  of  dihgenw  whose  measure  is  estabbshed  ao- 

of  the  second  general  council  (381).    When  St.  Greg-  cording  to  the  different  subject  natter  involved.   The 

ory  Nasianaen  resigned  his  occupation  of  that  see  the  absence  of  this  depee  of  care  on  the  part  of  an  agent  is 

people  called  for  I^tarius  to  succeed  him  and  their  assumed  by  the  avil  law  to  be  culpable,  wid  is  pun- 

Soioe  was  ratified  by  tiieCouncU  (Socrates,  "H.E."  ishedwitii  the  penalties  provided.    Thus  the  common 

V),  before  August,  381.    Sozomen  (H.  E.,  VII.  8)  law  generaUy  distinguushes  three  clas^ 

adds  that  Neetarius,  about  to  return  to  Tanaus,  asked  m  foUows:  gross  neghgence  is  the  failure  to  employ 

Diodorus,  Bishop  of  Tarsus,  if  he  could  carry  any  even  the  smallest  amount  of  care,  such  as  any  person, 

letters  for  him.    Diodorus,  who  saw  that  his  visitor  no  inatter  how  heedless,  would  use  for  the  8afM;uardmg 

was  the  most  suitable  person  to  become  Bishop  of  of  his  own  mterests;  ordinary  neghgence  is  the  failure 


to  every  one  s  surprise,  cnose  iNectanus,  wno  was  not  miuir  w  w««  »  *«6«  ^^^^  ^*  v«»y»  ""^.  — '  '.'r*' 
yet  baptised,  and  in  neophyte's  robe  he  was  conse-  thoughtful  persons  would  maintain  m  looking  after 
crated  bishop.   Tillemont  (M^moires,  IX,  486)  doubts  tiieur  own  mtereste.    The  civil  law  mav  and  does  im- 
tiiis  story.    Soon  after  Neetarius'  election  the  Coun-  Pose  tiie  obligation  of  reparation  for  hann  wrought 
cU  passed  the  famous  third  canon  giving  Constanti-  not  only  where  ordinary  and  poas  negligence  are 
nople  rank  immediately  after  Rome.    A  man  of  no  ahown.  but  also  at  tim«  whoi  only  shght  n^hscence  is 
very  great  power,  Neetarius  had  an  uneventful  reign  Pfoved  to  have  existed.    This  obh^tion  holds  good 
with  which  St.  Gregory  was  not  altogether  pleased  hkewise  in  conscience,  once  the  decision  of  the  judge 
("Ep."  88,  91, 161,  etc.;  Tillemont,  op.  cU,,  IX,  488).  d^reeing  it  has  be^  rendered. 
Sui^  of  <i>nc«ions  to  the  Novatians' (Socrates,  TifJ^^l^'^J^XS^^^                              'ISSi^S 
V.  10;  Sozomen,  VII,  12),  he  made  none  to  the  Anans,  Momiu  itutUuUonet  (Louyain,  1898). 
who  in  388  burnt  his  house  (Socrates,  V,  13).    Palsa-  .          Joseph  F.  Dblant. 
mon  wys  that  in  394  he  held  a  synod  at  Constantino-  Hegroes.    See  Rack,  Nbqbo. 
pie  which  decreed  that  no  bishop  should  be  deposed  ^  .        .       ^                ,         „   .  .i              i  t> 
without  the  consent  of  several  other  bishops  of  the  Nehemias,  Book  of.  also  caUed  the  second  Book 
same  province  (Harduin,  I,  965).    The  most  impor-  of  Esdras,  is  reckoned  both  in  the  Tataaud  and  m  Uie 
tant  event,  however,  is  that,  according  to  Socrates  ^}y  Christian  Church,  at  least  until  ^e  tune  of 
(V,  19)  and  Sozomen  (VII,  16),  as  a  result  of  a  public  Origen,  as  fonmng  one  smgle  book  with  Esdras,  and 
scandal  Neetarius  abolished  the  disciplme  of  pubUc  St.  Jerorne  in  his  preface  {ad  Dommtonem  et  RogatMr 
penance  and  the  office  of  penitentiary  hitherto  held  num\  foUowmg  the  example  of  the  Jews,  still  con- 
by  a  priest  of  his  diocese.    The  incident  is  important  tmues  to  treat  it  as  makmg  one  with  tibe  Book  of 
for  the  history  of  Penance.    Neetarius  preached  a  Esdi^s.    The  union  of  the  two  in  a  single  book  doubt- 
sermon  about  the  martyr  Theodore  still  extant  ("P.  less  has  its  onapn  m  the  fact  that  the  documents  of 
G."  XXXIX,  1821-40;  Nilles  "Kalendarium  man-  which  the  Books  of  Esdras  and  Nehemias  are  com- 
uale,"  II,  96-100).    He  was  succeeded  by  St.  John  posed,  undorwent  compilation  and  redaction  together 
Chrysostom  and  appears  as  St.  Neetarius  in  the  OrUio-  at  the  haiids  probably,  as  most  cntics  tiunk,  of  the 
dox  Menaion  for  11  October  (Nilles,  op.  cU,  I,  300;  autiior  of  Pandipomenon  about  B.  C.  300.    The  sep- 
"  Acta  8S."    May.  II,  421).  aration  oi  the  Book  of  Nehemias  from  that  of  Esdras. 
TiLLmoMT,  Mhmriret  pour  aenir  d  rhiatoire  eeeUataatiqtu  preserved  m  our  editions,  may  m  its  tum  be  justined 
qPatu.   1093-1713),  IX,  X;  Fabrxcius-Hablm,  Bibiiotheea  bv  the  consideration  that  the  former  relates  m  a  dis- 

SSSSdK  ilS'^SSr  Srka?2J'  r^:SS?^h^SK!!^«^  tinct  n«m.er  the  work  accomplished  by  Nehemiaa, 

Adrian  Fortbscus.  c^d  is  made  up,  at  least  in  great  part,  from  the  autnen- 

tic  memoirs  of  the  principal  figure.    The  book  com* 

Negligence  (Lat.  nee,  not,  and  legere,  to  pick  out),  prises  three  sections:  I,  i-vi;  II,  vii-xiii,  3;  III,  xiii. 

the  oonmtion  of  not  heeding.    More  specifically  it  is  4-^1.    Sections  I  and  III  will  be  treated  first,  and 

here  considered  as  the  omisnon,  whether  habitual  or  section  II,  which  raises  special  literary  problems,  will 

not,  of  the  care  required  for  the  performance  of  du-  be  discussed  at  the  end. 

ties,  or  at  any  rate,  for  th&i  full  and  adequate  dis-  Section  I:  i-vi,  (1)  comprises  the  account,  written 

charge.    In  the  teaching  of  St.  Thomas,  it  is  rated  not  by  Nehemias  himself,  of  the  restoration  of  the  walls  o£ 

only  as  a  characteristic  discernible  in  tne  commission  Jerusalem.    Alreadv  in  the  reign  of  Xerxes  (B.  C.  485- 

of  all  sins,  but  also  as  a  special  sin  in  itself.    Its  partio-  65),  and  especially  during  the  first  half  of  the  reign  of 

ular  deformity  he  judges  to  be  the  imputable  lack  of  Artaxerxes  I  (B.  C.  465-24),  the  Jews  had  attempted, 

such  solicitude  as  is  here  and  now  demanded  for  the  but  with  only  partial  success,  to  rebuild  the  walls  of 

satisfying  of  obligations.    He  therefore  asedgns  pru-  thdr  capital,  a  work,  up  to  then,  never  sanctioned  by 

dence  as  the  virtue  to  which  it  is  directly  opposed,  the  Persian  kings  (see  I  Esd.,  iv,  6-23).    In  oonse- 

What  has  been  said  applies  also  to  actions  which  are  quence  of  the  ecuct  of  Artaxerxes,  given  in  I  Esd.,  iv, 

not  of  precept,  once  it  is  resolved  to  undertake  them.  18-22,  the  enemies  of  the  Jews  at  Jerusalem  forcibly 

Negligence,  according  to  St.  Thomas,  is  initially  at  stopped  the  work  (ibid.,  23)  and  nulled  down  a  part  of 

least  a  lack  of  promptness  of  will,  and  is  quite  distin-  what  had  already  been  accomplished.     (2)  With  these 

guishable  from  torpor  or  slipshodness  in  execution.  |t  events  the  beginning  of  the  Boo)c  of  Nehemias  i?  999" 

3i.— 17  ' 


^:l  -*M 


738 


neeted.  Nehemias,  the  son  of  Helchias,  relates  how. 
at  the  court  of  Artaxerxee  at  Susa  where  he  fulfilled 
the  office  of  the  kind's  cup-bearer,  he  received  the 
news  of  this  calamity  in  the  twentieth  year  of  the  king 
(Neh.i  i),  and  how,  thanks  to  his  prudence,  he  suc- 
ceeded in  getting  himself  sent  on  a  first  mission  to 
Jerusalem  with  full  powers  to  rebuild  the  walls  of  the 
Jewish  capital  (Neh.,  ii,  1-8).  This  first  mission 
lasted  twelve  years  (v,  14;  xiii,  6);  he  had  the  title  of 
Pehah  (v,  14;  xii,  26)  or  Athersatha  (viii,  0;  x,  1).  It 
had  long  been  the  opinion  of  most  historians  of  Israel 
that  the  Artaxerxes  of  Nehemias  was  certainly  the 
first  of  that  name,  and  that  consequently  the  first  mis- 
sion of  Nehemias  fell  in  the  year  B.  C.  445.  The  Ara- 
maic pap3rri  of  Elephantine,  recently  published  by 
Sachau,  put  this  date  bevona  the  shadow  of  a  doubt. 
For  in  the  letter  which  they  wrote  to  Bahohim,  Gov- 
ernor of  Judea,  in  the  seventeenth  year  of  Darius  II 
(B.  C.  40S),  the  Jewish  priests  of  Elephantine  say  that 
they  have  also  made  an  application  to  the  sons  of  San- 
aballat  at  Samaria.  Now  Sanaballat  was  a  contem- 
porarv  of  Nehemias,  and  the  Artaxerxes  of  Nehemias, 
therefore,  was  the  predecessor,  and  not  the  successor, 
of  Darius  II. 

(3)  On  his  arrival  at  Jerusalem,  Nehemias  lost  no 
time;  he  inspected  the  state  of  the  wdls,  and  then 
took  measures  and  gave  orders  for  taking  the  work  in 
hand  (ii,  9-18).  Chapter  iii,  a  document  of  the  high- 
est importance  for  determining  the  area  of  Jerusalem 
in  the  middle  of  the  fifth  century  B.  C,  contains  a  de- 
scription of  the  work,  carried  out  at  all  i)oints  at  once 
under  the  direction  of  the  zealous  Jewish  governor. 
The  high  priest  Eliasib  is  named  first  among  the  fel- 
low workers  of  Nehemias  (iii^  1).  To  bring  the  undeiv 
taking  to  a  successful  termination  the  latter  had  to 
fight  against  all  sorts  of  difficulties.  (4)  First  of  all, 
the  foreign  element  had  great  influence  in  Judea.  The 
Jews  who  had  returned  from  captivity  almost  a  cen- 
tury before,  had  foimd  the  countr^r  partly  occupied  by 
people  belonging  to  the  neighbouring  races,  and  being 
unable  to  organize  themselves  pohtically,  had  seen 
themselves  reduced,  little  by  little,  to  a  humiliating 
position  in  their  own  land.  And  so,  at  the  time  of 
Nehemias,  we  see  certain  foreigners  taking  an  exceed- 
ingly arrogant  attitude  towaras  the  Jewish  governor 
and  his  work.  Sanaballat  the  Horonite,  chief  of  the 
Samaritans  (iv.  1,  2),  Tobias  the  Ammonite,  Gossem 
the  Arabian,  claim  to  exercise  constant  control  over 
Jewish  affairs,  and  try  by  all  means  in  their  power,  by 
calumny  (ii,  19),  scoffs  (iv,  1  ff),  threats  of  violence 
(iv,  7  ff),  and  craft  (vi,  1  ff),  to  hinder  Nehemias' 
work  or  ruin  him.  The  reason  of  this  was  that  the 
raising  up  again  of  the  walls  of  Jerusalem  was  destined 
to  bring  about  the  overthrow  of  the  moral  domination, 
which  for  many  years  circumstances  had  secured  for 
these  foreigners. 

(5)  The  cause  of  the  foreigners  was  upheld  by  a 
party  of  Jews,  traitors  to  their  own  nation.  The 
prophet  Noadias  and  other  false  prophets  sought  to 
temfy  Nehemias  (vi,  14) ;  there  were  some  who,  like 
Samaia.  allowed  themselves  to  be  hired  by  Tobias  and 
Sanaballat  to  set  snares  for  him  (vi.  10-14).  Many 
Jews  sided  with  Tobias  on  account  of  the  matrimoniaJ 
alliances  existing  between  his  family  and  certain  Jew- 
ish families.  Nehemias^  however,  does  not  speak  of 
the  mixed  marriages  as  if  thev  had  been  actually  for- 
bidden. The  father-in-law  of  Tobias'  son,  MosoUam, 
the  son  of  Barachias,  on  the  contrary,  was  a  fellow 
worker  of  Nehemias  (vi,  18;  iii,  4).  Tne  law  of  Deu- 
teronomy only  forbade  marriages  between  Jews  and 
Chanaanites  (Deut.  vii,  1,  3).  (6)  Difficulties  of  a 
social  nature,  the  result  of  the  selfish  treatment  of  the 
poor  by  the  rich,  who  misused  the  common  distron  for 
their  own  ends,  likewise  called  for  the  energetic  inter- 
vention of  Nehemias  (v).  On  this  occasion  Nehemias 
Tecalls  the  fact  that  previous  governors  had  practised 
extortion,  while  he  was  the  first  to  show  himself  disiA- 


tereBbed  in  the  discharj^  of  his  duties  (v,  15  ff).  (7) 
In  spite  of  all  these  difficulties  the  rebuilding  of  the 
wall  made  rapid  progress.  We  learn  from  vii,  15,  that 
the  work  was  completely  finished  within  fifty-one 
days.  Josephus  (Ant.,  V,  7,  8)  says  that  it  Listed  two 
years  and  four  months,  but  his  testimony,  often  far 
from  reliable,  presents  no  plausible  reason  for  setting 
aside  the  text.  The  relatively  short  duration  of  the 
work  is  explained,  when  we  consider  that  Nehemias 
had  only  to  repair  the  damage  wrought  after  the  pro- 
hibition of  Artaxerxes  (I  Esd.,  iv,  23),  and  finish  on  the 
construction,  which  might  at  that  moment  have  been 
already  far  advanced  [see  above  (1)]. 

Section  III :  xiii,  4-31.  After  the  expiration  of  his 
first  mission,  Nehemias  had  returned  to  Susa  in  the 
thirty-second  year  of  Artaxerxes  (B.  C.  433;  xiii,  6). 
Some  time  after,  he  was  charged  with  a  fresh  mission 
to  Judea,  and  it  is  with  his  doings  during  this  second 
mission  that  xiii,  4-^31  is  concerned.  The  account  at 
the  beginning  seems  mutilated.  Nehemias  relates 
how,  at  the  time  of  his  second  arrival  at  Jerusalem,  he 
began  by  putting  an  end  to  the  abuses  which  Tobias, 
the  Ammonite,  supported  by  the  high  priest  Eliasib, 
was  practising  in  the  temple  in  the  matter  of  the  de- 
pository for  the  sacred  offering  (xiii,  4-9) .  He  severely 
Dlames  the  violation  of  the  nght  of  the  Levites  in  the 
distribution  of  the  tithes,  and  takes  measures  to  pre- 
vent its  occurrence  in  future  (xiii,  10-14) ;  he  insists  on 
the  Sabbath  being  strictly  respected  even  by  the  foiv 
eign  merchants  (xiii,  15-22).  Finally  he  dealt  se- 
verely with  the  Jews  who  were  guilty  of  marriages 
with  strange  wives,  and  banished  a  grandson  of 
Eliasib  who  had  married  a  daughter  of  Sanaballat 
(xiii.  23-28).  To  this  son-in-law  of  Sanaballat  is  gen- 
erally attributed  the  inauguration  of  the  worship  in 
the  temple  of  Garizim.  ft  is  plain  that  Nehemias' 
attitude  during  his  second  mission  with  regard  to 
mixed  marriages  differs  greatly  from  his  attitude  at 
the  beginning  of  his  first  stay  at  Jerusalem  [see  section 

I.  (5)]. 

SEcnoN  II:  vii-xiii,  3,  (1)  contains  accoimts  or  doc- 
uments relating  to  the  work  of  politico-social  and  re- 
ligious organization  effected  by  Nehemias,  after  the 
walls  were  finished.  Here  we  no  longer  have  Nehe- 
mias speaking  in  the  first  person,  except  in  vii,  1-5, 
and  in  the  account  of  the  dedication  of  the  walls  (xii, 
31,  37,  39).  He  relates  how,  after  having  rebuilt  the 
walls,  he  had  to  proceed  to  erect  houses,  and  take 
measures  for  bringmg  into  the  town  a  population  more 
in  proportion  to  ito  importance  as  the  capital  (vii.  1-5: 
cf.  Kcclus.,  ]dix.  15).  (2)  He  gives  (vii,  5  ff.)  the  list  of 
the  families  wno  had  returned  from  captivity  with 
Zorobabel.  This  list  is  in  I  Esd.,  ii.  It  is  remarkable 
that  in  the  Book  of  Nehemias^  following  on  the  list  we 
find  reproduced  (vii,  70  ff.)  with  variants,  the  remark 
of  I  Esd.,  ii,  68-70  about  the  gifts  given  towards  the 
work  of  the  temple  by  Zorobabel's  companions,  and 
the  settlement  of  these  latter  in  the  country;  and  again 
that  Neh.,  viii,  1  resumes  the  narrative  in  the  very 
words  of  I  Esd.,  iii.  This  dependence  is  probably  due 
to  the  redactor,  who  in  this  place  gave  a  new  form  to 
the  notes  supplied  him  by  the  Jewish  governor's 
memoirs  whicn  also  explains  the  latter's  bdng  spoken 
of  in  the  third  person,  Neh.,  viii,  9.  (3)  There  is  a  de* 
scription  of  a  great  gathering  held  in  the  seventh 
month  under  the  direction  of  Nehemias  (viii,  9-12)  at 
which  Esdras  reads  the  Law  (viiij  13).  They  then 
kept  the  feast  of  Tabernacles  (viii,  13-18).  When 
this  feast  is  over,  the  people  gather  together  again  on 
the  twenty-fourth  day  of  the  seventh  month  (ix,  1  ff.) 
to  praise  God,  confess  their  sins,  and  to  bind  them- 
selves by  a  written  covenant  faithfully  to  observe 
their  obn^cations.  Chapter  X  after  nving  the  list  of 
the  subscribers  to  the  covenant,  sets  forth  the  obliftS'- 
tions,  which  the  people  bind  themselves  to  fulfil;  in 
particular  the  prohibition  of  mixed  marriages  (verst 
^):  the  keeping  of  tbe  Sabbath,  especially  in  their 


73Q 

treatment  of  foreign  merchants  (verse  31),  the  yearly  had  proved  rebellious  to  all  preventive  measures  (x). 

tribute  of  a  third  part  of  a  side  for  the  Temple  (verse  The  political  and  social  situation  described  in  the  first 

32),  and  other  measures  to  ensure  the  regular  celebra-  six  chapters  of  Nehemi.is  [see  above,  section  I  (4),  (5), 

tion  of  sacrifices  (verses  33-34),  the  offering  of  the  first-  (6)],  the  religious  situation  to  which  the  proceedings  ot 

fruits  and  of  the  first  bom  (verses  35-37),  and  the  pay-  the  ^thering  in  Neh.,  x,  bear  witness  [see  above,  seo- 

ment  and  the  distribution  of  the  tithes  (verses  35-39).  tion  11  (3)],  do  not  admit  of  bein^  explained  as  inune- 

After  chapter  x  it  is  advisable  to  read  xii,  43-xiii,  1-3;  diately  following  after  the  mission  of  Esdras,  who 

the  appointment  of  a  commission  for  the  administration  particularly,  in  virtue  of  the  king's  edict,  disposed  of 

of  things  brou^t  to  the  Temple,  and  the  expulsion  of  venr  valuable  resources  for  the  celebration  of  worship 

foreigners  from  among  the  conmiunity.    Cnapter  xi,  (I  Esd.,  vii,  viii,  25fif.)*    Esdras  is  again  entirely  un- 

1,  2,  recalls  the  measiures  taken  to  people  Jerusalem;  noticed  in  Neh.,  i-vi,  and  in  the  list  of  the  subscribers 

verses  3-36  give  the  census  of  Jerusalem  and  of  the  to  the  covenant  (x^  1  S.).    He  is  mentioned  in  Neh., 

other  towns  as  Nehemias'  measures  left  it.    In  chap-  viii,  1  fif .,  and  in  xu,  35,  as  fulfilling  subordinate  func- 

ter  xii,  27-43,  we  have  the  account  of  the  solemn  deal-  tions.    Considering  the  singular  number  of  the  verbs 

cation  of  the  walls  of  Jerusalem;  Esdras  the  scribe  is  in  Neh.,  viii,  9,  10,  it  is  probable  that  in  the  former  of 

mentioned  as  being  at  the  head  of  a  group  of  singers  these  two  verses  ''Esoras  and  the  Levites"  being 

(verse  35).    The  fist  in  xii,  1-26,  has  no  connexion  named  as  part  of  the  subject  of  the  phrase  is  due  to  a 

whatever  with  the  events  of  this  epoch.  later  hand.    At  the  epoch  of  Nehenuas,  therefore,  E&- 

(4)  The  proceedings  set  forth  m  viii-x  are  closely  dras  was  at  the  beginning  of  his  career,  and  must  have 
connected  with  the  other  parts  of  the  history  of  Nehe-  gone  a  little  later  to  Babylonia,  whence  he  returned  at 
mias.  The  obligations  imposed  by  the  covenant,  de-  the  head  of  a  band  of  emigrants  in  the  seveiith  year  of 
scribed  in  x.  have  to  do  with  just  the  very  mattera  Artaxerxes  II  (b.  c.  398).  (6)  Many  critics  have 
with  which  Nehemias  concerned  himself  most  during  maintained  that  in  Neh.,  viii,  we  have  the  history  of 
his  second  stay  (see  above,  section  III).  The  regula-  the  first  promulgation  of  the  ''Priestly  Code''  by 
tion  concerning  the  providing  of  the  wood  for  the  altar  Esdras.  but  the  narrative  in  question  does  not  authoiv 
(x,  34)  is  recalled  by  Nehemias  in  xiii,  31,  and  the  very  ize  sucn  an  interpretation.  Esdras  was  probably  still 
words  used  in  x,  39  (end  of  verse),  we  find  again  in  a  very  young  man  at  this  time,  and  all  he  does  is  to 
xiii,  11.  The  covenant  entered  into  by  the  people  read  the  Law  before  the  assembled  people.  It  is  quite 
during  Nehemias'  first  mission  was  broken  in  his  ab-  true  that  in  I  Esd.,  vii,  there  is  made  mention  in  the 
sence.  At  the  time  of  his  second  mission  he  put  down  royal  edict  of  the  Law  of  his  God  which  Esdras  has  in 
the  abuses  with  severity.  For  instance,  the  attitude  nund  (verse  14),  but  besides  the  fact  that  we  hold  the 
he  takes  towards  mix^  marriages  is  quite  different  events  related  in  I  Esd.,  vii,  to  be  posterior  to  Neh., 
from  his  attitude  at  the  beginning  of  his  first  stay  [see  viii  [see  above  (5)],  these  words  must  not  be  under- 
above  section  I  (5) ;  section  III).  This  change  is  ex-  stood  literally  of  a  new  document  of  which  Esdras  was 
plained  precisely  by  the  absolute  prohibition  pro-  the  bearer.  In  the  same  terms  mention  is  made  of  the 
nounced  against  these  marriages  in  the  assembly  de-  wisdom  of  his  God  which  Esdras  has  in  mind  (verse 
scribed  in  ix-x.  The  view  has  been  put  forward  that  25),  and  in  this  same  passage  it  is  supposed  that  Es- 
viii-x  gives  an  account  of  events  belonging  to  the  pe-  dras'  compatriots  already  know  the  Law  of  their  God. 

riod  of  the  organization  of  worship  under  Zorobabel,  ,  «S^^"''*<>^J,?*J?  ^^  NeKemiah;  th^r  Uvea  and  timea  (Londonp 

*U^  no  moo  rtf  MoYiom^oa  ftriVi   O*  ▼    1^  oTl/^  TTo/liHka  fviii  1890)  ,*  Rtub,  The  Booiu  o/ Ezto  and  Nehemxah  (pambTidse,  1S96)  I 

the  names  of  Nehenuas  (yni   9,  X,  i;  and  iliSdraS  (VUl,  Wirros  DaVibs,  Jff«-o,  Nehemiah  and  Esthtr  (Edinburgh.  The 

1  fir.)  having  been  added  later.      But  there  was  Cer-  Century  Bible) ;  Bbbthbau, />t«  B«cA«r  5«ro,  JV«fcm*ound5al«r. 

tainly  sufficient  reason  for  the  reorganization  of  wor-  «<!•  ?.™"H,^f**P"«»,i^^)»  Schlattbr,  nor  Topoaraphie  und 

akin  in  tfiA  fim**  nf  NphprniAA  (nf   thP  Rnnir  nf  Miiln.  geachvetUe  Paldattna  (Calw  and  Stuttgart,   1893);  Nikel.  Die 

smp  m  tne  time  OI  XNenemiaS  ^CI.  ine  IJOOK  Ol  Maia-  WiederherateUunq  dea  JUdiachen  Gemeinwtaena  naeh  dem  babylon- 

Chias  and  Neh.,  xm).     Others  on  the  contrary  would  iachen  BxU  (Freiburg,  1900) ;  Van  Hoonackbb,  NifUmia  et  Badraa 

regard  Neh.,  viii-x,  as  the  sequel  to  the  narrative  of  I  (Louvain,  1890) ;  Idku,  Nikimie  en  Van  gq  d  'Artaxerxea  /,  Eadras 

livinui    iT-4   n.r\t\  thpv  lilrPwiflA  linlH  ihnf  TMAhAmiofl'  en  Ton  7  d'ilrtoxerxM //(Gand  and  Leip»ig,  1892);  Idem,  Aoweef- 

h^SdraS,  IX-X,  ana  iney  mcewise  noia  tnai  XNenemias  j^  ^^^^^  ^^  j^  Reatawatum  juiw  apria  Vexil  de  BabyUme  (ParU 

name  has  been  mterpolated  m  Neh.,  Vm,  9,  and  X,  1.  and  Louvain,  1896);  Idem,  Notea  aw  Vhiatoire  de  la  Reatauration 

This  theory  is  equally  untenable.     It  is  true  that  in  /*«•»«  flP*"^  ''«w^  de  BabyUme  in  Revue  biUique  (Paris,  Januarys 

the  Thmi  Book  of  Eadrss  (the  Greek  I  Esdras)  the  ^p'"'  ^^^^'                             A.  Van  Hoonackbr. 
narrative  of  Neh.,  viii,  is  reproduced  inmiediately 

after  that  of  Esdras,  ix-x;  but  the  author  of  the  third  Neher,  Stephan  Jakob,  church  historian;   b.  at 

Book  of  Esdras  was  led  to  do  this  by  the  fact  that  Ebnat,  24  July,  1829;  d.  at  Nordhausen,  7  Oct..  1902. 

Neh.,  viii,  presents  his  hero  as  reader  of  the  Law.    He  His  family  were  country  people  of  Ebnat,  a  village  in 

has  moreover  preserved  (III  Esd.,  ix,  60)  the  informa-  the  district  of  Neresheim  in  Wtirtemberg,  and  upon 

tion  of  Neh.,  viii,  9,  about  the  intervention  of  the  the  conclusion  of  his  studies  in  the  gymnasium  Neher 

Athersatha    (Nehemias),    Esdras'    superior,    which  devoted  himself  to  the  studv  of  theology  in  the  Uni- 

dearly  proves  that  this  account  does  not  refer  to  the  versity  of  Tubingen.    After  his  ordination,  he  laboured 

epoch  when  Esdras  had  returned  to  Jerusalem  en-  as  pastor  of  Dorfmerkingen,  then  of  Zobingen,  and 

trusted  by  the  king  with  f uU  powers  for  the  adminis-  finally  of  Nordhausen  (in  the  district  of  Ellwangen. 

tration  of  the  Jewish  commumty.    See,  moreover,  the  Wtirtemberg).    In  addition,  Neher  devoted  himself 

following  paragraph.  throughout  his  life  to  intellectual  pursuits,  princi- 

(5)  According  to  our  view  the  return  of  Esdras  with  pally  to  canon  law  and  church  history,  giving  nis  at- 
his  emigrants  and  the  reform  effected  by  him  (I  Esd.,  tention,  in  the  latter  study,  chiefly  to  the  two  branch 
vii-x)  ought,  chronologically,  to  be  placed  after  the  sciences  of  ecclesiastical  geography  and  ecclesiastical 
history  of  Nehemias,  and  the  Artaxerxes,  in  the  seventh  statistics,  in  which  he  accomplished  great  results.  In 
year  of  whose  reign  Esdras  returned  to  Jerusalem,  is  his  first  considerable  work,  which  appeared  in  1861,  he 
Artaxerxes  II  (b.  c.  405-358).  As  a  matter  of  fact,  deals  with  the  topic  of  the  privileged  Altar  (cdtare 
Esdras  finds  the  wall  of  Jerusalem  rebuilt  (I  Esd.,  ix,  jjrivilegiatum).  In  1864  he  published  the  first  volume 
9),  Jerusalem  well  populated  (x,  1  fif.),  the  Temple  of  his  great  and  carefully  planned  work,  ''Kirchliche 
treasure  under  proper  management  (viii,  29  fif.),  Jona-  Geographic  und  Statistik^',  which  comprises  three 
than,  son  of  Eliasib,  high  priest  (x,  6;  cf.  Neh.,  xii,  23,  volumes  (Ratisbon,  1864-68).  It  was,  for  that  day, 
H^rew  text),  and  the  unlawfulness  of  mixed  mar-  a  most  important  work,  indispensable  to  historians, 
riages  recognized  by  every  one  (ix,  1  fif.).  The  radical  Its  author  was  one  of  the  first  m  modem  times  to  rec- 
reform,  wluch  Esdras  introduced  in  this  matter  with-  ognize  the  importance  of  this  branch  of  church  his- 
out  being  troubled  by  foreigners  who  still  held  the  tory,  collecting  with  great  care  material  often  very 
uoper  hand  at  the  time  of  Nehemias'  first  coming,  difiacult  to  procure,  and  arranging  it  systematically, 
definitively  put  an  end  to  the  abuse  in  question  whicui  His  book  on  the  celebration  of  two  Masses  by  a  priest 


MXLATON 


740 


on  the  same  day  pertains  to  canon  law,  and  it  bears 
the  title:  "Die  Bination  nach  ihrer  geschichtlichen 
l^twicklung  und  nach  dem  heutigen  Kecht"  (Ratis- 
bon,  1874).  After  1878  Neher  edited  the  statistical 
"Personalkatalog''  of  his  own  diocese  of  Rottenburg, 
and  was  one  of  uie  principal  contributors  to  the  sec- 
ond edition  of  the  Kircnenlexikon  of  Wetzer  and 
Welte.  For  this  work  he  wrote  no  fewer  than  235  arti- 
cles, or  greater  parts  of  articles.  Thdr  content  is 
chiefly  matter  relating  to  church  history,  or  to  ecclesi- 
astical statistics;  his  best  articles  are  those  relating  to 
the  latter  subject;  those  of  purely  historical  interest 
are  often  impmect. 

J.  P.  KntscH. 

Nttftton,  AuGUBTB.  famous  French  surgeon;  bom 
in  Paris,  17  June.  1807,  d.  there  21  Sept.,  1873.  He 
made  his  medical  studies  in  Paris,  graduating  in  1836 
with  a  thesis  on  tuberculous  affections  of  bones.  All 
his  subsequent  univer8it3r  career  was  passed  at  Paris. 
After  the  publication  of  his  "Traits  des  tumeurs  de  la 
mameUe"  he  became  agrigi  in  1830.  In  1851  he  be- 
came professor  of  clinical  surgery  with  a  thesis  which 
attracted  wide  attention  and  was  translated  into  Ger- 
man the  following  year.  As  a  member  of  the  surgical 
staff  of  the  St.  Louis  Hospital,  he  devised  a  number  of 
original  surgical  procedures  and  operations,  was  the 
first  to  suggest  the  ligature  of  both  ends  of  arteries  in 
primary  and  secondary  hemorrhage,  and  developed 
several  phases  of  plastic  surgery.  The  N61aton  probe 
with  the  porcelain  knob,  wmch  he  invented,  was  sue- 
cessfully  used  by  him  in  Garibaldi's  case,  in  1862,  to 
locate  a  bullet  in  the  ankle  joint.  Some  of  his  sugges- 
tions with  regard  to  operations  were  important  ad- 
vances in  abdominal  and  pelvic  surgery.  He  was, 
lastly,  noted  as  a  great  teacher  of  surgery  and  a  con- 
summate operator. 

Pagel,  the  German  historian  of  medicine,  in 
his  'Biographical  Dictionary  of  Prominent  Phy- 
sicians of  the  Nineteenth  Century",  says  of  Ndlaton: 
"He  was  a  man  of  very  dear  judgment,  of  ripe 
experience,  of  solid  wisdom,  and  deservedly  occupies 
a  place  as  one  of  the  greatest  of  French  surgeons 
of  the  nineteenth  century. "  In  1863  he  was  elected  a 
member  of  the  Paris  Academ}^  of  Medicine  and  in  1867 
of  the  French  Institute  of  Science,  and  became  Sena- 
tor of  the  French  Empire  in  1868.  His  fame  as  a 
writer  on  surgery  rests  upon  his  "Elements  of  Surgical 
Pathology"  (5  vols.,  Paris,  1854^60).  The  last  vol- 
ume was  completed  with  the  collaboration  of  A.  Ja- 
main.  In  1867  Ndlaton  had  an  important  share  in 
preparing  the  "Report  on  The  Pro^^ss  of  Surgery 
m  France". 

OuTON  in  ButUiins  §1  Mtnuntf  cb  la  Soe,  dt  Chir,  (1876); 
BAcLABO  in  Mimoirea  de  VAcadhnie  d$  Mid.,  XXXII;  Qublt, 
Biogr.  Lex,  der  hervorrag.  AeraL. 

J.  J.  Waubh. 

Nemore,  Jordanus  (Jordanib)  db,  the  name  ^ven 
in  MSS.  of  the  thirteenth  and  fourteenth  centimes  to 
a  mathematician  who  in  the  Renaissance  period  was 
called  Jordanus  Nemorarius.  A  number  of  his  works 
are  extant,  but  nothing  is  known  of  his  life.  It  is  cus- 
tomary to  place  him  early  in  the  thirteenth  century. 
Emile  Chasles,  the  geometrician,  concluded  from  a 
studv  of  the  "Algonsmus  Jordani"  that  its  author 
Uvea  not  later  than  the  twelfth  century.  In  the  four- 
teenth century  the  English  Dominican  Nicolas 
Triveth.  in  a  chronicle  of  his  order^ttributed  the  "  De 
ponderious  Jordani"  and  the  "De  lineis  datis  Jor- 
dani" to  Jordanus  Saxo,  who,  in  1222^  succeeded  St. 
Dominic  as  master  general  of  the  Fnars  Preachers. 
Since  then,  the  identity  of  Jordanus  Saxo  with  Jor- 
danus Nemorarius  has  been  accepted  by  a  ^reat  many 
authors;  it  seems  difficult  to  maintain  this  opinion, 
however,  as  the  Dominican  superior  general  never 
adds  de  Nemore  to  his  name,  and  the  mathematician 
oever  calls  himself  Saxo.    The  literal  translation  of 


Jordanus  de  Nemore  (Giordano  of  Nemi)  would  indi- 
cate that  he  was  an  Italian.  Jordanus  had  a  |;reat 
vogue  during  the  Middle  Ages.  In  the  "Opus  Majus ", 
under  "  De  communibus  naturse  ",  Roger  Bacon  quotes 
his  "De  ponderibus",  as  well  as  a  commentary  which 
had  been  written  on  it  at  that  period.  Thomas  Brad- 
wardine  and  the  logicians  who  succeeded  him  in  Uie 
school  of  Oxford  likewise  make  a  great  deal  of  use  of 
the  writings  of  Jordanus.  During  the  Renaissance 
his  "De  ponderibus"  powerfully  influenced  the  devel- 
opment of  the  science  of  statics. 

The  treatises  composed  by  Jordanus  de  Nemore  are: 
(1)  "Alfforismus"^  a  theory  of  the  elementary  oper- 
ations of  arithmetic.  An  "  Algorithmus  demonstratus 
Jordani"  was  printed  at  Nuremberg  in  1534,  by  Pe- 
treius  for  Johannes  Schdner .  The  Algorithmus ' '  re- 
produced an  anonymous  MS.  found  among  the  papers 
of  Regiomontanus.  It  was  erroneously  attributed  to 
Jordanus,  and  had  really  been  composed  in  the  Uiir- 
teenth  centurv  by  a  certain  Mag^ster  Gemardus 
(Duhem  in  "Bibliotheca  mathematica",  3rd  series, 
VI,  1905.  p.  0).  The  genuine  "Demonstrato  Algo- 
riami"  ot  Jordanus,  which  E.  Chasles  had  already  ex- 
amined, has  been  rediscovered  by  M.  A.  A.  BiombO 
(G.  Enestrom  in  "Bibliotheca  mathematical',  3rd 
series,  VII,  1906,  p.  24),  but  is  still  unpublished.  (2) 
"Elementa  Arismeticse  :  this  treatise  on  arithmetic, 
divided  into  distinctioneSf  was  printed  at  Paris  in  1496 
and  in  1514,  to  the  order  of  Lef^vre  d'Eti4>le9,  who 
added  various  propositions  to  it.  (3)  "De  numeris 
datis",  published  m  1879  by  Treutldn  ("Zeitschr. 
Math.  Phys.",  XXIV,  supplem.,  pp.  127-«6)  and 
aniin  in  1891  by  Maximilian  Curtse  (ibid.,  XXXVI, 
"Histor.  liter.  AbtheUung",  pp.  1-23,  41-63,  81-95, 
121-138).  (4).  "De  triimgu&s".— Jordanus  himself 
f/BiYe  this  treatise  the  name  of  Philotechnes  (Duhem 
m  "Bibliotheca  mathematica",  3rd  series,  V,  1905,  p. 
321;  "Archiv  fOr  die  Geschidite  der  Naturwissen- 
schaften  und  der  Technik".  I,  1909,  p.  88).  It  was 
published  by  M.  Curtse  ("Mittheil.  aer  Copemicus- 
vereins  fOr  Wissenschaft  und  Kunst",  VI — ^Thom, 
1887).  (5)  "Planispherium". — ^This  work  on  inap- 
drawing  gives,  for  tne  first  time,  the  theorem:  The 
stereographic  projection  of  a  circle  is  a  circle.  It  was 
printed  by  Valderus,  at  Basle,  in  1536,  in  a  collection 
containing  the  cosmoimphical  works  of  Ziegler,  I^o- 
c!us,  Berosius.  and  Theon  of  Alexandria,  and  the 
"Planisphere''  of  Ptolemy.  (6)  "De  Speculis",  a 
treatise  on  catoptics,  still  unedited.  (7)  "De  pon- 
deribus". or  better^ "  Elementa  super  demonstrationem 
ponderis  ,  a  treatise  on  statics,  m  nine  propositions, 
still  unpuolished,  seems  to  have  been  compoeed  as  an 
introduction  to  a  fra^ent  on  the  Roman  Dalanoe  at- 
tributed to  one  Chanstion,  contemporary  and  friend 
of  Philo  of  Byzantium  (second  century,  b.  c).  This 
fragment  has  survived  under  two  forms:  (a)  a  Latin 
version  directly  from  the  Greek,  entitled  "De  ca- 
nonio";  (b)  a  ninth-century  commentary  by  the  Arab 
mathematician  ThAbit  ibn  Kurrah,  translated  into 
Latin  by  Gerard  of  Cremona. 

Most  of  the  propositions  of  the  "De  ponderibus 
Jordani"  are  gravely  erroneous.  But  the  last  offers 
a  remarkable  demonstration  of  the  principle  of  the 
lever,  introducing  the  method  of  virtual  work  for  the 
first  time  in  mathematical  histoiv.  Towards  the  end 
of  the  fourteenth  century,  or  tne  bopnning  of  the 
fifteenth,  an  anonymous  author  expanded  the  demon- 
strations in  Jordanus's  treatise :  in  this  enlarged  form, 
the  treatise,  combined  with  the  "  De  canonio  ,  is  found 
in  manv  MSS.  imder  the  title  "liber  Eudidis  de 
ponderibus".  There  is  also  an  anonjrmous  commen- 
tary on  the  "De  ponderibus",  based  on  ideas  appar- 
ently borrowed  from  Aristotle's  "Quiestiones  mecha- 
nicsB".  This  Aristotdean  commentary  is  mentioned 
by  Roger  Bacon  in  his  "Opus  majus";  together  with 
an  enlarged  edition  of  the  "libcr  Euclioua  ^ILP^'^ 
deribus''^  it  was  printed  at  Nuremberg«  in  1533|  by 


MXlCftOD 


741 


MEOCJBSASEA 


Johannes  Petreius,  under  the  direction  of  Petrus 
Apianus,  under  the  title  ''liber  Jordani  Nemorarii, 
viri  clariasimi,  de  ponderibus".  In  the  thirteenth 
centurv  an  anonymous  author  undertook  to  write  a 

Creamble  to  a  fragment  on  mechanics,  this  fragment 
eing  of  HeUenic  origin,  and,  apparently,  later  than 
Hero  of  Alexandria.  For  this  purpose  ne  resumed 
Jordanus's  work,  correcting,  however,  its  errors  in 
mechanics.  The  method  of  virtual  work,  employed 
by  Jordanus  to  justify  the  law  of  equilibrium  of  the 
straight  lever,  supplies  this  anonymous  writer  with 
some  admirable  demonstrations  for  the  law  of  equilib- 
rium of  the  bent  lever  and  for  the  apparent  weight  of 
a  heavy  body  on  an  inclined  plane.  This  preamble 
is  found  in  man3r  manuscripts,  with  the  HeUenic  frag- 
ment. In  1554  it  was  cymcally  pla^arized  by  Nicold 
Tartaglia  in  his  ''Quesiti  et  inventioni  diverse";  the 
manuscript  text,  found  in  Tartagha's  ^pers,  was  pub- 
lished at  Venice,  in  1565,  by  Antius  Trojanus,  under 
the  title:  ''Jordani  Opusculum  de  ponderositate,  Ni- 
colai  Tartales  studio  correctum"  (A  Brief  Work  of 
Jordanus,  on  Ponderosity,  carefully  corrected  by 
Nicold  Tartaglia). 

Cantor,   Voruuunoen  Hber  die  0$aeh%ckte  der  MathemaHk,  II 

J  2nd  ed..  Leipsic,  1000),  53-66;  Duhkm,  Lm  origirus  de  la  Staiique, 
(Paris,  1906),  9S-155:  Idbm,  Btudee  no-  Lionard  de  Vinci,  ceux 
qu'U  alueel  ceux  vti  Vont  <u,  Ist  aeriea  (P&ris.  1906).  310-16. 

PlERRB  DUHEM. 

Nemrody  or  Nimbod  {mio^  of  uncertain  significa- 
tion, LXX  Ne/9p(£d),  the  name  of  a  desccnaant  of 
Chus  (Cush),  son  of  Cham  (Ham),  represented  in 
Gen.,  X,  8-12,  as  the  founder  of  the  Babylonian  em- 

{)ire  and  as  a  mighty  hunter  before  the  Lord.  This 
ast  may  be  taken  in  the  strict  sense — shunter  of  wild 
beasts,  for  such  we  know  the  Babylonian  princes  to 
have  Deen;  or  in  the  sense  of  warrior,  the  original 
word  gibbar  having  the  meaning  "hero".  The  name 
of  Nemrod  has  not  yet  been  discovered  among  those 
found  in  the  cuneiform  inscriptions,  and  the  attempts 
made  by  Assyriologists  to  identify  nim  with  historical 
or  legendary  personages  known  to  us  through  these 
sources  rest  on  more  or  less  plausible  conjectures. 
Thus  by  some  scholars  (Delitsch,  Hommel,  P. 
Haupt,  etc.)  he  is  identified  with  Gilgamesh,  the  hero 
of  the  Babylonian  epic.  The  latter,  whose  name  ap- 
pears frequently  in  the  inscriptions,  and  who  is  often 
represented  in  the  act  of  strangling  a  lion,  is  described 
in  the  poem  as  a  powerful  prince  who  subdues  the 
monster  ox-faced  man  Eabani  and  makes  him  his 
companion,  after  which  he  triumphs  over  the  tyrant 
Humbaba,  and  slays  a  monster  sent  against  him 
by  the  deities^  Anu  and  Ishtar.  Like  the  Biblical 
Nemrod  he  reigns  over  the  city  of  Erech  (Douai, 
Arach),  but  the  texts  fail  to  mention  the  other  towns 
enumerated  in  Gen.,  x,  10,  namely:  Babylon.  Achad, 
and  Qialanne  (Calneh).  For  the  philological  reasons 
underlying  this  hypothesis  see  Vigouroux,  s.  v.^  and 
Hastings,  s.  v.  Nimrod.  Sa^ce  less  plausibly  iden- 
tifies Nemrod  with  the  Kassite  king,  Nazi-Murutas, 
and  T.  Pinches  (in  Hastings)  considers  him  to  be 
the  same  as  Marduk,  the  are&t  Babylonian  deity.  In 
Genesis,  x.  11,  we  read:  "Out  of  that  land  came  forth 
Assur,  ana  built  Ninive  .  .  "  This  rendering  of  the 
Vulgate  seems  preferable  to  that  of  the  Kevised 
Version:  "Out  of  that  land  he  (Nimrod)  went  forth 
into  Assyria  and  builded  Nineveh."  Be  that  as  it 
may,  we  know  from  other  sources  that  Assyria  with 
its  capital  Nineveh  was  at  first  a  Babylonian  colony, 
and  it  may  be  said  to  have  been  founded  by  Nemrod 
in  the  sense  that  it  was  a  development  of  the  power 
and  civilization  of  Chaldea.  A  great  number  of 
Oriental  legends  faew  up  around  the  meagre  Biblical 
data  concerning  Nemroa.  Thus  with  probable  refer- 
ence to  the  supposed  root  of  the  name  (11D  marad, 
"he  revolted"),  he  is  credited  with  having  instigated 
the  buildins  of  the  tower  of  Babel  and  of  being  the 
author  of  Babylonian  idolatry.    Another  legend  ^ 


to  the  effect  that  Abraham  having  refused  to  wonhip 
the  statue  of  Nemrod  was  cast  into  a  fiery  furnace. 
A  trace  of  this  legend  appears  in  II  £sd.,  ix,  7,  where 
the  translator  of  the  Vulgate  renders  the  original  "Ur 
of  the  Chaldees"  (from  which  the  Lord  called  Abra- 
ham), by  "fire  of  the  Chaldeans".  It  was  only  nat- 
ural that  the  renown  of  Nemrod  as  a  builder  should 
have  caused  his  name  to  be  connected  with  nearly  all 
of  the  principal  mounds  and  ruins  to  be  found  in 
Mesopotamia. 

HsTKBNAXTXB,  Commentaritu  in  librum  Geneaia  (Qrax  and 
Vienna,  1910),  190  sqq.;  Hummblauer,  Commentariua  in  Qene- 
aim  (Paria,  1908).  317  aqq.;  a  Lapidk,  Commeniaria  in  Scrip, 
Sac  I  (Paris,  1869),  166  sqq. 

James  F.  Driscoll. 

Neoccosarea,  a  titular  see,  suffragan  of  Hierapolis 
in  the  Patriarchate  of  Antioch,  sometimes  called 
CsBsarea^  as  in  "Georgii  Cyprii  Descriptio  orbis  ro- 
mani"  (ed.  Gelzer,  1882).  Among  its  bishops  were 
Paul,  whose  hands  were  burned  by  order  of  Licinius 
and  who  attended  the  Council  of  Nicsea  in  325  (Theo- 
doret,  "Hist,  eccl.",  I,  VII);  Meletius,  opposed  to  the 
Council  of  Ephesus  in  431;  Patricius  (451)  and  John 
(553).  In  the  sixth-century  "  Notitia  episcopatuum" 
of  Anastasius  (Echos  d'Orient,  Paris.  X,  145)  this  see  is 
mentioned  as  a  suffragan  of  Hierapolis.  According  to 
Prooopius  (De  iEdificiis  II,  9),  Justinian  accomplished 
great  things  there.  Neociesarea  was  a  fort  on  the 
Euphrates,  not  far  from  Zeugma.  Chabot  thinks  its 
site  was  tne  actual  ruins  of  Balkiz  (La  frontidre  de 
TEuphrate  de  Pompde  k  la  conqu^te  arabe,  Paris, 
1907,  278  sq.). 

Lb  Quibn.  Oriena  chri^iantUt  II  (Paris,  1741),  947;  Qblsbb, 
Qeorgii  Cyprii  Descrij^io  orbia  romani  (Leipsig),  151;  CBABOTt 
Journal  aatatique,  II  (Paris.  1900),  279  sq. 

S.  VAILEDfi. 

NeocAsarea.  a  titular  see  of  Pontus  Polemoniacus, 
at  first  called  Cabira,  one  of  the  favourite  residences 
of  Mithridates  the  Great,  who  built  a  palace  there, 
and  later  of  King  Polemon  and  his  successors.  Pom- 
pey  made  it  a  city  and  gave  it  the  name  of  Diopolis, 
while  Pythodoris.  widow  of  Polemon,  made  it  her 
capital  and  callea  it  Sebaste.  It  is  not  known  pre- 
cisely when  it  assumed  the  name  of  Neocsesarea  men- 
tioned for  the  first  time  in  PUny,  "Hist.  Nat.",  VI, 
III,  1,  but  judging  from  its  coins,  one  might  suppose 
that  it  was  during  the  reign  of  Tiberius.  It  bec^une 
the  civil  and  rehgious  metropolis  of  Pontus.  We 
know  that  about  240,  when  Gregory  Thaumatuigus 
was  consecrated  bishop  of  his  native  city,  Neocsesarea 
had  but  seventeen  Christians  and  that  at  his  death 
(270)  it  counted  onlv  seventeen  pagans.  In  315  a 
great  council  was  held  there,  the  acts  of  which  are  still 
extant.  In  344  the  city  was  completely  destroyed  by 
an  earthquake  (Hieronymus,  "Cnron.^',  anno  2362), 
meeting  a  similar  fate  m  499  (Theodorus  Lector,  II, 
54).  Durinp  the  Middle  Ages  the  Mussulmans  and 
Christians  disputed  the  possession  of  Neocffisarea,  and 
in  1068  a  Seljuk  general,  Melik-Ghasi,  whose  tomb  ia 
still  visible,  captured  and  pillaged  it;  later,  in  1397,  it 
passed,  together  with  the  whole  district,  under  the 
sway  of  the  Ottomans.  Bein^  early  placed  at  the 
head  of  an  ecclesiastical  provmce,  Neocsesarea  had 
four  suffragan  sees  about  640  ("Ecthesis''  of  pseudo- 
Epiphanius,  ed.  Gelzer,  539),  retaining  them  until  the 
tenth  century,  when  Trebizond  obtained  its  independ- 
ence and,  by  degrees,  the  other  three  suffragans  were 
suppressed.  In  1391  the  Archdiocese  of  Neocsesarea 
was  confided  to  the  metropolitan  of  Trebizond  (Miklo- 
sich  and  Muller,  "Acta",  II,  154).  About  1400  there 
was,  however,  a  regular  metropolitan  (op.  cit.,  II,  312) 
and  there  is  stilly  but  he  resides  at  Ordou.  Among  the 
twenty-seven  bishops  of  this  city  mentioned  by  Le 
Quien,  the  most  noted  are  St.  Gregory  Thaumaturgus 
and  St.  Thomas,  a  martyr  of  the  ninth  century.  Neo- 
csesarea, now  called  Niksar,  is  a  small  city  of  4000  in- 
habitants in  the  sanjak  of  Tokat  and  the  vilayet  of 


MBO^snm 


742 


mO-PLATONISM 


Sivas,  with  a  Greek  and  an  Armenian  church,  both  of 
which  are  schismatic. 

Smith,  Dictionary  of  Oreek  and  Roman  Oeography  (London, 
1870),  I.  462,  II,  418.  8.  v.  Cabira  et  Neocaaareia;  Lb  Quibn, 
Orient  ehristianus,  I  (Paris,  1741),  499-508;  CtriNBT,  La  Turquie 
d'Atie,  I  (Paris,  1892),  733-^5;  Cumont,  Studio  Pontiea  (Brua- 
aels.  1906),  259-273. 

S.  VAILEd^. 

Neophyte  (w^^woi,  the  newly  planted,  i.  e.  incoi> 
pqrated  with  the  mystic  Body  of  Christ),  a  term  ap- 
plied in  theology  to  all  those  who  have  lately  entered 
upon  a  new  ana  higher  state  or  condition  of  life,  e.  g. 
those  who  have  begun  the  ecclesiastical  life,  or  have 
joined  a  religious  order.  More  particularly  is  it  used 
of  those  who,  lately  converted  from  heathenism,  have, 
by  the  sacrament  of  Baptism,  been  transplanted  into 
the  higher  life  of  the  Church.  From  very  early  times 
there  have  been  prohibitions  against  neophytes  in  this 
last  sense  being  promoted  too  quickly  to  Uolv  Orders 
and  to  positions  of  responsibility  in  the  Church.  Thus 
the  Council  of  Nicsea  in  its  second  canon  lays  down 
rules  on  this  subject,  on  the  ground  that  some  time  is 
necessary  for  the  state  of  a  Catechumen  and  for  fuller 
probation  after  baptism;  for  the  Apostolic  decree  is 
clear  which  says,  'Not  a  neophyte,  lest  being  puffed 
up  with  pride,  he  fall  into  the  iuagment  of  the  devil'' 
(I  Tim.,  iii,  6).  The  period  which  should  elapse 
after  conversion  before  promotion  is  not  fixed  but 
(Bened.  XIV,  "De  syn.'S  vii,  65-6)  is  left  to  the  dis- 
cretion of  the  bishop  and  will  vary  with  the  individual 
case.     (See  Divorce,  sub-title  Pauline  Privilege.) 

Bbnsdict  XIV,  Dt  Syn.  Dioe.,  Lib.  XIII,  cap.  zl;  Fbbbabm, 
Prompta  Bibliotheca,  s.  v.;   Mxonk,  Didionnairt  dt  Discipline 
BeeUnaatique.  s.  v.;  Corpua  Jurit  Canon.,  and  in  seneral  the 
Luals  oi  Moral  Theology. 


Manuals 


Arthxtr  S.  Barnes. 


Neo-Platonism,  a  system  of  idealistic,  spiritual- 
istic philosophv,  tending  towards  mysticism,  which 
flourished  in  the  pagan  world  of  Greece  and  Rome 
during  the  first  centuries  of  the  Christian  era.  It 
is  of  interest  and  iinportance,  not  merely  because  it  is 
the  last  attempt  of  Greek  thought  to  reliabilitate  itself 
and  restore  its  exhausted  vitality  by  recourse  to 
Oriental  religious  ideas,  but  also  because  it  definitely 
entered  the  service  of  pagan  polsrtheism  and  was  used 
as  a  weapon  against  Christianity.  It  derives  its  name 
from  the  fact  that  its  first  representatives  drew  their 
inspiration  from  Plato's  doctrines,  althou^  it  is  well 
known  that  man^  of  the  treatises  on  which  they  re- 
lied are  not  genume  works  of  Plato.  It  originated  in 
Egypt,  a  circumstance  which  would,  of  itself,  indicate 
that  while  the  system  was  a  characteristic  product  of 
the  Hellenic  spirit,  it  was  largely  influenced  by  the  re- 
ligious ideals  and  mystic  tendencies  of  Oriental 
thought. 

To  understand  the  neo-Platonic  system  in  itself,  as 
well  as  to  appreciate  the  attitude  of  Christianity  to- 
wards it,  it  is  necessary  to  explain  the  two-fold  purpose 
which  actuated  its  founders.  On  the  one  hand,  phil- 
osophical thought  in  the  Hellenic  world  had  prov^  it- 
self inadequate  to  the  task  of  moral  and  refigious  re- 
generation. Stoicism,  Epicureanism,  Eclecticism  and 
even  Scepticism  had  each  been  set  the  task  of  "  making 
men  happy",  and  each  had  in  turn  failed.  Then  came 
the  thought  that  Plato's  ideahsm  and  the  religious 
forces  of  the  Orient  might  well  be  united  in  one  philo- 
sophical movement  which  would  give  definiteness, 
homogeneity,  and  unity  of  purpose  to  all  the  efforts 
of  the  oagan  world  to  rescue  itself  from  impending 
ruin.    On  the  other  hand,  the  strength  and,  from  the 

E  point  of  view,  the  aggressiveness  of  Cnristianity 
to  be  realized.  It  became  necessary,  in  the  in- 
;ual  world,  to  impose  on  the  Christians  by  show- 
ing that  Paganism  was  not  entirely  bankrupt,  and,  in 
the  political  world,  to  rehabilitate  the  official  polythe- 
ism of  the  State  by  furnishing  an  interpretation  of  it, 
that  should  be  acceptable  in  philosophy.  Speculative 
Stoicism  had  reduced  the  gods  to  personincations  of 


natural  forces;  Aristotle  had  definitely  denied  thdr 
existence;  Plato  had  sneered  at  them.  It  was  time, 
therefore,  that  the  growing  prestige  of  Christianity 
should  be  offset  by  a  philosophy  ^ich,  claiming  the 
authority  of  Plato,  whom  the  Christians  reverecL 
should  not  only  retain  the  gods  but  make  them  an 
essential  part  of  a  philosophical  S3rstem.  Such  was  the 
origin  of  neo-Platonism.  It  ^omd,  however,  be  added 
that,  while  the  philosophy  which  sprang  from  these 
sources  was  Platonic,  it  did  not  disdain  to  appropriate 
to  itself  elements  of  Aristoteleanism  and  even  Epicu- 
reanism, which  it  articulated  into  a  Syncretic  system. 

I.  Forerunners  of  Neo-Platonism. — Among  the 
more  or  less  eclectic  Platonists  who  are  regard^  as 
forerunners  of  the  neo-Platonic  school,  the  most  im- 
portant are  Plutarch,  Maximus,  Apuleius,  ^neside- 
mus,  Numenius.  The  last-mentioned,  who  flouridied 
towards  the  end  of  the  second  century  of  the  Christian 
era,  had  a  direct  and  immediate  influence  on  Plotinus, 
the  first  systematic  neo-Platonist.  He  taught  that 
there  are  three  gods,  the  Father,  the  Maker  (Demi- 
urges), and  the  World.  Philo  the  Jew  (see  PHnx> 
JiTDiEns),  who  flourished  in  the  middle  of  the  first  cen- 
tury, was  also  a  forerunner  of  neo-Platonism,  although  it 
is  difficult  to  say  whether  his  doctrine  of  the  mediation 
of  the  Logos  had  a  direct  influence  on  Plotinus. 

II.  Ammonius  Saccas,  a  porter  on  the  docks  at  Alex- 
andria, is  regarded  as  the  rounder  of  the  neo-Platonic 
school.  Since  he  left  no  writing  it  is  imposable  to 
say  what  his  doctrines  were.  We  know,  however, 
that  he  had  an  extraordinary  influence  over  men  like 
Plotinus  and  Origen,  who  willingly  abandoned  the  pro- 
fessional teachers  of  philosophy  to  listen  to  his  dis- 
courses on  wisdom.  According  to  Eusebius,  he  was 
bom  of  Christian  parents,  but  reverted  to  paganism. 
The  date  of  his  birth  is  given  as  242. 

III.  Plotinus,  a  native  of  Lycopolis  in  Epypt,  who 
lived  from  205  to  270  was  the  nrst  systematic  pmloeo- 
pher  of  the  school.  When  he  was  twenty-eight  years 
old  he  was  taken  by  a  friend  to  hear  Ammonius,  and 
thenceforth  for  eleven  years  he  continued  to  profit  by 
the  lectures  of  the  porter.  At  the  end  of  the  first  dis- 
course which  he  heard,  he  exclaimed :  "  This  man  is  the 
man  of  whom  I  was  in  search."  In  242  he  accompa- 
nied the  Emperor  (xordian  to  Mesopotamia,  intending 
to  go  to  Persia.  In  244  he  went  to  Rome,  where,  for 
ten  years,  he  taught  philosophy,  counting  among  his 
hearers  and  admirers  the  Emperor  Gallienus  and  his 
wife  Salonina.  In  263  he  retired  to  Campania  with 
some  of  his  disciples,  including  Porphyry,  and  there 
he  died  in  270.  His  works,  consisting  of  fifty-four 
treatises,  were  edited  by  Porphyry  in  six  sroups  ox  nine. 
Hence  they  are  known  as  the  "Enneads  .  The  "En- 
neads''  were  first  published  in  a  Latin  translation  by 
Mandlius  Ficinas  (Florence,  14d2) ;  of  recent  editions 
the  best  are  Breuzer  and  Moser's  (Oxford,  1855),  and 
Kirchoff's  (licipzig,  1856).  Parts  of  the  "Enneads" 
are  translated  into  English  by  Taylor  (London,  1787- 
1817). 

Plotinus'  starting-point  is  that  of  the  idealist.  He 
meets  what  he  considers  the  paradox  of  materialism, 
the  assertion,  namely,  that  matter  alone  exists,  by  an 
emphatic  assertion  of  the  existence  of  spirit.  If  the 
soiu  is  spirit,  it  follows  that  it  cannot  have  originated 
from  the  body  or  an  aggregation  of  bodies.  T^e  true 
source  of  reahty  is  above  us,  not  beneath  us.  It  is  the 
One,  the  Absolute,  the  Infinite.  It  is  God.  CSod  ex- 
ceeds all  the  categories  of  finite  thought.  It  is  not 
correct  to  say  that  He  is  a  Being,  or  a  Mind.  He  is 
over-Being,  over-Mind.  The  only  attributes  which 
may  be  appropriately  applied  to  Him  are  Good  and 
One.  If  God  were  only  One,  He  should  remun  for- 
ever in  His  undifferentiated  unity,  and  there  should  be 
nothing  but  God.  He  is,  however  good;  and  good- 
ness, like  light,  tends  to  diffuse  itself.  Thus,  from  the 
One,  there  emanates  in  the  first  place  Intdlect  (Novt), 
which  is  the  image  of  the  One,  and  at  the  same  time  a 


MB0-PLAT0NI8M  743  NSO-PLATONI8M 

partially  differentiated  derivative,  because  it  is  the  Old  Testament  and  the  comparative  study  of  religiona 
woild  of  ideas,  in  which  are  the  multiple  archet3rpe8  His  work  ''De  Antro  Nympharum"  is  an  elaborate 
of  things.  From  the  intellect  emanates  an  image  in  allegorical  interpretation  and  defence  of  pagan  my- 
which  there  is  a  tendency  to  d^mamic  differentiation,  thology.  Hia* A^^op/ial  (Sentences)  is  an  exposition  of 
namely  the  World-Soul,  which  is  the  abode  of  forces,  Plotinus's  philosophy.  His  biographical  writings  in- 
as  the  Intellect  is  the  abode  of  Ideas.  From  the  eluded  '' Lives''  of  Fyrthagoras  and  Plotinus  in  which 
World-Soul  emanate  the  Forces  (one  of  which  is  the  he  strove  to  show  that  these  ''godnsent"  men  were 
human  soul),  which  by  a  series  of  successive  degrada-  not  only  models  of  philosophic  sanctity  but  also 
tions  towaras  nothing  become  finally  Matter,  the  Bavftarovpyol,  or  "wonder-workers",  endowed  with 
non-existent,  the  antithesis  of  God.  AH  this  process  theurgic  powers.  The  best  known  of  all  his  works  is 
is  called  an  emanation,  or  flowing.  It  is  descnbed  in  a  logical  treatise  entitled  €6<rayiay±  or  "Introduction 
figurative  language,  and  thus  its  precise  philosophical  to  the  Categories  of  Aristotle".  In  a  Latin  transla- 
value  is  not  determined.  Similarly  the  One.  God,  is  tion  made  by  Boethius,  this  work  was  very  widely 
described  as  light,  and  Matter  is  said  to  be  aarkness.  used  in  the  early  Middle  Ages,  and  exerted  considera- 
Matter,  is,  in  fact,  for  Plotinus,  essentially  the  opposite  ble  influence  on  the  growth  of  Scholasticism.  It  is, 
of  the  Good:  it  is  evil,  and  the  source  of  all  evil.  It  is  as  is  well  known,  a  passage  in  this  "Isagoge"  that  is 
unreahty  and  wherever  it  is  present,  there  is  not  only  a  said  to  have  given  occasion  to  the  celebrated  con- 
lack  of  goodness  but  also  a  lack  of  reality.  God  alone  troversy  concerning  universals  in  the  eleventh  and 
is  free  from  Matter;  He  alone  is  Light;  He  alone  is  twelth  centuries.  In  his  expository  works  on  the 
fully  reaJ.  Everywhere  there  is  partial  differentiation,  philosophy  of  Plotinus,  Porphyry  lays  great  stress  on 
partial  darkness,  partial  unreality;  in  the  Intellect,  the  importance  of  theurgic  practices.  He  holds,  of 
m  the  World-Soul,  in  Souls,  in  the  material  uni-  course,  that  the  practices  of  asceticism  are  the  starting* 
verse.  God,  the  reatity.  the  spiritual,  is,  therefore,  point  on  the  road  to  perfection.  One  must  begin  the 
contrasted  with  the  world,  the  unreal,  the  material,  process  of  perfection  by  ''thinning  out  the  vefl  of 
God  is  noumenon,  everything  else  is  appearance,  or  matter"  (tne  body),  which  stands  between  the  soul 
phenomenon.  and  spiritual  things.    Then,  as  a  means  of  further 


Man,  being  composed  of  bod^  and  soul,  is  partly,  advancement,  one  must  cultivate  self-contemplation. 
iiKe  God,  spiritual,  and  partly  like  matter,  the  oppo-  Once  the  stage  of  self-contemplation  is  attained,  fur- 
site  of  spiritual.  It  is  his  duty  to  aim  at  returning  to  ther  progress  towards  perfection  is  dependent  on  the 
God  b>r  eliminating  from  his  being,  his  thou^ts.  and  consultation  of  oracles,  divination,  bloodless  sacrifices 
his  actions,  everything  that  is  material  and,  there-  to  the  superior  gods  and  bloody  sacrifices  to  demons, 
fore,  tends  to  separate  him  from  God.    The  soul  came  or  inferior  powers. 

from  God.  It  existed  before  its  union  with  the  body:  V.  lamoUchuSf  a  native  of  S3rria,  who  was  a  pupil  of 
its  survival  after  death  is,  therefore,  hardly  in  need  or  Porphyry  in  Italy,  and  died  about  the  year  330,  while 
proof.  It  will  return  to  God  by  way  of  knowledge,  inferior  to  his  teacher  in  power  of  exposition,  seemed 
Because  that  which  separates  it  from  God  is  matter  to  have  a  firmer  grasp  of  the  speculative  principles 
and  material  conditions,  which  are  only  illusions  or  of  neo-Platonism  and  modified  more  profoundly  the 
deceptive  appearances.  The  first  step,  therefore,  in  metaphysical  doctrines  of  the  school.  His  works  bear 
the  return  of  the  soul  to  God  is  the  act  bv  which  the  the  comprehensive  title  "Summary  of  Pythagorean 
soul,  wiUidrawing  from  the  world  of  sense  by  a  process  Doctrines  *\  Whether  he  or  a  disciple  of  his  is  the  au- 
of  purification  {KdSetpcis),  frees  itself  from  the  tram-  thor  of  the  treatise  "DeMysteriisiEgyptiorum''  (first 
mea  of  matter.  Next,  having  retired  within  itself,  pub.  by  Gale,  OTdTord,  1678,  and  afterwards  by  Par- 
the  soul  contemplates  within  itself  the  indwelling  thev,  Berlin,  1857),  the  book  is  a  product  of  his  school 
intellect.  From  the  contemplation  of  the  Intellect  and.  proves  that  he.  like  Porphyry,  emphasized  the 
within,  it  rises  to  a  contemplation  of  the  Intellect  magic,  or  theurgic,  factor  in  tne  neo-Flatonic  scheme 
above,  and  from  that  to  the  contemplation  of  the  One.  of  salvation.  As  resards  the  speculative  side  of 
It  cannot,  however,  reach  this  final  stage  except  bv  Plotinus's  system,  he  ofevoted  attention  to  the  doctrine 
revelation,  that  is,  by  the  free  act  of  God,  Who,  shed-  of  emanation,  which  he  modified  in  the  direction  of 
ding  around  Him  the  light  of  His  own  greatness,  sends  completeness  and  ^;reater  consistency.  The  precise 
into  the  soul  of  the  philosopher  and  saint  a  special  nature  of  the  modification  is  not  clear.  It  is  safe, 
light  which  enables  it  to  see  Uod  Himself.  This  mtui-  however,  to  say  that,  in  a  general  way,  he  forestalled 
tion  of  the  One  so  fills  the  soul  that  it  excludes  all  con-  the  effort  of  Proclus  to  distinguish  thi^  subordinate 
Bciousness  and  feeling,  reduces  the  mind  to  a  state  "moments",  or  stages,  in  the  process  of  emanation, 
of  utter  passivity,  ana  renders  possible  the  union  of  ^  While  these  philosophical  defenders  of'  neo-Platon- 
man  with  God.  The  ecstasy  (^k^tcutis)  by  which  this  ism  were  directing  their  attacks  against  Christianity, 
union  is  attained  is  man's  supreme  happiness,  the  goal  representatives  of  the  school  in  the  more  practical 
of  all  his  endeavour,  the  fulnlment  of  his  destiny.  It  walks  of  life,  and  even  in  high  places  of  authority, 
is  a  happiness  which  receives  no  increase  by  continu-  carried  on  a  more  effective  waif  are  in  the  name  of  the 
ance  of  time.  Once  the  philosopher-saint  has  at-  sdiool.  Hierocles,  pro-consul  of  Dithynia  during  the 
tained  it,  he  becomes  confirmed,  so  to  speak,  in  grace,  reign  of  Diocletian  (284-305),  not  only  persecuted  the 
Henceforth  forever,  he  is  a  spiritual  being,  a  man  of  Christians  of  his  province,  but  wrote  a  work,  now  lost, 
God,  a  prophet,  and  a  wonder-worker.  He  commands  entitled  "  The  discourse  of  a  Lover  of  Truth,  against  the 
all  the  powers  of  nature,  and  even  bends  to  his  will  the  Christians '',  setting  up  the  rival  claims  of  neo-Platonio 
demons  themselves.  He  sees  into  the  future,  and  in  a  philosophy.  He,  like  Julian  the  Apostate,  Celsus  (q.v.), 
sense  shares  the  vision,  as  he  shares  the  life,  of  God.  and  others,  was  roused  to  activity  chiefly  by  the  claim 
,IV.  Porphyry f  who  in  beauty  and  lucidity  of  style  which  Christianity  made  to  be,  not  a  national  reli^on 
excels  all  the  other  followers  of  Plotinus,  and  who  is  like  Judaism,  but  a  world-wide,  or  universal,  religion, 
distinguished  also  by  the  bitterness  of  his  opposition  Julian  sums  up  the  case  of  philosophy  against  Chris- 
to  Chnstianity,  was  bom  a.  d.  233,  probably  at  Tyre,  tianity  thus:  "Divine  Government  is  not  through  a 
After  having  studied  at  Athens,  he  visited  Rome  and  special  society  (such  as  the  Christian  Church)  teach- 
there  became  a  devoted  disciple  of  Plotinus,  whom  he  ing  an  authontative  doctrine,  but  through  the  order  of 
accompanied  to  Campania  in  263.  He  died  about  the  the  visible  universe  and  all  the  variety  of  civic  and 
year  303.  Of  his  work  "Against  the  Christians"  only  national  institutions.  The  underlying  harmony  of 
a  few  fragments,  preserved  in  the  works  of  the  Chris*  these  is  to  be  sought  out  by  free  examination,  which  is 
tian  Apologists,  have  come  down  to  us.  From  thes^  plulosophy"  (Whittaker,  "Neo-Platonists",  p.  155). 
it  appears  that  ne  directed  his  attack  alon^  the  li^/  ^{  It  is  in  the  li^t  of  this  principle  of  public  policy  that 

what  we  should  now  call  bistpriwl  criticism  of  jii©  w  ^^  ^w  the  ivttempt  ofXwiibhcbMs  to  furnish  o 


NSO-PLATONI8M                       744  HXO-PLATONXm 

flystematic  defence  of  Polytheism.     Above  the  One,  he  fection,  enx>r.  and  moral  evil.    The  birth  of  a  human 

taySi  is  the  Absolutely  First.    From  the  One,  wmch  being  is  the  descent  of  a  soul  into  matter.    The  soul, 

is  thus  itself  a  derivative,  comes  intellect,  which,  as  however,  may  ascend,  and  redesoend  in  another  birth, 

the  Intellectual  and  the  Intelligible,  is  essentially  dual.  The  ascension  of  the  soul  is  brought  about  by  asoeti- 

Both  the  Intellectual  and  the  Intelligible  are  oivided  cism,  contemplation,  and  the  invocation  of  the  supe- 

into  triads,  which  are  the superterrestrial  gods.  Beneath  rior  powers  by  magic,  divination,  oracles,  miracles,  etc. 

these  and  subordinate  to  them,  are  the  terrestrial  gods  Vtl.  The  Lasl  Neo-PlaUmists. — Proclus  was  the 

whom  he  subdivides  into  three  hundred  and  sixty  last  great  representative  of  neo-Platonism.    His  dis- 

oelestial  beings,  seventy-two  orders  of  sub-celestial  gods,  ciple,  Marinus,  was  the  teacher  of  Damascius,  who 

and  forty-two  orders  of  natural  gods.   Next  to  these  are  represented  the  school  at  the  time  of  its  suppression 

the  semi-divine  heroes  of  mythology  and  the  philoso-  by  Justinian  in  529.    Damascius  was  accompanied  in 

pher-saints  such  as  Pytharoras  and  Plotinus.    From  his  exile  to  Persia  by  SimpUcius,  celebrated  as  a  neo- 

this  it  is  evident  that  neo-Platonism  had  by  this  time  Platonic  commentator.    About  the  middle  of  the  sixth 

ceased  to  be  a  purely  academic  question.    It  had  en-  century  John  Philoponus  and  Olympiodorus  flour- 

tered  very  vigorously  into  the  contest  waged  against  ished  at  Alexandria  as  exponents  of  neo-Platonism. 

Christianity.    At  the  same  time,  it  had  not  ceased  to  They  were,  like  SimpUcius,  commentators.    When 

be  the  one  force  which  could  claim  to  unify  the  sur-  they  became  Christians,  the  career  of  the  School  of 

viving  remnants  of  pa^an  culture.    As  such,  it  ap-  Plato  came  to  an  end.    The  name  of  Olympiodorus  is 

pealed  to  the  woman-pmlosopher  Hypatia,  whose  fate  the  last  in  the  long  line  of  scholarchs  which  began  with 

at  the  hands  of  a  Christian  mob  at  Alexandria,  in  the  Speusippus,  the  (Bsciple  and  nephew  of  Plato, 

year  422,  was  cast  up  as  a  reproach  to  the  Christians  VIII.  Influence  of  Neo-Platonism, — Christian  think- 

(see  CnuL  of  Alexandria).    Among  the  contempo-  ers,  almost  from  the  beginning  of  Christian  specula- 

raries  of  Hypatia  at  Alexandria  was  another  Hierocles,  tion.  found  in  the  spiritualism  of  Plato  a  powerful  aid 

author  of  a  commentary  on  the  Pythagorean  "Golden  in  defending  and  maintaining  a  conception  of  the 

Verses".  human  soul  which  pagan  materialism  rejected,  but  to 

VI.  Produa,  the  most  systematic  of  all  the  neo-  which  the  Christian  Church  was  irrevocably  com- 

Platonists,  ana  for  that  reason  known  as  "the  scholas-  mitted.    AU  the  early  refutations  of  psychological 

tic  of  neo-Platonism,"  is  the  principal  representative  materialism  are  Platonic.    So,  too^  when  the  ideas 

of  a  phase  of  philosophic  thought  which  developed  at  of  Plotinus  began  to  prevul,  the  Christian  writers  took 

Athens  during  the  fiftn  century,  and  lasted  down  to  the  advantage  of  the  support  thus  lent  to  the  doctrine 

year  529,  when,  by  an  edict  of  Justinian^  the  philo-  that  there  b  a  spintual  world  more  real  than  the 

sophical  schools  at  Athens  were  closed.     The  founder  world  of  matter.    Later,  there  were  Christian  phi* 

of  the  Athenian  school  was  Plutarch,  sumamed  the  losophers,  like  Nemesius  (flourished  c.  450),  who  took 

Great  (not  Plutarch  of  Chseronea.  author  of  the  over  the  entire  system  of  neo-Platonism  so  far  as  it 

"lives  of  Illustrious  men"),  who  died  in  431.    His  was  considered  consonant  with  Christian  dogma.  The 

most  distinguished  scholar  was  Proclus,  who  was  bom  same  may  be  said  of  Synesius  (Bishop  of  Ptolemais,  c. 

at  Constantinople  in  410,  studied  Aristotelean  logic  410),  except  that  he,  having  been  a  paipn,  did  not, 

at  Alexandria,  and  about  the  year  430  became  a  pupil  even  after  his  conversion,  give  up  the  notion  that  neo> 

of  Plutarch  at  Athens.    He  died  at  Athens  in  485.  Platonism  had  value  as  a  force  which  unified  the  va- 

He  is  the  author  of  several  Commentaries  on  Plato,  of  rious  factors  in  pagan  culture.    At  the  same  time  there 

a  collection  of  hymns  to  the  gods,  of  many  works  were  elements  m  neo-Platonism  which  appealed  very 

on  mathematics,  and  of  philosophical  treatises,  the  strongly  to  the  heretics,  especially  to  tne  Gnostics, 

most    important  of  which  are:  "Theological  Ele-  and  these  elements  were  more  and  more  strongly  ac- 

ments,"  ffrotxtlv^u  Oeokayuc^f  printed  in  the  Paris  ed.  oentuated  in  heretical  systems {  so  that  St.  Augustine, 

of  Plotinus's  works);  "Platonic  Theology"  (printed,  who  knew  the  writings  of  Plotmus  in  a  Latin  transla- 

1618,  in  a  Latin  translation  by  ^mmus  Portus);  tion,  was  obliged  to  exclude  from  his  interpretation  of 

shorter  treatises  on  Fate,  on  Evil,  on  Providence,  etc.,  Platonism  many  of  the  tenets  which  characterised  the 

which  exist  only  in  a  Latin  translation  made  by  Wil-  neo-Platonic  school.    In  this  way,  he  came  to  profess 

liam  of  Moerbeka  in  the  thirteenth  century.    These  a  Platonism  which  in  many  respects  is  nearer  to  the 

are  collected  in  Cousin's  edition,  "Procli   Opera",  doctrine  of  Plato's  "Dialogues  "than  is  the  philosophy 

Paris,  1820-25.    Proclus  attempted  to  systematize  of  Plotinus  and  Proclus.    The  Christian  writer  whose 

and  ^nUiesize  the  various  elements  of  neo-Platonism  neo-Platonism  had  the  widest  influence  in  later  times, 

by  means  of  Aristotelean  logic.  The  cardinal  principle  and  who  also  reproduced  most  faithfully  the  doctrines 

on  which  his  attempt  rests  is  the  doctrine,  already  of  the  school,  is  the  Pseudo-Dionysius  (see  Diontsiub, 

foreshadowed  by  lamblichus  and  others,  that  in  the  the  Pseudo-Areopaoitb).  ^  The  works  "De  Divinis 

process  of  emanation  there  are  alwa3rs  three  suboidi-  Nominibus".  "De  Uerarchia  coelesti",  etc.,  axe  now 

nate  stages,  or  moments,  namely  the  original  (MomH),  admitted  to  nave  been  written  at  the  end  <rf  the  fifth, 

emerg;ence  from  the  original  (rpdodof),  and  return  to  or  during  the  first  decades  of  the  sixth,  century.     They 

the  original  {irtarpo^-^).    The  reason  of  this  principle  are  from  the  pen  of  a  Christian  Platonist,  a  disciple  of 

is  enunciated  as  follows:  the  derived  is  at  once  unlike  Proclus,  probably  an  immediate  pupil  of  that  teacher, 

the  original  and  like  it;  its  unlikeness  is  the  cause  of  as  is  clear  from  the  fact  that  they  embody,  not  only 

its  derivation,  and  its  likeness  is  the  cause,  or  reason,  Proclus's  ideas,  but  even  lengthy  passages  from  his 

of  the  tendency  to  return.    All  emanation  is,  there-  writings.    The  author,  whether  mtenticmally  on  his 

fore,  eenaX.    It  constitutes  a  "chain"  from  the  One  part,  or  by  some  mistake  on  the  part  of  his  readers^ 

down  to  the  antithesis  of  the  One,  which  is  matter,  came  to  be  identified  with  Dionysius  who  is  mentioned 

By  the  first  emanation  from  the  One  come  the  "hena-  in  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles  as  a  convert  of  St.  PmiI. 

des",  the  supreme  gods  who  exercise  providence  over  Later,  especially  in  France,  he  was  further  identified 

worldly  affairs;  from  the  henades  comes  the  "triad",  with  Dion3rsius  the  first  Bishop  of  Paris.    Thus  it 

intelligible,  intelligible-intellectual,  and  intellectual,  came  about  that  the  works  of  the  Pseudo-Arecmaxite, 

corresponding  to  beinp,  life,  and  thought :  each  of  after  having  been  used  in  the  East,  first  by  the  Mo- 

these  is,  in  turn,  the  on^n  of  a  "hebdomad",  a  series  nophydtes  and  later  by  the  Catholics,  became  known 

corresponding  to  the  chief  divinities  of  the  pagan  pan-  in  the  West  and  exerted  a  widespread  influence  aU 

theon:  from  these  are  derived  "forces",  or  "souls",  through  the  Middle  Ages.    They  were  translated  into 

which  alone  are  operative  in  nature,  although,  since  Latin  by  John  Scotus  Eriugena  about  the  middle  of 

they  are   the  lowest   derivatives,  their  emcacy  is  the  ninth  century,  and  in  this  form  were  studied  and 

least.    Matter,  the  antithesis  of  the  One,  is  inert,  commented  on,  not  only  by  mystic  writers,  such  as  the 

deiKl,  ae4  cm)  be  ^e  of^use  of  nothing  except  imper-  Victoriuesi  but  9liso  by  the  typicfJ  lepreseotaUve^  of 


^  I 


MEO-PTTHAOORSAN                   745  UtEOPTtOAQOtaUOf 

Scholasticism,  such  as  St.  Thomas  Aquinas.    None  of  there  appears  a  philosopher  who  reverts  to  the  Pytha- 

the  later  scholastics,  however,  went  the  full  length  of  ^orean  doctrine  of  numbers,  and  in  a  general  way  man- 

adopting^the  metaphysics  of  the  Pseudo-Areopagite  ifests  the  tendency  of  the  school  towards  religious 

in  its  essential  principles,  as  did  John  Scotus  Eriugena  ethics  and  the  practices  of  asceticism.    Beginning 

in  his  '*De  divisione  natune".  with  the  middle  of  the  first  century  b.  c,  a  more  s^s- 

After  the  suppression  of  the  Athenian  school  of  tematic  attempt  was  made  to  restore  the  speculative 
philosophy  by  Justinian  in  529,  the  representatives  of  philosophy  of  the  Pythagoreans  and  combine  it  with 
neo-Platonism  went,  as  we  have  seen,  to  Persia.  They  the  practice  of  astrology  and  sorcery.  The  first  of 
did  not  remain  long  in  that  country.  Another  exo-  these  systematic  neo-Pythagoreans  was  Figulus,  a 
dus,  however,  had  more  permanent  conseouences.  A  Roman  philosopher  who  livedat  Alexandria  about  the 
number  of  Greek  nco-PIatonists  who  settled  in  Syria  middle  of  the  first  century  b.  c,  and  was  a  friend  of 
carried  with  them  the  works  of  Plato  and  Aristotle,  Cicero.  Other  Romans  also  contributed  to  the  move- 
which,  having  been  translated  into  Syriac,  were  after-  ment,  the  chief  of  whom  were  Vatinius  and  the  Sex- 
wards  translated  into  Arabic,  Hebrew,  and  Latin,  and  tians.  It  was,  however,  at  Alexandria  that  the  most 
thus,  towards  the  middle  of  the  twelfth  centiiry ,  began  influential  of  the  neo-Pythagoreans  taught.  In  the 
to  re-enter  Christian  Europe  throu^  Moorish  Spain,  second  and  third  centuries  of  the  Christian  era,  the 
These  translations  were  accompanied  by  commen-  philosophers  of  the  school  became,  so  to  speak,  apoa- 
taries  which  continued  the  neo-Platonic  tradition  com-  ties  of  the  cult,  and  travelled  throughout  the  Roman 
menced  by  Simplicius.  At  the  same  time  a  num-  Empire.  The  names  most  prominently  associated 
ber  of  anonymous  philosophical  works,  written  for  the  with  this  active  philosophical  campaign  are  those  of 
most  part  under  the  influence  of  the  school  of  Proclus,  Moderatus  of  Gades,  Apollonius  of  Tyana,  Nicoma- 
Bome  of  which  were  ascribed  to  Aristotle,  began  to  be  chus  of  Gerasa^  Numenius,  and  Philostratus.  Like 
known  in  Christian  Europe,  and  were  not  without  the  neo-Platonists  (see  Neo-Platonism),  the  neo- 
influence  on  Scholasticism.  Again,  works  like  the  I^thagoreans  definitely  placed  their  philosophy  at  the 
"Fons  vitfie"  of  Avicebrol,  which  were  known  to  be  of  disposal  of  the  pagan  opponents  of  Christianity. 
Jewish  or  Arabian  origin,  were  neo-Platonic,  and  Their  original  aim — to  save  the  pagan  world  from 
helped  to  determine  the  doctrines  of  the  scholastics,  moral  and  social  ruin  by  the  introduction  of  the  re- 
For  example,  Scotus's  doctrine  of  materia  vrimo-prima  ligious  element  into  philosophy  and  into  conduct — 
is  acknowledged  by  Scotus  himself  to  be  aerivea  from  was,  of  course,  conceived  without  any  reference  to  the 
Avicebrol.  Notwithstanding  all  these  facts,  Scholas-  claims  of  Christianity.  But  as  soon  as  the  Christian 
tic  philosophy  was  in  spirit  and  in  method  Aristo-  religion  came  to  be  recognized  as  a  factor  in  the  intel- 
telean;  it  explicitly  rejected  many  of  the  neo-Platonic  lectual  and  political  life  of  the  Roman  Empire,  phi- 
interpretations,  such  as  the  unity  of  the  Active  Intel-  losophy,  in  the  form  of  Neo-Pythagoreanism.  made 
lect.  For  this  reason  all  unprejudiced  critics  agree  active  campaign  against  the  Christians,  proclaimed 
that  it  is  an  exaggeration  to  describe  the  whole  Scho-  its  own  system  of  spiritual  regeneration,  and  set  up 
lastic  movement  as  merely  an  episode  in  the  history  in  opposition  to  Christ  and  the  Saints  the  heroes  of 
of  neo-Platonism.  In  recent  times  this  exaggerated  philosophical  tradition  and  legend,  especially  Pythag- 
view  has  been  defended  by  M .  Picavet  in  his ' '  Esquisse  oras  and  Apollonius  of  Tyana. 
d'une  histoire  compiu^e  aes  philosophies  m6di^ vales  *'  Speculative  System. — ^The  neo-Pythagoreans  were 
(Paris,  1907).  methodical   eclectics.     They   admitted   into   their 

The  neo-Platonic  elements  in  Dante's  ''Paradiso"  speculative  system  not  only  the  traditional  teachings 
have  their  origin  in  his  interpretation  of  the  scholas-  of  the  Pythagorean  school  but  also  elements  of  Pla- 
tics.  It  was  not  until  the  nse  of  Humanism  in  the  tonism.  Aristoteleanism,  and  Stoicism.  Besides,  they 
fifteenth  century  that  the  works  of  Plotinus  and  Pro-  derived  from  Oriental  religions  with  which  they  were 
clus  were  translated  and  studied  with  that  zeal  which  in  contact  at  Rome  as  well  as  at  Alexandria,  a  highly 
characterized  the  Platonists  of  the  Renaissance.  It  spiritual  notion  of  God.  There  was,  naturally,  veiy 
was  then,  too,  that  the  theurgic,  oi  magic,  elements  in  little  coherence  in  a  system  developed  from  prmciples 
neo-Platonism  were  made  popular.  'Hie  same  tend-  so  divergent.  Neither  was  there  agreement  in  the 
ency  is  found  in  Bruno's  *'  Eroici  Furori  ",  interpreting  school  even  in  respect  of  fundamental  tenets.  Never- 
Plotinus  in  the  direction  of  materialistic  Pantheism,  theless,  it  may,  in  general,  be  said  that  the  school 
The  active  rejection  of  Materialism  by  the  Cambridge  placed  God,  the  supremely  spiritual  One,  at  the  head 
Platonists  in  the  seventeenth  century  carried  with  it  of  all  reality.  Tlus,  of  course,  was  Oriental  in  its 
a  revival  of  interest  in  the  neo-Platonists.  An  echo  origin.  Next,  they  interpreted  the  I^thagorean  doo- 
of  this  appears  in  Berkeley's  ^'Siris",  the  last  phase  trine  in  a  Platonic  sense,  when  they  taught  that  num- 
of  his  opposition  to  materialism.  Whatever  neo-  bers  are  the  thoughts  of  God.  Thirdly,  borrowing 
Platonic  elements  are  recognizable  in  the  transcen-  from  Stoicism,  they  went  on  to  maintain  that  numbers, 
dentalists,  such  as  Schelling  and  Hegel,  can  hardly  be  emanating  as  forces  from  the  divine  thoughts,  are,  not 
cited  as  survivals  of  philosophical  principles.  They  indeed  the  substance  of  thinss,  but  the  forms  accord- 
are  rather  inspirational  influences,  such  as  we  find  ii^S  to  which  things  are  fashioned.  From  Aristotle 
in  Platonizing  poets  like  Spenser  and  Shelley.  they  borrowed  the  doctrine  that  the  world  is  eternal 

CRBuzn  AND  MoBBB,  edd.,  Ploiini  opera  (Oxford*  1835),  tr.  and  that  there  is  a  distinction  between  terrestrial  and 

HilZ  ISS^'  iJ2i;i2l'iy[?T^^}J^>i^0^(^{  f  l?««fl,  "at.*"-    Their  cosmolo^  in  apite  of  this 

1864),  tr.  Tatlob  (London,  1789  and  1826);  Nauck  ed.,  Por^  Anstotelean  influence,  IS  dommated  to  a  great  extent 

j^vrii  Oputeuia  (Leipsig.  1860  and  1886).  tr.  Tatlob;  Idem.  tr.  by  the  belief  that  the  stars  are  deities  and  that  the 

{^S^\l^^  SS;Sf"^-^5iS»X:S':^.r!!'JS'7<inii5'  POwe«  of  air,  _earth,  and  sky  are  demons.. 


Ethics  and  Religion. — In  their  theory  of  conduct 
..  the  neo-Pythagoreans  attach  great  importance  to 

SSSk,T^fk««''^^:?S'iSZ*«i:«^'&^^»^^  PT*""^  asceticism  contemplation,  and  theworrfiip 

ton;  1903),  205  sqq.                                                    ^^^  of  a  purely  spmtual  deity.    At  the  same  time,  it  is 

William  Turner.  ^^  essential  part  of  their  ethical  ^stem  that  fr^om 

from  the  trammels  of  matter  and  final  union  with  God 

Neo-Pythagorean  Philosophy. — The  ethico-re-  are  to  be  obtained  only  by  invoking  the  aid  of  friendly 

liffious  society  founded  by  Pythagoras,  which  flour-  spirits  and  God-sent  men  and  by  thwarting  the  efforts 

ished  especially  in  Magna  Gnecia  in  the  fifth  century  of  malign  demons.    This  latter  principle  led  to  the 

B.  c,  disappears  completely  from  history  during  the  practice  of  magic  and  sorcery  and  eventually  to  a  good 

fourth  century,  when  philosophy  reached  the  «ftJ:th  o®*^  ^^  charlatanry.    The  principle  that  the  friendly 

of  its  perfection  at  Athens.    Here  and  there,  ho^^^*^  spirits  and  the  souls  of  God's  special  messengers  aid 


NSO-SCHOLASTICISM 


746 


ffiO-SCBOLASnCISM 


men  in  the  struggle  for  spiritual  perfection  led  to  the 
practice  of  honouring  and  even  deifying  the  heroes  of 
antiquity  and  the  representatives  of  wisdom  such  as 
Pythagoras  and  Apollonius.  With  this  purpose  in 
view  the  philosophers  of  this  school  wrote  "Lives"  of 
Pythagoras  which  are  full  of  fabulous  tales,  stories 
in  which  more  than  natural  wisdom,  skill,  and  sanctity 
are  attributed  to  the  hero.  They  did  not  hesitate 
to  invent  where  exaggeration  failed  to  accomplish 
their  aim,  so  that  they  gave  only  too  much  justifi- 
cation to  the  modem  critic's  description  of  their  bio- 
graphical activity  as  representing  the  '^  Golden  Age  of 
Apocryphal  literature  .  In  this  spirit  and  with  this 
purpose  in  view  Philostratus,  about  the  year  a.  d.  220, 
wrote  a  "Life  of  Apollonius"  which  is  of  special  im- 
portance because,  while  it  is  not  a  professed  imitation 
of  the  Gospels,  it  was  evidently  written  with  a  view  of 
rivalling  the  gospel  narrative.  Apollonius  was  bom 
at  Tyana  in  Cappadocia  four  years  before  the  Chris- 
tian era.  At  an  early  age  he  devoted  himself  under 
various  masters,  to  the  study  of  philosophy  and  the 
practice  of  asceticism.  After  the  five  vears  of  silence 
imposed  by  the  rule  of  Pythagoras,  he  began  his  jour- 
neys. Throughout  Asia  Minor  he  travelled  from  city 
to  city  teaching  the  doctrines  of  the  sect.  Then  he 
journeyed  to  the  far  East  in  search  of  the  wisdom  of 
the  magi  and  the  brahmans,  and,  after  his  return, 
took  up  once  more  the  task  of  teaching.  Later  he 
went  to  Greece,  and  thence  to  Rome,  where  he  lived 
for  a  time  under  the  emperor  Nero.  In  69  he  was  at 
Alexandria,  where  he  attracted  the  attention  of  Ves- 
pasian. Summoned  to  Rome  by  Domitian,  he  was 
cast  into  prison,  but  escaped  to  Greece,  and  died  two 
years  later.  The  place  of  his  death  is  variously  given 
as  Ephesus,  Rhodes,  and  Crete.  Into  the  framework 
of  these  facts  Philostratus  weaves  a  tissue  of  alleged 
miraculous  events,  prophecies,  visions,  andprodi^esof 
various  kinds.  It  is  important  to  remark  m  criticism 
of  Philostratus's  narrative,  that  he  lived  one  hundred 
years  after  the  events  which  he  describes.  Moreover, 
according  to  Philostratus's  own  account,  Apollonius 
did  not  lay  claim  to  divine  prerogatives.  He  be- 
Heved  that  the  "virtue"  which  hepossessed  was  to  be 
attributed  to  his  knowledge  of  Pythagorean  philos- 
ophv  and  his  observance  of  its  prescriptions.  He 
held  as  a  general  principle  that  anyone  who  attained 
the  same  degree  of  wisaom  and  asceticism  could  ac- 
quire the  same  power.  The  parallel,  therefore,  whidi 
was  drawn  between  his  extraordinary  deeds  and  the 
miracles  narrated  in  the  Gospels  does  not  stand  the 
verdict  of  criticism.  Our  Lord  claimed  to  be  God,  and 
appealed  to  His  miracles  as  a  proof  of  His  divinity. 
Apollonius  regarded  his  own  powers  as  natural. 
Finally,  it  should  be  remembered  that  the  Pytha- 
gorean biographers  openly  acknowledged  "the  prin- 
ciple of  permitting  exaggeration  and  deceit  in  the 
cause  of  philosophy"  (Newman).  The  "Lives"  of 
Pythagoras  and  Apollonius  are  to  be  judged  by  the 
standards  of  fiction  and  not  by  the  canons  of  historical 
criticism.  Among  those  who,  overlooking  this  dis- 
tinction, have  tried  to  make  capital  against  Christian- 
itv  out  of  this  class  of  Pythagorean  literature  are  Lord 
Herbert  and  Blount,  mentioned  in  Newman's  essay  on 
Apollonius,  and  Jean  de  Castillon,  who  was  instigated 

by  Frederick  the  Great. 

Philoetratufl's  Lif9  of  ApoUonitu,  and  the  LeUer»  ascribed  to  the 
Utter  were  published  in  Philostratus,  Opera  Omnia  (Leipxig, 
ed.  OuBARins.  1709) ;  Pnd.  (ed.  Katber,  1870-71) ;  the  works  of 
NicoMACHUS  OF  Qerasa  Ere  included  in  Iambuchvs,  Theologii^ 
mena  Arilhmetica  (ed.  Asr,  Leipsig.  1817);  Zbllbr,  Philo9ovhu 
der  GrUchen,  III,  2  (3rd  ed..  Leipsig,  1881).  79  fF.;  Newman,  Hit' 
torieal  SketehcM,  I  (London,  1882),  301  fit.;  Turner,  Hiatory  of 
Pkilotophy  (Boston,  1903),  204  ff. 

William  Tubnbr. 

Neo-ScholaBticism. — ^The  Name  and  Its  Mean- 
ing.— Neo-Scholasticism  is  the  development  of  the 
Scholasticism  of  the  Middle  Ages  during  the  latter  half 
of  ihe  nineteenth  century.    It  is  not  merely  the  resus- 


citation of  a  philosophy  long  since  defunct,  but  rather 
a  restatement  in  our  own  day  of  the  phUosophia  peren^ 
nis  which,  elaborated  by  the  Greeks  and  brought  to 
perfection  by  the  great  medieval  teachers,  has  never 
ceased  to  exist  even  in  modem  times.  It  has  some- 
times been  called  neo-Thomism  partly  because  St. 
Thomas  Aquinas  in  the  thirteenth  century  gave  to 
Scholasticism  among  the  Latins  its  final  form,  partly 
because  the  idea  has  gained  ground  that  only  Thomism 
can  infuse  vitality  into  twentieth  century  scholasti- 
cism. But  Thomism  is  too  narrow  a  term:  the  sys- 
tem itself  is  too  large  and  comprehensive  to  be 
expressed  by  the  name  of  any  single  exponent. 

This  article  will  deal  with  the  elements  which  neo- 
Scholasticism  takes  over  from  the  pa^t :  the  modifica- 
tions which  adapt  it  to  the  present;  the  welcome  ac- 
corded it  by  contemporary  thought  and  the  outlook 
for  its  future;  its  leading  representatives  and  centres; 
its  bibhography. 

I.  Traditional  Elements.  —  Neo-Scholasticism 
seeks  to  restore  the  fundamental  organic  doctrines 
embodied  in  the  Scholasticism  of  the  thirteenth  cen- 
tury. It  claims  that  philosophy  does  not  vary  with 
each  passing  phase  of  history;  that  the  truth  of  seven 
hundred  years  ago  is  still  true  to-di^,  and  that  if  the 
foest  medieval  thinkers — ^Aquinas,  Bonaventure,  and 
Duns  Scotus — succeeded  in  constructing  a  sound  phi- 
losophical system  on  the  data  supplied  by  the  Greeks, 
especially  by  Aristotle,  it  must  be  pnossible,  in  our  own 
day,  to  gather  from  the  speculation  of  the  Middle 
Ages  the  soul  of  truth  wluch  it  cont^ns.  These  essen- 
tial conceptions  may  be  summarized  as  follows: 

(1)  God,  pure  actuality  and  absolute  perfection,  is 
substantially  distinct  from  every  finite  thing:  He 
alone  can  create  and  preserve  all  beings  other  than 
Himself.  His  infinite  knowledge  includes  all  that  has 
been,  is,  or  shall  be,  and  likewise  all  that  is  possible. 

(2)  As  to  our  knowledge  of  the  material  worid: 
whatever  exists  is  itself,  an  incommunicable,  individ- 
ual substance.  To  the  core  of  self-sustaining  reality, 
in  the  oak-tree  for  instance,  other  realities  (accidents) 
are  added — size,  form,  roughness,  and  so  on.  All  oak- 
trees  are  alike,  indeed  are  identical  in  respect  of  certain 
constituent  elements.  Considering  this  likeness  and 
even  identity,  our  human  intelligence  groups  them  into 
one  species  and  again,  in  view  of  their  common  char- 
actenstics,  it  ranges  various  species  under  one  genus. 
Such  is  the  Aristotelean  solution  of  the  problem  of 
universals  (q.  v.).  Each  substance  is  in  its  nature 
fixed  and  determined;  and  nothing  is  farther  from  the 
spirit  of  Scholasticism  than  a  theory  of  evolution 
which  would  regard  even  the  essences  of  things  as 
products  of  change. 

But  this  statism  requires  as  its  complement  a  mod- 
erate dynamism,  and  this  is  supplied  by  the  central 
concepts  of  act  and  potency.  Whatsoever  changes  is, 
just  ror  that  reason,  Umited.  The  oak-tree  passes 
through  a  process  of  growth,  of  becoming:  whatever 
is  actually  m  it  now  was  potentially  in  it  from  the  be- 
ginning. Its  vital  functions  ^o  on  unceasingly  (acci- 
dental change) ;  but  the  tree  itself  will  die,  and  out  of 
its  decayed  trunk  other  substances  will  come  forth 
(substantifJ  change).  The  theory  of  matter  and  form 
is  simply  an  interpretation  of  the  substantial  changes 
which  bodies  undergo.  The  union  of  matter  and  form 
constitutes  the  essence  of  concrete  being,  and  this 
essence  is  endowed  with  existence.  Throughout  all 
change  and  becoming  there  runs  a  rhythm  of  finality; 
the  activities  of  the  countless  substances  of  the  uni- 
verse converge  towards  an  end  which  is  known  to  God; 
finaUty,  in  a  word,  involves  optimism. 

(3)  Man,  a  compound  of  body  (matter)  and  of  soul 
(form),  puts  forth  activities  of  a  higher  order — knowl- 
edge and  volition.  Through  his  senses  he  perceives 
concrete  objects,  e.  g.  this  oak;  through  his  intellect 
he  knows  the  abstract  and  universal  (tht  oak).  All 
our  intellectual  activity  rests  on  sensory  function;  bat 


NSO-8CHOLA8TICISM 


747 


NS0-8CH0LASTICISM 


tliiough  the  active  intellect  (intellecttui  ageru)  an  ab- 
stract representation  of  the  sensible  object  is  provided 
for  the  irUeUectus  possibilis.  Hence  the  characteristic 
of  the  idea,  its  non-materiality,  and  on  this  is  based 
the  principal  argument  for  the  spiritualitv  and  immoiv 
taJity  of  the  soul.  Here,  too,  is  the  foundation  of  logic 
and  of  the  theory  of  knowledge,  the  justification  of  our 
judements  and  syllogisms. 

Upon  knowledge  follows  the  appetitive  process, 
sensory  or  intellectual  according  to  tne  sort  of  knowl- 
edge. The  will  {appeiUus  intellectualis)  in  certain  con- 
ditions is  free,  and  thanks  to  this  liberty  man  is  the 
master  of  his  destiny.  Like  all  other  bein^,  we  have 
an  end  to  attain  and  we  are  morally  obliged,  though 
not  compelled,  to  attain  it. 

Natural  happiness  would  result  from  the  full  de- 
velopment of  our  powers  of  knowing  and  loving.  We 
shoiud  find  and  possess  God  in  this  world  since  the 
corporeal  world  is  the  proper  object  of  our  intelligence. 
But  shove  nature  is  the  order  of  grace  and  our  super- 
natural happiness  will  consist  in  the  direct  intuition  of 
God,  the  beatific  vision.  Here  philosophy  ends  and 
theology  begins. 

II.  Adaptation  to  Modern  Needs. — ^The  neo- 
Scholastic  programme  includes,  in  the  next  place,  the 
adaptation  of  medieval  principles  and  Hoctrines  to  our 
present  intellectual  needs.  Complete  immobility  is 
no  less  incompatible  with  progress  than  out-and-out 
relativism.  Vita  in  motu.  To  make  Scholasticism 
ri^id  and  stationary  would  be  fatal  to  it.  The  doc- 
tnnes  revived  by  the  new  movement  are  like  an  in- 
herited fortune;  to  refuse  it  would  be  folly,  but  to 
manage  it  without  regard  to  actual  conditions  would 
be  worse.  With  Dr.  Ehrhard  one  may  say:  "Aquinas 
should  be  our  beacon,  not  our  boundary'^  C'Der  K&- 
tholicismus  und  das  zwanzigste  Jahrh.  im  Lichte  der 
Kirchlichen  Entwicklung  der  Neuzcit",  Stuttgart, 
1902,  252).  We  have  now  to  pass  in  review  the  vari- 
ous factors  in  the  situation  and  to  see  in  what  respect 
the  new  Scholasticism  differs  from  the  old  and  how  far 
it  adapts  itself  to  our  age. 

(1)  Elimination  of  False  or  Uaelesa  Notions. — Neo- 
Scholasticism  rejects  the  theories  of  physics,  celestial 
and  terrestrial,  which  the  Middle  Ages  grafted  on  the 
principles^  otherwise  sound  enough,  of  cosmology  and 
metaphysics;  e.  g.  the  perfection  and  superiority  of 
astral  substance,  the  "incorruptibility"  of  the  heav- 
enly bodies,  their  external  connexion  with  "motor 
spirits '\  the  influence  of  the  stars  on  the  generation  of 
earthly  beings,  the  four  "simple"  bodies,  etc.  It  fur- 
ther rejects  those  philosophical  theories  which  are 
disproved  by  the  results  of  investigation;  e.  g.  the 
difitusion  of  sensible  "species"  throughout  a  medium 
and  their  introduction  into  the  organs  of  sense.  Even 
the  Scholastic  ideas  that  have  been  retained  are  not 
all  of  equal  importance;  criticism  and  personsJ  con- 
viction may  retrench  or  modify  them  considerably, 
without  injury  to  fundamental  principles. 

(2)  Study  of  the  History  of  Philosophy. — ^The  medi- 
eval scholars  cultivated  the  history  of  philosophy  solely 
with  a  view  to  its  utility,  i.  e.  as  a  means  of  gathering 
the  deposit  of  truth  contained  in  the  writings  of  the 
ancients  and,  especicdl^r,  for  the  purpose  of  refuting 
error  and  thus  emphasizing  the  value  of  their  own  doc- 
trine. Modem  students,  on  the  contrary,  regard 
every  human  fact  and  achievement  as  in  itself  si^fi- 
cant,  and  accordingly  they  treat  the  history  of  philos- 
ophy in  a  spirit  that  is  more  disinterested.  With  this 
new  attitude,  neo-Scholasticism  is  in  full  sympathy; 
it  does  its  share  in  the  work  of  historical  reconstruction 
by  employing  critical  methods;  it  does  not  attempt  to 
condense  the  opinions  of  others  into  a  syllogism  and 
refute  them  with  a  phrase,  nor  does  it  commend  the 
practice  of  putting  whole  systems  into  a  paragraph  or 
two  in  order  to  annihilate  them  with  epitnet  or  invec- 
tive. Neo^cholasticism,  however,  does  not  confine 
its  interest  to  ancient  and  medieval  philosophy;  its 


chief  concern  is  with  present-day  systems.  It  takes 
issue  with  them  and  onsets  their  theories  of  the  world 
by  a  synthesis  of  its  own.  It  is  only  by  keeping  in 
touch  with  actual  living  thought  that  it  can  claim  a 
place  in  the  twentieth  century  and  command  the  at- 
tention of  its  opponents.  And  it  has  everything  to 
gain  from  a  discussion  in  which  it  encounters  rosi- 
tivism,  Kantism^  and  other  forms  or  tendencies  of 
modern  speculation. 

(3)  CuUivation  of  the  Sciences.— The  need  of  a  phi- 
losophy based  on  science  is  recognized  to-day  by  every 
school.  Neo-Scholasticism  simply  follows  the  exam- 
ple of  the  Aristotelean  and  medieval  philosophy  in 
taking  the  data  of  research  as  the  groundwork  of  its 
speculation.  That  there  are  profound  differences  be- 
tween the  Middle  Ages  and  modem  times  from  the 
scientific  point  of  view,  is  obvious.  One  has  only  to 
consider  the  multiplication  of  the  sciences  in  special 
lines,  the  autonomy  which  science  as  a  whole  has 
acquired,  and  the  clear  demarcation  established  be- 
tween popular  views  of  nature  and  their  scientific 
interpretation.  But  it  is  equally  plain  that  neo- 
Scholasticism  must  follow  up  each  avenue  of  investi- 

§ation,  since  it  imdertakes,  as  Aristotle  and  Aquinas 
id,  to  provide  a  synthetic  explanation  of  phenomena 
b3r  referring  them  to  their  ultimate  causes  and  deter- 
mining their  place  in  the  universal  order  of  things;  and 
this  undertaking,  if  the  synthesis  is  to  be  deep  and 
comprehensive,  presupposes  a  knowledge  of  the  details 
furnished  by  each  science.  It  is  not  possible  to  explain 
the  world  of  phenomena  while  neglecting  the  phenom- 
ena that  make  up  the  world.  "All  that  exists,  as  con- 
templated by  the  human  mind,  forms  one  large  system 
or  complex  fact.  .  .  .  Like  a  short-sighted  reader,  its 
eye  pores  closely,  and  travels  slowly,  over  the  awful 
volume  which  lies  open  for  its  inspection.  .  .  .  These 
various  partial  views  or  abstractions  .  .  .  are  called 
sciences  .  .  .  they  proceed  on  the  principle  of  a  divi- 
sion of  labour.  .  .  .  And  further  the  comprehension 
of  the  bearings  of  one  science  on  another,  and  the  use 
of  each  to  each,  and  the  location  of  them  all,  with  one 
another,  this  belongs,  I  conceive,  to  a  sort  of  science 
distinct  from  all  of  them,  and  in  some  sense,  a  science 
of  sciences,  which  is  my  own  conception  of  what  is 
meant  by  philosophy"  (Newman,  "Idea  of  a  Univer- 
sity", Discourse  III,  iii,  iv,  44  sqq.). 

There  is,  of  course,  the  pedagogical  problem;  how 
shall  philosophy  maintain  its  control  over  the  ever- 
widenmg  field  of  the  various  sciences?  In  reply,  we 
may  cite  the  words  of  Cardinal  Mercier,  a  prominent 
leader  in  the  neo-Scholastic  movement:  "  As  a  matter 
of  fact",  he  declares,  "the  difficulty  is  a  serious  one, 
and  one  may  say  in  general  terms,  that  it  is  not  going 
to  be  solved,  by  any  one  man.  As  the  domain  of  fact 
and  observation  grows  larger  and  larger,  individual 
effort  becomes  less  competent  to  survey  and  master  it 
all:  hence  the  necessity  of  co-operative  effort  to  supply 
what  is  lacking  in  the  work  of  isolated  investigators; 
hence  too  the  need  of  union  between  the  synthetic 
mind  and  the  analytic,  in  order  to  secure,  by  daily 
contact  and  joint  action,  the  harmonious  develop- 
ment of  philosophy  and  science".  ("La  philosophic 
n6o-schoiastique"  in  "  Revue  n6o-scholastique",  1894, 
17). 

(4)  Innovations  in  Doctrinal  Matters. — Once  it 
turned  its  attention  to  modem  fashions  of  thought, 
neo-Scholasticism  found  itself  face  to  face  with  prob- 
lems of  which  medieval  philosophy  had  not  the  sti^t- 
est  suspicion  or  at  any  rate  did  not  furnish  a  solution. 
It  had  to  bear  the  bnmt  of  conflict  between  its  own 
principles  and  those  of  the  systems  in  vogue,  especially 
of  Positivism  and  Criticism.  And  it  had  to  take  up, 
from  its  own  point  of  view,  the  questions  which  are 
favourite  topics  of  discussion  in  the  schools  of  our 
time.  How  far  then,  one  may  ask,  has  neo-Scholasti- 
cism been  affected  by  modem  thought?  First  of  all, 
as  to  metaphysics:  in  the  Middle  Ages  its  claim  to  va* 


ME0-8CH0LASTICISM 


748 


NBO-SCHOLASTICISM 


lidity  met  with  no  challenge,  whereas,  in  the  twentieth 
century,  its  very  possibility  is  at  stake  and.  to  defend 
it  against  the  concerted  attack  of  Hume  ana  Kant  and 
Comte,  the  true  significance  of  such  concepts  as  being, 
substance,  absolute,  cause,  potency,  and  act  must  be 
explained  and  upheld.  It  is  further  needful  to  show 
that,  in  a  very  real  sense,  God  is  not  unknowable;  to 
rebut  the  charges  preferred  by  Herbert  Spencer 
against  the  traditional  proofs  of  God's  existence;  to 
deal  with  the  materials  nimished  by  ethnography  and 
the  history  of  religions;  and  to  study  the  various  forms 
which  monism  and  immanentism  nowadays  assume. 
^  Cosmology  can  well  afford  to  insist  on  the  tradi- 
rional  theory  of  matter  and  form,  provided  it  pay  due 
attention  to  the  findings  of  physics,  chemistry,  crys- 
tallography, and  mineralogy,  and  meet  the  objections 
of  atomism  and  dynamism,  theories  which,  in  the 
opinion  of  scientific  authority,  are  less  satisfactory  as 
explanations  of  natural  phenomena  than  the  hylomor- 
phism  (q.  V.)  of  the  Scholastics.  The  theory  also  of 
qualities,  once  the  subject  of  ridicule,  is  nowadays 
endorsed  by  some  of  the  most  prominent  scientists. 
In  parychology  especially  the  progressive  spirit  of  neo- 
Schofasticism  makes  itself  felt.  The  theory  of  the 
substantial  union  of  body  and  soul,  as  an  interpreta- 
tion of  biological,  psychical,  and  psycho-physiologi- 
cal facts,  is  far  more  serviceable  than  the  extreme 
spiritualism  of  Descartes  on  the  one  hand  and  the 
Positivism  of  modem  thinkers  on  the  other.  As 
Wundt  admits,  the  results  of  investigation  in  physio- 
logical psychology  do  not  square  either  with  material- 
ism or  with  duafism  whether  of  the  Platonic  or  of  the 
Cartesian  type;  it  is  only  Aristotelean  animism,  which 
brings  psychology  into  connexion  with  biclo^,  that 
can  offer  a  satisfactorv  metaphysical  interpretation  of 
experimental  psychology  ("Grundzuge  d.  physiol. 
Psychologic'',  il,  540).  So  vigorous  indeed  has  been 
the  growth  ot  psychology  that  each  of  its  offshoots  is 
developing  in  its  own  way :  such  is  the  case  with  crite- 
riology,  sesthetics,  didactics,  pedagogy,  and  the  numer- 
ous ramifications  of  applied  psychology.  Along  these 
various  lines,  unknown  to  medieval  philosophy,  neo- 
Scholasticism  is  working  energetically  and  success- 
fully. Its  criteriologv  is  altogether  new:  the  older 
Scholasticism  handl^  the  problem  of  certitude  from 
the  deductive  point  of  view*  God  could  not  have  mis- 
shaped the  faculties  with  which  He  endowed  the  mind 
in  order  that  it  might  attain  to  knowledge.  Neo- 
Scholasticism,  on  the  other  hand,  proceeds  oy  analy- 
sis and  introspection :  it  states  the  problem  in  the  terms 
which,  since  ICant's  aay,  are  the  only  admissible  terms, 
but  as  against  the  Kantian  criticism  it  finds  the  solu- 
tion in  a  rational  dogmatism.  Its  Aesthetics  holds  a 
middle  course  between  the  extreme  subjectivism  of 
many  modem  thinkers  who  would  reduce  the  beautiful 
to  a  mere  impression,  and  the  no  less  extreme  objectiv- 
ism which  the  Greeks  of  old  maintained .  It  is  equallv 
at  home  in  the  field  of  experimental  psychology  which 
investigates  the  correlation  between  conscious  phe- 
nomena and  their  physiological  accompaniments;  in 
fact,  its  theory  of  the  substantial  union  of  body  and 
soul  implies  as  its  coroUarjr  a  "bodily  resonance'' 
corresponding  to  each  psychical  process. 

The  laws  and  principles  which  the  modem  science  of 
education  has  drawn  from  en>erience  find  their  ade- 
auate  explanation  in  nco-Scholastic  doctrine;  thus, 
tne  intuitive  method,  so  largely  accepted  at  present  as 
an  essential  element  in  education,  is  based  on  the  Scho- 
lastic theory  that  nothing  enters  the  intellect  save 
through  the  avenue  of  sense.  In  the  study  of  ethical 
problems,  neo-SchoIasticism  holds  fast  to  the  vital 
teachings  that  prevailed  in  the  thirteenth  century, 
but  at  the  same  time  it  takes  into  account  the  histori- 
cal and  sociological  data  which  explain  the  varying 
application  of  principles  in  successive  ages.  In  view 
of  contemporary  systems  which,  on  a  purely  experi- 
mental basis,  attempt  to  set  aside  all  moral  impera- 


tives and  ideas  of  value,  it  is  necessary  to  insist  on  the 
older  concepts  of  good  and  evil,  of  finality  and  obliga- 
tion— ^a  need  which  is  easily  supplied  by  neo-Scholas- 
tic  ethics.  As  to  logic,  the  most  perfect  part  of  Aris- 
totle's great  constructive  work  and  therefore  that 
which  has  been  least  modified  in  the  course  of  time, 
its  positions  still  call  for  defence  against  the  objections 
of  writers  like  Mill,  who  regard  the  syllogism  as  a 
"solemn  farce".  Accordingly,  with  due  considera- 
tion for  modem  modes  of  thinking,  neo-SchoIasticism 
adapts  the  teaching  of  the  Middle  Ages  to  actual  con- 
ditions. Even  as  regards  the  relations  between  phi- 
losophy and  religion^  there  are  important  changes  to 
note.  For  the  medieval  mind  in  the  Western  world, 
philosophy  and  theology  were  identical  until  about  the 
twelfth  century.  In  the  thirteenth  the  line  of  de- 
marcation was  clearly  drawn,  but  philosophy  was  still 
treated  as  the  preliminary  training  for  theology. 
This  is  no  longer  the  case;  neo-Scholasticism  assigns 
to  philosophy  a  value  of  its  own  as  a  rational  explana- 
tion of  the  world,  on  a  par  in  this  respect  with  Posi- 
tivism and  other  systems;  and  it  welcomes  all  who  are 
bent  on  honest  research,  whether  their  aim  be  purely 
philosophical  or  apologetic. 

Parallel  with  these  modifications  aie  those  which 
affect  the  pedagogical  phase  of  the  movement.  The 
methods  of  teaching  philosophy  in  the  thirteenth  cen- 
tury were  too  closely  dependent  on  the  culture  of  that 
age;  hence  they  have  been  replaced  by  modem  pro- 
cedures, curricula,  and  means  of  pixipa^tion.  It 
would  DC  ill-advised  to  wrap  neo-Scnolastic  doctrine 
in  medieval  envelopes,  e.  g.  to  write  books  on  the  plan 
of  the  theological  "Summie"  or  the  "Quodlibetal 
Questions"  that  were  current  in  the  thirteenth  cen- 
tury. Without  at  all  lessening  its  force,  syllogistic 
demonstration  gains  in  attractiveness  when  its  essen- 
tial characteristics  are  retained  and  clothed  about  with 
modem  forms  of  presentation.  In  this  connexion,  the 
use  of  living  languages  as  a  means  of  exposition  has 
obvious  advantages  and  finds  favour  with  many  of 
those  who  are  best  qualified  to  judge. 

III.  Appreciation. — By  interesting  itself  in  mod- 
em questions,  interpreting  the  resuUs  of  scientific 
research  and  setting  forth  its  principles  for  thorou^ 
discussion,  neo-Scholasticism  has  compelled  atten- 
tion :  it  has  to  be  reckoned  with.  Among  non-Catho- 
lics, many  leaders  of  thought  have  frankly  acknowl- 
edged that  its  methods  and  doctrines  deserve  to  be  ex- 
amined anew.  Men  like  Boutroux  admit  that  Aris- 
totle's system  msy  well  serve  as  an  offset  to  Kantism 
and  evolution  (Aristote,  Etudes  d  'histoire  et  de  phi- 
losophie,  Paris,  1901,  202).  Paulsen  ("Kant  der 
Philosoph  des  Protestantismus"  in  "Kantstudien'% 
1899)  and  Eucken  (''Thomas  von  Aquino  u.  Kant, 
Ein  ICampf  cweier  Welten",  loc.  cit.,  1901)  declare 
that  neo-Thomism  is  the  rival  of  Kantism  and  that 
the  conflict  between  them  is  the  "  clash  of  two  worlds  ". 
Hamack  ("Lehrbuch  d.  Donnengesch.",  IIL  3rd. 
ed.,  327),  Seeberg  C'Realencyklopfidie  f.  Prot.  Theol." 
8.  V.  "Scholastik")  and  others  protest  against  Uioee 
who  underrate  the  value  of  scholastic  doctrine. 

Among  Catholics,  Neo-Scholastidsm  gains  ground 
day  by  day.  It  is  doing  away  with  Ontologism,  Tra- 
ditionalism, the  Dualism  of  GQnther,  and  the  exaggei^ 
ated  Spiritualism  of  Descartes.  It  is  free  from  the 
weaknesses  of  Pragmatism  and  Voluntarism,  systems 
in  which  some  thiiiKers  have  vainly  sought  tne  recon- 
ciliation of  their  philosophy  and  their  f  aitn .  Neo-Scho- 
lasticism has  a  character  of  permanence  as  truth  itadf 
has;  but  it  is  destined  in  its  development  to  keep  up 
with  scientific  progress.  Like  everything  that  lives, 
it  must  advance;  arrested  growth  would  mean  decay. 

IV.  The  Leaders  and  their  Work. — ^The  Neo- 
Scholastic  movement  was  inaugurated  by  such  writers 
asSanseverino  (1811-^5)  and  Coraoldi  (1822-92)  in 
Italy;  Gonzalez  (1831-92)  in  Spain;  Kleutcen  (1811- 
83)  and  StOckl  (1823-95)  in  Germany;  de  San  (1832- 


NXPHTALX  749  NEPHTALX 

1904),  Dupont,  and  Lepidi  in  Belgium;  Farees  and  phie  Chr^tienne"  (Paris,  since  1830);  "Revue  mk)* 
I>onnet  de  Vorges  (1010)  in  France,  who  with  other  scolastique  de  Philosophie"  (Louvain,  since  1894); 
aeholars  carried  on  the  work  of  restoration  before  the  "Revue  de  Philoeophie''  (Paris,  since  1900) ;  "Revue 
Holy  See  ^ave  it  solemn  approval  and  encoimi^ement.  des  Sciences  philosophiques  et  thdologi^ues''  (Kain, 
Pius  IX,  it  is  true,  in  various  letters,  recognised  its  Belgium,  since  1907);  "Revue  Thomiste"  (Paris, 
importance :  but  it  was  the  encyclical "  JBtemi  Patris  "  since  1893) ;  "  Philosophisches  Jahrbuch  fUr  Philoso- 
of  Leo  XII  1(4  Aug.,  1879)  that  imparted  to  neo-Scho-  phie  und  spekulative  Theologie"  (Paderbom,  since 
lasticism  its  definitive  character  and  quickened  its  de-  1887) ;  "St.  Thomas  Blatter''  Qlatisbon,  since  1888) ; 
▼elopment.  This  document  sets  forth  the  principles  Bdlcseleti-Foly^irat  (Budapest,  since  1886);  "Revista 
by  which  the  movement  is  to  be  guided  in  a  pro^pres-  Lulliana"  (Barcelona,  since  1901);  "CienzaTomista" 
ave  spirit,  and  by  which  the  medieval  doctnne  is  to  (Madrid,  since  1910).  In  addition  to  these,  various 
take  on  new  life  in  its  modem  environment.  "If,"  periodical  publications  not  specially  devoted  to  phi- 
says  the  pope,  "there  be  an^hing  that  the  Scholastic  ksophy  have  given  neo-Scholasticism  their  coraal 
doctors  treated  with  excessive  subtlety  or  with  insuf-  support. 

ficient  consideration,  or  that  is  at  variance  with  well  ^^Various  oommentaries  on  tbe  Enoyolioal  JSUmi  PtUrta:  y^jf 

founded  teachings  of  later,  date  or  »  otherwise  im-  ^[SSX".^^^^?^^^ 

probable,  we  by  no  means  intend  that  it  snail  be  pro-  des  hi,  Thomaa  und  ifwt  Bedeutung/ar  die  OeoenwaH  (WQrsburg, 

posed  to  our  age  for  imitation.   .   .   .  We  certainly  do  ISSl);  Rotcb.  Pove  Leo*»  vhiloeopfnealmnei^  and  ilM  rOationf 

not  blame  those  learned  and  energetic  men  who  turn  ^^S^SSSSS^^^lSTiil'^SjLSi^g^^ 

to  the  profit  of  pnilOSOpny  tneir  own  assiduous  labours  Wulf,  Seholattieiem  old  and  new,  an  introdueHon  to  adioUuUe  phi' 

and  erudition  as  well  as  the  results  of  modem  investi-  loeophy,  medietal  and  modem,  tr.  Coffbt  (Dublin.  1907) ;  Idem,  /»*- 

o^tinn*  fnr  uta  ttrfk  fiillv  A^wArA  ffiof  o^ll  fhia  trru^a  f^  iha  lrodueliondlaphilo9oph%enio-eeola$tique(jA>nvBmaJidPBnB,lV^^ 

gation,  tor  we  are  lUliy  aware  mat  aU  tniS  goes  to  tne  pg^jj,^  TheRerivS  of  Scholastic  PhOosophy  in  the  Nineteenth 

advancement  of  knowledge."  Century  (New  York.  1909) :  Le  mouvement  nio^tkomisU,  periodical 


e  Maria,  Talamo,  Lorenzelli,  Ballerini,  Matussi,  and  lastische  Philosophis  der  Loewener  SehuU,  introduction  to  German 

others,    ^rhe  Wan  writes  at  first  hud  spysciaf. em-  S„<-.^|r^i;^^^.%3ii^ii.SS.^;  SJ^ 

phaSlS  on  the  metapnysical  features  of  OCnolastlClsm,  tu^  Old  and  New;  Abnau  MAUCBLLnro.  Si  InsHhOo  superior 

without  paying  sufficient  attention  to  the  sciences  or  de  /iiosofia  en  la  unitersidad  oatdlica  de  Lotaina  (Madrid.  1901) ; 

fr\   f liA   hint/^rv   nf   nhilnannhv       TlAppnf  1v     linwPVAr  Van.  Bxcbla.bbb.  La  phUosophie  en  Amtrique  depuis  lee  ongines 

to  tne  nisiory  oi  pniiosopny.    neceniiy,  noweyer,  j^^^»^ ^os jours (^i^ewYoriciwi); Bi^cHistoirede la phUoso- 

this  situation  has  undergone  a  change  which  promises  \^ii  ei  pciticuliirement  de   la   philosophic   contemporaine.    III 

excellent  results.  (Lyona,  1896);  Evckkn.  Neuthomismus  und  die  Tieuere  Wissen^ 

From  Italy  the  movement  spread  into  the  other  S^?/*i^;.5^<SSS?^iJr^'iSSiJ&«!SrifS:S: 

European  COUntneS  and  found  supporters  in  Uermany  j^as  Wissenschaftliches  Cenhtrum  des  heutigen  Thomismus  (Munich, 

such  as  Kleutgen,  Stdckl,  the  authors  of  the  "PhiloSO-  1904):  06meiIzquikbdo  in  Rivisla  di  Arapon  (1903);  Ck>NDB. 

Sihia  lATPfisia"    nuhlished  at  Maria  Laarh  hv  thp  ^"^  exeursi&n  filosMea  por  Bspalia  in  Rn%sta   ibero^ameneana 

ma  LAcensis  ,  puousnea  ai  jnana  rAacn  oy  tne  /1902).  mbbcibb.  Siscours  d'ouvenwre  du  cows  de  philosophic 

esmtS  (Pesch,  Hontheim,  Cathrem),  Gutberlet,  Com-  ^  S.  Thomas  (Louvain,  1882);  Pacb.  St.  Thomas  and  Modem 


butions  to  the  history  of  philosophy,  especially  that  of  1910)"  the  Vidue  of  Scholastic  Philosophy,  Judgment  0/  a  special 

the  Middle  Ages.     St5ckl  led  the  way  with  his  "Ge-  Committee  of  the  Privy  couneU  of  Ireland  oner  PUa^ngs  and  «n- 

fl^drte  d.  Ailoeophie  d«  MitteWters"   (Mam,  ^J3u!S7too^?:Sj  .J2;"VoJri9S^^ 

1864-66).    Ehrle  and  Demfle  (q.  v.)  founded  m  1885  j^  (London  and  New  York.  1908). 

the  "  Archiv  fUr  Literatur  u.  Kirchengesch.  d.  Mittel-  M.  Db  Wulf. 

alters ",  and  the  latter  edited  the  monumental  "Char-  * 

tularium"  of  the  University  of  Paris.    In  1891.  Von        NephUli  (A.  V.,  Naphtau),  sixth  son  of  Jacob 

Hertling  and  Bftumker  began  the  publication  of  their  and  Bala  (Gen.,  xxx,  8).    The  name  is  explamed 

"Beitrftge  aur  Gesch.  d.  Pml.  des  Mittelalters".  (ibid.)  by  a  paranomasia  which  causes  no  small  per- 

Belgium   has   been   puticularly   favoured.    Leo  plexity  to  commentators.     Modem  mteipreters,  fol- 

XIII  established  (1891)  at  Louvain  the  "  Institut  de  lowing  Simonis  and  Gesenius,  translate  it  "Wrestlings 

philosophic"  for  the  special  purpose  of  teaching  the  of  God  have  I  wrestled  [D.  v.,  "God  hath  compared 

doctrine  of  St.  Thomas  together  with  history  and  the  me*T  with  my  sister,  and  I  have  prevailed.     According 

natural  sciences.    The  Institute  was  placed  in  charge  to  this  rendering,  Nephialia  would  mean  "my  wrest- 

of  Mgr  (now  Cardinal)  Mercier  whose  "Cours  de  ling",    or   simply    "wresthng".    PseudoJonathan, 

philosophic"  has  been  translated  into  the  principal  commenting  on  Gen.,  xlix,  21,  tells  us  Nephtah  was 

languages  of  Eiurope.  the  first  to  announce  to  Jacob  that  Joseph  was  alive; 

In  France,  besicks  those  already  mentioned,  Vallet,  in  another  passage  of  the  same  Targum,  Nepht^  is 

Gardair,  Fonsegrive,  and  Piat  have  taken  a  prominent  mentioned  among  the  five  whom  Joseph  presented  to 

part  in  the  movement:  in  HoUand  (Amsterdam)  de  Pharaoh  (Gen.,  3vii,  2).    According  to  the  apocry- 

Groot;  m  Switserland  (Freibure),  Mandonnet;  in  phal  "Testament  of  the  twelve  Patnarchs  ',  he  died 

Spain,  Orti  y  Lara,  UrrAburu,  Gomej  Izquierdq:  in  m  his  one  hundred  and  thirty-second  year  and  was 

Mexico,  Garcia;  in  BrazU,  Santroul;  in  Mungary.  Kiss  buried  in  Egypt.    These  details,  however,  are  unre- 

and  Pecsi;  in  England,  Clarke,  Maher,  John  Rickaby,  liable;  in  point  of  fact,  we  know  npthmg  with  cer- 

Joeeph  Rickaby,  Boedder  (Stonyhurst  Series);  in  the  tainty  beyond  the  fact  that  he  had  four  sons:  Jasiel, 

United  States,  Cfoppens,  Poland.  Brother  Chrysostom,  Guni,  Jeser,  and  Sallem  (Gen.,  xlvi,  24;  Num.,  xxvi, 

and  the  professors  at  the  Catholic  University  (Shana-  48  sqq.;  I  Par.,  vii,  13).  j  i.„  ^r^         „  . , 

han.  Turner,  and  Pace) .  The  Tribb  of  Nbphtali  counted  53,400  men    able 

Neo-Schoiasticism  has  been  endorsed  by  four  Catho-  to  go  forth  to  war"  (Num.,  i,  42).  being  thus  the  sixth 
lie  Congresses :  Paris  (1891) :  Brussels  (1896) ;  Frdburg  in  importance  among  the  tribes  of  Israel.  The  second 
(1897);  Munich  (1900).  A  considerable  nmnber  of  census  brought  it  down  to  the  eighth  place,  and  re- 
reviews  have  served  as  its  exponents  :"Divus  Thomas"  ported  only  45,400  wamors  (Num.,  xxvi.  48-60). 
(1879-1903);  "Rivista  ItaUana  di  filosofia  neo-sco-  thirinff  the  wanderings  of  the  Israelites  m  the  desert, 
lastica"  (Florence,  since  1909);  "Ann^eii  do  Philoso*  the  tnbe  of  Nephtaa,  under  the  oomn^^nd  fint  qi 


NEPI 


750 


NXPVIU 


Ahira,  and  later  on  of  Phedady  was  alwa3rs  united 
with  the  tribes  of  Dan  and  Aser.  When  spies  were 
sent  from  the  desert  of  Pharan  to  view  the  land  of 
Chanaan,  N^^abi.  the  son  of  Vapsii  represented  the 
tribe  in  the  expedition  (Num.,  xiii,  15).  The  terri- 
tory allotted  to  Nephtali  in  Chanaan  lay  to  the  ex- 
treme north  of  Palestine,  and  was  bounded  (Jos.,  xix, 
33-34)  on  the  north  by  the  River  Leontes  (Nahr  el- 
Qaaimiyeh)^  on  the  east  by  the  course  of  the  Jordan  as 
far  as  12  miles  south  of  the  »Sea  of  Galilee,  on  the  west 
by  the  tribes  of  Aser  and  Zabulon;  and  on  the  south  by 
that  of  Issachar.  Including  some  of  the  finest  land  in 
Palestine,  ''it  invites  the  most  slothful  to  take  pains 
to  cultivate  it"  (Joseph.,  "Bell.  Jud."^  Ill,  iii,  2). 
Naturally,  the  Chanaanites  of  that  district  were  most 
unwilling  to  give  up  their  rich  possessions;  the  Book 
of  Judges  possibly  even  implies  that  the  Hebrews 
could  not  overcome  the  natives  (i,  33) ;  in  fact,  foreign- 
ers were  at  all  times  numerous  in  that  neighbourhood, 
called  on  that  account  "Galilee  of  the  Gentiles''  (Isa., 
ix,  1;  IV  Kings,  xv,  29).  Finally,  they  banded  to- 
gether under  Jaoin  and  Sisara  to  orive  the  Israelit'es 
out  of  the  land.  How  this  confederacy  was  defeated 
by  Barac,  a  man  of  Cedes,  with  the  warriors  of  Zabu- 
lon and  of  his  own  tribe,  called  together  by  Debora,  to 
the  glory  of  Nephtali,  needs  not  be  recounted  here 
(Judges,  iv,  v).  Again,  with  Gedeon,  warriors  of 
Nephtali  took  part  in  the  pursuit  of  the  Madianitcs 
(Judges,  vii,  23),  and  sent  to  David  at  Hebron  a  con- 
tingent of  1000  captains  and  37,000  men  "furnished 
with  shield  and  spear''  (I  Par.,  xii,  34).  And  the  men 
of  Nephtali,  according  to  Josephus,  guarding  the  "En- 
trance of  Emath",  the  key  to  northern  Palestine,  were 
"inured  to  war  from  their  infancy"  ("  Bell.  Jud. ',  loc. 
cit.). 

JoBEPBUS,  Judean  TTarc,  III,  iii:  Commenlarte«  on  Omi.,  Jot., 
and  Deut,:  Mebrill,  Cfalilee  in  the  Time  of  Chritt  (Boston,  1881) ; 
Thomson,  The  Land  and  the  Booky  11  (London,  1881);  Dborub, 
Lee  paye  Mtliquee  el  VAesyrie  in  Rente  Bibligue  (Apr.,  1910),  195, 
197;  Lagbamqk,  La  Prophttie  de  Jacob  in  Revue  Biblique  (1898). 
634. 

Charles  L.  Souvat. 

Nepi  and  Sutri  (Nepesin  et  Sutrin),  united  sees 
of  the  province  of  Rome,  central  Italy,  in  the  Cimin- 
ian  region.  Nepi  is  situated  on  a  hill  of  tufa,  and  is 
surrounded  by  great  walls;  its  cathedral,  which  occu- 
pies the  sito  of  an  ancient  temple  of  Jupiter,  contains 
paintings  by  Titian,  Perugino^  and  Zuccari;  the  com- 
munal palace  was  be^gun  by  Vignola,  and  the  fort  was 
built  bv  Peter  Louis  Famese.  There  still  exist  at 
Nepi  the  ruins  of  an  amphitheatre  and  of  ancient 
baths,  from  which  several  statues  in  the  Vatican  mu- 
seum were  taken,  among  these  the  one  in  basalt  of 
King  Nectanabis  I,  with  an  Ej^yptian  inscription. 
Nepete  and  Sutrium,  as  these  cities  were  called,  be- 
longed to  the  Faliscans.  who  called  the  Romans  to 
their  assistance  when  tne  Etruscans  invaded  them; 
the  invaders  (389,  311.  310),  after  twice  defeating  the 
Romans,  went  beyona  the  Ciminian  forest  to  attack 
the  Etruscans  in  Etruscan  territory:  wherefore,  Livy 
calls  these  towns  "claustra  Etruriie'^  in  382,  they  be- 
came Latin  colonies.  In  the  Gothic  War  Nepi  was  one 
of  the  last  strongholds  of  the  Goths.  The  town  was 
sacked  by  the  Lombards  in  569,  and  then  fell  into  de- 
cadence. In  the  eighth  century,  however,  it  became 
the  seat  of  Tuto,  a  Lombard  dtuCy  Imown  for  his  inter- 
ference in  the  papal  election  of  768.  In  the  stru^^e 
between  the  emperors  and  the  popes.  Nepi  was  im- 
perialist during  the  reigns  of  Alexanaer  II,  Nicholas 
II,  Gregory  VII,  and  Innocent  II;  on  the  other  hand, 
in  1160,  it  fought  against  the  commune  of  Rome,  ana 
in  1244,  was  besieged  by  Frederick  II.  A  feudal  pos- 
session, first  of  the  prefects  of  Vico,  and  then  of  the 
Orsinis,  of  the  Ck)lonnas,  and  of  Csesar  Borgia,  from 
1537  to  1545,  it  was  erected  into  a  duchy  in  favour  of 
Peter  Louis  Famese;  and  when  the  latter  was  trans- 
ferred to  Parma,  Nepi  returned  to  immediate  depend- 
ence on  the  Holy  See.    In  1798  the  French  set  nre  to 


the  cathedral  and  to  the  episcopal  palace,  in  which 
last  edifice  valuable  archives  were  lost.  The  exist- 
ence of  an  early  Christian  cemetery  witnesses  the 
great  antiquity  of  the  Church  of  Nepi,  which  vener- 
ates, as  its  evangelizer,  St.  Ptolemsus.  who,  it  ia 
claimed,  was  a  disciple  of  the  Apostles.  In  419,  £iil»- 
lius,  competitor  of  Pope  St.  Boniface  I,  was  made 
Bishop  of  Nepi:  Bishop  Paulus  was  sent  as  visitor  to 
Naples  by  St.  (jresory  the  Great;  Bi^op  Stephanus, 
in  868,  was  one  of  the  presidents  and  papal  legates  of 
the  Council  of  Constantinople  against  Photius.  The 
sees  of  Nepi  and  Sutri  were  unit^  in  1435. 

Sutri  is  placed,  like  a  hanging  gajrden,  upon  a  steep 
hill  on  the  Cassian  Way;  the  ancient  town  occupied 
two  hills  connected  by  a  bridge,  and  its  walls,  built  of 
great  tufa  rocks,  are  yet  to  be  seen.  In  the  neig;h- 
Dourhood,  there  are  many  Etruscan  tombs;  the  an- 
cient amphitheatre,  hewn  out  of  the  solid  rock,  is  a  re- 
markable work.  The  cathedral  is  of  the  thirteenth 
century,  modernized  by  frequent  alterations.  Santa 
Maria  della  Grotta  is  an  interesting  church.  The  his- 
tory of  Sutri  in  antiquity  resembles  that  of  Nepi,  for 
Sutri  also  was  taken  by  the  Lombards  in  569,  but  was 
retaken  by  the  exarch  Romanus;  Luitprand  likewise 
took  the  town  in  726,  but  in  the  following  year  re- 
stored it  to  "St.  Peter''.  As  the  city  is  on  Uie  Cas- 
sian Way  not  far  from  Rome,  it  was,  as  a  rule,  the  last 
halting-place  of  the  German  emperors  on  their  way  to 
the  city,  and  sometimes  they  received  there  the  papal 
legate.  Two  famous  synods  were  held  at  Sutri,  one  in 
1046,  at  which  Sylvester  II  was  deposed,  and  resigned 
the  tiara;  the  other  in  1059,  was  held  against  Benedict 
IX.  Here  also  the  agreement  of  1111  between  Pas- 
chal II  and  the  emperor  Henry  V  was  concluded.  In 
1120,  the  antipope  Gregory  VIII  withdrew  to  Sutri, 
and  was  besieged  there  by  Calixtus  II;  he  was  finally 
delivered  up  to  the  pope  by  the  Sutrians  (1121). 
After  this,  the  possession  of  the  city  was  frequently 
contested  by  the  Guelph  counts  of  An^uillara  and  the 
Ghibelline  prefects  of  Vico,  especially  m  1264.  Sutri 
was  contained  in  the  Duchy  oi  Nepi.  This  town  also 
has  an  ancient  Christian  cemetery  where  the  body  of 
St.  Romanus  was  foimd,  who  is  the  patron  of  the  city; 
the  cathedral  possesses  a  statue  ox  him  by  Bernini. 
Among  the  inart3rrs  of  Sutri  is  St.  Felix  (about  275). 
The  first  bishop  of  known  date  was  Eusebius  (465) ; 
other  bishops  were  Martinus,  or  Marinus,  who  was 
sent  as  ambassador  to  Otho  I  in  963;  Benedictus,  who, 
in  975,  became  Pope  Benedict  VII;  the  famous  Bishop 
Bonitho  (Bonizo),  historian  of  the  Gregorian  epoch, 
who  was  driven  from  his  diocese  by  the  anti-papid  fac- 
tion and  later  was  made  Bishop  of  Piacenza.  The 
diocese  was  united  to  Nepi  under  Bishop  Luke  de  Tar- 
taris  (1345)j  under  Pomponius  Cesi  (1519),  who  be- 
came a  cardinal,  the  cemetery  of  St.  Savinilla  was  dis- 
covered; Michael  Ghislieri  (1556)  became  Pope  St. 
Pius  V;  Joseph  Chianti  (1701)  founded  the  semmary; 
Camillus  Simeoni  (1782)  was  exiled  by  the  French  and 
became  a  cardinal.  In  the  territory  of  this  diocese  is 
the  city  of  Braciano  on  the  lake  of  the  same  name 
(lacu8  Sabazius) ;  it  is  beUeved  by  some  to  be  the  an- 
cient Forum  Claudii.  the  bishop  of  which  was  at  the 
council  of  Pope  Melcniades  in  303;  others  identify  the 
Forum  Claudii  with  Oriolo,  which  is  in  the  Diocese  of 
Viterbo.  The  united  sees  of  Nepi  and  Sutri  are  imme- 
diately dependent  upon  Rome;  they  have  31  parishes. 
with  42,000  inhabitants,  13  rdigious  houses  of  men, 
and  13  of  women,  10  of  which  maintain  schools. 

Cappelubttx,  L^  Chieee  d' Italia,  V;  Rakcbiasci,  Mewutiie 
eloriehe  ddla  eittd  di  Nepi,  efri.  (Todi.  1846-ft7) ;  Nopi-Lansi,  £,*aji- 
tiea  dttd  di  Sutri  (Rome,  1887). 

U.  BCNIGNI. 

Nepvou,  Francis,  writer  on  ascetical  subjects,  b. 
at  St.  Malo,  29  April,  1639:  entered  the  novitiate  of  the 
Society  of  Jesus  12  Octooer,  1654,  when  but  fifteeo 
years  old.  Successively  professor  of  Grammar,  of 
Humanities  and  Rhetonc  for  six  yeaiB,  and  of  PhUo^- 


NSBEUS 


751 


NEBEUS 


opby  for  eight  years,  he  was  afterwards  employed  in 
tne  government.    In  1679  he  was  made  superior  at 
N^ antes;  in  1684  rector  at  Vannes;  in  1694  and  1700 
rector  at  Orleans;  in  1697  at  Rouen;  in  1704  at  Rennes 
where  he  was  director  of  retreats  until  his  death, 
17  February,  1708.    Father  Nepveu,  described  as  a 
man  of  great  zeal  and  intelligence,  wrote  voluminously 
on  ascetical  subjects,  and  some  of  his  works  have  gone 
through  many  editions,  having  been  translated  into 
various  languages.    Among  his  more  important  works 
axe  numbered  the  following:  ''De  Tamour  de  Notre 
Seigneur  J^sus-Christ,  et  des  Moyens  de  I'acqu^rir" 
(Nantes,  1684),  has  gone  through  no  less  than  four- 
teen editions  in  France,  selections  from  it  were  printed 
in  the  "Petite  Biblioth^ue  Chr^tienne'^  issued  by 
A.  Vromont,  Brussels^  1893,  and  it  has  been  trans- 
lated into  German,  Italian  (six  editions),  Spanish, 
Flemish,  Polish,  and  English,  ed.  by  the  Rev.  Henry  J. 
Coleridpe,  S.J.  and  issu^  by  Bums  and  Oates,  1869: 
'^  Retraite  selon  Tesprit  et  la  m^thode  de  Saint  I^ace 
(Paris,  1677, 5 14  pp. ) ,  also  numbers  fourteen  editions  of 
the  original  and  translations  have  been  made  into  Ger- 
man, Spanish,  Flemish,  Italian,  and  six  editions  in 
Latin ;  *^  M6thode  facile  d'oraison,  r^uite  en  pratique'' 
(Nantes),  went  through  more  than  twelve  editions  in 
French  and  was  several  times  issued  in  Spanish;  "  Pen- 
s^es  et  Reflections  Chr^tiennes  pour  tons  les  jours  de 
Tann^e"  (4  vols.,  Paris,  1695),  nad  eighteen  French 
editions,  the  latest  bv  Guyot,  Paris,  1850, 640  pp.,  and 
went  through  some  eleven  editions  in  foreign  languages ; 
"L'esprit  du  Christianisme  ou  la  Conformity  du 
Chretien  avec  J^sus-Christ"  (Paris,  1700,  380  pp.), 
went  through  twenty-four  editions,  and  three  editions 
of  extracts  therefrom  appeared  in  Bel^um,  also  trans- 
lated into  foreign  languages,  ten  editions  coming  out 
in  Itakan.    A  full  list  of  Father  Nepveu's  works, 
which  numbered  nearly  a  score,  may  be  had  in  the 
authorities  cited  below. 

SoMMfiRVOOBL,  BibUothique  de  la  Comvaanie  de  Jisua,  V,  1626; 
Dx  Backbb.  Biidiothique  dee  Eeritaint  ae  la  Compagnie  de  Jieue, 
first  aeries,  509. 

Edward  F.  Garesch^. 

NereuB  and  AchilleuB,  Domitilla  and  Pancra- 
tiUB,  Saints  and  Martyrs. — ^The  commemoration  of 
these  four  Roman  saints  is  made  by  the  Church  on 
12  May,  in  common,  and  all  four  are  named  in  the 
Proper  of  the  Mass  as  martyrs.  The  old  Roman  lists, 
of  the  fifth  century,  and  which  passed  over  into  the 
^f  artjrrologium  Hieronymianum,  contained  the  names 
of  the  two  martyrs  Nereus  and  Achilleus,  whose  grave 
was  in  the  Catacomb  of  Domitilla  on  the  Via  Axdea- 
tina;  in  the  same  calendar  was  found  the  name  of  St. 
Pancratius,  whose  body  rested  in  a  catacomb  of  the 
Via  Aurelia.  The  notice  in  the  more  complete  ver- 
sion given  by  the  Berne  Codex,  runs  as  follows:  ''IIII 
id.  Maii,  Romse  in  coemeterio  Prsetextati  natale  Nerei 
et  Achillei  fratrum,  et  natale  sci.  Pancrati  via  Au- 
relia miliario  secundo"  (On  12  May  at  Rome  in 
the  cemetery  of  Prsetextatus  [an  evident  error  for 
Domitilla]  the  natal  day  of  Nereus  and  Achilleus,  and 
the  natal  day  of  St.  Pancratius,  on  the  Aurelian  Way 
at  the  second  milestone'';  ed.  de  Rossi-Duchesne, 
Acta  SS.,  Nov.,  II,  [59] ).  In  the  invocation  of  the 
Mass  for  their  feast,  in  the  "  Sacramentarium  Gelasi- 
anum'',  the  names  of  Nereus  and  Achilleus  alone  are 
mentioned,  and  this  is  because  only  their  invocation 
in  the  Mass  was  entered  in  the  collection,  the  feast 
of  St.  Pancratius  being  celebrated  in  the  church  built 
over  his  grave  on  the  Via  Aurelia.  In  the  Mass  of  his 
festival,  the  formula  of  which  is  unknown  to  us,  his 
name,  without  doubt,  was  alone  mentioned.  In  the 
fourth  and  following  centuries  there  was  celebrated 
on  12  May  in  both  places,  at  the  grave  of  Saints 
Nereus  and  Achilleus  on  the  Via  Ardeatina,  and  at 
that  of  St.  Pancratius  on  the  Via  Aurelia,  a  special 
votive  Mass.  The  Itineraries  of  the  graves  of  the 
Roman  martyrs,  written  in  the  seventh  century,  are 


unanimous  in  their  indication  of  the  resting-plaee  of 
these  saints  (de  Rossi,  ''Roma  sotterranea  ,  I.  180- 
83).  The  church  which  was  erected  in  the  fourth 
century  over  the  grave  of  St.  Pancratius,  stands  to- 
day in  somewhat  altered  style.  The  legend  describ- 
ing the  martyrdom  of  the  saint  is  of  later  origin,  and 
not  reliable  historically;  it  is  probable  that  he  was 
put  to  death  in  the  persecution  of  Valerian  (257-58) 
or  in  that  of  Diocletian  (304-06). 

The  church  built  over  the  grave  of  Sts.  Nereus  and 
Achilleus  in  the  Via  Ardeatina,  is  of  the  latter  part 
of  the  fourth  century;  it  is  a  three-naved  basilica,  and 
was  discovered  by  de  Rossi  in  the  Catacomb  of  Domi- 
tilla. Amongst  the  numerous  objects  found  in  the 
ruins  were  two  pillars  which  had  supported  the 
ffiborium  ornamented  with  sculptures  representing 
the  death  of  the  two  saints  by  decapitation;  one  of 
these  pillars  is  perfectly  preserved,  and  the  name  of 
Achilleus  is  carved  upon  it.  There  was  also  found  a 
large  fragment  of  a  marble  slab,  with  an  inscription 
composed  by  Pope  Damasus,  the  text  of  which  is  well- 
known  from  an  ancient  copy.  This  oldest  historical 
mention  of  the  two  saints  (Weyman,  "Vier  Epi- 

Sranmie  des  hi.  Papstes  Damasus'',  Munich,  1905; 
e  Rossi,  '' Inscriptiones  christianse",  II,  31;  Ihm, 
''Damasiepigrammata",  Leipzig,  1895, 12,  no.  8)  tells 
how  Nereus  and  Achilleus  as  soldiers  were  obedient  to 
the  tyrant,  but  suddenly  being  converted  to  Christian- 
ity, joyfully  resigned  their  commission,  and  died  the 
martyr's  death;  as  to  the  date  of  their  glorious  con- 
fession we  can  make  no  inference.  The  acts  of  these 
martyrs,  legendary  even  to  a  romantic  degree,  have 
no  historical  value  for  their  life  and  death;  they  bring 
no  fewer  than  thirteen  different  Roman  martyrs  into 
relation,  amongst  them  even  Simon  Magus,  according 
to  the  apocryphal  Petrine  Acts,  and  place  their  death 
in  the  end  of  the  first  and  beginning  of  the  second 
centuries.  These  Acts  were  written  in  Greek  and 
Latin;  according  to  Achelis  (see  below)  the  Greek  was 
the  original  text,  and  written  in  Rome  in  the  sixth 
century;  Schaefer  (see  below)  on  the  other  hand  holds 
the  Latin  to  have  been  the  older  version,  and  seeks  to 
prove  that  it  emanated  from  the  first  hsilf  of  the  fifth 
century;  so  remote  a  date  is  improbable,  and  the  sixth 
century  is  to  be  preferred  as  the  source  of  the  Acts. 
According  to  these  legends  Nereus  and  Achilleus  were 
eunuchs  and  chamberlains  of  Flavia  Domitilla,  a  niece 
of  the  Emperor  Domitian;  with  the  Christian  virgin 
they  had  been  banished  to  the  island  of  Pontia,  and 
later  on  beheaded  in  Terracina.  The  graves  of  these 
two  martyrs  were  on  an  estate  of  the  Lady  Domitilla 
near  the  Via  Ardeatina,  close  to  that  of  St.  Petronilla. 
The  author  of  this  legend  places  the  two  saints  quite 
differently  from  Pope  Damasus,  in  his  poem:  as 
Nereus  and  Achilleus  were  buried  in  a  very  ancient 
part  of  the  catacomb  of  Domitilla,  built  as  far  back  as 
the  beginning  of  the  second  century,  we  may  conclude 
that  they  are  among  the  most  ancient  martyrs  of  the 
Roman  Church,  and  stand  in  very  near  relation  to  the 
Flavian  family,  of  which  Domitilla,  the  foundress  of 
the  catacomb,  was  a  member.  In  the  Epistle  to  the 
Romans,  St.  Paul  mentions  a  Nereus  with  nis  sister,  to 
whom  he  sends  greetings  (Rom.,  xvi.  15).  perhaps  even 
the  martyr  was  a  descendant  of  tnis  disciple  of  the 
Apostle  of  the  Gentiles.  Owing  to  the  purely  legend- 
ary character  of  these  Acts,  we  cannot  use  them  as  an 
argument  to  aid  in  the  controversy  as  to  whether 
there  were  two  Christians  of  the  name  of  Domitilla  in 
the  family  of  the  Christian  Flavian,  or  only  one,  the 
wife  of  the  (Donsul  Flavins  Clemens  (see  Flavia  Domi- 
tilla ) .  As  to  other  martyrs  of  the  name  Nereus,  who 
are  especially  noted  in  the  old  martyrologies  as  mar- 
tyrs of  the  faith  in  Africa,  or  as  being  natives  of  that 
country  (e.  g.,  in  the  Martyrolodum  Hieronymianum, 
11  May,  15  or  16  October,  16  Nov.)  though  there  is 
one  of  the  name  in  the  present  Roman  Martyrology 
under  date  of  16  Oct.,  nothing  more  is  known. 


7S2  moto 

(>aetM.ttawm»,aAfmMa-.AaaS8^Mmr.m.i-i3:Maii.  gad  enfightened  that  to  this  very  day  the  gtaad- 

E^pfStSHSn'l.'s^S^/  ilijiSLSItif^l^^StS!  child^  h»  penitents  a«  still.pJomii«Uy  E^ 

186:  WiRTH.  Ada  ss.  Nerei  et  AehiUei  (Leipsig.  1890);  Achblis.  for  the   eamestness  of  their   faith   and   the  solid- 

^.^^^^^'L^^^^^^^i^^^'^  qfU«»wd^ttfven. XI, 2  (Leip-  ity  of  their  virtue.    His  well-deserved  fame  reached 

5KmL^^=<^S^'M:VMi8^  ^^timoT^  ^d  Bishop  Can^U  induced  the  Holy  See 

MartYTum  RomainM,  I  (Paris.  1900).  251-55.  305-07;  Ubbain,  to  appoint  him  Bishop  of  New  Orleans,  but  Father 

Jill  Marturologium  der  ehritU.  Oemtinde  *u  Ham  (Leip«iji.  1901),  Neiinckx  refused  the  honouT.   The  Catholic  education 

\^:A)r^?Tk':^£::t:^SS;i^^i.trisT^  ?f  cWdren  was  lus  most  chenshed  work  and  to  secure 

■qq.,  68  sqq..  122  sqq.  (1875).  5  sqq.;  Marucchi.  Guide  d—  eata-  its  permanency  he  founded  the  Congregation  of  the 

omifrM  romatnM  (Rome.  1903),  97  m.    On  St.  Pancratiua:  Acta  Sisters  of  Loretto  in  1812.   He  crossed  the  ocean  twice 

gSi.*l?/,iJll'«'Aiit.trK:  ll^'!Sii?<i:Sr^''<S''S2:  to  secure.help  and  labour^s.for  the  nussions;  he  thus 

eom^M  romainef,  43-46.  became  instrumental  m  bringing  from  Belgium  the 

J.  P.  KiBSCH.  first  Jesuits  who  settled  in  the  West,  notably  Father 

De  Smet  and  Bishop  Van  de  Velde.    He  brou^t  to 

Nerly  Antonio,  Florentine  chemist,  b.  in  Florence  America  a  number  of  paintings  which  are  to  this  day 

m  the  sixteenth  centiuy;   d.  1614,  place  unknown,  the  most  valuable  art  treasures  of  the  Diocese  of 

We  have  but  few  details  of  his  life;  Dr.  Merret,  an  Louisville.    Persecution  was  not  wanting  to  him,  and 

English  physician,  who  translated  his  work  only  fifty  for  the  sake  of  peace  he  went  to  Missouri  in  1824, 

years  after  its  first  publication,  states  in  his  preface  intending  to  consecrate  the  last  years  of  his  life  to  the 

that  he  could  find  no  account  whatever  of  the  author.  Indians,  out  death  overtook  him  at  Ste.  Genevieve. 

It  is  known  however  that  he  was  a  priest  and  devoted  '  His  mortal  remains  were  brought  back  to  Loretto. 

to  the  study  of  chemistry:    he  travelled  somewhat  The  Sisters  erected  a  marble  statue  of  their  founder  at 

extensively  m  Italy  and  Holland,  and  during  these  the  mother-house  in  1910. 

journeys  gained  a  great  deal  of  information  concerning  Spalodto.  Skdehet  of  Kentucky  (Louisville,  1844) :  Wkbb,  Cot- 

the  maniSi^ure  o?  glass  and  its  treatm«it  for  various  'STc'^iSS'i^SiiS  i^^S^LS:^!^1^^  ftfJ^ 

purposes.    This  knowledge  he  gave  to  the  world  in  his  Library  (Bninels).                   -.        ,.          ^ 

book  "L'Arte  Vetraria",  which  for  a  long  time  formed  Camillus  P.  Maes. 
the  basis  of  most  other  works  on  this  subject.    It  is  a 

book  rich  in  detail,  giving  the  then  known  methods  of  NerOt  54-68,  the  last  Roman  emperor  of  the  Julian- 
making  glass,  of  colouring  it,  and  of  imitating  precious  Claudian  line,  was  the  son  of  Domitius  Ahenobar- 
stones.  The  original  work  has  appeared  m  three  bus  and  Julia  Agrippina,  niece  of  Emperor  Claudius, 
editions:  Florence,  1612;  Florence,  1661;  and  Milan,  After  the  violent  death  of  his  first  wife,  Valeria  Messa- 
1817.  In  1662  Merret  translated  it  into  I^tin,  adding  lina.  Emperor  Oaudius  married  Julia,  adopted  her  son 
to  it  notes  and  a  commentary  of  his  own:  this  was  Nero  and  gave  him  in  marriage  his  own  dauj^hter, 

fublished  at  Amsterdam  in  1668  and  again  in  1681.  Octavia.    Nero's 'mother  had  a  mind  to  commit  any 

t  was  translated  into  German  by  Johium  Kunckel,  crime  to  put  him  on  the  throne,  and  to  prepare.him  for 

who  published  a  revised  and  enlaiged  edition  of  it  in  this  station  she  had  L.  Aniueus  Seneca  appointed  his 

1689.     About  a  centuir  later  there  appeared  the  tutor,  and  caused  the  freedman  Afranius  Bumis,  a 

French  edition,  "Art  de  la  Verrerie  de  Nen,  Merret  et  rough  but  exi)erienced  soldier,  to  be  made  commander 

Kunckel",  etc.,   ''Traduits  de  I'AUemand  par  M.  of  the  PrsDtorian  guard.    These  men  were  the  advisers 

D  *  *  *  "  (Paris,  1752).  and  chief  supporters  of  Nero  on  his  becoming  emperor, 

BRvm^anudduLibrau-e,  IV  (Paria.  1863) ;  PoaaEMDORrr,  after  the  Budden  death  of  Claudius.    Nero  was  bom  in 

flSffilS^;  ^^^^At^.^H^^^'^.ZJk  Antium  on  15  December,  a.  d.  37.  and  was.»ey«.teen 

above.  years  old  when  he  became  emperor.    He  beheved  him- 

Edward  C.  Phillips.  self  to  be  a  |p%at  singer  and  poet.    All  the  better  dispo- 
sitions of  his  nature  had  been  stifled  by  his  sensuality 

Nerlnckx.   Charles,  missionary   priest  in  Ken-  and  moral  perversity.    Agrippina  had  expected  to  be 

tuckv,  founder  of  the  Sisters  of  Loretto  at  the  Foot  a  partner  of  her  son  in  the  government,  but  owinjg  to 

of  the  Cross,  b.  in  Herffelingen,  Belgium,  2  Oct.,  her  autocratic  character,  this  lasted  onlv  a  short  time. 

1761;   d.  at  Ste.  Genevieve.  Mo.,  12  August,  1824.  The  first  years  of  Nero's  reign,  under  the  direction  of 

He  was  the  eldest  of  the  fourteen  children  of  Dr.  Burrus  and  Seneca,  the  real  nolders  of  power,  were 

Sebastian  Nerinckx  and  Petronilla  Langendries.    He  auspicious  in  every  way.   A  series  of  regulations  either 

studied  at  Enghien  and  Gheel,  made  his  philosophy  at  abrogated  or  lessened  the  hardships  of  direct  taxation, 

Louvain,  and  entered  the  theologicid  seminary  of  the  ubitrariness  of  legislation  ana  provincial  adminis- 

Mechlin  in  1781.    Ordained  in  1785,  he  became  vicar  tration,  so  that  Rome  and  the  empire  were  delighted, 

at  the  cathedral  of  Mechlin,  where  he  was  noted  for  and  the  first  five  years  of  Nero's  government  w&e 

his  zeal  among  the  working  classes.    In  1794  he  ob-  accounted  the  happiest  of  all  time,  r^sarded  by  Trajan 

tained  the  pastoral  charge  of  Everberg-Meerbeke,  as  the  best  of  the  imperial  era. 

where  the  cievotion  to  the  spiritual  interest  of  his  Under  Claudius,  the  Armenians  and  Parthiana  had 

people  developed  that  deep  love  for  children  which  revolted,  and  the  proconsul  had  been  unable  to  uphold 

later  characterized  his  missionary  labours  in  America,  the  prestige  of  the  Roman  aims.   Seneca  adinaed  Nero 

During  his  incumbency  he  wrote  several  theological  to  assert  his  rights  over  Armenia,  and  Domitius  Cor- 

treatises  the  manuscripts  of  which  are  still  preserved  bulo  was  recalled  from  Germany  and  Britain  to  go 

in  the  parish  archives.    The  French  Directoire  re-  with  fresh  troops  to  Cappadoda  and  Galatia,  where 

sented  nis  activity  and  ordered  his  arrest,  but  he  he  stormed  the  two  Armenian  capitals,  Artaxata  and 

eluded  the  gens  (Tarmes  (1797)  and  for  four  years  was  Tigranocerta  in  a.  d.  59  and  made  his  headouarteis  in 

in  hiding  at  the  Hospital  of  Dendermonde,  where  he  the  city  of  Nisibis.    King  Tividates  was  dethroned, 

continued  his  ministry  amid  continual  dangers.    He  and  Timmes,  Nero's  favourite,  made  vassal  in  his 

came  to  America  in  1804,  Bishop  Carroll  assigning  him  stead.    But  the  position  of  Tigranes  was  insecure,  and 

to  Kentucky  in  1805.    The  district  given  to  his  charge  Vologeses,  King  of  the  Parthians,  who  had  previously 

was  over  two  hundred  miles  in  length  anr"  covered  retired  from  Armenia  and  given  hostages  to  the  Ro- 

nearly  half  the  State.   He  lived  in  the  saddle;  ever^  mans,  rekindled  the  war,  ddeated  the  new  proconsul 

year  of  his  apostolate  was  marked  by  the  organi-  Patus,  and  forced  him  to  capitulate.    Corbuk)  again 

zation  of  a  new  congregation  or  the  building  of  a  took  command  and  recognized  Tividates  as  king  on 

church.    Of  all  the  missionaries  who  worked  in  that  condition  that  he  should  lay  down  his  crown  before  the 

field  none  deserves  so  well  the  title  of  "Apostle  of  image  of  Nero,  and  acknowledge  his  lordship  over 

Kentucky".  His  direction  of  souls  was  so  effident  Armenia  as  granted  by  Nero;  this  so  flattered  the 


NKRO  753  mtO 

emperor  that,  aecondins  the  rostrum  in  the  Forum  with  his  mates  riot«d  by  night  through  the  city,  at- 

Romanum,  be  himself  placed  the  crown  on  the  head  tacking  men,  assaulting  women,  and  mled  the  vacant 

of  Tividatee.   At  the  same  time  a  dangerous  war  broke  podtious  at  the  imperial  Court  from  the  dregs  of  the 

out  in  Britiun.    Strong  campn  and  forte  had  been  built  citv.     In  the  civic  administration  extravoganct  was 

there  in  the  first  yeaiB  of  Nero's  reigo,  and  the  pro-  unbounded,  in  the  court  luxury  unbridled.    Financial 

consul,  Suetonius  Paulinua,  had  undertaken  here,  as  deficits  grew  over  night;    the  fortunes  of  those  who 

bad  Corbulo  in  the  past,  la  extend  the  frontiers  of  the  had  been  condemned  at  law,  of  freedmen,  of  all  pre- 

Roman  conquests.    With  the  native  population  com-  tendeis  by  birth  filled  the  depleted  exchequer,  and  the 

I>lainiDg  of  excessive  taxation,  conscripiion,  the  ava-  coin  was  deliberately  debased.    All  efforts  to  stem 

rice  of  Roman  officials,  came  suddenly  the  summons  tbeee  disasters  were  vain,  and  the  general  misery  had 

of  the  heroic  Queen  of  the  Iceni,Boadicea,  bidding  her  reached  its  highest,  when  in  a.   d.  64  occurred  the 

tribes  to  free  themselves  from  Roman  tyranny  (a.  d.  terrible  conflagration  which  burnt  entirely  three,  and 

61).     The  procurator,  Decianus  Catus,  had  driven  partly  seven,  of  the  fourteen  districts  into  wtuch  Roma 

this  noble  woman  to  despair  by  his  odious  and  cruel  was  divided.    The 

greed;  and  when  this  oppression  and  the  shame  of  her  older    authors, 

own  and  her  daughters  violation  became  known  to  Tacitus  and  Sueto- 

ber  people  and  the  neighbouring  tribes,  their  wrath  nius,  say  dearly, 

and  hopes  for  revenge  Mone  beset  them.    The  Roman  and  the  testimony 

camps  were  destroyed,  the  troops  surprised  and  st^n,  of  all  later  heathen 

and  more  than  70,000  colonists  paid  the  penalty  of  and  Christian  writ- 

their  oppression  by  the  loss  of  home  and  life.    London  ers    concurs   with 

was  burned  to  the  ground,  and  the  proconsul,  Sue-  them,    that   Nero 

tonius  PaulinuB,  came  but  ^owly  to  the  help  of  the  re-  himself   gave    the 

maining  colonists  from  his  incursion  upon  the  island  order  to    set  the 

of  Mona.   On  his  arrival  was  fought  the  Dattle  of  Deva  capital  on  fire,  and 

(Dee),  in  which  Britain  succumbed  to  Roman  disci-  that  the;>eople  at 

pline,  and  was  agtun  subjugated  with  the  aid  of  fresh  large  believed  this 

troops  from  Germany.  report.    Nero  was 

After  the  death  of^Claudius,  ^pippina  bad  caused  in   Antium    when 

to  be  poisoned  heroldenemv  Narcissus,  the  protector  he    beard    that 

of  Britannicus,  and  Junius  Sifanus,  becauseof  his  Julian  Rome     was     in 

kinship.     FaJlas,  the  powerful  finance  minister,  and  flames,    be    bast- 

her  most  valiant  adherent,  was  deprived  of  his  office,  enod   thither,  and 

and  her  personal  influence  in  the  government  con-  is  said  to  have  aa- 

stantly  lessened.    That  she  might  regain  her  power,  cended  the  tower 

she  courted  the  n«;lected  Octavia,  and  sought  to  of  Meecenan,  and 

make  the  impotent  Britannicus  a  rival  of  her  son;  this  looking  Upon  the 

induced  Nero  to  order  the  murder  of  Britannicus,  who  sea    of    flame    in 

was  poisoned  at  a  banquet  amidst  bis  own  family  and  which   Rome   lay 

friends,  Burrus  and  Seneca  both  consenting  to  the  enmilfed,  to  have  sung  on  his  lyre  the  song  of  the  ruin 

crime.    When  Nero  had  seduced  Poppata  Sabina,  the  of  Ihum. 

wife  of  his  friend  Salvius  Otho,  she  resented  playing        In  place  of  the  old  city  with  its  narrow  and  crooked 

the  rAle  of  concubine  and  aspired  to  that  of  empress,  streets,  Nero  planned  a  new  residential  city,  to  be 

This  brought  about  a  crisis  between  son  and  mother,  called  Neronia.    For  six  days  the  fire  ravaged  the 

for  with  all  her  vices  Agrippina  had  never  lacked  a  closely  built  quarters,  and  many  thousands  perished 

certain  external  dignity,  and  had  expressed  in  her  con-  in  the  flames;  countless  neat  works  of  art  were  lost  in 

duct  the  sentiment  <n  imperial  power.     Now  when  the  ruins.    Informers,  bribed  for  the  purpose,  de- 

through  hatred  of  Poppsa  she  undertook  to  protect  clared  that  the  Christians  had  set  Borne  on  fire. 

the  intereets  of  Octavia,  to  whom  indeed  Nero  owed  Their  doctrine  of  the  nothingness  of  earthly  joys  in 

his  throne,  the  son  determined  to  rid  himself  of  his  comparison  with  the  delights  of  immortal  bouIb  in 

mother.    He  invited  her  to  a  pleasure  party  at  Bais,  heaven  was  an  enduring  reproof  to  the  dissolute  em- 

and  the  ship  which  was  to  convey  her  out  to  sea  was  peror.     There  began  a  tierce  persecution  throughout 

BO  constructed  as  to  sink  at  a  given  order,    lliia  at-  the  empire,  and  through  robbery  and  confiscation  the 

tempt  having  miscarried,  he  o^ered  that  she  should  Christians  were  forced  to  pay  in  great  part  for  the 

be  clubbed  to  death  in  her  country  house,  by  his  freed-  building  of  the  new  Romb.    In  this  persecution  Saints 

men  (a.  d.  69).    The  report  was  then  spread  abroad  Peter  and  Paul  were  martyred  in  Rome  in  a.  d.  67. 

that  Agrippina  had  sought  the  hfe  of  ner  son,  and  Broad  streets  and  plaina  were  planned  by  the  imperial 

Seneca  so  dishonoured  his  pen  as  to  write  to  the  senato  architects ;  houses  of  stone  arose  where  before  stood 

a  brief  condemning  the  mother.    One  man  alone  of  those  of  lime  and  wood;  the  Domus  aurea,  enclosed  in 

all  the  Senate  had  the  courage  to  leave  his  seat  when  wonderful  gardens  and  parks,  in  extent  greater  than  a 

this  letter  was  read,  Thrasea  Pstus  the  philosopher,  whole  former  town-quarter  astonished  men  by  its 

Burrus  dying  in  a.  d.  62,  left  Seneca  no  longer  able  to  splendour  and  beauty.     In  order  to  compass  the 

withstand  the  influence  of  Poppaa  and  of  Sophonius  colossal  expenditures  for  these  vast  undertakings,  the 

Tigellinus,  Prefect  of  the  Pnetorian  guards.    He  re-  temples  were  stripped  of  their  works  of  art,  oftbnr 

tired  into  private  life,  and  new  crimes  were  conceived  gold  and  silver  votive  offerings,  and  justly  or  unjustly 

and  effected.  the  fortunes  of  the  great  famiUes  confiscated.    The 

Sulla  and  Plautus,  great-nephews  of  Augustus,  be-  universal  discontent  thus  aroused  resulted  in  the  con- 
ing in  exile,  were  beheaded  by  Nero's  command,  and  spiracy  of  Calpumius  Piso.  The  plot  was  discovered, 
his  marriage  with  Octavia  b^ng  annulled,  she  was  and  the  conspirators  and  their  famiUes  and  friends 
banished  to  Campania.  The  populace  resented  deeplv  condemned  to  death.  Amongst  the  most  noted  of 
the  maltreatment  of  Octavia,  and  the  tumults  whicn  them  were  Seneca,  Lucan.  Petronius,  and  the  Stoic 
occurred  in  consequence  served  only  to  increase  the  Thrasea  Ptetus,  of  whom  Tacitus  said  that  he  was  vir- 
fear  and  hatred  of  Poppfea.  Octavia  was  sent  to  the  tue  incarnate,  and  one  of  the  few  whose  courage  and 
island  of  Pandataria,  and  there  beheaded.  Poppssa  justice  had  never  been  concealed  in  presence  of  the 
now  assumed  the  title  of  Augusta,  her  image  was  murderous  Ciesar.  Poppiea  too,  who  had  been  bru- 
stamped  upon  the  coin  of  the  Roman  State,  and  her  tally  kicked  by  her  husband,  died,  with  her  unborn 
opponents  were  murdered  by  AaesBr  or  ptnson.    Nero  obild  soon  after.    Finally  the  emperor  started  on  a 


754 


|>1ea8ure  tour  through  lower  Ital^  and  Greece ;  as  actor, 
singer,  and  harp  player  he  gained  the  scorn  of  the 
world;  he  heaped  upon  his  triumphal  chariots  the  vic- 
tor-crowns of  the  great  Grecian  games,  and  so  dis- 
honoured the  dignity  of  Rome  that  Tacitus  through 
respect  for  the  mighty  ancestors  of  the  Csesar  would 
not  once  mention  his  name. 

Outbreaks  in  the  provinces  and  in  Rome  itself  now 
presaged  the  approaching  overthrow  of  the  Neronian 
tyranny.  Julius  Vindex.  Proconsul  of  Gallia  Lugdu- 
nensis,  with  the  intent  ot  giving  Gatd  an  independent 
and  worthy  government,  raised  the  banner  of  revolt, 
and  sought  an  alliance  with  the  Proconsuls  of  Spain 
and  the  Rhine  Provinces.  Sulpicius  Galba,  Proconsul 
of  EUspania  Tarraconensis,  who  was  ready  for  the 
change,  agreed  to  the  plans  presented  to  him,  declared 
his  fealty  to  Nero  ended,  and  was  proclaimed  emperor 
bv  his  own  army.  L.  Verginius  Rufus,  Proconsul  of 
Upper  Germany,  was  offered  the  principate  by  his 
troops,  and  led  tnem  against  the  usurper  Vindex.  In 
a  battle  at  Vesontio  (Besan^on)  Vindex  was  defeated, 
and  fell  by  his  own  sword.  In  Rome  the  praetorians 
dazzled  by  the  exploits  of  Galba  deserted  Nero,  the 
Senate  declared  him  the  enemy  of  his  country,  and 
sentenced  him  to  the  death  of  a  common  murderer. 
Outlawed  and  forsaken,  he  committed  suicide  in  the 
house  of  one  of  his  freeomen,  June,  a.  d.  68.  At  once 
and  evenrwhero  Sulpicius  Galba  was  accepted  as  em- 
peror. The  sudden  disappearance  of  Nero,  whose 
enemies  had  spread  the  report  that  he  had  fled  to  the 
East,  gave  rise  to  the  later  legend  that  he  was  still  liv- 
ing, and  would  return  to  sit  again  upon  the  imperial 
throne. 

ScHXLLBB,  G«teA.  der  rihn.  Kai»er^  I  (Ootha,  1883) ;  Stiqlmatxb, 
TbeifiM  aber  den  Brand  von  Rom  m  Stimmen  aut  Maria  Laaeht 
LXXVIII  (Freiburg,  1010),  2;  ton  DoMAaEXwxsxci,  Geach,  der 
Hhn.  Kaieer,  II  (Leipsig.  IfiOO).  KaBL  HoeBEB. 

Nonet  I-IV,  Armenian  patriarchs. — Nebses  I, 
sumamed  the  Great,  d.  373.  Bom  of  the  royal  stock, 
he  spent  his  youth  in  Csesarea  where  he  married  San- 
ducht,  a  Mamikonian  princess.  After  the  death  of 
his  wife,  he  was  appointed  chamberlain  to  King  Ai^ 
ehak  of  Armenia.  A  few  years  later,  having  entered 
the  ecclesiastical  state,  he  was  elected  catholico8,  or 
patriarch,  in  353.  His  patriarchate  marks  a  new 
era  in  Annenian  history.  Till  then  the  Church  had 
been  more  or  less  identified  with  the  royal  family  and 
the  nobles;  Nerses  brought  it  into  closer  connexion 
with  the  people.  At  the  Council  of  Ashtishat  he  pro- 
mulgated numerous  laws  on  marriage,  fast  days,  and 
Divine  worship.  He  built  schools  and  hospitals,  and 
sent  monks  throughout  the  land  to  preach  tne  Gospel. 
Some  of  these  reforms  drew  upon  him  the  king's  ai»- 
pleasuro,  and  he  was  exiled,  probably  to  Edessa. 
Upon  the  accession  of  King  Bab  (369)  he  returned  to 
his  see.  Bab  proved  a  dissolute  and  unworthy  ruler 
and  Nerses  forbade  him  entrance  to  the  church. 
Under  the  pretence  of  seeking  a  reconciliation,  Bab 
having  invited  Nerses  to  his  table  poisoned  him. 

Nebses  II,  said  io  have  been  bom  at  Aschdarag  in 
BagrevancL  was  patriarch  from  548  to  557.  He  was  a 
Jacobite  Monophysite  (cf.  Ter-Minassiantz,  163-64). 
Under  him  was  held  the  Second  Council  of  Tvin  or 
Dovin  (554). 

Nebses  III  of  Ischkan,  sumamed  Schinogh,  "the 
church  builder",  was  elected  patriarch  in  641 ;  d.  661. 
He  lived  in  days  of  political  turmoil .  The  Armenians 
had  to  choose  between  the  Greeks  and  the  Persians, 
and  their  new  conquerors,  the  Arabs.  Nerses  remained 
friendly  to  the  Greeks,  whilst  the  military  chiefs  sided 
with  the  Arabs.  Constans  II  (642-48)  hastened  into 
Armenia  to  punish  the  rebels  and  subject  them  to  the 
Greek  Church.  Nerses  and  a  number  of  bishops  went 
forth  to  meet  him,  and  declared  they  accepted  the 
Council  of  Chalcedon.  Disagreement  with  the  satrap 
Theodorus  compelled  Nerses  to  withdraw  from  the 
administration  of  the  patriardbate  from  052  to  658. 


Nebses  IV  sumamed  Klaientn  from  the  place  of 
his  birth,  and  Schnorkhali,  "the  Gracious",  from  the 
elegance  of  his  writings^  b.  at  Hromcla,  Cilicia;  d.  1173. 
He  was  educated  by  his  grand  uncle,  Patriarch  Greg- 
ory Vkaiaser  and  afterwsuds  by  the  varlabed^  or  doctor 
of  theology,  Stephen  Manuk.  Having  been  conse- 
crated bishop  by  his  brother.  Patriarch  Gregory  III, 
he  was  sent  to  preach  throu^out  Annenia.  He  was 
present  at  the  Latin  Council  of  Antioch  in  1141  and 
was  elected  patriarch  in  1166.  Nerses,  together  with 
Emperor  Manuel  (Ik>mnenu8,  laboured  hfud  to  unite 
the  Greek  and  Armenian  Churches.  The  union, 
however,  was  never  consummated,  the  majority  of 
the  bishops  remaining  obstinate.  Nerses  is  regarded 
as  one  of^  the  greatest  Annenian  writers.  His  proste 
works  include:  "Prayers  for  every  hour  of  the  day" 
(Venice,  1822);  his  "Synodal  letter"  and  five  "Let- 
ters"  to  Manuel  Comnenus  (tr.  Latin  by  Capelleti, 
Venice,  1833).  He  wrote  in  verse:  "lesu  Orti",  a 
Bible  histonr;  an  "elegy"  on  the  capture  of  Edessa;  a 
"History  of  Armenia  ,  two  "Homilies",  and  many 
h3rmns.  In  the  "lesu  Orti",  the  elegy  on  Edessa, 
and  the  first  letter  to  Manuel  Conmenus,  we  find  tes- 
timonies to  the  primacy  of  the  Bishop  of  Rome. 

Lamqlou,  CoUeetion  dee  historiene  de  VArmtniet  II  (Paris. 
1860);  Ormanian,  L'tgliee  armhtienntt  ton  kietoire,  «o  doetritu, 
mm  riigime,  aa  dieipline,  ta  liturgie,  «a  liUinUurtt  eon  prieent  (Paris. 
1010) ;  HBraLB.  liiet.  of  the  Couneile  of  the  Ckurek,  Iv  (tr.  CuiXK. 
Edinburgh.  1895) ;  Sukias  Sou al,  Qiiadro  delta  eUtria  teiteraria  di 
Armenia  (Venice,  1820);  Wbbbb.  Die  katkot,  Kirehe  in  Armenien 
(Freiburg,  1003);  Tbb-Minassiante,  Dm  armeniecke  Kireke  in 
thren  Beeiekungen  tu  den  evriechen  itircken  hie  turn  Bnde  dee  IS 
JakrkunderU  (Leipii^,  1004) ;  Neumann,  Vereuck  einer  Geeek.  der 
armen.  JAUer.  (Leipiig,  1836) ;  Fink,  Oeeek.  der  armen,  LiUer.  in 
Qeeck.  der  ckrteU.  LiUer.  dee  Oriente  (Leipn^,  1007);  Axabxak, 
Bcdeeia  Armenia  tradilio  de  Romani  PonUfieu  jfrimatu  iuriedi^- 
tionie  et  inerrabili  ma4fiaterio  (Rome,  1870);  (Hhamicr,  BieL  of 
Armenia,  (Calcutta,  1827). 

A.  A.  Vaschalde. 

NerMB  of  Lambron,  b.  1153  at  Lambron,  Cili- 
cia; d.  1198:  son  of  Oschin  II,  prince  of  Lambron  and 
nephew  of  tne  patriarch,  Nerses  IV.  Nerses  was  well 
versed  in  sacrea  and  profane  sciences  and  had  an  ex- 
cellent knowledge  of  Greek,  Latin,  Syriac,  and  prob- 
ably Coptic.  Ordained  in  1169,  he  was  consecrated 
Archbishop  of  Tarsus  in  1176  and  became  a  zealous 
advocate  of  the  union  of  the  Greek  and  Armenian 
Churches.  In  1 179  he  attended  the  Council  of  Hrom- 
cla, in  which  the  terms  of  the  union  were  discussed; 
his  address  at  this  council  is  considered  a  masterpiece 
of  eloquence  and  style.  The  union  was  decided  upon 
but  never  consummated  owing  to  the  death  of  Em- 
peror Manuel  Comnenus  in  1180.  Manuel's  succes- 
sors abandoned  the  negotiations  and  persecuted  the 
Armenians,  who  dissatisfied  with  the  Greeks  now 
turned  to  tne  Latins.  Leo  IIj  Prince  of  Cilicia,  desir- 
ous to  secure  for  himself  the  title  of  King  of  Armenia, 
sought  the  support  of  Celestine  III  and  of  Emperor 
Henry  VI.  Tne  pope  received  his  request  favourably, 
but  made  the  granting  of  it  dependent  upon  the  union 
of  Cilicia  to  the  Church  of  Rome.  He  sent  Conrad, 
Archbishop  of  Mayence,  to  Tarsus,  and  the  terms  of 
union  having  been  signed  by  Leo  and  twelve  of  the 
bishops,  among  whom  was  Nerses,  Leo  was  crowned 
King  of  Armenia.  6  January,  1198.  Nerses  died  six 
months  af terwaras,  17  July.  Nerses  is  justly  regarded 
as  one  of  the  greatest  writers  in  Armenian  literature. 
He  deserves  fame  as  poet,  prose  writer^  and  translator. 
He  wrote  an  elegy  on  the  death  of  his  uncle,  Nerses 
IV,  and  many  hymns.  His  prose  works  include  his 
oration  at  the  Council  of  Hromcla  (tr.  Italian  by 
Aucher,  Venice,  1812;  tr.  German  by  Neumann,  Leip- 
zig, 1834) ;  Commentaries  on  the  Psalms.  Proverbs, 
Ecclesiastes,  Wisdom,  and  the  Minor  Propnets;  an  ex- 
planation of  the  liturgy;  a  letter  to  Leo  II  and  another 
to  Uskan,  a  monk  of  Antioch;  and  two  homilies.  He 
translated  into  Armenian  the  Rule  of  St.  Benedict; 
the  'TMalogues"  of  Gregory  the  Great:  a  life  of  this 
sidnt;  and  the  letters  of  Lucius  III  and  Clement  III  to 
the  patriarch,  Gregory.    From  the  Syriac  he  trana- 


ME8QT7ALLY                            755  MESTOBIUB 

lated  the  ''Homilies"  of  Jacob  of  Serugh  and,  prob-  a  portion,  which  had  not  awuted  the  arrival  of  the 

ably  from  the  Coptic,  the  ''Life  of  the  Fathers  of  the  bishops  from  Antioch.    He  had  refused  to  recognize 

Desert".    Some  writers  ascribe  to  him  an  Armenian  the  jurisdiction  of  this  incomplete  number,  and  had 

version  of  a  conmientary  of  Andreas  of  Csesarea  on  consequently  refused  to  api)ear  or  put  in  any  defence, 

the  Apocalypse.    Nerses  in  his  original  writings  fre-  He  was  now  thrust  out  of  his  see  by  a  change  of  mind 

quently  refers  to  the  primacy  and  infallibility  of  the  on  the  part  of  the  feeble  emperor.    But  Nestorius  was 

pope.  proud:  he  showed  no  sign  of  yielding  or  of  coming 

^.^^''"■^^"•vT^**  -Arwwnfofi  Version  of  Retdatum  (London,  to  terms:  he  put  in  no  plea  of  appeal  to  Rome.    Here- 

l907);aeeal«>N«BBMl-lv,                         v.o^^.t^^  tired  to  his  monastery  at  Antiooh  with  dignity  and 

A.  A.  V  ASCHALDB.  apparent  relief.    His  friends,  John  of  Antioch  and  his 

Nesqually.    See  Sbattlb,  Diocesb  of.  party,  deserted  him,  and  at  the  wish  of  the  Emperor. 

at  the  beginning  of  433,  joined  hands  with  Cyril,  and 

Nestoriiu  and   Nestorianism. — I.  Thb  Hebb-  Theodoret  later  did  the  same.     The  bishops  who 

8IARCH. — Nestorius,  who  gave  his  name  to  the  Nes-  were  suspected  of  being  favourable  to  Nestorius  were 

torian  heresy, was  b.  at  Germanicia.  in  Syria  Euphorar  deposed.    An  edict  of  Theodosius  II,  30  July,  435, 

tensis  (date  unknown)  J  d.  in  the Theoaid,  Egypt,  c.  451.  condemned  his  writings  to  be  burnt.'   A  few  years 

He  was  living  as  a  pnest  and  monk  in  the  monastery  later  Nestorius  was  dragged  from  his  retirement  and 

of  Euprepiusnearthe  walls,  when  he  was  chosen  by  the  banished  to  the  Oasis.    Jtle  was  at  one  time  carried 

Emperor  Theodosius  II  to  be  Patriarch  of  Constanti-  off  by  the  Nubians  (not  the  Blemmyes)  in  a  raid,  and 

nople  in  succession  to  Sisinnius.    He  had  a  high  repu-  was  restored  to  the  Thebaid  with  his  hand  ana  one 

tation  for  eloquence,  and  the  popularity  of  St.  Chryth  rib  broken.    He  gave  himself  up  to  the  governor  in 

ostom's  memory  among  the  people  of  the  imperial  order  not  to  be  accused  of  having  fled, 

city  may  have  influenced  the  Emperor's  choice  of  an-  The  recent  discovery  of  a  Syriac  version  of  the  (lost) 

other  priest  from  Antioch  to  be  court  bishop.    He  was  Greek  apology  for  Nestorius  by  himself  has  awakened 

consecrated  in  April,  428,  and  seems  to  have  made  an  new  interest  in  the  question  of  his  personal  orthodoxy, 

excellent  impression.    He  lost  no  time  in  showing  his  The  (mutilated)  manuscript,  about  800  years  old, 

zeal  against  heretics.    Within  a  few  days  of  his  con-  known  as  the  "Bazaar  of  Heraclides",  and  recently 

secration  Nestorius  had  an  Arian  chapel  destroyed,  edited  as  the  "Liber  Heraclidis"  by  P.  Bedjan  (Paris, 

and  he  persuaded  Theodosius  to  issue  a  severe  edict  1910),  reveals  the  persistent  odium  attached  to  the 

against  heresy  in  the  following  month.    He  had  the  name  of  Nestorius,  since  at  the  end  of  his  life  he  was 

churches  of  the  Macedonians  in  the  Hellespont  seized,  obliged  to  substitute  for  it  a  pseudonym.    In  this 

and  took  measures  against  the  Quartodecimans  who  work  he  claims  that  his  faith  is  that  of  the  celebrated 

remained  in  Asia  Minor.     He  also  attacked  the  Nova-  "Tome",  or  letter,  of  Leo  the  Great  to  Flavian,  and 

tians,  in  spite  of  the  good  reputation  of  their  bishop,  excuses  his  fidlure  to  appeal  to  Rome  by  the  general 

Pelagian  refugees  from  the  West,  however,  he  did  not  prejudice  of  which  he  was  the  victim.    A  fine  passage 

expel,  not  being  well  acquainted  with  their  oondemna-  on  the  Eucharistic  Sacrifice  which  occurs  in  the 

tion  ten  years  earUer.    He  twice  wrote  to  Pope  St.  "Bazaar"  may  be  cited  here:  "There  is  something 

Celestine  I  for  information  on  the  subject.  He  received  amiss  with  you  which  I  want  to  put  before  you  in  a 

no  reply,  but  Marius  Mercator,  a  disciple  of  St.  Angus-  few  words,  in  order  to  induce  you  to  amend  it,  for  you 

tine,  published  a  memoir  on  the  subject  at  Constanti-  are  quick  to  see  what  is  seemly.    What  then  is  this 

nople,  and  presented  it  to  the  emperor,  who  duly  pro-  f ault  r    Presently  the  mysteries  are  set  before  the 

scribed  the  heretics.    At  the  end  of  428,  or  at  latest  in  faithful  like  the  mess  granted  to  his  soldiers  by  the 

the  early  part  of  429,  Nestorius  preached  the  first  of  his  king.    Yet  the  armv  of  the  faithful  is  nowhere  to  be 

famous  sermons  against  the  word  Theotokoa,  and  de-  seen,  but  they  are  blown  away  together  with  the  cate- 

tailed  his  Antiocman  doctrine  of  the  Incarnation,  chumens  like  chaff  by  the  wind  of  indifference.    And 

The  first  to  raise  his  voice  against  it  was  Eusebius,  Christ  is  crucified  in  the  symbol  [«rard  rbw  t^ov]^ 

a  la3rman.  afterwards  Bishop  of  Dorykeum  and  the  sacrificed  by  the  sword  of  the  prayer  of  the  Priest; 

accuser  or  Eutyches.    Two  priests  of  the  city.  Philip  but,  as  when  He  was  upon  the  Cross,  He  finds  His 
and  Proclus,  who  had  both  oeen  unsuccessful  candi- 


disciples  have  already  fled.    Terrible  is  this  fault, 

dates  for  the  patriarchate,  preached  against  Nestorius.  betra}ral  of  Christ  when  there  is  no  persecution,  a 

Philip,  known  as  Sidetes,  from  Side,  his  birthplace,  desertion  by  the  faithful  of  their  Master's  Body  when 

author  of  a  vast  and  discursive  history  now  lost,  ac^  there  is  no  war"  (Ixwfs,  "Nestoriana",  Halls,  1905, 

cused  the  patriarch  of  heresy.    Proclus  (who  was  to  p.  341). 

succeed  later  in  his  candidature)  preached  a  flowery,  The  writings  of  Nestorius  were  originally  very 

but  perfectly  orthodox,  sermon,  yet  extant,  to  which  numerous.    As  stated  above,  the  "Bazaar"  has  newly 

Nestorius  replied  in  an  extempore  discourse,  which  been  published  (Paris^  1910)  in  the  Syriac  translation 

we  also  possess.    All  this  naturally  caused  great  in  which  alone  it  survives.    The  rest  of  the  fragments 

excitement  at  Constantinople,  especially  among  the  of  Nestorius  have  been  most  minutely^  examined, 

the  clergy,  who  were  clearly  not  well  disposed  towards  pieced  togeliier  and  edited  by  Loofs.    His  sermons 

the  stranger  from  Antioch.    St.  Celestine  immediately  show  a  real  eloquence,  but  very  little  remains  in  the 

condemned  the  doctrine.    Nestorius  had  arranged  original  Greek.    The  Latin  translations  by  Marius 

with  the  emperor  in  the  summer  of  430  for  the  assem-  Mercator  are  very  poor  in  style  and  the  text  is  ill  pre- 

bling  of  a  council.    He  now  hastened  it  on,  and  the  served.    Batiffol  has  attributed  to  Nestorius  many 

summons  had  been  issued  to  patriarchs  and  metropol-  sermons  which  have  come  down  to  us  under  the  names 

itans  on  19  Nov.,  before  the  pope's  sentence,  delivered  of  other  authors:  three  of  Athanasius,  one  of  Hippoly- 

through  Cjml  of  Alexandria,  had  been  served  on  Nes-  tus,  three  of  Amphilochius,  thirty-eight  of  Basil  of 

torius  (6  Dec.).    At  the  council  Nestorius  was  con-  Seleucia,  seven  of  St.  ChiyBOstom;  but  Loofs  and 

demned,  and  the  emperor,  after  much  delay  and  hesi-  Baker  do  not  accept  the  ascription.    Mercati  has 

tation,  ratified  its  finding.    It  was  confirmed  by  Pope  pointed  out  four  fragments  in  a  writing  of  Innocent, 

Sixtus  III.  Bishop  of  Maronia  (eid.  Amelli  in  "Spicfl.  Cassin.",  I. 

The  lot  of  Nestorius  was  a  hard  one.    He  had  been  1887),  and  Armenian  fragments  have  been  published 

handed  over  by  the  pope  to  the  tender  mercies  of  his  by  Liidtke. 

rival.  Cjrril;  he  had  been  summoned  to  accept  within  IL  Thb  Hbbbst. — ^Nestorius  was  a  disciple  of  the 

ten  days  under  pain  of  deposition,  not  a  papal  defini-  school  of  Antioch,  and  his  Christology  was  essentially 

tion,  but  a  series  of  anathemas  drawn  up  at  Ale%&Q'  ^^^^  ^^  Diodorus  of  Tarsus  and  Theodore  of  Mopsues- 

dria  under  the  influence  of  Apollinarian  fon>eiies.  ^^  ^^^  CUician  bishops  and  great  opponents  of 

The  whole  council  had  not  ooncfemned  him,  bufotily  Ananism.    Both  died  in  the  Catholic  Chiuch.    Dio« 


HESTOBXUB 


756 


MESTOBIUS 


dorus  was  a  ho!k  man,  much  venerated  by  St.  John 
Ch^^soetom.  Theodore,  however,  was  condemned  in 
person  as  well  as  in  his  writings  by  the  Fifth  General 
Uouncil,  in  553.  In  opposition  to  many  of  the  Arians, 
who  taught  that  in  the  Incarnation  the  Son  of  God 
assumed  a  human  body  in  which  £Us  Divine  Na- 
ture took  the  place  of  soul,  and  to  the  followers 
of  Apollinarius  of  Laodicea,  who  held  that  the  Di- 
vine Nature  supplied  the  functions  of  the  higher 
or  intellectual  soul,  the  Antiochenes  insisted  upon 
the  completeness  of  the  humanity  which  the  Word 
assumed.  Unfortunately,  they  represented  this  hu- 
man nature  as  a  complete  man,  and  represented 
the  Incarnation  as  the  assumption  of  a  man  by  the 
Word.  The  same  way  of  speaking  was  common 
enough  in  Latin  writers  (assumere  hominem,  homo  a8- 
sumptus)  and  was  meant  by  them  in  an  orthodox 
sense;  we  still  sing  in  the  Te  Deum:  ''Tu  ad  Ilberan- 
dum  suscepturus  hominem'',  where  we  must  under- 
stand "ad  liberandimi  hominem,  humanam  naturam 
Buscepisti".  But  the  Antiochene  writers  did  not 
mean  that  the  ''man  assumed"  {i  Xiy^it  (LpSpunrot) 
was  taken  up  into  one  hypostasis  with  the  Second 
Person  of  the  Holy  Trinity.  They  preferred  to  speak 
of  tfvro0€ia,  "junction",  rather  than  li*wii,  "unifi- 
cation", and  said  that  the  two  were  one  person  in 
dignity  and  power,  and  must  be  worshipped  together. 
The  word  person  in  its  Greek  form  rpb^wwov  might 
stand  for  a  juridical  or  fictitious  unity:  it  does  not 
necessarily  imply  what  the  word  person  implies  to  us. 
that  is.  the  umty  of  the  subject  of  consciousness  ana 
of  all  tne  internal  and  external  activities.  Hence  we 
are  not  suiprised  to  find  that  Diodorus  admitted  two 
Sons,  and  tnat  Theodore  practically  made  two  Christs, 
and  yet  that  they  cannot  be  proved  to  have  really 
made  two  subjects  in  Christ.  Two  things  are  certain : 
first,  that,  whether  or  no  they  believed  in  the  unity  of 
subject  in  the  Incarnate  Word,  at  least  they  explained 
that  unity  wrongly;  secondly,  that  they  used  most  un- 
fortunate and  misleading  language  when  they  spoke 
of  the  union  of  the  Manhood  with  the  Godhead — 
language  which  is  objectively  heretical,  even  were  the 
intention  of  its  authors  good. 

Nestorius,  as  well  as  Theodore,  repeatedly  insisted 
that  he  did  not  admit  two  Christs  or  two  Sons,  and  he 
frecjuently  asserted  the  unity  of  the  Tp6avrop,  On  ar- 
riving at  Constantinople  he  came  to  the  conclusion 
that  the  very  di£Ferent  theology  which  he  found  rife 
there  was  a  form  of  Arian  or  ApoUinarian  error.  In 
this  he  was  not  whoUy  wrong,  as  the  outbreak  of  Euty- 
chianism  twenty  years  later  may  be  held  to  prove.  In 
the  first  months  of  his  pontificate  he  was  implored  by 
the  Pela^an  Julian  of  Eclanum  and  other  expeUed 
bishops  of  his  party  to  recognize  their  orthodoxy  and 
obtain  their  restoration.  He  wrote  at  least  three 
letters  to  the  pope.  St.  Celestine  I,  to  inquire  whether 
these  petitioners  nad  been  duly  condemned  or  not, 
but  he  received  no  reply,  not  (as  has  been  too  often 
repeated)  because  the  pope  imagined  he  did  not  re- 
spect the  condemnation  of  the  Pelagians  by  himself 
and  by  the  Western  emperor,  but  because  he  added  in 
his  letters,  which  are  extant,  denunciations  of  the  sup- 
posed Arians  and  Apollinarians  of  Constantinople,  and 
m  so  doing  gave  clear  signs  of  the  Antiochene  errors 
soon  to  be  known  as  Nestorian.  In  particular  he 
denounced  those  who  employed  the  word  BeorUot, 
though  he  was  ready  to  admit  the  use  of  it  in  a  certain 
sense:  "Ferri  tamen  potest  hoc  vocabulum  propter 
ipsum  oonsiderationem,  quod  solum  nominetur  de  vir- 

Sne  hoc  verbum  hoc  propter  insepu«bilc  templum 
ei  Verb!  ex  ipsa,  non  quia  mater  sit  Dei  Verbi;  nemo 
enim  antiquiorem  se  parit."  Such  an  admission  is 
worse  than  useless,  for  it  involves  the  whole  error  that 
the  Blessed  Virgin  is  not  the  mother  of  the  Second 
Person  of  the  Holy  Trinity.  It  is  therefore  unfortu- 
nate that  Loofs  and  others  who  defend  Nestorius 
should  appeal  to  the  frequency  with  whidi  he  repeated 


that  he  could  accept  the  Beor Uof  if  only  it  was  properly 
understood.  In  tne  same  letter  he  speaks  quite  cor- 
rectly of  the  "two  Natures  which  are  adored  in  the 
one  Person  of  the  Only-begotten  by  a  perfect  and  un- 
oonfused  conjunction",  but  this  could  not  palliate  his 
mistake  that  the  Blessed  Virgin  is  mother  of  one  na- 
ture, not  of  the  person  (a  son  is  necessarily  a  person 
not  a  nature),  nor  the  fallacy:  "No  one  can  bring 
forth  a  son  older  than  herself".  The  deacon  Leo, 
who  was  twenty  years  later  as  pope  to  define  the 
whole  doctrine,  gave  these  letters  to  John  Cassian  of 
Marseilles,  who  at  once  wrote  against  Nestorius  hia 
seven  books,  "De  incamatione  Christi".  Before  he 
had  completed  the  work  he  had  further  obtained  some 
sermons  by  Nestorius,  from  which  he  quotes  in  the 
later  books.  He  misunderstands  and  exaggerates  the 
teaching  of  his  opponent,  but  his  treatise  is  important 
because  it  stereot3rped  once  for  all  a  doctrine  which 
the  Western  world  was  to  accept  as  Nestorianism. 
After  explaining  that  the  new  heresy  was  a  renewal  of 
Pelagianism  and  Ebionitism,  Cassian  represents  the 
Constantinoplitan  patriarch  as  teaching  that  Christ 
is  a  mere  man  (homo  aolUariiu)  who  merited  union 
with  the  Divinity  as  the  reward  of  His  Passion.  Cas- 
sian himself  brings  out  quite  clearly  both  the  unity 
of  person  and  the  distinction  of  the  two  natures,  yet 
the  formula  "Two  Natures  and  one  Person"  is  less 
plainly  enunciated  by  him  than  by  Nestorius  himself , 
and  the  discussion  is  wanting  in  clear-cut  distinctions 
and  definitions. 

Meanwhile  Nestorius  was  beine  attacked  by  his 
own  dergy  and  simultaneously  by  St.  Cyril,  Patriarch 
of  Alexandria,  who  first  denounced  him,  though  with- 
out giving  a  name,  in  an  epistle  to  all  the  monks  of 
Egypt,  then  remonstrated  with  him  personally  by 
letter,  and  finally  wrote  to  the  pope.  Loofs  is  of  the 
opinion  that  Nestorius  would  never  have  been  dis- 
turbed but  for  St.  Cyril.  But  there  is  no  reason  to 
connect  St.  Cyril  with  the  opposition  to  the  heie- 
siarch  at  Constantinople  and  at  Rome.  His  rivals 
Philip  of  Side  and  Proclus  and  the  layman  Eusebius 
(afterwards  Bishop  of  Dorylsum),  as  well  as  the 
Roman  Leo,  seem  to  have  acted  without  any  impulse 
from  Alexandria.  It  might  have  been  expected  that 
Pope  Celestine  would  specify  certain  neresies  of 
Nestorius  and  condenm  them,  or  issue  a  definition  of 
the  traditional  faith  which  was  being  endangered. 
Unfortunately,  he  did  nothing  of  the  kmd.  St.  Cyril 
had  sent  to  Rome  his  correspondence  with  Nestonus, 
a  collection  of  that  Patriarch^s  sermons,  and  a  work  of 
his  own  which  he  had  just  composed,  consistinff  of  five 
books  "Contra  Nestorium".  The  pope  had  them 
tnmslated  into  Latin,  and  then,  after  aasemhting  the 
customary  council,  contented  himself  with  giving  a 
general  condemnation  of  Nestorius  and  a  general 
approval  of  St.  Cyril's  conduct,  whilst  he  delivered 
the  execution  of  this  vague  decree  to  Qyril,  who  as 
Patriarch  of  Alexandria  was  the  hereditary  enemy 
both  of  the  Antiochene  theologian  and  the  Constanti- 
noplitan bishop.  Nestorius  was  to  be  summoned  to 
recant  within  ten  days.  The  sentence  was  as  harsh  as 
can  well  be  imagined.  St.  Cyril  saw  himself  obliged 
to  draw  up  a  form  for  the  recantation.  With  the  help 
of  an  Egyrptian  council  he  formulated  a  set  of  twelve 
anathematisms  which  simply  epitomise  the  errors  he 
had  pointed  out  in  his  five  books  "Asainst  Nestorius", 
for  tne  pope  appeared  to  have  agreed  with  the  doctrine 
of  that  work.  It  is  most  important  to  notice  that  up 
to  this  point  St.  Cyril  had  not  rested  his  case  upon  Ap- 
oUinanan  documents  and  had  not  adopted  the  ApoUi- 
narian formula  /da  ^^is  fftaapiatftipii  from  Pseudo- 
Athanasius.  He  does  not  teach  in  so  many  words 
"two  natures  after  the  union",  but  his  work  against 
Nestorius,  with  the  depth  and  precision  of  St.  Leo,  is  an 
admirable  exposition  of  Catholic  doctrine,  worthy  of  a 
Doctor  of  the  Church,  and  far  surpassing  the  treatise 
ofCassian.  The  twelve  anath^mfttimns  are  less  happy, 


NKSTOBIUB  757  MESTOBIUB 

for  St.  Cyril  was  always  a  di£Fuse  writer,  and  his  soli-  this  visible  infant,  who  seems  so  young,  who  needs 

tarv  attempt  at  brevity  needs  to  be  read  in  connexion  swaddling  clothes  for  His  body,  who  in  the  substance 

mth  the  work  which  it  summarises.  which  we  see  is  newly  bom,  is  the  Eternal  Son,  as  it  is 

The  anathematisms  were  at  once  attacked,  on  be-  written,  the  Son  who  is  the  Maker  of  aJl,  the  Son  who 

half  of  John,  Patriarch  of  Antioch,  in  defence  of  the  binds  together  in  the  swathin^-bands  of  His  assisting 

Antiochene  School,  by  Andrew  of  Samosata  and  the  power  the  whole  creation  which  would  otherwise  be 

great  Theodoret  of  Cyrus.    The  former  wrote  at  An-  dissolved."    And  again:  ''Even  the  infant  is  the  aJl- 

tioch;  his  objections  were  adopted  by  a  synod  held  powerful  God,  so  far,  O  Arius,  is  God  the  Word  from 

there,  and  were  sent  to  Cyril  as  the  official  view  of  all  beinf;  subject  to  God."    And:  "  We  recognise  the  hu- 

the  Oriental  bi^ope.    St.  Cyril  published  separate  manity  of  the  infant,  and  His  Divinity;  the  unity  of 

replies  to  these  two  antagonists,  treating  Andrew  with  His  Sonship  we  guard  in  the  nature  of  humanity  and 

more  respect  than  Theodoret,  to  whom  he  is  com-  divinity."    It  wul  probably  be  only  just  to  Nestorius 

temptuous  and  sarcastic.    The  latter  was  doubtless  to  admit  that  he  fully  intended  to  safeguard  the  unity 

the  superior  of  the  Alexandrian  in  talent  and  learning,  of  subject  in  Christ.    But  he  gjave  wrong  explanations 

but  at  this  time  he  was  no  match  for  him  as  a  theolo-  as  to  the  unity,  and  hb  teaching  logically  led  to  two 

^an.    Both  Andrew  and  Theodoret  show  themselves  Christs.  thou^  he  would  not  have  admitted  the  fact, 

captious  and  unfair:  at  best  they  sometimes  prove  Not  only  his  words  are  misleading,  but  the  doctrine 

that  St.  Cyril's  wording  is  ambisuous  and  ill-chosen,  which  underlies  his  words  is  misleading,  and  tends  to 

Jhey  uphold  the  objectionable  Antiochene  phraseol-  destrojr  the  whole  meaning  of  the  Incarnation.    It  is 

ogv,  and  they  reject  the  hypostatic  union  (cfcm-is  Ka9  impossible  to  deny  that  teaching  as  well  as  wording 

irwlffroffip)  as  well  as  the  i^vciK^  ivtoffu  as  unorthodox  which  leads  to  such  conseouences  is  heresy.    He  was 

and  unscriptural.    The  latter  expression  is  indeed  therefore  unavoidably  oonaemned.    He  reiterated  the 

unsuitable,  and  may  be  misleading.    Cyril  had  to  ex-  same  view  twentv  years  later  in  the  "Bazaar  of 

plain  that  he  was  not  summarizing  or  defining  the  Heraclldes",  which  uiows  no  real  change  of  opinion, 

laith  about  the  Incarnation,  but  simi)ly  putting  to-  although  he  declares  his  adherence  to  the  Tome  of  St. 

getiier  the  principal  errors  of  Nestorius  in  tne  heretic's  Leo. 

own  words.  In  his  books  against  Nestorius  he  had  After  the  council  of  431  had  been  made  into  a  law  by 
occasionally  misrepresented  him,  but  in  the  twelve  the  emperor,  the  Antiochene  party  would  not  at  once 
anathematisms  he  gave  a  perfectly  faithful  picture  of  give  way.  but  the  council  was  confirmed  by  Pope 
Nestorius's  view,  for  in  fact  Nestorius  did  not  disown  Sixtus  III,  who  had  succeeded  St.  Celestine,  and  it  was 
the  propositions,  nor  did  Andrew  of  Samosata  or  received  by  the  whole  West.  Antioch  was  thus  iso- 
Theodoret  refuse  to  patronize  any  of  them.  The  anath-  lated,  and  at  the  same  time  St.  Cyril  showed  himself 
ematisms  were  certainly  in  a  general  way  approved  ready  to  make  esrolanations.  The  Patriarchs  of  An- 
of  by  the  Council  of  Ephesus,  but  they  have  never  tioch  and  Alexandria  agreed  upon  a  "creed  of  union'' 
been  formally  adopted  by  the  Church.  Nestorius  for  in  433  (see  Euttchianism).  Andrew  of  Samosata 
his  part  rephed  by  a  set  of  twelve  contra-anathema-  and  some  others  would  not  accept  it,  but  declared 
tisms.  Some  of  them  are  directed  a^inst  St.  Cyril's  the  word  0€ot6kos  to  be  heretical.  Theodoret  held  a 
teaching,  others  attack  errors  which  St.  Cyril  did  not  council  at  Zeugma  which  refused  to  anathematize 
dream  ot  teaching,  for  example  that  Christ's  Human  Nestorius.  But  the  prudent  Bishop  of  Cyrus  after  a 
Nature  became  through  the  union  uncreated  and  with-  time  perceived  that  in  the  "creed  of  union"  Antioch 
out  beginning,  a  silly  conclusion  which  was  later  as-  gained  more  than  did  Alexandria;  so  he  accepted  the 
cribed  to  the  sect  of  Monophysites  called  Actistetse.  somewhat  hollow  compromise.  He  says  himself  that  he 
On  the  whole,  Nestorius's  new  programme  emphasized  commended  the  person  of  Nestorius  whilst  he  anathe- 
his  old  position,  as  also  did  the  violent  sermons  which  matized  his  doctrine.  A  new  state  of  things  arose 
he  preached  against  St.  Cyril  on  Saturday  and  Sun-  when  the  death  of  St.  Cyril,  in  444,  took  away  his  re- 
day,  13  and  14  December,  430.  We  have  no  difficulty  straining  hand  from  his  intemperate  followers.  The 
in  defining  the  doctrine  of  Nestorius  so  far  as  words  are  friend  of  Nestorius,  Count  Irenssus,  had  become 
concerned:  Mary  did  not  bring  forth  the  Godhead  as  Bishop  of  Tyre,  and  he  was  persecuted  by  the  Cyril- 
such  (true)  nor  the  Word  of  God  (false),  but  the  organ,  lian  party,  as  was  Ibas,  Bishop  of  Edessa  (q.  v.),  who 
the  temple  of  the  Godhead.  The  man  Jesus  Christ  is  had  been  a  great  teacher  in  that  city.  These  bi^ops, 
this  temple,  "the  animated  purple  of  the  King",  as  he  together  with  Theodoret  and  Domnus,  the  nephew 
expresses  it  in  a  passage  of  sustamed  eloouence.  The  and  successor  of  John  of  Antioch,  were  deposed  by 
Incarnate  God  did  not  suffer  nor  die,  out  raised  up  Dioscorus  of  Alexandria  in  the  Robber  Council  of 
from  the  dead  him  in  whom  He  was  incarnate.  The  Ephesus  (449).  Ibas  was  full  of  Antiochene  theology, 
Word  and  the  Man  are  to  be  worshipped  together,  and  but  in  his  famous  letter  to  Maris  the  Persian  he  disap- 
he  adds:  8i6.  rbp  ipopoOrra  rbw  ipopoO/upow  aifita  (Through  proves  of  Nestorius  as  well  as  of  Cyril,  and  at  the 
Him  that  bears  I  worship  Him  Who  is  borne).  If  St.  Council  of  Chalcedon  he  was  willing  to  cry  a  thousand 
Paul  speaks  of  the  Lord  of  Glory  being  crucified,  he  anathemas  to  Nestorius.  He  and  Theodoret  were 
means  the  man  by  "the  Lord  of  Glory".  There  are  both  restored  by  that  council,  and  both  seem  to  have 
two  natures,  he  says,  and  one  person;  but  the  two  na-  taken  the  view  that  St.  Leo's  Tome  was  a  rehabilita- 
tures  are  regularly  spoken  of  as  though  they  were  two  tion  of  the  Antiochene  theology.  The  same  view  was 
persons,  and  the  sayings  of  Scripture  about  Christ  are  taken  by  the  Monophysites.  who  looked  upon  St.  Leo 
to  be  appropriated  some  to  the  Man.  some  to  the  as  the  opponent  of  St.  Cyril's  teaching.  Nestorius  in 
Word.  If  Mary  is  caUed  the  Mother  oi  God,  she  will  his  exile  rejoiced  at  this  reversal  of  Roman  policy,  as 
be  made  into  a  goddess,  and  the  Gentiles  will  be  scan-  he  thought  it.  Loofs,  followed  by  many  writers  even 
dalized.  among  Catholics,  is  of  the  same  opinion.    But  St.  Leo 

This  is  all  bad  enough  as  far  as  words  go.  But  did  himself  believed  that  he  was  completing  and  not  un- 
not  Nestorius  mean  better  than  his  words?  The  Ori-  doins  the  work  of  the  Council  of  Ephesus,  and  as  a 
ental  bishops  were  certainly  not  all  disbelievers  in  the  fact  nis  teaching  is  but  a  clearer  form  of  St.  Cyril's 
unity  of  subject  in  the  Incarnate  Christ,  and  in  fact  earlier  doctrine  as  exposed  in  the  five  books  against 
St.  Cyril  made  peace  with  them  in  433.  One  may  Nestorius.  But  it  is  true  that  St.  Cyril's  later  phrase- 
point  to  the  fact  that  Nestorius  emphatically  declared  ology,  of  which  the  two  letters  to  Succensus  are  the 
that  there  is  one  Christ  and  one  Son,  and  St.  Cyril  type,  is  based  upon  the  formula  which  he  felt  himself 
himself  has  preserved  for  us  some  passages  f toin  his  bound  to  adopt  from  an  Apollinarian  treatise  believed 
sermons  which  the  saint  admits  to  be  penectly  ot^^^  to  be  by  his  great  predecessor  Athanasius:  ^a  ^a 
dox,  and  therefore  wholly  inconsistent  with  fue  rest,  fod  BeoO  A670V  ^e^ap«rw/u^rty.  St.  Cyril  found  this  for- 
For  example: "  Great  is  the  mystery  of  the  ^.  •   for  mula  an  awkward  one,  as  his  treatment  of  it  shows, 


NSSTORIUS  758  NKSTOBIUS 

and  it  became  in  fact  the  watchword  of  heresy.    But  their  own  country  nine  became  biahope,  incloding 

St.  Cyril  does  his  best  to  understand  it  in  a  ri(^t  sense,  Barsumas,  or  Barsailma,  of  Nisibis  and  Acacius  of 

and  goes  out  of  his  way  to  admit  two  natures  even  Beit  Aramage.    The  school  at  Edessa  was  finally 

after  the  union  iv  Oeuipl^,  an  admission  which  was  to  closed  in  489. 
save  Severus  himself  from  a  good  part  of  his  heresy.         At  this  time  the  Church  in  Persia  was  autonomous, 

That  Loofs  or  Hamack  should  fail  to  perceive  the  having  renounced  aU  subjection  to  Antioch  and  the 
vital  difference  between  the  Antiochenes  and  St.  Leo,  "Western"  bishops  at  the  Council  of  Seleucia  in  410. 
18  eafflly  explicable  by  their  not  believing  the  Catholic  The  ecclesiastical  superior  of  the  whole  was  the  Bishop 
doctrine  of  the  two  natures,  and  therefore  not  catching  of  Seleucia-Ctesiphon,  who  had  assumed  the  ranx 
the  perfectly  simple  explanation  given  by  St.  Leo.  of  catholicos.  This  prelate  was  Babseus  or  Babowai 
Just  as  some  writers  declare  that  the  Monophysites  (457-84)  at  the  time  of  the  arrival  of  the  Nestorian 
always  took  4>^is  in  the  sense  of  inr6aTa4ritf  so  Loofs  professors  from  Edessa.  He  appears  to  have  received 
and  others  hold  that  Nestorius  took  ^darcuris  always  them  with  open  arms.  But  Barsaiima,  having  be- 
in  the  sense  of  ^iJo'if ,  and  meant  no  more  by  two  hypos-'  come  Bishop  of  Nisibis,  the  nearest  great  city  to 
Uues  than  he  meant  by  two  natures.  But  the  words  Edessa,brokcwiththeweakcatholicos,and,  at  aooun- 
seem  to  have  had  perfectly  definite  meanings  with  ^1  cil  which  he  held  at  Beit  Lapat  in  April,  484.  pro- 
the  theologians  of  theperiod.  That  the  Monophysites  nounced  his  deposition.  In  the  same  year  Babowai 
distinguished  them,  is  probable  (see  Monophysites  was  accused  betore  the  king  of  conspiring  with  Con- 
AND  Monophtsitism),  and  all  admit  they  unquestion-  stantinople  and  crucllv  put  to  death,  bemg  hung  ud 
ably  meant  by  hypostasis  a  subsistent  nature.  That  by  his  nng-finger  and  also,  it  is  said,  crucified  ana 
Nestorius  cannot,  on  the  contrary,  have  taken  nature  scourged.  There  is  not  sufficient  evidence  for  the 
to  mean  the  same  as  hypostasis  and  both  to  mean  es-  story  which  makes  Barsaiima  his  accuser.  The  Bishop 
sence  is  obvious  enough,  for  three  plain  reasons:  first,  of  Nisibis  was  at  all  events  in  high  favour  with  King 
he  cannot  have  meant  anything  so  absolutely  opposed  Peroz  (457-84)  and  had  been  able  to  persuade  him 
to  the  meaning  given  to  the  word  hypostasis  by  that  it  would  be  a  good  thing  for  the  Persian  kingdom 
the  Monophysites;  secondly,  if  he  meant  nature  by  if  the  Christians  in  it  were  all  of  a  different  complexion 
^dffraait  he  had  no  word  at  all  left  for  "subsistence  from  those  of  the  Empire,  and  had  no  tendency  to 
(for  he  certainly  used  oMa  to  mean  "essence''  rather  gravitate  towards  Antioch  and  Constantinople,  which 
than  "subsistence");  thirdly,  the  whole  doctrine  of  were  now  officially  under  the  sway  of  the  "Henoti- 
Theodore  of  Mopsuestia,  and  Nestorius's  own  refusal  con"  of  Zeno.  Consequently  all  Christians  who  were 
to  admit  almost  any  form  of  the  communicatio  iduy-  not  Nestorians  were  ariven  from  Persia.  But  the 
miUunif  force  us  to  take  his  "  two  natures  "  in  the  sense  story  of  this  persecution  as  told  in  the  letter  of  Simeon 
of  subsistent  natures.  of  Beit  Arsam  is  not  generally  considered  trustworthy. 

The  modem  critics  also  consider  that  the  orthodox  and  the  alleged  number  of  7700  Monophysite  martyrs 
doctrine  of  the  Greeks  against  Monophysitism — ^in  is  quite  incredible.  The  town  of  Tagrit  alone  re- 
fact  the  Chalcedonian  doctrine  as  defended  for  many  maincd  Monophysite.  But  the  Armenians  were  not 
years^was  practically  the  Antiochene  or  Nestorian  gained  over,  and  in  491  they  condemned  at  Valaraapat 
doctrine,  until  Leontius  modified  it  in  the  direction  of  the  Council  of  Chalcedon,  St.  Leo,  and  Barsaiima. 
conciliation.  This  theory  is  wholly  gratuitous,  for  Peroz  died  in  484,  soon  after  having  murdered  Babo- 
from  Chalcedon  onwards  there  is  no  orthodox  contro-  wai,  and  the  energetic  Bishop  of  Nisibis  had  evidently 
versialist  who  has  left  us  any  coiLsiderable  remains  in  less  to  hope  from  his  successor,  Balash.  Though 
Greek  by  which  we  might  be  enabled  to  judge  how  far  Barsaiima  at  first  opposed  the  new  catholicos,  Acacius. 
Leontius  was  an  innovator.  At  all  events  we  know,  in  August,  485^  he  had  an  interview  with  him,  and 
from  the  attacks  made  by  the  Monophysites  them-  made  his  submission,  acknowledging  the  necessity  tor 
selves,  that,  though  they  professed  to  regard  their  subjection  to  Seleucia.  However,  he  excused  himself 
Catholic  opponents  as  Crypto-Nestorians,  in  so  doing  from  being  present  at  Acacius's  council  in  484  at 
they  distinguished  them  from  the  true  Nestorians  who  Seleucia,  where  twelve  bishops  were  present.  At  this 
openly  professed  two  hypostases  and  condemned  the  assembly,  the  Antiochene  Christology  was  afi&rmed 
word  0eoT6Kos.  In  fact  we  may  say  that,  after  John  and  a  canon  of  Beit  Lapat  permitting  the  marriage 
of  Antioch  and  Theodoret  had  made  peace  with  St.  of  the  cler^  was  repeated.  The  Synod  decliured  that 
Cyril,  no  more  was  heard  in  the  Greek  world  of  the  they  despised  vainglory,  and  felt  bound  to  humble 
Antiochene  theology.    The  school  had  been  distin-  themselves  in  order  to  put  an  end  to  the  horrible  cleri- 

fiished,  but  small.    In  Antioch  itself,  in  Syria,  in  cal  scandals  which  discdified  the  Persian  Magians  as 

alestine,  the  monks,  who  were  exceedingly  influen-  well  as  the  faithful;  they  therefore  enacted  that  the 

tial,  were  Cyrillians,  and  a  large  proportion  of  them  clergy  should  make  a  vow  of  chastity;  deacons  may 

were  to  become  Monophysites.    It  was  beyond  the  marry,  and  for  the  future  no  one  is  to  be  ordained 

Greek  world  that  Nestorianism  was  to  have  its  devel-  priest  except  a  deacon  who  has  a  lawful  wife  and  chil- 

opment.    There  was  at  Edessa  a  famous  school   for  dren.    Though  no  permission  is  given  to  priests  or 

Persians,  which  had  probably  been  founded  in  the  bishops  to  marry  (for  this  was  contrary  to  tne  canons 

days  of  St.  Ephrem,  when  Nisibis  had  ceased  to  belong  of  the  Eastern  Church),  yet  the  practice  appears  to 

to  the  Roman  Empire  in  363.    The  Christians  in  Per-  have  been  winked  at,  possibly  for  the  regulariaation 

sia  had  suffered  terrible  persecution,   and  Roman  of  illicit  unions.     Barsaiima  himself  is  said  to  have 

Edessa  had  attracted  Persians   for   peaceful  study,  married  a  nun  named  Mamo^;  but  according  to  Mare, 

Under  the  direction  of  Ibas  the  Persian  school  of  this  was  at  the  inspiration  of  King  Peros,  and  was 

Edessa  imbibed  the  Antiochene  theology.     But  the  only  a  nominal  marriage,  intended  to  ensure  the  pre»- 

famous  Bishop  of  Edessa,  Rabbiila.  though  he  had  ervation  of  the  lady's  fortune  from  confiscation, 
stood  apart  from  St.  C3rrirs  council  at  Ephesus  to-        The  Persian  Cnurch  was  now  organised,  if  not 

gether  with  the  bishops  of  the  Antiochene  patriar-  thoroughly  united,  and  was  formally  committed  to 

chate.  became  after  the  council  a  convinced,  and  even  the  theology  of  Antioch.     But  Acacius,  when  sent 

a  violent,  Cyrillian,  and  he  did  his  best  against  the  by  the  king  as  envoy  to  Constantinople,  was  obliged 

school  of  the  Persians.     Ibas  himself  became  his  sue-  to  accept  the  anathema  against  Nestorius  in  order  to 

cessor.    But  at  the  death  of  this  protector,  in  457,  the  be  received  to  Communion  there.    After  his  return 

Persians  were  driven  out  of  Edessa  by  the  Monophy-  he  bitterly  complained  of  being  called  a  Nestorian 

sites,  who  made  themselves  all-powerful.    Syria  then  by  the  Monophysite  Philoxenus,  declaring  that  he 

becomes  Monophysite  and  produces  its  Philoxenus  "knew  nothing"  of  Nestorius.     Nevertheless  Nesto- 

and  many  another  writer.    Persia  simultaneously  be-  rius  has  always  been  venerated  as  a  saint  by  the  Per- 

oomes  Nestorian.    Of  the  exiles  from  Edessa  into  sian  Church.    One  thing  more  was  needed  for  the 


MS  1!SMS&S 


769 


MSTHEBLAItDS 


Nefltorian  Church;  it  wanted  theological  schools  of  its 
own,  in  order  that  its  clergy  might  be  able  to  hold 
their  own  in  theological  argument,  without  being 
tempted  to  study  in  the  orthodox  centres  of  the  East 
or  in  the  numerous  and  brilliant  schools  which  the 
Monophysites  were  now  establishing.  Barsaiima 
opened  a  school  at  Nisibis,  which  was  to  become  more 
famous  than  its  parent  at  Edessa.  The  rector  was 
Narses  the  I/eprous,  a  most  prolific  writer,  of  whom 
little  has  been  preserved.  Tnis  university  consisted 
of  a  single  college,  with  the  regular  life  of  a  monastery. 
Its  rules  are  still  preserved  (see  Nisibis).  At  one 
time  we  hear  of  800  students.  Their  great  doctor 
was  Theodore  of  Mopsuestia.  His  commentaries  were 
studied  in  the  translation  made  by  Ibas  and  were 
treated  almost  as  infallible.  Theodore's  Canon  of 
Scripture  was  adopted,  as  we  learn  from  ''  De  Partibus 
Divinae  Legis"  of  Junilius,  (P.  L.,  LXVIII,  and  ed.  by 
Kihn),  a  work  which  is  a  translation  and  adaptation 
of  the  published  lectures  of  a  certain  Paul,  professor 
at  Nisibis  The  method  is  Aristotelean,  and  must  be 
connected  with  the  Aristotelean  revival  which  in  the 
Greek  world  is  associated  chiefly  with  the  name  of 
Philoponus,  and  in  the  West  with  that  of  Boethius. 
The  fame  of  this  theological  seminary  was  so  great 
that  Pope  Agapetus  and  Cassiodorus  wished  to  found 
one  in  Italy  of  a  similar  kind.  The  attempt  was  im- 
possible in  those  troublous  times;  but  Cassiodorus's 
monastery  at  Vivarium  was  inspired  by  the  example 
of  Nisibis.  There  were  other  less  important  schools 
at  Seleucia  and  elsewhere,  even  in  smsul  towns. 

Barsaiima  died  between  492  and  495,  Acacius  in 
496  or  497.  Narses  seems  to  have  lived  longer.  The 
Nestorian  Church  which  they  founded,  though  cut  off 
from  the  Catholic  Church  by  political  exigencies,  never 
intended  to  do  more  than  practise  an  autonomy  like 
that  of  the  Eastern  patriarchates.  Its  heresy  con- 
sisted mainly  in  its  refusal  to  accept  the  Councils  of 
Ephesus  and  Chalcedon.  It  is  interestinff  to  note 
that  neither  Junilius  nor  Cassiodorus  spe^s  of  the 
school  of  Nisibis  as  heretical.  They  were  probably 
aware  that  it  was  not  quite  orthodox,  but  the  Pe> 
sians  who  appeared  at  the  Holy  Places  as  pilgrims  or  at 
Constantinople  must  have  seemed  like  Catholics  on 
account  of  their  hatred  to  the  Monophysites,  who 
were  the  great  enemy  in  the  East.  The  official  teach- 
ing of  the  Nestorian  Church  in  the  time  of  Kins 
Chosroes  (Khusran)  II  (died  628)  is  well  presented 
to  us  in  the  treatise  ''De  unione"  compost  by  the 
energetic  monk  Babai  the  Great,  preserved  in  a  MS. 
from  which  Labourt  has  made  extracts  (pp.  280-^7). 
Babai  denies  that  hyposteuris  and  person  have  the  same 
meaning.  A  h3rposta8is  is  a  singular  essence  (oi^la) 
subsisting  in  its  independent  being,  numerically  one, 
separate  from  others  by  its  accidents.  A  person  is 
that  property  of  a  hypostasis  which  distinguishes  it 
from  others  (this  seems  to  be  rather  ''personality" 
than  "person")  as  being  itself  and  no  other,  so  that 
Peter  is  Peter  and  Paul  is  Paul.  As  hypostases  Peter 
and  Paul  are  not  distinguished,  for  they  have  the 
same  specific  qualities,  but  they  are  distinguished  by 
their  particular  quaUties,  their  wisdom  or  otherwise, 
their  height  or  their  temperament,  etc.  And,  as  the 
singular  property  which  tne  hypostasis  possesses  is  not 
the  hypostasis  itself,  the  singular  property  which  dis- 
tinguishes it  is  called  "person". 

It  would  seem  that  Babai  means  that  "a  man" 
(individuum  vagum)  is  the  hypostasis,  but  not  the 
person,  until  we  add  the  individual  characteristics  by 
which  he  is  known  to  be  Peter  or  Paul.  This  is  not 
by  any  means  the  same  as  the  distinction  between  nar 
ture  and  hypostasis,  nor  can  it  be  asserted  that  bv 
hypostasis  Babai  meant  what  we  should  call  speci/ic 
nature,  and  by  person  what  we  should  call  hyy^QsUiMs* 
The  theory  seems  to  be  an  unsuccessful  att  rfipt  to 
justify  the  traditional  Nestorian  formula:  t\J^^hVP<^ 
tases  in  one  person.    As  to  the  nature  of  ±xP  ^t^oB) 


Babai  falls  on  the  Antiochene  saying  that  it  is  ineffable, 
and  prefers  the  usual  metaphors — assumption,  in 
habitation,  temple,  vesture,  junction — to  any  defini- 
tion of  the  union.  He  rejects  the  communicatio  ifiHo- 
malum  as  involving  confusion  of  the  natures,  but 
allows  a  certain  "interchange  of  names",  which  he 
explains  with  great  care. 

The  Persian  Christians  were  called  "  Orientals ", 
or  "Nestorians",  by  their  neighbours  on  the  West. 
They  gave  to  themselves  the  name  of  Chaldeans;  but 
this  denomination  is  usually  reserved  at  the  present 
day  for  the  large  portion  of  tne  existing  remnant  which 
has  been  united  to  the  Catholic  Church.  The  present 
condition  of  these  Uniats,  as  well  as  of  the  branch  in 
India  known  as  "Malabar  Christians",  is  described 
under  Chaij>ean  Chkistians.  The  history  of  the 
Nestorian  Church  must  be  looked  for  under  Persia. 
The  Nestorians  also  penetrated  into  China  and 
Mongolia  and  left  behind  them  an  inscribed  stone,  set 
up  in  Feb.,  781,  which  describes  the  introduction  of 
Christianity  into  China  from  Persia  in  the  reign  of 
T'ai-tsong  (627-49).  The  stone  is  at  Chou-Chih, 
fifty  miles  south-west  of  Si-an  Fu,  which  was  in  the 
seventh  century  the  capital  of  China.     It  is  known  as 

"the  Nestorian  Monument". 

For  bibliography  see  Ctbil  or  Alexakdbia;  Ephxsub,  Coun- 
cil or;  DioacuBUB,  Bishop  or  Alexandria.  Here  may  be 
added,  on  I:  Garnier,  Opera  Marii  MercaiorU,  II  (Paris,  1673); 
P.  L.,  XLVIII.  669;  Tillemont,  Mhnoiret,  XIV;  Amemani, 
BUflioiheea  Orient.,  Ill,  pt.  2  (Rome.  1728) ;  Loops  in  ReaUnejf 
klopddiet  B.  V.  Nettoriue;  Fendt,  Die  Chrislolof/ie  dee  Neetorius 
(Munich,  1010);  Batippol  in  Revue  Biblique,  IX  (1900),  329-53; 
Mercati  in  Theolog.  Revue,  VI  (1907),  63;  LOdtke  in  Zeitechr./Qr 
KircKenoeach.,  XXIX  (1908),  385. 

On  the  early  struggle  with  Neatorianism:  Absemani,  Biblioiheca 
OrierUalie,  III,  parts  1  and  2  (Rome,  1728) ;  Doucin,  Hietoire  du 
Neetorianiame  (1689). 

On  the  Persian  Nestorians:  the  Monophysite  historians 
Michael  Stbub,  ed.  Chabot  (Paris,  1899)  and  BARHEBRiBUB, 
edd.  Abbeloos  and  Lamy  (Paris,  1872-77);  the  Mohammedan 
Barrastani,  ed.  Cureton  (London,  1842);  and  especially  the 
rich  information  in  the  Nestorian  texts  themselves;  Gibmondx, 
Marie  Amri  et  Sliba  de  patriarehie  Neetoriania  commeiUuria,  e 
eodd.  Vat.;  the  Liber  Turria  (Arabic  and  Latin,  4  parts,  Rome* 
1896-99);  Bedjan.  Hietoire  de  Mar  Jah-Alaha  USlf),  patriarehe, 
et  de  Raban  Sauma  (2nd  ed.,  Paris,  1895) ;  Synodieon  o/Bbedjeau  in 
Mai.  Scriptarum  vett.  nova,  coll.,  X  (1838);  Braun,  Daa  Buck  der 
Synhadoa  (Stutt^rt  and  Vienna,  1900) ;  Chabot,  Synodieon  Ori- 
entale,  ou  reeueil  de  Sunodee  Neatonena  in  Notea  et  Extraita, 
Synhadoa  (Stuttgart  and  Vienna,  1900) ;  Chabot,  Synodieon  Ori- 
entale,  ou  reeueil  de  Synodea  Neatonena  in  Notea  et  Bxtraita, 
XXXVII  (Paris,  1902) ;  Guidi,  Oatayriache  biaehofe  und  Biachofaitae 
in  Zeitachrijt  der  Morgenldndl.  OeaeUaeh.,  (1889),  XLIII,  388; 
Idem,  Oli  atatuti  delta  acw^  di  Niaibi  (Synac  text)  in  Giomale 
delta  Soe.  Aaiatica  Ital.,  IV;  Addai  Scbbb,  ChroniQue  de  Slert,  Am- 
toire  Neatorienne  (Arabic  and  French),  and  Cause  de  la  fondation 
dea  ieolea  (Edeasa  and  Nisibis)  in  Patrclogia  Orientalia,  IV  (Paris, 
1908)  ;  Budoe  ed.,  The  Book  of  Oovemora,  by  Thomaa  Biahop  of 
Marga,  8J^0  (Syriao  and  Eng.)  (2  vols.,  London,  1893).  The  best 
general  huitory  is  by  Labourt,  Le  Chriatianiame  dana  I  Empire 
Perae  (Paris,  1904). — See  also  Petermann  and  Kessler  in  ReaU 
eneyfUop.,  s.  v.  Neatorianer;  Funk  in  Kirchenlex.,  s.  v.  Neatoritta 
una  die  Neatorianer;  Duchebne,  Hiat,  ancienne  de  VBgliae,  III 
(Paris,  1910). — On  the  "Nestorian  Monument'*,  see  Parker  in 
Dublin  Review,  CXXXI  (1902),  2,  p.  380;  Carub  and  Holm,  The 
Neatorian  Monument  (London,  1910). 

John  Chapman. 

No  Temore.  See  CLANDESTrNirr;  MARRiAQSy 
MoBAL  AND  Canonical  Aspect  of. 

Netherlands  (Genn.  Niederlande;  Fr.  Pays  Bos), 
Thb. — ^The  Netherlands,  or  Low  Countries,  as  organ- 
ized by  Charles  V,  under  whom  the  Burgundian  era 
ended,  comprised  practically  the  territory  now  in- 
cluded in  Holland  and  Belgium,  thenoef  ortn  known  as 
the  Spanish  Netherlands.  For  the  previous  history  of 
this  country  see  Burgundt  and  Charles  V.  Shorn 
of  the  northern  provinces  by  the  secession  of  Holland 
as  the  Commonwealth  of  the  United  Provinces  (1579), 
the  Spanish  Netherlands,  on  their  cession  to  Austria 
(1713-14)  were  reduced  to  the  provinces  now  em- 
braced in  Belgiimi,  subsequently  called  the  Austrian 
Netheriands. 

The  Spanish  Netherlands. — When  Philip  II  by 
the  abdication  of  his  father,  Charles  V  (q.  v.),  oecame 
sovereign  of  the  Low  Countries  and  took  up  the  gov- 
ernment of  the  Seventeen  Provinces,  he  found  them  at 


MBIBKULANDS                        760  MSlBKfiLANDS 

the  zenith  of  their  prosperity^  as  is  evident  from  the  character  and  lacking  in  political  shrewdness.   On  the 

description  given  in  1567  by  Luigi  Guicciardini  in  his  other  hand  stood  William  of  Nassau,  Prince  of  Orange. 

"Descrittione  di  tutti  i  Paesi  Bassi"  (Totius  Belgii  sumamed  "the  Silent'',  a  politician  and  diplomat  of 

descriptio,  Amsterdam,  1613).  the  first  rank,  filled  with  ambition  which  he  well  knew 

Few  coimtries  were  so  well  governed;  none  was  how  to  conceal,  having  no  religious  scruples,  being 
richer.  Antwerp  had  tc^en  the  place  of  Bruges  as  Catholic,  Lutheran,  or  Calvinist  as  it  suited  him,  a 
commercial  metropolis;  every  day  saw  a  fleet  of  500  man  who  had  made  the  downfall  of  Spanish  rule  the 
sea-going  craft  enter  or  leave  itis  port.  Of  Ghent  one  aim  of  his  life.  Grouped  around  tnese  two  diiefs 
(Gand),  his  native  town,  Charles  V  used  to  say  were  a  niunber  of  nobles  irritated  with  the  Govern- 
jocosely:  Jt  mcttrais  Paris  dans  man  Gand  [I  could  ment,  many  of  them  deeply  involved  financially  or 
put  Paris  in  my  glove  (gant)].  Luxury,  however,  cor-  morally  corrupt  like  the  too  well-known  Brederode. 
rupted  the  earlier  good  morals  of  the  people,  and  They  Kept  up  the  agitation  and  demanded  fresh  oon- 
humanism  gradually  imdermined  the  faith  of  some  in  cessions  dav  oy  day.  Thev  insisted  upon  the  r&call  of 
the  upper  classes.  Protestantism  too  had  already  the  Spanish  soldiers,  and  the  king  yielded  (1561). 
effectea  an  entrance,  Lutheranism  through  Antwerp  They  demanded  more  moderate  language  in  the  pubkc 
and  Calvinism  from  the  French  border.  The  Anabap-  placard  against  heresy,  and  even  sent  the  Count  of 
tists  also  had  adherents.  In  addition  the  more  power-  Egmont  to  Spain  to  obtain  it  (1565);  and  Egmont, 
f  uL  of  the  nobility  now  hoped  to  play  a  more  influential  having  been  nattered  and  f  ^ted  at  the  Spanish  Court, 
part  in  the  government  than  they  had  done  under  came  back  convinced  that  his  mission  had  been  suc- 
Charles  V^  and  were  already  plannmg  for  the  realiza-  cessful.  Soon,  however,  royal  letters  dated  from  the 
tion  of  this  ambition.  The  situation  presented  many  Forest  of  Segovia,  17  and  20  October,  1565,  brought 
difiBculties,  and  unfortunately  Philip  II  was  not  the  the  king's  formal  refusal  to  abate  one  jot  in  the  repres- 
man  to  cope  with  them.   He  liad  little  in  common  with  sion  of  heresy. 

his  Low-Coimtry  subjects.  Their  language  was  not  The  irreconcilable  attitude  of  the  king  created  a 
his;  and  he  was  a  stranger  to  their  customs.  From  situation  of  increasing  difficulty  for  the  government 
the  day  he  quitted  the  Netherlands  in  1559,  he  never  of  Margaret  of  Parma.  Heresy  was  sprc^ing  every 
set  foot  in  them  again,  but  governed  from  far-off  day,  axid  it  was  no  longer  confined  to  the  cities  but  was 
Spain.  He  was  despotic,  severe,  crafty^  a,^d  desirous  obtaining  a  foothold  in  the  smaller  towns  and  even  in 
of  keeping  in  his  own  hands  all  the  rems  of  govern-  country  places.  Protestant  preachers,  for  the  most 
ment,  m  minor  details  as  well  as  in  matters  c^  more  part  renegade  monks  or  priests,  like  tne  famous  Da- 
importance,  thereby  causing  many  unfortunate  delays  thenus,  assembled  the  people  at  "  sermons  "  in  which 
in  affairs  that  demanded  rapid  transaction.  He  was  they  were  exhorted  to  open  war  on  the  CathoUc 
on  the  whole  a  most  unsuitable  ruler  in  spite  of  his  religion.  Calvinism,  a  sect  better  organised  than 
sincere  desire  to  fulfil  the  duties  of  his  royal  office  and  Lutheranism,  became  the  popular  heresy  in  the  Low 
the  time  and  pains  he  consecrated  to  them.^  Countries.    It  had 'supporters  in  everjr  grade  of  so- 

It  must  be  said  in  justice  that  from  a  reU^ous  point  dety ;  and  although  its  members  continued  to  be  a 

of  view,  he  brou^t  about  one  of  the  most  important  small  minority,  their  daring  and  clever  propaganda 

events  in  the  history  of  the  Netherlands  wnen  he  made  them  a  most  dangerous  force  in  presence  of  the 

caused  the  establishment  of  fourteen  new  dioceses,  inaction  and  sluggishness  of  the  Cathohcs.   Stirred  up 

The  want  had  long  been  recognized  and  the  sovereigns,  by  these  Calvinist  preachers,  Catholic  and  Protestant 

particularly  Philip  the  Good  and  Charles  V ,  had  often  nobles  formed  an  alliance  which  was  called  Le  Com- 

thought  of  this  measure.    In  all  the  seventeen  prov-  promis  des  Nobles,  with  the  object  of  obtaining  the 

inoes  there  were  but  four  dioceses:   Utrecht  in  the  suppression  of  the  Inquisition.   A  body  of  them  num- 

north;  Toumai,  Arras,  and  Cambrai  in  the  West;  and  bermg  several  hundred  came  to  present  a  petition  to 

all  of  them  were  subject  to  foreign  metropolitans,  that  effect  to  the  regent  (5  April,  1566).    It  is  related 

Utrecht  to  Cologne  and  the  others  to  Reims.    More-  that  as  she  showed  signs  of  alarm  at  this  demonstra- 

over  the  greater  part  of  the  country  was  under  the  tion  Count  de  Berlaymont,  member  of  the  Council  of 

direct  jurisdiction  of  foreign  bishops:  those  of  Lidge,  State  and  a  loyal  supDorter  of  the  Government,  said  to 

Trier,  Metz,  Verdun,  etc.    Hence  arose  great  difficul-  her: " Rassurez-vauSf  Madame, ce ne sont quedesaueux" 

ties  and  endless  conflicts.    The  Bull  of  Pope  Paul  IV  ^Courage,  Madam,  they  are  only  beggars).    The  oon- 

il2  May,  1559)  put  an  end  to  this  situation  by  raising  federates  at  once  took  up  the  word  as  a  party  name, 

Jtrecht  and  Cambrai  to  archiepiscopal  rank,  and  by  uid  thus  this  famous  name  made  its  entry  mto  his- 

creating  fourteen  new  sees,  one  of  them,  Mechlin,  an  tonr. 

archbishopric.     The  others  were  Antwerp,  Ghent,  Up  to  that  time  the  Gueux  meant  to  remain  faithful 

Bruges,  Ypres,  St-Omer,  Namur,  Bois-le-Duc  (Herto-  to  the  king,  fusqu'ii  la  besace  (to  begxary),  as  one  of 

Senbosch),  Roennond,  Haarlem,  Deventer,  Leeuwar-  their  mottoes  had  it.  They  seemed  tonave  been  made 
en,  Groningen,  and  Middelburg.  This  act,  excellent  up  of  Catholics  and  Protestants,  indiscriminately,  who 
from  a  religious  point  of  view,  gave  rise  to  many  com-  were  partisans  of  religious  tolerance;  and  Vive  les 
plaints.  To  endow  the  new  sees  it  was  found  necessary  Gueux  was  ori^nally  the  rally-crv  of  a  sort  of  national 
to  incorporate^  with  them  the  richest  abbeys  in  the  party.  This,  however,  was  a  delusion  soon  apparent, 
country,  and  in  certain  provinces  these  carried  the  The  Calvinist  leaders  held  the  movement  in  their 
ri^t  of  voting  in  the  States-General.  And  this  right  hands,  and  did  not  hesitate  when  sure  of  their  own 
bemg  for  the  future  exercised  through  the  bishops,  the  stren^h  to  disclose  its  real  fanatical  opposition  to  the 
result  was  that  the  king  who  nominated  them  gsuned  Catholic  Qiurch.  Roused  and  excited  1bv  the  impaa- 
a  considerable  influence  in  the  Parliament,  which  had  sioned  appeals  of  the  preachers,  the  rowoy  element  of 
hitherto  always  acted  as  a  check  on  the  royal  power,  the  people  perpetrated  unheard-of  excesses.  In  the 
To  aggravate  matters^  the  Protestant  faction  spread  a  latter  part  of  August,  1566,  bands  of  iconoclasts 
rumour  that  the  erection  of  the  new  bishoprics  was  but  scoured  the  coimtry .  wrecking  and  pillaging  churches, 
a  step  towards  introducing  the  Spanish  Inquisition  and  in  a  few  days  tney  had  plundered  four  hundred, 
into  the  Netherlands.  Lastly  the  abbeys  began  to  among  them  the  magnificent  cathedral  of  Antwerp, 
complain  of  their  lost  autonomy — the  place  of  the  These  crimes  opened  me  eyes  of  many  who  up  to  that 
abbot  being  now  occupied  by  the  bishop.  time  had  been  too  lenient  with  the  sectarians.  Public 
The  opposition  of  tne  nobles  was  led  by  two  men,  opinion  condemned  the  iconoclastic  outrages  and  sided 
remarkaole  in  different  ways.  On  one  hand  was  the  with  the  Government,  which  thus  suddenly  found  its 
Count  of  Egmont  (see  Eomont,  Lahoral,  Count  of),  position  creatly  strengthened.  Once  more,  unfortu- 
the  victor  at  St-Quentinand  Gravelines,  a  brave  man,  nately,  Philip  II  was  not  eaual  to  the  occasion.  In- 
frank  and  honesty  a  lover  of  popularity  but  weak  in  stead  of  skilfully  profiting  oy  this  turn  of  eventa  to 


NBTBZRLAHDS 


761 


NITHIBLANDS 


win  back  those  who  were  shocked  by  the  violence  of 
the  heretics,  he  looked  on  all  his  subjects  in  the  Nether- 
lands as  equally  euiltv,  and  he  swore  by  his  father's 
soul  that  he  would  make  an  example  of  them.  Asainst 
the  advice  of  the  regent,  despite  faithful  Granvelle,  in 
spite  of  the  pope,  who  exhorted  him  to  clemency,  he 
dispatched  tne  Duke  of  Alva  to  the  Low  Countries  on 
a  punitive  expedition  (1567).  Straightway  William  of 
Orange  and  the  more  compronused  nobles  went  into 
exile.  Recklessly  and  trusting  to  his  past  services, 
the  Count  of  Egmont  had  refused  to  follow  them.  His 
mistake  cost  him  dear,  for  Alva  caused  him  and  Count 
de  Homes  to  be  arrested  and  brought  before  a  sort  of 
court  martial  which  he  called  the  Coiweil  des  TrovbleSf 
but  known  more  more  popularly  as  the  Comteil  du  Sang 
(Blood  Tribunal).  The  accxised  men,  beine  members 
of  the  (xolden  Fleece,  could  be  punished  only  by  their 
order;  but  in  soite  of  this  privilege  they  were  judged, 
condenmed,  ana  executed  (1568). 

When  the  two  counts  were  arrested,  Margaret  of 
Parma  resided  her  office,  and  the  Duke  of  Alva  was 
appointed  her  successor;  with  him  began  a  system  of 
merciless  rei)ression.  Blood  flowed  freely,  and  aU  the 
traditional  rights  of  the  people  were  disregarded;  the 
Spaniard  Juan  Vargas,  chief- justice  of  the  Council  of 
Troubles,  replied  to  complaint  of  the  University  of 
Lou  vain  that  its  privileges  had  been  violated:  non 
curamus  privilegioa  vestroa,  (We  are  not  concerned 
with  your  privileges.)  Besides  this,  heavy  taxes,  10 
per  cent  on  the  sales  of  chattels.  5  per  cent  on  the  sale 
of  real  estate,  and  1  per  cent  on  all  property,  completed 
the  popular  discontent,  and  turned  even  a  number  of 
good  Osttholics  against  the  Covemment.  The  Protec- 
tants, encouraged  by  these  events,  began  military 
operations  by  land  and  sea,  and  iheaueux  des  hois 
(Land-Beggars)  and  the  gueux  de  mer  (Water-Be^zars) 
started  a  guerilla  warfare  and  a  campaign  of  pillage 
which  were  soon  followed  by  the  more  serious  attack 
of  the  Prince  of  Orange  and  his  brother,  Louis  of  Nas- 
sau. But  the  Duke  of  Alva  frustrated  all  their  efforts, 
and  when  he  had  repulsed  Louis  at  Jemmingen,  and 
prevented  William  from  crossing  the  Geete,  he  caused 
a  statue  of  himself  to  be  set  up  at  Antwerp  rep- 
resenting him  crushing  under  foot  the  hydra  of 
anarchy.  Then  just  as  he  thought  he  had  mas- 
tered the  rebellion,  news  was  brought  that  on 
1  April,  1572,  the  Water-Beggars  had  taken  the  port  of 
Briel.  Henceforth  in  the  very  heart  of  the  Low 
Countries  they  had  a  point  for  rally  or  retreat,  and 
their  progress  was  rapid.  In  auick  succession  they 
captured  many  towns  in  HoUana  and  Zealand.  These 
Water-Beggars,  under  their  leader,  William  de  la 
Marck,  Lord  of  Lummen,  were  for  the  most  part 
ruffians  devoid  of  all  human  feeling.  When  they 
took  the  town  of  Gorkum  they  put  to  death  in  a  most 
barbarous  manner  nineteen  priests  and  monks  who  re- 
fused to  abjure  their  Catholic  Faith.  The  Church 
venerates  these  brave  victims  on  9  July,  under  the 
title  of  the  Martyrs  of  Gorkum.  About  the  same 
time  Louis  of  Nassau  took  Mons  in  Hainault,  and 
William  of  Orange  made  a  second  descent  on  the 
country  with  an  army  of  hirelings  that  committed 
frightful  excesses.  But  he  failed  before  the  superior 
forces  of  the  Duke  of  Alva.  Mons  was  recaptured  and 
William  once  more  driven  out.  Alva  then  turned  his 
arms  against  the  provinces  of  the  north;  ZOtphen, 
Naarden,  and  Haarlem  feU  successively  into  his  hands 
and  were  treated  most  shamefully,  but  contrary  to  his 
hopes  the  rest  of  the  rebel  country  did  not  submit. 

At  last  Philip  II  realized  that  the  duke's  mission 
had  failed.  Yielding  to  the  entreaty  of  his  most 
faithful  subjects — the  bishops  and  the  University  of 
Louvain — he  recalled  Alva  and  appointed  as  his  suc- 
cessor Don  Luis  of  Requesens.  During  his  brief  re- 
gencv  (1573-75)  Don  Luis  did  not  succeed  in  restoring 
royal  authority  in  the  revolted  districts,  although  he 
flhowed  greftt^r  humanity  ftnd  ^n  InoJinfttipn  to  con- 


ciliate the  disaffected.  Nor  was  he  more  successful 
in  capturing  the  town  of  Leyden  which  withstood  one 
of  the  most  heroic  sieges  in  history.  His  death  left 
the  country  in  a  state  of  anarchy. 

The  Council  of  State  took  over  the  reins  of  govern- 
ment pending  the  arrival  of  the  new  regent,  Don  John 
of  Austria,  brother  of  Philip  II.  It  was  a  favourable 
moment  for  the  ambitious  schemes  of  William  of 
Orange.  Thanks  to  the  intrigues  of  his  agents,  the 
members  of  the  Council  of  State  were  arrest^  and  did 
not  re^in  their  freedom  till  those  most  attached  to  the 
king's  interests  had  been  removed  and  others  appointed 
in  their  places.  This  packed  council  was  but  a  tool  of 
the  Prince  of  Orange,  and  its  first  act  was  to  convene 
the  States-General  to  deal  with  the  affairs  of  the  coun- 
try, without  any  reference  to  the  king.  On  the  motion 
of  the  Prince  of  Orange  the  delegates  met  at  Ghent  the 
representatives  of  the  rebel  provinces  of  Holland  and 
2^aland,  where  the  authoritv  of  the  prince  was  still 
unquestioned,  and  together  they  debated  a  scheme  for 
securing  tolerance  for  all  forms  of  worship  until  such 
time  as  the  States-General  should  have  finally  decided 
the  matter,  also  for  obtaining  the  removal  of  the  Span- 
ish troops.  During  the  course  of  these  deliberations 
an  event  happened  which  filled  the  whole  country 
with  fear  ana  horror.  The  Spanish  soldiers,  who  for  a 
long  time  had  received  no  pay,  mutinied,  seized  the 
city  of  Antwerp,  and  pillagea  it  ruthlessly,  seven  thou- 
sand persons  perishing  during  these  disorders,  which 
are  usually  referred  to  as  the  Spanish  Furv.  The 
provinces  no  longer  hesitated,  and  their  delegates 
signed  the  famous  Pacification  of  Ghent  on  8  Novem- 
ber. 1576. 

Thus  triumphed  the  craf tv  and  artful  diplomac});  of 
the  Prince  of  Orange.  He  nad  succeeded  in  causing 
the  loyal  provinces  to  vote  toleration  of  worship,  while 
the  provinces  of  Holland  and  Zealand  of  which  ne  was 
master,  formally  refused  to  allow  within  their  limits  the 
practice  of  the  Catholic  religion.  No  doubt  it  was 
stipulated  that  this  refusal  was  only  provisional,  and 
that  the  States-General  of  the  seventeen  provinces 
would  finally  settle  the  question;  but  meanwnile  Prot- 
estantism gained  an  immense  advanta^  in  the  Cath- 
olic provinces  without  giving  an3rthmg  in  return. 
Furthermore  the  prince  had  taken  the  precaution  to 
have  it  stipulated  that  he  should  remain  admiral  and 
regent  of  Holland  and  Zealand,  and  all  these  measures 
were  passed  in  the  name  of  the  king  whose  authority 
they  completely  defied. 

Such  was  the  situation  when  the  new  regent  arrived. 
On  the  advice  of  his  best  friends  he  ratified  by  his 
"Edit  perp^tuel  de  Marche  en  Famenne"  (1577)  the 
main  clauses  of  the  Pacification  of  Ghent,  which  rallied 
to  him  a  majority  of  the  people.  Then  he  set  about  es- 
tablishing his  authority,  no  easy  task  in  face  of  the 
imwearymg  effort  of  the  Prince  of  Orange  to  prevent 
it.  When,  in  order  to  obtain  a  reliable  stronghold, 
he  seized  the  citadel  of  Namur,  the  States-General, 
prompted  by  William  of  Orange,  declared  him  an 
enemy  of  the  State  and  called  in  as  regent  Archduke 
Matthias  of  Austria,  to  whom  William  succeeded  in 
being  made  lieutenant-general.  Don  John  defeated  the 
army  of  the  States-General  at  Gembloux,  and  Wil- 
liam made  a  fresh  appeal  to  foreign  Protestants.  From 
a.U  the  neighbouring  countries  adventurers  flocked  in 
to  fight  the  Catholic  Government.  The  Calvinists 
took  BOTTjd  of  the  large  cities,  Brussels,  Antwerp, 
Ghent,  and  held  them  in  a  state  of  terror.  In  the  last- 
nameci  town  two  of  the  leaders,  Hembyze  and  Ryhove, 
gave  themselves  up  to  every  excess,  persecuted  the 
Catholics,  and  endeavoured  to  set  up  a  sort  of  Protes- 
tant repuolic  as  Calvin  had  done  at  Geneva.  To  crown 
all  these  misfortunes,  the  young  regent  was  carried  off 
by  illness  in  1578,  and  all  seemed  lost  for  the  Catholic 
religion  and  the  royal  authority. 

But  the  eyes  of  the  Catholics  were  at  last  opened, 
^ing  that  under  pretext  pf  freeing  then»  from  SpaQ« 


NITHIBLAIIDS  762  NKTHIRLAND8 

iah  tsrranny  they  were  being  enslaved  under  Protes-  they  extended  to  the  religious  teaching  orders.  More 
tantism,  thev  turned  from  William's  partv  and  sought  oyer  they  showed  themselves  generous  patrons  of 
once  more  their  lawful  king,  in  spite  of  the  Just  com-  science,  literature,  and  art,  and  protected  the  interests 
plaints  they  had  against  his  government.  This  reao-  of  commerce  and  agriculture.  Blameless  in  their  pri- 
tionary  movement  was  most  marked  in  the  Walloon  vate  life  and  deeply  pious,  they  gave  an  example  of 
provinces:  Artois,  Hainault,  and  French  Flanders  in  virtue  on  the  throne  not  alwavs  to  be  found  there, 
the  van;  Namur  and  Luxemburg  joining  them  later.  Unfortunately  they  died  childless,  Albert  in  1621, 
It  began  as  a  league  among  the  nobles  of  these  prov-  Isabella  in  1633,  and  their  death  put  an  end  to  the 
inces.  who  styled  themselves  the  Malcontents,  and  reviving  prosperity  of  Belgiiun.  Once  more  the  coun- 
who  Droke  with  the  States-General  to  recognize  anew  try  was  drawn  into  endless  wars  by  Spain,  principally 
the  authority  of  PhiUp  II.  It  was  they  who  prevented  agaizist  France,  and  became  the  battle-fiela  of  numer* 
the  realization  of  the  great  scheme  of  William  of  ous  international  conflicts.  It  was  repeatedlv  de- 
Orange  to  federate  the  seventeen  provinces  in  a  league  spoiled  of  some  of  its  provinces  by  Louis  XI V,  and 
of  which  he  was  to  be  the  heaa,  and  which  would  cruelly  plundered  by  aU  armies,  fnendly  and  hostile, 
ultimately  cast  off  all  alle^nce  to  the  king.  When  he  that  marched  across  its  plains.  The  seventeenth  oen- 
saw  his  great  ambition  foiled,  William  contented  him-  tury  was  the  most  calamitous  of  its  history.  Such 
self  with  uniting  the  northern  provinces  in  the  Union  then  was  the  condition  of  Belgium  until  the  peace  of 
of  Utrecht  (1579),  under  the  name  of  the  United  Utrecht  (1713),  which  followed  by  that  of  Rastatt  put 
Provinces,  and  with  proclaiming  the  deposition  of  an  end  to  the  long  and  bloody  wars  of  the  Spanish 
Philip  II  at  least  within  these  provinces.  To  the  Mai-  Succession  which  gave  Spain  to  the  Bourbons  and 
contents,  therefore,  is  due  the  credit  of  saving  the  handed  over  the  Catholic  Low  Countries  to  the  Haps- 
royal  authority  and  the  Catholic  religion  in  the  burgs  of  Austria. 
Belgian  provinces.  It  would  be  a  mistake  to  suppose  that  all  these 

llip  new  regent,  Alessandro  Famese,  son  of  the  for-  calamities,  domestic  and  foreign,  had  left  Bel^um 
mer  regent,  Margaret  of  Parma,  grasped  the  situation  entirely  unfruitful  from  the  point  of  view  of  ciyiliza- 
admirably.  He  entered  into  negotiations  with  the  tion.  Nothing  could  be  more  false;  though  it  is  a 
Malcontents,  and  reconciled  them  with  the  king's  charge  often  inade  even  in  Belgium  by  writers  whose 
government  by  redressing  their  grievances;  then  with  prejudices  would  fain  discover  in  Catholicism  a  retard- 
their  support  he  set  about  recovering  by  force  of  arms  mg  force  for  Belgium's  progress.  The  University  of 
the  towns  that  had  fallen  into  the  hands  of  the  Protes-  Louvain  with  its  forty-two  colleges,  where  Erasmus, 
tants.  One  after  the  other  they  were  recaptured,  Bellarmine,  and  Justus  Lipsius  had  taught,  had  always 
some,  like  Toumai  and  Antwerp,  only  after  memor^  been  the  centre  of  orthodoxy,  and  did  not  cease  even 
able  sieges,  till  at  last  Ostend  alone  of  all  Belgium  during  the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth  centuries  to 
remained  in  Protestant  hands.  And  now  the  popular  manifest  great  activity,  chiefly  in  the  domains  of 
regent  was  preparing  for  a  campaign  against  the  theology  and  law,  which  were  expounded  there  b^  a 
northern  provinces,  demoralized  by  the  assassination  large  number  of  eminent  scholars.  Side  bv  side  with 
of  William  of  Orange  in  1584,  when  once  more  Philip  Louvain  stood  the  University  of  Douai  founded  in 
II's  ill-advised  policy  ruined  everything.  Instead  of  1562  by  Philip  II  as  a  breakwater  against  heresy,  and 
allowing  Famese  to  continue  his  military  success  in  it  also  sent  forth  many  famous  men.  Among  the  new 
the  Netherlands,  Philip  used  him  as  an  instrument  of  bishops  were  men  whose  fame  for  learning  was  only 
wild  projects  against  France  and  England.  At  one  equalled  bv  their  well-known  piety.  It  is  no  doubt 
moment  obliged  to  take  part  in  maritime  preparations  true  that  the  controversies  of  the  day  have  left  their 
against  England,  and  at  another  to  cross  the  frontier  mark  on  the  reUgious  life  of  that  period.  Thus, 
in  support  of  the  League  against  Henry  IV,  Famese  Michael  Baius,  a  professor  at  Louvain^  was  con- 
had  to  leave  his  task  unfinished,  and  he  died  in  1592  demned  by  Rome  for  his  theories  on  free  will,  predesti- 
of  a  wound  received  in  one  of  his  French  expeditions,  nation,  and  justification,  but  he  retracted  in  all 
His  death  was  the  greater  misfortune  for  Belgium  humility.  His  teaching  came  up  again  in  a  more 
because  Maurice  of  Nassau,  son  of  William  of  Orange,  pronounced  form  in  a  pupil  of  one  of  his  pupiU. 
and  one  of  the  greatest  war-captains  of  the  age,  was  Cornelius  Jansen,  Bishop  of  Ypres,  and  it  is  well 
just  then  coming  to  the  front.  known  how  the  '' Augustmus",  a  posthumous  work  of 

Philip  finally  saw  that  a  new  policy  must  be  tried,  this  prelate,  which  appeared  in  1640,  ^ve  rise  to  what 

He  betnought  him  of  separating  the  Catholic  Nether-  is  called  Jansenism.     Another  manifestation  of  the 

lands    from  Spain,  and  of  giving  the  sovereignty  intellectual  and  scientific  activity  of  Belgium  was  the 

to  his  daughter  Isabella  and  her  husband  the  Arch-  beginning  of  the  celebrated  collection  known  as  the 

duke  Albert  of  Austria;  in  the  event  of  their  being  "Acta  Sanctorum"  by  the  Belgian  Jesuits.    H^ribert 

childless  the  country  was  to  revert  to  Spain  (1598).  Rosweyde  drew  up  the  plans  for  the  undertaking,  and 

This  was  one  of  the  most  important  events  in  the  his-  Father  Jan  van  Bolland  bepan  to  carry  them  out, 

tory  of  Belgium,  which  thus  became  once  more  an  leaving  the  continuation  to  his  successors,  the  Bollan- 

independent  nation,  acquired  a  national  dynasty,  and  dists.   Amongst  these  Henschen  and  Papebroch  in  the 

might  now  hope  for  the  return  of  former  prosperity;  seventeenth  century  contributed  brilliantly  to  the 

that  this  hope  was  frustrated  was  the  result  of  events  work  which  has  not  yet  reached  its  conclusion, 
which  defeated  the  plans  of  statecraft  and  the  wishes        If,  apart  altogether  from  the  religious  aspect,  we 

of  the  new  sovereigns.  would  complete  the  picture  of  Belgium's  culture  in  the 

During  the  short  space  of  their  united  reign  (1598-  seventeenth  century^  we  have  but  to  recall  that  art 
1621)  Albert  and  Isabella  lavished  benefits  on  the  reached  its  apogee  m  the  Flemish  School,  of  which 
country.  Ostend  was  recaptured  from  Holland  after  Rubens  was  the  head,  and  Van  Dyck,  Teniers,  and 
a  three-years'  siege  which  claimed  the  attention  of  all  Jordsens  the  greatest  masters  after  him.  It  would  thus 
Europe,  and  a  truce  of  twelve  years  (1609-21)  made  be  easy  to  prove  that  the  Catholic  Low  Countries, 
with  the  United  Provinces  was  employed  to  the  though  cau^t  as  in  a  vise  between  powerful  neigh- 
greatest  advantage.  The  damage  done  by  the  reli-  bours  and  ever  in  the  throes  of  war,  did  not  give  way 
gious  wars  was  repaired;  more  than  three  hundred  to  despair,  but  in  the  da3rs  of  direst  calamity  drew 
churches  and  religious  houses  were  founded  or  re-  from  tneir  own  bosom  works  of  art  and  beauty  which 
stored ;  local  customs  were  codified  by  the  Perpetual  have  served  to  adorn  even  our  present  day  dvilisatioa. 
Edictof  1611,  which  has  been  called  the  most  splendid  The  Austbian  Netherlands. — The  Treaty  of 
monument  of  Belgian  law;  public  education  was  fos-  Utrecht  opened  an  era  of  comparative  peace  and  pi 


tered  in  every  way,  and  the  new  sovereigns  brought    perity  for  the  Catholic  Netherlands,  but  did  not  bring 
ftbout  the  founding  of  nmuy  colleges  by  the  protection    cont^ntn^ei^t*    Tk^  Aystrii^n  r^^im^  under  which  the 


country  was  now  to  exist  was  that  of  an  absolute  mon-  policv  revealed  themselves  in  measiires  more  and  more 

arch^2  which  b^  continued  encroachments  on  the  hostile  to  the  Church.    The  empress  herself  was  of  the 

traditional  privileges  of  the  people,  drove  them  at  opinion  that  the  Church  ought  to  be  subject  to  the 

length  to  rebellion.     It  was  not  merely  its  absolutism,  State  even  in  religious  matters.     ''The  authority  of 

it  was  the  anti-religious  atmosphere  of  the  Govern-  the  priesthood  ",  she  wrote,  "  is  by  no  means  arbitrary 

ment  which  really  aroused  the  people.    The  actuating  and  independent  in  matters  of  dogma,  worship,  and 

grinciple  of  the  Government  in  its  dealings  with  the  ecclesiastical  discipline '\  The  statesmen  in  her  ser- 
athoiic  Church  was  that  the  civil  power  was  supreme  vice,  imbued  as  they  were  with  the  Voltairean  spirit, 
and  could  make  rules  for  the  Church,  even  in  purely  were  zealous  in  applying  those  principles.  The  more 
religious  matters.  This  policy,  which  is  known  as  famous  among  them  were  the  rrince  of  Kaunitz,  the 
Josephinism,  from  Joseph  II,  its  most  thoroughgoing  Count  of  Cobenzl,  and  Mac  Neny.  On  the  slightest 
exponent,  had  prevailed  at  the  Austrian  Court  from  pretext  they  constantly  stirred  up  petty  and  at  times 
the  beginning.  It  found  a  theorist  of  great  authority  ridiculous  conflicts  with  the  ecclesiastical  authorities, 
in  the  famous  canonist  Van  Espen  (1646-1728),  a  such  as  forbidding  assemblies  of  the  bishops;  trying 
professor  at  the  University  of  Louvain,  who  justmed  to  insist  on  the  relaxing  of  the  Lenten  Fast;  claiming 
oeforehand  all  attacks  on  the  liberty  of  the  Church,  censorship  over  breviaries  and  missals,  and  going  so 
The  opposition  between  the  tendencies  of  the  Govern-  far  as  to  mutilate  copies  of  them  containing  the  Office 
ment,  which  threatened  alike  the  national  liberties  of  St.  Gregory  VII;  calling  in  question  the  jurisdiction 
and  the  rigjits  of  the  Church,  and  the  aspirations  of  the  Church  in  matrimonial  affairs;  hindering  and 
of  the  Belgian  people,  devoted  alike  to  religion  and  interferipg  in  every  conceivable  way  with  the  work  of 
liberty,  gave  rise  during  the  Austrian  occupation  of  the  religious  orders,  even  busying  themselves  with  the 
the  country  to  endless  misunderstandings  and  un-  dress  worn  by  the  clerics;  in  a  word  pursuing  a  most 
rest.  The  situation  was  not,  however,  uniformly  the  irritating  and  malicious  j>olicy  wherever  the  Church 
same.  It  varied  under  different  reigns,  each  of  which  was  concerned.  If  in  spite  of  all  this  the  name  of 
had  its  own  peculiar  characteristics.  ^  Maria  Theresa  is  of  kindly  memory  in  Belgium,  it  is  be- 
Under  the  reign  of  Charles  VI  (1713-1740)  Belgium  cause  her  subjects  knew  the  sincerity  of  her  piety,  and 
quickly  learned  that  she  had  gained  nothing  by  the  her  undoubted  good-will.  They  were  grateful  for  this, 
changmg  of  her  rulers.  One  of  the  clauses  of  the  and  believing  that  for  the  most  part  she  was  unaware 
Peace  of  Utrecht  obliged  Austria  to  sign  a  treaty  with  of  most  of  the  actions  of  her  representatives,  they  did 
the  United  Provinces,  called  the  Treaty  de  la  Barri^re  not  place  the  blame  at  her  door.  Moreover  tne  Gover- 
(the  Frontier  Treaty)  entitling  the  United  Provinces  nor-General  of  the  Austrian  Low  Countries,  Prince 
to  garrison  a  number  of  Belgian  towns  on  the  French  Charles  of  Lorraine,  brother-in-law  of  the  empress,  was 
frontier  as  a  protection  against  attacks  from  that  a  man  of  infinite  tact,  who  knew  how  to  moderate 
quarter.  This  was  a  humiliation  for  the  Belgians,  and  what  was  unpopular  in  the  action  of  the  Government, 
it  was  aggravated  by  the  fact  that  these  garrison  and  even  cause  it  to  be  forgotten.  It  was  personal 
trooi^,  who  were  all  Protestants  and  enjoyed  the  free  esteem  for  these  two  royal  personages  which  caused 
exercise  of  their  religion,  had  many  religious  quarrels  the  policy  of  the  Government  to  be  tolerated  as  long 
with  the  Catholic  people.  Moreover,  the  United  Prov-  as  they  lived. 

inoes,  controlling  the  estuary  of  the  Scheldt,  had  closed  But  there  came  a  great  change  as  soon  as  Joseph  II 
the  sea  against  the  port  of  Antwerp  since  1585 ;  so  that  mounted  the  throne  (1780^ .  He  was  the  son  of  Maria 
this  port  which  had  at  one  time  been  the  foremost  Theresa,  a  pupil  of  the  philosophers,  and,  inspired  by 
commercial  city  of  the  north  was  now  depleted  of  its  their  teaching,  was  ever  ready  to  defy  and  cusregard 
trade.  This  was  a  fresh  injustice  to  the  Cfatholic  Low  the  Church.  As  was  not  unusual  in  his  day  he  held  the 
Countries.  To  all  this  must  be  added  the  oppressive  opinion  that  the  State  was  the  source  of  all  authority, 
and  ill-advised  policy  of  the  Marauess  de  Prie,  deputy  and  the  source  of  all  civilizing  process.  He  set  him- 
for  the  absent  governor-general.  Prince  Eugene  of  self  without  delay  to  apply  his  policy  of  ''enlightened 
Savoy.  Pri^,  like  another  Alva,  treated  the  country  despotism".  Forgetful  of  his  coronation  oath  to  ob- 
with  the  utmost  severity.  When  the  labour  guilds  of  serve  the  constitutions  of  the  several  Belgian  prov- 
Brussels  protested  vigorously  against  the  government  inoes  he  began  a  career  of  reform  which  ended  by 
taxes  ana  tried  to  assert  their  ancient  lyivileges,  Fn6  overturning  the  existing  state  of  affairs.  ^  His  first  act 
caused  the  aged  Francois  Anneessens,  syndic  or  chair-  was  to  publish  in  1781  an  edict  of  toleration,  by  which 
man  of  one  of  these  ^Ids,  to  be  arrested  and  put  to  Protestants  were  freed  from  all  civil  disabilities,  a  just 
death  (1719).  The  citizens  of  Brussels  have  never  for-  measure  in  itself,  and  one  that  might  well  be  praise- 
gotten  to  venerate  the  memory  of  their  fellow-towns-  worthy,  if  it  were  not  that,  in  the  light  of  his  subse- 
man  as  a  martyr  for  public  liberty.  The  Government  quent  actions  it  betrayed  the  dominant  idea  of  his 
compensated  the  nation  by  founding  the  East  and  whole  reign,  namely,  hostility  to  the  Catholic  Church. 
West  Indian  Trading  Company  of  Ostend  in  1722.  The  Church,  he  thought,  ou^t  to  be  a  creature  of  the 
This  company,  which  was  enthusiastically  hailed  by  State,  subject  to  the  control  and  supervision  of  the 
the  public,  was  of  immense  benefit  in  the  beginning,  civil  power.  He  undertook  to  realize  this  ideal  by 
and  promised  an  era  of  commercial  prosperity.  Un-  substituting  for  the  Catholic  Church  governed  by  the 
fortunately  the  jealousy  of  England  and  of  the  United  pope  a  national  Church  subject  to  the  State,  along  the 
Provinces  sealed  its  fate.  To  win  the  consent  of  these  lines  laid  down  by  Febronius,  who  had  met  with  many 
two  powers  to  his  Pragmatic  Sanction,  by  which  he  supporters  even  within  the  ranks  of  the  clergy.  The 
hoped  to  secure  the  undisputed  succession  of  hisdaugh-  measures  he  adopted  to  enslave  the  Church  were  end- 
ter  Maria  Theresa,  the  emperor  agreed  to  suppress  the  less.  He  forbade  religious  orders  to  correspond  with 
Ostend  company  and  once  more  to  close  the  sea  against  superiors  outside  the  coimtry ;  he  forbade  tne  bishops 
Bel^n  trade.  EUs  cowardly  concessions  were  of  no  to  ask  Rome  for  dispensations  in  matrimonial  cases, 
avail,  and  at  his  death  in  1740  his  daughter  was  obli^d  He  tried  to  gain  control  of  the  education  of  the  clergy 
to  undertake  a  long  and  costly  war  to  maintain  her  in-  by  erecting  a  central  seminary  to  which  he  endeav- 
heritance  and  Belgium,  invaded  and  conquered  by  oured  to  force  the  bishops  to  send  their  future  priests. 
France  in  1745,  was  not  restored  to  the  empress  till  He  interfered  with  the  professors  and  the  teacning  of 
the  Peace  of  Aachen  in  1748.  the  University  of  Louvam  because  he  considered  them 
Under  the  reiga  of  Maria  Theresa  (1740-80)  the  too  orthodox.  He  suppressed  as  useless  all  convents 
Government  was  in  a  position  to  occupy  itself  peace-  of  contemplative  orders  and  all  pious  confraternities, 
fully  with  the  organization  of  the  Belj^ian  provinces,  and  replaced  them  by  one  of  his  own  invention  which 
On  the  whole  it  fostered  the  material  mterests  of  the  he  grandiloquently  called  "The  Confraternity  of  the 
eountiy*  but  the  principles  underlying  its  rsligioua  Active  Love  of  our  Neighbour".    He  prohioited  all 


MinUt  764  NITTUt 


pikrimagBB  and  the  exposition  of  relics.    He  limited  y«'«r'«?^ff»»  (5  vob.,  A^twero,  1876^);  Pior.  U  r^o^d* 

5k,  .num%  of  prooesfflons  and  ordered  that  aU  pamh  S^J^^I^XiTi^Ti^rSSl^^'ya^iKS;  K 

fesUvalfl  (kermesaea)  be  kept  on  the  same  day.    He  sels,  1872);  Dblplacb,  Joaeph  JI  ei  la  rSvoivium  bnbanconns 

interfered  with  the  garb  of  religious  and  in  liturgical  (?"«»•  18®J>5.  Hubbrt,  Us  oamiMM  de  la  Bapitre  dona  im 

gu«rtion«  and  even  ^nt  80  far  .as  to  forbid  the  mak-  ^S!^,^  ^^If^:^  '(?7Winl2Si;  lU^'  ^  '«*«*•  * 

mg  of  oomns,  so  as  to  economize  the  wood  supplv.  Godefroid  Kubtb. 
The  dead^  he  thought,  ought  to  be  buried  in  sackcloth. 

At  last  his  interference  in  and  wanton  meddling  with  Netter,  Thomas,  theologian  and  controveraialisty 
ecclesiastical  matters  won  for  him  the  well-deserved  b.  at  Saffron  Walaen,  Essex,  England,  about  1375; 
sneer  of  Frederick  II,  King  of  Prussia,  who  called  him  d.  at  Rouen,  France,  2  Nov.,  1430;  from  his  birth* 
"  My  brother,  the  sacristan '\  place  he  was  commonly  called  Waldensis.  He  en- 
All  tiiese  measures  had  been  carried  into  effect  with-  tered  the  Carmehte  Order  in  London,  and  pursued 
out  meeting  other  opposition  than  the  calm  respectful  his  studies  partly  there  and  partly  at  Oxfora,  where 
protest  of  the  clergy.  But  it  was  quite  otherwise  he  took  degrees,  and  spent  a  number  of  years  in 
when  Joseph  II  was  so  imprudent  as  to  interfere  with  teaching,  as  may  be  gathered  from  the  titles  of  his 
civU  institutions  and,  in  violation  of  the  most  solemn  writings  (the  actual  works  being  for  the  greater  part 
oaths,  to  lay  hands  on  the  liberties  of  the  people,  lost),  which  embrace  the  whole  of  philosophy,  Scrip- 
Then  the  country  was  thoroughly  aroused,  there  were  ture.  Canon  Law,  and  theology,  that  is,  a  complete 
demonstrations  in  the  public  streets,  and  protests  acaaemical  course.  He  was  weU  read  in  the  classics 
reached  the  Government  from  all  parts  (1787);  but  and  the  ecclesiastical  writers  known  at  the  beginning 
Joseph  II  was  stiff-necked,  and  would  not  listen  to  of  the  fifteenth  century,  as  is  proved  by  numerous 
reason.  Convinced  that  force  would  overeome  all  op-  quotations  in  his  own  writings.  Only  the  dates  of 
position,  he  hurried  Count  d' Alton  with  an  armv  into  his  ordinations  as  acolyte  andsubdeacon  are  on  reoozd, 
the  Low  Countries,  with  orders  to  restore  autnority  1394  and  1395.  His  public  life  began  in  1409,  when 
by  bloodshed  if  necessary.  Then  as  a  protest  against  he  was  sent  to  the  Council  of  Pisa,  where  he  is  said 
the  violence  of  d'Alton,  the  provincial  states,  availing  to  have  upheld  the  rights  of  the  council.  Back  in 
themselves  of  the  rights  granted  them  by  the  Con-  Eiudand  he  took  a  prominent  part  in  the  prosecution 
stitution,  refused  to  vote  subsidies  for  the  expenses  of  of  WycUfiites  and  Lollards,  assisting  at  the  trials  cl 
the  Government,  and  d'Alton  was  so  ill-advised  as  to  William  Tailor  (1410),  Sir  John  OldcasUe  (1413), 
declare  the  proceedings  null  and  the  Constitution  William  White  (1428),  preaching  at  St.  Paul's  CrosB 
abolished.  This  was  a  signal  for  revolution,  the  only  against  LoUardism,  and  writing  copiously  on  the 
resource  left  to  Belgian  libert3r.  Two  committees  questions  in  dispute  ("De  religione  perfectorum", 
directed  the  movement  along  widely  differing  lines.  "De  ^upertate  Christi'',  "De  Corpore  Christ! ", 
The  one,  under  the  leadership  of  a  lawyer  named  Van  etc.) .  The  House  of  Lancaster  having  chosen  Carme- 
der  Noot,  had  its  headquarters  at  Breda  in  the  United  lite  friars  for  confessors,  an  office  which  included  the 
I^vinces,  the  other  under  another  lawyer,  Vonck,  at  duties  of  chaplain,  almoner,  and  secretary  and  whidi 
Hasselt  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Li^ge.  That  under  frequently  was  rewarded  with  some  small  bishopric. 
Van  der  Noot,  a  man  of  great  popularity,  looked  to  the  Netter  succeeded  Stephen  Patrington  as  oonfeseor  to 
foreign  powers  for  help;  the  other  rehed  on  the  Bel-  Henry  V  and  provincial  of  the  Carmelites  (1414),  while 
gians  to helpthemselves,  and  began  recruiting  a  volun-  other  members  of  the  order  held  similar  posts  at  the 
teerarmy.  The  one  was  conservative,  almost  reaction-  courts  of  the  dukes  of  York  and  of  Clarence,  of  Car- 
aiy,  and  aimed  merely  at  restoring  the  status  quo;  the  dinal  Beaufort,  etc.  No  political  importance  seems 
otner  was  eager  for  reforms  such  as  France  was  asking,  to  have  been  attached  to  such  positions, 
but  was  faitMul  to  the  religion  of  its  fathers  and  took  In  1415  Netter  was  sent  by  the  king  to  the  Council 
as  its  motto  Pro  arts  eifods.  In  their  union  lay  their  of  Constance,  where  the  En^^ush  nation,  though  small 
strength.  The  volunteer  army  defeated  the  Austrians  in  numbers,  assorted  its  influence.  He  must  have 
at  Turahout  (1789)  and  forced  them  step  hy  step  to  interrupted  his  residence  at  Constance  by  one,  if  not 
evacuate  the  country.  The  bitterness  of  this  dd^eat  several,  visits  to  his  province.  At  the  conclusion 
kiUed  Joseph  II.  of  the  council  he,  with  William  Clvnt,  doctor  in 
The  States-General  of  the  country  were  convened  at  Divinity,  and  two  knights,  waa  sent  by  the  Kngliwh 
Brussels  and  voted  that  Belgium  should  be  an  inde-  kins  on  an  enibasBry^  to  the  King  of  Poland,  the  Grand 
pendent  federated  republic  under  the  name  of  the  Duke  of  Lithuania,  and  the  Grand  master  of  the 
United  States  of  Belgium.  Unfortunately  the  heads  Teutonic  Knij^ts.  The  pope  was  represented  by 
of  the  new  Government  were  novices  in  statecraft,  and  two  Italian  bishops,  and  the  emperor  by  the  Arch- 
differences  arose  between  the  Van  der  Noot  party  and  bishop  of  Milan.  The  object  of  the  mission  was  to 
the  followers  of  Vonck.  So  that  in  the  following  year  bring  about  a  mutual  understanding  and  prevent 
Leopold  II,  who  had  succeeded  his  father,  Joseph  II,  the  failure  of  the  papal  army  ag;ainst  the  Hussites, 
had  the  countr3r  once  more  under  his  authority.  He  It  has  been  asserted  that  on  tms  occasion  Netter 
was,  however^  wise  enough  to  restore  it  all  the  pnvileges  converted  Vitort,  Grand  Duke  of  Lithuania^  to 
it  enjoyed  pnor  to  the  senseless  reforms  of  Joseph  II.  Christianitv.  and  was  instrumental  in  his  reoogmtion 
The  Belgians  were  therefore  to  all  intents  once  more  as  king  and  nis  subsequent  coronation.  Although  all 
a  free  people,  and 
the  day  when  the 
the  pretext  of  emancipating 
For  the  later  history  of  this  territory  see  Bxlqium.  also  established  several  consents  of  his  order  in 

-.     a           „ ._     «          mr  »•     i.-i  ,x  .  r  Prussla.    He  returned  to  England  in  the  autumn  of 

Tbb  Spanish  NBTHCRLAND6. — Motlct,  7A«  Atae  o/<A«  DuteA  ixoa    ^-^a  ^».r»«<wi  *\>^  -^w^^A^^  ^  k;«  ur^  ^^  ♦Ka 

ii«ptt6itc  (3  vols.,  New  York,  1866);  Jvvri,  HiMoire  de  la  rivoiu-  1^20,  and  devoted  the  remamder  Of  his  life  to  the 

HondMPaua  Baa  aouaPhUivpa  U  (2  vols..  Bruaoels.  1863H)7);  government  of  his  provmce  and  the  composition  01 

NuTBfs.  Qeaehudgnia  dea  ned^UmdKhe  benerien  in  da  XV h  his  principal  work.    Fragments  of  his  correqwndence 

leeuw.  (6  vols.,  Amsterdam,  1865-68);    db  Lettenbotb,  Lea  i«x  Jl,  •>„1>k1i,«^  4kw%,»  T  i:«l»*  *%«  k:«  <m«^^«m.«m  \w^ 

Huouenota  at  lea  Ouaux  (6  vols..  Brussels.  1882-86);  PirbWnb,  ^^^Kf  Published  throw  a  light  On  hlS  endeavpun  ID 

Hiataira  da  Belqiqua,  III  (2nd  ed..  Brusseb.  1907);  Blok.  Ga-  the  former  capacity,  showing  him  a  stnct  retonner^ 

fdUedems  wn  lul  naderlandacha  t»i*.  III.  IV,  V  (GroninM.  yet  kind  and  even  tender. 

1896-1902);  Gossart,  UHablxaaetnenl  du  rigtma  eapagncl  dana     "^   ti„-,«„  \t  !,--.,;•>«•  Al^^  ;..  k;.  t^-^^a    1*a a^ 

to  Pay.  fla«i<rtnsurrert»an  (Brussels.  i905)TlDBu.^adimtna-  ,   Henry  V  havmg  died  m  his  arms,  he  appem  to 

Hon  aapagnole  dana  lea  Pay  a  Baah  lafindu  riffna  de  PhUippa  II  have  acted  as  tutor  (rather  than  OOnfessor)  tO  the  UH 

(Brussels.  1906).                                           „. .  .     ^    .  fant  King  Henry  VI,  whose  piety  may  be  attributed* 

Thb  Austrxab   Netherlands. — Oachard.   Hxaioxra  da  la  .x  y^^^A.  T_  -»„-*    ♦*>  •M***^^-  infliiAnXa      TTa  *#m#»JZ 

BalQimu  au  eammencemfnt  du  XVIII*  aikcU  (Brusseb.  1880);  **  ^f^^  J°  P*^»  *<>  Netter'smfluenoe.     He  aooom^ 

VAivR9cnuN0BN(UMATH0T),a«icftMdmM<iir<witenrv^Mk«  pamed  the  young  king  to  France  m  the  spnng  of 


MIOdAftT                         765  mUM 

1430,  and  died  six  months  later  in  the  odour  of  sane-  res  matemos  Rudolphi  I  regis  exhibens'',  Was  edited 

tity.  Miracles  having  been  wrought  at  his  tomb,  the  by  Weber  (Klagenfurt,  1850). 

question  of  the  confirmation  of  his  cult  is  at  present  l^'>»»»j^  •*57^i?f  %!f^  .^v^*^**  "Yo^fT*  ?^J*?oT 

7iAi/\\    u^t^^^    ♦!,«    ri^««.«»»»4>:^«    ^*    T>u.n^       ru    u*.a  valde  ttnd  Bnne  OelehrUnakademxe  (Freiburg,   1874),   115-120; 

(1910)    before    the    Congregation    of    Rites.     Of    hJS  Hurtbr,  Nonmulatar  (Innabruck,  1895),  859  sq. 

numerous  works  only  the  "Doctnnale  antiquitatum  j.  p.  Kirsch. 
fidei  ecclesis  catholic®"  has  permanent  value.    It  is 

in  three  parts,  the  first  of  which  might  be  termed  "De  Neuzn  (Latin  neuma,  pneumaj  or  neupma,  from 

vera  religione'',  the  second  bears  the  title  **De  sacrar  Greek  itmOma,  a  breath,  or  vwfia^  a  nod),  a  term  in 

mentis  adversus  Wiclefistas"  etc.,  and  the  last  "De  medieval  music  theory.    It  does  not  seem  to   have 

sacramentalibus".    The  first  two  were  presented  to  been  used  before  the  eleventh  century.    From  that 

the  pope,  who  on  8  August,  1427,  expressed  his  satis-  time  it  was  generally  taken  in  two  senses,  to  denote, 

faction,  encouraging  the  author  to  continue  his  useful  first,  a  kind  of  melody,  second,  a  notational  sign, 

and   learned   undertaking,   and   communicating   to  Guido  of  Arezso  (''Micrologus'',  xv)  takes  it  in    a 

him  the  text  of  the  Bull  oondenming  the  errors  of  third  sense,  in  which  he  seems  to  be  singular,  saying: 

Wyclif  ''Dudum  ab  apostolorum''.   Nevertheless  the  "As  in  metrics  there  are  letters  and  syllables,  parts 

work,  owing  to  its  buUc,  would  have  fallen  into  oblivion  and  feet,  and  verses,  so  in  music  there  are  tones,  of 

had  not  some  Carmelites,  notably  Ludovicus  de  which  one,  two,  or  three  join  to  make  a  syllable;  of 

Lyra  and  John  Hottus,  discovered  it  in  the  library  of  these  one  or  two  make  a  neuma,  that  is  a  part  of  the 

Paris  and  secured  its  publication  (1523).    It  was  re-  melody:  while  one  or  several  parts  make  a  distinction 

printed  at  Paris  (1532),  Salamanca  (1557),  Venice  (phrase),  that  is,  a  suitable  place  for  breathing." 

(1571  and  1757).    It  is  a  complete  apologia  of  Cath-  Applied  to  a  melody,  the  term  means  a  series  of 

olic  dogma  and  ritual  as  against  the  attacks  of  the  tones  sung  without  words,  genentlly  on  the  last  vowel 

Wyclimtes,  and  was  largely  drawn  upon  by  the  con-  of  a  text.   The  older  name  for  such  a  melody  is  iubUiu, 

troversialists  of  the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth  cen-  Thus  St.  Jerome  (In  Psalm,  xxxii,  P.  L.,  XXVI,  915) 

turies.  defines: '' That  is  called  iubUua  which  neither  in  words 

ZniMwmAN,  ATonumcnia  hutor,  CarmtL,  I  (L^rins,  1907),  442  nor  syllables  nor  letters  nor  in  speech  can  utter  or  de- 

•»*>•                                       i>«^^^,««  i7_,.^„„ . .,  fine  how  much  man  ought  to  praise  God ".    Similarly 

Bbnbmct  Zimmebman.  g^  Augustine  says  (Ps^  xcix,  P.  L.,  XXXVII  1272) : 

"  He  wno  sings  a  ivbiluSf  does  not  utter  words,  out  the 

Neugartp  Tbudpbrt.  Benedictine  historian,  b.  at  ivbilus  is  a  song  of  joy  without  words."    And  again 

Villingen.  Baden,  23  February,  1742;  d.  at  St.  Paul's  (in  Ps.  xxxii,  P.  L.,  XXXVI,  283) :  "And  for  whom  is 

Benecuctme  abbey,  near  Klagenfurt,  Carinthia,  Aus-  this  iubilatio  more  fitting  than  for  the  ineffable  God?" 

tria,  15  December,  1826.    Of  middle-class  origin  Neu-  Finally  the  following  passage  from  St.  Augustine's 

KOTt  studied  in  the  classical  schools  of  the  Benedictine  contemporary,  Cassian  ("De  (Dcenobiorum  Inst.",  II, 

Abbeys  of  St.  George  and  St.  Blasien,  entered  the  order  ii»  P.  L.,  XLlX,  77)  must  remove  any  doubt  as  to  the 

at  the  latter  monastery  in  1759,  and  was  ordained  use  of  such  iubili  in  the  Liturgy.    He  says  of  certain 

Sriest  in  1765;  in  1767  he  was  appointed  professor  of  monasteries  that  "they  held  there  should  be  sung 

iiblical  languages  at  the  University  of  Freiburg.    In  every  nikht  twenty  or  thirty  psalms  and  those,  too, 

1770,  however,  he  returned  to  St.  Blasien^  where  he  prolonged  hv  antiphon  melodies,  and  the  joining  on  of 

professed  theoloi^.    While  engaged  in  this  work  he  certain  moaulations." 

published  a  treatise  on  penance,     Doctrina  de  sacra-  The  usual  place  of  such  neums  is  in  responsorial 

mento  poenitentise  recte  administrando"  (St.  Blasien,  singine  (see  Plain  Chant),  especially  at  the  end  of 

1778).    His  abbot,  Gerbert,  had  planned  the  publica-  the  Alleluia  which  follows  the  Gradual  of  the  Mass. 

tion  of  a  Church  history  of  Germany  on  a  larae  sc^e  In  the  later  Middle  Ages,  however,  from  about  the 

iGermania  sacra).    In  1780  at  his  reauest  Neugart  twelfth  centunr  onwards,  the  custom  grew  up  of  add- 

began  an  elaborate  research  into  the  history  of  the  ing  neums,  dennite  formuke,  one  for  each  mode,  to  the 

Diocese  of  Constance.    On  Gerbert's  death  in  1793.  office  antiphons,  there  being  special  rubrics  in  the 

Neugart  declined  the  dip^ity  of  abbot  but  accepted  liturgical  books  as  to  the  days  on  which  they  should  be 

the  provostship  of  Krozmgen,  near  Freiburg,  so  as  to  sung  or  not  sung.    The  more  important  use  of  the 

be  able  to  devote  himself  entirely  to  historiou  studies,  term  is  that  in  which  it  means  the  signs  used  in  the 

He  published  the  oripnal  charters  and  documents  for  notation  of  Gre^rian  Chant.    Akin  to  this  use  is  the 

the  nistory  of  the  Diocese  of  Constance  in  a  separate  one  which  applies  it  to  the  tones  or  groups  of  tones 

publication,  "Codex  diplomaticus  Alemanniie  et  Bur-  designated  by  the  notational  signs.    Also  in  this  sense 

gjundisB  transjuranse  intra  fines  dicecesis  Constantien-  the  term  cannot  be  traced  farther  back  than  the  elev- 

sis"  (I,  St.  Blasien,  1791;  II,  St.  Blasien,  1795).    With  .  enth  century.    The  names  of  the  various  signs,  too, 

this  as  a  basis  he  wrote  at  Krozingen  the  first  in-  seem  to  date  from  about  the  same  period.    Previously 

stalment  of  his  history  of  the  Diocese  of  Constance  the  general  name  for  the  notation  was  usus.    The 

"Episcopatus  Constantiensis  Alemannicus  sub  metro-  names  of  the  single  signs  varied  with  time  and  place. 

S}h  Moguntina"  (part  I,  vol.  I,  to  the  year  1100,  St.  The  tables  of  neums  found  in  several  MSS  not  only 
lasien,  1803).  Soon  the  abbe^  of  St.  Blasien  was  differ  in  the  number  of  names,  but  aJso  give  different 
secularized.  Notwithstanding  Neugart's  efforts  for  its  names  for  the  same  sign,  or  different  signs  for  the  same 
preservation  it  was  assigned  to  Baden,  and  absorbed  name.  In  this  article  we  shall  use  the  names  as  ap- 
with  all  its  landed  possessions.  In  1807  Neugart  went  plied  in  the  Preface  to  the  Gradual  recently  issued 
to  Vienna  to  negotiate  for  the  settlement  of  the  ex-  from  the  Vatican  printing  establishment, 
pelled  monks  in  Austria,  and  succeeded.  The  abbot  The  neumatic  notation  of  Plain  Chant  is  first  met 
and  monks  of  St.  Blasien  were  granted  the  Abbey  of  with  in  MSS  of  the  ninth  century  and,  with  slight 
St.  Paul,  near  Klagenfurt  in  the  valley  of  the  Lavant.  modifications,  is  to  be  seen  in  liturgical  books  issued 
suppressed  by  Joseph  II.  Here  Neugart  completed  to-day.  Whether  its  use  goes  much  farther  back, 
the  second  volume  of  his  diocesan  history  extencfins  to  whether,  in  particular,  St.  Gregory  the  Great  em- 
1308,  but  it  was  not  published  until  1862.  He  tnen  ployed  notation  in  his  typical  Antiphonarium,  cannot 
turned  his  attention  to  the  history  of  Carinthia  and  of  be  said  with  certaint3r.  The  fact  that  at  the  date  of 
the  Abbev  of  St.  Paul,  where  he  and  his  companions  our  earliest  MSS.  the  insufficiency  of  the  notation  was 
had  found  refuge.  After  his  death  there  appeared  his  felt,  and  various  efforts  were  made  to  supply  the  de- 
"Historia  monasterii  Ord.  S.  Benedict!  ad  S.  Paulum  feet,  would  seem  to  point  to  an  antecedent  develop- 
in  valle  inferioris  Carinthise  Lavantina"  (Klagenfurt,  ment  of  considerable  duration.  On  the  other  hand 
1848, 1854).  Several  historical  treatises  and  oomP^  ^®  ^^^  ^^^  ^^™  ^^^  beginning  we  find  several  fami- 
tioas  are  still  in  MS.   Another  work,  "  Libell\)o  0ia)O-  Ues  of  notation  like  Uiose  of  St.  Gall  and  Metz,  which, 


while  ag^redng  in  the  m&in  principles,  show  consider-  Accord! ngly  the  fundamental  principle  is  that  Ihe 

able  divergence  in  mattera  of  detail,  would  aeem  to  rise  and  fall  of  the  melody  are  expressed  by  the  signs 

miegeet  that  at  the  time  when  these  families  started,  of  the  accentua  acutus  (  /  )  and  the  accenius  zravie 

onlQ'  the  fundamental  idea  had  been  conceived,  while  ( \ ) .  The  acutus,  being  drawn  upwards,  from  left  bo 

the  full  development  of  the  whole  ^atem  took  place  right,  indicates  a  rise  in  the  melody,  a  higher  note;  the 


III.  L— Tm  WracHnm  Tmpm  tXI  CwmniT) 

Coipiu  Chriiti  Co1k(B.  CuDbiidce,  No.  473 

(reduced  ahout  ODfrthira) 


gravis,  being  drawn  downwards,  a  fall  in  the  melody,  a 
lower  note.    From  the  combination  of  these  two  signi 


should  have  no  difficulty  in  believing  that  St.  Gregory    there  result  various  group  signs:  (1)  A,  acutus 
need  neumatic  notation  in  his  Antiphonary.     In  ac-     graviB,ahighernotefollowedbyalowerone.ade8o 


Bigni 

„    .  .,..,,'  and 

8  Antiphonary.    In  ac-  ^viB,ahighernotefollowedbyalowerone.ade8ccnd- 

coidance  with  the  second  view,  however,  we  should  mg  group  of  two  notes  (cUvis) ;  (2)  V  ,  gravis  and  acti- 

feel  inclined  to  put  the  beginning  of  neumatic  writing  tiis,  lower  and  higher  notes  (pes  or  podatus);  (3)  >y  ■ 

about  the  eighth  century.  acutus,  gravis,  acutus;  a  group  of  three  notes  of  which 

As  to  the  origin  of  the  neums  students  are  now  on  the  second  is  the  low»it  (porrectus);  (4)  y\,  gnvio, 

the  whole  agreed  that  they  are  mainly  derived  from  acutus,  gravis;  a  group  of  three  notes  of  which  the  aeo 


/;? 


<,/r- 


,   j,_  /'.  /■•.  -'•l  J-    ':.   V^i  ".'} 

.  -    Vtn 

>fl,ji.     )^\J^'-  '*.«''  ■*  ■--  JH  .■-,  */■/ 
.  blf'     ■■ 


III.  II. — CoDSX  121  (X-XI  CtHTOBi).  £ik>1(d>u< 

the  accent  marks  of  the  grammarians.    In  that  way,  ond  is  the  highest  (torculus);  and  so  on.    In  these 

of  course,  they  point  back  to  Greece.     From  the  fact,  combinations  the  elements  generally  preserve  thdt 

however,  that  some  of  the  signs  in  the  developed  sys-  original  form  pretty  clearly,  except  that  the  angles  are 

tern  look  like  signs  in  Byzantine  notation,  and  that  often  rounded  off,  as  indicated  below.     When  used 

some  of  the  names  are  Greek  in  orimn.  some  investi-  singly,  the  acutus,  too,  retained  its  shape  fairiy  accu- 

gators  have  concluded  that  the  whole  system  was  rately  and  from  its  shape  received  the  name  virga  (vir- 

taken  over  from  Greece.      Recently  J.  Thibaut  has  pila).     The  gravis,  however,  was  generally  convened 

defended  this  theory  in  a  rather  fanciful  book,  "Oh-  into  a  short  horiiontal  linc(— ),or  adot  (.),  orsome- 

Kie  Byiantine  de  la  Notation  Neumatique  de  I'Eglise  thing  similar,  and  hence  received  the  name  of  punc- 

tine".     But  the  previuling  opinion  is  that  the  neu-  tum.    In  this  form  it  is  also  used  in  an  ascending 

BUtiic  system  is  of  Latin  growth.  group  of  three  or  more  notes  (X'  i  scandicus)  and  in  a 


amiIardesceadinggroup(/>. ,  elimocus).  More  com- 
p1jcst«d  combinatioDS  were  designated  as  modifica- 
tions of  the  simpler  groups.     The  addition  of  a  lower 


R 


^^^^i^^^ttr::^^ 


L-te-      lii-    ia. 


y.  Ostin-de  nobis  D6-         mi-ne  miseri- 

^^^>   ^n'>t.,;T.p..  I  .  ..j^ 

c6rdi-am  tu-     •  am  :  et  salu-ti- 


ti>'i..i.  n„A£ 


note  to  a  group  ending  with  a  higher  note  was  indi- 
cated by  the  adjective  flexus,  the  addition  of  a  higher 
note  to  a  group  ending  with  a  lower  note,  by  reeupinus. 


7  NznM 

foUows  on  the  same  sylUtle.  An  analvms  of  all  tlie 
cases  of  liqueecence  occurring  in  the  MS.  Gradual  339 
of  St.  Gall  is  made  in  the  second  volume  of  the  "  Pal£- 

ographic  Musicale"  (pp.  41  sqq.),  where  the  subject  is 
treated  veiy  fully.  This  analysis  shows  that  by  far 
the  largest  numtier  of  cases  (2450  out  of  3504)  occur 
when  a  vowel  is  followed  by  two  or  more  consonanU 
the  firat  of  which  is  one  of  the  "liquids"  (1,  m,  n,  r) 
either  within  a  word  (like  tancloa)  or  through  the  col- 
location of  two  words  (as  in  U).  A  considerable  num- 
ber is  found  before  an  explosive  dental  at  the  end  of  a 
word  followed  by  another  word  be^nning  with  one  or 
more  consonants  (317  before  t,  48  before  d).  Forty- 
nine  times  it  is  found  before  a  final  s  followed  by 
another  consonant  (e.  g.  nobis  Domine)  and  six  times 
before  » in  Israhel;  seventy-three  times  before  g,  thirty- 
two  times  before  two  consonants  the  second  of  which 
is  j  (e.  g.  adjuU>r),  forty-six  times  before  single  m, 
thirty-four  times  before  a  single  g  followed  by  e  or  i. 
One  hundred  and  fifty-nine  times  on  the  diphthong  au, 
and  two  hundred  and  eighty-eight  times  before  a  an- 
gle i  (including  one  hundred  and  fifty-three  cases  on 
"      -a). 

a  clear  from  what  has  been  said,  that  this  liquea- 
must  be  connected  with  the  proper  pronuncia- 
tion of  the  consonants.  But  as  to  what  it  should 
the  rendering,  authors  are  not  agreed.  Thus 
the  preface  to  the  Vatican  Gradual  says:  "ipsa  co- 
gente  syllabarum  natura,  vox  de  una  ad  alteram  lim- 
pide  transiens  tunc  'liquescit';  itaut  in  ore  compressa 
'non  finiri  videatur',  et  quasi  dimidium  suffi,  non 
more,  sed  poteslatis  amittat".  This  is  not  easy  to 
translate,  but  it  would  seem  that  the  last  tone  of  the 
liquescent  neum  should  "lose  one  half,  not  of  its 
length,  but  of  its  strength".  The  " Paltographie 
Muaicale"  on  the  other  hand,  says  tiiat  in  the  exact 
pronunciation  of  certain  combinations  of  consonants 
an  obscure  vowel  sound  enters  between  them,  so  that 
&  word  like  amfundantur  would  sound  con'juwdan*- 


N. 


a      a  ■ 


lu.  111.— MS.  239  n 

Thus  even  the  clivis  (more  correctly  clinis)  was  at  an 
early  period  called  virga  flexa,  and  the  torculus  could 
be  considered  as  a  pea  flexus.  TheragnyV'V  would  be  a 
porrectus  flexus,  the  ^V  a  torculus  resupinusj  etc. 
Again  the  placing  of  several  puncta  before  a  sign  is  ex- 
pressed by  the  term  pncpunctis,  their  addition  after  a 
sign  Bubp metis.  In  accordance  with  that  ascandicus  is 
avirgapreepunctis;aclimacUB,a  viraa  subpunctis;  y-, 
pes  subpunctis;  .''.,  scandicus  subpunctis,  or,  also 
compunctis,  the  last-named  adjective  indicating  the 
addition  of  punctis  before  and  after. 

A  special  modification  of  the  neum  form  is  that 
which  is  called  liquescent  or  semivocal.  It  consists 
generally  of  a  shortening,  attenuating,  or  curling  of 
tiie  last  stroke.  It  occurs  only  at  the  transition  from 
one  syllable  to  the  next  and  there  only  in  certain  cir- 
cumstances.    It  is  nev^  found  wbei)  another  DfUfP 


I-X  CiNTUBT),  L4OH 

(ur  and  that  it  ia  this  after-sound  which  exerts  its  in- 
fluence on  the  tone  preceding  the  first  consonant.  It 
is  not  easy  to  see  why  this  obscure  vowc!  sound  com- 
ing after  the  first  consonant  should  influence  the  l«ne 
preceding  it,  nor  why  the  consonants  should  change 
the  dynamic  character  of  the  preceding  vowel  sound. 
Possibly  the  nature  of  the  liquid  consonants,  1,  m,  n,  r, 
which  evidently  have  pven  the  name  to  the  liquescent 
neums,  would  give  a  more  satisfactory  explanation. 
It  is  well  known  that  these  consonants  can  be  sung, 
that  is  he  prolonged  on  a  definite  and  varying  pitch. 
It  would  seem,  then,  that  when  one  of  these  conso- 
nants follows  a  vowel,  then  sometimes  the  last  note  on 
the  vowel  sound  is  smoothly  fused  into  the  consonan- 
tal sound,  part  of  its  time  value  being  given  to  the 
singing  of  the  liquid  or  semivocal  consonant.  This 
would  (opvenientiy  apply  to  the  first  class  of  cases 


muM 


768 


MEUM 


mentioned  above,  which  comprise  the  large  majority 
of  all  the  cases.  Also  to  the  case  of  single  m  ana  j  (or 
i)t  the  latt«r  partaking  of  the  nature  of  the  liquid  con- 
sonants. It  would  further  apply  to  the  case  of  gn,  if 
we  suppose  that  that  combination  was  pronounced  ny, 


Intr.  ^ 
I.      _ 


G 


1 — »-* 


i 


T 


Aude-  dmus  *  omnes  in  D6-mi- 


ts 


+ 


J — ■  ^■   1  ^^  J  ^^  T 


i**i 


no,  di-em  festum  ce-lebr4ntes  sub  hon6- 


—=-= — ■ ■ ■ — ■-■ ■ — 5_5 1 


hook  form.  In  the  first  place  we  mention  the  strophi- 
cusy  having  the  shape  of  a  comma  ( )  ).  When  occur- 
ring singly,  it  is  called  aix)stropha,  when  doubled,  dis- 
tropha:  when  trebled,  tristropha.  The  apostropha  is 
generally  found  at  the  end  of  another  neum,  or  fol- 
lowed by  a  distropha  at  a  higher  pitch:  it  is  never  used 
as  a  single  note  over  a  syllable.  When  added  to  a 
neum^  it  is  generally  represented  in  the  later  staff- 
notation  manuscripts  at  the  same  pitch  as  the  last 
note  of  that  neum.  But  there  is  reason  to  believe  that 
originally  there  was  an  interval  smaller  than  a  semi- 
tone between  those  two  notes.  The  distropha  and 
tristropha  indicate  a  quick  repetition  of  the  same 
note,  possibly  again  wiu  a  minute  difference  of  pitch 
between  the  repeated  notes. 

Akin  to  the  apostropha  is  the  oriscus,  having  a 
shape  somewhat  uke  this  :  h .  Apostropha  and  oris- 
cus are  sometimes  interchanged  m  dififerent  manu- 
scripts.   In  a  few  instances  the  oriscus,  however,  is 


re     Agathae  M4rty-ris:de  cujus  passi-6- 


^'^'a  , 


if<  \M  N 


3; 


Grad. 

2. 


ff"> 


ne  gaudent  Ange-        li,    et  colldu-  dant 


«   (3 


^JSi  ■—    ■      ■  "^^ 


1=^ 


i 


■a  '  i^'>u  /ta=^ 


I 


Ustus  *  ut  palma  etc.  y.  Ad  annun- 


SE 


3!UC 


ESC 


ti-dndum  ma- 


F{-  li-  um    De-      I 

MuB.  Ex.  2 

and  to  the  case  of  final  s,  if  that  consonant  was  voiced, 
when  it  also  could  be  sung.  In  the  case  of  the  diph- 
thong au  the  liquescence  would  consist  in  the  transi- 
tion from  the  first  vowel  to  the  second.  The  remain- 
ing cases  of  double  consonants  should  be  explained  by 
axudogy,  the  liquescence  consisting  simply  in  the  short- 
ening of  the  vowel  sound  made  for  the  purpose  of  dis- 
tinct pronunciation  of  the  group  of  consonants  with- 
out loss  of  time.  This  explanation  would  have  the 
further  advantage  of  being  in  accordance  with  the 
practice  of  the  b<»t  choirs  that  nowadays  make  a  pecu- 
liar study  of  Plain  Chant. 
Some  of  the  liquescent  neums  have  special  names. 


P^^'V-ffr 


if^U^U  *  *  I    t  J 


I  B   I  ^^W~fl 


ne     mi- 

4- 


se-ric6rdi-am  tu- 


am,      et  veri-titem 
♦  per  no- 


tu- 


am 


Intr. 

2. 

S 


^  i  '  ■  A| 


+ 


-ih-4 


S 


-•Mh 


^  ;'\A 


I-ti-^ntes  *  ven{-  te       ad  a-quas, 


ctem. 


Mus.  E«x.  4 


C  3  Ni  ,  ^ 


A     -   JL    ,,-    J 


di-cit  D6mi-nus  :    et  qui  non  hab^-tis 


6^T^i1hr3 


if^i  ■■■  '  iS 


^^ 


Mi;:^ 


pr^-  ti-um,  venf-  te,    bf-  bi  te    cum  lae- 1{- 


i 


ti-   a. 


MuB.  Ex.  3 


Thus  the  liquescent  podatus  is  called  epiphonus,  the 
liquescent  cuvis,  cepnalicus,  the  liquescent  climacus, 
ancus. 

In  addition  to  the  neums  which  are  derived  from 
the  accents  and  which  form  the  groundwork  of  the 
neumatic  system,  there  is  another  class  which  may  be 
taken  as  indicating  special  effects.  They  have,  as 
Wa^er  has  pointed  out,  as  a  coQunpQ  future,  the 


found  as  the  single  sign  over  a  syllable.  The  qui- 
lisma  is  generally  writtc^  as  a  number  of  hooks  open  to 
the  right  and  joined  together  (Mr  ,  ua^).  It  occurs  in- 
variably as  the  middle  note  in  an  ascending  group  and 
seems  to  indicate  a  glide  of  the  voice,  bemg  accom- 
panied by  a  sustaining  of  the  note  or  sroup  of  notes 
preceding  it.  The  saUcus  is  a  figure  like  the  scandi- 
cus,  but  with  the  second  note  in  the  shape  of  a  hook 
opexiing  downwards  ( r^  ) .  It  seems  to  indicate  a  pro- 
longation of  the  middle  note.  Sometimes,  in  staff- 
notation  manuscripts,  the  first  two  notes  are  given  at 
the  same  pitch.  Possibly  here  again  there  was  a  dif- 
ference of  less  than  a  semitone  between  them.  The 
pressus  is  a  kind  of  combination  of  a  viijga  with  added 
oriscus  and  a  punctum  (  /?  ) ,  pressus  minor,  A  f  pre»- 
sus  major) .  It  is  generally  imderstood  as  equivalent  to 
a  clivis  with  the  first  note  prolonged  and  rendered 
sforzcUo,  Finally  to  be  mentioned  is  the  trigon,  a  com- 
bination of  three  puncta,  the  middle  one  being  higher 
than  the  other  two  (.*.).  From  its  shape  it  would 
seem  to  be  a  kind  of  torculus,  but  it  is  often  tran- 
scribed with  the  first  two  notes  at  the  same  pitch,  sug- 
gesting once  more  a  minute  interval  not  expressible  m 
staff  notation. 
Tb?  illu9tratiOQ9  wbicb  aooompan^  this  article  ar» 


MuH.",  Ill,  pi.  179)  representa  the  type  of  the  An^lo-  written  wiUi  the  ordinary  virga  sign.  The  o 
Saxon  neuma  of  the  eleventh  century.  The  piece  is  a  however,  u  clearly  marked.  Thus  we  have  a 
tropefoT  the  Introit  "In  medio".    The  three  portions    with  oriscus  (alao  called  fnuioulus)  on  the  first 


,    -     Ja^qai  nun  UU(idUtf>  1yf6ct>tmr  utniae-  Oxhibtaf 
"A  ^ 'cuao  ct-rtd-tn  Auificcati'  uttta^ CTUif  nan. 


of  the  Introit  itself  are  merely  intUcated  by  the  cuea  ble  of  Gratia,  and  the  full  preaaua  (virga,  oriscus,  and 

In  Mai.,  Et  impMi.,  and  Sloia.     The  sigoa  for  the  punctum)  on  the  first  syllable  of  pectus,  the  first  of 

single  not«s  are  the  plain  virga  and  the  round  punc-  Auxerunt,  etc.    The  quihsma  is  shown  on  the  second 

turn,  the  former  on  tne  last  Hvllable  of  iohanTiU,  the  syllable  of  ceUa^  where  we  Gist  have  a  punctum,  serv- 

secondand  third  syllables  of  (Mimi)ierM,  etc.,  the  latter  ing  as  the  starting-point,  then  the  triple  curve  of  the 

on  the  second  syllable  of  Gralia,  the  second  syllable  of  quilisraa  itself,  to  which  the  virga  stroke,  representing 

Dei,  the  first  of  iohannis,  etc.     In  the  podatus  the  the  highest  note,  is  attached.     We  have  it  again  on 

gravis  is   a   short   horiiontal   stroke,    the   acutus   a  the  second  syllable  of  impleb.,  where  a  second  virga 

straight  viiva  joining  almost  at  a  right  angle;  see  third  follows,  the  whole  figure  representing  the  notes /ir  a  b\f. 

syllable  of  Gratia,  third  of  saluti/ere,  third  of  dofftnata,  A  less  usual  sign  is  found  on  the  first  syllable  of 

etc.     There  is  also  a  second  form  consisting  of  a  die-  airus  (last  line,  nght  page).     The  quilisma  there  is 

jointed  punctum  and  virga,  see  third  syllable  of  followed  by  a  chmacus  m  which  the  three  signs,  acutUA 

Gloria  (last  line  on  left  page),  first  syllable  of  xriilui  and  two  graves  are  joined  together:  />}  ■ 


(first  line  of  ridit  page),  third  syllable  of  atemum  Dlustration  II  ("  PaI£ogr.  Mus.",  IV,  pi.  A)  is  from 

S fourth  line).     This  is  considered  as  indicating  a  lon^  a   MS.   written  in  the   monastery  of  Einsiedeln  at 

orm   of   the   podatus.     The   liquescent   form    (epi-  the  end  of  the  tenth  or  the  beginning  of  the  eleventh 

phonus)  is  marked  by  a  rounding  of  the  angle;  see  sec-  century.    Itbelongs  to  the  St.  Gall  school  of  notation. 

ond  syllable  of  iohannis,  third  syllable  of  fiiixeruni.  The  affinity  of  this  school  to  the  Anglo-Saxon  is  evi- 

The  clivis  shows  the  curved  angle,  as  on  second  sylla-  dent.    There  are,  however,  a  number  of  peculiarities. 

ble  of  pectus,  second  and  fourth  of  gaiiUifere.     The  First  we  find  a  great«r  variety  of  signs.     Thus  the 

liquescent  form  (cephalicus),  somewhat  shortened,  is  virga  appears  in  two  forms,  one  sUghtly  curved  to  the 

seen  on  the  third  syllable  of  iokannem  (first  line  on  right  and  vanishing  at  the  top,  the  other  straighter 

right  page).     The  torculus  is  seen  on  the  first  syllable  and  with  a  tbickemng  at  the  top.     This  second  vari- 

01  Off impf ens,   first  syllable  of  docenle  (fourth  line),  ety  arises,  graphically,  from  its  being  drawn  down- 

etc.    On  the  fint  syllable  of  celia  we  have  the  torculus  wards,  the  pen  spreading  itself  a  little  at  the  start  of 

liquesccns,  the  last  gravis  being  shortened.     The  por-  the  stroke.      For  the  rendering  it  indicates  a  longer 

rectus  is  easily  recogniiable  on  the  first  syllable  of  form  of  the  note.    We  find  the  first  form  on  the  first 

Stola.    A  climacus  occurs  on  the  second  syllable  of  syllable  of  OsUnde,  the  fifth  of  miterieordiawj  etc.^  thfl 

dofxnU  (fourth  fine)  being  followed  by  an  epiphonus;  a  second  on  the  second  syllable  of  Oilertdt  (first  sign), 
X.— 49 


NEXJH 


770 


KEjm 


on  the  first  syllable  of  tuam  (second  sign),  etc.  Sim- 
ilarly we  have  for  the  punctum,  besides  the  dot  form, 
that  of  a  short  horizontal  line.  This  is  also  some- 
times used  for  one  of  the  puncta  of  the  climacus  (first 
syllable  of  tuam,  third  and  sixth  neums,  etc.)  and 
towards  the  end  of  the  group  neuma  on  nobis  (fifth 
sign  from  the  end)  we  see  a  trigon  subpuncte,  the 
last  dot  of  the  trigon  and  the  added  punctum  being 
drawn  out.  The  podatus  appears  in  three  forms: 
first  with  rounded  comer,  as  on  the  third  syllable  of 
AUduia  (first  sign) ;  second  with  some  pen  pressure  on 
the  initial  stroke  and  a  fairly  square  angle,  sus  on  the 
fourth  syllable  of  AUduia  (third  sign):  and  third,  with 
a  more  elaborate  gravis,  as  in  the  final  neuma  of  nofns 
(second  last  sign).  The  first  may  be  considered  ajs 
the  normal  form,  the  second  marks  a  firmer  rendering 
of  the  first  note,  and  the  third  a  decided  leaning  on  it. 
The  torculus  appears  in  its  plain  form  (second  syllable 
of  Ostende,  fourth  syllable  of  misericordiam)  and  with 
I>en  pressure  on  both  graves  ( ^  )  marking  a  prolonga- 
tion of  the  whole  figure  (first  syllable  of  tuunif  seventh 
sign).  The  two  forms  of  the  pressus,  minor  and  ma- 
jor, are  found  in  the  final  neuma  of  AUduia  (fourth 
last  and  last  signs).  Of  liauescent  signs  we  have  a 
Bcandlcus  Uquescens  on  the  nrst  syllable  of  AUduia j  a 


century  (see  "Pal.  Mus.",  IV,  pi.  9;  Wagner,  "Ein- 
leitung  ",  II,  1 14) .  The  liUera  HgnificaliviB  are  of  two 
classes,  one  referring  to  rhythm,  the  other  referring  to 
pitch.  Of  the  former  class  we  find  in  our  illustration 
frequently  the  c  (cderiter)  and  the  t  (teneU),  At  the 
beginning  of  the  Offertory  QsBt  line  of  illustration) 
we  find  idso  the  m  (mediocriter)  modifying  the  effect 
of  the  preceding  c.  Of  the  second  class  we  find  the  e 
(equalUer)  enjoining  the  same  pitch  between  damine 
and  misericordiam  between  tne  second  and  third 
^llables  of  misericordiam  and  between  tuam  and  et. 
To  give  a  clearer  idea  of  the  meaning  of  the  neums  in 
this  illustration  we  subjoin  the  notation  of  the  same 
piece  according;  to  the  Vatican  edition^  pointing  out 
only  the  few  differences  in  the  two  readings.  On  the 
first  syllable  of  "Alleluia"  the  Vatican  edition  omits 
the  liquescence;  similarly  on  the  third  syllable  of  that 
word  and  on  the  final  syllable  of  "misericordiam ".  It 
may  be  mentioned  in  this  connexion  that  a  very  fre- 
quent use  of  liquescence  is  characteristic  of  the  St.  Gall 
school.  The  strophici  on  AUduia  and  tuum  are  given 
as  ordinary  puncta.  Similarly  the  special  sign  for  the 
pressus  has  disappeared  and  is  replaced  by  a  doubling 
of  the  first  note.  The  first  of  tnese  two  notes  of  the 
same  pitch  is  then  sometimes  combined  with  the  pre- 


-#--•   vi*  ^^  . 


"    ■■■"■'■■  »»maf'< 


7i  .        *  • 


« J  -mm .        * ^;!>"  Br  twiT  h^wf%  •     tt 


■»  ■    ■>■  «* 


••iwwi-- 


;/• 


-.  »»-■•*  •*•  • 


^ 


f   T    7   •    • 


wfef 


»rtrt»|*t.««l*«^  itmK,* 


^  . . .   li 


L  ►    *  »A 


III.  VI. — Gradual  and  Tbopbh  of  St-Evboult  (XII  Cbmtubt) 
Bibliothdque  Nationale,  Paris.  Fonda  latin,  N&  10508 


^stropha  Uquescens  on  the  third,  an  epiphonus  on  the 
last  syllable  of  misericordiam. 

A  second  peculiarity  of  the  St.  Gall  notation  is  the 
occasional  addition  of  a  little  stroke  to  the  neums, 
marking  a  prolongation  of  the  affected  note.  The 
"Pal6ographie  Musicale"  (IV,  pi.  17)  has  given  the 
name  episema  to  this  Uttle  addition.  Mention  has  al- 
ready been  made  of  the  thickening  of  the  head  of  the 
virga,  which  often  amounta  to  a  distinct  stroke.  Our 
illiutration  gives  examples  of  a  similar  addition  to  the 
last  note  of  the  torculus  v  CO  instead  of  ^  ),  the  last 
of  the  porrectus,  the  first  and  the  second  of  the  clivis. 
The  episematic  torculus  is  seen  in  the  final  neuma  of 
nobis  (before  the  first  trigon).  The  first  sign  in  the 
same  neuma  is  also  an  episematic  torculus  followed  by 
another  long  punctum.  On  the  first  svUable  of  tuum 
we  have  an  episematic  porrectus,  foUowed  by  two 
puncta,  while  the  plain  porrectus  appears  on  the  first 
syllable  of  damine  (tmrd  sign).  The  clivis  with 
episema  to  the  first  note  is  found  on  the  first  syllable 
of  tuam  (first  sign)  and  twice  towards  the  end  of  the 
neuma  on  tuum.  On  the  second  syllable  of  no&u, 
after  the  torculus  subpunctis  already  mentioned,  we 
have  a  clivis  with  the  episema  attached  to  the  second 
note,  the  clivis  being  preceded  by  two  short  puncta 
and  followed  by  a  long  one. 

Thirdly,  we  find  as  a  peculiarity  of  this  notation  the 
addition  of  certain  letters.  These  are  often  called 
"Romanian"  letters,  because  a  St.  Gall  writer  of  the 
eleventh  century  attributes  their  use  to  a  singer  named 
Romanus  who,  according  to  him.  brought  the  chant 
iron  Rome  to  St,  Gall  toward  \m  end  qI  the  eighth 


ceding  neum.  Thus  at  the  end  of  the  A  Uduia  neuma 
it  joins  the  virga  to  form  a  clivis,  and  at  the  end  of  the 
neuma  on  nobis  the  podatus  of  the  MS.  is  changed  into 
a  torculus.  These  things  are  in  accordance  with  the 
general  practice  of  the  later  Middle  Apes.  Towards 
the  end  of  the  neuma  on  tuam  (where  m  the  MS.  the 
neums  surmount  the  second  syllable)  the  sta£f  nota- 
tion substitutes  a  pes  subbipunctiB  tor  a  virga  and 
climacus — a  mere  graphic  difference.  Similarly  on 
da  a  porrectus  and  virga  are  replaced  by  a  cli>'is  and 
podatus. 

Illustration  III,  taken  from  a  MS.  of  the  ninth 
or  the  beginning  of  the  tenth  century  in  the  library 
of  Laon,  which  is  in  course  of  publication  in  the 
"Pal.  Mus."  (p.  28),  shows  the  Mets  notation.  On  the 
first  two  syllaoles  of  Oaudeamus  we  have  the  familiar 
punctum  dot.  On  the  third  we  recognise  easily 
a  podatus  followed  by  a  virga.  But  on  the  last  we 
meet  the  most  characteristic  sign  of  this  school,  the 
punctum  consisting  of  a  short  slanting  line  with  a  little 
nook  added.  Of  the  clivis  form  peculiar  to  this  school 
our  illustration  contains  no  example ;  but  on  the  second 
syllable  of  festum  and  the  second  and  fourth  of  ceU* 
brantes  we  have  the  porrectus,  which  in  its  first  two 
strokes  contains  the  clivis.  There  are  two  forms  of  the 
torculus,  one  with  sharp  angles,  on  the  first  syllable 
of  domino,  the  second  oi  honore  (where  it  is  preceded 
by  a  punctum),  etc.;  the  other  rounded,  on  the  third 
firyllable  of  honore  and  the  fourth  of  passione.  Of 
houescent  neums  we  find  the  epiphonus  on  the  second 
syllable  of  diem  and  the  third  ol  cdd^ranies,^  the  oephal- 
iQVS  Qn  thti  first  of  <mf^$  a  pe9  subbipunctia  liqueoce&s 


1V1I« 


771 


KEjm 


(the  first  punctum  connected  with  the  pes  in  the  man- 
ner of  a  torculus  and  the  second,  liquescent,  bent  back 
to  the  left)  on  the  second  syllable  of  coUaudatU  and  a 
porrectus  compunctis  liquescens  on  the  last  syllable 
of  filiutn.    The  oriscus  is  found  after  the  podatus  on 


it  stanas  for  dUe,  The  idea  of  high  pitch  is  expressed 
by  the  f  occurring  twice  on  domino.  The  first  time 
it  refers  evidently  to  the  rise  of  the  melody  to  c,  the 
second  time  it  probably  enjoins  a  b  natural  instead  of 
bflat. 


\:' 


iiottiumtttrei^cmn;  ^ 
omm  (mnt.  S^eOtr  Ub  p({)mi 

tcflaimmil  emna 


nsuvMi  ttt 


It 


i^\ 


c 


I^i,|fumt8  m^ipimlim 


^'    I 


.t*- 


4 


tm.  ^taaibum  uH^mj        j 


A 


III.  VIL— MS.  411  (241)  (XIV  Csntubt) 
Biblioth^ue  Maiarine,  Paria 


aaaihfB  and  the  quilisma,  consisting  of  two  hooks,  on 
tne  second  syllable  of  dominoy  the  second  of  angeli  and 
the  first  of  dei,  in  each  case  a  porrectus  being  joined 
to  it. 

Another  peculiarity  of  this  school  is  the  frequent 
use  of  disjoint  neums,  all  of  which  indicate  a  prolonga- 
tion of  the  notes.  Mention  was  made  of  a  disjomt 
godatus  in  connexion  with  the  first  illustration.  We 
nd  it  here  on  in  and  the  first  syllable  of  celebranles. 
A  torculus  of  this  kind  is  shown  in  the  second  syllable 
of  martyris.  The  descending  figures  are  indicated  by 
the  puncta  placed  perpendicularly.  Thus  we  have  a 
clivis  on  the  second  syllable  of  omnea,  the  second 


The  comparison  with  the  reading  of  the  Vaticana 
will  show  a  close  resemblance.  We  only  notice  that 
on  gaudent  and  angeli  the  MS.  adds  a  liquescent  note 
to  the  podatus  and  porrectus  subbipunctis,  and  on 
cdehranUs  has  twice  a  porrectus  for  the  stropnic  clivis, 
which  su^ests  that  the  apostropha  (oriscus)  was  sung 
slightly  higher  than  the  last  note  of  the  clivis,  as  men- 
tioned above. 

Illustration  IV  is  taken  from  an  eleventh-century 
MS.  of  Silos,  written  in  the  Mozarabic  notation 
("Pal.  Mus.' ,  I.  pi.  II)  in  order  to  show  that  even 
this  is  based  on  tne  same  principles.  The  usual  forms 
of  vu^a,  punctum,  podatus,  clivis,  torculus,  porrectua 


imriq^  JUjmit  tfr  mftimlto 


^^ 


I  r  r    ft 


n  tutu^A 


Mam 


multtplifa 


t^ 


moBDmmi^ 


-  .  .Li 


III.  VIII.— Gothic  Nkuiu  (a.  d.  1436) 
C^atbedral  libnuy.  Trier 


(before  the  quilisma)  and  the  third  of  domino^  the 
third  of  angeli  (where  the  lower  one  got  attached 
to  the  I),  etc.;  a  climacus  on  angeli,  preceding  the 
quilisma. 

We  note  further  the  use  of  liUra  9ignificatuf<g. 
Thus  we  have  the  c  used  in  the  same  sense  as  in  the 
St.  Gall  school,  on  agatho!.  Similarly  a  t  appears  at 
the  bottom  of  the  illustration  under  the  word  meU, 
The  a  on  Gaudeamus  stands  here  for  augete  and  is. 
therefore,  synonymous  with  the  t,  whereas  in  St.  Gall 


will  be  recognized  easily.  The  other  features  will  be 
explained  with  reference  to  the  modem  form  of  the 
Vatican  Gradual.  The  piece  occurs  in  the  Roman 
Liturgy  as  Introit  of  the  Saturday  after  the  fourth 
Sunday  of  Lent.  On  the  last  syllable  of  Siiienies  the 
MS.  has  a  pes  subbipunctis,  with  the  puncta  joined 
together,  representing  the  same  notes  as  the  staff  no- 
tation without  the  pressus.  On  the  first  syllable  of 
venite  the  MS.  has  a  clivis  instead  of  the  single  note  of 
the  Roman  version,  on  the  second,  the  punctum  and 


772 


torculus  (placed  one  over  the  other)  are  only  graphi- 
cally different  from  the  pes  and  clivis.  On  the  first 
syllable  of  equas  a  tristopha  takes  the  place  of  the 
trigon.  On  the  second  syllable  of  dicit  the  MS.  omits 
the  last  note  of  the  print.  On  the  second  syllable  of 
daminus  the  disjoint  punctum  and  chvis  correspond 
to  the  conjoint  torculus.  The  second  figure  on  non 
is  a  liquescent  torculus.  It  begins  below  with  the 
gravis  to  which  the  acutus  is  attached  in  the  usual 
manner,  but  the  last,  liquescent,  gravis  is  represented 
by  a  curve  to  the  left  of  the  acutus.  The  remaining 
slight  differences  are  like  those  alreadv  explained. 

As  has  been  sufficiently  indicated,  the  neums  merely 
marked  the  rise  or  fall  of  the  melody.  They  gave, 
in  themselves,  no  clear  information  as  to  the  exact 
amount  of  rise  and  fall,  in  other  words,  they  did  not 
mark  the  intervals.  A  podatus,  e.  g.,  may  indicate  a 
second,  a  third,  a  fourth  or  a  fifth  without  chanee  in  its 
form.  This  may  now  be  accepted  as  an  established 
fact.  The  various  efforts  made  from  time  to  time, 
most  recently  by  Fleischer  in  his  "Neumenstudien''. 
to  find  interval  signification  in  the  neums,  have  failed 
oompletelv.  It  is  clear  then,  that  at  no  time  could 
the  melody  be  read  absolutely  from  the  neumatic 
notation.  Rather  this  served  merely  as  an  aid  to 
memory.  Nor  did  the  choir  sing  from  the  notation. 
The  MS.  waj9  only  for  the  choir-master,  or  at  most  for 
the  solo  singer.  The  whole  body  of  the  Plain  Chant 
melodies  had  to  be  committed  to  memory  in  the  re- 
hearsing room,  and  wc  know  from  contemporary 
writers  that  it  took  a  singer  several  years  to  become 
acquainted  with  all  the  melodies.  In  the  course  of 
time,  as  oral  tradition  began  to  grow  less  reliable,  a 
desire  was  felt  to  have  also  the  amount  of  rise  or  fall 
fixed.  Accordingly  we  find  even  at  the  date  of  our 
earliest  MSS.  the  use  of  letters,  added  to  the  neums, 
to  warn  the  singer  here  and  there  as  to  the  intervals, 
as  we  have  mentioned  above.  These  indications,  how- 
ever, were  again  merely  va^e  and  could  not  finally 
satisfy.  Various  efforts  which  space  forbids  us  to  de- 
tail here,  were  then  made  to  supplement  the  neumatic 
notation.  All  of  them,  however,  were  destined  to  dis- 
appear before  the  introduction  of  a  new  principle, 
which  was  to  distinguish  the  higher  or  lower  pitcn  of 
the  tones  by  the  higner  or  lower  position  of  the  notes, 
grading  the  distances  between  the  notes  in  strict  ac- 
cordance with  the  intervals.  Attempts  in  this  direc- 
tion can  be  noticed  even  in  the  class  of  MSS.  which 
have  been  considered  up  to  this.  Our  example  of 
Metz  notation  shows  pretty  clearly  an  endeavom-  on 
the  part  of  the  scribe  to  place  the  notes  according  to 
pitcn.  The  full,  systematic  carrying  out  of  this  idea 
IS  found  in  the  tenth  century,  first  in  the  Lombardic 
notation,  shortly  afterwards  m  the  Aquitanian .  Illus- 
tration y,  taken  from  an  eleventh-century  Versicu- 
lary  and  Prosary  from  St.  Martial  in  Limoges  C'Pal. 
Mus. '',  II,  pi.  86)  belongs  to  the  latter  class,  which  is 
further  characterized  by  the  almost  complete  dis- 
joining of  the  neums.  There  being  no  clef,  the  semi- 
tones cannot  be  found  from  the  notation.  But  apart 
from  that  the  intervals  can  be  read  without  difficulty, 
it  being  kept  in  mind  that  notes  placed  perpendicularly 
should  be  read  downwards,  as  in  the  Metz  notation. 
A  few  remarks  will  suffice  to  point  out  the  difference 
between  the  MS.  and  the  reading  of  the  Vaticana 
given  above.  On  palma  the  MS.  gives  a  liquescent 
note,  on  the  first  syllable  of  adnunciandum  it  has  a 
podatus  (a  c,  or  d  f ,  as  this  notation  should  be  read  a 
fifth  lower)  instead  of  a  single  note;  in  the  last,  a 
podatus  instead  of  an  epiphonus.  The  first  group  on 
mane  is  the  same  as  in  the  Vaticana,  the  lowest  mark 
being  a  mere  blot.  In  the  third  ^up  the  MS.  has  a 
fourtn  (c  g,  or  f  c)  instead  of  a  third  (o  g).  After  the 
fifth  group  there  is  an  omission  of  the  whole  passage 
which  in  our  staff  notation  example  is  placed  between 
the  two  little  bars  at  the  end  of  the  second  line.  Such 
omissions  are  not  uncommon,  it  being  supposed  that 


the  singor  knew  frequently-occurring  long  neumata  by 
heart.  The  omission  is  mdicated  in  the  MS.  by  the 
little  perpendicular  line.  On  the  first  syllable  of  mi»- 
ericordiam,  the  first  two  notes  of  the  Vaticana  are 
omitted.  At  the  end  of  the  line  we  observe  the  cus- 
tos,  indicating  the  pitch  of  the  first  note  of  the  second 
line.  On  tuam  there  is  again  an  omission  of  a  whole 
group  indicated  as  above.  On  veriieUem  the  fourth 
dot  is  an  accidental  blot.  At  the  end  of  the  second 
tuam  the  MSS.  has  a  third  (f  d)  instead  of  a  fourth 
(c  e) .    The  final  neuma  is  left  incomplete. 

Tliis  procedure  solved  in  principle  the  problem  of 
diastematic  (interval)  notation.  For  greater  con- 
venience, however,  scribes  soon  began  to  draw  hori- 
zontal lines  which  helped  to  facilitate  the  correct  plac- 
ing and  reading  of  the  notes.  It  was  the  work  of  the 
Benedictine  monk  Guido  of  Arezzo  (about  1000)  to  fix 
the  use  of  these  lines  finally  in  such  a  way  that  ad- 
jacent lines  mark  the  interval  of  a  third,  the  interven- 
ing note  being  placed  between  the  two  fines.  Letters 
were  also  affixed  to  the  beginning  of  the  staff  to  give 
the  alphabetical  name  of  one  or  several  places  on  the 
staff  and  thus  to  indicate  the  position  of  tne  semitones. 
Soon  c  and  f  were  used  for  this  purpose  by  preference 
and  out  of  them  bv  a  graphic  transformation,  our 

{)resent  C  and  F  (bass)  clefs  evolved.  Later  the 
etter  g  was  employed,  which  throu^  the  addition 
of  an  ornamental  flourish  developed  into  the  modem 
violin  clef.  In  the  beginning,  however,  the  f  and  c 
lines  were  run  over  with  vanous  colours,  or  if  f  fell 
into  space,  a  coloured  line  was  drawn  between  the  e 
and  g  lines. 

In  the  staff  thus  perfected  the  neums  were  written 
according  to  the  forms  that  had  been  previously  in 
use  in  the  various  localities,  such  modifications  being 
introduced  as  were  necessary  to  mark  the  exact  posi- 
tion of  the  notes,  notably  the  thickening  of  the  head 
of  the  acutus.  Illustration  VI,  taken  from  a  twelfth- 
century  Gradual  of  St.  Evroult  ("Pal.  Mus.".  III^  pi. 
194),  shows  the  process  clearly.  It  has  four  ary  Imes 
drawn  on  the  parchment,  of  which  the  one  for  f  was 
coloured  red.  that  for  c  green.  The  other  two  lines 
have  the  clef  letters  a  and  e. 

From  the  thirteenth  century  the  notes  began  to  be 
written  larger,  so  that  they  might  be  read  by  a  num- 
ber of  singers  at  the  same  time.  The  thickening  of  the 
strokes  at  the  exact  PJ^Bice  the  notes  occupy  also  De(»une 
more  pronounced.  Thus  gradually  in  tne  Latin  coun- 
tries the  type  shown  in  the  foregoing  iUuBtration 
evolved  which  is  practically  the  one  adfopted  in  our 
modem  chant  books. 

niustration  VII  ("Pal.  Mus.",  Ill,  pi.  207  B)  is 
taken  from  a  fourteenth-centiiry  plenaiy  Missal  be- 
longing to  Notre  Dame  in  Paris.  In  the  first  line  on 
the  right-hand  column  the  noup  a  c  b  g  has  been 
written  twice  by  mistake.  Of  interest  is  the  disap- 
pearance of  the  quiUsma  at  the  end  of  Uie  final  neuma, 
also  the  substitution  of  c  for  b  on  florMt  at  the  end  of 
the  group  on  per  (which  word  is  written  a  little  too 
far  to  the  left). 

niustration  VIII  ("Pal.  Mus.",  Ill,  pi.  146)  shows 
the  peculiar  type  of  notation  which  developed  in 
Germany  and  is  called  Hufnagdeckrift  (horseshoe- 
nail  writing).  The  illustration  is  from  a  Gradual 
written  at  Trier  in  1435.  There  are  five  black  lines, 
but  the  f  line  was  coloured  red.  The  illustration 
shows  clearly  that  a  second  line  was  drawn  over  the 
first.  In  the  third  staff  we  find  the  g  clef  and  the  red 
f  line  drawn  in  the  space  between  e  and  g.  Melodi- 
cally  the  frequent  substitutes  of  c  for  b  is  remaikable 
on  Justus  f  twice  onftorMt,  on  cedms,  etc.).  This  is  a 
peculiarity  of  the  (German  tradition. 

For  the  rh3rthmic  signification  of  the  neums  see  the 
article  on  Plain  Chant. 

The  principal  work  on  the  tubjeot  it  the  FaUograpkie  MnaieaiM, 
published  in  quarterly  iasues  ttnoe  1889,  firat  at  Solennaa,  after- 
warda  at  Toumai.  An  exhaustive  list  of  the  earlier  Uteratare  m 
given  in  the  preface  to  the  first  volume.    Bupplemeotal  to  this  are 


muMAim 


Um  pubtiHttolM  at  tha  Plain  Smt  and  Hiiiatal  JTiuk  Saci^v 

(LoadOD.  nnoe  1888).  A  lood  hud-book  u  Wioheb,  //tumtn- 
kundt  oecoQd  put  of  bil  Einfa/irvno  in  Ait  Grajorianimek&n  Melo- 
tfien  (FcBlbura.  IBOSi.     Also.  Ortaaru 

tin«  of  Stanbrook  (London,  18871  ^  F^.^—- .  ,....-,.. , 

I»rt  I  {Leipii*.  1895J;  p«rt  II  (Uipiui,  1897);  part  III  (B*i- 
On.  1904);  MouToa.  DruUche  Choral-Witiimdnickt.  (RAlubon. 
1904);  Thibaut,  Oritnn*  fibianJiiu  i^c  la  Notation  fifeumaiiqut  d* 
" iHH,  Dit  BytanltniuAt  Nntuitelm/l  im  10.  Mt  JS.  Jahrhiaidml 


down  as  Good  Friday  by  his  biographov;  d.  at  Philip 

delphia,5  January,  1860.    FromchUdbocid  he  evinced 

ittlBdia  by  the  B«iiedic-     signa  of  B  vocation  to  the  prifsthood,  and  entered  the 


Mw 


locoDBSBAU.  Lt  NombH  ItuMiaii  Orieon 


,  JoBANH  Bauthabab,  b.  1687  at  Eger: 

d.  1753  at  WUreburg,  master  of  the  rococo  Btyle  and 
one  of  the  greatest  tmd  most  productive  artists  of  the 
eighteenth  century;  diatinguished  as  a  decorator,  but 
more  so  as  an  architect.  He  came  from  Eger  to 
Wtlrabui«  as  a  cannon  founder,  and  served  chiefly  with 
the  French  army.  After  he  had  travellnd  to  perfect 
himself  aa  an  architect,  he  followed  that  profession  in 
southern  Germany  and  on  the  Rhine,  entering  into 
such  succeHsful  competition  with  the  French  masters 
of  the  period  that  deCotte  and  Boffrand,  who  judged 
his  plans  for  the  episcopal  palace  at  Wllriburg,  after- 
wards eagerly  laid  claim  to  the  authorship.  While 
in  the  service  of  Prince-Biahop  Frani  von  Schdnbom 
(1719),  Neumann  laid  the  comersl/ine  of  the  palace 
(1720).  It  is  oeteittatiouB  but  habitable,  a  vast  rec- 
tangle, 544  ft.  by  169  ft.,  with  five  well  laid  out  courts 
and  three  entiance  ^lea  omatnented  with  pilasters, 
columns,  and  balcomes.  The  throne  room  with  the 
R>lendid  adjoining  state  apartments,  and  the  court 
cnapel,  although  not  externally  remarkable,  excel  ^ 
the  rest  in  sumptuous  splendour  with  an  enormous 
outlay  in  material  and  skill.  The  baroque  style  of  the 
edifice  is  here  replaced  by  the  most  finished  decora- 
tive rococo.  The  details  are  frequently  of  marvellous 
beauty;  the  arrangement,  notwithstanding  the  over- 
crowmng,  is  not  inharmonious,  although  in  combina- 
tion it  is  bizarre  and  whim^cal.  The  rococo  artist 
obviously  intends  to  produce  not  only  picturaoque 
effects,  but  a  demonstration  of  lus  unrestricted  power 
over  material  substances.  The  interior  decorations 
for  a  palace  built  at  Biuchsal  for  another  Schiinbom, 
Bishop  of  Speyer,  are  magnificent,  though  simpler. 
For  a  third  Schonbom  he  built  a  castle  at  Coblen* 
which  was  likewise  distinguished  for  immense,  har- 
monious proportions  and  splendid  arrangement.  A 
palace  in  Wemeck  is  also  his  work.  He  completed 
the  designs  for  palaces  in  Vienna,  Carlsruhe,  etc.    The 


existing  conditions.  In  the  facade,  which  was  later 
removed,  he  followed  the  prevaOing  taste  in  eveiy  de- 
tail. In  the  restoration  of  the  west  side  of  Maine 
cathedral  he  was  unsuccessful,  and  more  so  with  lus 


Vierzehnheiligen,  and  the  collegiate  church  at  Neree- 
heim,  both  important  buildings,  with  oval  spires,  vast 
areas,  and  stately  proportions.  They  are  in  rococo 
style,  which  is  no  longer  attributed  entirely  to  him. 
Among  his  other  works  are  the  Dominican  church  at 
Wiirzburg,  the  family  chapel  of  the  SchCnboms  in  the 
same  place,  and  the  church  at  Gr6sweinstein.  He 
made  numerous  designs  for  parterres,  buildineB  for 
practical  purposes,  and  objects  of  handicraft.  He  was 
a  product  of  his  age.  though  he  towered  above  it  by 
reason  of  the  unusual  artistic  talent  with  which  nature 
had  endowed  him.  More  recent  times  have,  within 
certain  limits,  justified  his  choice  of  style. 

DOHH«,  Qack.  irrdtuUcJim  BnuitunK  (Berlin.  ISSS);  Foun^ 
eeich.  dtr  dniltcAm  Xuntt,  III  (Lslp^,  1855);  KuHH,  illla. 
XuiulffMc*.  (New  York.  Cincumn^,  Chioaco.  1909). 

G.  GiBTIUNK. 

H»umaiui,JogNNEPOMiTCi!Kt,VESBitABu,  fourth 
Bishop  of  PhUadelphia,  Penn^Ivania,  U.  S.  A.,  b.  at 
Prachatiti,  Bohemia,  28  March,  1811,  nroneously  set 


■  of  Budwds  in  1831.  A  profound  tleolopan, 
thoroughly  versed  not  only  in  all  branches  of  sacred 
learning  but  in  the  natural  sciences  as  well,  particu- 
larly in  botany,  he  spoke  fluently  many  Slavic  dialects 
and  at  least  eight  modem  languages,  besides  b^ng 
master  of  Latin,  Greek,  and  Hebrew.  When  Bishop 
of  Philadelphia  he  learned  Irish  to  help  the  Irish  im- 
roigrants  in  his  diocese.  Finishing  his  course  at  the 
Umversity  of  Prague  with  dislinction  in  August, 
1835,  he  returned  to  Budweis,  his  native  diocese,  for 
ordination.  While  at  the  seminary,  the  letters  of 
Father  Baraga,  afterwards  Bishop  of  Marquette, 
Michigan,  written 
to  the  Leopold 
Missionary  Sod- 
ety,  inspired  Neu- 
mann with  the 
desire  of  conse- 
crating himself  to 
the  American  mis- 
sions.  Accord- 
ingly, while  yet  a 

landed  in  Amer- 
ica (2  June,  1336), 
was  adopted,  and 
(25  June.  1836) 
ordained  by  Bish- 
op Dubois  of  New 
York,  who  sent 
him  without  delay 
to  western  New 
York,  where  he 
laboured  for  four 
yeare  amid  inrred- 
ible  hardships.  In  1840  he  entered  the  Redemptorist 
Congregation,  and  was  the  first  of  its  members  pro- 
fessed in  America,  16  January,  1842.  For  three  years 
Neumann  was  superior  of  the  Bedempiorists  at 
I^ttsbuig.  where  he  built  the  church  of  St.  Plulo- 
mena  ancl  by  labours  especially  among  the  German- 
spiking  people,  won  tiie  gratitude  and  praise  of 
Bishop  O  Connor.  In  1846  he  was  made  vice-pro- 
vinci^  of  the  Redemptoriats  in  America,  and  in  1852 
at  the  suggestion  of  Archbishop  Kenrick  of  Baltimore 
Vois  IX  gave  Father  Neumann  a  command  under 
obedience  to  accept  the  Hshopric  of  Philadelplua,  to 
which  he  was  consecrated  by  Archbishop  Kenrick 
at  St.  Alphonsus,  Baltimore,  28  March,  1852.  In  his 
solicitude  for  his  Qock  he  visited  the  larger  congr^a- 
tions  of  his  diocese  every  year  and  the  smaller  ones 
every  two  years,  remaining  several  days  in  the  coun- 
try places,  preaching,  hearing  confessions,  confirming, 
viuting,  and  anointing  the  sick.  He  once  waUtM 
twenty-five  miles  and  back  to  confirm  one  boy. 

IndefatJEable  in  the  cause  of  education,  both  eccled- 
aatJcal  and  secular,  he  nused  the  Btandard  of  study 
and  discipline  at  the  diocesan  senunary  of  St.  Charles 
Borromeo,  and  founded  (1S59)  an  ecclesiastical  pre- 
paratory college,  to  this  day  a  credit  and  a  blessine  to 
the  great  diocese  of  Philadelphia.  One  of  his  flrat 
acts  was  to  provide  Catholic  schools.  At  his  conse- 
cration (1852)  there  were  but  two  parochial  schools  in 
Philadelphia:  at  his  death  eight  years  later,  their  num- 
ber was  nearly  one  hundred.  The  bo^  he  entrusted 
to  the  Christian  Brothers,  and  the  girls  to  (Cerent 
ssterhoods;  St.  Joseph,  Charity,  Immaculate  Heart 
of  Mary,  Notre  Dame  of  Namur  and  Notre  Dame  of 
Munich.  These  last  he  helped  to  establish  ftrmly  in 
the  United  States,  and  befriended  in  many  ways.  He 
introduced  the  Sisters  of  the  Holy  Cross  from  France 
to  take  charge  of  an  industrial  school.  At  the  advice 
of  Kus  IX  he  founded  the  Philadelphia  branch  of  the 
Sisters  of  St.  Frands,  and  he  was  also  the  staunch 


MStTttAYft 


774 


MXUT&A 


friend  of  the  Colored  Oblate  Sisters  in  BsJtimore, 
whom  by  his  tact  and  charity  he  saved  from  dissolu- 
tion. In  five  years  he  erected  fifty  churches  and  com- 
pleted the  exterior  of  the  cathedral.  Conspicuous  at 
the  First  Plenary  Council  of  Baltimore  (1852),  he  waa 
one  of  the  American  bishops  invited  by  Pius  IX  to 
Rome  in  1854  for  the  definition  of  the  dogma  of  the 
Inunaculate  Conception.  Noted  for  his  aevotion  to 
the  Most  Blessed  Sacrament,  Neumann  was  the  first 
American  bishop  to  introduce  the  Forty  Hours  devo- 
tion into  his  diocese  in  1853;  he  also  inaugurated  the 
Eractice  now  in  vogue  in  many  places  of  reciting  the 
itany  of  the  Blessed  Virgin  and  the  Rosary  before 
Hi{^  Mass  on  Sundays  and  Holy  Days.  His  remains 
lie  interred  in  a  vault  before  the  altar  in  the  lower 
chapel  of  St.  Peter's  Redemptorist  church,  PMladel- 
phia.  Neumann  left  no  published  works  except  two 
catechisms  of  Christian  Doctrine,  which  received  the 
approbation  of  the  First  Plenary  Council  of  Baltimore, 
a  Bible  luystory,  confraternity  manuals,  a  Latin  pamph- 
let on  the  Forty  Hours,  and  Acts  of  the  synods  neld  by 
him  every  two  years.  His  pastoral  letters  are  remark- 
able for  their  solidity,  beauty,  and  unction.  On  15 
December,  1896,  he  received  the  title  of  Venerable  and 
the  authorities  of  Rome  have  under  consideration  the 
acts  of  the  Process  of  Beatification. 

Bbbgeb,  Leben  toftd  Wirken  (New  York.  1883),  tr.  Grimm  (New 
York,  1884)*  Maqkikr,  Short  Ld/e  (St.  Louis.  1897);  Cla.rxk, 
Litet  o/Deeea$«a  tsishopt  in  U.  S.,  II  (New  York.  1872).  431  sq.; 
Srka.  History  of  the  Catholic  Church  in  U  8.,  IV  (New  York. 
1892).  397  sq.;  Funeral  Obtequiet  of  Right  Rev.  John  N.  Neumann 
(PhUadelphia.  I860):  Am  Maria,  XXX.  181;  BeriehU  der  Leo- 
poldinen  SHftung,  XXV.  33;  Metropolitan,  I-VI;  New  York  Free- 
man** Journal  (7  Aug..  1852);  Pitteburg  Catholie,  IX,  245;  XVI, 
264:  Catholic  Herald,  XX,  XXVI;  Catholie  Mirror,  I.  X;  The 
CaUutlic  Church  in  the  U.  S.  A„  I  (New  York,  1908).  236-37; 
Amer.  Bed.  Review.  XVI.  393  aq..  XXIII.  315  sq..  XXXIII.  182 
BQ.  (an  unpubliahed  letter  and  facsimile). 

Joseph  Wissel. 

Neumayr»  Franz,  preacher,  writer  on  theological, 
controversial  and  ascetical  subjects,  and  author  of 
many  dramas  on  sacred  themes  in  Latin,  b.  at  Munich, 
17  January,  1697;  d.  at  Augsburg,  1  May,  1765.  He 
entered  the  Society  of  Jesus  3  October,  1712,  and  after 
his  studies  in  the  Society,  taught  rhetoric  and  belles 
lettres  for  ten  years.  He  then  for  two  years  preached 
on  the  missions,  when  he  was  made  director  of  the 
celebrated  Latin  sodality  at  Munich,  a  post  which  he 
filled  with  great  credit  for  eleven  years.  From  1752 
to  1763  he  preached  at  the  cathedral  of  Augsburg  with 
extraordinary  success.  His  controversial  sermons, 
directed  in  a  great  part  against  the  false  teachings  of 
the  Lutherans,  and  in  particular  against  the  apostate 
monk  Rothfischer.  and  Chladonium,  were  of  a  solidity 
of  argument  that  baffled  the  efforts  of  his  adversaries. 
Father  Neumayr  produced  a  surprising  number  of 
volumes:  Latin  plays  for  the  use  of  his  Latin  sodality, 
which  periodically  staged  such  productions  for  the 
pleasure  and  edification  of  the  literary  men  of  Munich; 
sermons  which  he  had  delivered  m  ^  the  pulpit  of 
Au0Rburg  cathedral;  works  on  asceticism,  treatises 
on  Rhetoric  and  Poetry,  and  some  essays  on  moral 
theology  in  defence  of  the  Jesuit  system.  Some  of 
his  Latin  plays  were  republished  in  his  two  collections 
"Theatrum  Asceticum^'  and  "Theatrum  Politicum". 
''Theatrum  Asceticum.  sive  Meditationes  Sacrse  in 
Theatro  Congregationis  Latins  de  B.  V.  Maris,  ab 
Angelo  Salutatse  exhibits  Monachi  vemo  jejunii 
tempore  ab  anno  1739  usque  ad  annum  1747  ",  871  pp., 
Ingolstadt  and  Augsburg,  1747  (5  editions),  contains 
dramatic  renderings  of  such  subjects  as  the  conversion 
of  St.  Augustine,  devotion  to  the  B.  V.  Mary,  the  evil 
of  sin,  the  fear  of  God,  Divine  Mercy  and  Love. 
"Theatrum  Politicum  sive  Tragoedis  ad  commenda- 
tionem  Virtutis  et  Vitiorum  detestationem,  etc.", 
Augsburg  and  Ingolstadt.  1760,  618  pp.,  contains 
episodes  from  the  lives  of  Eutropius,  Papmianus,  Ana- 
Btasius.  Dicorus,  Tobias,  and  Sara,  etc.  One  amusing 
title  wnich  occurs  is  "Prooeaus  jucidialis  contra  fures 


temporis".  These  plays,  besides  numerous  others, 
were  published  also  in  separate  booklets.  On  his 
ascetical  writings  probably  the  most  famous  and  most 
valuable  is  the  excellent  httle  book  "  Idea  Theologiie 
Ascetics,  Scientiam  Sanctorum  exhibens",  a  posthu- 
mous work  first  published  in  Rome  by  Alexander 
Monaldi  in  1839.  It  has  gone  through  five  editions 
in  Latin  and  has  been  translated  into  various  lan- 
guages. The  English  edition  bears  the  title:  "The 
science  of  the  Spiritual  Life."  He  wrote  also  several 
works  in  defence  of  Probabilism.  Of  his  hterary 
treatises  the  "Idea  Rhetorices"  deals  with  the  pre- 
cepts and  use  of  Rhetoric;  "Idea  Poesis"  is  a  sinoilar 
volume  on  poetry  and  in  the  title  he  tells  us  the  uses  of 
the  art,  "Ad  Ingeniorum  Culturam.  Animorum  Obleo- 
tationem  ac  Morum  Doctrinam" — ends  which  he 
had  very  well  kept  in  mind  in  his  own  dramatic  works. 
A  tribute  to  Father  Neumayr  on  the  occasion  of  his 
jubilee  in  religion  styles  him:  "The  Champion  of 
Faith  and  Good  Morals,  a  Follower  and  Rival  of  the 
great  Paul,  the  Hammer  of  the  Heretics,  Phyacian 
of  Sinners  and  Oracle  of  the  Just!"  His  works,  aa 
enumerated  in  Sonmiervogel,  nimiber  112  books  and 
pamphlets. 

SoMMKBYOOSL,  Btblioth^gue  de  la  Compa^ie  de  Jieue,  V,  new 
edition:  db  Backer.  BibUoAitue  dee  Berivatne  de  la  Compagnie  de 
Jieue;  Knblubb  in  Kirehenlex.,  s.  v. 

Edward  F.  Gareschi^. 

Neiuohl,  Diocese  of  (Hung.  BesztbrczbbInta; 
Lat.  Neosoliensis),  founded  in  1776  by  Maria 
Theresa.  Cardinal  Peter  Pazm^y  had  already  con- 
templated founding  four  new  sees  in  order  to  relieve 
the  Archdiocese  of  Gran;  one  of  these  was  Neusohl,  but 
this  project  was  dropped  in  1636.  Instead  of  four 
sees,  four  Jesuit  colleges  were  established  in  Kaasa, 
Neusohl,  Kossy,  and  Safron.  After  the  suppression 
of  the  Jesuit  Order  the  project  of  the  new  diocese  was 
again  taken  up.  On  7  December,  1775,  Maria  Theresa 
informed  the  cathedral  chapter  of  Gran  that  it  had 
been  decided  to  establish  a  new  see,  and  asked  the 
chapter  to  state  what  revenues  would  be  assigned 
to  it.  On  11  January,  1776,  the  new  diocese  was 
founded  by  royal  decision,  and  on  13  March,  the  papal 
decree  was  made  public.  Baron  Franx  Berchtold  was 
named  the  first  bishop  (1776-93),  and  in  1778-^  held 
the  first  canonical  visitation.  His  efforts  to  benefit 
the  diocese  materially  were  unsuccessful,  and  the 
great  fire  of  1782,  which  destroyed  the  episcopal  resi- 
dence, had  such  a  bad  effect  upon  the  see,  that  Joseph 
II  contemplated  giving  it  up,  and  planned  the  trans- 
fer of  Bercntold  to  the  See  of  Gran,  but  the  bishop  op- 
posed the  plan,  as  well  as  that  of  the  union  of  the  dio- 
cese with  that  of  Sz^kes  or  Roszsny6.  The  seminary, 
lyceum  and  the  f om*  archdeaneries  were  founded  in 
the  time  of  Bishop  Anton  Mackay  (1818-23).  A  dioc- 
esan synod  was  held  at  Neusohl  21  November,  1821, 
where  the  diocesan  constitution  was  drawn  up,  which 
is  valid  to  this  day.  Bishop  Joseph  Rudnyciustky 
(1844-50)  was  persecuted  by  the  Austrian  Govern- 
ment on  account  of  his  political  views,  and  on  20  Au- 
gust, 1846,  was  arrested  and  sentenced  to  six  years'  im- 
prisonment, and  deprived  of  his  episcopal  honours. 
He  retracted  in  1850,  whereupon  he  was  released  from 
prison.  Among  the  more  recent  bishops  Arnold 
Tpolzi  waj9  distinguished.  The  present  bishop  is  Wol- 
fang  Radnoi.  Since  1835  the  cathedral  chafiter  pos- 
sesses its  own  insignia,  and  is  composed  of  six  mem- 
bers; there  are  aJK>  six  titular  canons.  The  diooese 
has  a  provost,  112  parishes,  and  371  chapels;  there  are 
168  priests  and  49  clerics^  2  monasteries  and  2  nunner- 
ies.   In  1902  the  Cathohc  population  numbered  in  aO 

223,779  souls. 

Dae  Katoli$ehe  Ungam  (Catholie  Hungary)  (Bndapert,  1801); 
Sehematiemue  diaceeie  NeoeoUeneie  pro  anno  190S, 

A.  AldIbt. 

Neutra  (Nitria;  Ntitra),  Diocsbb  of  (NmoBN- 
Bis) ,  in  Western  Hungary,  a  suffragan  of  Gimn.     The 


NEVADA                                  775  HXTAOA 

«xact  date  of  its  foundation  is  unknown.    Some  attrib-  winters  a 
ute  the  foundation  to  Fridigit,  wife  of  Rosemund,  the  late  eprin.. 
Marconian  chief,  in  the  middle  of  the  fourth  century,  westerly  wind  which  has  often  disaetrouB  effects,  a: 
but  without  any  more  evidence  than  the  alleged  foun-  ia  generally  accompanied  by  sand  storm.    The  mean 
dation  by  Archbishop  Wolf  of  Lorch.     Nor  la  the  see  temperature  in  January  ia  28°,  while  that  of  summer  is 
a  direct  continuation  of  one  which  existed  in  Svato-  71°.     The  average  rainfall  throughout  the  year  ia  ten 
pluk'a  time  and   was   suffragan   of   Prag-Poteaover;  inches,  and  the  greater  part  of  this  precipitation  comea 
neither  is  it  probable  that  the  saintly  King  Stephen  between  the  months  from  December  to  May. 
founded  it.    The  see  was  probably  founded  in  the  PopmuiTJON.^The  history  of  the  population  of 
time  of  King  Coloman  about  1105-07,  although  St.  Nevada  since  1850  presents  some  ot  the  moat  uit«r- 
LadialauB  had  it  in  contemplation,  for  a  royal  docu-  eating  figures  in  the  United  States  CensuB  records. 
ment  still  exiata,  in  which  he  endows  the  church  at  From  the  time  of 
Neutra  with  much  property.    The  church,  dedicated  the    early    settle- 
to  St.   Emmerara,  was  there  in  the  Ufetime  of  St.  ments  m  1850-60 
Stephen,  and  ia  aupposed  lo  have  been  endowed  by  to  the  years  of  the 
Queen  Gisela.    Gervasiua  was  the  first  bishop  {1105-  great  mining  de- 
14),  and  was  followed  by  Nicholas  (1133).     The  sue-  velopmenta    in 
c«ssors  of  St,  Ladislaus  mcreased  the  revenues  of  the  1860  -  1880,    the 
see  to  which  the  city  of  Neutra  belonged  from  the  mid-  population  rtKiidly 
die  of  the  thirteenth  century.     The  cathedral  chap-  mcreaaed   from    a 
ter  was  in  all  probability  established  at  the  same  time  few  hundred  pio- 
as  the  see;  but  until  the  seventeenth  century  very  neers     to     60,000 
little  ia  known  about  it.     There  were  only  nine  canons  people,  while  after 
in  the  seventeenth  century,  but  the  number  was  in-  1885  (dcmoncttia- 
oreased  to  ten  in  1780.     The  see  shared  the  fate  of  the  tionof  silver)  it  de- 
country,  the  invasian  of  the  Turks,  the  Hussites,  in-  clined     until     the 
temal  ouarrels,  all  of  which  wrought  much  mischief,  ecdofthecentury, 

eepeoially   the  disastrous  battle  of   Mohacs   (1526).  and  from  that  time                    Sbal  or  N«viDi 

The  see  was  in  time  deprived  of  its  revenues  which  began  to  increase 

fell  into  the  hands  of  the  laity.    Valentine  Toorch  very  rapidly.    The  figures  showing  the  population  of 

first  had  poBseaaion  of  them,  and  then  later  Alexius  the  atate  smce  18S0,  according  to  U.  S.  Census  Re- 

Thurd6,  after  which  the  tatter's  brother,  Bishop  Franz  ports,  are  significant  of  these  fluctuations:  1860, 6,857; 

Thurd6,  acquired  them,  but  later  on  became  a.  Prot^  1870,42,491;  1880,  62,226;  1890,  45,761;  1900,42,335; 

estant.     The  Reformation  found  a  foothold  in  Neutra,  1910,  81,875. 

owing  to  the  syropathy  of  certain  noble  families.  Mineral  PsoDDPnON. — The  mineral  production 

Bishop  Paul  Bomemissos  tried  to  restore  the  financial  of  Nevada  conaists  chiefly  of  gold  and  silver.    For  the 

conditiona  of  the  see,  but  unaucccssfully;  during  the  year  1908  the  entire  mineral  production,  consisting 

wars  with  the  Turks  the  chapter  was  obliged  to  flee  chiefly  of  gold,  silver,  and  a  little  lead,  was  valued  at 

and  only  returned  to  Neutra  in  1607.     Bishop  Franz  119,043,820,  while  in  1909  the  gold  production  alone 

Forsach  was  the  first  biahop  to  oppose  the  spread  of  was  valued  at  115,908,400  and  that  of  silver  at  $4,657,- 

the  Reformation  (1596-1607);  hia  work  waa  carried  on  000,  or  a  total  production  of  820,665,400  in  gold  and 

by  his  successors,  especially  by  the  Jesuits,  who  since  silver  alone. 

)645  worked  zealously  for  the  re-cstabliahmcnt  of  the  AaRicm-TTTRE  and  Stock  Raisinq. — The  agricul- 

Catholic  rcli)(ion.     In  the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth  tural  products  of  Nevada  for  1909  were  valued  thus: 

centuries  religious  orders  settled  in  the  diocese.    The  wheat,  11,074,000;  oats,  $1,165,000;  barley,  $228,000; 

cathedral  aa  it  atands  to-day  was  erected  by  Ladislaus  potatoes,  $459,000;  hay,  $5,187,000.     From  these  fig- 

Erdodyl  (1796-36).     Among  the  more  famoua  biahopa  urea  it  can  be  seen  that  the  t>roduction  of  hay  is  as 

was  August  Roskoviny  (1859-92),  famed  as  a  theo-  important  one,  being  greater  in  1909  than  the  entire 

logian  and  canonist.      Bishop  Emmerich  Bende  has  production  of  silver.     In  stock  raising  the  most  impor- 

been  bishop  since  1893;  his  coadjutor  with  right  of  tant  industi^  is  that  of  sheep.    In  1909  the  entire 

succession  is  Count  William  Batthyany.     The  see  in-  number  of  ^leep  in  the  state  waa  1,585,000  and  the 

eludes  a  part  of  the  counties  of  Neutra  and  Trenescen,  wool  chp  amounted  to  8,754,720  lbs.     Cattle  raisillg  is 

and  ia  divided  into  4  archdeaneries.     There  are  148  also  an  important  industry. 

parishes,  237  priests,  194  of  whom  are  parish  prieats:  HiBTOBr.^The  firat  European  to  visit  what  ia 

also  15  religious  orders,  numbering  14.^  members,  of  now  the  State  of  Nevada,  was,  in  all  probabihty,  the 

both  sexea.     In  1907  the  CathoUc  population  num-  Franciscan  Friar  Francisco  G&rces.     Father  G&rcee 

bered  350,398.     The  cathedral  chapter  is  composed  started  from  Sonora,  in  northern  Mexico,  with  Colonel 

of  ten  canons,  and  there  arc  six  titular  canona,  also  3  Anza  for  California  in  1775.     In  this  famous  journey, 

titular  abbots.  Gdrccs  stopped  at  the  junction  of  the  Gila  and  Colo- 

Ci.  K^iouund  Siadu  Unrnm-KomiiMNffttra  (Budapeet,  rado  Rivers,  in  order  to  explore  the  surrounding  coun- 

L  d.);  Dai  XalAolHcAt   Vngam  <Budapcgt,  19011:  Schtmalumia  ,               J    „.'   l,i:„l,    „    mlBsinn        Nn    HPtflBTTiPnU    nBrB 

diacetii  Niiritniiii  is07;Pgxi,Sptcimen  Ilittarchia  HuiBariir  I  ™             CBtaDiisn  a  mission,      iio  aeiciemenia  were 

<Pa«a.  iTTB);  Mimoria  cpiicaporum  ffiiritruiun  (Pomd.  1835).  made  or  mission  founded,  but  from  the  account  of 

A.  AuiiaT.  Father  Gdrcea'  journey  as  given  by  Father  Pedro 

Font,  who  accompanied  Gtoes  and  wrote  a  fairly 

HvnOA,  a  Western  state  of  the  Umted  States,  complete  history  of  their  travels,  it  seems  practically 
bounded  on  the  North  by  Oregon  and  Idaho,  on  the  certain  that  they  visited  Nevada,  which  was  then,  and 
East  by  Utah  and  Arizona,  and  on  the  South  and  West  in  fact  until  1850-60,  a  nameless  desert.  The  next  to 
by  California.  It  lies  between  the  latitudes  of  35°  {in  vi^t  Nevada  were  also  Franciscan  misaionariea. 
Ha  extreme  southern  mint)  and  42°  north,  and  be-  These  were  Fr.Atanasio  Dominique*  and  Fr.Silveatre 
tween  the  meridians  of  1 14°  and  120°  longitude.  The  Velez  de  Escalante,  who  on  their  journey  to  Monte- 
extreme  length  of  the  state  from  north  to  south  is  483  rey,  California,  turned  to  the  East,  crossed  the  Colo- 
miles,  while  ifa  extreme  breadth  from  east  to  west  is  rado  River  at  the  37°  parallel,  crowed  the  extreme 
320  miles.  The  total  area  of  the  atate  of  Nevada  is  aouthem  part  of  what  is  now  Nevada,  and  proceeded 
110,590  square  miles,  to  explore  Utah.    These  friars  also  merely  explored 

Climate. ^The  climate  of  Nevada  ia  dry,  pleasant,  these  regions  and  no  settlements  were  made  nor  mis- 

and  healthful.    Summers  are,  as  a  rule,  very  warm,  aious  established.    After  these  visits  of  the  FVancis- 

except  in  the  high  mountainous  districts,  wtule  tbe  ^ans  it  is  vei^  probable  tbat  the  miUtai^  expeditions 


NEVADA 


776 


NEVADA 


from  New  Mexico  from  time  to  time  reached  the  Colo- 
rado River  near  Nevada,  but  we  have  no  record  of  any 
expedition  having  actually  croesed  over  into  the  teiv 
ritory  in  question.  In  1825,  however,  Peter  Skeen 
O^en,  an  American  trapper  from  the  Columbia 
River  m  the  North-West,  accompanied  by  a  few  men. 
started  to  explore  the  country  to  the  south-east  ana 
reached  the  nver  now  known  as  the  Humboldt  River, 
in  the  present  State  of  Nevada,  which  was  in  1825  a 
nameless  country,  lying  between  California  (which 
was  then  an  indefinite  stretch  of  country  north  of 
southern  California)  and  New  Mexico,  which  included 
in  1825,  Arizona  and  parts  of  Utah  and  Colorado.  All 
'  the  above  territories,  with  unsettled  boundaries  on  the 
north  and  east,  belonged  to  Mexico  until  the  treaty  of 
Guadalupe-Hidalgo  in  1848,  at  the  close  of  the  Mexi- 
can War.  when  they  were  ceded  to  the  United  States. 
Long  before  these  events,  however,  Utah  and  Nevada 
were  settled  by  Americans  and  even  provisional  gov- 
ernment established.  After  the  explorations  of  Ogden 
and  his  companions,  American  adventurers,  mostly 
trappers,  went  to  Utah  and  Nevada,  amon^  whom  was 
Kit  Carson  (then  Uvine  in  Taos,  New  Mexico),  who  in 
company  with  many  others  visited  the  coimtry  in  1831, 
1833,  1844,  1845.  In  1843-44,  Fremont  with  Carson 
and  Godey,  conducted  various  explorations,  largely 
hunting  expeditions,  into  Nevada,  and  in  1844-45, 
Elisha  Stevens,  with  a  small  party,  among  whom  were 
two  womeUj  passed  through  Nevada  on  his  joum^ 
from  the  Missouri  River  country  to  California.  This 
was  the  first  caravan  to  traverse  all  this  stretch  of  ter- 
ritory. After  the  Mexican  cession  of  1848  and  the 
discovery  of  gold  in  California,  Nevada  was  frequently 
traversed  by  the  gold  seekers  and  other  western  pio- 
neers on  their  way  to  California.  Shortly  after  the 
signing  of  the  treaty  of  Guadalupe-Hidalgo,  the  Mor- 
mons who  had  migrated  westwsuxi  and  built  the  city 
of  Salt  Lake,  established  the  State  of  Deseret,  a  com- 
monwealth which  was  to  include  what  is  now  Utah, 
Nevada.  Arizona,  parts  of  Colorado,  Wyoming,  Ore- 
gon, and  California.  These  Mormons  found  it  profit- 
able business  to  meet  the  travellers  on  their  wav  to 
California  and  furnish  them  provisions.  In  these 
trading  expeditions  they  advanced  south  and  west 
from  Salt  Lake  City,  and  in  1849,  they  founded  the 
first  settlement  in  what  is  now  Nevada,  near  the  Car- 
son River.  In  1850,  Congress  organized  the  territo- 
ries of  Utah  (what  is  now  Utah  and  Nevada),  New 
Mexico  (what  is  now  New  Mexico  and  Arizona),  and 
the  State  of  California.  The  territory  now  com- 
prised in  the  State  of  Nevada  was  organized  as  Carson 
County,  Utah,  under  the  political  control,  therefore, 
of  the  Mormons.  Congress  had  fixed  tne  western 
boundary  of  the  Territory  of  Utah  as  the  Sierra  Ne- 
vada. The  fact  that  the  Sierra  Nevada  was  continu- 
ally kept  in  mind  as  the  barrier  between  Utah  and 
Calif omia,  may  have  given  an  occasion  to  cail  the  ad- 
jacent territory  east  ofCalif omia,  Nevada^  though  the 
name  does  not  come  into  prominence  until  1860.  By 
1856,  the  mines  were  being  strongly  developed  and 
American  immi^tion  was  rapidly  settling  Carson 
County.  A  pohtical  conflict  between  the  Mormons 
and  the  Gentiles  for  the  control  of  the  governmental 
affairs  of  Carson  (Dounty  (which  included  practically 
all  of  what  is  now  Nevada)  lasted  for  several  years. 
In  1865  the  citizens  of  this  county,  mostly  gentiles, 
petitioned  the  Government  of  the  United  States  to  be 
annexed  to  California  or  be  organized  as  a  separate 
territorv.  The  Government  gave  little  heed  to  these 
demanos,  and  for  five  years  the  political  struggle 
raged  fiercely  between  the  two  factions.  Congress  at 
last  put  an  end  to  these  troubles,  and  in  1861  Carson 
County,  Utah,  was  organized  as  the  Territory  of  Ne- 
vada. James  W.  Nye  was  appointed  as  the  first  ter- 
ritorial p)vemor.  Three  years  later  a  constitutional 
convention  was  held,  a  State  constitution  adopted. 
and  in  1864  Nevada  was  admitted  as  a  State,  and 


H.  G.  Blaisdel  was  elected  the  first  governor.  During 
the  3rears  1865-85,  the  material  developments  in  Ne- 
vada made  rapid  strides,  though  oontiniudly  hampered 
by  a  heaver  debt  contracted  since  the  early  da3rs  of  ter- 
ritorial legislatures. 

GovBRNMBNT. — Nevada  was  a  part  of  the  Territory 
of  Utah  from  1850  to  1861,  a  separate  territory  from 
1861  to  1864,  and  oiganized  as  a  State  in  1864.  The 
State  constitution  when  first  adopt^  granted  numer- 
ous privileges  to  mining  interests.  While  at  first  this 
seemed  to  be  an  incentive  to  the  development  of  the 
rising  mining  industries,  it  soon  proved  to  be  unfair 
to  the  commonwealth  at  large.  A  long  series  of  liti- 
gations, costly  to  both  sides,  ensued  between  the  State 
and  the  mine  owners,  in  view  of  the  amendments  to 
the  constitution,  whi<ui  struck  out  all  parts  which  gave 
special  privileges  to  the  mining  industry.  The  State 
constitution  sJter  many  amendments  is  now  a  eoife- 
guard  to  the  State  and  to  the  rights  of  its  citizens.  At 
present,  Nevada  is  representedin  the  United  States 
Congress  by  two  senators  and  one  representative. 

Education. — ^At  the  time  of  tne  admission  of 
Nevada  as  a  territory  in  1861,  there  was  no  public- 
school  S3nstem  and  there  were  no  schools.  The  popula- 
tion of  the  territoiy  was  about  7000--8000  people,  but 
there  were  only  four  or  five  small  private  scnools.  An 
attempt  was  made  to  organize  a  sdiool  system  in  1861, 
but  be^rond  the  appointment  of  a  superintendent  of 
public  instruction  and  the  establishment  of  a  few 
schools  with  little  or  no  funds,  practically  nothing 
was  done  until  1864,  when  Nevada  was  organized  as  a 
State.  The  number  of  schools  was  then  eighteen,  and 
by  1865  there  were  thirty-seven,  and  the  number  of 
pupils  was  about  1000.  At  present,  Nevada  has  a 
complete  system  of  education,  gradiially  developed, 
which  begins  with  the  primarv  iKhool  and  ends  with 
the  State  University.  The  educational  affairs  of  the 
State  are  controlled  and  managed  by  a  State  Bofltfd  of 
Education  consisting  of  the  State  governor,  the  Presi- 
dent of  the  University,  and  the  State  Superinten- 
dent of  Public  Instruction.  The  State  is  divided  into 
five  educational  districts,  each  district  being  under 
the  supervision  and  control  of  a  deputy  superintendent 
and  there  are  no  county  superintendents.  According 
to  the  law  of  the  State  all  children  between  the  ages 
of  eight  to  fourteen  years  are  compelled  to  attend 
school,  but  the  law  has  never  been  rigidly  enforced. 
At  present  (1908),  there  are  in  Nevada  17,583  children 
under  twenty-one  years  of  ase,  of  whom  thirty-eight 
are  n^;roes  and  fifty  Mongouans.  Of  all  these,  6,733 
attendthe  public  schools  and  595  attend  private  and 
denominational  schools.  The  total  number  of  schools 
in  the  State  is  308  with  414  teachers.  There  are  two 
Catholic  schools  with  about  200  pupils  and  an  orphan 
asylum  under  the  care  of  religious. 

The  State  University  was  op^ed  in  1886.  It  is 
now  located  at  Reno  and  has  various  departments  of 
arts,  Uterature,  science.  The  teachixig  force  consists 
of  fifty-four  professors,  assistant  professors,  and  in- 
structors, and  in  1909-10  the  attendance  was  220 
students.  The  annual  expenditures  are  at  present 
about  $200,000,  some  of  this  money  being  i4)pro- 
priated  for  Duilding  purposes.  The  State  has  also  a 
mining  school,  located  at  Virginia  City,  with  about 
thirty  students. 

RsuGiON. — ^The  first  Catholic  church  to  be  built 
in  Nevada  was  the  one  erected  by  Father  Gallafdier, 
at  Genoa,  in  1861.  In  1862  the  church  was  blown 
down  and  another  buUt  in  its  place.  In  1864  Father 
Monteverde  erected  the  first  Catholic  church  at  Aus- 
tin, and  in  1871  Father  Menil  built  the  first  church 
at  Reno.  The  efforts  of  these  first  zealous  priests 
were  the  beginning  of  the  histoiy  of  Catholicism  in 
Nevada.  Nevada  has  at  present  no  bishop  and  the 
State  does  not  form  a  diocese.  The  eastern  half  of 
the  State,  east  of  the  117th  meridian,  including  also 
Austin  and  ths  country  bordering  on  toe  Reese  River 


777 


vim 


to  the  West  of  che  same  meridian,  belong  eodenasti- 
cally  to  the  Diocese  of  Salt  Lake,  Province  of  San 
Francisco,  while  the  territory  west  of  the  117th  merid- 
ian, with  the  exception  of  Austin  and  the  country  bor- 
dering on  the  Reese  River,  belong  to  the  Diocese  of 
Sacramento,  of  the  same  province.  According  to  the 
Bureau  of  the  United  States  Census  (Bulletin  No.  103, 
Religious  Bodies,  1906)  the  CathoUc  population  of 
Nevada  was  then  9,970,  or  66%  of  the  enture  religious 
population  of  the  State.    The  following  are  the  princi- 

eat  denominations  of  the  State  and  the  church  mem- 
ers  in  each:  Catholics  9,970,  or  66%  of  the  total; 
Episcopalians  1,210,  or  8%;  Latter  Dav  Scdnts 
1,105,  or  7%;  Methodists  618,  or  4%;  Presbyterians 
520,  or  3H%;  Baptists  316,  or  2%. 

Catholic  Immigralion. — Catholics  have  gone  toNe- 
vada  at  different  times,  along  with  the  general  influx 
of  population  into  the  Western  States  from  the  Middle 
States  in  1845-75.  Since  the  very  beginning  of  the 
history  of  the  State,  the  Catholic  Chm-di  hajs  oeen  an 
important  factor  in  the  upbuilding  of  the  common- 
w^th  and  the  welfare  and  education  of  the  people. 
The  difficulties  encountered  were  not  easy  to  overcome 
in  the  midst  of  an  unsettled,  careless,  and  often  law- 
less community  in  the  years  1850-70.  After  the  es- 
tablishments of  the  first  Catholic  chiu*ches  in  the  new 
country  by  Fathers  Gallagher,  Monteverde,  and  Mer- 
ril,  came  the  great  benefactor  Father  Monogue,  who 
in  1863  established  the  pioneer  benevolent  organiza- 
tion of  Nevada  or  the  St.  Vincent  de  Paul  Benevolent 
Society.  This  was  at  a  time  when  organizations  of 
this  kind  were  veiy  much  in  need  in  the  western  coun- 
triesj  and  the  praiseworthy  work  of  this  societv,  the 
chanties  of  which  were  extended  to  all,  regardless  of 
creed,  cannot  be  too  highly  commended.  Father 
Monogue  also  established  in  1864,  the  Nevada  orphan 
asylum,  two  Catholic  schools,  St.  Mary's  school  for 

girls  and  St.  Vincent's  school  for  boys,  and  St.  Mary's 
oepital,  all  under  the  care  of  Sisters. 
Religiou8  Polity. — ^The  State  constitution  guaran- 
tees to  all  individuals  absolute  freedom  of  worship  and 
toleration  of  religious  sentiment.  By  statutory  law. 
all  amusements,  business  transactions,  opemng  of 
saloons  and  gambhng,  are  forbidden  on  Sundays,  but 
the  law  has  never  been  rigidly  enforced.  There  is  no 
law  demanding  a  compulsory  administration  of  a  fixed 
form  of  oath,  and  a  simple  affirmation  or  negation 
suffices  before  the  law.  There  are  no  statutory  laws 
of  any  kind  that  forbid  blasphemy  or  profanity.  It  is 
customary  to  open  the  Legislature,  the  school  year 
at  the  State  University  and  many  of  the  public  schools 
with  prayer,  but  there  are  no  laws  either  for  or  against 
such  practices.  Bv  statutory  law,  however,  rehgious 
instruction  of  any  kind  is  absolutely  forbidden  in  the 
public  schools,  and  the  public  school  funds  cannot  be 
used  for  sectarian  purposes.  Sunday,  New  Year's 
Day,  Washington's  Birthday,  (Admission  Day), 
Thanksgiving,  and  Christmas  are  designated  by  law 
as  non-judicial  da3rs  and  are  observed  asWal  holida3rs. 
There  is  no  law  reco^zing  religious  holidays  as  such. 
No  statutory  law  exists  as  regards  the  seal  of  confes- 
sion, but  it  IS  presumed  that  the  same  is  inviolable. 
Churches  may  oe  incorporated.  All  church  property 
that  is  used  only  for  church  purposes  is  by  law  exempt 
from  taxation,  and  maUcious  mjury  to  churches  or 
church  property  is  by  law  punishable  by  fine  or  even 
imprisonment.  The  lawfully  licensed  cler^  of  all 
denominations  is  exempt  from  jury  and  mihtary  ser- 
vice. Mcuriage  is  recognized  by  law  as  a  civil  con- 
tract. It  may  be  performed  by  any  licensed  minister 
or  a  civil  judge.  With  the  consent  of  the  parents 
marriage  may  be  contracted  by  a  man  and  woman  of 
the  ages  of  eighteen  and  sixteen  respectively,  and  with- 
out the  parents'  consent  only  at  the  ages  of  twenty-one 
and  eighteen  or  over  respectively.  The  parties  con- 
tracting marriage  must  not  be  nearer  kin  than  second 
cousins,  or  cousins  in  the  second  blood.    The  divorce 


laws  of  the  State  are  very  liberal.  By  the  State  law, 
divorces  may  be  granted  for  impotency,  adultery, 
desertion,  infamy,  cruelty,  drunkenness,  or  neglect  to 
provide. 

BANCRorr,  Hittory  of  Nevada,  Colorado  and  Wyomino  (San 
Francifloo,  1890);  Biennial  report  of  the  State  SuperinUndeni  of 
Public  Inetrudion  of  Nevada  (Carson  City,  1909) ;  Bureau  of  the 
Ceneue  of  the  United  Statee:  BuUetin  No.  109,  Religioue  Bodiee 
(Washington.  1906);  Cuttino.  Compiled  Lawe  of  the  Stale  of 
Nevada,  1861-1900  (Carson  City.  1900) ;  Catholie  Directory  (Mil- 
waukee and  New  York,  1910) ;  History  of  Nevada  (Oakland.  1881) : 
International  Year  Book  (New  York,  1909) ;  RepoH  of  the  United 
Statee  Commiseianer  of  Education  (Washington.  1908,  1909); 
Univereity  of  Nevada,  Regieterfor  1909-10  (Carson  City,  1910). 

AUREUO  M.  ESPINOSA. 

Neve,  titular  see  of  Arabia,  suffragan  of  Bostra. 
Two  of  its  bishope  are  known:  Petronius,  who  at- 
tended the  Council  of  Ephesus  in  431,  and  Jobius, 
who  was  present  at  that  of  Chalcedon  in  451 .  Isaac, 
a  third  bishop,  mentioned  by  Le  Quien  about  540 
("Oriens  christ.",  II,  864)  was  not  a  bishop  of  Neve 
but  of  Nineve,  and  lived  at  the  end  of  the  seventh  cen- 
tury ("Echos  d'Orient",  IV,  11).  The  Diocese  of 
Neve  is  noticed  in  the  **  Notitia  episcopatuum  "  of  An- 
tioch  in  the  sixth  century  ("Echos  d'Orient",  X. 
145),  and  the  city  of  Neve  is  referred  to  by  George  ot 
Cyprus  ("Descriptio  orbis  romani".  ed.  Gdzer.  54)  in 
tlie  next  century.  The  "Revue  biblique"  published 
(III,  625)  some  Greek  inscriptions  from  the  locality. 
A  large  Mussulman  village  called  Nawa,  in  the  Hau- 
ran,  now  occupies  the  site  of  this  former  see  and  the 
tower  of  the  ancient  Christian  church  is  still  visible. 
Neve  must  not  be  confounded  with  Mount  Nebo,  situ- 
ated about  94  miles  south  of  the  town. 

S.  Vailh£. 

Ndve,  Feux-Jban-Baptiste-Josicph,  orientalist 
and  pUlologist,  b.  at  Ath,  Belgium,  13  June,  1816;  d. 
at  Louvain,  23  May,  1893.  His  parents  were  devout 
Catholics.  Graduated  with  distinction  from  the 
Catholic  college  of  Lille,  N^ve  completed  a  course  of 
academic  studies  at  the  University  ot  Louvain,  obtain- 
ing in  1838  the  Degree  of  Doctor  of  Philosophy  and 
Letters.  His  pronounced  taste  for  classical  and  ori- 
ental languages  led  him  to  pursue  higher  studies  under 
some  of  the  most  distinguished  scholars  of  Europe. 
Professors  Lassen  of  Bonn,  Tiersch  of  Munich,  and 
Bumouf  of  Paris.  He  became  acquainted  with  many 
oriental  scholars^  some  of  them  already  famous,  others 
destined  like  himself  to  win  fame  in  after  years. 
Among  these  were  Miiir,  Wilson,  A.  Weber.  Kuhn, 
Max  Muller,  and  the  distinguished  orientalist  and 
Catholic  priest.  Dr.  Windischmann. 

In  1841  N^ve  was  appointed  to  the  chair  of  Greek 
and  Latin  Literature  in  the  University  of  Louvain, 
and  while  teaching  the  classics,  gave  a  course  of  studies 
in  the  Sanskrit  language  and  literature.  This  work  he 
kept  up  with  unsparing  energy  and  marked  success  for 
thirty-six  years,  at  the  same  time  making  known  the 
results  of  his  studies  in  books  and  in  articles  con- 
tributed to  the  "Journal  Asiatique",  "Annales  de 
Philosoplue  Chr^tienne",  "  Correspondant ".  and 
other  periodicals.  When  in  1877  he  was  released 
from  his  arduous  duties  with  the  title  of  professor 
emerUuSf  his  industry  continued  unabated,  and  for 
the  next  fifteen^  years  a  series  of  publications  came 
from  his  pen.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Asiatic 
Society  of  Paris,  the  Asiatic  Society  of  London,  the 
Royal  Academy  of  Belgium,  and  was  a  Knight  oi  the 
Order  of  Leopold. 

To  Ndve  belong  the  honour  of  giving  the  first  im- 
petus to  the  cultivation  of  Sanskrit  studies  in  Bel- 
gium. The  most  important  of  his  numerous  publica- 
tions in  this  field  are:  (1)  his  translation  of  selected 
h3rmns  from  the  Rig-Vedr  "  Etudes  sur  les  hymnes  du 
Rig-VedfL  avec  un  choix  d'hymnes  traduits  pour  le 

Sremier  lois  en  franfais"  (Louvain,  1842);  (2)  his 
ne  study  of  the  ancient  Brahmin  cult  of  the  Rib- 
hanas,  "Essai  sur  le  mythe  des  Ribhanajs  .  .  .  avec 
le  texte  Sanskrit  et  la  traduction  frangaise  des  hymnes 


mnB8  Ti 

ftddresa£a  aces  divinity  "  (Paris,  1847);  [3}  his  trans- 
lation of  the  Indian  drama  based  on  the  atory  of  the 
epic  hero  Rama,  "Le  di^noucment  de  I'histoire  de 
Rama.  Outtaja-Rama-Charita,  drama  de  Bhavab- 
houti,  traduit  du  saiiBlirit"  (BmeselB,  18R0);  (4)  hia 
collection  of  eaaaya  on  the  Vedanta  philosophy  and 
the  epic  and  dramatic  poetrjr  of  India,  published  under 
the  title  "EpoquGS  httfraires  de  I'lnde"  (Brussels, 
1883). 

N6ve  naa  also  learned  in  the  Armenian  language 
and  literature.    A  number  of  valuable  translations 
and  studies  based  on  Armenian  texts  came  from  his 
pen.     Among  these  may  bo  mentioned:  (1)  the  Ar- 
menian story  of  the  Tatar  invasion,  "Expos£  des 
guerres  de  Tamerlan  et  de  Schah-Rokh  dans  I'Aaie  oc- 
cidentale,  d'apr^a  le  chroniaue  arm^nienne  in^dite  de 
Thomas  de  Medzoph",  published  in  "M^moirea  de 
I'Acadfimie  Royale  de  Bolgique"  (1861);  (2)  the  Ar- 
menian account  of 
the  exploits  of  God- 
frey   de     Bouillon, 
"Lea  chefs belgca  de 
la  premiere  croiaade 
d'aprte  les  hiatoriens 
ann^niens"     (Brus- 
aela,   1859);  (3)  the 
valuable    collection 
of  studies  on  early 
Christian  Armenian 
prayers  and  hymna 
entitled  "L'Arm<!nie 
chi^tienne  et  sa  lit- 
t^rature"  (Louvain, 
1886).      Among  the 

Eublicationaof  N^ve 
earin  gon  phi  lolo^y , 
a  place  of  honour 
should  be  given  to 
hia  account  of  the 
learned  men  who  in 
the    sixteenth    and 

aeventeenth  cen-  CimMWM.  o»  SpCtb 

tunes  laboured  for 

the  upbuilding  of  the  University  of  Louvain,  "  La  re- 
naissance des  lettrea  et  I'easor  de  I'^rudition  an- 
denne  en  6ek;ique". 

Laht,  Mm  in  Anauain  it  VAtadtmii  Rai/alt  dm  Bdeiv'^ 
IIS93):  LiPiHTmi,  Nitt  in  Annuairt  dt  VUniteriM  de  Lmrain 
(ISM);  WiLUHB.  Ntte  in  luppl.  at  Journal  d>  Bntxdlii  (Aug.. 
1S93). 

Charles  F.  Aiken. 

Herert,  DtocEas  of  (Nivbrnum),  includca  the 
Department  of  Ni6vre.  in  France.  Suppressed  by  the 
Concordat  of  1801  and  united  to  the  See  of  Autun,  it 
wsa  re-established  in  1823  aa  suffragan  of  Sens  and 
took  over  a  part  of  the  former  Diocese  of  Autun  and  a 
part  of  the  former  Diocese  of  Auxerre  (see  Sens).  The 
'^'GalliaChristiana"  mentions  as  first  Bishop  of  Nevers 
St.  Eladiua,  restored  to  health  in  the  reign  of  Clovia 
by  St.  Severinua,  Abbot  of  St.  Maurice.  According 
to  Duchesne  the  first  authentic  biahop  ia  Tauricanus, 

S resent  at  the  Council  of  Epaon  in  517.  A  number  of 
irmer  bishops  of  Nevers  are  venerated  aa  saints:  St. 
Arey  (Arigiua)  649-52);  St.  Agricola  (580-94);  St. 
Jerome  (800-16)  who  rebuilt  in  honour  of  the  martyrs 
Quirictis  and  Julitta,  the  cathedral  until  then  d(>di- 
caled  to  8ts.  Gervaaiua  and  Protasius.  It  ia  posaible 
that  in  the  seventh  century  three  other  saints  occu- 
pied the  See  of  Nevers:  St.  Di&  (Deodatus),  the  same 
perhaps  who  died  a  hermit  in  the  Vosgee;  St.  Nectarius 
and  St.  Itier  (Itherius).  The  following  biahops  of 
Nevers  were  notable:  the  future  cardinal  Pierre  I  Ber- 
trandi  (1320-22)  who,  in  1329-30,  defended  ecclesias- 
tical immunities  against  the  barons  in  the  celebrated 
conferences  of  Paris  and  Vinceanea  predided  over  by 
Riaip  VI;  Chartee  de  Bourbon  CI540-47)  subse- 
quently cardinal  and  whom  the  L^uers  wished  to 


'8  HXVKB8 

make  King  of  France  under  the  name  of  Charles  X: 
Spifame  (1548-58)  who  became  a  Calvinist  in  1559, 
and  was  afterwards  accused  of  forgery  and  beheaded 
at  Geneva  in  1556;  the  poleraist  Sorbin  de  Ste-Foi 
(1578-1606)  a  voluminous  writer.  Among  the  saints 
of  thia  dioceae  must  be  mentioned:  Sts.  Paul,  priest; 
P£reux  and  P£lerin,  martyrs  between  272  and  303;  St. 
Faroie  (Patritius),  Abbot  of  Nevers  in  the  sixth  cen- 
tury; the  hermit  St.  Franchy  (Francoviecue) ;  the 
grieat  St.  Vincent  of  Magny  in  the  ninth  century; 
lessed  Nicholas  Applaine,  canon  of  the  collegiate 
church  of  PrSmery  (fifteenth  century)  whose  cassock 
Louis  XI  claimed  as  a  rcUc.  Claude  Fauchet,  consti- 
tutional Bishop  of  Calvados  during  the  Revolution, 
was  a  native  of  the  diocese. 

In  1168,  William  IV,  Count  of  Nevers,  willed  to  the 
Bishop  of  Bethlehem  in  Palestine  the  small  town  of 
Pantenor  near  Clamecy,  also  the  hospital  at  Clameey 
founded  by  hu 
father  WiUiam  HI 
in  1147.  In  1223, 
owing  to  the  incui^ 
sions  of  the  Mussul- 
mans in  Palestine, 
the  Bishop  of  Bethle- 
hem settled  at  Clam- 
ecy, and  exercised 
I'urisdiction  over  the 
lospital  and  the  fau- 
bourg of  Pantenor; 

chosen  by  the  ooun  ts, 
later  by  the  dukee 
of  Nevers,  with  the 
approval  of  the  pope 
and  the  king.  In 
1413  Charles  VI 
tried  to  obtun  for 
the  titular  bishops 
of  Bethlehem  tbe 
privileges      enjoyed 

av,o^,,.N..™        °r.t°'lai!*bS 

the  French  clergy  were  oppcEed  to  this  and  the 
titular  of  Bethlehem  was  always  considered  a  biahop 
in  partibut  infidelium.  The  aaaembly  of  the  clergy  of 
France  in  1635  granted  the  biahops  of  Bethlehem 
an  annual  pension.  Chriato^her  d'Authicr  of  Sisgau, 
founder  of  the  Miaaionary  Priests  of  the  Congre^tion 
of  the  Blessed  Sacrament  and  celebrated  for  hia  ser- 
mons to  the  galley-slavea  of  Marseilles  was  Biahop  of 
Bethlehem  1651-63.  The  Abbey  of  La  Ctiatit£  sur 
Loire,  founded  in  1056,  and  known  as  the  "eldest 
daughter"  of  Cluny,  was  inaugurated  in  1 106  by  Pas- 
cal II ;  the  celebrat«l  Sugcr,  then  a  simple  clenc,  bae 
left  an  account  of  the  ceremony.  The  Benedictine 
Abbejr  of  Corbigny,  founded  under  Charlemaf^e  was 
occupied  by  the  Huguenots  in  1563,  as  a  basis  of  opera- 
tions. Bemadette  Soubirous  (see  LovRDEe,  NontE- 
Daue  db)  died  in  the  Visitandine  Convent  of  Nevers, 
12  December,  1878.  The  chief  places  of  pilgrimage  in 
the  dioceae  are:  Notre  Dame  de  Piti^  at  St.  Martin 
d'Heuille,  dating  from  the  fourteenth  century;  Noire 
Dame  de  Fauboulvin  at  Corancy,  dating  from  1590; 
Notre  Dame  du  Morvan  at  Dun-sur-Grand  Ry, 
dating  from  1876.  Prior  to  the  enforcement  of  the 
law  of  1901,  the  Diocese  of  Nevers  counted  Marists, 
Oblates  of  Mary  Immaculate,  Oratoriane,  and  seven] 
orders  of  teaching  brothers.  Among  the  congrega- 
tions for  women  which  originated  in  the  diocese  must 
be  mentioned:  the  Ursuline  nuns,  a  teaching  order 
founded  in  1622  at  Nevers  by  the  Duke  of  Goniaga 
and  the  Nevers  aldermen;  the  Hospitallere,  founded 
in  1639  at  La  Charit^ur-Loire  by  Siat*r  Mjdard- 
Varlet;  the  great  congregation  of  Sisters  of  Charily 
and  Christian  Instruction,  founded  in  1680,  with 
mother-house  at  Nevecs.    At  tbe  betrnning  of  the 


NEVILLE 


779 


NEWARK 


tweolieth  century  the  religious  oongregations  of  the 
diocese  had  charge  of  22  day  nurseries,  5  orphanages 
for  girls.  2  sewing  rooms,  18  hospitals  or  asylums,  1 
house  of  retreat.  1  home  for  incurables,  1  insane  asy- 
lum, 2  religious  nouses  for  the  care  of  the  sick  in  their 
own  homes.  In  1908  the  Diocese  of  Nevers  had  313,- 
972  inhabitants,  95  parishes,  and  272  succursal  par- 
ishes. 

Gadia  Chriatiana,  XII,  nom  (1770),  625-65;  Inslrumenia,  297- 
358;  DucHSSME,  FcuUm  Bpitcopaux,  II,  475;  Fibquet,  France  pan' 
tifieaUf  Nnera  (PariB,  1866) ;  Pousserxau,  Hiatoire  dea  comtea  at 
da  duea  da  Navara  (PariB,  1897) ;  de  Soultrait,  Armoricd  de  Nevera 
p^ariBt  1852);  Crobmxbr,  Hagiologia  Nivemaiaa  (Neven,  1858); 
Idem,  Monogravhie  da  la  eat/Udrale  da  Nawra,  auivia  da  Vhiatoire 
iea  MquM  da  Nevara  (Paris,  1854). 

Geobqes  Gotau. 

Neville,  Edmund  (aliaa  Sales),  a  Jesuit,  b.  at 
Hopcut,  Lancashire,  1605;  d.  in  England,  18  July, 
1847.  Educated  at  St.  Omer,  he  entered  the  Eng- 
lish College,  Rome,  29  June,  1621,  where  he  dis- 
tinguished himself  in  philosophy.  He  joined  the 
Jesuits,  24  May,  1626;  was  stationed  at  Ghent,  1636, 
and  sent  on  the  London  mission,  1637.  He  was  pro- 
fessed, 3  August,  1640;  served  in  the  Oxford  district. 
1642,  and  in  South  Wales,  1645.  Being  a  suspected 
priest  he  was  seized  under  the  Commonwealth  but 
soon  released.  He  wrote  the  "Palm  of  Christian 
Fortitude"  (St.  Omer,  1630),  an  account  of  the  Jap- 
anese persecutions;  a  ''Life  of  St.  Augustine"  and 
"Second  Thoughts"  both  unprinted.  (2)  His  uncle 
Edmund  Neville  (alias  Elijah  Nelson),  probably 
the  son  of  Sir  John  Neville  of  Leversedge,  b.  in  York- 
shire about  1563;  d.  1648,  his  death  hastened  by  the 
treatment  he  received  in  prison.  Ordained  for  the  Eng- 
lish mission,  12  April.  1608,  he  entered  the  Society, 
1609.  He  is  considered  to  have  been  the  dejure  seventh 
Earl  of  Northumberland.  (3)  Manv  members  of  the 
Scarisbrick  familv  of  Scarisbrick  Hall,  near  Ormskirk. 
became  Jesuits  during  the  penal  times  and  assumed 
the  aliaa  "Neville".  Among  them  were  Edward 
Scarisbrick  (Neville),  b.  1639.  Educated  at  St. 
Omer,  he  entered  the  Societv  at  Watten,  7  Septem- 
ber, 1660,  and  was  stationed  at  Li^e,  1671,  and  St. 
Omer,  1675.  Sent  to  England,  he  was  one  of  Oates's 
intended  victims.  James  II  appointed  Mm  royal 
chaplain.  He  was  instructor  of  the  Jesuit  tertians 
at  Ghent,  1693.  He  returned  to  Lancashire,  where 
he  died,  19  February,  1708-9.  He  wrote  '^Life  of 
Lady  Warner"  (St.  Omer.  1691);  "CathoUck  Loy- 
alty"  (London.  1688);  "Rules  and  Instructions  for 
the  Sodality  of  the  Immaculate  Conception",  etc. 
(4)  Edward  Neville  (Scarisbrick),  b.  1663;  d.  15 
November,  1735.  He  became  a  Jesuit,  1682;  served 
on  the  Derbyshire  mission,  1701.  and  after  1728  at 
Bushey  Hall,  Watford,  Herts.  (5)  Edward  Neville 
(Scarisbrick),  b.  1698;  d.  7  July,  1778.  He  entered 
the  Society,  7  September,  1728.  Superior  of  the 
Derbyshire  mission  in  1764,  he  laboured  also  in  Lan- 
cashire. (6)  Sir  Edward  Neville,  son  of  Baron 
Bergavenny.  a  courtier  of  Henry  VIII^  took  part  in 
the  war  in  France,  and  wap  made  the  king's  standard 
bearer,  1531.  He  married  Eleanor,  daughter  of  Lord 
Windsor.  Arrested  3  November,  1538,  on  the  charge 
of  conspiracy  with  the  brother  of  Cardinal  Pole,  he 
was  sent  to  the  Tower,  tried  at  Westminster,  and  be- 
headed for  the  faith,  8  December. 

Db  Backxb,  Bibl.  daa  icrtvaina  da  la  Comp.  da  Jiaua,  II  (1521); 
FOLET,  Reeorda  of  the  English  Province  of  the  S.J.  (London,  187ft- 
80),  V.  347.  350-1;  VI,  296,  406;  VII,  686;  Olivbb,  CoOe^nea 
8.J„  148;  Camm,  Livea  of  the  Sngliah  MaHyra,  I  (London,  1904), 
617  aqq. 

A.  A.  MacErlean. 

Now  Abbey. — ^The  Abbev  of  Sweetheart,  named 
New  Abbey  Pow,  or  New  Abbey,  in  order  to  distin- 
guish it  from  Dundrennan  in  the  same  county,  is  situ- 
ated near  the  River  Pow.  in  the  parish  of  Loch  Ken- 
derloch,  Kirkcudbrightsnire,  Diocese  of  Galloway, 
about  eight  miles  from  the  town  of  Dumfries,  Scot- 


land. The  title  of  Abbey  of  Sweetheart  was  i^ven 
by  the  foundress  of  the  abbey,  Lady  D6Vora^la, 
daughter  of  Alan,  Lord  of  Galloway,  who  erected  the 
monastery  in  order  to  keep  in  it  a  casket  of  ivory 
and  silver,  in  which  was  embalmed  the  heart  of  her 
husband.  King  John  de  Baliol.  Sweetheart  is  the  last 
in  order  of  the  Cistercian  abbeys  in  Scotland.  It  was 
begun  in  1275,  being  a  daughter  of  Dundrennan,  of  the 
lineage  of  Clairvaux.  Henry,  the  first  abbot,  built 
a  magnificent  church  in  the  early  English  style.  It 
measured  203  feet  in  lengthy  with  a  central  tower  92 
feet  high;  it  had  a  nave  with  aisles,  transepts  with 
chapels  on  their  eastern  sides,  and  a  choir  without 
aisles.  The  monastic  buildings  were  in  proportion, 
and  were  surrounded  with  a  massive  granite  enclosing 
wall,  from  eight  to  ten  feet  hi^,  large  portions  of 
which  still  remain.  Very  little  is  known  of  the  old 
history  of  Sweetheart,  except  that  the  Maxwells,  lords 
of  Kirkconnel,  whose  castle  was  near  by,  and  who 
were  descendants  of  the  MaxweU  kings,  were  great 
benefactors  of  the  place.  The  most  celeDrated  supe- 
rior of  the  abbey  was  Abbot  Gilbert  Broun,  the  last 
of  the  line.  He  continued  to  uphold  the  Catholic 
faith  long  after  the  Reformation,  and  was  a  powerful 
opponent  of  Protestantism.  He  was  denounced  sev- 
eral times  on  the  charge  of  enticing  to  ''papistrie'' 
from  1578  to  1605;  he  was  sdzed  by  his  enemies  in 
1605  in  spite  of  the  resistance  of  the  whole  country- 
side, taken  prisoner,  and  conveyed  to  Edinburgh, 
whence  he  was  banished.  He  then  became  rector  or 
the  Scots  College,  Paris,  where  he  died  in  1612  at  the 
aee  of  eighty-K)ur.  Tne  poseesmons  of  Sweetheart 
Abbey  pa^ed  into  the  hands  of  Sir  John  Spottiswoode 
in  1624,  and  with  them  the  title  of  Lord  of  New  Ab- 
bey. The  monastery  soon  became  a  mere  quarry  for 
those  who  wanted  ready-cut  material  for  building. 
The  chapter,  with  the  remains  of  the  library  over  it, 
and  a  part  ot  the  church,  are  all  that  remain  to-day. 

Henriquks,  Menalogium  Ciatarcienae  (Antweip,  1630) ;  Jonob- 
LINUS,  NotUia  Abbatiarum  Ord.  Ciatereienaia  (Cologne,  1640); 
Janaubchxk,  Originum  CiatarcieTunum  tomtu.  I  (Vienna,  1877) ; 
BABRrrr.  The  SeoUiah  Ciaterciana  (Edinbursn);  Rxazs,  S,  M,  de 
Neubotie;  New  SUxtiaHoal  Account  of  Scotland. 

Edmond  M.  Obrecht. 

Newark,  Diocese  of  (Novarcbnbis),  created  in 
1853,  suffragan  of  New  York  and  comprising  Hudson, 
Passaic,  Bergen.  Essex,  Union,  Morris,  and  Sussex 
counties  in  the  State  of  New  Jersey,  U.  S.  A.,  an  area 
of  1699  square  miles.  The  diocese  originally  included 
the  whole  State,  but  the  fourteen  other  counties  were 
taken  (15  July,  1881)  to  form  the  Diocese  of  Trenton. 
As  early  as  1672  the  records  show  that  there  were 
Catholics  at  Woodbridge  and  at  Elizabethtown,  the 
capital  of  East  Jersey,  and  the  Jesuit  Fathers  Harvey 
and  Gage,  Governor  Don^an's  chaplains  in  New  York, 
visited  them.  Other  priests  came  at  a  later  period. 
Several  of  these  pioneers  were  Alsatians  who  had  come 
over  with  Carteret  to  engage  in  the  salt-making  in- 
dustry. William  Douglass,  elected  from  Bergen,  was 
excluded  from  the  first  General  Assembly  held  at  Eliz- 
abethtown, 26  May,  1668,  because  he  was  a  Catholic. 
Two  years  later  he  was  arrested  and  banished  to  New 
England  as  a  'Hroublesome  person".  The  whole  at- 
mosphere of  the  colony  was  intensely  anti-Catholic. 
The  law  of  1698  granted  religious  toleration  in  East  Jer- 
sey, but  "provided  that  this  should  not  extend  to  any 
of  the  Romish  religion  the  right  to  exercise  their  manner 
of  wondiip  contrary  to  the  laws  and  statutes  of  Eng- 
land". In  West  Jersey,  the  pioneers  were  Quakers 
and  more  tolerant.  It  is  claimed  that  John  Tatham, 
appointed  Governor  of  West  Jersey  in  1690,  cud  the 
founder  of  its  great  pottery  industry,  was  really  an 
English  Catholic  whose  name  was  John  Gray.  Father 
Robert  Harding  and  Father  Ferdinand  Farmer  (Stein- 
meyer)  from  the  Jesuit  communit3r  in  Philadelphia, 
made  long  tours  across  the  State  in  the  eighteenth 
century  ministering  to  the  scattered  groups  of  Cath- 


NEWARK 


780 


mWABK 


olics  at  Mount  Hope,  Macopin,  Basking  Ridge,  Tren- 
ton, Ringwood,  and  other  places.  The  settlement  at 
Macopin  (now  Echo  Lake)  was  made  by  some  German 
Catholics  sometime  before  the  Revolution  and  their 
descendants  make  up  the  parish  to-day. 

During  the  Revolution  Washington's  army  brought 
many  Catholics  through  the  State.  In  the  camp  at 
Morristown  the  Spanish  ajgent  Don  Juan  de  MiraTles, 
died  28  April,  1780,  and  his  funeral  was  conducted  by 
Father  Seraphin  Bandol,  chaplain  of  the  French  Minis- 
ter, who  came  specially  trom  Philadelphia  to  adminis- 
ter the  last  sacraments  to  the  djring  Spaniard.  Wash- 
ington and  the  other  officers  of  the  army  attended  the 
ceremony.  When  in  the  following  May  the  remains 
were  removed  to  Philadelphia,  Congress  attended  the 
Requiem  Mass  in  St.  Mary's  church.  It  was  at  Mox^ 
ristown  in  1780,  that  the  first  official  recognition  of  St. 
Patrick's  Day  is  to  be  found  in  Washington's  order 
book,  still  preserved  there  at  his  headquarters.  Mar- 
bob,  writing  from  Philadelphia,  25  March,  1785,  gives 
the  number  of  Catholics  in  New  York  and  New  Jersey 
as  1700;  more  than  half  of  these  were  probably  in 
New  Jersey^.  There  were  many  French  refugees  from 
the  West  fiidies  in  Princeton,  Elizabeth,  and  its  vicin- 
ity, and  Fathers  Vianney,  Tissorant,  and  Malou  used 
to  minister  to  them  from  St.  Peter's,  New  York,  in  the 
early  years  of  the  last  century.  Mines,  furnaces,  glass 
works,  and  other  industries  started  in  various  sec- 
tions of  the  State,  brought  Catholic  immi^ants.  The 
Augustinian  Missionary,  Father  Philip  Larise^r,  vis- 
ited Paterson  about  1821,  and  the  first  parish  in  the 
State,  St.  Francis,  Trenton,  was  established  in  1814. 
Newark's  first  chm-ch.  St.  John's,  was  opened  in  1828, 
the  pastor  being  the  Rev.  Gregory  B.  Pardow  of  New 
York,  and  the  first  trustees  Patrick  Murphy.  John 
Sherlock.  John  Kelly,  Christopher  Rourke,  Morris 
Fitzgerald,  John  Gilf^ie,  and  Patrick  Mape.  The 
first  native  of  Newark  to  be  ordained  to  the  priesthood 
was  Daniel  G.  Duming.  son  of  Charles  Duming,  in 
whose  house  Mass  usea  to  be  said  before  the  first 
church  was  built.  In  1820  Father  Richard  Bulger 
erected  the  first  church  in  Paterson.  In  New  Bruns- 
wick the  first  Mass  was  said  by  Rev.  Dr.  Power  of  New 
York  in  1825,  and  the  first  church  was  opened  by  Rev. 
Joseph  A.  Schneller,  19  December,  1831.  In  Jersey 
City,  originally  called  Paulus  Hook,  Mass  was  first 
said  in  1830,  and  the  first  church  opened  by  the  Rev- 
erend Hugh  Mohan  in  1837.  At  Macopin  the  little 
band  of  German  Catholics  before  mentioned  had  a 
church  as  early  as  1829.  Thus  during  the  first 
half  of  the  nineteenth  century  there  was  a  slow  but 
steady  growth  of  the  Faith  ^1  over  the  State,  and  as  it 
was  receiving  a  substantial  share  of  the  great  inflow 
of  Catholic  immigrants,  the  Holy  See  deemed  the  time 
opportune  to  separate  it  from  the  Diocese  of  New  York, 
and  the  See  of  Newark  was  erected.  The  Reverend 
James  Roosevelt  Bayley  (q.  v.),  then  secretary  to 
Bishop  Hughes  of  New  York,  was  chosen  the  first 
Bishop  of  Newark,  and  consecrated  30  October,  1853. 
There  were  then  between  fifty  and  sixty  thousand 
Catholics  in  his  diocese,  for  the  most  part  Irish  and 
Germans. 

In  organizing  the  new  diocese  Bishop  Bayley  found 
he  could  count  on  only  twenty-five  priests.  There 
were  no  diocesan  institutions  except  small  orphanages, 
and  the  people  were  poor  and  of  httle  social  influence. 
In  the  interest  of  Catholic  education,  one  of  his  chief 
concerns,  he  foimded  the  Madison  Congregation  of 
the  Sisters  of  Charity  (q.  v.),  and  to  supply  the  lack 
of  funds  for  the  work  of  new  churches,  ne  obtained 
assistance  from  the  Association  of  the  Propagation 
of  the  Faith  of  Lyons,  France,  and  the  Lc^poldine 
Society  of  Vienna.  Seton  Hall  College  was  opened 
by  him  in  September,  1856,  and  everywhere  the  dio- 
cese responded  to  the  energy  of  his  zeal  and  practical 
effort.  In  ten  years  the  churches  increased  to  67,  the 
priests  to  63,  and  a  monastery  of  Benedictines  and 


another  of  Passionists  was  established.  The  Sisters 
of  Charity  became  a  community  of  87  members,  con- 
ducting 17  different  establishments.  Other  notable 
additions  were  2  convents  of  Benedictine  nuns,  2  of 
Grerman  Sisters  of  Notre  Dame;  2  of  Sisters  of  the 
Poor  of  St.  Francis:  a  flourishing  college,  an  academy 
for  young  ladies,  a  boarding  school  for  boys,  and  par- 
ish schools  attached  to  most  of  the  chiu*che8,  while  the 
old  wooden  chapels  had  bc«n  replaced  by  buUdings  of 
brick  and  stone.  ''All  this  has  been  done  ".the  bishop 
wrote,  "in  the  midst  of  a  population  of  emigrants, 
comparatively  poor,  without  incurring  a  great  debt! 
In  twelve  years  the  Association  of  the  Propagation  of 
the  Faith  gave  the  diocese  $26,600.  This  progress, 
too,  was  made  in  spite  of  much  local  narrowness  and 
bigotry,  the  culmination  of  which  on  5  November, 
1854,  resulted  in  a  riot  during  which  an  anti-Catholic 
mob  desecrated  and  sacked  the  little  German  church 
of  St.  Mary  in  Newark  served  by  the  Benedictine 
Father  Nicholas  Balleis.  In  this  disturbance  a  Cath- 
olic was  killed  and  several  others  wounded. 

Bishop  Bayley  was  promoted  to  the  Archbishopric 
of  Baltimore,  30  July,  1872,  and  his  successor  as 
second  bishop  of  the  see  was  the  Right  Reverend 
Michael  Augustine  Corrigan  (q.  v.)  consecrated  4 
May,  1873.  He  successfully  overcame  a  number  of 
complicated  financial  entanglements,  and  established 
a  House  of  the  Good  Shepherd  for  girls  24  May,  1875, 
in  Newark,  a  protectory  for  boys  about  the  same  time 
at  Denville,  and  in  June,  1880,  in  Newark  a  community 
of  Dominican  Nuns  of  the  Perpetual  Adoration,  from 
Ouillins,  France.  On  8  and  9  May,  1878,  an  impor- 
tant synod  was  held,  and  in  Julvi  1881,  the  Diocese  of 
Trenton,  which  cut  off  a  considerable  portion  of  the 
Newark  territory  in  the  southern  section,  was  estaib- 
lished.  On  1  October,  1880,  Bishop  Corrigan  was 
made  titular  Archbishop  of  Petra  and  coadjutor  of 
New  York,  and  to  succeed  him  as  third  Bishop  of 
Newark,  the  Rev.  Dr.  Winand  M.  Wigger.  then  pastor 
at  Madison,  was  chosen  and  consecratea  18  October 
1881.  Bishop  Wigger  was  bom  of  German  parents 
in  New  York  City,  9  December^  1841.  and  made  his 
classical  studies  at  St.  Francis  Xavier  s  College,  New 
York.  His  theological  course  was  followed  at  Seton 
Hall  and  at  the  college  of  Brignole-Sale,  Genoa,  Italy, 
where  he  was  ordained  priest  10  June,  1865.  Follow- 
ing the  example  of  his  predecessors  Bishop  Winger 
made  the  diocesan  seminary  one  of  the  objects  ofhis 
chief  solicitude.  In  1883  he  removed  the  Catholic 
Protectory  to  Arlington  and  established  the  Sacred 
Heart  Union  to  aid  in  its  maintenance.  The  Fifth 
Diocesan  Syiiod  was  held  by  him  17  November,  1886, 
at  which  strict  regulations  were  enacted  in  regard  to 
funerals  and  the  attendance  at  parochial  and  public 
schools.  On  11  June,  1899,  he  laid  the  cornerstone 
of  a  new  cathedral  church  at  Newark,  and  soon  after 
was  forced  to  go  abroad  in  search  of  rest  and  health. 
On  his  return  he  took  up  his  duties  with  zeal,  but  died 
of  pneumonia,  5  January,  1901.  The  record  of  his 
administration  shows  a  character  entirely  disinterested 
and  unselfish  united  to  a  poverty  truly  apostolic. 

The  Vicar-General  John  J.  O'Connor  was  the  choice 
of  the  Holy  See  as  fourth  bishop,  and  was  consecrated 
25  Jul>r,  1901.  Bom  at  Newark,  11  June,  1855,  he 
made  his  college  course  at  Seton  Hall.  In  1873  he  was 
sent  to  the  American  College  at  Rome  where  he  spent 
four  years.  After  another  year  at  Louvain  he  was 
ordained  priest  22  December,  1877,  and  on  his  return 
to  NewarK,  was  appointed  professor  at  Seton  Hall 
College  where  he  became  Director  of  the  Seminary  in 
which  he  remained  for  the  following  eighteen  years. 
He  was  then  named  vicar-general  and  on  30  October, 
1895,  rector  of  St.  Joseph's.  Early  in  his  administra- 
tion he  adopted  measures  for  the  completion  of  the 
new  cathedral  of  the  Sacred  Heart,  begun  by  Bishop 
Wigger,  making  this  the  special  object  of  the  solden 
jubifee  of  the  cuooeee.    At  this  it  was  shown  that  in 


NSWBATTLI 


781 


NEW    CALEDONIA 


Hie  brief  space  of  fifty  years,  there  had  been  an  in- 
crease of  tenfold  in  the  number  of  churches  and  nine- 
fold in  population,  with  nearly  50,000  children  at- 
tending 167  Catholic  schools  and  institutions,  and 
396  pnests  attending  the  416  churches  and  chapels 
throughout  the  State.  Religious  communities  now 
represented  in  the  diocese  are^  men:  the  Jesuits,  Pas- 
sionists,  Benedictines,  Carmelites,  Dominicans,  Fran- 
ciscans, Ssdesians,  Pious  Society  of  the  Missions,  the 
Christian  Brothers,  Alexian  Brothers,  and  Xaverian 
Brothers;  women:  Sisters  of  Charity  (Newark),  Sisters 
of  St.  Benedict,  Sisters  of  Christian  Charity,  Sisters 
of  St.  Francis,  Sisters  of  Charity  (Gray  Nuns),  Domin- 
ican Sisters  of  the  Perpetual  Rosary,  Sisters  of  St. 
Dominic,  Sisters  of  St.  Francis,  Sisters  of  the  Poor  of 
St.  Francis,  Sisters  of  the  Good  Shepherd,  Sisters  of 
St.  Joseph,  School  Sisters  of  Notre  Dame,  Sisters  of 
St.  Joseph  of  Peace,  Little  Sisters  of  the  Poor,  Felician 
Sisters,  Sisters  of  the  Sorrowful  Mother,  Pallotine 
Sisters  of  Charity,  Missionary  Sisters  of  the  Sacred 
Heart,  Daughters  of  Our  Ladv  of  Help,  Franciscan 
Sisters  of  the  Inunaculate  Conception,  Baptistine 
Sisters. 

SiatUtics  (1910):  Priests,  368  (regulars,  88); 
churches  with  resident  priests,  162;  missions  with 
churches,  36;  stations,  10:  chapels,  82;  seminary,  1, 
students,  42;  students  in  Europe,  7;  seminaries  of  re- 
ligious, 3,  students,  31 ;  colleges  and  academies  for  bo^s, 
6;  academies  for  girls,  12;  parish  schools,  116,  pupils. 
52,600;  orphan  asylums,  12,  inmates,  24()0;  industrial 
and  reform  schools,  4,  inmates  450;  protectonr  for 
boys,  1,  inmates,  180;  total  young  people  under  Cath- 
olic care,  56,000;  hospitals,  10;  houses  for  aged  poor,  2; 
other  charitable  institutions,  8;  Catholic  population, 
365,000. 

Fltitn,  The  Catholic  Chur^  in  Neva  Jtmty  (Morristown,  1004) ; 
Sbba,  Hiitory  of  the  Cath.  Ch.  in  the  U.  8.  (New  York,  1 880-92); 
Rbusb,  Biog.  Cyd.  of  the  Cath,  Hierarchy  in  the  U.  5.  (Milwaukee, 
1898) ;  Batlet.  A  Brief  Sketch  of  the  Barly  Hist,  of  the  Cath.  Ch.  on 
the  leiand  of  Neva  York  (New  York,  1853) ;  Griftin.  Catholice  in 
the  Am.  Beeolution,  I  (Ridley  Park,  Pa..  1907) ;  Tanouat.  Doew- 
mente  rekUing  to  the  Colontal  Hietory  of  New  Jertey  (Newark, 
1880) ;  Hietory  Cath.  Ch.  in  Patereon,  N.  J.  (Paterson,  1883) ;  Hiet. 
City  ofBlieabeth  (Elisabeth,  1899) ;  Freeman'e  Journal  and  Truth 
TeiUr  (New  York)  files;  The  Catholic  Directory  (1860-1910). 

Thomas  F.  Mebhan. 

Newbattle  (Nbttbotlb,  i.  e.  new  dwelling),  in  the 
ancient  Diocese  of  St.  Andrews,  about  seven  miles 
from  Edinburgh,  was  founded  about  1140,  being 
tJie  second  of  the  six  Cistercian  Monasteries  estab- 
lished by  St.  David,  King  of  Scotland.  Newbattle 
Abbey  was  a  filiation  of  Melrose  (itself  a  daughter  of 
Clairvaux)  and  was  situated,  according  to  Cistercian 
usages,  in  a  beautiful  valley  along  the  South  Eek. 
Rudolph,  its  first  abbot,  a  strict  and  severe  observer 
of  the  rule,  devoted  himself  energetically  to  the 
erection  of  proper  buildings.  The  church,  cruciform 
in  shape,  was  two  hundred  and  forty  feet  in  length, 
and  the  other  buildings  in  proportion;  for  the  com- 
munity numbered  at  one  period  as  many  ajs  eighty 
monks  and  seventy  lav-brothers.  The  abbey  soon 
became  prosperous,  and  famous  for  the  regularity  of 
its  members,  several  of  whom  became  well-known 
bishops.  It  was  especially  dear  to  the  kin^  of 
Scotland,  scarcely  one  of  whom  failed  to  visit  it 
from  time  to  time,  and  they  were  always  its  generous 
benefactors.  One  of  the  principal  sources  of  income 
was  the  coal  mines  in  its  possession,  for  these  monks 
were  amongthe  first,  if  not  the  first,  coal  miners  in 
Scotland.  The  earliest  mention  of  coal  in  Scotland  is 
to  be  found  in  a  charter  of  an  Earl  of  Winchester, 
granting  to  them  a  coal  mine.  Newbattle  sufferea 
much  from  English  incursions  at  various  times,  par- 
ticularly in  1385,  when  the  monastery  and  church  were 
burned,  and  the  religious  either  carried  away,  or 
forced  to  flee  to  other  monasteries;  it  required  forty 
years  to  repair  these  losses.  A  part  of  the  monastery 
was  again  destroyed  by  the  Earl  of  Hertford,  but  the 
destmotion  seems  to  nave  been  chiefly  confinMl  to 


the  church.  At  the  time  of  the  Protestant  Reforma- 
tion but  few  of  the  moiUcs  remained,  and  these  were 
pensioned  by  the  commendator,  Mark  Keir.  ancestor 
of  the  Lothian  f uxdly,  its  present  owners.  The  stones 
of  the  church  were  used  to  convert  the  monastic  build- 
ings into  a  secular  house. 

Mansiquk,  AnnaUe  Ci^ereieneee  (Lyons,  1642);  Dodswobth 
AMD  DuGDALB,  Monoeticon  Anglioanum  (1061) ;  Rsois,  8.  M.  de 
Neubotle;  New  StaHetieal  Account  of  Scotland,  vol.  I;  Babbstt, 
The  Scottish  Cistercians  (Edinburgh). 

Edmond  M.  Obrecht. 

Now  BrunBWlck.  See  Chatham,  Diocbsb  of; 
Saint  John,  Diocesb  of. 

Now  Caledonla»  Vicariate  Apostolic  of. — New 
Caledonia,  one  of  the  largest  islands  of  Oceania,  lies 
about  900  miles  east  of  Queensland,  Australia,  between 
20**  10'  and  22**  16'  S.  lat.,  and  between  164**  and  167** E. 
long.  It  is  about  250  miles  long  by  30  broad,  and  has 
an  area  of  7650  square  miles.  It  is  a  Frencn  colony, 
its  principal  dependencies  being  the  Isle  of  Pines  and 
Loyalty  Islands  (indudinf^  Lifou,  Mare,  and  Uvea). 
Its  population,  together  with  that  of  these  dependen- 
cies, is  estimated  at  53,000  inhabitants  (13,000  free; 
11,000  of  convict  origin;  29,000  black).  The  coasts 
of  New  Caledonia  are  deeply  indented,  and  the  island 
is  almost  entirely  surrounded  by  an  immense  madre- 
pore reef,  which  now  retires  to  some  distance  from  and 
now  approaches  close  to  the  shore,  but  regularly  leaves 
a  broadchannel  of  water  between  itself  and  the  island. 
This  species  of  canal,  in  which  the  sea  is  always  calm, 
greatly  facilitates  communication  between  the  various 
settlements  on  the  coast.  The  island  is  very  moun- 
tainous, and  about  one  half  of  its  area  is  thus  unculti- 
vatable.  The  so-called  central  chain,  which  divides 
the  island  into  an  eastern  and  a  western  section,  at- 
tuns  the  height  of  over  5500  feet.  The  hills  wnich 
fringe  the  coast,  and  at  times  rise  sheer  from  the  water, 
do  not  in  general  exceed  the  height  of  600  feet.  Be- 
tween these  lesser  ranges  stretch  good-sized  plains  of 
great  fertility,  admirably  watered  by  numerous  streams 
which  the  natives  skilfully  utilize  for  purposes  of  irri- 
gation. The  streams  of  the  same  basin  usually  unite 
to  form  one  river  which  is  navigable  for  vessels  of  light 
draught  for  about  a  dozen  miles  from  the  coast.  Un- 
like most  intertropical  regions,  the  island  has  no  well- 
defined  wet  season,  some  years  being  very  rainy  and 
others  characterized  by  prolonged  droughts.  The 
scenery  is  wonderfully  oeautiful  and  for  salubrity  of 
climate  the  island  is  almost  unrivalled.  Thetemperar 
ture  rarely  reaches  the  extremes  of  96**  by  day  during 
the  hot  season  (December  to  March)  and  56**  by  ni^t 
during  the  cold  (May  to  August) .  The  administration 
has  divided  the  island  into  three  sections:  the  convict 
settlement,  that  reserved  exclusively  for  the  natives, 
and  the  remainder  which  is  leased  to  colonists  by  the 
French  Government.  The  chief  agricultural  prod- 
ucts are  coffee,  maize,  sugar,  grapes,  and  pineapples, 
while  efforts  are  being  made  at  present  to  foster  the 
cultivation  of  wheat,  rubber,  and  cotton.  The  island 
also  possesses  valuable  deposits  of  nickel,  cobalt, 
chrome,  and  copper  ores,  all  of  which  are  being  ex- 
ploited chiefly  by  Australian  miners.  Discovered  by 
Captain  Cook  in  1774,  the  island  was  occupied  by  the 
French  in  1853^  and  on  2  Sept.  1863,  a  decree  was 
passed  authorizmg  the  establishment  of  a  convict  set- 
tlement there.  In  May,  1864,  the  first  criminals  ar- 
rived, and  between  that  date  and  1896,  an  aggregate 
of  about  22,000  were  transported  thither.  As  no 
convicts  have  been  sent  since  1896,  the  convict  ele- 
ment of  the  i)opulation  is  rapidly  diminishing.  Nou- 
mea is  the  cmef  town  and  the  seat  of  government.  It 
has  an  excellent  harbour  for  the  improvement  of  which 
various  works  are  in  course  of  execution.  The  colony 
is  administered  by  a  governor,  assisted  by  a  council 
consisting  of  various  officials  and  two  notables  nomi- 
nated by  the  governor,  lliere  is  also  an  ^ective 
general  ooundL 


KEWCA8TLB 


782 


HEWFOUNDLAIID 


The  ethnology  of  the  natiyes,  whose  number  is 
gradually  decreasing,  is  somewhat  uncertain,  but  they 
probably  spring  from  a  mixed  Melanesian  and  Western 
rolynesian  stock.  Their  height  is  above  that  of  the 
average  South  Sea  Islander;  they  are  as  a  rule  well 
built  and  quite  erect;  their  colour  varies  from  a  veiy 
dark  brown  to  a  light  complexion,  and  their  hair  is 
coarse  and  woolly.  Cannibalism,  which  was  generally 
practised  on  the  island  in  former  times,  has  disap- 
peared in  consequence  of  the  strict  measures  taken  by 
the  administration.  Although  the  men  of  the  same 
tribe  live  together  in  the  greatest  harmony  (such 
being  in  fact  a  leadine  dictate  of  their  religious  belief) 
intertribal  wars  have  oeen  always  frequent,  and  have 
been  in  the  past  almost  the  sole  occasion  of  cannibal- 
ism, as  the  flesh  of  a  fellow  tribraman  is  one  of  the 
most  intelligible  of  their  numerous  and  in  very  many 
cases  peculiar  taboos.  The  native  religion  is  so 
closely  intertwined  with  superstitions  that  distinction 
is  rather  difficult.  The  natives  undoubtedly  have  a 
firm  belief  in  a  future  life;  the  dead  are  supposed  to 
live  under  the  great  mountain  Af  u,  where  the  good  are 
welcomed  after  death  and  where  the  general  conditions 
bear  some  striking  analogies  to  the  Harmonic  Hades. 
Ancestral  worship  is  universally  practised  among  the 
pa^an  natives,  and  there  is  a  special  class  whose  office 
it  is  to  feed  the  deceased  kinsmen,  partly  by  consum- 
ing the  food  as  their  proxies  and  partly  by  exposing 
it  for  them  in  a  taboo  hut.  The  natives  live  together 
according  to  their  tribes  under  chiefs,  who  exercise 
an  extensive  authority  in  purely  native  affairs.  The 
food  of  the  natives  consists  of  yams,  taros,  sugar-cane, 
dried  fish,  and  shell-fish.  At  various  places  on  the 
island  are  held  markets^  at  which  the  natives  of  the 
coast  and  of  the  mountains  meet  to  exchange  produce, 
dancing  forming  a  regular  feature  of  the  transaction. 
Though  excellent  farmers  ^he  natives  are  lasy. 

New  Caledonia  was  separated  from  Central  Oceania 
and  erected  into  a  distinct  vicariate  Apostolic  by  de- 
cree of  2  July  and  Brief  of  13  July,  1847.  Besides  the 
main  island,  the  vicariate  includes  the  Isle  of  Pines  and 
the  Belep  and  Loyalty  Islands.  The  mission  is  en- 
trusted to  the  Marist  Fathers,  who^  besides  minister- 
ing to  the  French  settlers  and  convicts,  have  devoted 
themselves  sedulously  and  with  the  greatest  success 
to  the  conversion  of  the  natives.  According  to  the 
latest  statistics  the  vicariate  includes:  35,000  Catho- 
lics (11,500  natives);  48  missionary  priests  and  40 
brothers  of  the  Marist  Congregation;  126  sisters;  61 
catechists;  68  churches  and  several  chapels;  45  schools 
with  1881  pupils;  1  orphanage  with  50  inmates.  The 
present  vicar  Apostohc,  who  is  the  fourth  to  fill  the 
office,  is  Mgr.  Cnaurion,  titular  Bishop  of  Cariopolis. 

8tate9man*a  Year  Book  (London,  1910):  MitaumM  Apoatolicm 
(Rome,  1907) ;  QuiLLBMAND,  Awtralana,  II  (London.  1894),  45&- 
63,  in  Compendium  of  Qeographu  and  Travel;  Atkinson,  The 
Nativee  of  New  Caledonia  m  Fotk-Lore,  XIV  (London,  1903), 
243-59. 

Thomas  Kennedy. 
Newcastle.    See  Hexham  and  Newcastle,  Dio- 
cese OF. 

Newfoundland,  a  British  colony  of  North  America 
(area  42,734  square  miles),  bounded  on  the  north  by 
the  Strait  of  Belle  Isle,  which  separates  it  from  its  de- 
pendency Labrador  (area  120,0(X)  square  miles),  on 
the  east  and  south  by  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  and  on  the 
west  by  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence,  lies  between  46**  35' 
and  51*  40'  lat.  N.,  and  52«  35'  and  59**  25'  long.  W.  It 
was  the  first  portion  of  North  America  discovered  by 
European  voyagers.  The  Cabots  sailed  from  Bristol 
in  1497,  and  on  24  Jime  of  that  year,  the  festival  of  St. 
John  the  Baptist,  they  landed  in  the  harbour  to  which 
they  gave  the  name  of  St.  John's,  which  it  bears  to  the 
present  day.  The  Cabots,  like  all  the  early  naviga- 
tors, had  in  view  not  only  the  discovery  of  new  lands, 
and  the  increase  of  the  oower  and  wealth  and  territory 
of  the  mother  country,  out  also  the  spread  of  the  Gos- 
pel and  the  conversion  of  tlie  heathens  to  the  Chris- 


tiaa  Faith.  Hence  they  brought  with  them  priests 
and  missionaries.  Those  who  accompanied  Cabot 
were  Augustinians  or  "Black  Friars".  We  may  be 
sure  that  Mass  was  celebrated  on  these  shores  in  1497. 

In  the  year  1500  the  Portuguese  under  Caspar  de 
Cortereal  took  possession  of  the  country  and  founded 
the  settlement  and  Church  of  Placentia.  In  1534  the 
French  voyager,  Jacques  Cartier,  visited  the  country, 
and  explored  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence.  He  also  had 
chaplams  with  him  who  celebrated  Mass  at  Catalina 
in  Newfoundland,  and  Brest,  or  Old  Fort^  on  Labra- 
dor. In  1622  Lord  Baltimore  founded  his  colony  of 
Ferryland.  He  brought  out  three  Jesmt  Fathers  with 
him,  and  had  Mass  celebrated  regularly,  ''and  all 
other  ceremonies  of  the  Church  of  Rome  were  uaed  in 
ample  manner  as  'tis  used  in  Spain."  Such  was  the 
complaint  made  against  him  to  the  Board  of  Trade  by 
the  Protestant  clergyman,  Mr.  Stourton.  In  1650  the 
French  founded  a  church  at  Placentia  on  the  site  of  the 
one  abandoned  by  the  Portuguese.  But  none  of  those 
attempts  succeeded.  The  real  foundation  of  the 
Catholic  Church  in  Newfoundland  is  due  to  priests 
from  Ireland,  who  came  out  towards  the  close  of  the 
ei^teenth  century. 

The  population  of  the  country  by  the  last  census, 
taken  in  1901,  was  217,037.  Of  these  the  Catholics 
number  75,657.  members  of  the  Church  of  England 
71,470,  Methodists  60,700.  The  remainder  belong  to 
different  denominations,  viz.  Presbyterians,  Congre- 
gationaUsts,  etc. 

All  denominations  are  equally  recognized  by  the 
law,  and  there  is  no  Established  Church.  In  the 
early  history  of  the  country  the  Catholics  were  looked 
on  as  a  proscribed  class  by  the  governors  of  the  time, 
who  were  generally  conunanders  of  British  war-^ps. 
Priests  were  hunted  and  persecuted,  people  who  har- 
boured them,  or  permitted  Mass  to  oe  celebrated  in 
their  houses  were  fined,  imprisoned,  and  flogged,  and 
their  houses  either  burned  or  pulled  down.  In  one 
unique  case  a  house  where  Mass  had  been  celebrated 
was  towed  into  the  sea  and  sunk.  These  acts  were 
undoubtedly  illegal,  as  there  was  no  law  in  the  statutes 
of  the  country  penalizing  the  exercise  of  the  Catholic 
Religion,  but  the  penal  laws  of  Ireland  were  supposed 
to  be  applicable  to  Newfoundland.  However,  the 
principle  would  not  work  both  ways,  and  when  Catho- 
lic Emancipation  was  granted  to  Ireland  these  same 
interpreters  of  the  law  held  that  the  privileges  of 
Emancipation  did  not  apply  to  Newfoundland.  Dur- 
ing the  whole  course  of  ins  episcopate  Bishop  Fleming 
fought  against  these  injustices  and  finally  succeeded 
in  obtaimng  full  freedom  for  the  Catholics. 

In  educational  matters  Catholics  also  enjoy  every 
freedom.  The  denominational  system  is  established 
by  law.  A  sum  is  granted  by  Government  amounting 
to  about  $1.13  per  captd  of  the  population,  or  $5.25 
per  pupil  actually  attending  school.  It  is  true  this 
amount  is  small  as  compared  with  some  of  the  Cana- 
dian Provinces,  or  States  of  the  Union,  but  a  lam 
amount  is  paid  by  private  individuals  to  Catholic  od- 
leges  and  convents  which  is  not  included  in  the  above 
figures.  The  results  compare  most  favorably  with 
those  of  other  countries.  About  thirty  ^ears  ago  a 
branch  of  the  Irish  Christian  Brothers  was  introdueed, 
an  immediate  impulse  was  given  to  education  through- 
out the  island,  and  it  is  now  at  a  very  high  standard. 
The  Brothers  have  charge  of  two  very  large  schools  in 
St.  John's — St.  Patrick's  and  Holy  Cross  schools. 
There  are  ten  class-rooms,  containing  about  a  thou- 
sand boys.  The  Brothers  also  have  charge  of  the  col- 
lege in  which  some  three  hundred  bo^rs  are  educated, 
nxty  beinff  boarders.  Here  are  trained  the  pupil- 
teachers  mio  will  have  charge  of  the  public  schools 
throughout  the  island.  The  college  is  affiliated  to  the 
Oxford  Examining  Board  and  the  London  University 
Board.  A  local  council  of  higher  education  (non- 
denominational)  looks  after  the  local  Examinations. 


Mzw  aaANADA  783  jsasw  axnmk 

The  Rhodes  bequest  gives  three  places  for  Newfound-  Gre^or,  Monckton,  Strong,  Berton,  Beccari,  and  d'Al- 
land  in  perpetiuty.  They  are  all  filled  this  year  for  bertis)  have  furnished  us  with  a  comparatively  accu- 
the  first  time,  and  of  the  three  occupants  two  are  rate  Imowledge  of  the  coasts  and  of  the  south-eastern 
pupils  of  the  College  of  St.  Bonaventure.  There  are  portion  of  the  island.  For  the  scanty  knowledge  we 
thirteen  convents  of  Sisters  of  the  Presentation  Order  poasess  of  the  German  territory  we  are  indebted 
in  the  country  (9  in  St.  John's  Diocese,  3  in  Harbor  mainly  to  Dr.  Schlechter  (1907) :  the  lofty^  mountain 
Grace,  and  1  in  St.  Geonze's),  and  eight  convents  of  the  ranges,  which  hem  in  and  render  almost  maccessible 
Sisters  of  Mercy  (5  in  St.  John's,  2  in  Haibor  Grace,  the  greater  part  of  the  German  and  especially  of  the 
and  1  in  St.  George's).  The  Presentation  Sisters  have  Dutch  section,  the  difficulty  of  travelling  and  trans- 
free  schools,  the  nuns  being  paid  out  of  the  Govern-  porting  supplies,  the  character  of  the  native  tribes  who 
ment  gprant.  The  Sisters  of  Mercy  have,  besides  free  regard  the  setting  foot  on  their  special  territory  as  a 
schools,  a  paying  school  and  a  boarding  academy.  The  hostile  act,  and  the  insalubrious  chmate.  constitute  for 
total  number  of  children  attending  school  is  over  13,-  the  explorer  obstacles  greater  perhaps  than  any  he  has 
000.  There  are  also  two  orphan  asylums,  or  industrial  to  encoimter  elsewhere  in  the  world, 
schools,  one  under  the  Sisters  of  Mercy  for  girls,  and  The  northern  coast  of  New  Guinea  is  in  general 
one  under  the  Christian  Brothers  for  boys.  These  steep  and  regular,  and  possesses  but  few  places  of  safe 
contain  about  200  orphans,  or  one  for  every  375  of  anchorage.  The  only  great  indentation  here  is  the 
the  Catholic  population,  which,  considering  that  this  is  vast  Geelvink  Bay.  The  most  important  of  the  other 
a  maritime  and  fishing  colony,  and  the  losses  at  sea  inlets  are  Humboldt,  Comelis,  and  Astrolabe  bays, 
are  abnormal,  is  not  an  excessive  number.  Huan  Gulf  (all  in  German  New  Guinea),  and  Aclana 
The  Catholic  religion  is  not  only  holdingits  own,  Bay  (British).  The  coasts  are  lined  with  groups  of 
but  advancing  rapidly  in  Newfoundland.  The  most  islands  which  are  mostly  volcanic  (some  still  activelv) 
harmonious  relations  exist  between  the  different  de-  or  otherwise  flat  and  sandy.  The  chief  grouns  on  the 
nominations,  which  are  only  interrupted  on  occasions  north  and  east  are  the  Schouten  Islands  (at  the  en- 
of  public  excitement,  when  persons  aspiring  to  politi-  trance  to  Geelvink  Bay),  the  Admiralty  Islands,  and 
cal  position  and  honours  do  not  scruple  to  stir  up  feel-  Bismarck  Archipelago  (of  which  New  Pomerania  is 
ings  of  religious  bi^try  and  theological  hatred  among  the  largest  island)  off  the  German  territory,  and  the 
the  more  simple-mmded  of  the  people.  A  ereat  future  D'Entrecasteaux  Islands,  the  Bennett  group,  and  the 
is  opening  up  for  the  country.  Large  industries  are  Louisiade  Archipelago  off  British  New  Guinea.  On 
being  started  in  the  interior,  the  scene  of  the  new  the  soutiiem  side  of  the  island  the  sea — ^which  on  the 
developments  being  principally  in  the  Dioceses  of  northern  is  frequently  too  deep  for  safe  anchorage —  ' 
Harbor  Grace  and  St.  George's.  becomes  shallow,  and  the  precipitous  rocks  give  place 

M.  F.  HowusT.  to  wide  plains.   This  is,  as  already  stated,  almost  the 

NewOraa^la.    See  Co«>mbia.  Rkp.bi.0  o,.  ^it^A^^'Tfe^NSToSThigf^clSl 

New  Guinea,  the  second  largest  island  and  one  of  again  skirt  the  coasts,  and  the  groups  of  islands  once 

the  least  known  countries  of  the  world,  lies  immedi-  more  become  numerous  (Arm,  Wessel^  and  K4  Islands, 

ately  north  of  Australia,  extendi^  from  the  equator  etc.).    From  the  north-western  portion  of  the  island 

to  about  12°  S.  lat.  and  from  130*^60'  to  154°  30'  E.  two  great  peninsulas,  Onin  and  Berau,  are  almost 

long.   It  b  1490  miles  in  length,  its  maximum  breadth  severed — the  latter  by  McCluer's  Inlet,  which  very 

is  about  430  miles,  and  its  total  area  some  310,000  sq.  deeply  indents  the  coast  in  an  easterly  direction, 
miles.    Its  population  is  placed  at  the  purely  conjee-        Our  knowledge  of  the  great  mountain  ranges  of  New 

tural  figure  of  876,000.   An  examination  of  the  report  Guinea  is  still  to  a  great  extent  hypothetical,  and  the 

of  D'Abreu,  who  was  long  credited  with  the  discovery  calculation  of  their  heights  only  approximate  and  sub- 

of  New  Guinea  (1511),  shows  that  he  only  reached  the  ject  to  revision.    Beginning  with  British  New  Guinea 

eastern  coast  of  Further  India  (Camboma);  whether  m  the  south-east,  we  find  the  country  traversed  by  a 

3ob6  de  Menzes  (1526),  Saavedra  (1536),  and  Grijalva  continuous  chain  of  which  the  successive  members  are 

(1537)  reached  New  Guinea  is  still  uncertain.  But  there  the  Stirling  and  Stanley  ranges  (Mount  Albert,  14.400 

can  be  no  doubt  in  the  case  of  Jingo  Ortiz  de  Retas  feet),  the  Yule  (Mt.  Yule,  14,730  feet)  and  Albert 

!1545),  who  landed  at  the  mouth  of  the  St.  Augustine  Victor  (13,120  feet)  mountains,  and  the  Sir  Arthur 
now  the  Kabenau)  River,  and  took  possession  of  the  Gordon  (13,120  feet)  and  Victor  Emmanuel  (12,810 
country  in  the  name  of  the  King  of  Spain.  It  was  he  feet)  ranges.  This  chain  is  continued  in  Dutch  New 
who  gave  the  island  the  name  of  Nueva  Guinea.  On  Guinea  bv  the  Charles  Louis  range,  which  attains  the 
Mercator's  map  of  1569  New  Guinea  and  numerous  hei^t  of  about  16,000  feet  (probably  the  greatest 
places  and  islands  on  its  northern  coast  are  indicated,  altitude  in  New  Guinea).  How  the  central  chain  con- 
Luis  de  Torres  (1606),  whose  name  is  commemorated  tinues  in  the  western  portion  of  the  island  is  still  un- 
in  the  strait  separating  New  Guinea  from  Australia,  Imown.  The  principal  range  in  German  New  Guinea 
was  the  first  to  circiminavigate  the  greater  portion  of  is  the  Bismarck  Mountains  (variously  estimated  be- 
the  bland.  The  voyages  of  Tasman  (1643-44),  Vuik  tween  14,000  and  16,000  feet  in  hei^^t).  Between  the 
(1653),  and  Kayto  (1674)  added  greatly  to  our  knowl-  central  chain  and  the  sea  run  numerous  parallel 
edge  of  the  southern  and  eastern  coasts,  and  in  the  ranges,  mostly  of  a  lower  altitude.  With  few  excep- 
eighteenth  century,  thanks  to  the  efforts  of  Dutch,  tions,  the  rivers  flow  through  narrow  and  steep  ravines 
English,  and  French  explorers  (Schouten,  Lemaire.  until  withhi  a  few  miles  from  the  coast,  and  assume. 
Captain  Cook,  De  Bougainville,  etc.),  the  picture  of  during  the  wet  season,  the  character  of  violent  tor- 
the  island  began  in  some  measure  to  approach  the  rents.  As  they  form  practically  the  sole  means  of 
actuality.  However,  Captain  William  Dampier's  map  access  to  immense  areas  of  the  island,  the  difficulties 
of  the  north-western  portion  of  the  island,  while  ex-  confronting  the  explorer  will  be  readily  understood, 
hibiting  a  great  advance  beyond  the  prececQng,  shows  Tlie  most  importimt  rivers  of  the  northern  coasts 
how  erroneous  still  were  the  views  concerning  the  are:  the  Ambemo  (still  imexplored),  which  enters  the 
exact  contour  of  the  island.  The  rapid  growth  of  sea  by  a  vast  delta  at  Point  d'Urville;  the  Kaiserin 
European  interest  in  Australia  in  the  nmeteenth  cen-  Augusta  (navigable  by  ocean  steamers  for  180  miles), 
tury  invested  New  Guinea  with  enhanced  importance:  which  rises  in  uie  Charles  Louis  range  and  enters  the 
voyages  of  exploration  multiplied,  although,  owing  to  Pacific  at  Cape  della  Torre;  the  Ottuien,  which,  after 
the  warlike  and  cannibal  character  of  the  natives,  a  course  of  great  length,  empties  into  the  ocean  near 
landings  were  still  few.  It  was  only  during;  the  last  the  last-mentioned;  the  Mambre,  which  discharges 
decades  of  the  century  that  active  exploration  of  the  near  the  An^o-German  boundary.  On  the  southern 
Idand  began.  Numerous  successful  ej^editions  (Mao-  coast  the  pnncipal  rivers  are  the  Purari  or  Queen's 


KEW  GUINSA 


784 


NIW  GUINSA 


Jubilee  River  (navigable  by  whale  boat  120  miles)  and 
the  Fly  (navigable  by  whale  boat  600  miles),  both  of 
which  discharge  into  the  Gulf  of  Papua.  No  impoz^ 
tant  river  is  known  to  exist  in  the  western  section  of 
the  island,  which  b  of  course  still  a  terra  incognita. 

The  climate  of  New  Guinea  is  characterized  in  gen- 
eral by  its  great  heat  and  humidity,  and  in  the  U)w- 


climate  is,  however,  tempered  by  the  regular  winds 
from  the  south-east  and  north-east,  and  at  an  altitude 
of  3000  feet  above  sea  level  is  pleasantlv  cool.  The 
annual  rainfall  varies  from  30  to  130  inches  along  the 
coasts,  rain  falling  more  abundantly  in  Uie  north  and 
north-east  than  along  the  southern  seaboard.  Tlie 
difficulties  of  the  climate  are  ag^vated  by  the  mos- 
ouitoes  and  the  leeches,  which  meinuate  themselves 
through  the  most  closely  woven  clothing  and  whose 
bite  often  occasions  burning  ulcers. 

To  the  great  uniformity  seen  in  the  geo^phical 
build  of  the  island  corresponds  a  genersd  ethnicid  uni- 
formity among  its  inhabitants  (see,  however,  "Journal 
of  the  Royal  Anthropological  Society  of  Great  Britain 
and  Ireland",  XXIX,  London,  1909,  pp.  246  sqq.^  314 
»qa.).  In  the  case  of  a  country  so  vast  and  stdl  so 
little  explored,  we  must  confine  ourselves  to  indicating 
the  general  characteristics  of  the  inhabitants,  passing 
over  the  local  difif erences  which  manifest  thenuselves  in 
the  native  customs  and  mode  of  life.  The  Papuans,  as 
they  are  called  (the  name  is  imknown  to  themselves), 
belong  to  the  Melanian  family:  the]^  are  larger  than 
the  Mala^r,  are  dark  brown  or  black  in  colour,  have  a 
smooth  skin,  narrow  forehead,  darkles,  dolichoceph- 
alous  skuU,  and  prominent  nose.  Their  black,  natu- 
rally frizzled  hair  is  usually  artistically  arranged. 
Thev  wear  a  lavish  number  of  bracelets  (mostly  of 
turtlenshell)  on  both  upper  and  lower  arms:  Uiesenot 
only  serve  aa  a  protection  against  arrows,  but,  accord- 
ing to  their  shape  and  colour,  are  employed  bv  certain 
tnbes  as  an  outward  token  of  mourning.  Necklaces 
are  also  generally  worn:  they  are  usually  made  of 
rin^  of  vegetable  fibre  or,  in  the  case  of  the  wealthier 
natives,  of  wild  boar's  teeth.  The  lower  limbs  are  less 
usually  adorned,  except  on  festive  occasions.  Agricul- 
ture is  as  yet  little  developed :  the  natives  depend  for 
their  sustenance  mainly  on  tneir  hunting  (wud  boar, 
opossum,  crocodile,  wild  fowl),  fishing,  and  tlie  wild 
sago,  wluch  grows  in  the  greatest  abunduice  in  the 
valleys  and  marshy  lands  and  which  is,  according  to 
the  missionaries,  largely  responsible  for  the  unprogres- 
sive  character  of  the  natives. 

A  comparatively  high  sense  of  justice  exists  among 
the  native  tribes,  each  community  possessing  its 
strictly  defined  himting  and  fishing  grounds  and  sa^e 
fields.  Many  of  the  tribes  are  celebrated  for  thdr  skill 
in  boat^buildini;.  Commerce  is  carried  on  between  the 
maritime  and  mland  tribes.  The  trading  is  not  con- 
fined to  mere  exchange:  wild  boar's  tusks,  and  in  cer- 
tain districts  bracelets  and  stone  hatchets  are  accepted 
in  pajment.  Of  the  greatest  value  and  univeisally  re- 
cognized as  a  medium  of  exchange  are  the  smcdl  glass 
pins  and  jewelry.  These  are  generally  believed  to  be 
the  product  of  the  old  Indian  glaasworkers,  and  the 
natives  instantly  detect  modem  productions,  which 
are  little  valued.  While  cannibaliKn  still  exists  on  the 
island,  the  members  of  the  same  tribe  or  community 
live  together  in  the  greatest  peace.  In  general  the 
strictest  endogamy  is  practised,  and  there  are  certain 
well-defined  degrees  of  relationship  within  which  mar- 
riage is  forbidden.  The  wife,  for  whom  payment  is 
almost  alwavs  made  to  her  relatives,  attends  not  onlv 
to  the  household  work,  but  also  to  the  tibe  rude  agricul- 
ture practised:  all  observers  testify  to  the  kindman- 
ner  in  which  wives  are  treated,  aad  to  tiie  modesty  and 
high  moral  character  of  the  Papuan  women  in  sencsral. 
iSough  with  no  definite  views  oonoerning  a  daty,  the 


Papuan  believes  in  another  self  or  soul,  which  deserta 
the  body  temporarily  during  sleep  and  finally  after 
death.  Disease  and  death  never  result  from  natural 
causes:  they  are  always  the  resist  of  evil  spirits,  act- 
ing either  directly  or  through  a  poisoner.  Against 
these  evil  influences  talismans  (mostly  pieces  of  carved 
wood,  crocodile  teeth,  etc.)  are  carried.  The  na- 
tive weapons  are  the  bow  and  arrow,  knives  of  bam- 
boo, stone  clubs,  spears,  and  hardwood  shields  and 
clubs. 

New  Guinea  is  divided  politically  into  the  Dutch, 
German,  and  English  protectorates,  the  last  two  being 
known  officially  as  Kaiserwilhelmsland-and  the  Terri- 
tory of  Papua.  In  1884  Great  Britain  proclaimed  its 
protectorate  over  the  south-eastern  portion  of  the 
island,  and  in  1885,  after  Cjermany  had  annexed  the 
north-eastern  section,  the  delimitation  of  the  territo- 
ries of  the  two  countries  was  effected  by  Uie  Anglo- 
German  treaty  of  that  year,  Holland  retaining  the 
portion  of  the  island  west  of  141°  £.  lon|[.  The  boun- 
dary line  between  the  Cjerman  and  British  sections 
runs  from  5**  S.  lat.  at  the  141st  meridian  E.  to  8°  on 
the  coast.  The  Anglo-Dutch  Treaty  of  May,  1895, 
confirmed  the  western  boundary.  The  area  of  the 
British  territory  is  90,540  sq.  miles;  its  population 
about  500,000  natives  and  1250  whites.  Cocoa-nuts, 
rubber,  sisal  hemp,  Mirva  fibre,  coffee,  tea,  and  to- 
bacco are  cultivated.  The  forests  contain  valuable 
timbers  (sandal-wood,  etc.);  gold  is  found  in  the 
Louisiade  Archipelago,  on  the  mainland,  and  on  Wood- 
lark  Island.  The  four  ports  of  entry  are  Port  Moresby, 
Samarai,  Dam,  and  Bonagai.  The  German  territory 
has  an  area  of  about  70,000  sq.  miles,  and  a  population 
of  110,000  (?)  natives  and  391  foreimers  (184  white). 
Its  development  is  entrusted  to  tne  German  New 
Guinea  Company,  but  its  administration  is  under- 
taken by  the  Imperial  Government.  The  principal 
ports  are  Berlinhafen  and  Konstantinhafen.  Areca 
and  sa«o  palms,  bamboos,  ebony,  and  otiier  woods 
abound:  coco-palms  and  caoutchouc  are  srown  on  the 
small  area  yet  under  cultivation.  Gold  has  been 
recently  discovered  on  the  Bismarck  Mountfuns. 
Dutch  r^ew  Guinea  has  an  area  of  150,000  sq.  miles; 
its  population  is  estimated  purely  conjectural^  at 
262,000.  Although  it  is  considered  by  some  authori- 
ties the  richest  part  of  the  island,  very  little  att^npt 
has  been  made  to  develop  it.  Extensive  coal-fields 
exist  near  the  north-western  coast.  The  principal 
settiement  is  Merauke.  The  fauna  of  New  Guinea  is 
very  poor  in  mammals;  only  about  seventy-five  spe- 
cies are  known,  the  most  important  being  the  wild 
boar,  rat,  mouse,  bat,  opossum,  and  crocodile.  The 
avifauna  is,  on  the  other  hand,  both  numerous  and 
various,  and  includes  among  the  five  hundred  known 
species  many  (such  as  the  celebrated  bird  of  paradise) 
which  are  peculiar  to  New  Guinea  and  some  other 
^ff^f^fiHff  in  tnifl  region. 

Mission  History  .--On  1  July,  1885,  the  first  Cath- 
olic priest,  Father  Verjus,  set  foot  on  Ps4>uan  soil. 
He  devoted  himself  immediately  to  the  care  of  the 
sick  and  the  study  of  the  native  language,  but  was 
soon  compelled  to  withdraw  in  consequence  <^  the 
opposition  of  the  Protestant  missionaries  and  the 
pressure  they  brought  to  bear  on  the  British  authcm- 
ties.  A  chimge  of  {governors  allowed  the  return  of  the 
Catholic  missionaries,  and  on  1  May,  1889.  British 
New  Guinea  was  erected  into  a  vicariate  Apostolic 
and  Father  Navarre  appointed  vicar  Apoetouc.  He 
introduced  the  Sisters  of  the  Sacred  Heart  of  lasoudun. 
who  rendered  valuable  assistance  by  instructing  the 
native  girls,  taking  charge  of  the  churches  and  chapels, 
and  even  foundis^  stations  in  the  interior.  On  12 
Sept.,  1889,  Father  Verjus  was  named  Bishop  of 
limyra  and  coadjutor  to  Mgr  Navarre.  The  task  of 
conversion  is  attended  with  great  dififioulty,  as  the 
adult  native,  though  he  shows  no  resentment  to  his 
religious  customs  being  ridiculed,  obstinate  adhens 


KXW  HAMPSHntX                         785  HXW  HAHF8HIBK 

to  them,  even  when  they  cause  him  excessive  physical  teau  arise  some  two  hundred  peaks  id  two  groups:  the 

exerljoa.    The  latest  statistics  aaugn  to  the  miHaon;  White  and  Sandwich  Mountains  to  the  eastward,  and 

26  miwonaries,  21  brothers,  38  sisters  (all  of  the  Sa-  the  Franconia  to  the  westward.    ThU  range  divides 

credHeart  of  Issoudun),  15  catecliiBts,  1500  Catholics,  the  waters  of  the  Androscoggin,  the  Saco,  and  the 

7  stations  with  church  and  school,  2  orphanages,  28  Merrimac  rivers  on  the  east  from  those  of  the  Con- 

BChools  with  1400  pupils.    The  Prefecture  Apostohc  of  necticut  on  the  west.     The  White  Mountdn  r^on  is 

Dutch  New  Guinea  was  separated  from  the  Vicariate  strikingly   grand.     Hero   Mount   Washington   (6290 

ApoBtolicofBatavia  on  22  December,  1902.  Attended  feet)  and  Mounts  Adams,  JefFeiwin,  Clay,  Monroe, 

at  first  by  the  Jesuits,  it  was  later  entrusted  to  the  and  others  each  rise  nearly  a  mile  in  height.    The 

Mismonary  Fathers  of  the  Sacred  Heart  of  lasoudun.  fame  of  the  beauty  and  sublimity  of  this  r^on  is 

The  present  pr^ect  Apostohc  is  the  Rev.  Father  world-wide  and  attracts  countless  visitors.    In  the 

Noyens  (re^dence  on  the  Island  of  Langur),  appointed  south-eastern  por- 

in  January,  1903,     The  misuon  now  contains  14  tion  of  the  state, 

Fathers  and  11  Brothers  of  the  Sacred  Heart;  7  Sis-  fromtheMerrimao 

tersof  Our  L^yof  the  Sacred  Heart;  16  native  cate-  vallev  to  the  sea, 

chists;  2911  Catholics;  210  catechumens;  4  churches  the  land  is  bwer 

with  resident  priest;  12  churches  without  residence;  and  much  of  it  fei^ 

12  sub-atatioUB;  16  schools  with  300  pupils.    (For  Ger-  tile.       Two-thirds 

man  New  Guinea,  see  Kai&gawilhelmsland.)  of  thelargest  cities  I 

Ryb,   Biblioeraoh)/  of   Niw  Guinaa  b  SuppUmentarii    Pawrt,  and    tOWnS    of    the 

liii,l889);  M*cOiiBoo8.Bri!uAjv.a(LondoD,ia97):  TuousoM,  State   are   in   inis   i 

Britiih  It.  a.  (lAUdDQ,  1892)^  0«vr.  Jmimal.  XXXII  (London,  section.      The  cll- 

1908),  266  iqq..  with  eiocllont  map  of  part  of  Briti«h  tarritory;  mate  is  rUBICed  and 

Imtmial  Btu4  Back  (London) ;  Ooimmnl  Handbook  ef  the  Ttrri-  l„„„l„     '^„     „i_ 

(orv  0/  Papua;    Blatiit.  Jahrb.  far  dot  dtaudus  RncK  (Berlin);  neaimy,     cne     aiT 

ffdckricAUH  a^•r  SaiHT  WMdm-t  Land  (Beriin);    TiidtOaifl  tan  pure  and  bracmg; 

Kd  koninMijk  inilUia  nw  laal-,  land,  m  coUctnkumU   nn  Ktdir-  the    SUmmerS    STO 

laadtcli-Indil  Cs  Gf«vonhBge,  1855—);    DcvUdu  Rundtdiau  fOr  _l„j  „_j  phimin^ 

Qat.  u.  StatuHk.  XXXU  (Vi»m«,  1910),  *33-42.     ConcenJn«  snorl  ana  cnange- 

ths  Catha)ic  miinoiis,  ■«  Jduih.  La  nunoni  d>  la  NimfOt-  able,   but   the  BU- 

Q^ntt  (Inoudua,  18981;    Pioiar,  i«  mitnmt  ralhal.,  IV,  380-  tumn  is   generally 

BB;  ^nn«air,p™.,  «./,=!.  (IBIO).  376                    Kkn^dT  "lelightfur:    ThewinteBareTfflysevere, thoUghI««BO 

IHOMAS  KiNNEDY.  in  the  vaUeys  of  the  Connecticut  and  Merrimac.  Cold 

How  Hantpsbin,  the  most  northerly  of  the  thir-  weather  usually  lasts  eight  months,  with  snow  half 

teen  original  states  of  the  United  States,  lying  be-  that  period. 

tween  70^37'  and  72°  37'  west  long.,  and  between  42°  Rxsouscbb. — Atrneu&ure:  .The  soil  of  the  state  outr 
40*  uid  45°  18'  23'  north  lat.  It  comprises  an  area  of  side  the  mountain  regions  is  well  watered  and  fairly 
9305  square  miles,  and  according  to  the  census  of  1910,  productive,  and  good  crops  are  raised  of  the  ordinary 
has  a  population  of  430,572.  New  Hampehiro  is  farm  staples:  hay,  com,  oats,  potatoes,  etc,  but  the 
bounded  on  the  south  by  MBSGachusetts,  the  dividing  chief  food  supply  comes  from  the  west.  Industriet: 
line  beginning  on  the  Atlantic  shore  at  a  point  three  By  the  last  census  (1900)  the  gross  value  of  the  manu- 
miles  north  01  the  Merrimac;  thence  westerly,  follow-  factures  in  the  statu  is  placed  at  1123,610,904,  the  net 
m^  the  course  of  the  river  at  the  same  distance  to  a  value  at  J85,008,010.  These  manufactures  are 
pomt  three  miles  north  of  Pawtucket  Falls,  thence  loigel^  confined  to  the  cities  and  leading  towns,  which 
westerly  fifty-five  miles  to  the  western  bank  of  the  contom  65,8  per  cent,  of  the  establishments,  manufao- 
Connecticut:  on  the  east  by  the  Atlantic  for  about  ture  79.2  per  cent,  of  the  value,  and  pay  81.4  per  cent. 
eighteen  miles  from  said  southern  boundarv  to  the  of  the  wages.  Among  the  chief  manufactures  are 
middle  of  the  mouth  of  Fiscataqua  harbour,  tnencc  by  boots  and  shoes,  d>out  123,500,000;  leather  goods, 
the  State  of  Maine  to  the  Canada  line,  the  dividing  $23,000,000;  lumber,  19,125,000;  woollens,  S7,700,- 
line  between  Mmneand  New  Hampshire  beginning  at  OOO;  paper  and  pulp,  17,125,000;  machinery,  cars,  car- 
thc  middle  of  the  mouth  of  Piscataqua  harbour,  riages,  and  furniture.  Minerals:  Chief  among  the 
thence  up  the  middle  of  the  river  to  its  most  northerly  mineral  products  is  granite,  of  which  there  are  valuable 
head,  thence  north,  two  degrees  west,  to  the  Canada  quarries  at  Concord,  Hookaett,  Mason,  and  other 
line;  on  the  north  by  the  Province  of  Quebec,  the  towns.  Steatite  or  soapstone  is  also  found  in  quan- 
dividing  line  passing  along  the  highlands  that  divide  tity  at  Franceslown,  Orford,  and  elsewhere;  the  quarry 
the  rivers  emptvinginto  the  St.  I^Lwrence  from  those  at  Francestown  being  one  of  the  most  valuable  in  the 
emptying  into  the  sea;  on  the  west  by  the  Province  of  Union,  Graphite,  mica,  Umeetone,  and  slate  are  also 
Quebec,  southerly  to  the  forty-fifth  parallel  of  lati-  found.  Commerce:  New  Hampahiie  has  but  one  seft- 
tude,  and  by  the  State  of  Vermont,  the  line  passing  port,  Portsmouth,  which  has  considerable  coasting 
from  the  north-west  head  of  the  Connecticut  river  trade.  The  importation  of  foodstuffs  and  raw  ma- 
along  the  middle  of  that  river  to  the  forty-fifth  parol-  terial,  and  the  distribution  of  her  vast  volume  of  man- 
lel  of  north  latitude  (Treaty  of  1783),  and  thence  fol-  ufactures  constitute  an  important  interstate  and  do- 
lowing  the  western  bank  of  that  river  to  the  Mossa-  mestic  commerce,  carried  on  chiefly  by  rail.  Fordgn 
chusetts  line.  The  south-west  part  of  the  Isles  of  importations  come  chiefly  throu^  Boston.  The 
Shoals,  off  the  coast  of  New  Hampshire,  belongs  to  state  is  covered  by  a  network  of  Bt«am  and  electric 
that  state,  the  rest  to  Maine,  the  dividing  line  pasung  railroads,  connecting  every  city  and  town  of  any  im- 
between  Cedar  and  Smutty  Nose  Islands,  Maine  and  portance  with  the  business  centres. 
Star  Island,  the  most  populous  of  the  group  in  New  Educational  Ststbm.— The  state  has  always  care- 
Hampshire,  fully  provided  for  education.  Under  the  Constitution 
Phtsical  CHABACTERiSTice. — Now  Hampshire  is  a  (Part  II,  art.,  82),  it  is  the  duty  of  the  legislature  and 
state  of  hilb  and  mountains,  sloping  gradually  from  magistrate  to  cherish  the  interests  of  Lteratura,  the 
north  to  south.  A  range  of  hills  runs  through  the  sciences,  and  all  seminaries  and  public  schools;  to  en- 
state  from  the  southern  boundary  nearly  to  its  north-  courage  private  and  public  institutions,  rewards,  and 

em  extremity,  buttressed  at  uneven  intervals,  south    ■ ■' —  '—  ''■" '' '  — '-  -~ "*"  ■ 

of  the  White   Mountains,   by   Mounts  Monodnock, 

Keatsarge,  and  Cardigan;  a  littie  further  north  it  for  the  use  ot  the  schools  or  institutions  of  any' relig- 

spreada   into   the   plateau   of   the  White  Mountains,  ious  denomination.     The  taw  directs  that  every  child 

some  thirtjr  miles  long  by  forty-five  wide,  and  from  from  eight  to  fourteen  shall  attend  school  at  least 

sixteen  to  eighteen  hundred  feet  high.     From  this  pla-  twelve  weeks  each  year.    Practically  every  town  is  a 
X— 50 


MEW  HAMP8HIBS 


786 


MEW  HAMPSHIBE 


school  district  and  may  raise  money  by  taxation  for 
school  pur|)08e8,  and  may,  sei)aratehr  or  uniting  with 
other  districts,  establish  a  high  school,  or  contract 
with  academies  in  its  vicinity  for  instruction  of  its 
scholars.  The  districts  must  meet  at  least  once  annu- 
ally; oftener,  if  necessary.  In  the  larger  towns  and 
cities  the  schools  are  graded  and,  liberally  provided 
for,  are  in  charge  of  local  officials,  elected  by  the  peo- 

§le  in  every  district,  town,  and  wuxl,  and  known  as 
chool  Committees.  In  the  cities  these  form  school- 
boards  and  appoint  superintendents.  All  are  under 
the  general  care  of  the  State  Superintendent  of  Public 
Instruction,  appointed  by  the  governor.  In  1908 
there  were  2127  public  schools,  with  a  membership  of 
54,472  Dupils,  under  2999  teachers,  of  whom  256  were 
men.  Manual  training  is  provided  in  Manchester, 
Concord,  Portsmouth,  Rochester,  and  Berlin. 

Evening  schools  are  maintained  in  three  cities,  at- 
tended by  365  pupils,  of  which  308  are  male.  In 
places  of  4000  people  and  over,  796  children  attend 
kindergartens.  The  New  Hampshire  School  for  the 
Feeble  Minded,  at  Laconia,  has  89  inmates,  under  4 
instructors.  Tliere  were  58  public  high  schools,  with 
243  teachers  (84  men),  and  5250  pupils.  The  State 
Normal  School  at  Plymouth  (founded  1870)  has  14 
teachers  and  180  pupils,  with  350  childr^i  in  the 
model  schools.  Anotner  normal  school  b  in  pros- 
pect. The  total  revenue  from  taxation  for  the  public 
schools  (1906-7)  was  $1,293,013.  Apart  from  Catho- 
lic schools,  there  are  24  secondary  schools  reported  in 
1908,  with  167  teachers  and  3235  pupils,  over  900  of 
these  being  elementary.  Among  the  private  acade- 
mies in  the  state  JPhiflips  Exeter  Academy  deserves 
special  mention.  The  New  Hampshire  0)Uege  of  Agri- 
culture and  the  Mechanical  Arts  at  Durham  (founded 
1867)  is  an  excellent  and  liberally  endowed  state  insti- 
tution with  196  students  (1908),  9  men  and  13  women 
in  general  science;  48  men  and  2  women  in  agriculture, 
ana  124  men  in  engineering;  professors  and  instruc- 
tors, 31.  Dartmouth  College,  at  Hanover,  (founded 
1769)  the  chief  university  of  the  state,  is  an  incorpor- 
ated institution,  not  under  state  control.  It  has  69 
professors  in  its  collegiate  department  and  23  in  its 
professional  departments;  1102  collegiate  students 
and  58  professional,  including  the  Medical  Depart- 
ment, the  Thayer  School  of  d^ivil  Engineering,  and  the 
Amos  Tuck  School  of  Finance.  St.  Anselm's  College, 
founded  by  the  Benedictine  Fathers  in  1893  at  the  m- 
vitation  of  Bishop  Bradley,  is  situated  in  Goffstown. 
The  courses  are  collegiate,  academic,  and  commercial, 
with  18  professors,  3  assistants,  and  156  students. 
There  is  a  fine  state  library  at  Concord  and  excellent 
libraries  in  all  the  cities.  Every  town  of  any  impor- 
tance either  has  its  own  library  or  is  in  easy  reach  of  ex- 
cellent library  accommodations. 

History. — CivU, — The  first  to  settle  in  the  limits  of 
New  Hampshire  seems  to  have  been  David  Thom- 
son, a  Scotchman,  who  in  1622  was  granted  6000  acres 
and  an  island  in  New  England  (N.  H.  State  Papers, 
XXV,  715).  Forming  a  partnership  with  some  Ply- 
mouth merchants,  he  came  over  in  1623  and  settled 
south  of  the  Piscataqua,  c^ling  the  place  Little  Har- 
bour. Nothing  is  known  of  this  settlement,  except 
that  about  three  years  afterwards  Thomson  moved 
to  an  island  in  Boston  harbour  which  still  bears  his 
name.  It  is  claimed  with  reason  that  at  about  the 
same  time  William  and  Ekiward  Hilton  settled  a  few 
miles  further  up  the  Piscataqua  at  what  was  called 
Hilton's  Point  or  Northam,  now  Dover,  though  the 
formal  grant  of  their  patent  was  1630  (Belknap, 
"Hist.",  8).  Also,  that  all  these  men  were  sent  by 
John  Mason,  Ferdinando  Gorges,  and  a  company  of 
English  merchants.  In  1621,  1622,  and  1629,  Sir  Fer- 
dinando Gorges,  an  officer  in  the  English  navy,  and 
Captain  John  Mason,  a  London  merchant,  afterward 
a  naval  officer  and  Governor  of  Newfoundland,  both 
royal  favourites,  procured  various  grants  of  what  is 


now  New  Hampshire  and  a  great  deal  more,  from  the 
Plymouth  Company,  oif^amzed  by  James  I  "for  the 
planting,  ruling,  ana  governing  of  New  England",  and 
apparently  under  some  arrangement  with  Thomson 
and  others  interested,  sent  over  some  eighty  men  and 
women  duly  supplied  and  furnished,  by  whom  settle- 
m'ents  were  maae  on  both  sides  of  the  Piscataqua  near 
its  mouth.  Building  a  house,  called  Mason  Hall,  they 
began  salt  works,  calling  the  settlement  Strawberry 
B^mk;  while  at  Newitchwannock,  now  South  Berwick, 
Maine,  they  built  a  saw  mill.  Things  went  along 
passably  well  till  Mason  died  in  1635,  after  which 
the  houses  and  cattle  were  taken  to  satisfy  the  wages 
and  claims  of  his  servants.  Neither  he  nor  Gorges 
seem  to  have  reaped  any  profit  from  their  investment. 
The  claims  of  the  Mason  heirs  were  a  bone  of  conten- 
tion till  1788,  when  a  settlement  was  effected.  On 
two  different  occasions  they  delivered  the  colony  from 
Massachusetts's  swajr  on  account  of  the  influence  the 
claimants  had  first  with  Charles  II  in  1679  and  again 
with  WiUiam  III  in  1692. 

The  settlements  spread  slowly,  the  pem>le  coming 
chiefly  from  Hampsnire  County,  where  Mason  had 
held  a  lucrative  office  under  the  crown  and  from  which 
he  had  named  the  plantation  "New  Hamp^ure''.  In 
1638  John  Wheelwright,  a  preacher,  who  had  been  dis- 
franchised and  banisned  from  Boston  for  his  religious 
opinions,  settled,  with  some  adherents,  at  Squamscott 
Falls,  as  being  outside  the  Massachusetts  i>atent,  call- 
ing the  place  Exeter,  and  here  they  organized  a  local 
government,  creating  three  magistrates,  the  laws  to 
be  made  by  the  townsmen  in  public  assembly,  with 
the  assent  of  the  magistrates.  Hie  settlements  at 
Dover  and  Strawberry  Bank  (Portsmouth)  soon  fol- 
lowed the  example  of  Exeter  and  established  local  self- 
«)vemment.  It  is  important  to  note  that  Mason, 
uorges,  Thomson,  the  Hiltons,  and  the  wealthy 
merchants  associated  with  them,  were  devoted  sup- 
porters of  the  Church  of  England.  The  powerful 
Massachusetts  Bay  Colony,  then  the  very  essence  of 
intense  Puritanism,  soon  turned  its  attention  to  the 
struggling  Anglican  colonies  on  its  northern  borders, 
which  it  determined  to  seize.  Proceeding  with  con- 
summate craft  and  skill,  thev  laid  out  Uie  town  of 
Hampton,  clearlv  within  the  Mason  patent,  and  set- 
tled it  with  people  from  Norfolk  (Belknap,  1, 38),  over 
the  Mason  protest.  They  procured  powerful  Ptiritan 
friends.  Lords  Say  and  Brook,  and  others,  to  buy  up 
the  Hilton  patent  at  a  cost  of  £2150.  and  to  send  over 
large  numbers  of  West  of  Englana  Puritans  and  a 
minister  who  built  and  fortified  a  church  on  Dover 
Neck  (Belknap,  1, 32).  Jealousies,  fears,  and  factions 
arose  between  the  old  settlers  and  the  new  comers. 
Then  emissaries  from  the  Bay  appeared  at  the  proper 
time  on  the  Piscataqua  (Fry,  37),  ''to  understand  uie 
minds  of  the  people  and  to  prepare  them",  and  their 
report  was  entirely  satisfactory  to  their  principals. 
They  then  (1641)  got  the  purchasers  of  the  Hilton 

Satent  to  put  it  solemnly  under  the  government  of 
lassachuestts.  And  now,  the  time  being  ripe,  and 
England  too  distracted  with  her  own  intermd  troubles 
to  interfere,  Massachusetts  assumed  jurisdiction  over 
the  New  Hampshire  settlements  (October,  1641). 
Very  soon  after  Puritans  appeared  among  the  settlers 
and  obtained  possession  of  tne  principal  offices,  divid- 
ing among  themselves  a  goodly  share  of  the  common 
lands  (Fry,  30).  They  silenced  the  Anglican  minister 
at  Portsmouth,  seized  the  church,  parsonage,  and  the 
fifty  acres  of  glebe  that  had  beea  granted  that  church 
by  Governor  Williams  and  the  people,  and  in  due  time 
turned  them  over  to  a  Puritan  minister.  Minister 
Wheelwright  left  Exeter  and  went  to  Maine. 

For  nearly  one  hundred  years,  or  imtil  the  cwtore 
of  Quebec  by  Wolfe  and  the  subsequent  surrender  of 
Caniada  (1759-^),  the  development  of  New  Hamp- 
shire was  seriously  impaired  by  the  Indian  wan,  her 
territory  being  not  only  the  borderland,  but  also  in  the 


MEW  HAMPSHIBS 


787 


MEW  HAMPSHIBS 


war-path  of  the  Indians  from  Canada  to  the  New  Eng- 
land settlements.  These  wars  seem  to  have  been  oc- 
casioned by  the  misdeeds,  aggression,  or  treachery  of 
the  whites  (Belknap,  "ffist/^I,  133,  242).  There  is 
no  doubt  that  encroachments  on  their  lands  and  fraud 
in  trade  gave  sufficient  grounds  for  a  quarrel  and  kept 
up  jealousy  and  fear  (Belknap,  I,  123).  And  the 
same  writer  gives  the  eastern  settlers  of  New  England 
but  a  poor  character  for  reli^on  and  deems  their  con- 
duct unattractive  to  the  Indians  (Hist.,  II,  47).  Such 
would  surely  be  the  drowning  bv  some  rascals  of  the 
Saco  chief  Squando's  babe;  while  the  treachery  of 
Major  Waldron  in  1676  in  betraying  them  in  time  of 
peace  in  his  own  home,  and  consigning  two  hundred  of 
them  to  slavery  or  death,  was  never  forgotten  nor  for- 
given (Belknap,  I,  143),  and  brought  untold  horrors 
on  the  people  till  it  was  avenged  in  his  blood  on  his 
own  hearth-stone  in  the  Indian  attack  on  Dover  in 
1689.  But  through  war  or  peace  the  population 
steadily  increased.  Estimated  at  between  3000  and 
4000  in  1679,  it  was  placed  at  52,700  in  1767,  and  in 
1775  at  83,000.  The  settlers,  of  course,  were  mainly 
English,  but  about  1719  a  colonv  of  one  hundred  fami- 
lies of  Ulster  Protestants  came  from  Ireland  to  Massa- 
chusetts and  after  many  trials  a  number  of  them  set- 
tled on  a  tract  in  New  Hampshire  above  Haverhill, 
known  as  Nutfield,  where  they  established  the  towns 
of  Londonderry  and  Deny :  the  rest  settling  in  differ- 
ent parts  of  the  country.  This  hardy  and  industrious 
element  brought  with  it  to  New  Hampshire  the  po- 
tato. After  the  capture  of  Quebec  the  settlements  in- 
creased more  rapicily,  soon  clashing  in  the  west  with 
New  York's  claims,  till  the  boundary  was  settled  by 
royal  decree  in  1764. 

None  of  the  thirteen  colonies  was  better  satisfied 
with  British  rule  than  New  Hampshire.  She  had  an 
extremely  popular  governor  and  had  received  fair 
treatment  from  the  home  government.  It  is  true 
that  patriots  took  alarm  at  the  assumption  of  power  to 
tax  the  people  without  their  consent,  and  at  the  sever- 
ity exerciscKi  towards  the  neighbouring  sister  colony; 
and  took  due  precautions  to  consult  for  the  common 
safety;  also,  that  when  the  king  and  council  prohibited 
the  exportatior*  of  powder  and  military  stores  to 
America,  the  citizens,  in  December,  1774,  quietly 
removed  one  hundred  barrels  of  powder,  the  light 
cannon,  small  arms,  and  military  stores  from  Fort 
William  and  Mary  in  Portsmouth  harbour  to  more 
convenient  places.  The  provincial  convention,  early 
in  1776,  in  forming  a  provisional  government,  publicly 
declared  they  had  been  happy  under  British  rule  and 
would  rejoice  if  a  reconciliation  could  be  effected,  but 
when  they  saw  the  home  government  persevere  in  its 
design  of  oppression,  the  Assembly  at  once  (15  June, 
1776)  instructed  its  delegates  at  Philadelphia  to  join 
in  declaring  the  thirteen  colonies  independent,  and 
pledged  their  lives  and  fortunes  thereto.  This  pledge 
was  well  redeemed  through  the  war  from  Bunker  Hill 
to  Bennington  and  Yorktown,  and  New  Hampshire's 
soldiers  under  Stark  and  Sullivan,  Scammell  and 
Cilley,  and  others,  did  their  full  part  and  more;  while 
the  hardy  sailors  of  Portsmouth  and  its  vicinit>^  did 
gallant  service  in  the  navy  under  Paul  Jones,  whose 
ship,  ''The  Ranger'',  was  built  and  fitted  out  at  that 
port.  After  careful  consideration  New  Hampshire 
adopted  the  Constitution,  21  June,  1788,  being  the 
ninth  state  to  do  so;  thus  making  the  number  re- 
quired to  give  it  effect.  During  the  war  of  the 
Rebellion,  notwithstanding  considerable  difference  of 
party  opinion,  the  state  supported  Lincoln  and  con- 
tributed its  full  share  of  men  to  the  Union  army  and 
navy. 

Ecclesiastical. — It  was  not  eighty  years  from  Henry 
VIII  to  Mason,  and  so  it  was  that  men  imbued  with  the 
spirit  of  the  English  penal  laws  settled  New  Hamp- 
snire,  whether  of  the  Cavafier  stripe,  such  as  Mason, 
Gorges,  and  the  Hiltons,  or  Puritan,  such  as  Higgins, 


the  Waldrons,  and  the  Moodeys.  In  the  book  of  the 
Puritan  the  word  ''toleration"  was  not  written,  or 
only  mentioned  to  be  denied  and  scoffed  at  by  the 
gravest  and  most  venerable  of  their  teachers  and  upon 
the  most  solemn  occasions.  President  Oakes  calls 
toleration  "The  first  bom  of  all  abominations"  HBleo- 
tion  Sermon,  1673),  "Having  its  origin,"  says  Shep- 
herd, "with  the  devil"  (Election  Sermon,  1672).  As 
Dr.  Belknap  sums  it  up,  "  Liberty  of  conscience  and 
toleration  were  offensive  terms  and  they  who  used 
them  were  supposed  to  be  the  enemies  of  reUgion  and 
government ' '  (Hist . ,  84) .  The  rigidity  with  which  this 
idea  was  carried  out  towards  their  brethren  who  dif- 
fered with  them  is  shown  in  the  case  of  Roger  Williams, 
and  the  people  of  Salem^  who  were  disfranchised  ana 
their  property  rights  withheld  for  remonstrating  in 
favour  of  liberty  of  conscience;  Williams  escaping  only 
by  flight  to  Narragansett  Bay;  and  in  multitudes  of 
other  instances,  as  well  as  in  their  merciless  persecu- 
tion of  the  Quakers,  extending  to  imprisonment, 
scourging,  mutilation,  and  death;  as  witness  their  laws 
from  1656  to  1661,  and  the  barbarities  perpetrated 
under  them.  It  was  during  Massachusetts'  usurpa- 
tion in  New  Hampshire,  and  probably  by  one  of  the 
parties  she  colonized  on  the  Hilton  Patent,  the  noto- 
rious Richard  Waldron,  that  the  three  Quakers,  Anna 
Coleman,  Mary  Tomkins,  and  Alice  Ambrose  were 
ordered  to  be  whipped,  like  infamous  criminals,  from 
Dover  through  eleven  towns,  and  to  the  disgrace  of 
the  colony,  the  sentence  was  executed  as  far  as  the 
Massachusetts  line;  where  the  victims  were  rescued 
and  set  free  by  some  ruse  of  the  Cavalier  Doctor 
Barefoot,  and  some  friends,  as  the  story  goes,  Wal- 
dron's  warrant  running  in  Massachusetts  also. 

Such  being  their  attitude  towards  their  Protestant 
brethren,  it  is  easy  to  understand  why  so  few  Catho- 
lics appear  among  the  early  settlers;  especially  as  thev 
wereoanned  by  the  charter  of  the  Plymouth  Coimcil, 
which  excluded  from  New  England  all  who  had  not 
taken  the  Oath  of  Supremacy.  Catholics  were  denied 
the  ri^t  of  freemen  under  the  Royal  Commission  of 
1679,  which  required  the  Oath  of  Supremacy  and  this 
was  endorsed  by  the  General  Assembly  held  at  Ports- 
mouth the  following  year;  and  in  1696  an  odious  and 
insulting  testroath  was  imposed  on  the  people  under 
pain  of  fine  or  imprisonment.  The  proscription  of 
Catholics  continued  to  disfigure  the  state  constitution 
even  after  the  adoption  of  the  federal  constitution. 
The  State  Constitutional  Convention  of  1791  refused 
to  amend  the  constitution  of  1784.  by  abolishing  the 
religious  test  that  excluded  Catholics  from  the  office 
of  governor,  councillor,  state  senator,  and  representa- 
tive, the  vote  standing  thirty  yeas  to  fifty-one  nays. 
It  is  significant  that  the  names  of  those  votingnay  are 
not  entered  on  the  record  (Journal,  p.  52).  The  con- 
vention of  1876  abolished  all  religious  disqualifications, 
and  this  was  adopted  by  the  people  except  as  to  one 
clause  empowering  towns,  parishes,  etc.  to  provide 
at  their  own  expense  for  public,  "Protestant''  teach- 
ers of  religion  and  morality.  The  convention  of  1889 
voted  to  abolish  this  distinction;  but  this  vote  also 
failed  of  ratification,  and  the  discrimination  still  re- 
mains a  blot  on  the  fairest  and  first  of  all  written 
American  state  constitutions. 

First  Catholic  Missions. — In  1816  Rev.  Virgil  Bar- 
ber, an  Episcopal  minister  and  principal  of  an  Acad- 
emy at  Fairfield,  N.  Y.,  son  of  Rev.  Daniel  Barber  of 
Claremont,  N.  H.,  observing  a  prayer-book  in  the 
hands  of  a  Catholic  servant,  made  inquiries  which  re- 
sulted in  his  giving  up  his  school  and  pastorate  and 
becoming  a  Catholic.  Afterwards,  by  agreement  be- 
tween himself  and  his  wife,  they  separated.  He  and 
his  son  entered  the  Jesuits,  and  Mrs.  Barber  and  her 
four  daughters  entered  convents.  Father  Barber  was 
ordained  in  1822  and  sent  to  Claremont,  where  he 
built  a  small  brick  church  and  academy,  still  standing; 
and  according  to  Bishop  Fenwick  in  1825  there  were 


mW  HAMP8HIBX 


788 


about  one  hundred  and  fifty  pereons,  almost  all  con- 
verts, attending  it.  The  following  year  Father  Bar- 
ber was  sent  by  Bishop  Fenwick  to  visit  the  eastern 
part  of  the  diocese  ana  found  one  hundred  Catholics 
in  Dover,  eager  for  a  church.  In  1828  Father  Charles 
Ff  rench  was  assigned  to  that  mission,  which  extended 
from  Dover  to  Eastport  and  Bangor.  Father  Ffrench 
built  the  church  of  St.  Aloysius  at  Dover  (dedicated 
1836),  the  second  Catholic  church  in  the  state.  In 
1833  Father  Lee  was  appointed  resident  pastor,  and 
the  following  year  he  was  succeeded  by  Fattier  Patrick 
Canovan.  In  1835  the  Catholic  population  of  the 
state  is  given  as  385:  in  1842  it  was  placed  at  1370, 
ministered  to  by  Fathers  Daly  and  Canovan.  Then 
came  the  emigration  from  Ireland  (1845).  In  Man- 
chester, N.  H.,  in  1848  there  were  five  hundred  Catho- 
Ucs^and  Bishop  Fitzpatrick  sent  thither  Rev.  William 
McDonald,  a  wise,  far-seeing,  zealous,  and  devoted 
priest.  A  church  was  soon  built,  the  present  church 
of  St.  Anne,  rebuilt  in  1852.  In  1857  he  built  a  con- 
vent near  the  church  for  the  Sisters  of  Mercy,  orsan- 
ized  schools,  using  the  basement  of  the  church  till  he 
could  build  or  purchase  buildings.  The  influx  of  Irish 
Catholics  continuing,  in  1867  he  built  St.  Joseph's 
church,  now  the  cathedral.  He  secured  eligible  sites 
for  a  church,  a  school,  and  charitable  purposes:  an  or- 

Ehan  asylum,  a  Home  for  Aged  Women,  ana  a  fine 
rick  school  for  girls.  Emigration  from  Canada  set  in, 
which  he  duty  cared  for,  as  he  spoke  French,  till  in 
1871  a  Canadian  priest.  Rev.  J.  H.  Chevalier,  was  sent 
to  Manchester,  where  he  built  a  fine  church  and  devel- 
oped a  flourismng  parish.  Father  McDonald  died  in 
1885,  greatly  beloved,  honoured,  and  lamented  by  his 
fellow  citizens,  irrespective  of  creed.  A  beautiful 
mortuary  cha^l  was  erected  by  Bishop  Bradley  over 
his  remains.  Meanwhile  such  men  as  tne  late  Fathers 
O'Donnell  and  Millette  of  Nashua,  Barry  of  Concord. 
Murphy  of  Dover,  O'Callaghan  of  Portsmouth  ana 
other  zealous  priests  built  up  fine  parishes  in  the  chief 
manufacturing  centres. 

In  1853  Mame  and  New  Hampshire  were  created  a 
diocese.  Father  David  W.  Bacon,  consecrated  bishop 
in  1855.  died  in  1874,  and  was  succeeded  (1875)  by  the 
Right  Kev.  J.  A.  Healy.  In  1884  the  state  was  made 
the  Diocese  of  Manchester  with  Father  Denis  M. 
Bradley,  then  pastor  of  St.  Joseph's,  as  its  first  bishop. 
Under  Bishop  Bradley,  a  man  of  great  mental  power 
and  breadth  of  view,  of  quick  perception  and  sound 
jud^ent,  singularly  sweet  in  diKxisition,  an  able  ad- 
ministrator and  utterly  devotedf  to  his  calling,  the 
progress  of  the  diocese  was  almost  incredible.  The 
tide  of  French  Canadian  immi^ation  to  the  manufac- 
turing centres  of  the  state  now  mcreased  tremendously 
and  the  new  bishop  spared  no  pains  to  procure  the  best 
pastors  to  care  for  the  ever-increasing  flock.  Two 
other  magnificent  brick  churches  for  this  element,  St. 
Mary's  and  St.  George's,  with  schools  for  each  sex, 
and  convents  for  the  sisters,  were  built,  together  with 
all  the  usuiJ  parish  institutions.  In  1884  there  were 
45,000  Catholics  in  the  state,  with  27  churches,  5  con- 
vents, 40  priests,  and  3000  children  in  the  parochial 
schools.  After  nineteen  years,  there  were  100,000 
Catholics,  91  churches,  24  chapels,  36  stations.  107 
priests,  12.000  children  in  the  parochial  schools.  4  hos- 
pitals, 4  domes  for  aged  women.  Bishop  Bradley 
died  13  December,  1903,  and  was  succeeded  m  1904  by 
Bishop  John  B.  Delaney,  whose  untimely  death  in 
June,  1906,  cut  short  his  administration.  His  succes- 
sor is  the  present  bishop,  Right  Rev.  George  Albert 
Guertin.  The  new  prelate  has  evidently  brouj^ht  with 
him  the  same  prudence,  zeal,  and  administrative 
ability  that  marked  his  career  as  a  priest^juid  his  work 
thus  far  has  already  borne  rich  fruit.  There  are  now 
in  the  diocese  over  126,000  Catholics,  with  118  secular 
priests,  and  19  regulars;  99  churches^  24  chapels,  and 
34  stations;  over  13.000  children  m  the  parochial 
Bchoob,  7  orphan  asylums,  caring  for  718  orphanB,  5 


homes  for  working  girls,  with  many  other  charitable 
institutions.  No  Catholic  has  yet  hdd  the  office  of 
Judge  of  the  Supreme  Court;  recently  a  Catholic,  Hon. 
John  M.  Mitchell  of  Concord,  was  appointed  judge  of 
the  Superior  Court  of  the  State. 

Religioub  Poutt. — Freedom  of  worship  is  now 
recognized  as  ''a  natural  and  unalienable  right"  under 
the  Constitution;  and  no  one  shall  be  molested  in  pei^ 
son  or  property  for  exercising  the  same  as  his  con- 
science dictates,  or  for  his  sentiments  or  persuasion; 
or  be  compelled  to  pay  to  the  support  of  another  per- 
suasion; and  no  subordination  of  one  denomination  to 
another  shall  ever  be  established  by  law  (Bill  of 
Rights,  Art.  5).  All  work,  business,  and  labour  of 
one's  secular  calling  to  the  disturbance  of  others  on 
Sunday,  except  works  of  necessity  and  mercy,  are  for- 
bidden under  penalty  of  fine  and  imprisonment,  and 
no  person  shall  engage  in  any  play,  game  or  sport  on 
that  day  (Gen.  laws;  Ch.  271).  Tlie  form  of  oath  of 
office  prescribed  in  the  Constitution  is, ''  I  do  solemnly 
swear,  etc. — so  help  me  God."  Or,  in  case  of  persons 
scrupulous  of  swearing;  "This  I  do  under  the  pains 
and  penalties  of  perjury".  The  same  forms  are  fol- 
lowed in  respect  to  witnesses  in  the  courts,  but  any 
other  form  may  be  used  which  the  affiant  professes  to 
believe  may  be  more  binding  on  the  conscience.  Open 
denial  of  the  existence  of  God^  or  wilful  blasphemy  of 
the  name  of  God,  Jesus  Christ,  or  the  Holy  Ghost, 
cursing  or  reproaching  His  word  contained  in  the 
Bible,  are  punishable  with  severe  fine  and  sureties  for 
^ood  behaviour  for  a  year.  Profane  cursing  or  swear- 
mg  is  punishable  by  fine  of  one  dollar  for  first  offence, 
and  two  dollars  for  subsequent  offences.  O^iening  the 
legislature  by  prayer  is  a  matter  of  custom  since  1745, 
though  as  early  as  1680  the  Assembly  was  opened  b^ 
prayer.  Christmas  Day  is  recognized  as  a  legal  holi- 
day. Under  the  Puritan  regime  whoever  kept  Christ- 
mas Day  had  to  pay  five  pounds^  over  twenty-four 
dollars  (Commissioners  Rep.  to  King).  The  seal  of 
confession  is  not  recognized  by  law.  No  instances 
of  its  being  attacked  have  arisen,  and  probably  public 
opinion  would  frown  down  any  such  attempt. 

Incorporation  of  Charities. — Apart  from  spedal 
incorporation  by  the  legislature,  easily  obtainable, 
any  nve  persons  may  associate  themselves  together 
and  become  a  corporation  for  religious  or  charitable 
purposes,  by  filins  articles  of  agreement  with  their 
town  clerk,  and  the  Secretary  of  State.  The  laws 
could  not  well  be  more  Uberal  toward  such  societies.  A 
religious  society,  though  not  incorporated,  is  a  corpo- 
ration in  this  state,  for  the  purpose  of  holding  and 
using  donations  or  grants  worth  not  more  than  15000 
a  year.  Any  officers,  such  as  trustees  or  deacons,  oif 
any  church,  if  citizens,  shall  be  deemed  a  corporation, 
to  hold  any  grants  or  donations  of  the  above  value, 
either  to  them  and  their  successors,  to  their  church  or 
to  the  poor.  No  religious  society  shall  be  dissolved, 
or  its  right  to  any  property  affected,  by  failure  to  hola 
its  annual  meeting^  to  choose  its  oflicers,  or  for  any 
informality  in  electmg  or  qualifying  its  officers,  or  for 
any  defect  in  its  records. 

Taxation. — All  '^ Houses  of  Public  Worship"  are 
exempt  from  taxation;  also  twenty-five  hundred 
dollars  of  the  value  of  parsona^  owned  by  religious 
societies  and  occupied  by  their  pastors:  also  school 
houses  and  ''Seminaries  of  learning".  Ordained 
ministers  are  exempt  from  jury  duty,  but  not  from 
military  duty.  Tlie  sale  of  liquor  is  regulated  by  a 
stringent  hi^  licence  law,  sale  for  sacramental  pur- 
poses being  expressly  recognized  and  coming  under  a 
low  licence  fee,  ten  dollars. 

Marriage  and  DrvoRCE. — ^The  age  of  consult, 
for  females  is  thirteen,  for  males  fourteen.  Marria^ 
to  the  degree  of  first  cousins  are  incestuous  and  void, 
and  the  issue  illegitimate.  Marriages  may  be  solem- 
nized by  a  justice  of  the  peace  in  his  county,  or  by  an 
ordained  minister  in  good  standing,  rerioent  in  the 


789 


MEWHOUSB 


state;  also  by  ministers  out  of  the  state,  commissioned 
by  the  governor  to  be  legally  authorized  officers. 
Cihildren  Dom  before  marric^^e  and  duly  acknowledged 
thereafter  are  deemed  legitimate.  The  legitimacy  of 
the  children  is  not  to  be  affected  by  decree  of  divorce 
unless  so  expressed  in  the  decree.  If  one  of  the 
parties  thereto  believed  they  were  lawfully  married 
and  the  marriage  was  consummated,  it  is  valid,  al- 
though before  a  supposed  but  not  actual  justice  or 
minister,  or  under  an  informal  or  defective  certificate 
of  intention.  The  causes  for  legal  divorce  are  im- 
potency,  adultery,  extreme  cruelty,  conviction  of  crime 
entailing  over  a  year's  imprisonment;  treatment  seri- 
ously injuring  health  or  reason,  habitual  drunken- 
ness, refusal  to  cohabit  or  support  for  three  years,  re- 
fusal for  six  months,  when  conjoined  with  religious 
belief  (Gen.  Stat..  Ch.  174).  Where  l^al  cause  for 
divorce  exists,  all  the  objects  of  separation — ^non- 
access,  non-interference  with  person  and  propertv, 
alimony,  custody  of  children — can  be  obtained  with- 
out a  legal  divorce,  should  the  injured  party  so  desire 
(Stat.,  1909). 

Prisons  and  Reformatories. — ^The  rules  of  all 
prisons,  houses  of  correction,  or  public  charitable  or 
reformatory  institutions,  shall  provide  for  suitable  re- 
ligious instruction  and  ministration  to  the  inmates. 
These  are  to  have  freedom  of  religious  belief  and  wor- 
ship, but  may  not  interfere  with  proper  discipline. 
Wills  and  Testaments. — Evenr  person  of  twenty- 
one  years  of  age,  and  sound  mind  (married  women  in- 
cluded), may  dispose  of  any  right  in  property  by  will 
in  writing,  signed  by  the  testator  and  subscribed  in 
his  i)resence  by  three  credible  witnesses.  No  seal  is 
required.  Husband  or  wife  may  waive  the  provisions 
of  a  will  and  take  the  share  allowed  them  respectively 
by  law. 

Charitable  Bequests. — ^These  are  governed  bv 
the  principles  of  the  common  law.  The  courts  will 
order  them  to  be  executed  according  to  the  true  intent 
and  will  let  no  trust  lapse  for  want  of  a  trustee  (2 
N.  H.,  21-65;  N.  H.,  463-470-36;  N.  H.,  139). 

The  following  is  a  rough  estimate  of  the  nationality 
of  the  Catholic  population  of  the  diocese: 

French  Canadians 66,200 

Irish 62,250 

Poles 6,000 

Lithuanians 1,600 

Ruthenians 760 

As  reported  in  1906  the  membership  of  the  principal 
Qon-Catholic  denominations  is  as  follows: 

Congregationalists 19,070 

Methodists 12,629 

Baptists 9,741 

Free  Baptists 6,210 

Unitarians 3,629 

Universalists 1,993 

Advent  Christians 1,608 

Christians 1,303 

Presbyterians 842 

Chas.  a.  O'Connor. 

New  Hebrides,  Vicariate  Apostolic  of,  in  Oceania, 
comprises  the  New  Hebrides,  with  Banks  and  Torres, 
islands  situated  between  13^  and  21°  S.  lat.  and 
between  166°  and  170°  E.  long.  The  total  area 
is  about  680  sq.  miles.  The  indigenous  population, 
which  has  decreased  considerably,  amounts  to  about 
76,000;  they  are  for  the  most  part  of  an  olive  or  brown 
complexion,  varying  in  darkness.  Their  languages, 
which  are  very  numerous,  belong  to  the  Malay  stocK 
and  their  relidous  worship  has  for  its  obiect  the  souls 
of  the  dead,  out  they  also  recognize  a  higher  Being 
who  is  good.  The  white  population  is  about  1000, 
nearly  650  of  whom  are  French,  and  300  English. 
The  islands  belong  jointly  to  France  and  Great  Brit- 
ain under  what  is  known  as  the  "Condominium  of  the 
New  Hebrides''.    They  were  discovered  in  1606  by 


the  Spaniards  under  Quiros,  and  were  named  Tierra 
Austral  del  S.  Espiritu.  In  1768  the  French  naviga- 
tor, Bougainville,  in  sailing  round  the  globe,  came 
upon  the  same  group  and  named  them  me  Grandes 
Cfyclades.  Six  years  later,  Cook  discovered  the  in- 
lands and  gave  them  their  present  name.  According 
to  the  account  of  Quiros,  the  Franciscans,  who  acted 
as  chaplains  to  his  ships,  celebrated  Mass  several 
times  in  a  chapel  built  on  the  shore,  and  even  held  a 
procession  of  the  Blessed  Sacrament.  Nevertheless, 
the  islands  had  to  wait  long  for  the  preaching  of  Cath- 
olic missionaries.  Not  until  January,  1887,  did  four 
Marist  priests,  sent  by  Mgr  Fraysse,  Vicar  Apostolic 
of  New  Caledonia,  dennitivelv  establish  here  the  first 
missions,  and  they  did  it  amid  great  difficulties.  The 
missions,  however,  developed  rapidly,  and  in  1900, 
at  the  petition  of  Mgp:.  Fraysse,  the  New  Hebrides 
were  separated  from  ms  mrisdiction  and  made  a  pre- 
fecture Apostolic,  under  P^re  Doucer6,  of  the  Society 
of  Mary.  In  1904  this  mission  became  a  vicariate 
Apostolic,  and  Pdre  Doucer6,  as  vicar  Apostolic,  was 
consecrated  titular  Bishop  of  Terenuthis.  His  resi- 
dence is  at  Port-Vila.  The  staff  of  the  mission  now 
comprises  26  priests  and  3  lay  brothers  of  the  Lyons 
Society  of  Mary.  Their  labours  are  seconded  by  16 
religious  women  of  the  regular  Third  Order  of  Mary, 
anda  certain  number  of  native  catechists.  There  are 
20  missionary  residences,  besides  numerous  annexes. 
Each  mission  has  its  schools.  Near  the  episcopal 
residence  is  established  a  training-school  for  native 
catechists.  Religious  instruction  and  education  for 
white  children  are  secured  by  two  schools  at  Port- 
Vila:  a  school  for  boys,  conducted  by  the  Little 
Brothers  of  Mary;  one  for  girls,  under  the  sisters  of  the 
mission  who  also  serve  the  hospital  at  Port-Vila  and 
conduct  at  Mallicolo  a  crhche  for  little  orphans.  Con- 
versions from  paganism  progress  slowly,  but  con- 
tinuously. The  native  Catholics,  now  numbering 
rather  more  than  one  thousand,  are  well  instructed 
and  faithful  to  their  religious  duties.  There  are  about 
600  white  Catholics,  and  this  number  is  increasing 
rapidly,  both  by  births  and  by  immigration. 

F.  Doucer£. 

Newhousei  Abbey  of,  near  Brockelsby,  Lincoln, 
the  first  Premonstratensian  abbey  in  England,  was 
founded  in  1143  by  Peter  de  Gousel.  with  the  consent 
of  his  lord,  Hugh  de  Bayeux.  and  the  approbation  of 
Alexander,  Bishop  of  Lincoln,  with  a  colony  from 
Liegues  Abbey  near  Calais,  France,  then  under  the  rule 
of  Abbot  Henry.  On  their  arrival  in  England  the  White 
Canons  were  hospitably  received  by  William,  Earl  of 
Lincoln,  who  confirmed  the  donations  made  to  Gelro, 
the  first  Abbot  of  Newhouse,  by  Peter  de  Gousel  the 
founder,  by  Ralph  de  Halton,  and  Geoffrey  de  Tours. 
The  abbey  was  ouilt  in  honour  of  Our  Lady  and  St. 
Martial,  Bishop  of  Limoges.  In  time  Newhouse  be- 
came the  parent  house  of  eleven  of  the  Premonstraten- 
sian houses  in  England.  The  seal  of  Newhouse  repre- 
sents an  abbot  at  full  length  with  his  crozier  and  the 
inscription:  Sigill.  convenius  Sci  Marcialis,  Ep.  Li.  de 
Newhouse.  Of  this  abbey  which  was  granted  (30 
Henry  VIII)  to  Charles,  Duke  of  Suffolk,  parts  only 
of  the  old  foundations  still  remain.  The  names  of 
twenty-six  abbots  are  known,  the  last  being  Thomas 
Harpham,  who  was  abbot  from  1634  to  the  suppression 
of  the  abbey  by  Henry  VIII.  The  following  hst  gives 
in  alphabeticfiJ  order  the  names  and  the  dates  of  foun- 
dations of  the  Premonstratensian,  or  Norbertine, 
abbeys,  made  from  the  Abbey  of  Newhouse  and  ex- 
isting in  England  at  the  time  of  the  Reformation: 
Alnwick,  Northumberland,  this  was  the  first  founda- 
tion made  from  Newhouse  (1147) ;  Barlings,  near 
Lincoln  (1164);  Bileigh,  near  Maldon,  Essex  (1180); 
Coverham,  Yorkshire  (originally  established  at 
Swainby,  1190);  Croxton,  near  Melton  Mowbray, 
Leicestershire  (1162);  Dale,  Derbyshire  (1162);  St. 


MZW  JER8B7 


790 


MIW  JEB8B7 


A.gatha'8  at  Easby,  near  Riohmond,  Yorkshire  (1152) ; 
Newbo,  near  Barrowby,  Lincolnshire  (1198);  Sulby, 
Northamptonshire  (originally  established  at  Wel- 
ford  (1165). 

DuoDALB,  Monastiean  Anolxcanum.  VI;  CcUedanea  Analo- 
Pramontt.  in  Rsdmbk,  lUguteTf  ed.  Oabqubt  (Royal  Histonoal 
Society,  3rd  aeries.  VI,  X,  XII);  Gbudsnb,  A  SkeUh  of  the  Pr^ 
maiutrateruian  Oratr  and  itt  hou$e»  in  Qrtat  Britain  and  Ireland 
(London,  1878);  Hugo,  Anrudn  PrwmonttnUenf  (Nancy,  1734). 

F.  M.  Geudenb. 

New  Jersey,  one  of  the  original  thirteen  states  of 
the  American  Union.  It  ratified  the  Federal  Consti- 
tution on  18  December,  1787,  being  preceded  only  by 
Delaware  and  Pennsylvania.  The  capital  of  the  state 
is  Trenton.  The  extreme  len^h  of  New  Jersey  from 
north  to  south  is  160  miles,  its  extreme  breadth  70 
miles,  and  its  gross  area  7815  square  miles.  It  is  ntu- 
ated  between  38^  55'  39"  and  41°  21'  19"  N.  lat.,  and 
between  73*»  53'  51"  and  75°  33'  3"  W.  long.  It  is 
boimded  on  the  north  by  New  York  State,  on  the  east 
by  the  Hudson  River  and  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  on  the 
south  by  Delaware  Bay,  and  on  the  west  by  the  Dela^ 
ware  River.  In  1910  the  population  was  2,537,167 
(1,883,669  in  1900),  the  state  being  thus,  notwith- 
standing its  large  mountainous  and  forest  areas,  more 
densely  populated  than  the  most  fertile  of  the  prairie 
states  or  the  great  manufacturing  States  of  New  York 
or  Pennsylvania.  New  Jersey  has,  in  proportion  to  its 
area,  more  miles  of  railway  than  any  other  state,  the 
majority  of  the  eastern  trunk  lines  traversing  it.  Its 
farms  yield  a  larger  income  in  proportion  to  the  area 
cudtivated  than  the  richest  states  of  the  Mississippi 
valley.    In  manufactures  it  ranks  sixth  in  the  Union. 

Potsical  Chabacteristics. — Much  of  the  north- 
em  half  of  New  Jersey  is  mountainous,  and  much  of 
its  southern  half  is  covered  with  forest.  The  state 
divides  itself  naturally  into  four  belts,  differing  in  age, 
In  the  nature  of  the  underlying  rocks,  and  in  topog- 
raphy. The  Appalachian  belt,  made  up  of  the  Kitta- 
tinny  range  and  valley,  forms  the  nortn-westem  part 
of  the  state.  This  ridge  is  due  to  tilted-up  layers  of 
hard  rock,  which  have  been  able  to  resist  the  agents  of 
waste,  while  the  softer  rocks  were  being  slow^  worn 
away  to  form  the  Kittatinny  valley.  The  Kittatinny 
Mountains  constitute  the  highest  land  in  the  state, 
and  are  clothed  with  forests;  the  valley,  which  is  one 
of  the  most  fertile  parts  of  the  state,  is  devoted  to  gen- 
eral farming  and  grazing.  ^  There  are  no  laige  cities, 
and  but  little  manufacturing,  in  this  section.  The 
Highland  belt  is  the  oldest  part  of  the  state,  and  is  a 
portion  of  the  ve^  ancient  mountain  system  of  which 
the  Blue  Ridee  Mountsdns  are  a  worn-down  remnant. 
The  Highlands  (generally  less  than  1500  feet  faig^)  are 
a  region  of  lakes,  forests,  and  picturesque  valleys,  but 
are  not  a  productive  fanning  section.  Here,  in  an- 
cient crystalline  rocks,  are  found  valuable  beds  of  iron 
and  of  zmc  ore,  but  there  are  no  large  cities  and  no  ex- 
tensive manufacturing.  The  Piedmont  belt  is  a  roll- 
ing plain  from  which  rise  abrupt  ridges  of  hard  trap- 
rock.  The  Palisades  along  the  Hudson  and  the 
Orange  or  Watchung  Mountains  are  the  most  promi- 
nent of  these  ridges.  While  the  rocks  of  the  Pi^imont 
plain  are  mostly  sandstone  and  shale,  the  trap-rocks 
are  ancient  lava  sheets.  This,  the  belt  of  dense  popu- 
lation, many  cities,  great  manufacturing  activity,  and 
generally  productive  soil,  is  by  far  the  most  wealthy 
I>art  of  the  state.  The  northern  part  of  New  Jersey 
was  covered  by  the  ice  sheet  of  the  dacial  period.  As 
a  result,  there  are  many  swamps,  lakes,  and  wateiv 
falls,  a  glacial  soil  with  many  boulders,  and  the  ter- 
Eoinal  moraine  formed  by  low  rounded  hills.  These 
hills  are  composed  of  till,  g^vel,  boulders,  etc.. 
brought  together  by  the  advancing  ice  sheet  and  piled 
up  along  its  front.  The  coastal  plain  is  the  youngest, 
flattest,  and  largest  of  the  four  natural  divisons  of 
the  state,  of  which  it  forms  more  than  one  half.  It  is 
compoeed  of  layer  upon  layer  of  sand,  clay,  gravel,  and 


marl  sediments,  that  were,  in  past  ages,  slowly  de- 
posited in  the  ocean  waters  along  the  coast,  and  after- 
wards into  a  low,  sandy  plain.  The  marl  belt  and  a 
few  other  portions  are  alone  fertile.  More  than  half 
of  the  coastal  plain  is  covered  with  pine  forests  and  is 
thinly  peopled.  Outside  of  the  larger  cities,  the  raid- 
ing 01  fruit  and  veeetables  for  the  city  markets  and  the 
manufacture  of  g^ass  are  the  chief  industries.  The 
sea-coast  is  fringed  with  summer  resorts. 

Civil  History. — ^The  precise  date  of  the  first  settle- 
ment in  New  Jersey  is  not  known,  though  it  is  believed 
that  the  Danes  or  Norwegians,  who  crossed  the  Atlan- 
tic with  the  Dutch  colonists,  began  a  settlement  at 
Bergen  about  1624.  Ten  years  previously  an  attempt 
had  been  made  to 
form  a  settlement 
at  Jersey  City.  In 
1623  the  Dutch 
West  India  Com- 
pany sent  out  a 
shipunderthe  com- 
mand of  Captain 
Cornelius  Jacobse 
Mey.  Entering 
De^ware  Bay,  he 
gave  his  name  to  its 
northern  cape,  and 
then,  sailing  up  the 
river  to  Glouc^er, 
built  Fort  Nas- 
sau, which  may  be  Sbal  of  n«w  Jkbibt 
considered  the  first  permanent  settlement  of  the  state. 
In  1632  Charles  I  granted  to  Sir  Edmund  Plowden  a 
vast  tract  of  land  embracing  New  Jersey,  Pennsyl- 
vania, Delaware,  and  Maryland,  cdthouj^  he  liad 
previously  granted  Maryland  to  Lord  Baltimore.  In 
1634  Plowoen  made  a  grant  of  ten  thousand  acres  to 
Sir  Thomas  Danby  on  condition  that  he  would  settle 
one  hundred  planters  on  it,  and  would  not  permit 
"any  to  live  thereon  not  bdieving  or  professinff  the 
three  Christian  creeds  commonly  called  the  Apoe- 
tolical,  Athanasian,  and  Nioene".  In  1642  Plowden 
sailed  up  the  Delaware  River,  which  he  named  "The 
Charles  ,  and  founded  at  Salem  City  a  settlement  ci 
seventy  persons.  The  efforts  of  Thomas  and  George 
Plowden  to  assert  their  claims  to  the  lands  granted  to 
their  grandfather  proved  futile,  the  possessions  having 
fallen  into  other  hands  after  the  latter  had  retired  to 
Virginia  during  the  Commonwealth.  In  1606,  prior 
to  tne  grant  of  Charles  I  to  Plowden,  King  James  had 
flp^ted  a  new  patent  for  Virginia  (imoring  that  of  Sir 
Walter  Raleigh,  dated  1584).  in  which  was  included 
the  territory  now  known  as  tne  New  England  States, 
New  York,  New  Jersey,  Pennsylvania,  and  Maryland. 
The  possession  of  New  Jersey,  Penni^lvania,  and  ad- 
jacent lands  was  subsequently  claimed  by  the  Dutch 
and  Swedes.  The  former  built  Fort  Nassau  on  the 
Delaware  near  Gloucester.  Disputes  as  to  the  right- 
ful possession  of  this  territory  continued  untO  12 
March,  1664,  when  Charles  II  with  royal  disregard  for 

Previous  patents,  grants,  and  charters,  deeded  to  his 
rother  James,  Duke  of  Yoik,  a  vast  tract  embracing 
much  of  New  England^  New  York,  and  all  of  what  is 
now  New  Jersey.  This  was  accompanied  by  active 
preparations  to  drive  the  Dutch  from  America,  as 
their  possession  of  New  Jersey,  if  acquiesced  in,  would 
practically  separate  the  New  England  Colonies  from 
Virginia,  Maryland,  and  the  Carolinas.  In  the  sum- 
mer of  1664  armed  vessels  appeared  in  New  York  har- 
bour, and  after  negotiations  the  Dutch  surrendered. 

In  the  meantime  the  Duke  of  York  transferred  to  two 
favourites,  Lord  John  Berkeley  and  Sir  George  Car- 
teret, practically  what  is  now  tne  State  of  New  Jeraey 
by  tne  following  description:  "All  that  tract  of  land 
adjacent  to  New  England  and  lying  and  being  to  the 
westward  of  Long  Island,  bounded  on  the  east  part  by 
the  main  sea  and  part  by  the  Hudson  River,  and  hath 


MZW  JSR8B7                           791  MIW  JER8B7 

upon  the  west,  Delaware  bay  or  river,  and  extendeth  Society  of  Friends.  Salem  was  settled  in  1675;  Bur- 
southward  to  the  main  ocean  as  far  as  Cape  May.  at  lington,  Gloucester,  and  Trenton  about  five  yean 
the  mouth  of  Delaware  bay,  and  to  the  northward  as  later,  while  within  ten  years  the  "shore''  communis 
far  as  the  northernmost  branch  of  said  bav  or  river  of  ties  of  Cape  May  and  Tuckerton  came  into  existence. 
Delaware,  which  is  forty-one  degrees  and  forty  min-  The  Society  of  Friends  established  in  West  Jersey  a 
utes  of  latitude,  and  worketh  over  thence  in  a  straight  series  of  communities  in  which  the  life  of  the  people 
line  to  Hudson  river,  which  said  tract  of  land  is  here-  was  different  from  that  of  East  Jersey.  As  East  Jei% 
after  to  be  called  by  the  name  or  names  of  Nova  Cse-  sey  resembled  New  England  in  civil  government,  so 
sarea  or  New  Jersey".  This  name  was  given  in  hon-  West  Jersey  r^embled  Virginia.  The  political  and 
our  of  Carteret's  gallant  defence  of  the  Island  of  Jersey  social  centres  or  the  large  plantations  were  the  shire 
(CcBsarea),  of  which  he  was  governor,  duringthe  par-  towns;  slave-holding  was  common;  a  landed  aristoo- 
hamentary  wars.  This  grant  regaraed  the  Dutcn  as  racv  was  established;  prominent  famihes  intermarried, 
intruders,  and  Berkeley  and  Carteret  not  only  became  and,  under  the  advice  of  William  Penn  and  his  friends, 
rulers,  but  acquired  the  right  to  tranirfer  the  privilege  pood  faith  was  kejit  with  the  Indians.  Capital  pun- 
to  others.  Measures  were  speedily  devised  for  peopling  ishment  was  practically  unknown,  and  disputes  were 
and  governing  the  country.  The  proprietors  pubH  frequently  settled  by  arbitration, 
lished  a  constitution,  dated  10  February,  1664,  by  Two  elements  of  mscord  marked  the  genesis  of  East 
^^ch  the  government  of  the  province  was  to  be  ex-  Jersey  and  West  Jersev.  One  was  external,  and  arose 
ercised  by  a  governor,  council,  and  general  assembly,  from  the  attitude  of  tne  Duke  of  York.  As  we  have 
The  governor  was  to  receive  hM  appomtment  from  the  already  noted,  New  Jersey  was  recaptured  in  1673 
proprietors.  On  the  same  day  that  the  instrument  of  by  the  Dutch,  who  held  the  colony  until  the  early 
government  was  signed,  Phihp  Carteret,  a  brother  of  spring  of  1674.  A  question  arose  as  to  the  Duke  of 
one  of  the  proprietors,  received  a  commission  as  Gov-  i  ork  s  title  after  1674;  reconveyances  were  made,  but 
emor  of  New  Jersey,  and  landed  at  Elizabeth  in  in  spite  of  past  assurances  the  duke  claimed  the  pro- 
August,  1665.  By  granting  a  liberal  form  of  sovero-  prietary  right  of  government.  To  that  end  Sir  £ki- 
ment  and  extolling  the  advantages  of  their  colony,  so  mund  Anoros  was  commissioned  Governor  of  New 
well  located  for  agriculture,  commerce,  fishing,  and  Jersey,  and  a  climax  was  reached  in  1680  when  the 
mining,  Carteret  and  Berkeley  attracted  settlers  not  proprietary  Governor  of  East  Jersey  was  carried  pris- 
onlv  from  England,  but  from  Scotland,  New  England,  oner  to  New  York.  In  1681  the  Crown  recognized  the 
and  particularly  from  Long  Island  and  Connecticut,  justice  of  the  proprietors'  contention,  and  local  gov- 
These  planters  were  largelv  Calvinists  from  Presby-  emment  was  re-established,  but  not  before  the  seeds 
terian  and  Congregational  communities,  and  occu-  of  disaffection  were  sown  that  bore  fruit  in  the  Revo- 
pied  mainly  land  in  Newark,  Elizabeth,  and  upon  the  lutionary  War.  An  internal  disturbance  was  the  con- 
north  shore  of  Monmouth  county.  The  vallev  of  the  test  between  the  Board  of  Proprietors  and  the  small 
Delaware  remained  unsettled.  The  Calvinists  brou^t  landowners.  Both  in  East  and  West  Jersey,  Carteret 
with  them  into  East  Jersey  their  distinctive  views  and  Berkeley  and  their  assigns  had  transfeired  to 
upon  religious  and  civil  matters.  wealthy  combinations  of  capitalists  (mostly  non-resi- 
The  first  Legislative  Assembly  met  at  Elizabeth-  dent)  much  of  the  broad  acreage  of  the  colonies.  With 
town  on  26  May,  1668.  The  session  lasted  four  days,  the  land  went  the  right  of  selection  of  governors  and 
and  was  characterized  by  harmony  and  strict  atten-  of  members  of  executive  councils,  which  ri(^t  Berke- 


punishable  nizing  the  senUments  of  revolt  entertained  by       _ 

with  death.  The  assembly  adjourned  nne  die,  and  people,  the  Boards  of  Proprietors  surrendered  to  the 
seven  years  elapsed  before  another  convened.  The  Crown  in  1702  their  rights  of  government,  retaining 
capture  of  New  York  by  Uie  Dutch,  on  30  July,  1673,  only  their  interest  in  the  soil.  East  and  West  Jersey 
was  followed  by  the  subjection  of  the  surrounding  were  now  united  and  the  two  provinces  became  the 
country,  including  the  province  of  New  Jersey.  The  royal  colony  of  New  Jersey.  Queen  Anne  appointed 
whole  of  the  temtory,  however,  was  restored  to  the  Lord  Combury,  Governor  of  New  York  and  New  Jeiv 
Rnglish  Crown  by  the  Anslo-Dutdi  Treatv  of  9  Feb-  sey,  but  each  continued  to  have  a  separate  assembly, 
ruary,  1674.  The  second  General  Assembly  began  its  In  1738  New  Jersey  petitioned  for  a  distinct  adminis- 
sessions  on  5  November,  1675.  Laws  were  enacted  tration,  and  Lewis  Morris  was  appointed  sovemor. 
oonoeminjg  the  i>roper  military  defence  of  the  prov-  The  population  was  then  about  40,000.  The  last 
ince,  the  institution  of  regular  courts,  and  the  assess-  royal  governor  was  William  Franklin,  the  natural  son 
ment  of  taxes.  A  code  of  capital  laws  was  also  of  Benjamin  Franklin.  The  opening  of  the  Revolu- 
adopted,  similar  in  its  provisions  to  that  passed  in  tion  found  New  Jersey  sentiment  unevenly  crvstal- 
1668.  On  18  March,  1673,  Lord  Berkley  disposed  of  lized.  Few,  if  any.  favoured  absolute  independence, 
his  rifl^t  and  interest  in  the  province  to  John  Fenwidc  There  were  three  elements.  One.  the  Tory  and  con- 
and  Edward  Byllinge.  members  of  the  Society  of  servative  class  and  led  by  WilHam  Franklin,  em- 
Quakers,  or  Friends,  for  the  sum  of  one  thousand  braced  nearly  all  the  Episcopalians,  a  vast  proportion 
pounds.  John  Fenwick  received  the  conveyance  in  of  the  non-combatant  members  of  the  Society  of 
trust  for  Edward  Byllinge,  and  a  dispute  as  to  the  Friends,  and  some  East  Jersey  Calvinists.  Another 
terms  having  arisen,  Wifiiam  Penn  was  called  in  as  element  was  composed  of  men  of  various  shades  of  be- 
arbitrator.  Me  gave  one-tenth  of  the  province  and  a  lief,  some  in  favour  of  continual  protest,  others  desir^ 
considerable  sum  of  money  to  Fenwick,  the  remainder  ous  of  compromise.  This  included  at  the  outbreak  of 
of  the  territory  being  adjudged  to  Byllinge.  In  1676  a  the  struggle  most  of  the  Calvinists,  some  few  Quakers 
division  of  the  Carteret  and  Berkeley  interests  oo-  of  the  younger  generation,  and  the  Irish  and  Scotch, 
curred.  By  the  "Indenture  Qidntipaitite'\  dated  1  The  third  party  drew  its  support  from  a  few  bold,  ag- 
July,  1676,  the  line  of  division  was  made  to  extend  gressive  spirits  of  influence,  whose  following  included 
across  the  province  from  Little  Egg  Harbor  to  a  point  men  who  believed  that  war  for  independence  would 
in  the  Delaware  River  in  forty-one  degrees  N.  lat.  benefit  their  fortunes.  The  part  played  in  the  Revo- 
These  divisions  were  known  respectively  as  East  and  lution  by  New  Jersey  has  been  frequently  told. 
West  Jersey,  until  the  charters  of  both  were  sur-  Events  succeeded  rapidly  after  Trenton  and  Prince- 
rendered,  and  the  two  portions  included  together  ton;  Monmouth  and  Red  Bank  are  ever-memorable, 
under  a  royal  ((ovemment.  After  Berkley's  transfer  while  the  raids  at  Salem,  Springfield,  EUzabeth,  in  the 
the  dominant  influence  in  West  Jersey  was  that  of  th«  valley  of  the  Haokensack,  and  the  winter  at  Morris- 


792 

town  are  a  part  of  national  history.  L3ring  between  otherwise  haye  gone  without  great  penonal  danger. 
New  York  and  Philadelphia,  its  soil  was  a  theatre  Sometimes,  however,  his  real  character  was  discov- 
where  the  drama  of  war  was  always  presented.  At  no  er^,  and  several  times  he  was  shot  at  in  New  Jersey. 
time  was  the  Tory  element  suppressed,  finding  its  ex-  He  used  to  carrv  in  his  missionary  excursions  a  manu- 
pression  in  open  hostilitv,  or  in  the  barbaric  cruelties  script  copy  of  the  Roman  Missal,  carefully  written  in 
of  the  "Pine  Robbers"  of  Monmouth,  Burlington,  his  own  nand.  He  died  on  11  July,  17€4.  Patrick 
Gloucester,  and  Salem  counties.  Though  under  sus-  Colvin  seems  to  have  been  the  only  Catholic  resident 
picion,  the  Society  of  Friends  was  neutral,  for  eon-  in  Trenton  in  1776.  He  was  interested  in  the  cause  of 
science'  sake,  remaining  faithful  to  tl^  teachings  of  its  the  patriots,  and  helped  to  furnish  the  boats  used  to 
creed.  The  close  of  the  struggle  found  the  people  of  transport  General  Washington's  army  across  the  Delar 
New  Jersey  jubilant  and  not  disposed  to  relinquish  ware  on  25  December,  1776.  Captain  Michael  Kear- 
their  sovereignty.  The  Articles  of  Confederation  ney,  a  Catholic,  lived  near  Wnii)pany  in  Morris 
were  weak  and  had  become  a  byword  and  a  jest.  County  on  his  large  estate,  consisting  of  about  one 
There  was  much  state  pride  and  much  aristocratic  thousand  acres,  known  as  "The  Irish  Lott'\  The  in- 
feeling  among  the  old  families  who  continued  to  domi-  scription  on  his  tomb  bears  witness  to  his  genial  hos- 
nate  state  politics.  pitality  of  disposition,  and  to  his  having  served  as  a 

EccussiAsncAii  History. — ^Early  Missionaiy  Ef-  captain  in  the  British  Navy.    He  died  at  the  age  of 

forts. — ^The  comparative  liberality  of  the  proprietary  seventy-eight  years,  six  months,  and  twenty-eight 

rule  of  Berkeley  and  Carteret,  especially  m  reUgious  days  on  5  April,  1797.    Molly  Pitcher  (nie  McCau- 

matters,  attracted  some  Catholic  settlers  to  New  Jer-  ley),  who  acquired  fame  at  the  Battle  of  Monmouth, 

sey.    As  early  as  1672  we  find  Fathers  Harvev  and  was  a  Cathohc  girl.    One  Pierre  Malou,  who  had  been 

Gage  visiting  both  Woodbridge  and  Elizabethtown  a  general  in  the  Belgian  Army,  was  a  resident  of 

(then  the  capital  of  New  Jersey)  for  the  purpose  of  Pnnceton  from  1795  to  1799:  he  purchased  five  hun- 

nunistering  to  the  Catholics  in  those  places.    Robert  dred  acres  of  land  in  Cherry  Valley;  subsequently  he 

Vanquellen,  a  native  of  Caen,  France,  and  a  Catholic,  sailed  for  Europe  in  order  to  bring  his  wife  and  two 

lived  at  Woodbridge,  and  was  surveyor  general  of  that  sons  to  New  Jersev.    On  the  return  voyage  his  wife 

section  of  New  Jersev  in  1669  and  1670.    Catholics  died.    He  returned  to  Europe,  became  a  lay  brother 

were,  however,  regarded  with  some  suspicion  and  con-  of  the  Society  of  Jesus;  afterwards  he  studied  theol- 

siderable  bigotry  at  times  manifested  itself.    A  Cath-  ogy,  and  was  later  raised  to  the  priesthood,  came  to 

oUc  by  the  name  of  William  Douglass,  when  elected  a  America  again  and  was  stationed  in  Madison.    Father 

representative  from  Bergen  County,  was  excluded,  be-  Pierre  Malou  died  at  New  York  on  13  October,  1827, 

cause  of  his  religious  convictions,  from  the  General  and  is  buried  under  St.  Peter's  Church  in  Barclay 

Assemblv  of  1668.    In  1691  the  New  York  Assembly  Street. 

passed  the  first  anti-Catholic  enactment,  which  was        When  Bishop  John  Carroll  returned  from  England 

followed  by  laws  strongly  opposed  to  Catholics  and  he  received  Father  John  Rossiter,  an  Augustmian, 

their  beliefs  both  in  New  York  and  New  Jersey.    Lord  into  his  diocese  in  1790.    On  27  May,  1799,  the  Augus- 

Combury.  when  appointed  governor  in  1701.  was  tinians  were  given  permission  to  establi^  convents  of 

instructed  by  Queen  Anne  to  permit  liberty  ol  con-  their  order  in  the  United  States.    They  establi^ed 

science  to  alfpersons  except  "papists".  missions  in  New  Jersey  at  Cape  May  and  at  Trenton 

The  first  CathoUcs  in  New  Jersey  were  probably  in  1803  and  1805,  and  at  Paterson  a  Uttle  later.  St. 
those  who  availed  themselves  of  the  grant  made  by  John's  parish  at  Trenton,  now  the  parish  of  the  Sa- 
Charles  I  in  1632  to  Sir  Edmund  Plowden,  and  of  cred  Heart,  was  the  first  parish  established  in  New 
Plowden's  conveyance  in  1634  to  Thomas  Danby.  In  Jersey  (1799).  St.  Joseph's  Church  in  Philadelphia 
this  way  a  Catholic  settlement  was  founded  near  was  the  first  parish  church  for  the  Catholics  of  Penn- 
Salem.  The  fine  clay  found  at  Woodbridge  attracted  sylvania,  New  Jersey,  and  New  York.  The  Father 
some  Catholics  to  that  place  as  early  as  1672.  The  Harding  above  referred  to  was  pastor  of  this  parish, 
ship  "  Philip  ",  which  is  said  to  have  Drought  Carteret  and  is  said  to  have  been  the  first  priest  to  have  visitea 
to  America,  also  transported  several  French  Catho-  New  Jersey  prior  to  1762.  St.  John's  Church  in  New- 
lies,  who  were  skilled  as  salt  makers,  to  New  Jersey,  ark  was  built  in  1828,  and  the  first  pastor  was  Rev. 
The  records  show  Hugh  Dimn  and  John  and  James  Greeory  Bryan  Pardow.  Father  Paraow  was  bom  in 
Kelly  in  Woodbridge  in  1672.  In  1741  some  fanatics,  England  in  1804,  and  in  1829  was  named  as  first  pas- 
unable  to  bear  the  toleration  which  the  Catholics  were  tor  of  the  first  Catholic  parish  founded  in  Newark, 
enjoying  in  the  province,  endeavoured  to  arouse  ill-  During  and  after  the  terriole  famine  in  Ireland  about 
feeling  against  them  bv  accusing  them  of  complicity  1848  a  great  number  of  Irish  Catholics  came  to  New 
in  the  ^^  Negro  Plot'.  In  the  persecution  thus  Jersey.  About  this  time  Father  Bermuxi  J.  McQuaid 
aroused  Father  John  Ury,  a  Catholic  priest  (see  Fl3rnn.  (q.  v.)  began  his  missionary  career  in  New  Jersey.  He 
op.  cit.  in  bibliography,  pp.  21-2),  who  had  exercised  became  pastor  at  Madison  in  1848.  and  had  missions 
unostentatiously  his  sacred  ministry  in  New  Jersey,  at  Momstown,  Dover,  Mendham,  Basking  Ridge,  and 
and  had  been  engaged  for  about  twelve  months  in  Springfield.  His  parish  extended  from  Mad&n  to 
teaching  at  Burlington,  was  put  to  death  in  New  York  the  banks  of  the  Delaware,  including  Morris,  Somei^ 
City,  the  real  cause  being  the  violent  hostility  of  set,  Warren,  and  Sussex  Counties,  b^des  Short  Hills 
the  rabble  towards  the  Catholic  name  and  priest-  in  Essex  and  Sprin^eld  in  Union.  He  opened  the 
hood.  Father  Robert  Harding  arrived  in  Philadel-  first  Catholic  scnool  m  New  Jersey  at  Madison;  built 
phia  from  England  in  August,  1749,  when  the  City  of  the  Church  of  the  Assumption  at  Morristown:  St. 
Brotherly  Love  contained  only  2000  homes.  He  la-  Joseph's  at  Mendham ^and St.  Rose's  at  Springneld, 
boured  in  New  Jersey  from  1762  until  his  death  in  now  removed  to  Short  Hills.  He  became  rector  of  St. 
1772,  at  the  age  of  seventy  years.  Father  Ferdinand  Patrick's  pro-cathednd  at  Newark  in  1853^  upon  the 
Farmer,  whose  family  name  was  Steenmeyer  (q.  v.),  arrival  of  the  Bulls  from  Rome  appointing  James 
may  be  considered  the  true  missionary  of  New  Jersey.  Roosevelt  Bayley,  first  Bishop  of  Newark  The  built 

In  "First  Catholics  in  New  Jersey",   in  1744,  Seton  Hall  College  and  was  its  first  president,  and 

Father  Theodore  Schneider,  a  distinguished  Jesuit,  brought  the  Sisters  of  Charity  into  uie  Diocese  of 

professor  of  philosophy  and  theology  in  Europe,  Newark. 

visited  New  Jersey  and  celebrated  Mass  at  the  iron        Dioceses  and  Cathouc  Popitlation. — ^The  State 

furnaces  there.   Having  some  skiU  in  medicine,  he  of  New  Jersey  is  divided  ecclesiastically  into  the  Dio- 

was  accustomed  to  cure  the  body  as  well  as  the  soul;  ceses  of  Newark  and  Trenton,  which  are  treated  in 

and  travelling  about  under  the  name  of  Doctor  Schnei-  separate  articles.    The  total  Catholic  populatioQ  of 

der  he  obtained  access  to  plaoeB  whither  he  could  not  the  state  is  about  500,000. 


MIW   JEB8I7 


793 


MZW   JEB8B7 


Legislation  on  Matters  Directly  Affecting 
Religion. — ^The  First  Constitution  of  the  State  of 
New  Jersey,  adopted  at  the  Provincial  Congress  held 
at  Burlington  on  2  July.  1776,  was  a  makeshift  war 
measure,  and  provided  tnat  all  state  officers  of  promi- 
nence should  be  elected  by  a  legislature  chosen  b^ 
voters  possessing  property  qualifications.  While  this 
instrument  providecT  "that  no  person  shall  ever, 
within  this  colony,  be  deprived  of  the  inestimable 
privil^e  of  worshiping  Auni^ty  God  in  a  manner 
agreeable  to  the  dictates  of  his  own  conscience;  nor 
under  any  pretense  whatever  be  compelled  to  attend 
any  place  of  worshij),  contrary  to  his  own  faith  and 
judgment '\*  and  while  it  also  provided  "that  there 
shall  be  no  establishment  of  any  one  religious  sect  in 
this  province  in  preference  to  another",  yet  it  dis- 
crinunated  by  implication  against  Catholics  for  pub- 
lic office  in  the  tollowing  language:  "that  no  Prot- 
estant inhabitant  of  this  colony  shall  be  denied  the 
enjoyment  of  any  civil  right  merely  on  account  of  his 
religious  principles,  but  that  all  persons  professing  a 
belief  in  the  faith  of  any  Protestant  sect,  who  shall  de- 
mean themselves  peaceably  under  the  government,  as 
hereby  established,  shall  be  capable  of  being  elected 
into  any  office  of  profit  or  trust;  or  being  a  member  of 
either  branch  of  the  Le^slature,  and  shall  fully  and 
freely  enjoy  every  privilege  and  immunity  enjoyed 
by  others  Uieir  fellow-subjects".  The  Constitution 
agreed  upon  in  convention  at  Trenton  in  1844,  and 
ratified  by  the  people  at  an  election  held  on  13  August, 
1844,  guarantees  absolute  freedom  of  worship,  and 
further  provides  that  "no  religious  test  shall  be  re- 
quired as  a  qualification  for  any  office  or  public  trust; 
and  no  person  shall  be  denied  the  enjoyinent  of  any 
civil  lignt  merely  on  account  of  his  reu^ous  princi- 
ples." In  it  there  is  no  discrimination  in  favour  of 
I^testants  as  in  the  earUer  instrument. 

The  statutes  of  the  state  prohibit  all  worldly  em- 
ployment or  business,  except  works  of  necessity  or 
charity,  on  Sunday.  Oaths  are  administered  to  all 
witnesses  in  courts  of  justice  either  by  the  ceremony 
of  the  uplifted  hand  or  on  the  Bible,  except  where  one 
declares  himself,  for  conscientious  reasons,  to  be  scru- 
pulous concerning  the  taking  of  an  oath,  in  which  case 
nis  solemn  affirmation  or  declaration  is  accepted. 
Blasphemy  and  profanity  are  prohibited  by  statute 
and  punisnable  by  fine,  while  perjury  is  punished  by 
fine  and  imprisonment,  besides  disqualification  after- 
wards on  the  part  of  the  person  convicted  to  give  evi- 
dence in  any  court  of  justice.  The  sessions  of  the 
Legislature  are,  through  custom,  opened  by  prayer. 
Catholic  clergyinen  have  frequently  officiated  m  both 
houses  on  such  occasions.  The  legal  holidays  in  New 
Jersey  are  New  Year's  Day;  Lincoln's  Birthday,  12 
February;  Washington's  Birthday,  22  February; 
Good  Friday;  Memorial  Day,  also  known  as  Decora- 
tion Day,  30  May;  Independence  Day,  4  July;  12  Oc- 
tober, known  as  Columbus  Day;  the  first  Tuesday 
after  the  first  Monday  in  November,  or  Election  Day; 
Thanksgiving  Day,  which  is  fixed  by  the  governor's 
proclamation^  and  Christmas  Day.  There  is  no  stat- 
utory provision  recognizing  the  seal  of  the  confes- 
sional, out  no  attempt  to  compel  an  answer  to  a  ques- 
tion which  would  involve  a  breach  of  the  sacramental 
seal  has  ever  been  known  in  the  history  of  New  Jersey 
jurisprudence. 

Legislation  on  Matters  Affecting  Religious 
Work. — In  1875  a  liberal  statute  was  enacted,  which 
has  since  then  been  supplemented  and  amended, 
whereby  parochial  corporations  can  be  created  through 
the  filing  with  the  county  clerk  of  a  certificate  of  in- 
corporation signed  by  the  Roman  Catholic  bishop  of 
the  diocese  concerned,  the  vicar-genend  (or,  in  case  of 
the  vacancy  of  either  of  those  offices,  the  administra- 
tor of  the  diocese  for  the  time  being),  and  two  lay 
members  of  the  church  or  congregation.  Religious 
societies  organized  under  this  act  may  acquire,  pur- 


chase, and  hold  lands,  legacies,  donations^  and  othei 
personal  property  to  an  amount  not  exceeding  $3000  a 
year  (exclusive  of  the  church  edifices,  school-houses, 
and  parsonages,  and  the  lands  whereon  the  same  are 
erected),  anof  burying-places.  The  religious  corpora- 
tion may  grant  and  dispose  of  its  real  and  personal 
Eroperty;  but  all  proceedings,  orders,  and  acts  must 
e  those  of  a  majority  of  the  corporation,  and  not  of  a 
less  number,  ana  to  be  valid  must  receive  the  sanction 
of  the  bishop.  Under  an  Act  of  the  Legislature  ap- 
proved on  11  April,  1908,  any  Roman  Catholic  diocese 
may  become  a  corporation,  and  be  able  unlimitedly  to 
acquire  and  hold  real  and  personal  property.  The 
legal  corporate  title  of  the  Newark  diocese  is  "The 
Roman  Catholic  Diocese  of  Newark";  that  of  the 
Trenton  Diocese  is  "The  Diocese  of  Trenton". 
Church  property  is  exempt  from  taxation;  parsonages 
owned  by  religious  corporations,  and  the  land  whereon 
they  stand,  are  exempt  to  an  amount  not  exceeding 
$5000. 

Marriage  and  Divorce. — A  revision  of  the  stat- 
utes relating  to  marriage,  enacted  in  1910,  empowers 
the  following  officers  to  perform  marriages  between 
such  persons  as  may  lawfully  enter  into  the  matri- 
monial relation:  the  chi^  justice  and  each  justice  of 
the  supreme  court,  the  chancellor  and  each  vice-chan- 
cellor, and  each  judge  of  the  court  of  common  pleas 
and  justice  of  the  peace,  recorder  and  police  justice, 
and  mayor  of  a  city,'  ana  every  "stated  and  ordained 
minister  of  the  gospel";  and  every  religious  society, 
institution  or  organization  in  this  State  may  join  to- 
gether in  marriage  such  persons  as  are  members  of  the 
said  society,  or  when  one  of  such  persons  is  a  member 
of  such  society,  according  to  the  rules  and  customs  of 
the  society,  institution  or  organization  to  which  they 
or  either  of  them  belong".  The  same  act  renders  al>- 
solutely  void  any  marriage  within  the  following  pro- 
hibited degrees  of  relationship:  "A  man  shall  not 
marry  any  of  his  ancestors  or  descendants,  or  his  sis- 
ter, or  the  daughter  of  hi^  brother  or  sister,  or  the  sis- 
ter of  his  father  or  mother,  whether  such  collateral 
kindred  be  of  the  whole  or  half  blood.  A  woman  shall 
not  marry  any  of  her  ancestors  or  descendants,  or  her 
brother,  or  the  son  of  her  brother  or  sister,  or  the 
brother  of  her  father  or  mother,  whether  such  collat- 
eral kindred  be  of  the  whole  or  half  blood".  Since  1 
July,  1910,  it  is  necessary  for  persons  intending  to  be 
married  to  obtain  first  a  marriage  licence  and  deliver 
the  same  to  the  clergyman,  magistrate,  or  person  who 
is  to  officiate,  before  the  proposed  marriage  can  be 
lawfully  performed;  but,  if  the  marriage  is  to  be  per- 
formed by  or  before  any  religious  society,  institution, 
or  organization,  the  licence  shall  be  delivered  to  the 
said  religious  society,  institution,  or  organization,  or 
any  officer  thereof.  In  Chaper  274  of  the  Laws  of 
1910,  which  makes  such  licences  necessary,  it  is  pro- 
vided that  "nothing  in  this  act  contained  shall  be 
deemed  or  taken  to  render  any  common  law  or  other 
marriage,  otherwise  lawful,  invalid  by  reason  of  the 
failure  to  take  out  a  licence  as  is  herein  provided". 

With  certain  limitations,  decrees  of  nullity  of  mar- 
riage may  be  rendered  in  all  cases,  when  (1)  either  of 
the  parties  has  another  wife  or  husband  living  at  the 
time  of  a  second  or  other  marriage,  (2)  the  parties  are 
within  the  degrees  prohibited  by  law,  (3)  the  parties, 
or  either  of  them,  are  at  the  time  of  marriage  physic- 
ally and  incurably  impotent,  (4)  the  parties,  or  either 
of  themj  were,  at  the  time  of  the  marriage  incapable  of 
consenting  thereto,  and  the  marriage  has  not  been 
subsequently  ratified,  (5)  at  the  suit  of  the  wife^  when 
she  was  under  the  age  of  sixteen  years  at  the  time  of 
the  marriage,  unless  such  marriage  be  confirmed  by 
her  after  arriving  at  such  age ;  (6)  at  the  suit  of  the  hus- 
band, when  he  was  under  the  age  of  eighteen  at  the 
time  of  the  marriage,  unless  such  marriage  be  con- 
firmed by  him  after  arriving  at  such  age.  The  decree 
of  nullity  of  marriage  does  not  render  illegitimate  the 


MIWMAN 


794 


MIWMAN 


IflBUe  of  any  marriaKe  so  dissolved,  except  where  the 
marriage  is  dissolved  because  either  of  the  parties  had 
another  wife  or  husband  living  at  the  time  of  a  second 
or  other  marriage.  Such  marriage  shall  be  deemed 
void  from  the  beginning,  and  the  issue  thereof  shall  be 
illegitimate.  The  grounds  for  absolute  divorce  are: 
(1)  adultery;  (2)  wilful,  continued,  and  obstinate  de- 
sertion for  the  term  of  two  years.  Divorces  a  menaa 
et  thoro  may  be  decreed  for  (1)  adultery;  (2)  wilful, 
continued,  and  obstinate  desertion  for  the  term  of  two 
years;  (3)  extreme  cruelty  in  either  of  the  parties.  In 
all  cases  of  divorce  a  menaa  et  QwrOy  the  court  may 
decree  a  separation  for  ever  thereafter,  or  for  a  limited 
time,  with  a  provision  that,  in  case  of  a  reconciliation 
at  any  time  thereafter,  the  parties  may  apply  for  a 
revocation  or  suspension  of  the  decree,  and  upon  such 
application  the  Court  shall  make  such  order. 

Wills. — All  persons  of  sound  mind  and  of  the  age 
of  twenty-one  years  are  legally  competent  to  dispose 
of  property  by  will.  No  specific  form  of  words  is 
necessary  m  a  will,  but  the  testator  must  state  in  the 
document  that  it  is  his  will  *  and  it  must  be  signed,  and 
declared  or  published,  by  the  testator  as  his  will  in  the 
presence  of  at  least  two  subscribing  witnesses.  The 
witnesses  must  sign  in  the  presence  of  the  testator, 
and  in  the  presence  of  each  other.  A  codicil  to  a  will 
must  be  made  and  executed  with  the  same  require- 
ments as  a  will,  regarding  declaration  of  its  character, 
signature,  and  witnesses.  Unwritten  or  nuncupative 
wHls  are  legal  under  some  rare  circumstances,  as  in 
cases  of  sudden  dangerous  sickness  or  accident,  in  the 
presence  of  at  least  three  competent  witnesses,  and  at 
the  request  of  the  person  about  to  die.  Devises  and 
bequests  may  be  validly  made  for  charitable  and  re- 
ligious purposes  and  to  religious  societies. 

Cemeteries. — ^The  parochial  corporation  statute 
enables  church  coiporatidns  to  hold  title  to  '^burjring 
places'',  and  the  Diocesan  Corporation  Act  of  1908 
makes  the  diocesan  corporation  "capable  unlimit- 
edly"  of  acquiring  and  holding  "leases,  legacies,  de- 
vises, monevs,  donations,  goods  and  chattels  of  all 
kinds,  church  edifices,  school  houses,  college  buildings, 
seminaries,  parsonages.  Sisters'  houses,  hospitals,  or- 
phan asylums,  reformatories  and  all  other  kinds  of  re- 
ckons, ecclesiastical,  educational  and  charitable  in- 
stitutions, and  the  lands  whereon  the  same  are,  or  may 
be  erected,  and  cemeteries  or  burying  places  and  any 
lands,  tenements  and  hereditaments  suitable  for  any 
or  all  of  said  purposes,  in  any  place  or  places  in  any 
such  diocese;  ana  the  same,  or  any  part  thereof,  to 
lease,  sell,  grant,  demise,  alien  and  dispose  of;  .  .  .to 
exercise  any  corporate  powers  necessary  and  proper  to 
the  carrying  out  of  the  above  enumerated  powers,  and 
to  the  carrying  out  of  the  purposes  of  such  corpora- 
tion and  its  institutions." 

Education. — ^A  single  little  Dutch  school  in  Bergen 
(now  Jersey  City)  in  1662  marked  the  beginning  of 
the  free  public  school  yjrstem  in  New  Jersey.  That 
was  almost  two  hundred  and  fifty  years  ago  and  since 
that  time  the  schools  have  increased  gradually  in  num- 
ber and  size  until,  according  to  the  New  Jersey  School 
Report  of  1909,  there  are  now  2052  public  schools  in 
New  Jersey,  with  a  total  seating  capacity  of  426,719. 
The  total  value  of  the  school  property  is  estimated  at 
$33,900,466.00.  There  are  11,235  teachers  emploved, 
of  whicn  1250  are  men  and  9985  are  women.  These 
receive  an  average  yearly  salary  of  $718.40.  For  the 
school  year  1908-9  the  current  expenses  of  the  schools 
amounted  to  $11,583,201;  the  cost  of  permanent  im- 
provements was  $4,996,887,  and  the  special  appropri- 
ations equalled  $647,253.  These  amounted  to  a  total 
appropriation  of  $17,227,331.  The  total  enroUment 
of  pupils  for  the  same  year  was  424,534.  The  state 
supenntendent,  at  the  head  of  the  state  department 
of  public  instruction,  exercises  a  general  supervision 
over  the  public  school  system  of  the  state.  He  is  ap- 
pointed by  the  governor,  as  also  ie  the  gtat^  bo^ni  of 


education,  which  consists  of  two  members  from  each 
congressional  district.  The  county  superintendents  of 
schools  are  appointed  by  the  state  boiurd  of  education. 
This  board  also  exercises  supervision  over  the  different 
state  educational  institutions,  such  for  example  as  the 
normal  schools.  Each  of  the  many  school  districts, 
into  which  the  state  is  divided,  has  its  own  school  or 
schools,  controlled  by  the  officers,  whom  the  voters  of 
the  district  elect.  In  the  cities  and  large  towns  there 
are  superintendents  or  supervising  principals  and 
school-Doards,  appointed  by  the  mayor. 

New  Jersey  has  two  state  normal  schools — one  at 
Trenton  and  one  at  Montclair.  The  school  at  Tren- 
ton was  established  in  1855  by  an  Act  of  the  Legisla- 
ture, and  has  in  connexion  with  it  the  State  Model 
School.  The  Montclair  State  Normal  School  was 
formally  opened  on  28  September,  1908.  The  in- 
creasing demand  for  professionally  trained  teachers, 
and  the  inability  of  the  State  Normal  School  at  Tren- 
ton to  meet  it,  had  made  another  normal  school  neces- 
sary. At  Beverly  is  the  Famum  School,  a  prepara^ 
tory  school  associated  with  the  State  Normal  School; 
at  Trenton  is  the  StAte  School  for  Deaf  Mutes;  at 
Bordentown  the  Manual  Training  and  Industrial 
School  for  Colored  Yoiiths;  and  connected  with  Rut- 
gers College  is  the  State  Agricultural  College.  The 
principal  institutions  for  hi^er  education  in  New  Jei^ 
sey  are  Princeton  University  at  Princeton  (founded 
1746);  Stevens  Institute  of  Technology  at  Hoboken; 
Rutgers  College  at  New  Brunswick  (chartered  as 
Queens  College,  1766);  Bordentown  Female  CoUege 
at  Bordentown;  Saint  Peter's  (Dollege,  Jersey  City; 
Saint  Benedict's  0)llege,  Newark;  Seton  Hall  Col- 
lege, South  Orange  (founded  1856).  The  three  last- 
mentioned  are  Catholic  institutions.  (For  full  statis- 
tics concerning  the  Catholic  schools,  see  the  articles  on 
the  Dioceses  of  Newark  and  Trenton.) 

SrraBAVBS,  Manual  of  LtgiaUUive  Practice  (Trenton.  1836);  J7#> 
VMion  of  New  Jertey  (Trenton,  1877);  SujtpUment  to  the  Reneian 
of  N.  J.  (Trenton,  1886) ;  General  Statutee  of  N.  J,  (Trenton. 
1895);  FmosRALO,  LegukUtM  Manual  (Trenton.  1886-1910); 
Thirtj^eventh  Annual  Report  of  the  State  Board  of  Agrieulture 
(Trenton,  1909) ;  Qedoffieal  Survey  of  N.  J.  The  Claye  and  Clay 
Induetry  of  N.  J.  (Trenton.  1903) ;  Mbbxbr.  New  Jersey  (EIU*- 
beth,  1906) ;  yramnKAD.ContributionM  of  the  Early  Hietory  of  Perth 
Ambou  and  Adjoining  Countrif  (New  York,  1856);  Fltnit.  The 
Cathalie  Church  in  N  J,  (Mometown,  1904);  Stpbbb  and  Afoab, 
Hiet.  of  N.  J.  (PhilmdelphU,  1870);  Proceedinoe  of  the  N,  J.  Hi*- 
tcrioal  Society  (Newark,  1867-1900) ;  Zwicblxin,  Reliaion  in  New 
Netherland  (Rochester,  1910) :  Ar^ivee  of  the  StaU  ofN.  J.  (New- 
ark, 1880—);  MuLffOBD,  Ctml  and  Political  HieL  of  N.  J.  (Phila- 
delphia, 1851) ;  Smith,  Hiet.  of  the  Colony  of  Noea  Caearea  or  N.  J. 


(Burlington,  New  Jeraey,  1765) ;  Tannsr,  Province  of  N.  J.,  1694- 
1759  (New  York,  1908);  Lbb,  New  Jereey  (New  York,  1902); 
Raum,  Hiet,  of  N,  J,  (Philadelphia.  1877). 

WiLLIAlI   J.   KkABNB. 

Newman,  John  Henry  (1801-1890),  Cardinal- 
Deacon  of  St.  George  in  Velabro,  divine,  philosopher, 
man  of  letters,  leader  of  the  Tractarian  Movement,  ana 
the  most  illustrious  of  English  converts  to  the  Church, 
b.  in  the  City  of  London,  21  Feb.,  1801,  the  eldest  of 
six  children,  three  bo3rs  and  three  girls :  d .  at  Edgbaston, 
Birmingham,  11  Aug.,  1890.  Over  his  descent  there 
has  been  some  discussion  aa  regards  the  paternal  side. 
His  father  was  John  Newman,  a  banker,  his  mother 
Jemima  Fourdrinier,  of  a  Hugixenot  family  settled  in 
London  as  engravers  and  paper-makers.  It  is  stated 
that  the  name  was  at  one  time  spelt  Newmann;  it 
is  certain  that  many  Jews^  English  or  foreign,  have 
borne  it:  and  the  sujKestion  has  been  thrown  out 
that  to  his  Hebrew  affinities  the  cardinal  owed,  not 
only  his  cast  of  features,  but  some  of  his  decided 
characteristics— e.  g.,  his  remarkable  skill  in  music 
and  mathematics,  ms  dislike  of  metaphysical  specu- 
lations, his  grasp  of  the  concrete,  and  his  nervous  tem- 
perament. But  no  documentaiy  evidence  has  been 
round  to  confirm  the  suggestion .  His  Freaich  pedi|;ree 
is  undoubted.  It  accounts  for  the  religious  traimng, 
a  modified  Calvinism,  which  he  received  at  his 
inQtber'9  knees;  and  perhaps  it  helped  towards  the 


NSWMAN 


795 


NEWMAN 


''lucid  concision"  of  his  phrase  when  dealing  with 
abstruse  subjects.  His  brother  Francis  William, 
also  a  writer,  but  wanting  in  litenury  charm,  turned 
from  the  English  Church  to  Deism;  Charles  Robert, 
the  second  son,  was  very  erratic,  and  professed  Athe- 
ism. One  sister,  Mary,  died  voung;  Jemima  has  a 
place  in  the  cardinal's  biography  during  the  crisis  of 
nis  Anglican  career;  and  to  a  daughter  of  Harriet. 
Anne  Mozley,  we  are  indebted  for  his  ''Letters  ana 
Correspondence"  down  to  1845,  which  contains  a 
sequel  from  his  own  hand  to  the  ''Apologia". 

A  classic  from  the  day  it  was  completed,  the  "Apo- 
logia" will  ever  be  the  chief  authority  for  Newman's 
early  thoughts,  and  for  his  judgment  on  the  great 
religious  revival  known  as  the  Oxford  Movement,  of 
which  he  was  the  guide,  the  philosopher,  and  the 
martyr.  His  immense  correspondence,  the  larger 
portion  of  which  still  awaits  publication,  cannot 
essentially  change  our  estimate  of  one  who,  though 
subtile  to  a  degree  bordering  on  refinement,  was  also 
impulsive  and  open  with  his  friends,  as  well  as  bold 
in  nis  confidences  to  the  public.  From  all  that  is  thus 
known  of  him  we  may  infer  that  Newman's  greatness 
consisted  in  the  union  of  originality,  amounting  to 
genius  of  the  first  rank,  with  a  deep  spiritual  temper, 
the  whole  manifesting  itself  in  language  of  perfect 
poise  and  rh3rthm,  in  energy  such  as  oftc»Q  has  created 
sects  or  Churches,  and  in  a  personality  no  less  winning 
than  sensitive.  Among  the  Utenury  stars  of  his  time 
Newman  is  distinguished  by  the  pure  Christian  ra- 
diance that  shines  in  his  lue  and  writings.  He  is 
the  one  Englishman  of  that  era  who  upheld  the  an- 
cient creed  with  a  knowledge  that  only  theologians 
possess,  a  Shakespearean  force  of  style,  and  a  fervour 
worthy  of  the  saints.  It  is  this  unique  combination  that 
raises  him  above  \Ay  preachers  de  vanitate  mundi  like 
Thackeray,  and  which  gives  him  a  place  apart  from 
Tennyson  and  Browning.  In  comparison  with  hun 
Keble  is  a  light  of  the  sixth  magnitude,  Fusey  but  a 
devout  professor,  Liddon  a  less  eloquent  Lacordaire. 
Newman  occupies  in  the  nineteenth  century  a  position 
recalling  that  of  Bishop  Butler  in  the  ei^teenth.  As 
Butler  was  the  Christian  champion  against  Deism,  so 
Newman  is  the  Catholic  apologist  m  an  epoch  of 
Agnosticism,  and  amid  theones  of  evolution.  He  is, 
moreover,  a  poet,  and  his  "Dream  of  Gerontius"  far 
excels  the  meditative  verse  of  modem  singers  by  its 
happy  shadowing  forth  in  symbol  and  dramatic 
scenes  of  the  world  behind  the  veil. 

He  was  brought  up  from  a  child  to  take  great  de- 
list in  reading  the  Bible;  but  he  had  no  formed  reli- 
gious convictions  until  he  was  fifteen.  He  used  to 
wish  the  Arabian  tales  were  true;  his  mind  ran  on  un- 
known influences;  he  thought  life  poesiblv  a  dream, 
himself  an  angel,  and  that  nis  fellow-angels  might  be 
deceiving  him  with  the  semblance  of  a  material  world. 
He  was  '''^very  superstitious",  and  would  cross  himself 
on  going  into  the  dark.  At  fifteen  he  underwent 
"conversion",  though  not  quite  as  Evangelicals 
practise  itj  from  works  of  the  school  of  Calvin  he 
gained  dennite  dogmatic  ideas:  and  he  rested  "in  the 
thought  of  two  and  two  only  aosolute  and  luminously 
self-evident  beings,  myself  and  my  Creator".  In 
other  words,  personality  became  the  primal  truth 
in  his  philosophy;  not  matter,  law,  reason,  or  the  ex- 
perience of  the  senses.  Henceforth,  Newman  was  a 
Christian  mystic,  and  such  he  remained.  From  the 
writings  of  Thomas  Scott  of  Aston  Sandford,  "to 
whom,  humanly  speaking",  he  says, "  I  almost  owe  my 
Boul",  he  learned  the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity,  support- 
ing each  verse  of  the  Athanasian  Creed  with  texts  from 
Scripture.  Scott's  aphorisms  were  constantly  on  his 
lips  for  years,  "Houness  rather  than  peace",  and 
"Growth  the  only  evidence  of  life".  Law's  "Serious 
Call"  had  on  the  youth  a  Catholic  or  ascetic  influence: 
he  was  bom  to  be  a  missionary :  thought  it  God's  will 
that  he  should  lead  a  single  me ;  was  enamoured  of 


quotations  from  the  Fathers  given  in  Milner's  "  Church 
History",  and,  reading  Newton  on  the  Pro^ecies. 
felt  convinced  that  the  pope  was  Antichrist.  He  had 
been  at  school  at  Ealing  near  London  from  the  age  of 
seven.  Alway^s  thoughtful,  shy,  and  affectionate,  he 
took  no  part  in  boys'  games,  oesan  to  exercise  his 
pen  early,  read  the  Waverley  Novels,  imitated  Gibbon 
and  Johnson,  matriculated  at  Trinity  College,  Oxford, 
Dec..  1816,  and  in  1818  won  a  scholarship  of  £60 
tenable  for  nine  years.  In  1819  his  father's  oank  sus- 
pended payment,  but  soon  discharged  its  liabilities  in 
full.  Working  too  hard  for  his  degree,  Newman  broke 
down,  and  gamed  in  1821  only  third-class  honours. 
But  his  powers  could  not  be  hidden.  Oriel  was  then 
first  in  reputation  and  intellect  among  the  Osdford 
Colleges^  and  of  Oriel  he  was  elected  a  feflow,  12  April, 
1822.  He  ever  felt  this  to  be  "the  turning  point  in 
his  life,  and  of  all  days  most  memorable". 

In  1821  he  had  given  up  the  intention  of  studying 
for  the  Bar,  and  resolvecl  to  take  orders.  As  tutor 
of  Oriel,  he  considered  that  he  had  a  cure  of  souls;  he 
was  ordained  on  13  June,  1824;  and  at  Pusev's  sug- 
gestion became  curate  of  St.  Clement's,  Oxford,  where 
he  spent  two  years  in  parochial  activity.  And  here 
the  views  in  which  he  had  been  brought  up  disap- 
pointed him;  "Calvinism  was  not  a  key  to  the  phe- 
nomena of  human  nature  as  they  occur  in  the  world- " 
It  would  not  work.  He  wrote  articles  on  Cicero,  etc., 
and  his  first  "Essay  on  Miracles",  which  takes  a 
strictly  Protestant  attitude,  to  the  prejudice  of  those 
alleged  outside  Scripture.  But  he  also  fell  under  the 
influence  of  Whateley,  afterwards  Anglican  Arch- 
bishop of  Dublin,  who,  in  1825,  made  him  his  vice- 
principal  at  St.  Mary's  Hall.  Whateley  stimulated 
him  by  discussion,  taught  him  the  notion  of  Chris- 
tianity as  a  social  and  sovereign  organism  distinct  from 
the  State,  but  led  him  in  the  direction  of  "liberal" 
ideas  ana  nominalistic  logic.  To  Whateley's  once 
famous  book  on  that  subject  Newman  contributed. 
From  Hawkins,  whom  his  casting  vote  made  Provost 
of  Oriel,  he  gained  the  Catholic  aoctrines  of  tradition 
and  baptismal  regeneration,  as  well  as  a  certain  pre- 
cision of  terms  which,  long  afterwards,  gave  rise  to 
Kingsle^'s  misunderstanding  of  Newman's  methods 
in  writmg.  By  another  Oxford  clergyman  he  was 
taught  to  believe  in  the  Apostolic  succession.  And 
Butler's  "Analogy",  read  m  1823.  made  an  era  in 
his  reUgious  opinions.  It  is  probably  not  too  much 
to  say  that  this  deep  and  searching  book  became 
Newman's  guide  in  life,  and  gave  rise  not  only  to  the 
"Essay  on  Development"  but  to  the  "Grammar  of 
Assent".  In  particular  it  offered  a  reflective  account 
of  ethics  and  conscience  which  confirmed  his  earliest 
beliefs  in  a  lawgiver  and  judge  intimately  present  to 
the  soul.  On  another  line  it  suggested  the  sacramen- 
tal system,  or  the  "Eoonomv",  of  which  the  Alexan- 
drians Clement  and  St.  Athanasius  are  exponents. 
To  sum  up,  at  this  formative  period  the  sources 
whence  Newman  derived  his  principles  as  well  as 
his  doctrines  were  Anglican  and  Greek,  not  Roman  or 
German.  His  Calvinism  dropped  away;  in  time  he 
withdrew  from  the  Bible  Society.  He  was  growing 
fiercely  anti-Erastian  *  and  Whateley  saw  the  elements 
of  a  fresh  party  in  tne  Church  gathering  round  one 
whom  Oriel  had  chosen  for  his  intellectual  promise, 
but  whom  Oxford  was  to  know  as  a  critic  and  antag- 
onist of  the  "March  of  Mind". 

His  college  in  1828  made  him  Vicar  of  St.  Mary's 
(which  was  also  the  university  church),  and  in  its  pul- 
pit he  deUvered  the  "Parochial  Sermons",  without 
eloquence  or  gesture,  for  he  had  no  popular  gifts,  but 
with  a  thrilling  earnestness  and  a  knowledge  of  human 
nature  seldom  equalled.  When  published,  it  was  said 
of  them  that  they  "beat  all  other  sermons  out  of  the 
market  as  Scott's  tales  beat  all  other  stories".  They 
were  not  controversial;  and  there  is  little  in  them  to 
which  Catholic  theology  would  object.    Their  chaa- 


MEWMAN  796  MEWMAM 

lened  stvie,  fertility  of  illustration,  and  short  aharp  vided  Church.  "Charles*',  said  Newman,  "is  the 
energy,  have  lost  nothing  by  age.  In  tone  they  are  king,  Laud  the  prelate,  Oxford  the  sacred  city,  of  this 
severe  and  often  melancholy,  as  if  the  utterance  of  an  principle."  Patristic  study  became  the  order  of  the 
isolated  spirit.  Though  gracious  and  even  tender-  day.  Newman's  first  volume,  "The  Aiians  of  the 
hearted,  Newman's  peculiar  temper  included  deep  re-  Fourth  Century",  is  an  undigested,  but  valuable  and 
serve.  He  had  not  in  his  composition,  as  he  says,  a  characteristic,  tr^tise,  whoUy  Alexandrian  in  tone, 
grain  of  conviviality.  He  was  always  the  Oxford  dealing  with  creeds  and  sects  on  the  lines  of  the"  Eoon- 
scholar,  no  democrat,  suspicious  of  popular  move-  omy".  As  a  history  it  fails;  the  manner  is  confused, 
ments;  but  keenly  interested  in  political  studies  as  the  style  a  contrast  to  his  later  intensity  and  direct- 
bearing  on  the  fortunes  of  the  Church.  This  disposi-  ness  of  expression.  But  as  a  thinker  Newman  never 
tion  was  intensified  by  his  friendship  with  Keble,  travelled  much  beyond  the  "Arians"  (publidied 
whose  "Christian  Year"  came  out  in  1827,  and  with  1833).  It  implies  a  mystic  philosophy  controlled  by 
R.  Hurrell  Froude,  a  man  of  impetuous  thought  and  Christian  dogma,  as  the  Church  expounds  it. 
self-denying  practice.  In  1832  he  quarrelled  with  Dr.  In  the  "Apologia"  we  find  this  key  to  his  mental 
Hawkins,  who  would  not  endure  the  pastoral  idea  development  dropped  by  Newman,  not  undesignedly, 
which  Newman  cherished  of  his  college  work.  He  "I  understood",  he  says,  "...  that  the  exterior 
resigned  his  tutorship,  went  on  a  Ions  voyage  round  world,  physical  and  historical,  was  but  the  manifesta- 
the  Mediterranean  with  Froude,  and  came  back  to  tion  to  our  senses  of  realities  greater  than  itself.  Na- 
Oxford,  where  on  14  July,  1833,  Keble  preached  the  ture  was  a  parable,  Scripture  was  an  allegory;  pagan 
Assize  sermon  on  "National  Apostasy".  That  day,  literature,  philosophy,  and  mytholonr,  ptopeny  un- 
the  anniversaiy  of  the  French  Kevolution,  gave  birth  derstood,  were  but  a  preparation  for  the  Gospel.  The 
to  the  Oxford  Movement.  Greek  poets  and  sages  were  in  a  sense  prophets." 

Newman's  voyage  to  the  coasts  of  North  Africa,  There  had  been  a  "cuspensation"  of  the  Gentiles  as 
Italy,  Western  Greece,  and  Sicily  (Dec.,  1832-July,  well  as  of  the  Jews.  Both  had  outwardly  come  to 
1833)  was  a  romantic  ^isode,  of  which  his  diaries  nought;  from  and  through  each  had  the  evangeli- 
have  preserved  the  incidents  and  the  colour.  In  cal  doctrine  been  made  manifest.  Thus  room  was 
Rome  he  saw  Wiseman  at  the  English  College;  the  granted  for  the  anticipation  of  deeper  disclosures,  of 
city,  as  mother  of  religion  to  his  native  land,  laid  a  truths  still  under  the  veil  of  the  letter.  Holy  Church 
spell  on  him  never  more  to  be  undone.  He  felt  called  "  will  remain  after  all  but  a  symbol  of  those  heavenly 
to  some  high  mission;  and  when  fever  took  him  at  facts  which  fill  eternity.  Her  m3rst«ries  are  but  the 
Leonforte  in  Sicilv  (where  he  was  wandering  alone)  he  expression  in  human  language  of  truths  to  which  the 
cried  out,  "I  shall  not  die,  I  have  not  sinned  against  human  mind  is  unequal'  ("Apol."^  ed.  1895,  p.  27). 
the  light."  Off  Cape  Ortegal,  11  Dec.,  1832,  he  had  Such  was  the  teaching  that  "came  like  music"  to  his 
composed  the  first  of  a  series  of  poems,  condensed,  inward  ear,  from  Athens  and  Alexandria.  Newman's 
passionate,  and  original,  which  prophesied  that  the  life  was  devoted,  first,  to  applying  this  magnificent 
Church  would  yet  reign  as  in  her  youth.  Becalmed  scheme  to  the  Church  of  En^and;  and  then,  when  it 
in  the  Straits  of  Bonifacio,  he  sought  guidance  through  would  not  suit  those  insular  dimensions,  to  the  Church 
the  tender  verses,  "Lead,  Kindly  Light",  deservedly  of  the  centre,  to  Rome.  But  its  wiae  implications 
treasured  by  all  the  English-speaking  races.  They  even  this  far-glancing  vison  did  not  take  in.  How- 
have  been  called  the  marching  song  of  the  Tractarian  ever^  it  substituted  a  dynamic  and  progressive  princi- 
host.  But  during  the  earlier  stages  of  that  journey  it  pie  m  Christianity  for  one  merely  static.  But  the 
was  not  clear,  even  to  the  leader  himself,  in  what  di-  Anglican  position  was  supposed  to  rely  on  Vincent  of 
rection  they  were  moving — away  from  the  Revolution,  Lerins's  Quod  ubiqutf  aomitting  of  no  real  develop- 
certainly.  Reform  was  m  the  air:  ten  Irish  bishoprics  ments;  its  divines  uri^ed  against  Boasuet  the  "va- 
had  been  suppressed;  disestablishment  might  not  be  riations"  of  Catholicism.  From  1833  to  1839  the 
far  off.  There  was  need  of  resistance  to  the  enemies  Tractarian  leader  held  this  line  of  defence  without  a 
without,  and  of  a  second,  but  a  Catholic,  reformation  misgiving.  Suddenly  it  gave  way,  and  the  Via  Media 
within.  The  primitive  Chureh  must  somehow  be  re-  disappeaxed. 
stored  in  England.  Meanwhile,  Oxford  was  shaken  like  Medicean  Flor- 

Others  met  in  committee  and  sent  up  an  address  to  enoe  bv  a  new  Savonarola,  who  made  disciples  on 
Canterbury;  Newman  began  the  "Tracts  for  the  every  hand;  who  stirred  up  sleepy  Conservatives 
Times",  as  he  teUs  us  with  a  smile,  "out  of  his  own  when  Hampden,  a  commonplace  don,  subiected 
head".  To  him  Aclulles  always  seemed  more  than  Christian  verities  to  the  dissolving  influence  of  Nom- 
the  host  of  the  Achseans.  He  took  his  motto  from  the  inalism ;  and  who  multiplied  books  and  lectures  deal- 
Iliad  :  "They  shall  know  the  difference  now."  Achil-  ing  with  all  religious  parties  at  once.  "The  Prophetic 
les  went  down  into  battle,  fought  for  eight  years,  won  Omce"  was  a  formal  apology  of  the  Laudian  t3rpe;  the 
victory  upon  victory,  but  was  defeats  by  his  own  obscure,  but  often  beautiful,  "Treatise  on  Justified^ 
weapons  when  "Tract  90"  appeared,  and  retir^  to  his  tion"  made  an  effort  "to  show  that  there  is  little  dif- 
tent  at  Littlemore,  a  broken  champion.  Neverthe-  ference  but  what  is  verbal  in  the  various  views,  found 
less,  he  had  done  a  lasting  work,  greater  than  Laud's  whether  among  Catholic  or  Protestant  divines"  on 
and  likely  to  overthrow  Cranmer's  in  the  end.  He  this  subject.  Ddllinger  called  it  "  the  greatest  master- 
had  resuscitated  the  Fathers,  brought  into  relief  the  piece  in  theology  that  England  had  produced  in  a  hun- 
sacramental  system,  paved  the  way  for  an  astonishing  dred  years",  and  it  contains  the  true  answer  to  Puri- 
revival  of  long-forgotten  ritual,  and  given  the  clergy  a  tanism.  The  "University  Sermons",  profound  as 
hold  upon  thousands  at  the  moment  when  Erastian  their  theme,  aimed  at  determining  the  powere  and 
principles  were  on  the  eve  of  triumph.  "  It  was  soon  limits  of  reason,  the  methods  of  revelation,  the  poesi- 
after  1830",  says  Pattison  grimly,  "that  the  Tracts  bilities  of  a  real  theolo^.  Newman  wrote  so  much 
desolated  Oxford  life."  Newman's  position  was  des-  that  his  hand  almost  fiuled  him.  Among  a  crowd  of 
ignated  the  Via  Media.  The  English  Chureh,  he  admirers  only  one  perhaps,  Hurrell  Froude,  could 
maintainecL  lay  at  an  equal  distance  from  Rome  and  meet  him  in  thought  on  fairly  equal  terms,  and  Froude 
Geneva.  It  was  Catholic  in  origin  and  doctrine:  it  passed  away  at  Dartington  in  1836.  The  pioneer  went 
anathematized  as  heresies  the  peculiar  tenets  whetner  nis  road  alone.  He  made  a  bad  party-leader,  being 
of  Calvin  or  Luther;  it  could  not  but  protest  against  liable  to  sudden  gusts  and  personal  resolutions  which 
"Roman  corruptions",  which  were  excrescences  on  ended  in  catastrophe.  But  from  1839,  when  he  reigned 
primitive  truth.  Hence  England  stood  by  the  Fa-  at  Oxford  without  a  rival,  he  was  already  faltering, 
thers,  whose  teaching  the  Prayer  Book  handed  down;  In  his  own  language,  he  had  seen  a  ghost — the  shadow 
it  appealed  to  antiquity,  and  its  norm  was  the  undi-  of  Rome  overoTouoing  his  Anglican  compromise. 


JOHN  HENRY  CARDINAL  NEWMAN 

PAINTINQ  BT  W.  W.  OCLEBa — KTCHlNa  BY  P.-A.  RjUON 


nSWMAN                               797  NEWMAN 

Two  names  are  associated  with  a  change  so  mo-  into  equal  parts — ^the  first  more  dramatic  and  its  per- 
mentous — Wiseman  and  Ward.  The  ''Apolo^a"  spective  ascertained;  the  second  as  yet  imperfectly 
does  full  justice  to  Wiseman;  it  scarcely  mentions  told,  but  spent  for  a  quarter  of  a  century  sub  luce  ma- 
Ward  (see  Oxford  Movement).  Those  who  were  liana,  under  suspicion  from  one  side  or  another,  his 
looking  on  might  have  predicted  a  collision  between  plans  thwarted,  his  motives  misconstrued.  Called  by 
the  Tractarians  and  Protestant  England,  which  had  Wiseman  to  Oscott,  near  Birmingham,  in  1846,  he  pro- 
forgotten  the  Caroline  divines.  This  came  about  on  ceeded  in  October  to  Rome,  and  was  there  ordainea  by 
occasion  of  ''Tract  90  " — ^in  itself  the  least  interesting  Cardinal  Fransoni.  The  pope  approved  of  his  scheme 
of  all  Newman's  publications.  The  tract  was  intendea  for  establishing  in  England  the  Oratory  of  St.  Philip 
to  keep  stragglers  from  Rome  bv  distin^shing  the  Neri:  Iq  1847  he  came  back,  and,  besides  setting  up  the 
corruptions  against  which  the  'fhirtv-Nme  Articles  London  house,  took  mission  work  in  Birmingham, 
were  directed,  from  the  doctrines  of  Trent  which  they  Thence  he  moved  out  to  Edgbaston,  where  the  corn- 
did  not  assail.  A  furious  and  universal  agitation  broke  munity  still  resides.  A  large  school  was  added  in 
out  in  consequence  (Feb^  1841).  Newman  was  de-  1859.  The  spacious  Renaissance  church,  consecrated 
nounced  as  a  traitor,  a  Guy  Fawkes  at  Oxford;  the  in  1909,  is  a  memorial  of  the  forty  years  during  which 
University  intervened  with  academic  maladroitness  Newman  made  his  home  in  that  place.  After  his 
and  called  the  tract  ''an  evasion".  Dr.  Bagot,  "SermonstoMixedCongregations",  which  exceed  in 
Bii^op  of  Oxford,  mildly  censured  it,  but  required  uiat  vigour  and  irony  all  others  published  by  him,  the 
the  tracts  should  cease.  For  three  years  condemna-  Oratorian  recluse  did  not  strive  to  gain  a  footing  in  the 
tions  from  the  bench  of  bishops  were  scattered  broad-  capital  of  the  Midlands.  He  alwa3rs  felt  "paucorum 
cast.  To  a  mind  constituteci  like  Newman's,  imbued  hominum  sum '' ;  his  charm  was  not  for  the  multitude, 
with  Ignatian  ideas  of  episcopacy,  and  unwilling  to  per-  As  a  Catholic  he  began  enthusiastically.  His  "Lec- 
ceive  that  they  did  not  avail  in  the  English  Establish-  tures  on  Anglican  Difficulties"  were  heard  in  London 
ment,  this  was  eji  ex  cathedra  judgment  against  him.  by  large  audiences;  "Loss  and  Gain",  though  not 
He  stopped  the  tracts,  resigned  his  editorship  of  "The  much  of  a  stoiy,  abounds  in  happy  strokes  and  per- 
British  Critic ",  by  and  by  gave  up  St.  Mary  s,  and  re-  sonal  touches;  "Callista"  recalls  his  voyage  in  the 
tired  at  Littlemore  into  fay  communion.  Nothing  is  Meditersanean  by  many  delightful  pages;  the  sermon 
clearer  than  that,  if  he  haa  held  on  quietly,  he  would  at  the  S3mod  of  Oscott  entitled  "The  second  Spring" 
have  won  the  day.  "Tract  90 "  does  not  go  so  far  as  has  a  rare  and  delicate  beauty.  It  is  said  that  Macau- 
many  Anglican  attempts  at  reconciliation  have  gone  lay  knew  it  by  heart.  "When  Newman  made  up  his 
since.  The  bishops  did  not  dream  of  coercing  him  mmd  to  ioin  the  Church  of  Rome",  observes  It.  H. 
into  submission.  But  he  had  lost  faith  in  himself.  Hutton,  "his  genius  bloomed  out  with  a  force  and  free- 
Reading  church  histoiy,  he  saw  that  the  Via  Media  dom  such  as  it  never  displayed  in  the  Anglican  com- 
was  no  new  thing.  It  had  been  the  refuge  of  the  munion. "  And  again,  'In  irony,  in  humour,  in  elo- 
Semiarians,  without  whom  Arianism  could  never  have  quencc,  in  imaginative  force,  the  writings  of  the  later 
flourished.  It  made  the  fortune  of  the  Monophysites,  and,  as  we  may  call  it,  emancipated  portion  of  his  ca- 
thanks  to  whom  the  Church  of  Alexandria  had  sunk  reer  far  surpass  the  writings  of  his  theological  ap- 
into  heresy  and  fallen  a  prey  to  Mohammed's  legions,  prenticeship."  But  Enj^lish  Catholic  literature  also 
The  analogy  which  Newman  had  observed  with  dis-  gained  a  persuasive  voice  and  a  classic  dignity  of 
may  was  enforced  from  another  side  by  Wiseman,  which  hitherto  there  had  been  no  example, 
writing  on  the  Donatists  in  "The  Dubhn  Review".  His  own  secession,  preceded  by  that  of  Ward  (amid 
Wiseman  quoted  St.  Augustine^  "Securus  judicat  or-  conflicts  of  the  angriest  kind  at  Oxford),  and  followed 
bis  t«rrarum",  which  may  be  mterpreted  "Catholic  by  n^any  others,  had  alarmed  Englishmen.  In  1850 
consent  is  the  judge  of  controversy".  Not  antiquity  came  the  "Papal  Aggression",  by  which  the  country 
studied  in  books,  not  the  bare  succession  of  bishops,  was  divided  into  Catholic  sees,  and  a  Roman  cardinal 
but  the  living  Church  now  broke  upon  him  as  alone  announced  from  the  Flaminian  Gate  his  commission 
peremptory  and  infallible.  It  ever  had  been  so;  it  to  "govern"  Westminster.  The  nation  went  mad 
must  be  so  still.  Nica^a,  Ephesus,  and  Chalcedon  thus  with  excitement.  Newman  delivered  in  the  Com  Ex- 
bore  witness  to  Rome.  Add  to  this  the  grotesoue  chfuige^  Birmingham,  his  "  Lectures  on  the  Position  of 
affair  of  the  Jerusalem  bishopric,  the  fruit  of  an  alii-  Cathohcs"  (he  was  seldom  felicitous  in  titles  of  books), 
ance  with  Lutheran  Prussia,  and  the  Anglican  theory  and,  to  George  Eliot's  amazement,  they  revealed  him 
was  disproved  by  facts.  as  a  master  of  humorous,  almost  too  hvely  sketches, 

From  1841  Newman  was  on  his  death-bed  as  re-  witty  and  scornful  of  the  great  Protestant  tradition, 
garded  the  Anglican  Church.  He  and  some  friends  An  apostate  Italian  priest,  Achilli,  was  haranguing 
Bved  together  at  Littlemore  in  monastic  seclusion,  against  the  Church.  Prompted  by  Wiseman,  the 
under  a  hard  rule  which  did  not  improve  his  delicate  Oratorian  gave  particulars  of  this  man's  uifamous  ca- 
health.  In  February,  1843,  he  retracted  in  a  local  reer,  and  Achilli  brought  a  charge  of  libel.  Newman, 
newspaper  his  severe  language  towards  Rome;  in  Sep-  at  enormous  expense^  collected  evidence  which  fully 
tember  he  resigned  his  living.  With  immense  labour  justified  the  accusations  he  had  made.  But  a  no- 
he  composed  the  "Essay  on  the  Development  of  popery  jury  convicted  him.  He  was  fined  £100;  on 
Christian  Doctrine",  in  which  the  apparent  varia-  appeal,  the  verdict  was  quashed;  and  "The  Times" 
tions  of  dogma,  formerly  objected  by  him  against  the  admitted  that  a  miscarriage  of  justice  had  taken  place 
Catholic  Church,  were  explained  on  a  theory  of  evolu-  when  Newman  was  declared  guilty.  Catholics  all  the 
tion.  curiously  anticipating  on  certain  points  the  great  world  over  came  to  his  relief.  His  thanks  are  on  rec- 
work  of  Darwin.  It  nas  many  most  original  passages,  ord  in  the  dedication  of  his  Dublin  "  Lectures".  But 
but  remains  a  fragment.  On  9  Oct.,  1845,  during  a  he  always  remembered  that  to  Wiseman's  haste  and 
period  of  excited  action  at  Oxford.  Newman  was  re-  carelessness  he  owed  this  trial, 
ceived  into  the  Church  by  Father  Dominic,  an  Italian  There  was  much  more  trouble  awaiting  him.  The 
Passionist,  three  days  after  Renan  had  broken  with  years  from  1851  to  1870  brou^t  disaster  to  a  series  of 
SaintrSulpice  and  Catholicism.  The  event,  although  noble  projects  in  which  he  aimed  at  serving  religion 
long  in  prospect,  irritated  and  distressed  his  country-  and  culture.  In  Ireland  the  bishops  had  been  com- 
men,  who  did  not  forgive  it  until  many  years  had  gone  pelled.  after  rejecting  the  "  Godless  colleges  in  1847, 
by.  Its  importance  was  felt;  its  causes  were  not  to  undertake  a  university  of  their  own.  Neither  men 
known.  Hence  an  estrangement  which  only  the  ex-  nor  ideas  were  forthcoming;  the  State  would  not  sano- 
ouisite  candour  of  Newman's  self-delineation  in  the  tion  degrees  conferred  by  a  private  body;  neverthe- 
'  Apologia"  could  entirely  heal.  less,  an  attempt  could  be  made;  and  Newman  was  ap- 

His  conversion  divides  a  life  of  almost  ninety  years  pointed  rector,  November,  1851.    Three  years  passed 


NEWMAN 


798 


NEWHAN 


ft8  in  a  dream ;  in  1 854  he  took  the  oaths.  But  he  had, 
in  1852,  addressed  Ireland  on  the  "  Idea  of  a  Univer- 
sity" with  such  a  largeness  and  liberidity  of  view  as 
Oidford,  if  we  may  beheve  Pattison,  had  never  taught 
him.  The  "Lectures"  end  abruptly;  they  gave  mm 
less  satisfaction  than  an^  other  of  his  works;  yet,  in 
conjunction  with  his  briUiant  short  papers  in  the  "  Uni- 
versity Magazine",  and  academic  dissertations  to  the 
various  "Schools",  they  exhibit  a  range  of  thought,  an 
urbanity  of  style,  and  a  pregnant  wit,  such  as  no  living 
professor  could  have  rivalled.  They  are  the  best  de- 
fence of  Catholic  educational  theories  in  any  lauRuage; 
a  critic  perhaps  would  describe  them  as  the  Via  Media 
between  an  obscurantism  which  tramples  on  the  rights 
of  knowledge  and  a  Free-Thought  which  will  not  hear 
of  the  rights  of  revelation.  Incidentally,  they  de- 
fended the  teaching  of  the  classics  against  a  firench 
Puritan  cliaue  led  oy  the  Abb^  Gaume.  This  was 
pretty  much  all  that  Newman  achieved  during  the 
seven  years  of  his  "Campaign  in  Ireland".  Only  a 
few  native  or  EInglish  students  attended  the  house  in 
St.  Stephen's  Green.  The  bishops  were  divided,  and 
Archbishop  MacHale  opposed  a  severe  non  possumua 
to  the  rector's  plans,  in  administration  difficulties 
sprang^  up;  and  though  Newman  won  the  friendsUp  of 
Archbishop  Cullen  and  Bishop  Moriarty,  he  was  not 
alwa3rs  treated  with  due  regard.  The  status  of  titular 
bishop  had  been  promised  him;  for  reasons  which  he 
never  learnt,  the  promise  fell  through.  His  feeling 
towards  Ireland  was  warm  and  generous;  but  in  Nov.. 
1858,  he  retired  from  the  rectoiship.  Its  labours  ana 
anxieties  had  told  upon  him.  Another  large  enter- 
prise, to  which  Cardinal  Wiseman  invited  him  only  to 
balk  his  efforts,  was  likewise  a  failure — the  revision  of 
the  English  Catholic  Bible.  Newman  had  selected  a 
oompanv  of  revisors  and  had  begun  to  accumulate 
materials,  but  some  small  publishers'  interests  were 
pleaded  on  the  other  side,  and  Wiseman,  whose  inten- 
tions were  good,  but  evanescent,  allowed  them  to 
wreck  this  unique  opportunity. 

Durinff  the  mterval  between  1854  and  1860  New- 
man had  passed  from  the  convert's  golden  fervours 
into  a  state  which  resembled  criticism  of  prevailing 
methods  in  church  government  and  education.  ELis 
friends  included  some  of  a  type  known  to  history  as 
"Liberal  Catholics".  Of  Nlontalemb^t  and  Lacor- 
daire  he  wrote  in  1864:  "In  their  general  line  of 
thought  and  conduct  I  enthusiastically  concur  and 
consider  them  to  be  before  their  age."  He  speaks  of 
"the  unselfish  aims,  the  thwarted  projects,  tne  unre- 
quited toils,  the  grand  and  tender  resignation  of  La- 
oordaire ' ' .  That  moving  description  might  be  applied 
to  Newman  himself.  He  was  intent  on  the  problems 
of  the  time  and  not  alarmed  at  Darwin's  "Origin  of 
Species".  He  had  been  made  aware  by  German 
scholars,  like  Acton,  of  the  views  entertained  at  Mu- 
nich; and  he  was  keenlv  sensitive  to  the  difference  be- 
tween North  and  South  in  debatable  questions  of  pol- 
icy or  discipline.  He  looked  beyond  the  immediate 
future;  in  a  lecture  at  Dublin  on  "A  Form  of  Infidel- 
ity of  the  Dav"  he  seems  to  have  anticipated  what  is 
now  termed  Modernism",  condenming  it  as  the  ruin 
of  dogma.  It  is  distressing  to  imagine  what  New- 
man's horror  would  have  been,  had  his  intuition 
availed  to  teU  him  that,  in  little  more  than  half  a  cen- 
tury, a  "form  of  infidelity"  so  much  like  what  he  pre- 
dicted would  claim  him  as  its  originator;  on  the  other 
hand,  he  would  surely  have  taken  comfort,  could  he 
also  have  foreseen  that  the  soundness  of  his  faith  was 
to  be  so  vindicated  as  it  has  been  by  Bishop  O'Dwyer, 
of  Limerick,  and  above  all,  the  vindication  so  ap- 
proved and  confirmed  as  it  is  in  Pius  X's  letter  of  10 
Maroh,  1908,  to  that  bishop.  In  another  lecture,  on 
"Christianity  and  Scientific  Investigation",  he  pro- 
vides for  a  concordat  which  would  spare  the  world  a 
second  case  of  Galileo.  He  held  that  Christian  theol- 
ogy was  a  deductive  science,  but  physics  and  the  like 


were  inductive;  therefore  collision  between  them  need 
not,  and  in  fact  did  not  really  occur.  He  resisted  in 
principle  the  notion  that  historical  evidence  could  do 
away  with  the  necessity  of  faith  as  regarded  creeds  and 
definitions.  He  deprecated  the  intrusion  of  amateurs 
into  divinity;  but  he  was  anxious  that  laymen  should 
take  their  part  in  the  movement  of  intellect.  This  led 
him  to  encourage  J.  M.  Capes  in  founding  the  "Rjun- 
bler  ",  and  H.  Wilberforce  in  editing  the  "  Weekly  Reg- 
ister". But  likewise  it  brought  him  face  to  face  wiUi 
a  strong  reaction  from  the  earlier  liberal  policy  of  Pius 
IX.  This  new  movement,  powerful  especially  in 
France,  was  eagerly  taken  up  oy  Ward  ana  Manning, 
who  now  influenced  Wiseman  as  he  sank  under  a  fatal 
disease.  Their  quarrel  with  J.  H.  N.  (as  he  was 
familiarly  called)  did  not  break  out  in  open  war;  but 
much  embittered  correspondence  is  left  which  proves 
that,  while  no  point  of  faith  divided  the  parties,  their 
dissensions  threw  back  Knglish  Catholic  education  for 
thirty  years. 

These  misunderstandings  turned  on  three  topics: — 
the  "scientific"  history  which  was  cultivated  by 
the  "Rambler",  with  Newman's  partial  concurrence; 
the  proposed  oratory  at  Oxford;  and  the  temporal 
power,  then  at  the  crisis  of  its  fate.  Newman's  edi- 
torship of  the  "Rambler",  accepted,  on  request  of 
Wiseman,  by  way  of  compromise,  lasted  only  two 
months  (May-July,  1859).  His  article,  "On  Con- 
sulting the  Laity  m  Matters  of  Doctrine",  was  de- 
nounoed  at  Rome  by  Bishop  Brown  of  Newport  and 
Menevia.  Leave  was  given  for  an  Oratorian  nouae  at 
Oxford,  provided  Newman  did  not  go  thither  himself, 
which  defeated  the  whole  plan.  A  sharo  review  of 
Manning's  "Lectures  on  the  Temporal  Power"  was 
attributed  to  Newman,  who  neither  wrote  nor  inspired 
it  I  and  these  two  illustrious  Catholics  were  never 
friends  again.  Newman  foresaw  the  total  loss  of  the 
temporal  power j  his  fears  were  justified;  but  previs- 
ion and  the  politics  of  the  day  could  not  well  be  united. 
Of  all  Christians  then  living  this  great  genius  had  the 
deepest  insight  into  the  future;  but  to  his  own  genera- 
tion he  became  as  Jeremiah  announcing  the  fall  of 
Jerusalem.  Despondency  was  his  prevailing  mood 
when,  in  January,  1864,  from  an  unexpected  quarter, 
the  chance  of  his  life  was  given  him. 

Charles  Kingsley,  a  bold,  picturesque,  but  fiercely 
anti-Catholic  writer,  dealing,  in  "  Macmillan's  Maga- 
sine",  with  J.  A.  Fronde's  "History  of  England,"  let 
fall  the  remark  that  "Truth,  for  its  own  sake,  had 
never  been  a  virtue  with  the  Roman  clergy.  Father 
Newman  informs  us  that  it  need  not,  and  on  the  whole 
ought  not  to  be;  that  cunning  is  the  weapon  which 
heaven  has  given  to  the  Saints  wherewith  to  withstand 
the  brute  male  force  of  the  wicked  world  which  mar- 
ries and  is  given  in  marriage.  Whether  his  notion  be 
doctrinally  correct  or  not,  it  is  at  least  historically  so." 
These  assertions  had  no  foundation  whatever  in  fact. 
Newman  demanded  proof;  a  correspondence  ensued  in 
which  Kingsley  referred  to  one  of  the  Oxford  Anglican 
sermons  generally;  he  withdrew  his  charge  in  terms 
that  left  its  injustice  unreproved;  and  thus  he  brought 
on  himself,  in  the  pamphlet  which  his  adversary  pub- 
lished, one  of  the  most  cutting  replies,  ironical  and  pit- 
iless, known  to  hterature.  He  returned  to  the  assault. 
"What  then  does  Dr.  Newman  mean?"  was  his  ques- 
ion.    The  answer  came  in  the  shape  of  an  "  Apolofda 

Sro  Vita  sua",  which,  while  pulverizing  enemies  of  Uie 
angsley  stamp,  lifted  Newman  to  a  heii^t  above  all 
his  detiuctors,  and  added  a  imique  specimen  of  reli- 
gious autobiography  to  our  language.  Issued  in 
seven  parts,  between  21  April  and  2  June,  1864,  the 
original  work  was  a  marvel  of  swift  and  cogent  writ- 
ing. Materials  in  expectation  of  some  such  opportu- 
nity had  been  collecting  since  1862.  But  the  dud 
which  led  up  to  an  account  of  Newman's  most  inti- 
mate feelings  exhibited  sword-play  the  like  of  irtiidi 
can  be  scarcely  found  outside  Pascal's  "Provincial 


HBWMAN 


799 


MIWHAN 


Lettefs"  and  Lesaing's  "Anti-Goese".  It  annihi- 
lated the  opponent  and  his  charjge.  Not  that  New- 
man cheriflhed  a  personal  animosity  against  Kingsley, 
whom  he  had  never  met.  His  tone  was  determined  by 
a  sense  of  what  he  owed  to  his  own  honour  and  the 
Catholic  priesthood.  "Away  with  you,  Mr.  Kings- 
ley,  and  ny  into  space'',  were  his  parting  words  to  a 
man  whose  real  gins  did  not  serve  him  in  this  wild  en- 
counter. Then  the  old  Tractarian  hero  told  the  story 
of  his  life.  He  looked  upon  it  with  the  eve  of  an  artist, 
with  self-knowledge  like  that  of  Hamlet^  with  can- 
dour, and  pathos,  and  awe;  for  he  felt  a  gmding  power 
throughout  which  had  broiight  him  home.  The  nand- 
ling  was  unaffected,  the  portraits  of  Oxford  celebrities 
true  and  yet  kind;  the  drama  which  ended  in  his  re- 
nimciation  of  place  and  power  at  St.  Mary's  moved  on 
with  a  tragic  interest.  His  brief  prologues  are  among 
the  jewels  of  English  prose.  A  word  from  St.  Augus- 
tine converted  him,  and  its  poignant  effects  could  not 
be  surpassed  in  the  ''Confessions"  of  the  saint  him- 
self. The  soliloquy,  as  we  may  term  it,  which  de- 
scribes Newman's  attitude  since  1845,  presents  in  a 
lofty  view  his  apology,  which  is  not  a  surrender,  to 
those  Catholics  who  mistrusted  him.  Though  he 
never  would  discuss  the  primary  problems  of  l^eism 
ex  professoy  he  has  dwelt  on  the  apparent  chaos  of  his- 
tory', goodness  defeated  and  mortal  efforts  futile,  with 
a  piercing  eloquence  which  reminds  us  of  some  lament 
in  iBschylus.  He  met  Kingsle^'s  accusations  of  double- 
dealing  proudly  and  in  detail.  But  by  the  time  he 
reached  them,  Englishmen — who  had  read  the  suc- 
cessive chapters  with  breathless  admiration — ^were 
completely  brought  roimd.  No  finer  triumph  of  tal- 
ent m  the  service  of  conscience  has  been  put  on  record. 
From  that  day  the  Catholic  religion  may  date  its  re- 
entrance  into  the  national  literature.  Instead  of  arid 
polemics  and  technical  arguments,  a  Uving  soul  had 
revealed  in  its  journey  towards  the  old  faith  wherein 
lay  the  charm  that  drew  it  on.  Reality  became  more 
fascinating  than  romance;  the  |)roblem  which  stag- 
gered Protestants  and  modem  minds — ^how  to  recon- 
cile individual  genius  with  tradition,  private  judgment 
with  authority — ^was  resolved  in  Newman's  great 
example. 

Amid  acclamations  from  Catholics,  echoing  the 
"aves  vehement"  of  the  world  outside,  he  turned  to 
the  philosophy  which  would  justify  his  action.  He 
began  the  ^'Urammar  of  Assent".  StiU,  Manning, 
now  archbishop,  Talbot,  chamberlain  of  Pius  lA, 
Ward,  editor  of  the  "Dublin  Review",  were  not  to  be 
pacified.  Manning  thought  he  was  transplanting  the 
''Oxford  tone  into  Uie  Church  "^albot  described  him 
as  "  the  most  dangerous  man  in  England" ;  Ward  used 
even  harder  terms.  In  1867  an  attack  by  a  Roman 
correspondent  on  Newman  led  to  a  counter-move, 
when  two  hundred  distinguished  laymen  told  him, 
"Every  blow  that  touches  you  inflicts  a  woimd  upon 
the  Catholic  Church  in  this  country."  His  discrimi- 
nating answer  on  the  cultus  of  Our  Lady  to  Pusey's 
"  Eirenicon  "  had  been  taken  ill  in  some  quarters.  One 
of  his  Oratorians,  H.  I.  D.  Ryder,  was  bold  enough  to 
cross  swords  with  the  editor  of  the  "Dublin",  who  in- 
flicted on  friend  and  foe  views  concerning  the  extoit 
of  papal  inf  allibiUty  which  the  Roman  authorities  did 
not  sanction ;  and  Newman  rej oiced  in  the  assault.  In 
1870  the  "Grammer"  was  published.  But  its  ap- 
pearance, coinciding  with  the  Vatican  Council,  roused 
less  attention  than  the  author's  suspected  dislike  for 
the  aims  and  conduct  of  the  majority  at  Rome.  Years 
before  he  had  proclaimed  his  belief  in  the  infallible 
pope.  His  "Cathedra  Sempitema"  rivsJs  in  fervour 
and  excels  in  genuine  rhetonc  the  passage  with  which 
de  Maistre  concluded  his  "Du  Pape",  which  became 
a  text  for  "  ultramontane  "  apologetics.  Yet  he  shrank 
from  the  perils  which  hun^^  over  men  less  stable  than 
himself,  should  the  definition  be  carried.  H®  ^^^^ 
have  healed  the  breach  betweeq  Home  m^A  Munich. 


Under  these  impres&ions  he  sent  to  his  bishop,  W.  B. 
UUathome,  a  confidential  letter  in  which  he  branded, 
not  the  Fathers  of  the  Council,  but  the  joumcdists  ana 
other  partisans  outside  who  were  abounding  in  violent 
language,  as  "an  insolent  and  aggressive  faction". 
The  letter  was  surreptitiously  made  pubUc;  a  heated 
controversy  ensued ;  but  Newman  took  no  further  part 
in  the  conciliar  proceedings.  Of  course  he  accepted 
the  dogmatic  dennitions;  and  in  1874  he  defendea  the 
Church  against  Gladstone's  charge  that  "Vatican- 
ism" was  equivalent  to  the  latest  fashions  in  religion 
(see  his  "Letter  to  the  Duke  of  Norfolk".). 

Newman's  demeanour  towards  authority  was  ever 
one  of  submission;  but,  as  he  wrote  to  Phillips  de 
lisle  in  1848,  "it  is  no  new  thing  with  me  to  feeilittle 
sympathy  with  parties^  or  extreme  opinions  of  any 
kind. "  In  recommendmg  the  Creed  he  would  employ 
"a  wise  and  gentle  minimism",  not  extenuating  what 
was  true  but  setting  down  nought  in  malice.  The 
"Grammar  of  Assent"  illustrates  and  defends  this 
method,  in  which  human  nature  is  not  left  out  of  ac- 
count. It  is  curiously  Baconian,  for  it  eschews  ab- 
stractions and  metaphysics,  bemg  directed  to  the 
problem  of  concrete  affirmation^  its  motives  in  fact, 
and  its  relation  to  the  personahty  of  the  individual. 
This  hitherto  imexplored  province  of  apologetics  lay 
dark,  while  the  objective  reasons  for  assent  had  en- 
grossed attention;  we  might  term  it  the  casuistry  of 
belief.  Newman  brought  to  the  solution  a  prof oimd 
acquaintance  with  the  human  heart,  which  was  his 
own;  a  resolve  to  stand  by  experience;  and  a  subtil^ 
of  expression  corresponding  to  his  fine  analysis.  SEe 
believed  in  "implicit"  logic,  varied  and  converging 
proofs,  indirect  demonstration  (ex  imposs^nli  or  ex 
absurdo);  assent,  in  short,  in  not  a  mechanical  echo  of 
the  syllogism  but  a  vital  act,  distinct  and  determined. 
The  will,  sacrificed  in  many  schools  to  formal  intellect, 
recovers  its  power;  genius  and  common  sense  are  jus- 
tified. Not  that  pure  logic  loses  its  rights,  or  trutn  is 
merely  "that  which  each  man  troweth  ;  but  the 
moral  being  furnishes  an  indispensable  premise  to  ar- 
guments bearinf^  on  life,  and  all  that  is  meant  by  a 
"pious  disposition"  towards  faith  is  marvellously 
drawn  out.  As  a  sequel  and  crown  to  the  "Develop- 
ment" this  often  touching  volume  (which  reminds  us 
of  Pascal)  completes  the  author's  philosophy.  Some 
portions  of  it  he  is  said  to  have  written  ten  times,  the 
last  chapter  many  times  more.  Yet  that  chapter  is 
already  m  part  antiquated.  The  general  description, 
however,  of  concrete  assent  appears  likely  to  survive 
all  objections.  How  far  it  bears  on  Kant's  "  Practical 
Reason"  or  the  philosophy  of  the  will  as  developed  by 
Schopenhauer,  has  yet  to  be  considered.  But  we 
must  not  torture  it  into  the  "pragmatism"  of  a  later 
day.  As  Newman  held  bv  dogma  in  revelation,  so  he 
would  never  have  denied  that  the  mind  enjoys  a  vision 
of  truth  founded  on  reality.  He  was  a  mystic,  not  a 
sceptic.  To  him  the  reason  bv  which  men  guided 
themselves  was  "ihipKcit"  rather  than  "explicit", 
but  reason  nevertheless.  Abstractions  do  not  exist; 
but  the  world  is  a  fact;  our  own  personality  cannot  be 
called  in  question;  the  will  is  a  true  cause,'  and  God 
reveals  Himself  in  conscience.  Apologetics,  to  be 
persuasive,  should  address  the  individu^;  for  real  as- 
sents, however  multiplied,  are  each  single  and  sui  gen" 
eris.  Even  a  univeziBal  creed  becomes  in  this  way  a 
private  acquisition.  As  the  "Development"  affords 
a  coimterpart  to  Bossuet's  "Variations",  so  the 
"Grammar"  ma^  be  said  to  have  reduced  the  "per- 
sonal equation"  m  controversy  to  a  working  hypothe- 
sis, whereas  in  Protestant  hands  it  had  served  the 
purposes  of  anarchy. 

For  twenty  years  Newman  lay  imder  imputations  at 
Rome,  which  misconstrued  his  teachhig  and  his  char- 
acter. This,  which  has  been  cfdled  the  ostracism  of  a 
Bluntly  g^us,  imdoubtedl^  was  due  to  his  former 
(riendfl,  Ward  and  Manning.    In  February,  1878, 


mwnAN 


800 


HKWMAN 


PiuB  IX  died:  and,  by  a  strange  conjuncture,  in  that 
same  month  Newman  returned  to  Oxford  as  Honor- 
ary Fellow  of  Trinity  College,  "dear  to  him  from  im- 
dergraduate  days".  The  event  provoked  Catholics 
to  emulation.  Moreover,  the  new  pope,  Leo  XIII. 
had  also  lived  in  exile  from  the  Curia  smce  1846,  ana 
the  Virgilian  sentiment.  "Haud  ignara  mali",  would 
come  home  to  him.  Tne  Duke  of  Norfolk  and  other 
English  peers  approached  Cardinal  Manning,  who 
submitted  their  strong  representation  to  the  Holy  See. 
Pope  Leo,  it  is  alleged,  was  already  considering  how  he 
might  distinguish  the  aged  Oratorian.  He  intimated, 
accordingly,  in  February,  1879,  his  intention  of  be- 
stowing on  Newman  the  cardinal's  hat.  The  message 
affected  him  to  tears,  and  he  exclaimed  that  the  cloud 
was  lifted  from  him  forever.  B^  singular  ill-fortune. 
Manning  understood  certain  debcate  phrases  in  New- 
man's reply  as  declining  the  purple;  he  allowed  that 
statement  to  appear  in  "The  Times",  much  to  every- 
one's confusion.  However,  the  end  was  come.  After 
a  hazardous  journey,  and  in  broken  health,  Newman 
arrived  in  Rome.  He  was  created  Cardinal-Deacon 
of  the  Title  of  St.  George,  on  12  May,  1879.  His  higlir 
eUo  speech,  equal  to  the  occasion  in  grace  and  wisdom, 
declared  that  he  had  been  the  life-long  enemy  of  Lib- 
eralism, or  "the  doctrine  that  there  is  no  truth  in  re- 
ligion, but  that  one  creed  is  as  ^ood  as  another",  and 
that  Christianity  is  "but  a  sentiment  and  a  taste,  not 
an  objective  fact,  not  miraculous". 

Hitherto,  in  modem  times,  no  simple  priest,  without 
duties  in  the  Roman  Curia,  had  been  nused  to  the  Sa- 
cred Colles^.  Newman's  elevation,  hailed  by  the 
Knglish  nation  and  by  Catholics  everywhere  with  un- 
exampled enthusiasm,  was  rightly  compared  to  that 
of  Bcflsarion  after  the  Council  of  Florence.  It  broke 
down  the  wall  of  partition  between  Rome  and  Eng- 
land. To  the  many  addresses  which  poured  in  upon 
him  the  cardinal  replied  with  such  pomt  and  felicity 
as  often  made  his  words  gems  of  literature.  He  had 
revised  all  his  writings,  the  last  of  which  dealt  some- 
what tentatively  with  Scripture  problems.  Now  his 
hand  would  serve  him  no  more,  but  his  mind  kept 
its  clearness  always.  In  "The  Dream  of  Gt»x)ntius" 
(1865),  which  had  been  nearly  a  lost  masterpiece,  he 
anticipated  his  d}ring  hours,  threw  into  concentrated, 
almost  Dantean,  verse  and  imagery  his  own  beliefs  as 
suggested  by  the  Offices  of  Requiem,  and  looked  for- 
ward to  his  final  pilgrimage,  "alone  to  the  Alone". 
Death  came  with  Uttle  suffering,  on  11  Aug.,  1890. 
His  funeral  was  a  great  public  event.  He  lies  in  the 
same  pave  with  Ambrose  St.  John,  whom  he  called 
his  "life  under  God  for  thirty-two  years".  His  de- 
vice as  cardinal,  taken  from  St.  Francis  de  Sales,  was 
Cor  ad  cor  loquitur  (Heart  speaketh  to  heart);  it  re- 
veals the  secret  of  his  eloquence,  unaffected,  ^aceful, 
tender,  and  penetrating.  On  his  epitaph  we  read:  Ex 
umbris  et  imagintbus  in  veritatem  (From  shadows  and 
symbols  into  the  truth) ;  it  is  the  doctrine  of  the  Econ- 
omy, which  s^oes  back  to  Plato's  "Republic"  (bk. 
VII),  and  which  passed  thence  bv  way  of  Christian 
Alexandria  into  the  philosophy  of  St.  Thomas  Aqui- 
nas, the  poetry  of  the  Florentine,  and  the  schools  of 


Oxford.  John  Henry  Newman  thus  continues  In  mod- 
ern literature  the  Catholic  tradition  of  East  and  West, 
sealing  it  with  a  martyr's  faith  and  suffering,  stead- 
fast in  loyalty  to  the  truth,  while  discerning  with  a 
prophet's  vision  the  task  of  the  future. 

Ab  a  writer  of  English jprose  Newman  stands  for  the 
perfect  embodiment  of  Oxford,  deriving  from  Cicero 
the  lucid  and  leisurely  art  of  exposition,  from  the 
Greek  tragedians  a  thoughtful  refinement,  from  the 
Fathers  a  preference  foV  personal  above  scientific 
teaching,  from  Shakespeare,  Hooker,  and  that  older 
school  uie  use  of  idiom  at  its  best.  He  refused  to  ac- 
quire German;  he  was  unacquainted  with  Goethe  as 
with  He^el:  he  took  some  principles  from  Coleridge, 
perhaps  mairectly^*  and,  on  the  whole,  he  never  went 
beyond  Aristotle  m  his  general  views  of  education. 
From  the  Puritan  narrowness  of  his  first  twenty  years 
he  was  delivered  when  he  came  to  know  the  Church  as 
essential  to  Christianity.  Then  he  enlarged  that  con- 
ception tiU  it  became  CathoHc  and  Roman,  an  histori- 
cal idea  realized.  He  made  no  attempt,  however,  to 
widen  the  Oxford  basis  of  learning,  dated  1830,  which 
remained  his  position^  despite  continual  reading  and 
study.  The  Sdiolastic  theology,  except  on  its  Alex- 
andrian side,  he  left  untouchedT  there  is  none  of  it  in 
his  "Lectures",  none  in  the  "Grammar  of  Assent". 
He  wrote  forcibly  agiunst  the  shallow  enlightenment 
of  Brougham;  he  printed  no  word  concerning  Darwin, 
or  Huxley,  or  even  Colenso.  He  lamented  the  fall  of 
Dollinger;  but  he  could  not  acquiesce  in  the  German 
idea  by  which,  as  it  was  in  fact  applied,  the  private 
judgment  of  historians  overruled  tne  Churches  dog- 
mas. Conscience  to  him  was  the  inward  revelation  of 
God,  Catholicism  the  outward  and  objective.  This 
twofold  force  he  opposed  to  the  aenoetic,  the  ration- 
alist, the  mere  worldling.  But  he  seems  to  hav4 
thought  men  premature  who  undertook  a  positive 
reconciliation  between  faith  and  science,  or  who  at- 
tempted by  a  vaster  synthesis  to  heal  the  modem  con- 
flicts with  Home.  He  left  that  duty  to  a  later  genera- 
tion; and,  though  by  the  principle  of  development  and 
the  philosophy  of  concrete  assent  providing  room  for 
it,  he  did  not  contribute  towards  its  fulfilment  in  de- 
tail .  He  willperhaps  be  known  hereafter  as  the  Catho- 
Uc  Bishop  Butler,  who  extended  the  "Analogy" 
drawn  from  experience  to  the  historical  Church,  prov- 
ing it  thus  to  be  in  agreement  with  the  nature  of 
thmgs,  however  greany  transcending  the  viable 
scheme  by  its  message,  institutions,  and  purpose, 
which  are  alike  supernatural. 

The  beat  authorities  on  Newman  are  his  own  writtncs:  Ccl- 
UeUd  Worka  (3d  vols.,  popular  ed.,  London,  1896);  Jfy  Camjtttign 
in  Ireland  (London,  1896) ;  Meditationt  and  DtvoUon*  (London, 
1895);  Addrestesand  Repliea  (London.  1905)  (the  last  three  poa- 
thumous,  ed.  by  Neville)  ;  LeUer»  and  Correapondtnet  (to  1845), 
ed.  Anne  Moxlst  (London,  1891).  See  also  monopapha  1^ 
HnrroN  (London,  1891);  Barbt  (London,  1904);  BainoNO 
(Paris,  1907);  Lilly  in  Diel,  af  Nat,  Bioifraphy,  a.  v.;  and  con- 
sult: WiLTRiD  Ward,  W.  Q.  Ward  and  the  Oxford  Moeemmt 
(London,  1889);  Idem,  Lift  and  Timse  of  Cardinal  Wioanan 
(London,  1897) ;  Purcbll,  Life  of  Cardinal  Manning  (London. 
1895) :  DR  Lisle  and  Purcblu  Life  and  Time*  of  Awihroee  PkU' 
Uppede  LieU  (London,  1900) ;  QAflQUBT,  Lord  Aden  and  kit  CireU 
(London,  1906);  with  caution  T.  Moklbt.  Reminiectneee  of  Oriel 
(London,  1882).  See  also  bibliograi^  under  Ozfobo  Movbmxmt. 

WiLUAM  BaBKT. 


VII 


3  bios  QS3  das  7Sa 


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